# -V^;: --y^; ^--v-.r^;-'vU^.<:;;v;v^u^;-;v J3<^. r-feV f ^: ^ '^*&p^ ^ ^^afl >L :/ T^ y % ■- .Mi] \ WHITNEY LIBRARY, HARVARD UNIVERSITY THE GIFT OF J. D. WHITNEY, Stuvcjis Hooper Professor IN THE MUSEUM or OOMPAKATIVE ZOOLOGY ^^xw^mu\^\\^\ ii ^ THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND ^uai'ltrlg louriral of Sdtiice, WITH THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL. CONDUCTED BY A COMMITTEE OF THE SOCIETY. NEW SERIES -Vol. 6. MONTREAL : DAWSON BROTHERS, 55 to 59 ST. JAMES STREET. > 1870. 1^" Tlie Editors of this Journal are responsible only for such communications as bear tbeir names or initials. EDITING COMMITTEE. Acting Editor : J. F. Whiteayes, F.G.S. J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D. E. Billings, F.G.S. P. P. Carpenter, B.A., Ph. D. Dayid a. P. Watt. J. B, Edwards, Ph.D., F.C.S., Chairman. CORRESPONDING EDITORS. Halifax, N.S — Prof. G. Lawson, Ph.D., LL.D. St. Johns, N.B. — G. F. Matthew, Es(j. | London, Ont. — W. Saunders, Esq. Entered, according to Act of the Provincial Parliament, in the year one thousand eight hundred and sixty-nine, by Dawson Brothers, in the Office of the Registrar of the Dominion of Canada. CONTENTS. Pagr Aquaria Studies, Parti- By A. S. Ritchie 1 On LaurentiauRoclvs in Eastern Massachusetts. By Dr. T.SterryHunt,F.R.S. 7 Meteorolog:ioal results for Montreal for the year 1869. By C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D.,D.C.L ]0 On the Graphite oftheLaurentian of Canada. ByPrin. Dawson, LL.D.,F.R.S. 13 Notes on the Genus Eophyton 20 Contributions to Canadian Meteorology. By C. Small wood, M.D.,LL.D..D.C.L. 22 Notes on some of the Plants in the Herbaria of Linne and Michaux. By Prof. D. C. Eaton, M.A 24 On Norite or Labtadorite Rock. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S 31 Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. By Henry Reeks, F.L.S 38 On the Origin and Classification of Original or Crystalline Rocks. Parts I and II. By Thomas Macfarlane , 47 The Plants of the "West Coast of Newfoundland. By John Bell, M. A., M.D. 54 Why are Insects attracted by artificial lights ? By A. S. Ritchie 61 Notes on Vegetable Productions. ByG.E. Bulger, F.L.S. ,F.R.G.S., 66 On Recent Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun, and the Total Eclipses of 1868 and 1869. By James Douglas, jun 121 On Canadian Diatomaceae. By W. Osler 142 Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. By Henry Reeks, F.L.S 151 On the Origin and Classification of Original or Crystalline Rocks. Part III. By Thomas Macfarlane I59 Aquaria Studies. Part II. By A. S. Ritchie 165 On Foraminifera from the Gult and River St. Lawrence. By G. M. Dawson. 172 Notes on the Structure of the Crinoidea and Blastoidea. ByE. Billings, F.G.S. 180 On the Geology of Eastern New England. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S . ... 198 Canadian Phosphates considered with reference to their use in Agriculture. By Gordon Broome, F.G.S 417 Science Education Abroad. Extracts from a Lecture by Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S .'263 The Earthquake of October 20th, 1870. By Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S- 282 Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. By Henry Reeks, FLS 289 On the Origin and Classification of Original or Crystalline Rocks. Part IV. By Thomas Macfarlane 304 Notes on the Botany of a portion of the Counties of Hastings and Addington- By B. J. Harrington, BA 312 A few hours at Cape Town, S. Africa, By G. E. Bulger, F.L.S., F.R.G.S 365 On Spore Cases in Coals. By Principal Dawson, LLD., F.R.S 369 Bivalve Crustacens frpm the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Described by G. S. Bradt, C.M.Z.S 371 Extract from " Notes on Fossil Ostracoda from the Post-Teriary Deposits of Canada and New England." By G. S. Brady, C.M.Z.S., and Rev. H. W. Crosskey, F.G.S 385 Notes on Granitic Rocks. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S 3b;8 Notes on the Birds of Newfoundland. By Henry Reeks, F.L.S., 406 The Correlation of Vital and Physicial Forces. By Prof. Barker 416 The American Association :— Meeting at Troy 120 The Geological Society of London:— Abstracts of the Proceedings 90 The Natural History Society :— The Monthly Meetings 75, 437 The Annual Meeting 206 The Sommerville Lecture? 80, 2C8 The Conversazione 80 The Report of the Council 214 The Treasurer's Account 220 11 The British Associatiox :— The Meeting of 1870 235 The Meeting at Liverpool 319 The President's Address. By Prof. Huxley, F.R.S 319 Geology and Mineralogy : — Notes on the structure of Sigillaria 98 Notes on some new Animal Remains from the Carboniferous and Devonian of Canada 98 Cephalaspis Dawsoni i 222 Embryology of Limulus 223 Cope's Synopsis of American Fossil Batrachia and Reptilia 225 Marine Crustaceans in Lakes 226 Figures of British Fossils 227 Geological Discoveries in Brazil 342 Botany and Zoology:— North American Laminariaeeae 99 The Diffusion of Plants 101 Asiatic Geographical Botany 102 Notes on Canadian Bird? 103, 230 Lower Canadian Land Mollusca 103 Swiss Mammalia 104 The Use of Birds and Worms 107 Uses of the Cockchafer 108 Tomato Worms not Poisonous 109 British Edible Fungi 227 The Gulls of Nova Scotia 231 Position of the Brachiopoda 232 Notice of Fucus serratus found in Pictou Harbour 349 Labrador Plants 360 Saponaceous Plants 352 The Vultures and Humming Birds 357 A Cruise in a Whitebait Boat 463 A New Species of Erythronium 465 Chemistry and Physics:— Hydrogenium llO Metallic Hydrogen Ill Artificial Ice. 112 The Pointing of Pins 113 A new Dye 114 Underground Temperature 230 Microscopy :— Butterfly Parasite 115 Examination of Dust 116 The American Microscopic Society 117 Dr. Carpenter on Microscopic Stands 361 Miscellaneous :— On the Nipigon Territory 118 Scraps from Nature 239 Deep Sea Explorations 468 On Astronomy and Geology 460 Dredging of the Gult Stream 461 Reviews and Notices op Books :— Disinfectants and Disinfection. By R. A. Smith, Ph. D., F.R.S 93 Protoplasm ; or Life, Matter, and Mind. By Lionel S. Beale, M.D., F.R.S. 97 The Cell Doctrine: its History and Present State. By J. Tyson, M.D 97 Lyell's Elements of Geology 341 Mrs. Lyell's Handbook of Ferns 343 Index and Contents THE CANADIAN NATURALIST AND (^uavtinly ioutunl tut Mtmt. AQUARIA STUDIES. Part I. By A. S. EiTCHiE. The rage for aquaria has somewhat subsided in the fashionable world; still fashion reigns to a certain extent, and exerts an influence even in the zoological world. There has been a furore for sponges such as the beautiful Venus' Flower Basket (Enphc- tella spedosct), from the Philippines, for novelties in shells or in insects, and at fashionable prices. AH are not votaries of fashion, — though, in the minds of some, the fickle goddess may fm some latent spark of " Nature's fire " into a flame. While aquaria, in countless numbers, are being sacrificed by the auctioneer, the student of nature watches with intense interest the various productions of animal and vegetable life in his minature fish-pond, and sees, with admiration, their perfect adaptation to their place in the economy of nature. A well-known naturalist writes : " The graceful fish, the brilliant reptiles, the shining insects, that people this rare world, whilom hermetically sealed up from our yearning view, are now displayed in the aquarium, — sporting, feeding, slumbering — pursued and pursuing, — leaping into life, and falling into dissolution, — each in its natural haunts, and yet ' all at home in these crystal palaces.' '' The fresh water aquarium with us, constructed and stocked on scientific principles, should represent faithfully a Canadian pond Vol. V. A :so. 1. 2 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Mai'ch or stream. Nothing mars the effect more than to see marine shells, gay corals, madrepores, and echinoderms, however beautiful and interesting in themselves, in a fresh water aqua- rium. Even gold-fish are out of place among our Canadian fishes there, and detract from the truthfulness of the representation of a local fauna. Our waters contain the beauties of the Creator's hand just as much as those of a foreign shore, and the object of all lovers of aquaria should be to correctly illustrate the habits of native species. The bottom of the tank ought to resemble the bed of a pond or river, with pieces of rock-work here and there, having their tops standing out of the water, to allow those creatures which prefer out-door exercise to breathe the fresh air at pleasure. The principles on which an aquarium should be constructed are the following. The vessel should be either oblong or square, but not globe-shaped, on account of its distorting the image of whatever is contained in it. This should contain animal and vegetable life, in fresh or salt water, which, like the water of a river or sea, need never be changed. The vitalization of the water, without its being changed, constitutes the main principle of the aquarium ; this principle we shall now endeavour to explain. Living animals absorb oxygen, and give off carbonic acid gas. Plants, on the contrary, exhale oxygen, and inhale carbonic acid. What the one accepts the other rejects ; that which would suffocate the one if it was not removed, the other would die from exhaus- tion if it couH not obtain. In stocking an aquarium, judgment and discretion are required, so as to have an equal proportion of animal and vegetable life. It should also be remembered that the more rock you introduce the fewer fish must be put in. A little experience in the keeping of aquaria will soon make people aware of any disproportion in the balance of animal and vegetable life. If plants are in excess, this is shown by the particular clearness of the water and by the restlessness of the fish. Their motions are spasmodic ; they swim backwards and forwards in darts and jerks, as if trying to escape from something. If, on the other hand, there is too little vegeta- tion, the fish swim lazily, with their mouths out of the water, panting for oxygen. Our aquarium is three feet six inches long, by two wide, and twenty inches in depth. It has a glass top or roof-shaped 1870.] RITCHIE — ON AQUARIA STUDIES. 3 covering ; this is to keep out dust, and to prevent some of the inmates going from home, also for the purpose of fern gi'owing. The bottom is covered with about two inches of sand or gravel, having rock-work at each end, with the tops of the stones standing out of the water. These last have cups cut in them for the reception of mosses and ferns, while the portion above water gives the reptiles and crustaceans the opportunity of a short stroll at pleasure. We have grown Aitacharis alsinastrum and Vallisneria spiralis with comparative success, the great enemy to their entire success being the cray-fishes, wliich browse on the plants, and destroy them after a time. We dispense with the larger plants altogether now. The aquarium stands in a darkish corner, and the water is[as clear, and smells as sweet, as when put in two years ago. A little water must be added now and then to compensate for eva- poration. We never clean the glass on the side next the wall, which is covered and grown over with confervse and other lowly plants of various kinds. This, and not crowding too much animal life into the vessel, is the secret of success. We shall now introduce the reader to some of our favourites, and first some odd fishes which possess many and varied traits of character. That dapper little fellow, with his coat shining with scarlet and green, and armed with spines, is the little Stickleback (^Gaster- osteus *). He is the prince of gallants, and will fight for his lady- love to the death. A peculiarity in the economy of individuals of this species is, that they build a nest, the male watching and followmg the young until they can fish for themselves. We have had the nest built in the aquarium of several pieces of weeds that were introduced, but saw no young ones ; if they ever had any the other fish must have devoured them. The female kept possession of the nest, which was in a corner of the tank, while the male kept watch outside. Woe to the unwary minnow, or sun- fish, that comes near his domicile, — his coat becomes more brilliant, his little eyes redden and flash, and with spines erected, he rushes at his enemy and charges him with his numerous bayonets. Our next example is rather a handsome fish, which always swims along the bottom, moves by jerks, and darts to and fro ; from * The scientific names of the fishes mentioned in this article, have been altered in accordance with the latest nomenclature. — J.F.W, 4 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March. his peculiar style of motion, he is named the DsLYter {Boleosoma tesselatum.) He is said to have no air bladder, which accounts for the difficulty he has in rising to the surface. He is a quiet retired character, but always manages to be on hand at feeding time. The Striped Minnow (Rhinicthjs atronasiis) is the dandy of the tribe, — always sporting himself in the fore-ground. He is a little forward at times, and sometimes makes mistakes, such as rushing at a fly that has alighted on the outside of the glass, and only knows his real position (a dandy in prison) when his nose comes in contact with the glass. We have a tyrant in our colony, the common Sun-fish (Fomotis auritus.) He must be king, and his rule is despotic. None are allowed to eat until he has finished, and even afcer getting the lion's share he chases all who dare to attempt to help them- selves. One day he nearly fell a victim in consequence of his bad temper. A fine Cray-fish (Astacus Bartonii) had his home in the corner of the aquarium ; at the close of feeding time he would sally forth to pick up anything that was left ; the sun-fish made a dash at the antennae of the cray-fish (which are always in motion when on a purveying expedition) ; like lightning the claws of the crustacean were thrown up in self-defence. He caught our finny friend above the tail, and only our timely inter- position saved the sun-fish's life. After this we made a close prisoner of him in one of the corners of the tank, by placing a square of glass against the side and end. The most graceful fish in our family is the American Perch (^Perca flavescens), his proportions are so elegant, and his shape is so well adanted for swimming. He has a powerful stroke-oar in his tail, and few can match him on a trip round his domain. His powers of eating are extraordinary. Many a poor minnow pays the penalty of being a little too small for his company. Still, when reo-ularly fed, he behaves himself as well as a respectable perch ouo-ht to do. A very pretty Black Basse (^Centrarchus fasciatus') , is our next friend ; we were not long favoured with his company, — he was too o'ood for such a station. The waters of the St. Lawrence or the Ottawa were his home, and he pined for their gravelly bottoms and rippling waves. . His retiring manner was our admiration j he always loved the shade of the rock-work. Many a stray fly was quietly dropped into his corner, which he never took without 1870 ] RITCHIE — ON AQUARIA STUDIES. 5 a look of recosrnitioa and thankfulness ; but dealh ! — inexorable death ! ! — called him away. The Cat-fish (Amvfrus catus) is one of the hardiest fishes we possess. His chief end is to eat, — which he does almost to suffocation. He refuses nothing. As he roots with whiskered mouth among the gravel at the bottom, he heeds neither the attacks of the stickleback, cray-fish, nor sun-fish. When annoyed he merely gives a shake of his head with the greatest nonchalance and keeps his nose at work, picking up all the rejected bits left by his patrician relations. He is of great use as a scavenger, and two or three specimens are a great acquisition to all aquaria. The Pond Sucker (probably a small species of Catasfomus)is a shy fish, and extremely reserved. In form, its body, from the dorsal fin to the tail, is rather tapering, and in swimming the body appears bent ; — it is covered with beautiful silvery scales. He sometimes, though erroneously, gets the name of " Shiner." He has no teeth in the upper jaw, and is, therefore, unable to bite at his food, which is drawn into the mouth by suction, hence the name. The Jilack Minnow (JJmhra limi) is also of retiring habits, and is easily startled. He asserts his dignity, however, at feeding time, as he moves about with a graceful air, and is one of the first to help himself when there is anything in the way of meat to be had. We have kept the Golden Carp, or Gold-fish (C^prinus auratus) in the tank to please the ladies, but we objected to his presence on account of his being a stupid fish, and not indigenous (although introduced into gentlemen's ponds in Massachusetts, where it thrives well) ; besides, while along with the representative fishes of our waters, our aquarium carried a falsehood on its face. This will never do for science, we said, and were going to turn him out, but all wo could find of him was the backbone and the eyeless head floating on the top of the water. The other fish knew he was a stranger, — perhaps they di4 not like the colour, — at any rate every one was against him, from the perch to the striped minnow. Whenever he attempted to come to the front to feed, there was a general charge at the poor gold-fisli. Beino* thus prevented from feeding, he got so weak as to allow himself to be caught, and thus fell a victim to his cowardice and stupidity. We say cowardice, for he was as large as any fish in the tank, 6 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March and a o-reat deal larger than most. The smallest minnow would make him beat a hasty retreat. The old-fashioned fish globe is the place for the golden carp. This concludes our remarks on the fishes of our aquarium, which contains ten species. At the time we write there were thirty-one specimens in the tank. We shall now pass on to another class : — Reptiles. First in point of size conies our friend the Painted Turtle (Chrt/semi/s plcta). He is about four inches long, and a very lively specimen, — sporting now in the water, now on the rocks. In the water he is at home, and like all the rest of our family, he loves good eating. He devours his food voraciously, and swallows it by a series of gulps. We kept him about six months. He died from disease, as a post-mortem examination proved ; the viscera were overgrown with a black fungus, and now the shell is all that remains ol the poor turtle. The Water Newt (^Tnton millepunctatus) is a great acquisition to the aquarium. At first we had a number of this species, but on account of the depredations of the fish our stock got reduced to two specimens. They liked the water, and would lie quietly on the top of it until the fish made war on their toes — bitins; a toe ofi" this one, and part of a leg ofi" another one, until only two remained unscathed. They took to the rocks and the moss in self-defence, taking an occasional dip, which they accomplish as quickly as possible. They have cast their coats twice with us. Their motions and positions in the water are very grotesque, yet very o-raceful at times. No aquarium is complete without them. They went the way of all newts, however, after a two years' sojourn with us. We always have them replaced by fresh ones. The next in order is a veteran Frog {^Rana Tialecinay When first introduced into our tank he preferred the water ; he would lie carelessly floating on the surface until some of his finny alhes would make a dash at his toes with open mouth, to his great disgust and annoyance. He had the advantage of them, however, and took up his residence on the moss in one of the cups of the rock- work at the edge of the water. He sometimes took a bath, which he only partially enjoyed, as he well remembered the propensity of his friends the fish. He is an adept at fly-catching, which he efi"ects by his tongue as he lies on the moss. Fancy his feelings as he lies under the influence of chloroform on the stage of the microscope, while we examine the circulation 1870.] HUNT — ON LAURENTIAN ROCKS. 7 of the blood in the membrane between his toes. At first he disliked thus being bandaged up like a mummy ; but frogs, like ourselves, can accommodate themselves to circumstances. He has figured before the public, under the microscope, during two winters, but has since died. We shall now glance at a creature of a difi*erent order and class — a crustacean — the American Cray-fish (^Astacus Bai'tonii)^ and a curious creature he is ; almost every thing suits his palate. He is very provident, and lays up what he is unable to eat in the holes under the .rock-work. He is a good gymnast, and can stand on his head, or on his tail, or can walk as it suits him, — as fast the one way as the other, — backwards, forwards, or sideways, — it matters not. He hid himself for a time, as his coat was getting shabby and too small for him. He came forth at last with a complete new suit; roamed about for some time, but has again vanished, with no ostensible reason. This is the first instance of this creature changing his shell in our aquarium. With the exception of a few species of water beetles, dytiscus, aciUus, and coli/mhetes, which the fish gradually mastered — not- withstanding the hardness of their elytra, — the curtain falls on the denizens of our aquarium. We intend, in continuation of our aquaria studies, to lift the curtain once more, and, with the assistance of the microscope, to illustrate some forms of animal and vegetable life which cannot be well seen by the unassisted eye. ON LAURENTIAN ROCKS IN EASTERN MASSA- CHUSETTS. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S.* In a paper read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Washington in April, 1854, and published in this Journal for September in the same year, (vol, xvii, page 193,) I noticed the crystalline limestones of north- * From Silliman'sJournaUor January, 1870. 8 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March eastern Massachusetts, which were described by the late Dr. Hitchcock as enclosed in the great gneissic and hornblendic form- ation stretching through that portion of the state. These lime- stones, which are met with at various points from Bolton by Chelmsford on to Newburyport, present a close mineralogical resemblance to those of the Adirondacks and Laurentides, and also to those of the Highlands of New York and New Jersey, a resemblance which extends to the gneissic rocks which in these various regions accompany the crystalline limestones. I, at that time, accepted without examination the view maintained by Mather and H. D. Rogers, that these limestones in southern New York and New Jersey were altered Silurian strata, although mineralogically identical with those farther north of undoubted Laurentian age. Led by this conclusion to attach comparatively little importance to mineralogical and hthological resemblances, and guided by other considerations given in the paper just referred to, I then suggested that the crystalline limestones and their accompanying rocks in north-eastern i\J assachusetts might probably be of Devonian age. The subsequent investigations of Hall, Logan and Cooke in the Highlands of New l^'ork and New Jersey have however left no doubt that these supposed altered Silurian rocks are really of Laurentian age, and led me to suspect that the same might be the case with those of eastern Massachusetts. This view, which was shared by Prof. James Hall, I ventured to put forward at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Salem in August, 1869, when I showed that it was probable, not only on Hthological grounds, but from the fact that the Laurentian rocks appear to the southward of the great palaeozoic basin in New Brunswick and Newfound- land^ which are geologically but a north-eastein prolongation of New England, and moreover from the outcropping of the lowest Silu- rian strata at Braintree, near Boston. A few days later I visited Newburyport, and in company with Dr. Henry C- Perkins of that place, had, for the first time, an opportunity of observing the gneisses and limestones in question. Their aspect confirmed my suspicion of their Laurentian age, and led me to suggest to him the propriety of searching for Eozoon Canadense in the limestone which there occurs mingled with serpentine. Speci- mens of it were thereupon placed in the hands of Mr. Bicknell of Salem, well known as a skilled microscopist, and shortly after it was announced by Dr. Perkins that Mr. Bicknell had discovered 1870.J HUNT — ON LAURENTIAN ROCKS. 9 in them the Eozoon. This notice, which appeared in September in a Newburyport journal, is reproduced in the American Natu- ralist for November. My own specimens collected in August last near Newburyport, at the locality known as the Devil's Den, jiid not, however, furnish any traces of Eozoon, and I may here remark that I had already, so long ago as 1864, caused slices to be made of a specimen of limestone from that locality, which were then examined by Dr. Dawson with negative results. In November, however, Mr. Bickoell visited Newburyport and got from a quarry, about a quarter of a mile distant from the place just mentioned, specimens of a serpentinic limestone in which he again found Eozoon. Slices which he has kindly sent me have also been examined by Dr. Dawson, who confirms Mr. Bicknell's observa- tion, and finds in them Eozoon Canaderise, though fragmentary and not very well preserved. The tubuli, as in the specimens from Grenville, are injected with serpentine, and may be seen on etched surfaces as well as in transparent slices. A crystalline mineral is however abundantly disseminated in the limestone, and unskilled observers might have difiiculty in recognizing the fossil. Another locality, about twenty-eight miles to the south-westward of Newburyport, has however, afi"orded me much better specimens. In company with Mr. L. S. Burbank of Lowell, a zealous and successful teacher of geology and mineralogy, I visited in October last the limestone quarries of Chelmsford, some five miles from Lowell. This limestone and its accompanying gneiss closely resemble the Laurentian rocks of other regions, and scapolite, apatite and serpentine occur as associated minerals, though the latter was rare in the quarries then visited. A few days after- ward Mr. Burbank kindly sent me specimens of a mixture of limestone and yellowish-green serpentine from another quarry in the vicinity, which I had been unable to visit, and these have proved to be rich in Eozoon Canadense. The continuous and complete calcareous skeleton of the fossil does not appear in these specimens, which seem like some portions of the rock from Gren- ville, as described by Sir W. E. Logan, to be made up of fragments of the calcareous shell of Eozoon, mingled with grains of serpentine, and cemented by crystalline carbonate of lime. In the specimens from Grenville, and from most other localities, the mineral matter replacing the sarcode and filling up the canals and tubuli in the calcareous Eozoon skeleton, is generally serpentine 10 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March or some other silicate. Both Dawson and Carpenter, however, it will be recollected, found that in the fragmentary Eozoon from Madoc, and in some small portions from Grenville, the injected mimpral was, like the shell itself, pure carbonate of lime, though readily distinguishable by differences in texture and transparency from the shell. Such is also the case with all the Chelmsford specimens yet examined, which abound in fragments of shell exhi- biting in a very beautiful manner the cylindrical diverging and branching tubuli. The accompanying serpentine is disseminated in grains, but has no connection with the organic forms, so that, unlike the specimens in which it is the injecting mineral, the structure of these cannot be brought out by etching with acids. These specimens from Chelmsford, it shouldbe said, have been examined and satisfactorily identified by Dr. Dawson. The argument from miueraloo-ical resemblances in favor of the Lauren- tian age of the limestone in question is therefore now supported by the undoubted presence in them of Eozoon Canadense. In this connection it should be said that the crystalline rocks of Newburyport and Salisbury, though separated in Hitchcock's geological map from the gneisses to the south-west, and united to the syenites of Gloucester and Rockport, seem to me very unlike the latter, and closely related lithologically to the gneiss of Chelmsford, which encloses the crystalline limestone. The crystalline limestones occurring with gneissic rocks near Provi- dence, Rhode Island, merit a careful examination for Eozoon, inasmuch as from their lithological characters they may with probability be supposed to be of Laurentian age. Montreal, Dec. 12, 1870, METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS FOR MONTREAL FOR THE YEAR 1869. By C. Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L. The following Meteorological Report is condensed from the records of the Montreal Observatory, lat. 45*^ 31 N., long. 4h. 54' 17" West of Greenwich. The cisterns of the barometers are 182 feet above the mean sea level. 1870.] METEOROLOGICAL REPORT. 11 The readings are corrected for any instrumental errors, and those of the barometer have been reduced to 32 F. Atmosj)lieric Fressure. — The highest reading of the barometer occurred at 7 A.M. Isfc January, and indicated 30.390 inches. The lowest reading was at 6 A.M. on the 4th February, and was 28.841 inches, giving an annual range of 1.549 inches. The following table shows the highest and lowest reading for each month in inches : — January. February. March. April. May. June. Highest 30-390 29.129 50.251 29.841 30-201 29- 100 29.967 29.042 29.812 28.842 30.201 29.298 Lowest July. August. September October. November December Highest 30.000 29-275 30-352 29-650 30-375 29.549 30.249 29.349 30.462 29-151 30.643 29 -375 Lowest Temperature of the Air F° — The highest reading of the ther- mometer during the year was on the 26th July, when it was 84°4. The lowest reading was on the Ist March, and was — 9*^9 (below zero), giving a range or climatic difference of 94°3, which shows a difference minus of 26°8 compared with the observations of 1868. The mean temperature for the year was 42°93, which is nearly four-tenths of a degree higher than the mean annual temperature for Montreal. Below is a table showing the monthly mean, also the highest and lowest temperature for each month, with the amount of rain and snow : — Months. January . . February. . March April . May June , July August ... September October . . November December Mean Temper'ture inF.° 20" 1 3 19^^44 24'^ 06 41'= oo 52*^96 58''84 68.51 65.66 65^55 46^13 30° 28 22^^88 Highest Temper'ture 45°9 38^9 53!2 66-^2 78^9 8i°o 84% 76^1 82'^0 66-2 40^7 Lowest Temper'ture -4°o -5=4 -9^9 29-0 32-^6 45°2 52^0 5i°o S5°9 24°7 III -2^3 Rain. Depth in Inches. 0-233 None 1-118 I- 107 2-855 4.000 4-995 8.675 4.096 6.827 0655 1.004 Snow. Depth in Inches. ^8.07 73-76 14.07 1-93 3-14 Inapp. 6.49 13.96 25-95 12 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March The following table shows the mean temperature and the amount of precipitation for each quarter : — Months. Temper'ture Rain. Snow. . i i6°oo 20°I3 19^44 Inapp. 0.223 None 27-96 28.07 -ii nj i J anudry 73-76 |> q; ^ eoruary A/T*iQn 18.52 Amount . - 0-223 129.79 . f WS 1 MTrrh 24^06 4 1 '"bo 52^96 1. 118 1. 107 2-855 14.07 1-93 3-41 •C '*- J A'rnl -S'S 1 ]\[av C/3qj -^^Atiy M can 39''34 Amount . . 5-080 19. 11 ^^ 'S Tune 58«84 68''3i 65^66 4.000 4-995 8.675 5 >- J Tiilv g c3 1 J "^y ^ 3 Anfyimf • c^a ^"S"^^ 6o°93 Amount ■ . 17-670 4.096 6.827 0-655 e oj Sf*ntpmV>er 65=53 46-13 30^25 Inapp. 6.49 13.96 3 h -i Ortnher S 12 Nnvf^mVier •. <30' Mean 47°30 Amount . . T T C?^ '>'^ ^ ^ II • 57" i Ra'^i fell on 86 days, amounting to 35.545 inches. A very heavy storm, accompanied by loud thunder and vivid lightning, occurred on the night of the 19th-20th of August, and the large amount of 3-782 inches of rain fell in 6 hours 15 minutes. Snow fell on 76 days, amounting to 167.37 inches. This large amount includes the heavy fall of February. The first snow of autumn fell on the 27th September, in inappreciable quantity. Winter fairly set in on the 4th of December. Wind. — The most prevalent wind during the year was the N.E. The next in frequency, the W. The least prevalent wind was the S.E. There were 128 clear nights suitable for astronomical purposes. This is about the usual average. The Aurora Borealis was visible frequently during the year, but was not accompanied by any grand display. The meteoric shower of 13th-14th November was rendered in- visible by cloudy weather. 1870.] DAWSON — LAURENTIAN GRAPHITE. 13 The partial eclipse of the moon on the 27th January could not be well observed, owing to clouds and hazy weather. The solar eclipse of the 7th August, which was only partial at Montreal, was visible, and furnished some interesting phe- nomena. ON THE GRAPHITE OF THE LAURENTIAN OF CANADA. By J. W. Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. (From the Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society for Feb., 1870.) In my paper of 1864, on the Organic Remains of the Lauren- tian Limestones of Canada, as a sequel to the description of Eozoon Canadense, I noticed, among other indications of organic matters in these limestones, the presence of films and fibres of graphitic matter, and insisted on tl# probability that at least some of the lower forms of plant life must have existed in the seas in which gigantic Foramiuifera could flourish. Dr. Hunt had previously, on chemical evidence, inferred the existence of Laurentian vegetation^, and Dana had argued as to the proba- * " American Journal of Science" (2), xxxi. p. 395. From this article written iu 1861, after the announcement of the existence of laminated forms supposed to be organic in the Laurentian, by Sir "W". E. Logan» but before their structure and affinities had been ascertained, I quote the following sentences : — " We see in the Laurentian series beds and veins of metallic sulphurets, precisely as in more recent formations ; and the extensive beds of iron-ore, hundreds of feet thick, which abound in that ancient system, correspond not only to great volumes of strata deprived of that metal, but, as we may suppose, to organic matters which, but for the then great diffusion of iron-oxyd in conditions favourable for their oxydation, might have formed deposits of mineral carbon far more extensive than those beds of plumbago which wa actually meet in the Laurentian strata. All these conditions lead us then to conclude the existence of an abundant vegetation during the Lauren- tian period." Since the above note was printed in the Quarterly Journal, I have ascertained that it is innacurate as to dates : Dr. Hunt having, in May 1858, before the discovery of Eozoon Canadense, asserted, in an article in the Amer. Journal of Science (xxv. 436), that " the presence of iron ores, not less than that of graphite, points to the existence of organic life even during the Laurentian or so-called Azoic period." The same argument will be found in more detailed form, in his papers Quar. Jom*. 14 TfiE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March bility of this on various grounds^'^ ; and my object in referring to these indications in 1864, as well as to the supposed burrows of annelids, subsequently described by me f, was to show that the occurrence of Eozoon was not to be regarded as altogether isolated and unsupported by probabilities of the existence of organic remains in the Laurentian, deducible from other considerations. Now that the questions which have been raised regarding Eozoon may be considered settled, not only by the adhesion of the greatest authorities in palaeontology and zoology, but by the discovery of similar organisms in rocks of the same age elsewhere, by specimens preserved in such a manner as to avoid all the objections raised to the mineral condition of the fossil J, and by the discovery of such modern analogies as that furnished by Batliyhius, it may be proper to invite the attention of geologists more particularly to the evidence of vegetable life afforded by the deposits of graphite existing in the Laurentian. The graphite of the Laurentian of Canada occurs both in beds and in veins, and in such al^nanner as to show that its origin and deposition are contemporaneous with those of the containing rock. Dr. Sterry Hunt states § that " the deposits of plumbago generally occur in the limestones or in their immediate vicinity, and granular varieties of the rock often contain large crystalline plates of plumbago. At other times this mineral is so finely disseminated as to give a bluish-gray colour to the limestone, and the distribution of bands thus coloured, seems to mark the strati- fication of the rock." He further states : — " The plumbago is not confined to the limestone ; large crystalline scales of it are occasionally disseminated in pyroxene rock or pyrallolite, and Geol. Society, 1859, p. 493, Amer. Jour. Science, July 1860 (xxx., 134, as well as in the last-named Journal for May 1866, as quoted above. — J. W. D. *■ Manual of Geology. I may also be permitted to refer to my own work " Archaia," p. 168, and Appendix D, 1860. t Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 608. X I cannot, after examination of the specimen, and of others subse- quently obtained by Sir "W. E. Logan, attach any value to the supposition of Messrs. Rowney and King, that the Tudor specimen has been produced by infiltration of carbonate of lime into veins. The mechanical arrange- ment of the laminae and their microscopic structure forbid such a supposition, as well as the comparison of them with the actual calcare- ous veins occurring in the same rock. § " Geology of Canada," 1863, p, 529 ; and Report for 1866, pp. 218-223. 1870.] DAWSON — LAURENTIAN GRAPHITE. 15 sometimes in quartzite and in feldspathic rocks, or even in mae:netic oxide of ii'on." In addition to these bedded forms, there are also true veins in which graphite occurs associated with calcite, quartz, orthoclase, or pyroxene, and either in disseminated scales, in detatched masses, or in bands or layers " separated from each other, and from the wall rock by feldspar, pyroxene, and quartz." Dr. Hunt also mentions the occurrence of finely gran- ular varieties, and of that peculiarly waved and corrugated variety simulating fossil wood, though really a mere form of laminated structure, which also occurs at Warrensburgh, New York, and at the Marinski mine in Siberia. Many of the veins are not true fissures, but rather constitute a net- work of shrinkage cracks or segregation veins traversing in countless numbers the containing rock, and most irregular in their dimensions, so that they often resemble strings of nodular masses. It has been supposed that the graphite of the veins was originally introduced as a liquid hydro-carbon. Dr. Hunt, however, regards it as possible that it may have been in a state of aqueous solution^ at a heat approach- ing ignition; but in whatever way introduced, the character of the veins indicates that in the case of the greater number of them the carbonaceous material must have been derived from the bedded rocks traversed by these veins, while there can be no doubt that the graphite found in the beds has been deposited along with the calcareous matter or muddy and sandy sediment of which these beds were originally composed. The quantity of graphite in the Lower Laurentian series is enormous. In a recent visit to the township of Buckingham, on the Ottawa Kiver, I examined a band of limestone believed to be a continuation of that described by Sir W. E. Logan as the Green Lake Limestone. It was estimated to amount, with some thin interstratified bands of gneiss, to a thickness of 600 feet or more, and was found to be filled with disseminated crystals of graphite and veins of the mineral to such an extent as to constitute in some places one-fourth of the whole ; and making every allowance for the poorer portions, this band cannot contain in all a less vertical thickness of pure graphite than from 20 to 30 feet. In the ad- joining township of Eochaber Sir W. E. Logan notices a band from 25 to 30 feet thick, reticulated with graphite veins to such an extent as to be mined with profit for the mineral. At another * <( Report of the Geological Survey of Canada,' 1866, p. ^'33. 16 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll place in the same district a bed of graphite from 10 to 12 feet thick, and yielding 20 per cent, of the pure material, is worked. When it is considered that graphite occurs in similar abundance at several other horizons, in beds of limestone which have been ascertained by Sir W. E. Logan to have an aggreate thickness of 3500 feet, it is scarcely an exaggeration to maintain that the quantity of carbon in the Laurentian is equal to that in similar areas of the Carboniferous system. It is also to be observed that an immense area in Canada appears to be occupied by these graphitic and ^o2;oo?i-limestones, and that rich graphitic deposits exists in the continuation of this system in the state of New York, while in rocks believed to be of this age near St. John, New Brunswick, there is a very thick bed of graphitic limestone, and associated with it three regular beds of graphite, having an aggregate thickness of about five feet.* It may fairly be assumed that in the present world and in those geological periods with whose organic remains we are more familiar than with those of the Laurentian, there is no other source of unoxidized carbon in rocks than that furnished by organic matter, and that this has obtained its carbon in all cases, in the first instance, from the deoxidation of carbonic acidl)y living plants. No other source of carbon can, I believe, be imagined in the Laurentian period. We may, however, suppose either that the graphitic matter of the Laurentian has been accumulated in beds like those of coal, or that it has consisted of difi'used bituminous matter similar to that in more modern bituminous shales and bituminous and oil-bearing limestones. The beds of graphite near St. John, some of those in the gneiss at Ticonderoga in New York, and at Lochaber, Buckingham, and elsewhere in Canada are so pure and regular that one might fairly compare them with the graphitic coal of llhode Island. These instances, however, are exceptional, and the greater part of the disseminated and vein graphite might rather be compared in its mode of occurrence to the bituminous matter in bituminous shales and limestones. We may compare the disseminated graphite to that which we find in those districts of Canada in which Silurian and Devonian * Matthew in " Quart. Joum. Geol- Soc," vol. xxi. p. 423. " Acadian Geology, p. 662." t Granby, Melbourne, Owl's Head, &c., " Geology of Canada," 1863, p. 529. 1870.] DAWSON — LAURENTIAN GRAPHITE. 17 bituminous shales and limestones have been metamorphosed and converted into graphitic rocks not dissimilar to those in the less altered portions of the Lauren tian.f In like manner it seems probable that the numerous reticulating veins of graphite may have been formed by the segregation of bituminous matter into fissures and planes of least resistance, in the manner in which such veins occur in the modern bituminous limestones and shales. Such bituminous veins occur in the Lower Carboniferous lime- stone and shale of Dorchester and Hillsborough, New Brunswick, with an arrangement very similar to that of the veins of graphite ; and in the Quebec rocks of Point Levi, veins attaining to a thick- ness of more than a foot, are filled with a coaly matter having a transverse columnar structure, and regarded by Logan and Hunt as an altered bitumen. These palaeozoic analogies would lead us to infer that the larger part of the Laurentian graphite falls under the second class of deposits above mentioned, and that, if of vegetable origin, the organic matter must have been thoroughly disintegrated and bituminized before it was changed into graphite. This would also give a probability that the vegetation implied was aquatic, or at least that it was accumulated under water. Dr. Hunt has, however, observed an indication of terrestrial vegetation, or at least of subaerial decay, in the great beds of Laurentian iron-ore. These, if formed in the same manner as more modern deposits of this kind would imply the reducing and solvent action of substances produced in the decay of plants. In this case such great ore beds as that of Hull, on the Ottawa, 70 feet thick, or that near Newborough, 200 feet thick ^, must represent a corresponding quantity of vegetable matter which has totally disappeared. It may be added that similar demands on vegetable matter as a deoxidizing agent are made by the beds and veins of metallic sulphides of the Laurentian, though some of the latter are no doubt of later date than the Laurentian rocks themselves. It would be very desirable to confirm such conclusions as those above deduced by the evidence of actual microscopic structure. It is to be observed, however, that when, in more modern sediments. Algae have been converted into bituminous matter, we cannot ordinarily obtain any structural evidence of the origin of such bitumen, and in the graphitic slates and lime- * " Geology of Canada," 1863. Vol. Y. B Ko. 1 18 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. ' [March stones derived from the metamorphosis of such rocks no organic structure remains. It is true that, in certain bituminous shales and limestones of the Silurian system, shreds of organic issue can sometimes be detected, and in some cases, as in the Lower Silurian limestone of the La (cloche mountains in Canada, the pores of brachiopodous shells and the cells of corals have been penetrated by black bituminous matter, forming what may be regarded as natural injections, sometimes of much beauty. In correspondence with this, while in some Laurentian graphitic rocks, as, for instance, in the compact graphite of Clarendon, the carbon presents a curdled appearance due to segregation, and precisely similar to that of the bitumen in more modern bituminous rocks, I can detect in the graphitic limestone occasional fibrous structures which may be remains of plants, and in some specimens vermicular lines, which I believe to be tubes of Eozoon penetrated by matter once bituminous, but now in the state of graphite. When palaeozoic land-plants have been converted into graphite, they sometimes perfectly retain their structure. Mineral charcoal, with structure, exists in the graphitic coal of Rhode Island. The fronds of ferns, with their minutest veins perfect, are preserved in the Devonian shales of St. John, in the state of graphite; and in the same formation there are trunks of Conifers (^Dadoxijlon onangondianum) in which the material of the cell-walls has been converted into graphite, while their cavities have been filled with calcareous spar and quartz, the finest structures being preserved quite as well as in comparatively unaltered specimens from the coal-formation.* No structures so perfect have as yet been detected in the Laurentian, though in the largest of the three graphitic beds at St. John there appear to be fibrous structures, which I believe may indicate the existence of land-plants. This graphite is composed of contorted and slickensided laminae, much like those of some bituminous shales and coarse coals ; and in these there are occasional small pyritous masses which show hollow car- bonaceous fibres, in some cases presenting obscure indications of lateral pores. I regard these indications, however, as uncertain ; and it is not as yet fully ascertained that these beds at St. John are on the same geological horizon with the Lower Laurentian of Canada, though they certainly underlie the Primordial series of the A.cadian ' " Acadian Geology," p. 535. In calcified specimens the structures remain in the graphite after decalcification by an acid. 1870.] DAWSON— LAURENTIAN GRAPHITE. 19 group, and are separated from it by beds having the character of the Huronian. There is thus no absolute impossibility that distinct organic tissues may be found in the Laurentian graphite, if formed from land-plants, more especially if any plants existed at that time having true woody or vascular tissues ; but it cannot with certainty be affirmed that such tissues have been found. It is possible, how- ever, that in the Laurentian period the vegetation of the land may have consisted wholly of cellular plants, as, for example, mosses and lichens ; and if so, there would be comparatively little hope of the distinct preservation of the forms or tissues, or of our being able to distinguish the remains of land-plants from those of AlgaB. We may sum up these facts and considerations in the following statements : — First, that somewhat obscure traces of organic struc- ture can be detected in the Laurentian graphite ; secondly, that the general arrangement and microscopic structure of the substance corresponds with that of the carbonaceous and bituminous matters in marine formations of more modern date ; thirdly, that if the Laurentian graphite has been derived from vegetable matter, it has only undergone a metamorphosis similar in kind to that which organic matter in metamorphosed sediment of later age has ex- perienced ; fourthly, that the association of graphitic matter with organic limestone, beds of iron ore, and metallic sulphides greatly strengthens the probability of its vegetable origin ; fifthly, that when we consider the immense thickness and extent of the Eozoonal and graphitic limestones and iron-ore deposits of the Laurentian, if we admit the organic origin of the limestone and graphite, we must be prepared to believe that the life of that early period, though it may have existed under low forms, was most copiously developed, and that] it equalled, perhaps surpassed, in its results, in the way of geological accumulation, that of any subsequent period. In conclusion, this subject opens up several interesting fields of chemical, physiological, and geological inquiry. One of these relates to the conclusion stated by Dr, Hunt as to the probable existence of a large amount of carbonic acid in the Laurentian atmosphere, and of much carbonate of lime in the seas of that period, and the possible relation of this to the abundance of certain low forms of plants and animals. Another is the compari- son already instituted by Professor Huxley and Dr. Carpenter, between the conditions of the Laurentian and those of the deeper 20 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March parts of the modern ocean. Another is the possible occurrence of other forms of animal life than Eozoon and Annelids, which I have stated in my paper of 1864, after extensive microscopic study of the Laurentian limestones, to be indicated by the occurrence of calcareous fragments, differing in structure from Eozoon, but at present of unknown nature. Another is the effort to bridge over, by further discoveries similar to that of the Eozoon havaricum of Giimbel, the gap now existing between the life of the Lower- Laurentian and that of the Primordial Silurian or Cambrian period. It is scarcely too much to say that these inquires open up a new world of thought and investigation, and hold out the hope of bringing us into the presence of the actual origin of organic life on our planet, though this may perhaps be found to have been Prelaurentian. I would here take the opportunity of stating that, in proposing the name Eozoon for the first fossil of the Laurentian, and in suggesting for the period the name "Eozoic," I have by no means desired to exclude the possibility of forms of life which may have been precurs^ors of what is now to us the dawn of organic existence. Should remains of still older organisms be found in those rocks now known to us only by pebbles in the Laurentian, these names will at least serve to mark an important stage in geological investigation. NOTE ON THE GENUS EOPHYTON. Until within a few years, the oldest known land plants were a few Lycopodiaceans, forms from the upper part of the Upper Silurian. Recently Barrande and Geinitz have announced land plants probably Lycopodiaceans from olden Silurian beds. Still more lately Torell has described, from Cambrian or Primordial rocks in Sweden, a plant, or supposed plant, which he has named Eophyton Linnmanum. The drawings and descriptions, however, render it very doubtful whether this is not merely a cast of scratches or workings of unknown origin, similar to those which are very abundant on Carboniferous and Silurian rocks in Eastern America, and which have often been described as fucoids. Mr. Hicks has, however, recently described in the Geol. Magazine, Dec, 1869, a fossil from the Lower Arenig rocks of Wales. This plant is a striated stem, showing a very coarse tubular tissue, comparable with that of Nematoezla or Prototoxites of the 1870.] NOTE ON THE GENUS EOPHYTON. 21 Devonian, and perhaps indicates a plant of somewhat high organization. Whether it has any affinity with the Eophyton of Torell is more than doubtful. It is thus described by Mr. Hicks : — " As none of the figures hitherto given of the genus Eoplujton show either its internal structure or articulations of its stems, and as I am in possession of a specimen from the Lower Arenig rocks of Ramsey Island, near St. David's, which resembles in some respects the Eophyton Linnceanum Torell, but which shows both articulations of the stem, and an internal vascular structure, a description of the species may probably be useful, and may tend to elucidate the true nature of Eophyton, con- cerning which so much doubt seems to exist at present. '^ There can be no reasonable doubt of the vegetable nature of this fossil, and I think its affinity to the vascular Cryptogams is most clearly shewn. " These Lower Arenig rocks, from whence the specimen was obtained, rest apparently quite conformable on Upper Lingula- flags,* and underlie the true Arenig or Skiddaw rocks. Nearly all the species obtained from these beds are new, and they indicate a fauna intermediate between Tremadoc rocks and the true Arenig rocks. Indeed, in the report to the British Association, by Mr. Salter and myself, in 1866, they were classed as Tremadoc rocks ; but I have since thought it advis- able to separate them and to place them in an intermediate position. The Brachiopoda from these rocks have been described by Mr. Davidson {Geol. Mag., Vol. V. p. 303), but all the other species are yet undescribed. " Eophyton (?) explanatum, n.sp. — A raised, moderately convex stem, about four lines in breadth ; widening, however, and becoming somewhat compressed at the joints. The surface is ribbed, and furrowed along its whole length. At the lower joint the ribs bend outwards, evidently to form a branch. The joint is obliquely placed, widened out, and its course distinctly marked by a deep sulcus. The cortical substance is very thin, and can be removed to shew the internal structure. The internal * So marked in the Geological Survey Maps. I am inclined, however, to think that they are representatives of the Tremadoc rocks, for Ling. Davisii, which is the only fossil present, is equally characteristic of Tremadoc rocks, and reaches here also into these Lower Arenig rocks. 22 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March structure is made up of compressed columns, running the whole length from joint to joint, evidently of a tabular nature, and bound together by very thin tissue. At the base of the stem, the broken ends are visible. " Unless Eophyton Linnceanum is proved to have a jointed stem and an internal structure similar to our specimen, it will probably be necessary to make a generic distinction ; but at present it is better to retain this under Dr. Torell's generic name." CONTRIBUTIONS TO CANADIAN METEOROLOGY. Compiled from the Records of the Isle Jesus and Montreal Observatories, By Charles Smallwood, M.D., LL.D., D.C.L., Professor of Meteor- ology in the University of McQill College, Montreal. The following table has been drawn up for the purpose of showing the respective dates of the setting in and of the breaking up of our Canadian winters for the past twenty-one years, and for illustrating the climatology of Montreal and its vicinity. The first column gives the years from 1849 to 1869 inclusive ; The second shows the time of the first fall of snow in autumn in however small quantities. This amount, as a general rule, does not exceed a quarter of an inch in depth on the surface, and invariably disappears, lasting but a very short time, and, in some cases, only a few minutes. The third column shows the date, and the fourth the amount in inches of the heavier snow fall. This snow very seldom entirely disappears ; traces may be seen in sheltered places and on the hills and mountains. The dates in the fifth and sixth columns shows the days of the first frost of autumn, and the earliest date that the thermometer marks 32° F. These dates may seem somewhat anomalous, inasmuch as the descent of the thermometer to 32'^ F., (the freezing point,) and the first frost of autumn, do not in all cases coincide. This difference is owing to several causes, such as terrestrial radiation, amount of clouds, direction and velocity of the wind, and the humid state of the atmosphere. The effect of the first frost of autumn is generally perceived on the leaves and flowers of plants. 1870.] SMALL WOOD — CANADIAN METEOROLOGY. and although, in some cases, the thermometer has marked 32^ F., frost has not perceptibly affected vegetation, owing to some of the causes above mentioned. The seventh column gives the date of the last fall of snow, without reference to quantity, which is sometimes very small. The eighth column shows the respective dates at which the thermometer stood at 32° F. for the last time in spring, and is a near approximation to the last frost, but as vegetation is not so prolific in spring, the effects on flowers and plants are not so well marked as in the autumn, although occasionally late frosts have proved very injurious to fruit trees and early vegetables. The ninth column is intended to show the dates when winter may be said to have fairly set in, for the ground is then frozen to some depth, and may also be covered with some snow. The ditches are then full from the previous autumnal rains, and are frozen over, as well as the small rivers, and loads are crossing on the ice, all out-door work is, con- sequently, suspended. The tenth and last column gives the date at which the ice left the River St. Lawrence, in front of the city, the river being clear of ice. The arrival of steamers and small sailing vessels generally occurs in a very short time after wjirds, — sometimes the same day. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9* 10 V. V. < > «,- > 2 men « " i> •t:.S ft c J, i-H 3 C ti ^ <& 5.2 *^ a, *- 2 0 E ess: • a *^ 9 Oct. :3 Nov. 10 " 1: Oct. I " 2^ " 4 Nov. 5 Oct. 17 Sept. 27 Dec. I Nov. 18 :•• ;[ Oct. 24 Nov. 17 •' 16 Oct. 21 " 15 Nov. 3 " 26 " 26 Oct. 29 Dec. 6 Oct. 14 " 21 " 22 2.00 2.14 I -so 1.20 2.00 1. 10 2.74 1.30 2.01 3-25 2.30 I- 10 0.32 1.84 1.94 3.10 0.66 0.80 1.60 4.92 6.47 Oct 15 " 14 " 2 Sept. 17 " 12 " 11 Aug. 9 " 26 Sept. 7 Aug. 25 Oct. 7 Sept. 3 " 5 Aug. 24 Oct. 24 Sept. 26 Oct. 21 Sept. 16 Oct. 4 Sept. 28 Oct. 6 " 14 " 16 Sept. 29 " 30 " II '' "9 Oct. 4 Sept. 30 Oct. 23 " 8 Sept. 29 Oct. 21 " 10 " 27 " 29 Sept. 24 Nov. 3 Oct. 17 '• 20 Apr, 13 " 14 " 8 " 16 " 14 " 30 " II May 31 Apr. 27 " 2: " 23 May 20 Apr, 17 May 7 " 2 Apr. 18 " 20 May 3 " 2 Apr. 23 May 3 Apr. 18 " 20 " 14 " 24 May I " 7 " 10 " 6 " 14 " 14 Apr. 27 May 20 /' 4 Apr. 27 " 21 "4 May 2 " ; Apr. 29 Dec. 10 '• 7 Nov. 21 Dec. 18 '■'\ " 23 Nov. 29 Dec. 21 " 20 " 10 " 2 " 21 " 19 " 9 " 12 " 72 " 16 " 1 '-: \ Apr. 7 " 9 " 9 " 19 " 24 :::§ " 24 " 18 ■• I " 10 " 24 " 23 " 25 " 13 " 10 " 19 " 22 " 17 " 23 2-i THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March NOTES ON SOME OF THE PLANTS IN THE HERBARIA OF LINNE AND MICHAUX. By Daniel C. Eaton, M.A., Professor of Botany in Tale College. Prof. Eaton, of New Haven, U. S., the eminent American Pteridologist, when in Europe on a visit in 1866, examined many of the standard herbaria, and made notes on the American plants contained in them. He has most liberally placed a series of these notes on the North American Filices in my hands for perusal, has allowed me to take copies of them, and to print such selections from them as I might deem of sufficient interest : those relating to the collections of Linne, now in London, and of Michaux, in Paris, are here given. The herbarium name of each plant is placed within quotation marks, as is also such notes (of habitat, etc.) as were deemed of sufficient interest to be copied from the sheets to which the respective specimens were attached. Mr. Eaton's observations follow. I have not printed these verbatim, as, not being intended for publication, they were, more or less, made up of indications and signs which I have attempted to write out with exactness. One or two observations of my own are placed within brackets, and bear my initial. For convenience of reference I have arranged the species in the order of their occurrence in the Species Plantarum, and in the Flora Boreali-Americana. D. A. Watt. THE LmN^AN" FILICES. Notes made in the hall of the Linnean Society, London, August 7, 1866:— *'Onoclea sensibilis " — one sterile frond and one fertile frond of the true plant. " OsMUNDA Pensylv." — a short sterile leaf of perhaps Stru- thiopteris or probably of Osmunda Claytoniana ; veinlets once and twice forked, segments broad and round, the lowesi) pinnae lono- as any. (It cannot be Struthiopteris, and perhaps is not Osmunda, but some Aspidium. D.C.E., anno 1870.) " Osmunda Lunaria " — consists of two fronds of oar Botry. lunarioides and one frond B. rutcefolium (A. Braun)— the latter very much like the former, and (by its ticket) from Petropolis. There is no true Lunaria in the herbarium. / ITt must be borne in mind that the ancients were very careless about their plants, and very careful about their books. 1870.] EATON — HERBARIA OF LINNE AND MICHAUX. 25 The Lunaria of the Sp. PI. p. 1519 is unquestionably the species we now call by that name. It is, however, not a little singular that Linnd should have had both the American and European forms of the 0. ternatum of Thunberg without recognizing them as distinct from his Lunaria. — W.] " OsMUNDA VIRGINIANA " — is the true Botrychium virginia- num, one frond from Kalm (being marked " K ") and one from Clayton (?) marked " Lunaria matricariae-folio Clayt. n. 706." OsMUNDA REGALis — One unnamed frond from Kalm is put next to another that is marked 0. regalis. " OsMUNDA Claytoniana " — two fronds of this species in which the fructification is 7iot terminal, but the upper sterile pinnae are unexpanded, as noted by Dr. Gray long ago, and recently by Dr. Milde. *' OsMUNDA ciNNAMOMEA " — one fertile and one sterile frond from Kalm ; very good. " AcROSTiCHUM POLYPODioiDES " — is the PoJypodium in- canum of Swartz. " AcROSTiCHUM AUREUM " — vcry good. AcROSTiCHUM AREOLATUM — Sp. PL p. 1526, not found; the Woodwardia angustifolia of Smith is the plant described. ACROSTICHUM PLATYNEURON — p. 1529, not found ; the plant described is Asplenium eheneum. '' ACROSTICHUM ILVENSE " — is our North American Woodsia obtusa. [Here Linne appears to have confounded our particularly distinct Woodsia ohtusa with his Ilvense, and to have missed describing another good North American species. There is no doubt that the Ilvense of his writings is that of modern botanists. — W.] " ACROSTICHUM EBENEUM " — is Gymnogramme calomelanos small form, or possibly G. tartarea ; a West Indian fern. " Pteris aquilina " — very good. " Pteris caudata " — one frond, very delicate, is good cau- data ; one with very broad segments is a caudate but not uncom- mon form of aquilina. "Pteris atropurpurea " — one frond from Kalm of our Pellcea atropurpurea. -'■ Asplenium rhizophyllum " — is Camptosorus from Kalm ; three fronds from one root, and one frond with auricles 1^-2^ inches long. 26 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March " AsPLENiUM Trichomanes " — vcry good. " AsPLENiUM Rut A muraria " — very good. POLYPODIUM VIRGINICUM — not found. " PoLYPODiUM LoNCHiTis " — is Aspidium Lonchitis. Not a North American specimen, as indeed are not several of the following : " PoLYPODiUM AURICULATUM " — three fronds, one of which may be Aspid. auriculatum of Asia, one marked " Pennsylvania" is certainly our Asplenium eheneum, and one marked " K'' (Kalm) our Aspidium acrosticJwides. [Of all Prof. Eaton's notes this is the most remarkable, as showing a confusion of perfectly distinct species. The specimen of Aspl. eheneum probably belongs to the Acros. platyrieuron above quoted, while the distinction between Aspid, auriculatum and A. acrostichoides is very clear, although Swartz said of the latter, " nimium affine prascedenti." — W.] *' PoLTPODiUM Phegopteris " — three fionds of the true plant, and one of Aspidium Thelypteris marked " Pennsilv." '' PoLYPODiUM FRAGRANS " — is Aspidium fragvaiis ; very good. '' PoLYPODiUM fontanum " — is Woodsia glabella, \\ inches high. [It is indeed remarkable that Linne should have possessed this little fern so interesting to American botanists, known as Euro- pean cn^y within the last few years, and still more recently as Asiatic. In the Sp. PI., p. 1550, he gives two localities: — Siberia, where W. glabella occurs ; and Provence, in the south of France, whence the Asplenium Halleri of continental botanists (to which species his P. fontanum is commonly referred) might well have come. Although Linne's description indicates an Asplenium, we may, perhaps, hereafter have to write Woodsia fontana ! Asplenium Halleri is confined to south Europe ; W. glabella is circumpolar, and, while it scarcely occurs south of latitude 45°, has been found in Baffin's Bay nearly thirty degrees further north. — W.] " PoLYPODiUM CRISTATUM " — is Aspidium cristatum, fruiting. «' PoLYPODiUM FiLix MAS " — is One frond of very good As- pidium Filix-mas, and one, not marked, of A. molle. " PoLYPODiUM FiLix-F(EMiNA " — is Very good Asplenium Filix-foemina, " PoLYPODiUM aculeatum " — is vcry good Aspidium aail- eatum. 1870.] EATON — HERBARIA OF LINNE AND MICHAUX. 27 " POLYPODIUM NOVEBORACENSE " — One frond having the lower part gone ; it is not Thelypteris, but is probably our Aspid. novehoracense ; it has simple veins, and is slightly pubescent. " PoLYPODiUM MARGINALE " — One frond 0^ Aspid. ma^^ginale. " PoLYPODiUM BULBIFERUM " — One frond of Cyst, hulhifera marked *' galley fer," a note quite inexplicable. " POLYPODIUM FRAGILE " — is Cyst. fragiUs. " Adiantum pedatum " — two good fronds, •' K " (Kalm). MICHAUX'S FILICES. Notes made in Paris, May 22, 1866. The species are arranged in the order in which they occur in the Flora Bor.-Amer. vol. ii., pp. 260-280. The names in the Flora sometimes differ from those of the Herbarium : — " Pteris line at a — sur les bords de la riv. Aisa-hatcha le ler Avi'il Floride," is a Vittaria — the F. angusti/rons of p. 261. " Pteris atropurpurea — Am. septentrionale j" is our Pellcea atropurpurea. " Pteris gracilis — Rochers pres la Malbaye" is our Pellcea gracilis. "■ Pteris aquilina — Canada ;" is the true plant. Adiantum pedatum — not noticed. " Blechnum Banisterianum — Pluckn. tab. 179, fig. 2. Hab. in montib. Cai'olinae" is a fragment of a sterile frond of Osmunda cinnamomea ; it is the Woodwardia B. of page 263. " Blechnum ONOCLEOiDES—Osmunda caroliniana Walt, in Carolinae, Georgiae;" is Woodwardia angusti/olia, Blechnum serrulatum — not noticed. " Asplenium rhizophyllum — New Jersey" is Camptosorus rhizophyllus. "Asplenium trichomanes — Canada, Pennsylv. Caroline hautes montag;" three small fronds of the true plant. " Asplenium tricho3IANoides — hautes montagnes de Caro- line, Pluckn. t. 89, fig. 8 et t. 287, fig. 2 ;" is AspL ebeneum. "Asplenium angustifolium — Moris, iii., § 14, t. 2, fig. 25, ad ripas Ohio ;" one fertile frond of the true plant. Asplenium thelypterioides — not noticed. " Asplenium Adianthum nigrum — an varietas ? minor, in montium rupibus Carolinae septentrionalis ;" is Aspl. montanum. " Asplenium Buta muraria — in fissuris rupium montium excelsorum Carolinae septentrionalis ;" small specimens of the true plant. 28 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March " PoLYPODiUM ACROSTICHOIDES — Pennsylvania, Carolina, Tennessee et Carol, maritim" is Aspidiuin acrostichoides. " PoLYPODiU3i Thelypterioides — montibus Alle&eni a Canada; Hab. in Canada et ad Carolinanum ; Lac Champlain ;" is Aspid. Thelypteris ; a very small sterile frond on same page is doubtful, it may be Asphnium Filix-foemina. " PoLYPODiUM MARGINALE — Kentucky, Pennsylvania, Nec- toux ;" is Aspidium marginale. " PoLYPODiUM PUNCTILOBULUM — Canada ;" one frond of Dicksoiiia punctilohula. " PoLYPODixJM BULBIFERUM — in Canada ;" two fronds of Gi/st. hidhifera. *' POLYPODIUM FiLix-FCEMiNA ? — in Canada, a rapporter a son esp." is Asphnium Filix-foemina, and " POLYPODIUM ASPLENioiDES — a Nova Anglia ad Carolinam ;" is the same species. " PoLYPODiUM CRISTATUM — Montib. Carolinas ? et certe in Canada ;" is one rather small frond of Aspidium spinulosum. " POLYPODIUM TENUE — Quclec ;" is one frond of Cyst, fragilis. " PoLYPODiUM RUFIDULUM — Hab. in rupibus Canadae, Novae Angliae, et Novae Caesareae ;" is Woodsia llvensis. " POLYPODIUM LANOSUM — Hab. in excelsis montibus saxosis Tennessee et Carolinae septentrionalis ;" is Cheilanthes vestita of Gray's Manual, five medium-sized fronds. [Michaux's appears to be the earliest publication of this species ; the next (with some doubt as to whether he does not refer to Ch. tomentosa) is that of K. Sprengel in Anleitung zur Kenntniss der Gewachse vol. iii. (1804) p. 122, who describes his species as follows : — ^' Adiantum vestitum nenne ich eine Art, die Bosc d' Antic in Carolina fand. Sie hat einen 3-fath gefiederten Wedel, der iiber und iiber mit feinem wolHgtem Haare bedeckt ist. Die Blattchen der iiiii. Ordnung sind ei-lanzettformig, die der letzten Ordnung sind linienformig gekerbt und schlagen sich um die Samenhaufchen zuriick. Bosc nannte diesen Farn Acrostichum hispidum." Where " Bosc named this fern" I have not been able to find out, nor can I see any reason why hispidum should have been changed into vestitum, for if Lamarck (the friend and biographer of Bosc) and Swartz be right, Sprengel did not even alter the genus. Bosc botanized in the Southern States between 1798 1870.] EATON — HERBARIA OF LINNfi AND MICHAUX. 29 and 1800, Michaux more than ten years earlier, though his flora was not published until 1803. There is no good reason why the latter's name should not be restored, and the plant called Ch. lanosa (Michxj, though long usage may justify a continu- ance of error.* It is remarkable that this somewhat common fern, which ranges from New York west to Illinois and south to the Carolinas and Georgia, should have been omitted from Sir Wm. Hooker's Species Filicum, the Ch. vestita of that work being the Ch. gracilis of Fee and Mettenius — the Ch. lanuginosa of Gray's Manual— W.] " PoLYPODiUM Dryopteris — ^juxta L'Assomption in Canada legi;" three fronds of the true plant. " PoLYPODiUM VULGARE — Moris. sect. 14, t. 2, f. 3, P. Yirginiense minus, Hab. in arborib. a Canada ad Floridam ;" one frond of the true plant. " AcROSTTCHUM POLYPODioiDES — Pluckn. t. 89, fig. 9, in ai'boribus Floride;" is the Folypodium incanum of Swartz, the Polyp, ceteraccinum of p. 271. " PoLYPODiUM HEXAGONOPTERUM — IMuckn. t. 284, fig. 2> Hab. in Virginia, Carolina, terrestre ;" one good average-sized frond of our Phegopteris hexagonoptera. " PoLYPODiUM CONNECTILE — Hab. in Canada ;" one good frond of Pheg. polypodioides with the lowest pinnae /i-ee. [Polyp. Phegopteris Linn. Pheg. polypodioides Fee, Pheg. vulgaris Metten. or more correctly Pheg. connectile (3Iichx). — W.] " AcROSTiCHUM AUREUM — sur la riv. Aisa-hatcha Floride ;" part of a fertile frond of the true plant. <' Onoclea sensibilis — Hab. a Nova Anglia ad ... " and on a second sheet " Onoclea an sensibilis ? — ? Connecticut ;" both are that species. " AcROSTiCHUM ? nodulosum — Canada, juxta Montreal, legi ;" is Struthiopteris Germanica. The synonyme of this plant is as follows : — Polypodium lanosum Mickx Herb. Nephrodium lanosum Michx Flora ii. p. 279. Adianthum ? hispidum Bosc ex Lamarck et Swartz. Acrostichum ? hispidum Bosc ex Sprengel. Adiantum vestitum Sprengel Anleit. ili. p. 122 ? Aspidium lanosum Swartz Synopsis Fili- cum, p. 58, et Cheilanthes vestita Swartz Syn. Fil. p. 128 ; Schkuhr Krypt. t. 124 ; Gray^s Manual ed. ist, p. 625 ; Mettenius Cheilanthes No. 27 ; Hooker and Baker Synopsis Filicum p. 134 ;etc. 30 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March " OsMUNDA REGALIS — Hab. a Nova x\Dglia ad Carolinum, Pluckn. tab. 1.81, f. 4 ;" is the true plant. * " OsMUNDA ciNNAMOMEA — Baise Caroline ;" is the true plant. " OsMUNDA INTERRUPTA — Kentucky" and a second specimen with the same name marked "Canada;" are 0. Glaytoniana, " OsMUNDA ViRGlNiCA — Moris. iii., sect. 14, tab. 4, fig. 5, a Canada ad Virginiam et in montibus Carolinse ;" is Botrychium virginianum. " Osmund A lunarioides — in pascuis sabulosis juxta Charleston ;" one specimen of the ordinary form Botry, lunarioides ; a very small two-fronded specimen on another sheet is marked " Osmunda lunarioides ? innominata au bord de monte a peine." " Cteisium palmatum — Hab. in occidentalibus Virginias, Carolina3 septentrionalis ad Kentucky, Tennessee;" a good speci- men of Lygodium palmatum ; a second specimen is marked " Sur Obed river, Dady's creek et plusi. creeks a 25 miles de West Point sur Clinch river." " Ophioglossum vulgatum — New Jersey ;" the true plant. " Ophioglossum bulbosum — in sabulosis Carolinse ;" two small specimens slightly bulbous, one of them 2 — 3-fronded. PoLYPODiU3i Plumula — One frond of this species is in the herbarium bearing no label. These comprise all the Filices which are shewn as Michaux's, and kept separate from the general herbarium. PURSH'S FILICES. [I have Prof. Eaton's very full notes on the North American ferns contained in the Hookerian herbarium at Kew, from which I extract the following relating to one or two of Pursh's more obscure species. The references are to his Flora Americas Scptentrionali^•, vol. ii. London, 1814. — W.] <' WOODSIA HYPERBOREA" — -(p. 660) is the normal form of W. llvensis. " AspiDiUM noveboracense '' — (p. 661) is A. Thelypteris ; it was contained in the species cover of Asplenium thelypteroides. " AsPiDiUM filix-mas " — (p. 662) was included in the species cover of Aspidium Goldieanum, and consisted of a mix- ture of that species and A. cristatum. " Aspidium asplenioides " — (p. 664) is good Aspleniuyn Filix-foemina, and 1870.] HUNT — ON NORITE OR LABRADORITE ROCK. 31 *' AsPiDiUM FiLix-FCEMiNA " — IS the Same species mixed with Ci/st. bulb if era. '' WooDWARDiA virginica" — (p. 670) is the true plant from New Jersey. " Woodwardia THELYPTERioiDES " — (p. 670) consists of a smallish frond of W. Virginica, and one of Aspidium Thdypteris. ON NORITE OR LABRADORITE ROCK. By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S. [Read before the American Association for the Advancement of Science, at Salem, August, 1869.] {From Silliman's Journal for March, 1870.) The various rocks composed essentially of a triclinic or anorthic feldspar, with an admixture of hornblende, pyroxene, hypersthene or diallage, have by lithologists been designated by the names of diorite, dolerite diabase, hypersthenite and gybbro, among others. The latter name has by many been regarded as synonymous with euphotide. I, however, pointed out many years since that the true euphotide is not a feldspathic rock, but consists of a mixture of diallage with saussurite, a white heavy silicate apparently identical with zoisite. By an admixture of labradorite or an allied feldspar, however, euphotide passes into the so-called gabbro, which I have defined as a diallagic diabase, and which is closely related to norite. The name of hypersthene rock or hypersthenite (sometimes con- tracted into hyperite), was given by MacCulloch* to a rock consisting of labradorite, or a related feldspar, and hypersthene, found by him in the Western Islands of Scotland, and subsequently recognized by Emmons in the Adirondack Mountains of Northern New York. By both of these observers it was regarded as an erupted rock. In 1851, I detected it among the Laurentide hills of Canada, where, as in New York, it extends over considerable areas. Farther examinations of this rock in place showed that though hypersthene, generally in very small proportion, is a frequent element, it is often replaced by a green granular pyroxene, and still more often both of these are wanting, so that we have a ^ MacCulloch, Geology of the Western Islands, i. 385-390. 32 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March rock composed almost entirely of a triclinic feldspar, whose composition is generally near that of labradorite, but varies in different examples from that of andesiue to near that of anorthite. To these rocks I provisionally applied the name of anorthosites, the pure feldspathic type being regarded as normal anorthosite ; associated with which, however, were to be found hypersthenic and pyroxenic varieties. Red garnet, epidote, a black mica, and more rarely dichroite and quartz, are all occasionally found spar- ingly disseminated in these anorthosites of New York and Canada, which cannot be distinguished from those first observed by Mac- Culloch in the Isle of Skye, as I have convinced myself by an examination of the specimens there collected by him, and now preserved in the collections of the G-eological Society of London. Titaniferous iron ore (menaccanite) also occurs in grains and masses frequently in these rocks, both in Skye and in North America, where it sometimes forms beds or masses of considerable size. Details as to the chemical and mineralogical characters of these rocks, will be found in the L. E. & D. Philos. Magazine for May, 1855, and in the Geology of Canada, 1863, pages 588-590. The subsequent investigations of Sir William Logan have shown that these anorthosites in Canada belong to a great series of stratified crystalline rocks, which by the Geological Survey of Canada have been designated the Labrador or Upper Laurentiaa series, and which repose unconformably upon the older or true Lauren tian oueiss and limestones. The area of the Labrador formation most examined lies in the counties of Argenteuil and Terrebonne, to the north and northwest of Montreal, and has a breadth of more than forty miles. It is, however, met with on the north-east shore of Lake Huron, according to Dr. Bigsby,* and at several points below Quebec, notably in the parish of Chateau-Richer, at Bay St. Paul and around Lake St. John on the Saguenay, where it occupies a large area. Proceeding north- eastward along the left bank of the St. Lawrence, Mr. Richardson has lately observed it at the mouth of Pentecost River, about 160 miles below the entrance of the Saguenay, and I have found it forming the shore of the Bay of Seven Islands, forty miles farther down. This area is probably connected with the wide extent of this rock observed by Prof Hind on the River Moisie. In all of these regions it appears to be surrounded and limited by the * Geology of Canada, 1863, page 480. 1870.] HUNT — ON NORITE OR LABRADORITE ROCK. 33 ordinary Laurentian gneiss. Bayfield, moreover, describes a rock with a base of labradorite as forming the coast for several miles toward Mingan. Finally, it is widely spread on the coast of Labrador, where its characteristic mineral was first found, and from whence it takes its name. Prof. A. S. Packard, Jr., has given us valuable information with regard to the occurrence of labradorite rocks at some points on the Labrador coast. ^ One of its localities is at Square Island, just north of Cape St. Michel, were the rock consists chiefly of crystalline labradorite, smoky-gray in color, translucent, and opalescent, with greenish reflections. This feldspar often shows 'cleavage planes two inches broad, and is associated with a little vitreous quartz, and wir.h coarsely crystalline hypersthene, which appears in relief on the weathered surfaces. This labradorite rock, according to Prof. Packard, is surrounded by and probably rests upon Laurentian gneiss. At Domino Harbor he found domes or bosses of a similar labradorite resting upon strata which consist in great part of a slightly schistose quartzite, having for its base a granular vitreous quartz, and enclosing grains of black hornblende, or more rarely hypersthene, black mica, and red garnet. Feldspar is generally wanting, but in some parts these quartzites become gneissic, and they where nowhere seen in un- comfortable contact with the Laurentian gneiss of the vicinity. These quartzose strata Prof. Packard refers, with some doubt, to the Huronian system. The minerals which they contain are not, however, met with, so far as known, in the Huronian quartzites ; and, on the contrary, are very characteristic of the quartzites of the Laurentian system, which attain a great thickness in many parts of its distribution. The overlying domes of labradorite rock, which Prof. Packard was inclined to regard, in this case, as erupted through Huronian quartzites, are probably nothing more than outlying portions of the newer Labrador formation resting upon the Laurentian strata, as already observed by him at Square Island. Along the western coast of the island of Newfoundland Mr. Jukes observed, at Indian Head and at York Harbor, dark colored rocks composed of labradorite and hypersthene and others on albite (?) and hypersthene, which may probably be found to belong to the Labrador series. * On the Glacial Phenomena of Labrador and Maine. Mem. Bost. Acad. jSTat. Hist., vol. I., part ii., pp. 214-217. Vol. Y. C i^o. 1 34 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Rocks composed chiefly of labradorite or a related feldspar greatly predominate in the Labrador series, but these, at least in the area near Montreal, which is the one best known, are inter- stratified with beds of a kind of diabase, in which dark green pyroxene prevails, with crystalline limestone similar in mineral- ogical character to that of the Laurentian system, and more rarely with quartzites and thin beds of orthoclase gneiss. I have more than once insisted upon the rarity of free quartz, and the general basic character of the rocks of this series, an observation with which I am credited in Dana's Manual of Geology (p. 139), where it seems to be applied to the whole of the rocks there classed as Azoic, including the Laurentian, Labrador and Huronian systems. It is, in fact, remarkable that the silicated rocks of the latter two consist chiefly of labradorites, diorites and diabases; gneissic and granitic rocks being exceedingly rare among them, though quartzites abound in the Huronian. In the Laurentian system, on the contrary, though basic silicated rocks are not want- ing, orthoclase gneisses, often granitoid in structure, and abounding in quartz, predominate. The anorthosite rocks of the Labrador series present great variations in texture, being sometimes coarsely granitoid, and at other times finely granular. They not unfrequently assume the banded structure of gneiss, lines of pyroxene, hypersthene, garnet, titanic iron-ore or mica marking the planes of stratafication. Probably three-fourths of the anorthosites of this series, in Canada, whether examined in place, or in the boulders which abound in the St Lawrence Valley, consist of pure or nearly pure feldspar rocks, in which the proportion of foreign minerals will not exceed five hundredths. Hence we have come to designate them by the name of labradorite rock. The colors of this rock are very generally some shade of blue, from bluish -black or violet to bluish- gray, smoky-gray or lavender, more rarely purplish passing into flesh-red, greenish-blue, and occasionally greenish or bluish-white. The weathered surfaces of these labradorite rocks are opaque white. The anorthosites, which occupy a considerable area in the Adi- rondack region, as described by Emmons in his report on the Geology of the Northern District of New York, and as seen by me in hand-specimens, closely resemble the rocks of the Labrador series in Canada. In all of these localities the coarse or granitoid varieties often hold large crystalline cleavable masses, generally poly synthetic 1870.] HUNT — ON NORITE OR LABRADORITE ROCK. 35 macles, and frequently exhibiting the peculiar opalescence which belongs to labradorite. Although rocks composed of labradorite or similar feldspars, with hornblende or pyroxene, occur in various other geological formations, both as indigenous g:reenstones and as erupted masses, they never, so far as ray observation in North America goes, exhibit the peculiar character just described ; namely, that of a granular or granitoid rock composed of nearly pure labradorite or some closely related feldspar, frequently opalescent, and generally of a bluish color, often violet, smoky- blue or lavender-blue. This type of rock seems in North America to characterize the Labrador series. It may here be remarked as an interesting fact bearing on the distribution of the Labrador series, that two large boulders of labradorite rock, one of the beautiful dark blue variety, are found on Marblehead Neck, on the coast of Massachusetts.^ It does not seem probable that these masses could have been derived from any of the far-off localities already mentioned, and the fact that the gneiss of eastern Massachusetts is, as I have recently found, in part of Laurentian age, suggests that an outcrop of the Labra. dor series may exist in some locality not far removed. In this connection it maybe added that I have lately found characteristic labradorite and hyperite rocks in southern New Brunswick, a few miles east of St. John, occupying a position between the Lauren- tian and the Huronian or Cambrian rocks, which there make their appearance, accompanied by Lower Silurian strata, to the south of the great carboniferous basin of the region. This interesting locality was recently pointed out to me by Mr. G. F. Matthew of St. John, to whom we are indebted for a great part of our know- ledge of the geology of southern New Brunswick. Chester and Bucks counties, in Pensylvania, and the Wachita Mountains, in Arkansas, are cited in Dana's Mineralogy as localities of labrador- ite, but as I have never examined specimens from the.se places, I am unable to say whether they resemble the characteristic anor- thosites of the Labrador formation already described. * Specimens of these rocks, correctly determmed and labelled, are found in the collectious of the Essex Institute at Salem. To these my attention was called at the time of the meeting, in August last, by Prof. C. Hitchcock, after which, in companv with Dr. G. B. Loring and Prof. Packard, I visited the locality at Marblehead iS'eck, and collected farthei specimens of the characteristic labradorite rock. 36 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March The uame of norite, in allusion to Norway, was given by Esmark to a rock composed chiefly of labradorite, which is found in several localities in that country.* I had already remarked the close resemblance between two specimens of norite obtained from Krantz of Berlin, and the labradorite rocks of North America just noticed, when, in 1867, I had the opportunity of examining, at the Universal Exhibition at Paris, a collection of Norwegian rocks selected for ornamental purposes, exhibited by the Royal University of Christ iania. Prominent among these was a series of the norites, which could not be distinguished from the labradorite rocks of the Upper Laurentian or Labrador series of this continent. In a printed note, accompanying this collection from the University, it is said that the numerous varieties of rocks consisting of labradorite with hypersthene, diallage and bronzite, have been, in the geological map of Southern Norway published at Christiania in 1866, designated by the common name of gabbro. This note at the same time suggests that the "name of norite should be preserved for certain varieties of gabbro rich in labradorite, which varieties may in great part with justice be called labradorite rock, since labrador feldspar is their predominent element." With this excellent suggestion I heartily concur, remarking, however, that the name of gabbro. as an ill-defined synonym for certain anorthosite rocks, including in part diorite, diabase, hyperite, and even confounded with the non-feldspathic rock, euphotide, may very well be dispensed with in lithology. By referring to the geological map just mentioned, it will be seen that these so-called gabbros occupy considerable areas in the Laurentian gneiss region of Norway. By the authors of the map, Messrs. Kjerulf and Dahl, tiie gabbros are regarded as eruptive, though they are described at the same time as often assuming the character of stratified rocks. It should, however, be noticed that the geologists go so far as to regard the whole of the granitic gneiss of the region as unstratified and of plutonic origin. The specimens of these norites exhibited in Paris were in blocks, polished on one side^ and as was observed in the note accompanying them, presented a curious resemblance to certain varieties of marble. It is worthy of remark that Emmons, in his report on the Geology of the Northern District of New York, "* See, farther, Zirkel, Petrographie III., 131. 1870.] HUNT — ON NORITE OR LABRADORITE ROCK. 37 suggested tlie application of the labradorite rOcks of Essex County as a substitute for marble (pages 29, 418). An ornamental vase of the same rock, turned in a lathe with the aid of a black diamond, has been in the Museum of the Geological Survey of Canada since 1856. Of the collection of norites from Norway the specimens from Sogudal and Egersund presented fine varieties of grayish or browuish violet tints, while a dark violet norite came from Kra- geroe, and also from the islands of Langoe and Gomoe, and a white granular variety from the gulf of Laerdal in the diocese of Bergen. It is only in rare cases that the cleavable feldspar of these norites exhibits the peculiar opalescence which distinguishes the finer labradorite found in some parts of the coast of Labrador. Opalescent varieties of this feldspar are, however, occasionally met with in the area near to Montreal and in northern New York. In the Paris Exhibition of 1867 there were exhibited from Rus- sia, large polished tables of a beautiful violet colored granitoid norite, portions of which exhibited a fine opalescence. This rock, I was informed, comes from a mountain mass in the Government of Kiew, but of its geognostical relations I am ignorant. These peculiar labradorite rocks, presenting a great similarity in mineralogical and lithological character, have now been observed in Essex County, New York, and through Canada, at intervals, from the shore of Lake Huron to the coast of Labrador. They are again met with in southern New Brunswick, in the Isle of Skye, in Norway, and in south-western Russia, and in nearly all of these localities are known to occur in contact with and apparently reposing, like a newer formation, upon the ancient Lauren tian gneiss. Geikie in his memoir on the geology of a part of Skye,^'^ appears to include the norites or hypersthenites of that island with certain syenites and greenstones, which he describes as not intrusive, though eruptive after the manner of granites (loc. cit. p. 11-14). The hypersthenites are represented in his map as occurring to the west of Loch Slapin. Specimens in my possession from Loch Scavig, a little further west, and others in MacCul- loch's collection from that vicinity, are, however, identical with the North American norites, whose stratified character is undoubt- ed. I called attention to these resemblances in the Dublin Quar. Jour. Geol. Soc , xiv., p. 1. 38 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Quarterly Journal for July, 1863,^ and Haughton, who in 1864 visited Loch Scavig, has since described and analysed the rock bf that locality, which consists of labradorite, often coarse grained, with pyroxene and menaccanite, and is evidently, according to him, a bedded metamorphic rock (Dublin Quar. Jour., 1865, p. 94). He, it may be remarked, designates it as a syenite, a term which most lithologists apply to rocks whose feldspar is ortho- clase. I desire to call the attention of both American and European lithologists to this remarkable class of rocks, of which the norites may be regarded as the normal and typical form, in the hope that they may be induced to examine still farther into the question of the age and geognostical relations of these rocks in various regions, and to determine whether the mineralogical and lithological cha- racters which I have pointed out are geological constants. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. By Henry Reeks, F.L.S., &c. The foUowiuc^ article, on the Zoology of a part of British America as yet but little explored, is taken from the "Zoologisf^ (London, England,) for 1869. The close similarity between the birds of Newfoundland and those of the Province of Quebec, will be very apparent to Canadian ornithologists. — Ed. Before commencing a systematic list of the avi-fauna of New- foundland, it will perhaps be necessary to say a few words on the island itself. Newfoundland, as my readers are probably * I, at the same time, called attention to the Lameutian aspect of the crystalline limestones of Zona, which I found in MacCulloch's collection. Limestones not unlike these occur in Skye, intermixed with serpentine, and are, according to Mr. Geikie, associated with the protruded syenites of that region. With all deference to the authority of that eminent geologist, I cannot help suggesting that a re-examination of the district would show that the highly -inclined metamorphic crystalline limestones, holding sei-pentine, and associated with syenitic rocks, belong to an older system (probably Laurentiau), and are thus distinct fi-om the nearly horizontal fossiliferous liassic limestones nearby, which are only locally altered by intrusive rocks. American geologists will at once recall the misconception which led most of our best observers during many years to look upon the old Laurentiau limestones of j^ew York and New Jer- sey as altered portions of the overlying paleozoic strata. •REEKS — NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 39 aware, forms one of the valuable British colonial possessions on the coast of North America. Its geographical position lies between lat. 46° 37' and 51° 40' north, and long. 52^ 41' and 59*^ 31' west : it is bounded on the north by the -Straits of Labrador, on the west by the Gulf of St, Lawrence, and on the south and east by the Atlantic Ocean, and has a seaboard of nearly two thousand miles. There is a chain of mountains, or rather in many places high table-land, running almost throughout the island in a N.E. and S.W. direction. The low land is made up of vast savannas, intersected by extensive woods, lakes and rivers — one inland lake alone being sixty-five miles long, and containing an island as large as the Isle of Wight, and which seems to have been the last stronghold of the Red Indians. Since the extermination of this persecuted race (which probably took place not more than thirty years ago) the whole of the interior of the country has been uninhabited. Several " histories" of Newfoundland have appeared from time to time, and amono; the best of these I may mention one by Chief Justice Reeves, published in 1793, another by Anspach in 1820, and the last by the Rev. C. Pedley in 1863 ; but, strange as it may appear, none of these authors give any reliable information on the natural history of this extensive island : which, besides being rich in its fauna and flora, will, I have no doubt, prove equally so in minerals. In some places I have also seen as good a surface-show of petroleum oil as in the well-known oil-regions of Pennsylvania. A two years' residence, under the most favourable circumstances, in a country nearly as large as England, and where the forests are still primitive and in many places almost interminable, is scarcely sufficient time to warrant anything like a correct list of the animals or plants; but when impeded by such a severe accident as I sustained from frost, which kept me a prisoner to the house for several months, no other apology is necessary for the incompleteness of these " Notes," which none can possibly regret more than the writer. There are few inhabited countries, perhaps, on the face of the globe, where the naturaHst gets less assistance in the oological department than in Newfoundland. The whole and sole occupation of the settlers on the north-west coast is fishing and furring, — the former in summer and the latter in winter, — and upon their success entirely depend the stock of provisions they will be enabled to obtain, by barter with the traders, for the long period of nine months, when no vessels visit the unsafe 40 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March hai'bour of Cow Head. Of course the postal arrangements there are not exactly A 1 — never exceeding one delivery a day, and this at intervals of from one month to six weeks in June, July, and August, and usually not at all between the first of September and 1st of the following June. During the nesting season the assistance of a man worth anything could scarcely be obtained under a sovereign a day, and then, for want of knowledge of those birds not used as food, he may bring you a lot of eggs unknown and unidentified, and consequently worthless. My plan was probably better : I offered a fair reward for all eggs with which I was tolerably familiar ; and although I got but few, I ran a far less risk of paying for worthless articles. Although I am answerable for all statements in these " Notes," except when otherwise expressly stated, my friend, Prof. Newton — than whom no one is more competent — has kindly undertaken to look through the list previously to publication, for the purpose of calling my attention to any passages which may require further verification or particularizing, and thereby enhance their value. I have much pleasure in addressing these ''Notes" to Mr. Spencer F. Baird, of the Smithsonian Institution, and Mr. G. N. Lawrence, of New York, in remembrance of their kindness to me during my stay in the United States. The classification and nomenclature of the authors of " Birds of North America" has been adopted in the following list. Falconid^. Pigeon Haioh (Falco columbarius, Linn.) — This beau tifullittle hawk, so closely resembling the merlin (i^. jEsalon), is a summer migrant to Newfoundland, and is tolerably common : its food consists chiefly of small birds, especially some of the smaller species of Tringge, which abound on the coast in the fall of the year. Since my return I have compared specimens of this species with others of F. ^salon, and, although I cannot find any material or reliable difference in size, the species are easily separated by examining the tails. Both sexes in F. columbarius have/owr distinct black bars — three exposed, and one concealed by the upper tail-coverts. In F. ^salon the female onli/ has the tail- bars distinct, and they are six in number — five exposed and one concealed. The bars on the tail of the adult male F. ^salon, although six in number, are only partially defined, and conse- quently very indistinct. The bill of F. ^salon is slightly more 1870.] REEKS — ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 41 compressed laterally, but not so much so horizontally as that of F. columbarius. The tibiae in my adult male specimens of the American bird (F. columbarius) are darker ferruginous, with narrower longitudinal lines, than in my English specimens of F. ^salon ; but this distinction may not be constant. I had almost forgotten to state that the inner webs of the tail-feathers of F. columbarius are white, except where crossed by the black bars — in this respect differing from F. ^salon, which has scarcely any variation in either web, both being bluish ash. Greenland Falcon (F. candicans, Gmeliii). — This is the *' white hawk,'' of the Newfoundland settlers. It is pretty regular in its periodical migrations, especially in the fall of the year. I was not successful in obtaining specimens ; I do not think it breeds in any part of Newfoundland. American Sparrov) Hawh (F. sparverius, Linn.^ — A summer migrant to Newfoundland, but not so common as F. columbarius. The following species of Falco may reasonably be expected to occur (and probably do so) in Newfoundland occasionally : — The duck hawk (F. Anaturti) and the Iceland falcon {F. islandicus). American Goshawk (Astur atricapillus, Wilson). — 1 have only the authority of the settlers foi* including the "goshawk'' in my list of Newfoundland birds. I have no reason to doubt their accuracy, as the more enlightened on Ornithology recognised the plate of this species in Faun. Bor. Am., where the scientific name only is given. Cooper's Hawh (Accipiter Cooperi, Bonap.) — A summer migrant; not unjcommon. SharpsMnned HawJc (A. fuscus, Gmelin). — A summer migrant, and about equally common with the preceding. I have not seen the young of this species, but the adult very closely resembles our sparrow hawk (H. Nisus) both in flight and plumage. I have not, however, compared specimens, but hope to do so before the conclusion of these " Notes," and give the result. Redtailed Hawh (Buteo borealis, Gmelin). — A summer migrant, but not so common as on the mainland. I only examined one specimen, shot in Newfoundland. The following species of Buteo probably occur on the island : The redshouldered hawk (2?. Uneatus, Gmel.) and the broadwinged hawk (^B. Pennsijlvanicus, Wilson). I think I have seen the latter on wing, but obtained no specimen. Blach Hawk (Archibuteo Sancti-Johannis, Gmelin') . — Common ; 42 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March more especially in the immature plumage, in which state some specimens so closely resemble A. lagopus that it is hard to distinguish between the species. I had an individual of the former species — A. Sancti-Johannis — which agi-eed so well with descriptions of A. lagopus that I named it as such in my note- book. I kept this specimen aUve for upwards of two months, and fed it almost entirely on trout (Sahno fonfinalis), to which it seemed particularly partial, but invariably refused smelts (Osmerus viridescens), either dead or alive, and fresh from the water. I never tried any other specimens of fish, and cannot account for the bird's dislike to the smelt; it may have been the peculiar cucumber-smell — certainly not the taste — which this delicious little fish possesses. I do not think A. Sancti-Johannis a "fisher" by nature; at least, I never saw it in the act of fishing. Unfortunately I did not preserve the skin of this bird (the feathers got rather shabby during confinement) ; had I done so, I think it would have puzzled more than one good ornitholo- gist to separate it from skins of the European A. lagopus, inas- much as the under surface of the body was no darker than ordinary specimens of A. lagopus, although I never examined any afterwards but what were, as a rule, much darker. My bird was a female and measured twenty- three inches, wing sixteen and three-quarter inches, and, from the appearance of the ovary, would have laid the following year (1867). The black hawk — or, rather it should be buzzard— is a summer migrant to Newfoundland, but, as a rule, remains later in the fall than most of the Falconidae. American Hen Harrier (Circus Hudsonius, Linn.) — Although one of the most abundant hawks in the Atlantic States of America, and said by my old friend Downs to be equally common in Nova Scotia, I did not, strange to say, obtain a single example in Newfoundland, although I found some of the settlers knew the bird by its white rump, and distinguished it by the name of" hen hawk." I am almost certain of having seen it on the wing myself at Cow Head. Without specimens, it is impossible for me to say in what peculiarities of plumage (if ariy), &c., this bird diff"ers from the European C. cyaneus. Bald or Whiteheaded Eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus, Linn.) This handsome bird is called the " grepe" in Newfoundland. It is tolerably common, but as the settlers increase, this noble bird gradually, but surely, decreases. Twenty years ago, or even less, 1870.] REEKS — ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 43 several eyries existed in the immediate neighbourhood of Cow Head, but at present the sites only remain ; it is said to breed on a peculiar island-rock, called " The Prior," in the mouth of the Bay of Islands. I have, on more than one occasion, seen the " grepe" fishing at Cow Head and Bonne Bay, and obtained one eoo- from the latter place. The nest was built in a large pine- tree, and contained two eggs — one addled : the egg is very similar to that of H. albicilla.* The bird is only a summer migrant to Newfoundland. It is not improbable that Aquila canadensis may eventually be found to visit Newfoundland. American Osprey, or Fish Hawk (Pandion carolinensis, Gmel.) — This fine species is common in Newfoundland : it is a summer migrant, coming in May and retiring in the early part of October. Often, on a calm summer's evening, as I lay on the grass smoking my pipe, have I watched two or three pairs of these birds fishing in the harbour. Suddenly the slow circling flight is stopped, — the quick eye discerns its scaly prey, — the body assumes an almost vertical position ; the wings for a moment vibrate rapidly, as if to give their owner impetus, and then with almost unerring aim, like an arrow from a bow, the osprey drops into the water. In a few seconds he reappears, and rising a few feet from the water, the rapid vibration of wings is again observable, but this time only to drive the claws more firmly into the sides of his finny morsel, with which he slowly sails away to some high tree in the woods, where probably is a nest, — " Itself a burden for the tallest tree." This beautiful hawk does not escape the ruthless " gunners" in Newfoundland, although utterly useless after death to the settlers. The osprey builds in trees in the extensive woods, either near the sea-coast or some inland lake. The eggs which I obtained from Bonne Bay cannot be distinguished from European specimens received from the late Mr. Wheelwright. Having no English specimens of the osprey by me, 1 am unable to point out any difl'erences whereby they may be selected from American examples. The authors of ' Birds of North America' give none ; * In the Proc. Zool. Soc. for 1863 (p. 252) Dr. Sclater recorded H. albiciUa as a ISTewfoundland bird, an error which he corrected in the ' Proceedings' of the same Sjciety for 1865 (p. 701). 44 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March both Wilson and Audubon considered the European and American osprey of the same species. Strigid^. American Barn Owl (Strix Pratincola, Bonap,') — Apparently rare in Newfoundland : I only examined one specimen during my residence there, which, having only the first joint of the wing broken, was kept alive several days by the children of the man who shot it : this occurred in August, 1866. It is probably a summer migrant. Great Horned Owl, (Bubo Virginianus, Gmel^ — Visits New- foundland for the purpose of nidification, and is not very uncommon during that season, and more especially later in the summer when the young leave the nests. It is called the " cat owl" by the settlers. The only nest which came under my observation was built on the ground, on a tussock of grass in the centre of a pond. The same nest had been previously occupied for several years by a pair of geese (Bernicla canadensis). I think it the more important to note this observation (which, however, may not be constant even in Newfoundland, as birds of prey are very varying in this respect) as Mr. E. A. Samuels, in the ' Birds of Massachusetts,' says it " nests in hollows of trees, and in high forks of pines." Mottled Owl, or American Screech Owl, (Scops Asio Linn.) — A summer migrant to Newfoundland, and tolerably common. As this is one of the commonest owls in North America, it seems strange that Mr. Downs should not meet with it in Nova Scotia, especially as it frequents the States bordering on the Atlantic more than those inland. American Long-eared Owl, (Otus Wilsonianus, Lesson.) — Not common : I only examined one specimen, which was killed near Cow Head. It appears to be a summer migrant. American Short-eared Owl, (Brachyotus Cassini, Brewer.) — Not common, but I think rather more so than Otus Wilsonianus. It is a summer migrant. Barred Owl, (Syrnium nebulosum Forster). Apparently a summer migrant, but not common ; at least I only obtained one specimen, shot at Cow Head in September, 1866. Saw-whet Owl, (Nyctale acadia Gmelin). — Not uncommon, and well known to the settlers as the "saw- whet." I only 1870.] REEKS — ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 45 obtained one specimen, which was picked up dead at Cow Head, and appeared to be uninjured. It is a summer migrant. Spcnrow Oiol, (Nyctale Richardsoni, Bonap.) — I include this species on the authority of Mr. Downs, who states, in his "Notes on the Laud Birds of Nova Scotia," that it is " abundant in New- foundhmd;" but, strange to say, I never met with a single speci- men, neither were the settlers acquainted with the species : I have very little doubt, however, that it occurs on the island. It is this species which closely resembles the European Nyctea Teng- malmi, but not having specimens I am unable to point out the distinctive characters. Snowy Owl, (Nyctea nivea Dmtdui). — Tolerably common, and probably remains in Newfoundland throughout the year, although very rarely seen during the summer months, but this may be owing to its following in the wake of its chief prey, the polar hare {Lcpus glaciaHs)^ and ptarmigan {Lagopus rupestris), which retire to the high land as soon as the snow partially disappears. The " white owl," as the settlers term this species, is a bold, rapacious bird, and not easily driven from its slaughtered prey. One of the specimens, which I obtained at Cow Head, was feeding on an eider duck — probably a wounded bird which it had killed — and was twice knocked over with stones, the last time apparently killed, before it would relinquish the duck : it had, however, sufficient life and strength to force its claws into the arm of the man who picked it up, although protected with all the clothes he usually wore. A large Newfoundland dog, used for retrieving seals, &c., refused to go near this bird after it was knocked down with stones : the men who were present assured me that the bird kept making a "hissing" noise, apparently at the sight of the dog. During my residence in Newfoundland I heard several amusing anecdotes of the snow owl, but, although I can vouch for the truth of them, it is scarcely necessary to reproduce them all in the pages of the " Zoologist :" I will, however, relate one or two which I do not think have before appeared in print. William Youngs of Codroy (Newfoundland), having continually had the bait stolen from one of his fox traps, determined to watch the trap and shoot the robber : for this purpose he selected a fine moonlight night, with snow on the ground, and, with his gun in his hand, a white swan-skin frock on, and a white handkerchief tied round his cap, he secreted himself in a small bush about 46 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll twenty yards from his trap, fully determined to shoot the first comer ; but his determination proved fruitless, for a large white owl — probably the thief — seeing something white sticking up through the centre of the bush, and evidently mistaking it for a fine plump willow grouse, instantly made a '•' stoop," and, at the same time, sending its claws almost to the man's brains, suddenly disappeared with the cap and white handkerchief : the man was so startled for the moment that he was unable to shoot at the bird. The snowy owl is a frequent attendant — although generally unnoticed — of the sportsman, and often succeeds in carrying off a grouse or duck before the retriever gets to it. On one occasion sonie men were waiting in ice " gazes" for the purpose of shooting wild geese {Bernicla canadensis and B. hrenta), when one of them, named James Carter, left his "gaze" to go and have a chat with his neighbour, incautiously leaving his new white swan-skin cuffs and gun behind him. He had scarcely left his " gaze" when an unseen enemy, in the shape of a fine snowy owl, pounced in and succeeded in getting clear off again with both of the white cuffs. A fine adult bird of this species entered my host's house, via the chimney, and fought so valiantly for its life that the man had to kill it with a " pew" — a piece of pointed iron fastened to a wooden handle about four feet long, and used for throwing codfish from the boats. A good many snowy owls are annually caught in the fox-traps of the settlers ; and when very fat, which they frequently are, are considered good eating by many, and I see no reason why they should not be so, but I could never sufficiently overcome my repugnance to birds of prey as food to taste one. None of the settlers appeared to know anything of the breeding of this bird, although Mr. Downs states that it " breeds in Newfoundland." Mr. Cordeaux has kindly examined parasites of Nyctea nivea from Newfoundland, and informs me that they are identical with others from European specimens. Hawk Oivl, (Surnia ulula Linn.) — Perhaps the commonest owl in Newfoundland, or, from being a day-flying species, is more frequently seen than any other. It is a bold, familiar bird, generally found in the neighbourhood of houses, preying on chicken, tame pigeons, &c., — remaining throughout the year, but not so abundant in the denth of winter as at other seasons. In the fall ot the year, and probably at other times, the hawk owl has a habit of perching on the bare and dead top of high fir trees, 1870.] MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 47 from which it commands a good view of the immediate neigh- bourhood, and suddenly drops upon any unfortunate object in the shape of food that may happen to pass within a convenient distance. (To he continued.^ ON THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORIGINAL OR CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. By Thomas Macfarlane. I . — I NTRODUCTION. "All attempts to separate sharply from each other the various " rocks or mineral aggregates of which the earth's crust is com- " posed, and to arrange them systematically, have failed." "We "' cannot consider the rocks as species, nor arrange them in a " system corresponding to their nature, nor even, in describing " them, treat them all in the same manner." * So wrote Bernhard Von Cotta in 1862. On reading such sentences we are tempted to ask : Are species always sharply defined in other sciences ? Are all systems perfect or natural ? Why should lithology be an exception to other sciences, and its students be deprived of the advantages of a systematic arrange- ment of the objects to be studied ? A "natural" system is not demanded, even were such a thing possible, in this or any other science. The more rigid any method of classification, and the more marked and unbeading its divisional lines are made, the more unnatural it becomes. It is exceedingly gratifying to find that, undeterred by the difiiculties of rock classification, such lithologists as Von Hoch- stetter, Kjerulf and Zirkel, have been found willing to attempt it. Their labours, and those of other workers in the same field, have shed a flood of light upon a previously obscure and uninteresting subject. Although a perfect system will, perhaps, never be attained, still each attempt at properly arranging our knowledge of the subject has its value. Chemical analysis and microscopical * Cotta; Die Geisteiuslehre, pp. 1, 4. 48 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March examination of rocks have very much contributed towards render- ing such attempts successful. In the present paper it is proposed to give a systematic view of the various classes and species of crystalline rocks, in arranging which it is intended that their chemical composition shall have greater prominence and weight than has been usual heretofore. However much it may seem desirable in this department of science, where all the systems of classification have been con- fessedly imperfect, to invent a system independent altogether of the ideas, more or less well founded, which prevail as to their origin and age, and in which their physical and chemical charac. ters should only have consideration, it must not, on the other hand, be forgotten that what is still more desirable in such a system is that it should re-arrange our knowledge of the subject in a clearer form, render it more easy of comprehension to the student, and be so dovetailed into the past of the science as to be useful for its advancement in the future. On this account it becomes impossible to neglect even the theoretical views of our forerunners in this science of petrology, far less their arduous and often underrated geognostic labours. It also becomes re- quisite to give a proper value to all the considerations which may have influenced their views, and to build upon the foundation which they have left us, the results of the observations and research of the investigators of our own day. Considerations as to the manner of formation, texture, chemical and mineralogical composition, age and localities of rocks, have all, more or less, influenced geologists in naming and classifying them. The well-known distinction between eruptive and sedi- mentary rocks will occur to every reader as an instance of classi- fication according to origin. Hunt's division of crystalline rocks into indigenous and exotic, and Scheerer's distinction of plutonites and vulcanites are both founded upon their real or supposed manner of formation. Lava and Rhyolite are examples of special rocks similarly named. Then, with regard to texture, probably no other character possessed by rocks has given rise to a greater number of generic terms. Schist, slate, porphyry, trachyte, amygdaloid, conglomerate, and breccia, are examples of this, but of special names founded on texture only a few can be instanced, such as granite and aphanite. The influence of chemical compo- sition on lithological nomenclature is not, as yet, very marked, for it is only recently that the analysis of rocks has had much 1870.] MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 49 attention. Quite lately, however, Cotta has proposed to dis- tinguish as basites those eruptive rocks containing less, and as acidites those containing more than nxtj per cent, of silica ; and Scheerer, Kjerulf and Roth have each indicated methods of classification founded, to a very considerable extent, on general chemical composition. By far the greater number of special names in lithology are based upon mineralogical characters. This is the case with pyroxenite, hornblende schist, quartzite, and many simple rocks, while among those of a compound nature, where it was impossible to indicate their mineralogical com- position in one word, recourse was had to special names, with definite ideas attached to them as to mineralogical constitution. Thus, diorite came to denote a rock composed of triclinic felspar and hornblende ; granulite, a schistose compound of quartz, orthoclase and garnet ; dolerite, a mixture of labradorite, augite and magnetite. As regards classification, the mineralogical nature of .rocks has always been abundantly considered. In this way we have Hunt's orthosites and anorthosites ; Senft's labra- dorites and alabradorites, while Zirkel has made the nature of the difi'erent felspar species the corner-stone of his system of classification, — crystalline or original rocks being divided into orthoclase rocks, oligoclase rocks, labradorite rocks, aoorthite rocks, and rocks void of felspar. The manner in which con- siderations as to geological age influence the names of rocks may be illustrated by the following examples. Sometimes certain porphyries and trachytes are, in hand specimens, scarcely dis- tinguishable from each other. When, however, such rocks occur among carboniferous or peruiian strata, geologists have been inclined to term them porphyries; and, on the other hand, when they are of tertiary or recent age, the name trachyte is generally given them. Exactly the same mode of determination, if such it can be called, has been adopted in the case of greenstone and basalt, or rocks of such indistinct mineralogical composition as trap and aphanite. With reference to locality it has principally occasioned special names, such as syenite, dunite and andesite, or caused varieties of certain other species to be indicated by such terms as banatite, sievite, cherzolite, &c. From these considera- tions it would appear that, generally speaking, origin has been allowed to determine the various divisions and subdivisions among rocks ; that the majority of the generic names have reference to texture, while mineralogical composition and locality YoL. y. D :N'o. 1. 50 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March have had the greatest share in originating the special names of rocks. In striving to attend to what has been indicated as desirable and necessary in any attempt at classifying rocks, it has appeared to us most judicious to attach greatest weight to their various characters in the following order : 1, origin ; 2, texture ; 3, chemical composition ; 4, mineralogical composition ; and 5, locality. If a system be required at all resembling those of other branches of science, these characters might be allowed respectively to determine the classes, orders, families, species, and varieties of rocks. II. — CLASSES OP ROCKS. If we, at the present day, look around us, and ascertain, from actual experience, what the methods are which nature employs in producing rocks, we find that they result from the operation of two very distinct agencies. On the one hand we may see in difi'erent countries, widely separated from each other, streams of melted matter issuing from volcanoes and solidifying to rocks on their sides or at their feet, while on the other hand we may observe, on every sea beach or river delta, sand and clay, the debris of pre-existing crystalline masses or fragmentary strata being gradually consolidated to new rocks. Exactly parallel to these operations of nature are certain artificial processes at work around us, the products of which are entirely analogous to the two classes of rocks just indicated. We may stand before an iron furnace and watch the steady stream of slag flowing from the hearth into a large iron wagon, and there solidifying to a mass of solid, sometimes crystalline rock; and we may also visit a stamp mill where valuable metalhc particles are being extracted from poor vein-stones, and find, in the slime-pits of the establishment, banded layers of half solidified strata, requiring but a little time to eflfect their perfect consolidation. These two means employed by nature in producing rocks have been steadily recognized by the majority of geologists, and the two classes which result have been indicated by a superabundance of names. Unstratified and stratified ; igneous and aqueous ; eruptive and sedimentary; exotic and indigenous; primary and secondary; (protogene and deuterogene;) crystalline and elastic; massive and fragmentary; original and derivate, are all terms which have been used for distinguishing these two great classes, 1870.] MACPARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 51 and the least objectionable among them would appear to be the two last mentioned. The first of these, original (Urspriingliche,) was first adopted by Zirkel* for denoting igneous or eruptive rocks, while the term derivate was first suggested by David Forbesj" as equivalent to secondary or sedimentary rocks. The latter term we have ventured to modify, and in the following pages we shall use the names original and derived for indicating the two great classes. These names would seem to deserve the preference, for the following reasons. It is admitted by geolo- gists, on all hands, that the material which constitutes the various sedimentary formations, consisting of limestone, hardened clay, or consolidated sand, although it may have been immediately derived from pre-existing rocks of a detrital nature, originally came from the decomposition and disintegration of crystalline rocks, of such as are known to constitute the oldest formations of the earth's crust, or to have broken through and deposited themselves on the outside of it. It is further an accepted theorem, universally acknowledged by scientific men, that our globe was originally in a state of igneous fusion, and that all the material which consti- tutes the rocks of our day existed in the form of a melted zone encircling the central part of the globe. It is evident that, before the conditions for the formation of sedimentary rocks could exist, the liquid globe must have become, to some extent, solid ; a crust, at least, must have been formed upon it, from the disintegration of which the material of such sedimentary rocks could have been derived, and upon which that material could have been deposited. This crust, and the rocks which from time to time after its solidification penetrated or were erupted through it, must, conse- quently, have been the first rocks, and they must have yielded the material for all those subsequently formed by aqueous agencies. It would, therefore, appear legitimate to name the former class original, and the latter, derived rocks. Where, as in the case of the volcanic and sedimentary rocks which are being formed at the present day, we can observe the process of their formation, no doubt can arise as to their origin. These rocks, however, form but a very minute fraction of those which build up the earth's crust, and it becomes necessary, in order properly to discriminate among the latter, to point out the * Petrographie I., p. 173. t The Microscope in Geology, p. 6. 52 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST.;;^ [Marcid distinguisting characters of original and derived rocks. The further we go back in geological time, and the older the rocks are which we are called on to classify, the greater is the difficulty of doino' so, and the more divergent the opinions of geologists become as to their origin. The stratigraphical relations of rocks are most effective in determining this, but it will be necessary at present to confine ourselves to considerations of a more purely petrological nature. This is the more easily done, since the lithological characters afford abundant means of recognizing original and derived rocks, and distinguishing them from each other. Original rocks are made up of crystalline particles of one or more minerals, principally silicates. These are seldom perfect in crystalline form, are frequently more or less irregular or distorted, and are intimately bound together to a compact whole, without the intervention of any foreign substance as a cementing material. They are thus mutually interlocked to a crystalline mass, which, however, possesses at the same time an average mineralogical and chemical composition. This would seem to indicate that the mass must have been originally liquid, and, to some extent, in the same condition during crystallization, otherwise it would have been impossible for the various chemical constituents to move toward the points where the minerals were being formed into whose composition they enter. On the other hand, this liquidity must have been somewhat limited in degree, for the minerals seem to have pressed against each other, so as to have mutually interfered with their crystalline development, and so as also to have fitted perfectly into each other on complete solidification. The size of the crystalline particles varies from a foot or more in diameter down to that of microscopical minuteness. It is even the case that they become so minute as to occasion a perfectly vitreous structure which even the microscope is incapable of resolving into distinct minerals. In all such cases, although the rock can scarcely be termed crystalline, it remains, what its mode of occurrence plainly shows, an original rock. Derived rocks are made up of the disintegrated fragments or particles, and the chemical constituents of previously existing rocks, abraded or dissolved away by water or other agents. These fragments or particles are sometimes angular, sometimes rounded off, and always bound together by means of an interven- ing cememt, which is independent of, and may be altogether diffe- rent in nature from, the enclosed fragments. They vary in their 1S70.] MACPARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 53 •dimensions even more widely than the constituents of original rocks. There are sometimes found in them blocks of several cubic feet contents ; and, on the other hand, they are frequently composed of the finest particles of dust. The cement which unites these particles is subject to great differences, both as re- gards its quantity and its nature. Sometimes it consists of the material of a newly erupted original rock which has happened to -envelope and bind together fragments of a pre-existing crystalline or sedimentary rock. Sometimes it consists of the finely divided detritus of the rock of which the larger fragments are composed. Sometimes the finely comminuted cement is from a different rock than the fragments. Sometimes it is of an infiltrated crystalline nature. In some cases the fragments, and in others the cement predominates. Apart from the finely divided sandstone or clay which sometimes fills the interstices between the fragments, carbonate of lime, silica and iron oxide are the substances which, more frequently than any others, form the cementing material in these fragmentary rocks. Recent investigations regarding the chemical composition of rocks have rendered the distinction between the original and derived classes still more marked, and made it possible to point out another essential point of difference between them. Original rocks possess a chemical composition in which a definite relation exists between the quantity of silica and that of the various bases which they contain. In derived rocks this definite relation is not to be observed. This peculiarity of chemical composition possess- ed by original rocks was first pointed out by Bunsen, and has been •quite recently insisted upon as a feature distinguishing them from derived rocks by Von Richthofen in his " Communications from the West Coast of North America."^ These two great divisions do not, however, exhaust all the classes into which rocks have been divided. It has Ions: been supposed, and more recently the belief has gained ground, that many of the rocks belonging to the divisions above indicated have experienced, sinre their solidification or deposition, certain changes in their chemical and mineralogical composition, and in their physical characters, whereby they have been rendered quite unlike their originals, and this without their having been disin- tegi'ated or displaced. The influences to which these changes * Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, vols, xix and xx. 54 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March have been ascribed are various. Heat, water holding different substances in solution, gases, atmospheric agencies acting sepa- rately or combined, have all played an important part in effecting these changes. The rocks thus modified have been called meta- morphic, altered or hypogenous rocks, without very marked refe- rence to the classes from which thev have resulted. In the following pages the name altered will be applied only to those original rocks, and the term metamorphic only to those derived rocks which have experienced, in situ, such changes as those here indicated. It is not, however, proposed in the present paper to discuss the relations of derived and metamorphic rocks, but, in endeavouring to classify those of the original class, the altered rocks sometimes resulting from them will be noticed. (To be Continued.) THE PLANTS OF THE WEST COAST OF NEW- FOUNDLAND. By John Bell, M.A., M.D. The account of the plants of the west coast of Newfoundland, in a recent number of this journal, ended with my visit to St. George's Bay. As we sailed south, from that locality to the harbour behind Cod Roy Island, I observed that the forests had in some places been burned by the devastating fires, which are so often carelessly originated in these parts, and that grass had sprung up in the areas thus cleared, on which large herds of cattle were pasturing. These cattle belong to the people of the island-harbour village, which is composed of about thirty or forty families, whose school- master visited us on our arrival. Large patches of snow still lay glistening in the sun on the tops of this somewhat elevated range of hills. On the following morning, July 6th, we started on an expedi- tion up the Great Cod Roy River, which, like many of the smaller rivers entering the Gulf of St. Lawrence, has its stream level for a few miles inland, until it reaches the mountain region, when it becomes more rapid and less navigable. It resembles them, too, in the manner of its debouche. On nearing the place where the river seemed to empty, we could at first see 1870.] BELL — PLANTS OP NEWFOUNDLAND. 55 no entrance, but upon coming closer to the shore we found a deep narrow channel at the end of a long tongue of sand and gravel enclosing a lake or broad expanse of river, which at the time of our arrival was literally covered with gulls. Near this lake was a swamp overgrown with hoary alders, in and around which I found the Marsh Marigold (^Caltlia pahistris), Spotted Touch- me-not (^Impatiens fulva). Great Water and Curled Docks (^Riimex hydrolapathum et crispiis), Hemp-Nettle (^Galeopsis tetrahit), Chickweed (^SteUaria media), two Plantains (^Plantago major et Virginlca), Thyme-leaved Speedwell (^Veronica serpyUi- folia), with some Clovers and Bedstraws. After ascending the river for a short distance, we stopped on the north shore, at the house of a settler named James Ryan, in whose garden I was surprised to find a great variety of cultivated vegetables and flowers. At this place I found vegetation to be about a fortnight in advance of what it was in St. George's Bay, doubtless the result of its more sheltered position and southern exposure. With his great variety of flowers and vegetables Kyan had also imported a great variety of European weeds, for at no place on the coast did I observe so many vegetable pests as at this settlement. Some of his cultivated and pasture fields presented as many imported weeds as those of some of the older farms of Canada. The Yellow-Rattle (^Rliinanthus crista-galli), that pest of the maritime provinces, grew everywhere, and Ryan complained that it killed out all kinds of grass. It was accom- panied by the Heal-all (Bninella vulgaris), the common Dande- lion (^Taraxacum dens-leonis) , and Canada Thistle (^Cirsium arvense), which did not confine itself to places under culti- vation. Along a boggy rill were growing, in flower, the American Brook- lime ( Veronica Americana), the bristly and creeping Crowfoots (^Ranunculus Pennsylvanicus et repens), Canadian Burnet (Sangui- sorba Canadensis), Bound-leaved Dogwood (^Cornus circinata), with other herbs and bushes already mentioned in my former paper. The view from this place was magnificent. The river, like a long narrow lake, lay below the house and stretched away inland, here and there dotted with boats and salmon nets, or in- tersected by points on which were settlers' houses and out-build- ings, whose sides and shingled roofs seemed like marble in the glistening rays of the sun, while separated .from the river by a strip of low wooded laud, towered up the high, deep-gullied 56 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March mountains, with patches of snow near their bare heathy summits. As we paddled upwards above this place the scenery was very beautiful, — each bend in the winding river presented some new and enchanting combination of water, meadow, wood, and moun- tain, in varying shades and colours. Along the river bank, which was bordered with green and hoary alders, beaked hazel, red dogwood {Cormis stolon if era), and other species of Comus, I picked up the Water Horehound (^Lycopus Europceus), Mouse- ear Chick weed (^Cerastium vulgatum), and Small-flowered Crow- foot (^Ranunculus ahordvus'). About twelve miles from the month of the river the Balm-of- Gilead Poplar (Populus halsami/era), gi*ew in clumps along the stream and in their shade the Cow parsnip attained an immense size. On the alluvial flats bordering the river the magnificent Ostrich and Cinnamon Ferns (^Strutliiopteris Germariica et Os- munda cinnamomea) , spread out their luxuriant fronds in the form of great green vases among the high cranberry bushes (Viburnun opalus), and the water and straight yellow-leaved avens shot up their wiry stems amongst the grass and sedges. Quantities of several species of Pondweeds formed tangled masses in the quiet pools, on whose surface floated the round shining leaves and yellow flowers of the Spotted Dock. In some places along the river the ground in the wood was covered with a thick soft carpet of various mosses, {Hijpnum Boscii, crista-castrensis, splendens et delicatulum), and the trunks of the trees were matted with tufts of Nechera pennata. In these rich damp woods the sweet, little one-flowered Pyrolas (J\'Ioneses uni/iora), hid their single white blossoms in the mossy carpet, and the False Beech-drops (Monotropa hypopiti/s) pushed up their wax-like stems. Here, too, the smaller Lady's Slipper (Ct/pripedium parviflorimi) nodded its mocassin-like flowers to its plainer cousins, the Dwarf and Northern green Orchids (^Flatanthera ohtusata et dilatatd), and the many flowered Coral-root {CoraUorrhiza nmltiflora). Among the many ferns observed were the Lady Fern (Asplenium filix-foemina) and the New York Shield-Fern (Aspidmm Novce- horacense), with numerous bushes of the swamp Gooseberry (^Rihes lacustre), wild Red Currant (^Eibes ruhrum), Few-flowered Arrow wood (Vihurnum paucijiorum) , the Swamp Fly-honey- suckle [^Lonkera ohlongifolmm), Low and Alpine Birch {Betula pumila et nana), while the tall wild nettle gave a sharp reminder of its presence with its pungent hairs. 1870.] BELL — PLANTS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 57 At about fourteen miles from the mouth of the Great Cod Roy River some of the party went four or five miles south to the summit of the mountain range running east and west. At first our course lay through a hardwood bush and over several little streams, whose banks showed that they had been raging torrents earlier in the spring. In this bush I got the Spring Beauty (^Chytonia Cciroliniana), and a Galium with four broad leaves and little white flowers. As we ascended the damp, chilly mountain side, the trees became smaller, and the white birch and fir trees more numerous, until near the top nothing remained but stunted spruces, with trunks not thicker than a man's arm, but as hard as horn and probably as old as their taller brothers below. In some places these dwarfs were growing so closely together, and their tops had become so flattened and matted with the weight of snow in winter, that I actually walked for a considerable distance upon them like on an elevated pavement. The very top of the mountain presented a bare, desolate appearance. Large patches of snow twenty or thirty feet deep remained in the shaded depressions, while others were filled with boggy lakes, on the little islands in which the sea gulls seemed to have their nests, from the wild manner in which these birds screamed and flew around as we approached the ponds. In some places the gneiss rocks were broken and bare, in others covered with lichens, mosses and heaths. Among these I found the Bearberry Willow {Salix uva-2(,rsi), the Alpine Bearberry {Arctostaphylos alpina), with the Phyllodoce (P. taxifolia), and other heaths already mentioned. On returning to the schooner, a botanical survey of the little island of Cod Roy was rewarded by the discovery that the Cornus Suecica grew everywhere in profusion with its Canadian sister. This Cornus I afterwards found to be quite as common as the Canadian bunchberry all along the western Newfoundland coast, and on the north shore nearly as far west as Pointe des Monts. The other plants worthy of note on the island were the Fall Dandelion (^Leonfodon antumnalc), the common Am.;rican Cranberry {Vaccinium macrocarpon) , the Wood- Rush (Luzula campestris) , the Cloudberry {Rubus chamcemonis), the Mountain Cinquefoil, and a variety of the beach pea, so downy with short soft hairs as to look almosi glaucous. During the 11th and 12th July we ran up to Long Point, north of Cape St. George. In a boggy meadow near the end of 58 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Mai'ch the point I found the Alpine Bistort in flower (^Polygonum vivi- paru7n), the Arrowgrass {Triglochin maritimum), and Mountain Fly-honeysuckle (^Lonicera cceruled). At West Bay, a little farther down the east side of this long point, the shallows are studded with the Fall Bulrush (^Scirpus lacustris), and near the shore the common Soft Bush (Juncus effusiis) grew in clumps in the mud. On the banks the Hedge Bindweed {Calystegia sepium) drew its trailing stems over the hushes, and from the rocks the common Bladder. Fern (^Cystopteris fi'agilis) spread its fragile and varying fronds. We next sailed north to the Bay of Islands, which is a long narrow inlet divided into two arms, a short distance from the sea, and, as its name indicates, it contains a number of small rocky islands. At its mouth is a round granite island, whose steep sides dip perpendicularly into the deep channel on either side, through which the tide rushes with considerable rapidity as it rises and falls. On the south side of the entrance are several very high mountains, whose sides are nearly perpendicular, and form a bare wall, against which the waves perpetually lash, and against which we were almost wrecked on entering the bay, owing to the rapid flow of the tide and the strong shifting gusts of wind which blew around the crags, and to which I have no doubt these peaks owe the not very euphonious but expressive name of the Blow-me-down Mountains. As the early French navigators sailed along these newly discovered shores, they generally called the various points of interest after the name of the saint on whose day they arrived at the place, while the English names have too often been repetitions of those of some European place, or have been suggested by some passing fancy of the sailor. A few miles up the Bay of Islands I found the common bitter Cress (Cardamine hirsuta), and the Marginal fruiting Shield-Fern (Aspidium marginale), growing at the foot of a slaty clifl". The Humber River enters at the head of the south arm of the Bay of Islands. This noble river is the outlet of Grand Pond, and with its tributaries winds through a large portion of New- foundland. It is, or could easily be, made navigable up to the main fork, a distance of about forty miles, for flat-bottomed steam- boats like those used on the Ohio. Along the river flats, in the valleys and on the '^ barren," when these are drained and the country is a little more cleared, there will be room for thousands of farms, and the hills will afford walks for immense flocks of sheep 1870.] BELL — PLANTS OP NEWFOUNDLAND. 59 and pasture for countless herds of cattle, the surplus of all which will find a ready market at the ports and fishing stations, at the lumbering, manufacturing and mining establishments, which ere long will make this old and neglected colony one vast scene of active and profitable industry. The climate of the island is favourable to the developement of its agricultural resources of every kind. Instead of the cold foggy atmosphere, which is generally supposed to hang over this island, quite the reverse is the case — the air is clear and warm, and the temperature during the year remarkably equable, the mercury in winter seldom falling ' below zero of Fahrenheit's scale, or in summer rising above 90°, while the mean temperature of the year is about 44°. I never saw finer weather than during the two months I was on the island. It is only on the S.W. corner that fogs prevail to any extent, from the proximity of that part to the Gulf stream. At half the distance between the sea and the main fork of the Humber, the river spreads out into a broad expanse of about fifteen miles in length, called Deer Lake, from which the moun- tains rise range after range, and stretch away into the dim distance. Along the banks of the river, before reaching Deer Lake, I observed the Black Ash (^Fraxinus sambuci/oUa) to be quite abundant. The Aspen Poplar (^Populus ' tremuloides) was not uncommon^ and the Scarlet-fruited Thorn (^Cratcegus coccined) here and there shewed its spring branches along the rocky banks. . A pretty little white composite f ower grew on the damp rocks with the pinguicula and violets ; but I was unable to get a speci- men of it. In other places the green and hoary alders, red osier dogwood, sweet-gale and dwarf willows bordered the stream to the water's edge. The woods were principally composed of the follow- ing trees : — Black and white Spruce and Balsam-fir (^Abies nigra, alba et balsamea), Mountain Ash (^Pyrus AmericarM^, Black Ash, Choke and wild Red Cherries (Primus Virginiana et Pennsyl- vanica), Cranberry trees and Sweet Viburnum (^Viburnum opulus et lantago). On a little island on the north side of Deer Lake I found the Mountain Painted Cup (^Castilleia septentrionah's) and one of the deciduous Equisetums. In the shallows of the lake the Water Milfoil {My riophyllian spicatum) floated in abundance, with other weeds. On entering the Humber at the upper end of Deer Lake, our progress was often arrested by the oars becoming entanged in masses of Ee]-2;rass and Pond-weeds, which filled the dark-brown waters at the sides of the slowly flowing stream. lu 60 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March the neighbourhood of the fork no plants were observed different from those aheady mentioned; but one expedition to Grand Pond, in the centre of the island, brought back specimens of the Bastard Toad-flax (Comandra livida,) Epllohium latifoUum and avgusti- folium and Viburnum opidus. After spending a few days at the main fork of the Humber, we started down the river, and after a long pull of from ten in the morning till eleven at night, reached the schooner in safety. At the mouth of the river we passed several long salmon nets, some of which . were stretched so far across the stream as to render it almost impossible for any salmon to reach their spawning ground. In buying some salmon from one of the fishermen, it was singular to find how very ignorant he was of the value of the various silver coins in common use, so general is the system of obtaining by barter all goods imported to these stations. For two nights after our arrival we had the rare opportunity of seeing the woods on fire on a magnificent scale, on the north side of the south arm of the bay, This grand conflagration commenced from a "smudge," or smouldering, smoking fire of rotten wood, lighted by some woodmen at the head of the bay to keep away mosquitoes. The weather had been warm and dry for some time previously, and had prepared the firs, birches, fallen wood, and even the vegetable mould for this terrific bon-fire. As the fire spread along the ground, and from tree to tree, it sent immense clouds of smoke and wreaths of flame upwards to the sky, and created a draught for itself, which added yet greater fierceness to the devouring element, and carried up ashes and burning cinders, which again fell to the ground only to be new foci of destruction. The crackle, roar and crash of the burning and falling trees could be heard for miles ; and as the fire, with almost the rapidity and violence of an explosion, ran up the immense fir and birch trees on the tops of the hills, it made a sight which, when once seen, can never be forgotten. As the fire travelled along the hills towards the fishing station, opposite which the schooner was anchored, the ashes and cinders covered the deck, and it required constant watching to prevent the sails from catching fire, while the ship's crew were away helping to tear down fences to prevent the spread of the fire, and to save the houses of the settlers. A fall of rain on the morning of the 22nd of July quenched the ardour of the conflagration, and a smart easterly breeze springing up the same afternoon, gaily 1870.] BELL — PLANTS OB* NEWFOUNDLAND. ()1 carried us homeward-bouud, through the imposiDg portals of the Bay of Islands. WHY ARE INSECTS ATTRACTED BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS? . By A. S. Ritchie. This question has given rise to many speculative answers, — none of which as yet are generally satisfactory. Mr. Guy on writes thus in Science Gossip ^ : — "If a room were thoroughly darkened, with the exception of a small opening, such as a key-hole, through which the outer daylight was allowed to enter, such an aperture would appear from within, by contrast, almost as bright as the flame of a candle, and any winged insects enclosed in such a room would be pretty certain to direct their flight to the opening. Moths in a room are probably under a sense of being lost and confined, and as bees hurry up and down the window, so nocturnal lepidoptera knock against the ceiling, or dash into the candle flame, perhaps equally with the impulse to escape. Insects seem to be under a fixed impression that the direction of the light is the way out." The same author writes : " The idea has often occurred to me — though it may be rather a fanciful one, — that possibly the insects might regard the flame as light shining from an aperture through which they might make their escape, — somewliat as children imagine the stars to be pin- holes in the sky." These remarks, so far as we understand them, do not tell us what brings insects from their various haunts into our rooms. They only prove that these creatures prefer light to darkness, — a very natural conclusion, we think, seeing that nature has supplied them with well-developed eyes. The second answer given to the question runs as follows : — " Most of the night-loving insects are so affected by the sudden appearance of light, that when a candle is introduced, they rush madly into the flame as though they were deliberately inclined to commit suicide." • • • <' The true cause of this proceeding has not yet been satisfactorily explained. It has been suggested * Yol. for 1869, page 57. 6^ She CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March that their eyes do not absorb (as in most insects), but reflect the light — an organization which enables them to distinguish objects in a state of partial darkness, but which leads to their destruction when the light is strong. Blinded, as it were, by excess of radiance they lose all discernment in the blaze, and perish in the flame." Our opinion with regard to the structure and office of the eyes of insects is in accordance with the above remarks ; all that is answered, however, is the cause of their perishing in the flame, which we attribute to paralysis of the optic nerve by the excess of light. The third answer to the question runs thus : — " We know," (' I have often seen it,' says the writer), " that certain flowers emit of an evening a strong phosphorescent light, visible at some some distance. How many do so whose light is only visible to the keen eyes of insects we do not know ; but I think it probable that many more do than we are aware of. Is it too wild a sug- gestion that nature has supplied those storehouses of insect food, — the flowers, — with this phosphoric glow as a beacon light to these hungry night rovers, and responding to the invitatation, they make for our lighted windows as to a banquet hall ? " We venture to make the following remarks on the quotations cited : — If it be true that plants give ofi" a peculiar light, this, to a certain extent, answers the question, and goes far to prove that insects are attracted by the light to feed. Dr. W. B. Carpenter says on this subject : " It has been asserted that many plants, — especially those of an orange colour, such as Tropceolum majus (Nasturtium), 6'a/e?icZM?(i officinalis (Marigold), Helianihus animus (Sunflower), — disengage light in serene and warm evenings, sometimes in the form of sparks, sometimes in a more uniform manner, and many physiologists are disposed to question these assertions, from their not having been themselves able to witness the phenomenon." We have spoken on this subject to several botanists who have never witnessed this light-giving property in plants. We shall now give our opinion on this subject, and will do so as fully and clearly as possible, by answering the following questions : — • pirst. — What species of insects are generally attracted to our open windows by artificial lights, such as lamps, &c. ? Secondly. — What are the habits of those species, and for what purposes are they attracted ? 1870.] EITICHU — INSECTS BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT. 63 Thirdly, and lastly. — Is it on dark or moonlight nights that insects are attracted to artificial lights ? In answering these questions, our opinions are based upon actual observation and experience. To the first question, viz.: What species of insects are gener- ally attracted to our open windows by artificial lights? we suggest the following reply : We have taken representatives of nearly all the orders of insects in our rooms by lamplight during the past ten years, — but mainly Lepidoptera (or moths). The following is a statement taken from notes of captures on an evening in July, 1869. Working with the microscope at an open window, with the lamp burning on the table, the following insects were attracted by the light : — First, a beetle (^Harpcdus Pennsylvanicus), rather a strange fellow to be about at this hour; next visitor, a water beetle (^AcUius frafernns), then followed several moths, principally small species ; the mosquito also made its appearance, and some small Ephemeroe. They flew out and in at the window, and in the reflected light across the street, numbers of moths could be seen as they crossed the rays from the lamp. Compara- tively few rushed into or against the lamp, — evidently finding the light too strong for them, they flew out of the window to join in the dance going on outside, where the greatest number appeared to be. This answers the question in regard to the species gener- ally attracted. We shall now consider the second question, viz. : — What are some of the habits of those species, and for what purposes are they attracted ? Without going into particulars about the habits of the several species, we will confine ourselves to the several orders as regards their being attracted by lights. Nearly all the specimens we have seen are nocturnal, — these feed and seek their mates by night. There are exceptions to this, as to most other rules, for in the case of some of the insects named, e.g., Harpalus and Acilius, — both are diurnal species. The first named was abundant last summer, flying into lighted rooms in numbers, perhaps awakened by the light shining from the window on the side-walk, under which it had retired for the night, and so got up a little ahead of time. The other, Acilius, has been found at fault before, as also some of the large species of the family Dytiscidce. They have been seen to pitch themselves on the glass roofs of conservatories, probably taking the shining glass for the surface of a pool or pood. 64 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll The reason for the appearance of water beetles at such un- seasonable hours may be accounted for thus : — In summer the little ponds and pools are dried up, when it becomes necessary for them to shift, and in their wanderings they are no doubt dazzled and attracted by the light. The order Lepidoptera comprises the majority of our evening visitors, such as moths. T'liere are three classes of these creatures, divided into diurnal, twilight and nocturnal flyers. The eyes of the nocturnal species are constructed something Hke the owls, that is they are incapable of bearing the bright light of the^ sun. Any one conversant with the habits of these creatures will have noticed on confining a moth in a small box or in a partially darkened room, how its eyes shine. This shews that a difference exists between moths' eyes and those of other insects, — for instance, in those of the dragon fly, which spends its day in the rays of the sun, placed in a like position, no such effect is observed. This bears out the suggestion that the visual organs of nocturnal Lepidoptera reflect, and do not absorb, light. On the other hand, observe the appearance of some of the Splingidae and other nocturnal moths. In the day-time we have often observed them sticking to the trunk of a tree, or in the crevice or corner of a fence. Failing to secure them instantly, they would fly foolishly hither and thither, evidently annoyed by the sunlight, darting among the brushwood and bushes till at last they were captured, — none the better as cabinet specimens, on account of their wings being rubbed or antennae broken. The purposes for which these creatures come out at night are two-fold, — I speak here of the typical night flyers of the order Lepidoptera. The first of these purposes is for feeding. The following cir- cumstance will corroborate this view: — Having sugared some trees on the mountain, I hung a lantern about two feet above where the sugar was spread. The night was very suitable for mothing, — dark and warm. We had not to wait long with our nets before several moths made their appearance, and with ready mouth, licked the sugar. Specimens of diptera also congregated, attracted by the smell as well as the light. Few flew to the light, but rested on or near the part rubbed with the sugar. The second purpose is with a view to finding their mates in order to perpetuate their species. It may be mentioned here that one of the chief aims of an insect's life seems to be to accomplish this 1870.] RITCHIE — INSECTS BY ARTIFICIAL LIGHT. 65 end. This is more particularly the case with regard to moths, as may be seen from the following circumstance, which happened £bur years ago: — Sitting, with the window open, and a lamp burnine: on the table, a lars-e moth flew into the room. I shut the window and captured it. It was a female of lelea poIyphemus. The window was scarcely closed when something flew against it ; knowing it to be another moth, the sash was again opened ; in a very few seconds in the moth came, and flew up and down the ceiling, when the inevitable net soon enclosed it. This moth was the male of the above species, and its visit was, no doubt, a clear case of love-makino;. I mention another circumstance with resrard to the females of the larger moths in particular, which I have observed frequently. A female never dies without depositing her eggs in some way or other. I have pinned moths time and again on the trunk of a tree, and in every instance (if not at the time of piercing the creature on the tree) always in the box before she died, when they are ejected on the introduction of the pin ; they are unformed and soft. The creature, apparently aware of some change coming over her, does her best for the continuation of her kind up to the latest moment of her existence. Insects, especially Lepidoptera, copulate on the wing, and sometimes at great heights. We had an opportunity of witnessing this at Beloeil mountain on the occasion of the field meeting of this Society last summer. Examples of PapllHo turnus were abundant, — flying higher than the trees, — and higher than the old ruin on the top of the mountain. Vanessa antiopa was also observed, evidently enjoying them- selves, as they flew towards the sun, — away above trees and other objects, — for diurnal Lepidoptera pair, and fulfil the end of their being in the bright beams of the sun. May we not draw the same conclusion with regard to the nocturnal species ? On moonlight nights where are the moths ? No doubt flying at great heights, seeking each others company for the purpose of perpetuating their kind ; and on moonless nights — as will be shewn further on, — those creatures are attracted by artificial lights for the same purpose. I would venture to offer the following suggestions : I have always found that moonlight nights were bad nights for mothing. On clear, moonlight nights these creatures find all they require in the broad expanse of field and forest. The journeys they take, and the enjoyment they have are uninterrupted on such occasions ; but when a moonless, warm, moist, but not wet, YoL. Y. E Xo. 1. 66 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March evening comes, they are aroused by artificial lights, which to them, I believe, is their best substitute for moonlight. The conclusions I arrive at are, that nearly all insects which come out at night,« come either for the purpose of feeding, or of continuing their species. They cannot, on account of the structure of their eyes serve one of the purposes for which they were made, during the bright sunshine. The pale, mellow beams of the moon is their Pharos, and suits them best. You may sit at your open window, with your lamp or lamps, on a bright, moonlight night, and the number of typical night flyers, or insects of any kind, will be few indeed ; experience is the best teacher, and so it has been in the present instance. But on a moonless night, with your lamp, you may make many captures. Insects on dark nights then seem to be attracted by lights, either in your rooms or by lanterns in the woods, because such light come nearest to the light they love and enjoy, namely, that of that " Orbed maiden, with white fire laden, ■Whom mortals call the moon." NOTES ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS.* By Geo. E. Bulger, F.L S., F.R.G.S., C.M.Z.S., &g. Seeds of the Wild Liquorice (Ahrus precatorius Linn.) — These seeds are the produce of a twining plant, which seems to have been brought originally from the West Indies, though it is now common enough in India and other eastern countries. It belongs to the papilionaceous division of the natural order Leguminosce. The English call it wild-liquorice, and the French liane ct reglisse. There are several varieties, and three difi'erently- coloured kinds of seeds are well known — black, white and scarlet. The last mentioned have a jet-black spot at one end, and, as they are very hard, glossy and brilhant, they are a good deal in request as beads for necklaces and other ornaments amongst the Hin_ doos. They are called retti-weights in India, and are used by jewellers and druggists, each seed being popularly supposed to be equivalent to one grain ; but Dr. Mason says he has weighed * Part of a small collection recently presented to the Museum of the Natural History Society of Montreal. 1870.] BULGER — ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 67 many of them, and found them to vary from one to two grains. The native goldsmiths are said to make an adhesive compound from them, which is employed in the finer work of jewellery. Several parts of the plant are applied to various medicinal purposes. The root is used as a substitute for liquorice — hence the English name — and Lunan says that a decoction of the leaves is drunk in the West Indies instead of tea. According to Linnaeus the seeds are very deleterious, but, as the Egyptians use them for food, they can hardly be so injurious as the great botanist has led us to suppose. As a plant, the Ahrus precatorius does not possess much beauty, and the pale-purple flowers are neither gay nor striking. I have not seen it growing very abundantly in India, though I have found it pretty widely distributed in that country, as well as in Burmah. Mr. Gosse says it is a common hedge-climber in Jamaica, and it is doubtless equally plentiful in the other islands of the West Indies. The derivation of the generic name is from ahros (pretty), in allusion, probably, to the beauty of the little seeds ; and Loudon says the specific designation, precatorius, is due to the fact of their being used as beads for rosaries. Seed-pod of the Moreton-Bay Chestnut Tree (Castano- spermum Australe Cunn.) — The Gastanospermum Australe, as its English name imports, is an inhabitant of the forests near Moreton Bay, in Australia. It is a handsome tree, belonging to the nat. ord. Legiiminosce, with an abundance of elegant foliage ; and, in the season of bloom, the bright saff"ron-orange papiliona- ceous flowers are very gay. The seeds are large, and, in some slight degree, resemble chestnuts in taste and appearance. They are enclosed in an inflated legume or pod, which is hard and woody in its texture, and of a pale, reddish-brown colour. They are nearly globular in shape, and each pod contains from two to five seeds. Is is said that they furnish an article of food to the natives of the country where they grow, and that Europeans have been known to subsist upon them for some time without any injurious efiects. The tree — the only one of its genus known to science — is very ornamental, and has been successfully cultivated in East Indian gardens, including the famous Lai Bang at Banga- lore. The generic name is compounded from castanea, a chest- nut, and sperma, a seed. NiCKAR Berries (seeds of Guilandina honduc H. K.) — Guilandina honduc is a thorny, climbing shrub of the nat. ord. 68 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Ltguminosce. It grows abundantly in India, and is also common in the West Indies and other tropical countries. Burton mentions it in his Aheohiita, and in Harvey and Sender's Flora Capensis it is enumerated as an inhabitant of South Africa. Two species are described under the names, respectively, of bonduc and bondiiceUa, but, if the latter is distinct, I have not seen it, and several botanical writers of repute ignore it entirely, excepting as a synonyme of bonduc. * The flowers of bonduc are yellow, the leaves abruptly pinnated, and the whole plant is plentifully armed with ferocious spines. The prickly legumes usually contain two only of the grey and shining seeds, which, being very hard, are used as beads and marbles. They are extensively employed in medicine amongst the natives of the East, and are reputed, in Egypt, to be prized as charms against sorcery. They are frequently called bonduc-nuts, and are so strongly coated with silex, that, Sir Emerson Tennent tells us, they are said to strike fire like a flint. Royle asserts that Guilandina bonduc was the akutmooht of Avicenna, and that there are grounds for supposing * Since the above was written, Mr. Whiteaves has drawn my attention to a paragraph in the Treasury of Botany, wherein, on the authority of Mr. A. Smith, Guilandina bonduc is described as having solitary prickles on the leaves, and producing yellow seeds, whereas bonducella is stated to have prickles in pairs, and lead-coloured seeds. Mr. "Whiteaves has also shewn me specimens from the West Indies of both kinds of seeds, which are certainly very distinct in coloration. I am unable to solve the problem, or to decide whether the differently-colom-ed seeds belong to the same species or not ; but I never saw the yellow ones in India, where I gathered, with my own hands, many hundred specimens of the grey kind ; and I have the high authority of Wight and Arnott to sup- port me in my opinion that the so-called species of bonduc and bonducella are identical. I quote from the Prodromus Florce Peninsulce Indice OrientaUs, as follows : " It might be thought preferable to adopt the name Bonducella, as it was of that form only that Linnteus had seen specimens, Bonduc having been taken up from Plunkenet's figure ; but the two being identical, not even varieties, we have preferred that which is simpler, and not a derivative of the other." I suspect that many of the less important characters of the species are very inconstant, and hence the confusion which has arisen. Indeed I find in Sir "William Jones' Botanical Observations on Select Indian Plants, which appeared in the Asiatic Researches, vol. iv, the following statement regarding G-ititowdiwa: " The species of this genus vary in a singular manner ; on several plants, with the oblong leaflets and double prickles of the Bonducella, I could only see male flowers as Rliecde has described them ; they were yellow, with an aromatic fragrance : others, with similar leaves and lyrickles, were clearly polygamous,^'' 1870. J BULGER — ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 69 it to have been one of the kinds of eagle-stone of the ancients. Ainslie identifies it with the caretti of Kheede, and describes the seeds as yellow, finely variegated with annular saflfron-coloured zones, but these characters are not applicable to the common form, in which the seeds are of a uniform grey, with the annular markings very faint indeed. In Scotland they are often thrown upon the sea-shore, and are there known as molucca-beans. The genus was, according to Paxton, named in honour of Melchior Guilandina, of Prussia, a great traveller, and a Professor of Botany at Padua. Eagle-Wood (^Aquilaria agallocha Rox.) — It is now pretty generally thought that the far-famed lign-aloes of sacred history was the produce of a tree belonging to the genus Aquilaria of the nat. ord. Aquilariacece ; and there are even grounds for supposing it to have been furnished by the Aquilaria agallocha of Roxburgh, fi'om which is obtained at least one kind of the precious and fragrant resin known as calambac ; but, until more accurate and precise information is forthcoming, the uncertainty that has hitherto enshrouded the identity of this delightful and glorious substance can scarcely be removed, or the halo of romance and mystery which hangs around it entirely dispelled. Aquilaria agallocha is stated by Roxburgh to be a native of the mountainous parts of India, east and south of Silhet, in about the latitude of 24 '^ to 25*^ north; but, as there is abundant and reliable testimony to show that a fragrant heart-wood, similar in most respects to the produce of that tree, is brought from many other countries, including Malacca, Java, Siam, and Cochin-Chin a, it is quite evident that either the species under consideration, or others possessing like qualities, are pretty widely distributed over the continent and islands of Asia. Indeed, in works on eastern botany two or three difl'erent kinds are recognized, but, so far as I can learn, they have never been compared with Roxburgh's agallocha, with a view towards ascertaining if they really are specifically distinct. I have not seen the tree of Aquilaria agallocha, but it is stated to be of immense size, and to possess a white, soft, light and inodorous timber, the heart-wood alone being heavy, hard, dark coloured, and highly fragrant. From the latter are extracted the rich essential oil known in India as ugger^ and the costly resin called calambac. Both of these are extensively used as perfumes, and in the manufacture of incense. There are said to be several 70 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March qualities of eagle-wood, and different kinds of resin procurable from it, which vary in value as in name, but, although I carefully searched the bazaars of Madras, Calcutta, Benares, Delhi, Agra, and other large Indian cities, assisted by an interpreter, I failed in obtaining more than one variety of each, and I could not learn that any others were even known. The multitude of synonymes, which seem to be the property of eagle-wood and its products, have added, in no small degree, to the confusion which exists regarding it, and the imperfect and often conflicting accounts of travellers have rather increased the mystery than otherwise, and thus have almost nullified the advantage of their researches. On the whole, this interesting subject requires clearing up, and it is to be hoped that, ere long, it will receive the attention it so well deserves. I cannot credit the statement that the fragrant wood is only found in trees which are diseased and decaying, for all the speci- mens that I examined were apparently sound and in the most absolute health, with the cells full of the precious and sweet- scented resin. The origin of the scientific names is obvious, but their relevancy is not so clear. Capsule of the Frangipanni-Flower Tree (Plumieria alba Jacq.) — The history of this beautiful tree is very roman- tically associated with the visit of Columbus to the West India Islands, and with Mercutio Frangipanni, a botanist of the expe- dition. I find, in Notes and Queries, that Frangipanni lived in 1493, was a famous botanist and traveller, and belonged to a noble and celebrated Italian family. When the great explorer's vessel approached Antigua, the sailors observed that a delicious fragrance pervaded the air, and, upon landing, they found the island abounding in plants of Plumieria alba, laden with blossoms, and rich in " odours of Paradise." From the circumstance of Mercutio Frangipanni having expressed his great admiration of this lovely plant, it is called, by the inhabitants of Antigua, the Frangipanni- flower, and from it is distilled the famous essence of the same name. This tree was long ago introduced into India, and it is now very plentiful in that country. At Bangalore, in the Mysore territories, no garden is without it, and, although leafless for a considerable portion of the year, it appeared to me to be never entirely out of bloom. When destitute of its rich and elegant foliage,, it is not very attractive, owing to the somewhat peculiar 1870.] BULGER — ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 7l and rather ungraceful growth of the branches ; but, about the middle of March, there are few more beautiful objects, and so abundant is the perfume, that it is literally wafted hither and thither by " — every breeze that roams about." The flowers are white, fleshy and bell-shaped, with a yellow tube ; and the leaves are large, lanceolate and of a dark and glossy green. The loveliness of the plants themselves, and the rich fragrance of their delightful blossoms, have attracted the attention of all travellers, and Gosse, in his most charming works on Jamaica, has more than once touched upon the beauty of the Spanish jasmines, as the two species, Plumieria alba et rubra^ which grow there, seem to be called. Bates, in The Naturalist on the Amazons^ mentions Plumieria phagedoeiiica as one of the most singular ornaments of the campos. Plumieria acuminata is called the pagoda-tree in India, and is included, as well as the other species, in the native pharmacopoeia. The genus belongs to the nat. ord. Apocynacem^ and was named in honour of Charles Plumier, author of Plantm Americance. Gru-gru Nut (seed of Acrocomia sderocarpa, Martins.) — These nuts, so-called, are the seeds of a noble South American palm, which, owing to its great height and stately growth, is one of the most majestic representatives of the kingly race to which it belongs. The Journal of Horticulture says the fruit are about the size of Orleans plums, perfectly globular and smooth, and, when fresh, of an olive-green colour. They have a thin, woody rind, beneath which is a layer of fibrous, gelatinous pulp surrounding the hard stone or gru-gru nut, and this again contains a single seed. The seeds of all the species of this eenus contain hard stones, resembling in some degree those under notice; they are polished and carved by the natives of South America, and applied to many ornamental purposes. Both pulp and kernal are said to be eatable — the latter being white and pleasantly tasted. The tree belongs to the nat. ord. Palmacece, and the generic name is derived from akros, top, and kome, a tuft. Seeds of the Perim-Kara Tree (^JElceocarpus ohlongus, Gsertn.) — The Perim-kara is a noble tree, and a great ornament to the forests of the Neilgherries and Southern India, where it grows; especially at the end of the cold season, when the elliptic- oblong leaves assume a most brilliant scarlet-crimson tint before 72 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March they fall. The blossoms are brown and white, ana possess a very unpleasant odour ; the fruit is a drupe, not unlike the olive in appearance, only larger, and it contains a rugose nut, which, after being polished, is applied to many ornamental uses. Accord- ing to Royle, the fruit of at least one species is eaten like olives, and those of other kinds are pickled and used by the natives of India, in their curries. The nuts are strung and employed as sacred beads by the Brahmins, and Royle says they are set in gold, and even sold as ornaments in the shops of Europe. I am unable to trace the origin of the native name, but the generic one is derived from elaia, the olive tree, and karpos, a fruit, in allusion to the resemblance between the fruits of the Perim-kara and the olive. Nat, ord. Elaeocarjmcece. Seeds of the Red-wood Tree (^Adenanthera pavonina^ Linn.) — This is a large tree, and, amongst the natives of India, its timber is known as one of the red sandal-woods. The flowers are small, fragrant, and of a yellowish white ; the seeds are scarlet, glossy and hard. Like those of Ahrus precatorius, the latter are used by the Hindoo jewellers as weights — each one being supposed to be equal to four grains ; but, as they vary a good deal in size, they are, of course, not to be depended upon for this purpose. Bruised and beaten up with borax and water, we are informed that a cement is made from them, and their pulp, when mixed with honey, is used medicinally. The timber is very hard, of a deep red colour, and exceedingly durable ; it aflbrds a dye, which does not appear to be either very much used or very valuable. The tree was long since introduced from the East into the West Indies, and it has become very abundant there. In Jamaica, according to the Journal of Horticulture, the bi-convex seeds are known as Circassian beans. Lady Coote beans, and St. Vincent beans, and they are used for necklaces and other orna- ments. Loudon, in his list of synonymes, quotes bastard flower- fence as the property of this tree. It belongs to the nat. ord. Legumuiosce, and the seeds are produced in a twisted, sickle-shaped pod, which usually contains about ten or a dozen. The generic name is derived from the fact of the anthers being gland-tipped — from aden, a gland, and anthera, an anther. Sandal-wood (^Santalum album, Linn.) — Sandal-wood, some- times called Sauuders-wood, is the produce of SanUdum album of the nat. ord. Santalacece. It is a native of India and other countries of the East, and is a small, handsome tree, with 1870.] BULGER — ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 73 numerous little flowers, which are first straw-coloured, and afterwards of a deep purple. The fruit is a round, black berry. The outer timber is white and almost inodorous — the fragrant portion being only the yellow heart-wood, which is very hard and very handsome. The perfume extracted from sandal-wood is highly prized amongst the Easterns, and it is, perhaps, more extensively used than any other. Medicinal qualities are at- tributed to the essential oil, as also to the powdered heart-wood. The Santalum album is supposed, by some authors, to be identical with the almug or algum trees of Scripture. The name is derived from the Persian word sandid. Indian Shot (Canna Indlca, Linn.) — This pretty little shrub, with its large leaves and bright scarlet flowers, is very ornamental, and, consequently, cultivated extensively in gardens. It is a native of the tropics in both hemispheres. The seeds are round, black and glossy, resembling shot — hence the English name. The root-stalk of some of the species is edible, and, from one kind at least, is obtained the substance called tous les mois. The leaves are used as thatch, and from the seeds is prepared a beautiful purple dye; the roots, seeds, etc., are employed in Hindoo medicine, Loudon says that, in America and the Brazils, the Canna is called wild plantain, and that the leaves are used as envelopes for many articles of commerce, — hence, probably, the French name halisier — halija being Spanish for envelope. Francis Buchanan tells us (Asiatic Researches, vol. vi.) that this plant is peculiarly sacred to Bouddha, as it is supposed to have sprung from his blood, when, once on a time, he had cut his foot, by striking it against a stone ; and that, therefore, the Burmese value the seeds for rosaries. It belongs to the nat. ord. Marantacece, and its name is derived from a Celtic word signifying a cane or mat. Great A^ierican Aloe (Agave Americana, Linn.) — The romance which made the so-called American Aloe a centennial flower has passed away, and it is now well known that the in- tervals between its periods of bloom are very much shorter than was supposed, and that they depend, when the plant is under cultivation, pretty much on the mode of treating it. It is a noble and striking object, especially when its long, stately flower- scape towers up to the height of 18 or 20 feet from the centre of its clustre of sword-like, succulent leaves. The various species are applied to many useful purposes in the difi"erent parts of the 74 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March world, where they are naturalized and abundant. They furnish an excellent fibre called _^i^«, which is manufactured into a superior and durable rope of great strength and power. This rope is stated to have been subjected to a course of experiments in India, and found to have been stronger than the productions of coir, country- hemp and jute. A bundle of the agave-fibre bore 270 lbs. weight, and that of ].lussian hemp only 160 lbs. It is a famous hedge- plant, and is much used for that purpose at the Cape of Good Hope and in the East. Loudon informs us that it is either wild or acclimated in Sicily, the south of Spain and in Italy. It is abundant in the West Indies, and Humboldt says that it is common everywhere in equinoctial America, from the plains even to elevations of 10,000 feet. In Mexico, where it is sometimes called maguey, a liquor is obtained from its juice, which, when fermented, is known as pulque; and from this is distilled an ardent spirit named aguar- diente de maguey. The leaves of one kind are, acccording to Mollhausen, baked and eaten under the appellation of mezcal, and they are elsewhere used to make paper of, as also an excellent and impenetrable thatch. It is said that the juice possesses strong healing properties, and, in Jamaica, Long tells us that a species of soap is prepared from it. I have often employed strips of the dried flower-stem — which is a light, pith-like substance — instead of cork for the lining of insect cases ; and Bennett records the same use of it in Australia. He also says that, owing to the minute particles of silica which it contains, razor-strops are made of it in that country ; and I have possessed and used with great success several that were brought from the West Indies. Chapman, in his poem called Barhadoes, speaks of this plant as the May-pole. " Here, towering in its pride, the May-pole glows, "Whose pointed top a bee swarmed circlet shews Of waving yellow ; whose high-branched stem Takes back the rapt thought to Jerusalem, Shewing the candlestick that stood of old In the first temple, chased in purest gold." The Agave belongs to the nat. ord. AmarylUdacece, and the name is derived from agaus, regal. Seeds of the Gela (Untada purscetha, DeC.) — This is an enormous climbing plant of the nat. ord. Leguminosoe. Its stem, which is thick, rope-like and very long, ascends to the 1870.] BULGER — ON VEGETABLE PRODUCTIONS. 75 highest trees, whence depend its beautiful foliage, small, yellow flowers and immense seed-pods, which Sir Emerson Tennent met with six inches wide and fully five feet in length. He says the Kandyans call it maha-pus-ivael, meaning great hollow climber, and that probably the mountain region of Pusilawa, which he describes as very beautiful, and one of the finest cofiee-districts in Ceylon, takes its name from this plant. The seeds, he adds, which are handsome brown beans of an immense size, furnish the natives of Ceylon with tinder-boxes, which they make by scooping out a portion of the interior. They are also used in medicine and as a detergent. The plant seems widely distributed, and is in- cluded in the Cape Flora. The seeds, according to Harvey and Sonder, are the common sword-beans of the East and West Indies, and of the tropical Pacific. The generic name is of Indian origin — entada being the Malayalam designation. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. MONTHLY MEETINGS. (Proceedings from January \st to April 30^^-, 1870.) Third monthly meeting, January 31st, 1870; Rev. Dr. De Sola presiding. DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY. R^apparition du Genre Arethusina, Barrande; and Faune Silurienne des Environs de Hof, en Baviere — paf Joachim Barrande. From the Author. Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass. (Nos. 9 to 13). From the Trustees. PROCEEDINGS. Prof. J. W. Marsh, of Pacific College, Forest Grove, Oregon, was elected a corresponding member of the Society. The following resolutions, having been moved by Principal Dawson and seconded by Rev. Dr. De Sola, were carried unani- mously : — "That this Society, in presenting its medal to Sir W. E. 76 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Logan, LL.D., F.R.S., &c., although it cannot add appreciably to the many honours which he has received, desires to place on record, not merely on its own behalf, but on that of all the students of Natural Science in Canada, its high estimation of the value of his services in creating, as well as directing, the geological survey of this country, in promoting the development of its mineral resources, in stimulating and aiding the efforts of scientific institutions, and in extending throughout the world the name of Canadian science. We desire also to express our high appreciation of Sir William's admirable personal quaHties, and our hope that he may be spared for many years to Canada and to science, and that the relief from official cares may give him the opportunity to pursue to completion the researches in physical geology in which he is now engaged." Mr. E. Billings read a paper "On the occurrence of Gastero- poda in the Primordial Zone." He commenced by giving a short account of palgeontological discoveries recently made in other countries, and then exhibited a fossil that had been collected during the summer of 1869 by Mr. T. G. Weston, of the Geolo- gical survey, in the Primordial slates of St. John, N. B, The specimen was a small species of Ophileta, and its geological position tvas several thousand feet below the lowest beds in which any Gasteropoda had been heretofore found in America. The rocks were of the same age as the Lower Lingula Flags of Wales, the "Menevian group" of the late Mr. Salter. Another species, but of a different genus, has been found by Mr. Murray in New- foundland, in rocks which appear to be Primordial, but whose age cannot yet be determined with certainty for want of sufficient fossil evidence. Prof. R. Bell then read a paper " On the Intelligence of Animals." He spoke of the reasoning powers in many of the higher and larger animals as being too well established to require a plea, and devoted the greater part of his paper to the considera- tion of instances of what might be regarded as intelligence in such small creatures as insects. Many arguments were adduced, based on the organization and development of these creatures, und more especially on their habits, for regarding them as pos- sessed of something more than mere instinct. Amongst other proofs of the possession of a reasoning power, the fact was men- tioned, that insects, if baffled in one means of accomplishing 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 77 their object, will generally try another ; and that we find them as prompt and skilful in overcoming exceptional and artificial diffi- culties, as in performing the ordinary duties of their lives. The habits of insects, like those of the larger and higher animals, appear to be in a great measure the result of the accumulated experience of many generations. The term instinct, the writer said, has too general and vague a signification, and is often used as a convenient way of accounting for what it is found difficult to explain. After the reading of this paper, a discussion ensued, in which Drs. De Sola and Evans, and Messrs. Billings, Ritchie, Whiteaves and other members took pait. Fourth monthly meeting, February 28th, 1870 ; Rev. Dr. De Sola in the chair. DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Geology of Tennessee, Saffi)rd. Presented by Dr. A. Got- tingen, State Librarian, Nashville, Tenn. On the Chemical and Mineralogical composition of the Dhurm- salla Meteoric Stone, by Rev. S. Haughton, M.D., F.R.S., &c. From the Author. The Principles of ^Esthetic Medicine, by Dr. J. B. Catlow. From the Author. Le Glacier de Boium, en Juillet, 1868, par S. A. Sexe; and two other 4to pamphlets. From the Royal Society of Christiania. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. A. S. Ritchie read a paper entitled ''' Why are insects attracted to artificial light," which will be found entire at page 61 of the present volume. Prof. R. Bell gave a verbal account of the zoology and botany of the Nipigon country. Principal Dawson made some remarks on this communication, and said that it was much to be regretted that, when parties were sent by the Geological Survey to explore distant and comparatively unknown parts of the Dominion, no competent naturalist formed part of the expedition. Much prac- tical knowledge as to the agricultural capabilities, &c„ of the region explored was thus lost to the community. 78 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Marcll Fifth monthly meeting, Blarch 28th, 1870 ; the President, Rev. Dr. De Sola, in the chair. DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY. North American Oology, by Thomas Brewer, M. D. Part I. Quarto. Plates, uncoloured. Zoology of H. M. S. Samarang. Fishes. By Sir John Rich- ardson. Quarto. Plates. Both from G. Barnston. PROCEEDINGS. The two following resolutions, having been moved by Dr. Smallwood, seconded by Dr. Carpenter, (in the absence of Prin- cipal Dawson, were unanimously adopted : 1. " That as Mr. Whiteaves has liberally offered to place his private collections of recent shells and British Jurassic fossils in the Museum of the Society, and to make them accessible to members and others, for the purpose of study, so long as he shall remain in Montreal, and under the rules applicable to the collec- tions of the Society, the Treasurer be authorized to expend a sum not exceeding one hundred dollars, in providing the necessary cab- inets and materials for mounting and preserving the collections — it being understood that Mr. Whiteaves will himself mount and label the specimens ; also, that the Treasurer be authorized and requested to insure this collection for a sum of not less than one thousand dollars, but not to exceed two thousand, so long at it remains within the building of the Society." 2. " That whereas, it is important to the cause of science, and conducive to the interests and reputation of this Dominion, that researches, by dredging, should be prosecuted in the Gulf and River St. LawrenceJ in order to ascertain the character of marine life in the greater depths, and at the confluence of the fresh and salt waters of the river ; and whereas this Society, and individual members thereof, have so far entered upon such researches as to prove their feasibility and importance, but have not the means of continuing them effectually ; it is the opinion of the Society that aid should be afforded to such operations by the Government, in the manner in which this has been done in Great Britain, and other countries, especially by giving, for a short time in summer, facilities on board government vessels, to a party to be furnished and fitted out by this Society, which would undertake to provide observers, and scientific apparatus, and to make reports upon such 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. » 79 results as might be obtained; that Drs. Smallwood and P. P. Carpenter, also Messrs. E. Hartley and J. F. Whiteaves be a committee to correspond with the Dominion government, through the Hon. the Minister of Marine, with the view of effecting the desired results ; that Principal Dawson be requested, when in London, to obtain information as to the best methods of making such subsidiary observations on the temperature, chemical consti- tution, etc., of the waters at great depths, as have been made in the recent dredging operations under the auspices of the British government, and, if possible, to procure specimens of the necessary apparatus." The two following papers were read by Dr. P. P. Carpenter : 1. On some Peculiarities in Local Faunas, exhibited in the Dredgings, by Mr. McAndrew, in the Red Sea ; by Captain Pedersen, in the Gulf of California, and by Mr. Dall, in Alaska. 2. On the Vital Statistics of Montreal for 1869, with special reference to the great disproportion in death-rate between the French, the Irish, and the English portions of the population. Sixth monthly meeting, April 25th, 1870 ; Rev. Dr. De Sola presiding. DONATIONS TO THE LIBRARY. Hooker's Icones Plantarum. Octavo. London. Half Morocco. Presented by E. Hartley, Esq. Reliquiae Aquitanicae. Part 10. From the executors of the late Henry Christy, Esq. Temperature de la mer entre I'lrlande, I'Ecosse, et la Norv^ge. Avec cinq cartes, par H. Mohn, Christiania ; from the Royal Society of Christiania. A flora and fauna within living animals, by Joseph Leidy, M.D., 4to, Washington ; from Gr. Barnston, Esq. PROCEEDINGS. John Thomas Molson was elected a life member. Gordon Broome, F.G.S., and James Dakers were elected ordinary members. Alfred Bell (of London, England) was elected a corresponding member. The following resolutions having been moved by A. S. Ritchie, and seconded by G. Barnston, were unanimously adopted : — " That the members of this society regret deeply the resignation 80 , THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March of their jaDitor and taxidermist, Mr. W. Hunter, who has so satisfactorily filled the joint situation for a number of years. They also sympathize with him in his bereavement, and in his continued ill health, the immediate cause of his resignation. It is hereby recommended to the society that steps be taken to present Mr. Hunter with a suitable testimonial in consideration of his Ions; and valuable services." Messrs. G. Barnston, John B. Goode, and the mover, were appointed a committee to carry out these resolutions. Dr. Smallwood read a paper '' On some phenomena of the Solar Eclipse of August, 1869." Mr. A. S. Ritchie read an essay entitled : " Aquaria Studies, No. 1." This will be found at page 1 of the present volume. SOMERVILLE LECTURES. The six lectures of this course were delivered as follows : — 1. February 10th, 1870. " Explorations in the Nipigon country," by Professor R. Bell, C.E., F.G.S. 2. February 17th. " Recent discoveries in Solar Physics, and the total eclipse of August 7th, 1869," by James Douglas, jr., President of the Literary and Historical Society, Quebec. 3. February 24th. '• The chemistry of Iron and Steel," by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. 4. March 10th. " Oq Deep Sea Dredging," by Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 5. March 17th. '' On Gold," by Dr. G. P. Girdwood. 6. March 24th. "On Economic Mineral Deposits," by G. Broome, Esq., F.G.S. ANNUAL CONVERSAZIONE. The eighth annual conversazione was held at the rooms on the evening of Wednesday, March 9th, 1870. The whole of the ground floor was tastefully decorated with evergreens, under the superintendence of Mr. D. McCord. Fine geological maps and sections were kindly lent for the occasion by the officers of the Geological Survey of Canada. Messrs. Theodore Hart and Hugh Allan also kindly contributed bouquets of choice cut flowers from their respective greenhouses. A number of microscopes, with objects, were placed in the library, this department being under the special superintendence of the Montreal Microscopic Club. Mr. J, M. Young sent one of 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 81 Powell & Lealand's large binocular instruments, with all the newest accessories. This is probably the finest microscope ever imported into Canada. Other instruments were contributed by Dr. J. B. Edwards, Messrs. James Ferricr, jr., A. S. Ritchie, D. B. Scott, R. McLachlan, and J. F. Whiteaves. Mr. Scott shewed the circulation of the blood in the web of the foot of the Shad Frog, also beautiful living examples of Vorticella campanularia, V. ne- hulifera, Stentor cceruleus, and other infusoria from his own aqua- rium. Mr. A. S. Ritchie illustrated details of insect structure, especially elytra of exotic beetles, and wings of tropical butterflies and moths. He also exhibited some good diatom slides, and a photograph, of microscopic animals and plants from a pond at Leytonstone (near London, England) by H. C. Richter. Mr. R. McLachlan shewed German examples of trichina spiralis, and Mr. Whiteaves some choice polariscope objects, while Messrs. Young and Ferrier contributed a number of fine slides by English preparers. The string band of the P. C. 0. Rifle Brigade was in attendance and performed a choice selection of music during the evening. A little after 8 o'clock, H. R. H. Prince Arthur, attended by Lieut. Picard, entered the building, where he was received by a deputation of tho senior officers of the society. The following address to H. R. H. was then read by the acting presi- dent. Rev. Dr. De Sola : — To His Royal Highness Prince Arthur Patrick William Albert, Knight of the most ancient and most noble order of the Thistle ^ Knight of the most illustrious order of Saint Patrick, &c., &c. May it please Your Royal Highness. We, the officers and members of the Natural History of Montreal, beg leave to approach your Royal Highness with our most respectful salutations, and to tender you a very cordial welcome on this occasion, when we are honoured with your presence amongst us. We beg to assure your Royal Highness of the reverence and regard in which we hold the exalted virtues and beneficent rule of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen. Our Society has existed as a corporate body for 38 years, during which time it has ever had as its chief object the advancement of the study of Natural History in this city and throughout Canada. It has erected this building, in which we have collected and arranged a museum which is attaining a magnitude that will bear YoL. Y. F i^o. 1. 82 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March favorable comparison with ordinary public museums in England, and is essentially valuable for its exhibition of local specimens. It has created the nucleus of a useful library of reference on scientific subjects. It has sought to promote original investigation and to foster a taste for the study of nature by its lectures, its papers regularly read, and by its organ the " Canadian Naturalist " which spreads the best attainable information on the natural productions of Canada, not merely among students in the Dominion, but throughout the scientific world where it is favorably known. We believe that the aims and labors of such an associa- tion as ours will enlist the fullest approval of your Royal Highness as they did that of your honoured and lamented father, whose name is revered wherever science is cultivated, as one of its most earnest friends and efficient promoters. To which His Royal Highness read the following reply : To the Officers and Members of the Natural History Society of Montreal, Gentlemen, — It is to me a source of great satisfaction to receive this address of welcome at the hands of a Corporation so learned and distinguished, many of whose members have battled so bravely in the cause of science. Their achievements in the field of Geology and Organic Che- mistry are well-known, not only to Canadians, but to the scientific world at large, and the meritorious literary contributions in other branches of science afibrd clear indications of the ability and of the attainments of the various members. The establishment of this excellent museum, so full of objects of deep interest, reflects great credit upon this Society. Most praiseworthy are the efforts of the members to popularise the natural sciences, and most sincerely do I off'er to them my congratulations on the success that has attended their undertaking. ARTHUR. Dr. De Sola said : May it please your Royal Highness ; Ladies and Gentlemen: The annual conversazione of the Natural History Society, always a gala season for its members, becomes especially so this evening, when we are privileged to welcome to it the honored son of our highly revered and dearly beloved Queen, on whom may God bestow many years of happiness and blessing. On so 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 83 memorable an occasion in the history of this society, there devolves upon me a duty that could have been more worthily and ably discharged by another — the pleasant duty of extending to you, ladies and gentlemea, on behalf of the society, a very cordial welcome to the entertainment we are enabled to offer you. I beg to assure you that we experience a very high degree of gratifica- tion in believing that your presence on this and other occasions is intended to evince your sympathies with the objects of our society. May we be permitted to hope that these sympathies will lead you to become, instead of mere annual visitors, permanent, earnest co- labourers with us. I at least propose in a few remarks on some of the intellectual and utilitarian aspects of the study that engages us here, to show you that we have some warrant for the invitation we give you to labor with us in its great and glorious cause. In its most extended sense Natural Science means an investi. gation into the laws governing, and the elements composing, the whole of God's material works ; the heavens above, and the earth beneath. The boundlessness of such a field of inquiry, I could not on this occasion, more forcibly and, I trust, more appropria- tely, impress on you, than by quoting the words of that excellent and lamented Prince, whose like in respect to his extensive attain- ments in literature and science, and his judicious and successful efforts to promote them, Britain has never yet seen ; who, in his life, afforded us a noble illustration of all that dignifies humanity, and in his death, left us a precious example how the time and talents Grod bestows on us may be most beneficially employed for the best interests of mankind. Need I say I refer to Albert the good ? These are his words addressed to the British Association at Aberdeen, in 1859 : — " But in gaining new centres of light from which to direct our researches, and new and powerful means of adding to its ever increasing treasures, science approaches no nearer to the limits of its range, although travelling further and further from its original point of departure. For God's world is • infinite , and the boundlessness of the universe, whose confines appear ever to retreat before our finite minds, strikes us no less with awe when, prying into the starry crowd of Heaven, we find new worlds revealed to us by every increase of the telescope, than when the microscope dicloses to us in a drop of water or an atom of dust new worlds of life and animation, or the remains of such as have passed away." 84 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March A society such as ours has to regard Natural Science in its more limited sense. It is only from a few salient points that we can hope to penetrate a field which is not more distinguished by its boundlessness than by its variety. But in its immense variety we discover the more we advance in the study, a prevailing uniformity that speaks of plan and system. And as the astronomer has shown that the slight deviations and perturbations of the spheres in their course are, equally with the regularity of their movements, the result of fixed laws, so the scientific naturalist holds it as one of his highest duties to discover and exhibit the principle governing not merely the uniformity of structure and habits of living nature, but all those deviations from it, that at first sight seem so unaccountable and perplexing. If this be so, then, all persons of all degrees, stations and occupations, should aid in some way or other a Natural History Society. For the scientific naturalist wants facts and results of observations ; and he frequently wants those facts which may appear trivial and unimportant, but which he is able by his powers of generalization to show when connected with other facts already obtained, possess a very great value in connecting what is vague, contradictory or erroneous in his former deductions. And the contributor of these facts need not to be a scientific one. Every one with ordinary powers of observation may make important additions to the stores of scientific knowledge. Some of the most valuable contributions to Natural History have been made by unscientific travellers, who simply but faithfully described what they saw and collected. But we need not go to foreign countries to pursue our investigations; there is quite enough room for them in this Canada of ours. For not to speak of the specially interesting field we have for geological and mineralogical research, there is ample scope for observation and enquiry into the structure and vital actions of even our lowest plants and animals, not by any means thoroughly investigated ;* and it may be safely promised the dilio-ent collectors among our insects and marine tribes, that their labors will not always remain unrewarded by the discovery of some species hitherto unknown, and thus valuable contributions made to an important department of natural history— the geograph ical distribution of animals. The duty of acquiring and imparting knowledge from observa- tion thouo-h a very evident one, inasmuch as it advantages society as well as the individual, is yet one very generally neglected. We 1870.J NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 85 have heard of a pedagogue in a small village, who having joined a crowd anxiously engaged in watching an eclipse of the sun, and who having been asked in deference to his superior learning what was the cause of this extraordinary appearance, replied, ** It is only a phenomenon." The truth seems too evident to repeat that if, when we behold anything extraordinary in nature, we check our instinctive curiosity by saying to ourselves: " It is only a phenomenon ; " we shall not be one step nearer any rational knowledge of the appearance than if we had never observed it. " How many singular phenomena," exclaims the zealous natural- ist, in accents of bitter regret, ^'how many rare and precious fossils have been lost to the world, seen by blind eyes. How many gas lamps might have trembled at sounds before a Lecomte observed under what conditions the ball-room lights responded to the tones of a violoncello." But the study of Natural History is not merely valuable as a means of cultivating the powers of observation, but of educating all the faculties of the mind. Advancing as it does from the study of the simple to the analysis of the complex it must necessarily bring into play all those mental powers that men are called upon to exercise in all the engagements of life. " The process by which truth is attained" says Mill, " reasoning and observation, have been carried to their greatest known perfection in the physical sciences." Natural History being concerned rather with the knowledge of things than of words, can lay claim to an exactness which is not the least of its merits. Another of its advantages is, that it supplies us with great ideas of natural law and harmonious adjustment. Finally, it bestows on us a general quickness of perception, for the habits of observation it necessitates, gives to the intellect a superior aptitude of understanding and enjoying the thing observed. Were this the occasion to dwell on the utilitarian aspects of the study, we might refer to the countless blessings it has bestowed on man in the shape of all those things essential to his wants and comforts. We might point to an improved agriculture and horti- culture— to the protection of crops from the devastions of insects, to the multiplication of the ores, the coal, the useful and precious stones and metals ; we might poinl to the wondrous triumphs of science applied to the arts ; to the labour-saving processes which enable all to possess so cheaply the comforts and elegancies of life 86 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March formerly attainable only by the very few. Especially might we point to these in the mother country, but they are not entirely absent in this Dominion, even with a sparse population of compar- aratively scant leisure and opportunities. For where first stood the primeval forest in which roamed only savage man and wild beasts, now rise large cities, important centres of commerce, pleasant villages and smiling hamlets ; where formerly prevailed unbroken stillness and solitude is now heard the busy hum of industrv, the cheerful sound of civilized man's labour in his work Siiops and in his factories, with his labour saving implements and- machines and engines, and his countless devices for multiplying force and velocity, all originating in science and directed by science, the friend of art and the guide of industry. Where the Indian canoe slowly bore its untutored occupant in his short journeys on the bosom of onr noble streams, now rides the majestic steamboat carrying its hundreds of passengers hundreds of miles, even through a night's sleep, on their errands of business, pleasure and duty ; where on the banks of these streams could only be seen a few rude wigwams approached by the narrow bridle path or painful trail, now stand thousands of commodious houses and palatial mansions, everywhere connected with broad and easy roads or well furnished railways, along which rushes the mighty locomotive, so fearful in its energy and power, with its freight of human beings, and all that ministers to their wants in distant settlements, speeding on its way through tunnelled hills and mountains, over the marvellous tubular and suspension bridges that hang over gorges of dizzy depths ; following the telegraph wire, along which the lightning with its proper rapidity conveys man's messages, wishes and behests ; over the canals that science has substituted for rivers not navigable ; along rich corn fields and beautiful gardens replete with lovely flowers, luscious fruits and perfumed exotics, all multiplied and improved by scientific culture ; such are some of the results which science, applied to the arts, has obtained for us in Canada ; and there is not one of her sons or daughters who may not yet aid in further developing these blessed results. But, it is no mere material, grovelling earthly science that we laud and . advocate in this Institution, but a science whose eye alternates between earth and heaven ; — below, seeking the advan- cement and good of humanity ; above, finding communion with the Great Creator and Architect of all ; acquiring the fuller 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 87 knowledge of wisdom and design, and adaptation and harmony everywhere displayed. " To see in part That all, as in some piece of art, Is toil co-operant to aa end," — and that end the elevation and felicity of man. Yes, the benevolence, the wisdom and the omnipotence of Him, who formed all and maintains all, are made more and more manifest to us as we advance step after step in the study of natural science. We hear the voice of God on the mighty waters, when He thun- dereth and when He flasheth the flames of fire that shiver the mighty cedars. We raise our eyes and we see his infinite and unapproachable wisdom displayed in the delicate adjustments and felicitous arrangements of the varied forces that astronomy reveals. We see it in the mechanical, chemical and physical properties of the atmosphere, in the efi"ects of light and heat, in developing and fostering all the varied beautiful animal and vegetable life ; in the production of cooling winds and fructifying showers. We read this testimony in the towering rocks and giant trees as in the grains of sand and petals of the flowers ; in the nerves and veins and arteries which permeate this wondrous frame of ours, as in the vessels that convey the sap from the root to the leaf in the vegetable world, in short in all the countless adaptations and modi- fications everywhere visible, everywhere needed. And when we pass from the known to the unknown ; from the revealed to the unrevealed ; from the study of the stupendous and inimitable organisms, it is given us to understand, to the contemplation of the mysterious powers and qualities and forces in nature which seem almost for ever destined to baflSe man's puny efi*orts to resolve them, we cannot fail to carry away a sentiment of the most profound humility, a deep seated conviction of the utter weakness and insignificance of our powers. Yes, from the study of nature, from this. house in which it is specially cultivated, we should and we must carry into the active occupations of our lives, in our daily intercourse with our fellow beings, an earnest desire to emulate, as far as we may, the attributes of the Creator, as revealed to us by nature ; to select the most comprehensive of these attributes, — benevolence, as the main spring of all our thoughts and actions ; so that we may look upon all men, no matter what their origin, color or creed, as equally the objects of the one Creator's care and the one Creator's love and so that we 88 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March may learn to practice that toleration for each other's cherished opinions, political or religious, that shall ever banish from amongst us the bitter wrangling of dogmatism and the rancour of sectarian strife, and shall secure among us the rule of that harmony every- where prevalent in nature, and everywhere taught by her, — the harmony that shall prove " The chain of love, Combining all below and all above." Principal Dawson, in a short address, rapidly epitomized the work done by the Society since its establishment, more than thirty years ago, in gathering and recording facts in Canadian natural history ; also in promoting the origination of the Geolo- gical Survey, and, incidentally, in being instrumental in the founding of the Somerville course of lectures. He also pointed out in detail the peculiar functions of the Society as being, to compare small things with great, in one respect at least, somewhat analogous to those of the British association, — at least, in so far as either of them might urge on the attention of the public and the Government any opening of new paths of scientific local enquiry. It gathered facts and preserved a record of them in the " Canadian Naturalist," — facts which would otherwise have been lost, or retained no scientific value. Tt had one of the most important museums in the city ; and outside of its more proper sphere, it had lent its countenance and assistance to ob- taining the passage of the Act for the protection of insectivorous birds, to the promotion of city sanitary effort, and to the formation of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. It was, however, to be regretted that Canada did not show herself more disposed to take part amongst the nations in some departments of scientific investigation ; likewise, that competent zoologists and botanists were not invited to accompany the expeditions sent out by the Geological Survey, as they might do with great advantage and at a light expense. The Chairman called on Dr. J. Baker Edwards, F.C.S., to make some remarks on APPLIED SCIENCE, AS ILLUSTRATED IN THE USEFUL PRODUCTS OBTAINED FROM COAL. Dr. Edwards stated that the direction of his remarks would not be towards a chemical demonstration of the miscellaneous products derived from coal, but, by the enumeration of their character and 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 89 importance, to derive an encouragement for the spread of scien- tific knowledge throughout all classes of the community, Canada, being a country full of mineral wealth, might look to the educa- tion of the industrious classes as one of the great sources of her future wealth and importance ; and although coal was not one of her mineral treasures, yet we should not fail to see that we are as much interested as consumers of its products, as if we were pro- ducers of it as a mineral. The different varieties of coal — anthra- cite, cannel, albertite, &c., — were then described, and the produc- tion of coal-gas illustrated by a large diagram showing the interior of a gas works. The first product of coal, illuminating gas, being illustrated by a photometer, by which the Montreal gas was declared to be equal to 21 sperm candles, which, he believed, was superior to any in Canada, and equal to most of the large towns of the north of England, the " applied science " was to be found in the choice of suitable admixtures of coal to form the best coke as well as the best and purest gas. The use of gas as fuel, by Siemann's Regenerative Furnaces, was next described ; and this mode was recommended as the most economi- cal for any coal containing much gas; by its aid a new process for the production of soda ash was now being worked with much success in Liverpool. In the necessary purification of gas for illuminat- ing purposes, quantities of tar and ammoniacal liquor are pro- duced ; and by the chemical treatment of the tar especially, new and valuable products are obtained. The benzole so largely em- ployed for the solution and manufacture of rubber compounds is derived from this source, as also the asphalt of our pavements, roofing and tarpaulings. In cookery and perfumery we meet with nitro-benzole under the name of almond flavour, from which is derived aniline, the base of that beautiful series of colours well known as the aniline dyes. Important as these are in a com- mercial point of view, they are surpassed in social importance by the production of carbolic acid, which now stands at the head of our disinfecting agents. From this substance is also obtained a yellow dye, picric acid, which is said to possess explosive proper- ties rivalling gun-cotton and nitro-glycerine. Finally, from the ammonia and sulphur recovered from the process, we have valu- able fertilizing agents which, when returned to the soil, complete the great cycle of vegetable existence. From this brief review of the value of applied science to coal, Dr. Edwards urged the importance of the establishment of schools of technical science 90 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March to supply an existing want in this community, and to enable the coming generation to develop the immense mineral resources of this rich country. Illustrations of the luminous and chromatic properties of flame were shown after the lecture by the aid of the photometer, the electric light, the sodium light, &c. ; also, the process of dyeing silk by Aniline colours. His Royal Highness then proceeded to examine with some care the various objects in the museum, the curator pointing out any of special interest. He paid particular attention to the collection of mammals and birds, also to the series of Canadian insects, the study of entomology, particularly of the lepidoptera, seeming to have had special attractions to His Royal Highness. The company separated a little after eleven o'clock. j. f. w. ABSTRACTS OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON. At a recent meeting of the Geological Society of London, the following communications were made, of which we present abstracts to our readers : " Notes on some specimens of Lower-Silurian Trilobites." By E. Billings, Esq., F.G.S., Palaeontologist of the Geological Survey of. Canada. The author first described a s^eGimen of Asa^hus platycephalus, in which the hypostome was not only preserved in situ, but also the remains (more or less well preserved) of eight pairs of legs, corresponding with the eight segments of the thorax, to the underside of which they had been attached. The appendages take their rise close to the central axis of each segment, and all curve forwards, and are thus most probably ambulatory rather than natatory feet. They appear to have had four or five articu- lations in each leg. Three small ovate tubercles on the pygidium may, perhaps, indicate the processes by which the respiratory feet were attached. Mr. Billings referred to the large number of Trilobites which have been examined, and expressed his belief that only the most perfectly preserved specimens are likely to have the organs on the underside preserved. 1870.] GEOLOGICAL SOCIETY. 91 Mr. Billings next described the doublure or pleura in the Tri- lobites, comparing it to that of Lwiulvs. He then proceeded to describe a row of small scars and tubercles on the underside of the pleurae, to which both Dr. Volborth and Dr. Eichwald believed soft swimming feet or hard horny legs had been attached. As these were first seen by Dr. Pander in a Russian Trilobite, Mr. Billings has called them " Panderian organs." He thinks soft natatory appendages may have been attached to these scars. Mr. Billings directed attention to the Frotichnites and CH- mactichnites, which he thinks may now be referred to Crustacea belonging to the division Trilohita. Finally, Mr. Billings described a section of a rolled-up Oi/mene senaria, the interior cavity of which appears to be full of minute ovate bodies, from l-80th to 1-lOOth of an inch in diameter. — These small ovate bodies the author believes to be eggs. " Note on the palpus and other appendages of Aaajphus, from the Trenton Limestone, in the British Museum." By Henry Wood- ward, Esq., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Mr. Woodward, when comparing the Trilobite sent over by Mr. Billings with specimens in the British Museum, presented by Dr. J. J. Bigsby, F.R.S., discovered upon the eroded upper surface of one of these, not only the hypostome exposed to view, but also three pairs of appendages, and what he believes to be the palpus of one of the maxillae. This furnishes an additional fact to Mr. Billings's most interesting discovery, besides confirming its con-ectness. Mr. Woodward considers the so-called " Panderian organs" to be only the fulcral points upon which the pleurae move, and showed that such structures exist in most recent Crustacea. He considered that the evidence tended to place the Trilobita near to, if not in, the Isopoda Normalia. He remarked that the prominence of the hypostome reminded one strongly of that organ in Apus, and suggested that we might fairly expect to find that the Trilobita represented a more gene, ralized type of structure than their representatives at the present day, the modern Isopoda. Discussion. Mr. Woodward had carefully examined Mr. Billings's specimen and agreed with him in considering that there was undoubted evidence of the presence of walking-appendages under the thorax. 92 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March The presence of such limbs might a priori have been expected ; and the nature of the test suggested that Trilobites were walking rather than swimming forms of Isopods. The branchiae had pro- bably been under the telson ; and this would account for its large development. It was not more surprising to find highly organized Trilobites than it was to find such highly organized crustaceans as Pterygotus, Eurypterus and SUmonia in the same beds. Prof Rupert Jones, Principal Dawson, and Sir Wm. Logan made some remarks, more especially on Protichnites and Cli- mactichnites, the latter having been explained as galleries of Crustacea by Prof. Jones, when first exhibited in England. " Notes on the Geology of Arisaig, Nova Scotia." By the Rev. D. Honeyman, D.C.L., F.G.S. The author referred to a previous paper on the Upper Silurian Rocks of Nova Scotia, which he stated appeared to him now to be generally repetitions of his Arisaig series. He noticed the occur- rence of fossils in one of the beds previously supposed to be almost destitute of organic remains, and described the occurrence, in Arisaig township, of a band of crystalline rocks which appeared to contain Eozoon and were probably of Laurentian age. A note from Prof Rupert Jones, giving an account of the fossils referred to by Dr. Honeyman, was also read. Discussion. Sir W. Logan said that Dr. Hunt had seen the specimens of serpentinous limestone, and considered that they might be Lau- rentian. Sections of them appeared to Dr. Dawson to show tubulation rather difi'erent from that found in Laurentian Eozoon* They might, therefore, belong to a difi'erent age. The following among other specimens were exhibited to the Meeting : — Specimens of Sigillarioe, Calamites, etc. ; exhibited by Principal Dawson. Specimens of Trilobites ; exhibited by E. Billings, Esq. 1870.] REVIEWS AND NOTICES OP BOOKS. 93 REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. Disinfectants and Disinfection, by R. A. Smith, Ph.D. F.R.S. — {Contimied from No. 2, page 228.) — A large portion of the experimental and original investigations of our author were made by Royal Commission, in conjunction with Professor Crookes, F.R.S. , in an enquiry into the nature of and remedy for the Cattle Plague of 1865-66. A subject of so great national and world-wide importance demanded the closest scientific scrutiny ; — and whilst, on the one hand, the microscope was made the instrument of valuable infor- mation as to the cause of the disease, (viz : the existence of organic spores in the atmosphere which attended the outbreak and marked the duration of the disease) ; the materials of disinfection which proved most valuable, after a long series of experiments, were, as already indicated, the Tar Acids — in the form of Carbolic Acid, and as Carbolate of Lime.^ In referring to tar and its accompanying products, our author treats us to a very learned and interesting historic review, (pp. 8- 17) and enters into the chemical history of <'tar acids," (page 59). By the distillation of wood tar, we obtain creosote and acetic acid (vinegar). By the distillation of coal tar, we pro- duce carbolic and cresylic acids. Of creosote we know — that it kills and preserves from decay, insects, fishes, and animals, that it stops the flow of blood in man and preserves flesh from decay. In the coal tar acids — we find some difi'erences. Carbolic acid is poisonous, but less bo than creosote. It coagulates, but does not stop bleeding. It exercises preserving and antiputrescent powers in wonderfully dilute solutions. The action of the car acids our author thus explains (page 62) : — " There is neither " life nor decay without motion. Tar acids arrest that motion "■ which takes place in decay. They are, therefore, antiseptic — " they antisept. As soon as the decay ceases, the putrid gases *' cease to arise. The acids are, therefore, disinfectant. They * Misprinted "Carbonic Acid" and "Carbonate of Lime" in the former notice. 94 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March " prevent oxidation of organic, but not of inorganic substances ; " tliey will not prevent iron from rusting." Pettenkofer states that ^' they arrest, but do not destroy fermentation." This seems, however, to depend greatly on the strength of the acids used, and the conclusion drawn by the author is that all vital action may be destroyed by strong acids, and that in various degrees of dilution they are more or less potent on the lower organisms — both animal and vegetable. Experiments made by Mr. Crookes showed that a solution containing 1 per cent of carbolic acid: — 1** preserved meat with fresh odour; 2° preserved gut skin, size, and glue; 3° stopped the fermentation of yeast in a saccharine solution ; 4° killed cheese-mites, infusoria fish, caterpillars, beetles, and gnats. Cresylic acid, which accompanies carbolic acid, is also a power- ful antiseptic, and has much less coagulating power over albumen, than carbolic acid. It has a stronger smell, bears greater dilu- tion, and is probably a more powerful disinfectant than carbolic acid, and better adapted for injection into the veins of diseased animals — a process which was found of great service during the Cattle Plague. " Petroleum is a very poor disinfectant compared to tar acids. " Probably it contains a little either of carbolic acid or of some " allied compound, to which it owes all its disinfecting power. '' Tar oils which most resemble petroleum have also a weak disin- " fecting power ; but, when the acids are washed out by water, " there is no disinfecting power remaining." Lime is a good disinfectant, but very weak. As it is, however, cheap and abundant, it is an excellent auxilliary, especially applied as lime-wash to the walls of buildings. It is, certainly, greatly raised in value by admixture with carbolic acid, which is thus retained in contact with large surfaces of air which it com- pletely disinfects. The process, however, needs frequent repeti- tion, if the generation of air poisons be continuous, as in stables, cattle sheds, or slaughter-houses. After consideration of the several metallic salts, which have been recommended as disinfectants, (of which our author forms a less favourable opinion than of the tar acids,) attention is called to the necessary removal of manure and refuse by water-closets and sewers, earth closets and middens. Of the first he says : — "The water-closet system is a great luxury, unquestionably, but " like all other luxuries, it is taxed. ^ * ^ It is the very 1870.] REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. 95 " symbol of abundance and extravagance. The mechanism must '' be very excellent, and, with the best, a little chemical assistance *^ from disinfectants is often needful. Water-closets which are " not carefully attended to are unsafe. It is an immense advance " upon the old cess-pools, which were found after much loss of " life to be manufactures of disease of the most active nature. " But unless we get good sewers, we have similar evils from the " water system. ' There are sewers and sewers.' The liquid '' matter, when neither removed rapidly, nor disinfected, is our " old enemy, the cess-pool, with a territory extending miles long " instead of feet. The midden is better than the bad sewer. I " believe we shall never see the extinction of either middens or " water-closets; we may remedy some of the evils. To allow " bad air to form in the sewers, and then draw it into the houses, " or permit it to rush into the streets, is bad engineering. The " sewers may be ventilated, and filtered through charcoal ; or the " formation of bad air may be prevented by a proper use of disin- " fectants." On the earth closet question, our author remarks : — " One may very correctly look upon the soil as the greatest agent " for purifying and disinfecting. Disinfection by its means is per- " feet so long as the decomposing matter can be perfectly dried " up by it ; but, should moisture be in excess, a dangerous " condition of malaria is apt to ensue." Admitting the conditions which Mr. Moule lays down, viz., two cwt. of dry earth per week for six persons, he says : — '* Nobody can doubt the disinfecting *' power ot the soil, and certainly, Mr. Moule has found a mode '' of applying it in many cases." The author's treatise is rendered especially valuable by a series of original experiments on the comparative power of disinfectants, which are expressed in a tabular form, for which our space is too limited. The objects of the experiments, however, may be thus stated : — 1st. To show the amount of gas evolved when the disinfect- ants act on organic substances in water. 2nd. To show the amount of certain disinfectants required to prevent the evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen. 3rd. Amount of certain disinfectants required to remove putrid smells. 4th. Influence of volatile substances in preventing putrefaction. 5th. Comparative power of antiseptics in preserving meat. 6th. The antiseptic effects of certain gases on flesh. 96 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March The value of air and water are then considered, as the great natural disinfectants. Air, especially ozonized air, is a most powerful disinfectant ; and the use of water in the bath is advocated and lauded in the following quotation from Martial, " The Joys of a Life in the Water " : " Baiae, the prince of watering-places, Somehow the weather's always fine; The light is long, and the day's decKne Is very slow, and * going away ' Are words one never thinks to say. Eocks with all beauties there abound Cut out of many a distant ground ; Warm breathing onyx fat and fine, And various-coloured serpentine. If hot Laconian vapours please, Here lie, though melting, at your ease ; Two streams supply you all you crave, The Yirgo and the Marcian wave, "Water so bright and clear and fair, You think no hquid can be there." The comparative value of disinfectants to prevent decomposition of organic matter, i.e., as antiseptics, is thus given : COST. 100" Common Salt 1.0 1" Cresylic Acid 4.9 23^2 Chloride of Lime 7.0 9".3 Carbolic Acid 14.0 o Special directions are given for the best mode of preservin cattle skins, horn tips, salted and dry cattle-gut, melted tallow in casks, cows' hair, pigs' bristles, sheep's wool, fresh bones, skins and guts, raw flesh, wagons, platforms, cattle-pens, and ships. On the general subject of disinfection our author wisely remai'ks : — " It is a very complicated problem. Disinfection is ^' not a magic act, performed by a small piece of a substance, " which removes all evils at once. There are many evils in various " conditions, and each must be attacked in its own peculiar mode. " People must use their reason. Everyone must pick out the '^ cheapest and most convenient disinfectant, according to the " circumstances of the case. Chloride of lime destroys smells " rapidly ; Condy's fluid, ditto, and is itself without smell. Tar " acids (carbolic and cresylic) are good for continuous action, 1870.] REVIEWS AND NOTICES OF BOOKS. 97 *' especially for closets and the open air. Burnett's fluid, for " preserving moist bodies long." — (pp. 133-134). The work is eminently practical and suggestive. Perhaps it would be more acceptable to the public if it had been more dogmatic and positive in its generalizations. It is a valuable accumulation of facts carefully chronicled, and we may hope that some Liebig will arise to give us the great deductions which are involved in this most important subject — which are still " desiderata." J. B. E. Protoplasm ; or, Life, Matter, and Mind. By Lionel S. Beale, M.D., F.K.S. 2nd Edition. London: Churchill, 1870. — We have only to state in reference to this the second edition of Dr. Beale's interesting book, that it is much enlarged and contains a new section on the Mind. It is an able display of the author's well-known views in reference to the early development of the tissues, and embraces an attempt to apply these views to some of the problems, half physical, half metaphysical, which of late years have attracted the attention of thinking biologist. Whatever opinions may be held as to the dispute between Dr. Beale and Mr. Huxley, it is certain that the volume itself is full of interest both to the microscopist and the ordinary educated man. — Monthly Microscopical Journal. The Cell-Doctrine : Its History and Present State, &Q. Jy James Tyson, M.D., Lecturer on Microscopy in the University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: Lyndsay & Blakiston, 1870. — It is surprising how very little is known by medical men generally of the arguments for and against the cell-doctrine of Schwann and Schleiden. Notwithstanding the admirable essay published by Professor Huxley many years since in the ' Medico- Chirurgical Review,' and the numerous fine memoiis which Dr. Beale has given from time to time, it is still a fact that very few know how the question as to the mode of origin of the tissues now stands. It was to meet this want, and, at the same time, to help to promulgate Dr. Beale' s views, that the author of the pre- sent volume prepared this treatise. — Monthly Micro. Journal. YoL. V. G No. 1. 98 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. At a meeting of the Geological Society of London, held December 22nd, 1869, the following papers were read : Notes on the Structure op Sigillaria, by Principal Dawson, F.R.S., F.G.S., Montreal. — In this paper the author criticised the statements of Mr. Carruthers on the structure of Sigillaria (see Q. J. G. S. xxv. p. 248). He remarked that Sigillaria, as evidenced by his specimens, is not coniferous ; that the conifer- ous trunks found in the coal-formation of Nova Scotia do not present discigerous tissue of the same type as that of Sigillaria ; that no Conifer has a slender woody axis surrounded by an enormously thick bark ; that Calamodendron was probably a Gym- nosperm, and allied to Sigillaria ; that although Stigmaria may not always show medullary rays, the distinct separation of the wood into wedges is an evidence of their having existed ; that the dif- ference in minute structure between Sigillaria and Stigmaria involves no serious difficulty if the former be regarded as allied to Cycadaceas ; and further, that we do not know how many of the Stigmarise belong to Sigillaria proper, or Favularia, or to such forms as Clathraria and Leioderma, which may have been more nearly allied to Lepidophloios ; that the fruit figured by Goldenberg as that of Sigillaria is more probably that of Lepidophloios, or may be a male catkin with pollen ; and that he has found Trigon- ocarpa scattered around the trunks of Sigillaria, and on the surface of the soil on which they grew. He agreed with Mr. Carruthers in regarding Mr. Binney's Sigillaria vascularis as allied to Lepidodendron. Discussion. — Professor Morris thought that Clathraria and Lepidophloios ought to be discriminated from the Sigillarias, as being rather more nearly allied with cycadaceous plants, especially the former. He pointed out the maner in which certain vascular bundles communicating between the centre of the stem of Sigil- laria and allied genera and their bark might be mistaken for medullary rays. Note on some New Animal Remains from the Car- boniferous AND Devonian of Canada, by Principal Dawson, F.R.S., F.G.S., Montreal. — The author described the characters 1870.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 99 presented by the lower jaw of an Amphibian, of which a cast had occurred in the coarse sandstone of the coal-formation between Ragged Reef and the Joggins Coal-mine. It measured 6 inches in length ; its surface was marked on the lower and posterior part with a network of ridges inclosing rounded depressions. The an- terior part of the jaw had contained about 16 teeth, some of which remained in the matrix. These were stout, conical, and blunt, with large pulp-cavities, and about 32 longitudinal striae, corresponding to the same number of folds of dentine. The author stated that this jaw resembled most closely those of Baphetes and Dendrerpe- ton, but more especially the former. He regarded it as distinct from Baphetes planiceps, and proposed for it the name of B. minor. If distinct, this raises the number of species of Amphibia from the Coal-measure of Nova Scotia to nine. The author also noticed some insect remains found by him in slabs containing Sphenophyl- lum. They were referred by Mr. Scudder to the Blattariae. From the Devonian beds of Gaspe the author stated that he had obtained a small species of Cephalaspis, the first yet detected in America. With it were spines of Machairacanthus and remains of some other fishes. At Gasp^ he had also obtained a new species or variety of Psilophyton, several trunks of Prototaxites, and a species of Cyclostigma. Discussion. — The president objected to the term Reptiles being applied to Amphibia, from which they were totally distinct. He questioned the safety of attributing the jaw to Baphetes, of which no lower jaw had been previously found. Mr. Etheridge remark- ed that the Cephalaspis difiered materially in its proportions from any in either the Russian or British rocks. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. North American Laminariace^. — x\t a late meeting of the Nova Scotian Institute, Prof. Lawson read a short paper on this group of sea weeds, of which we give an abstract. He commenced by stating that although many subjects interesting to science had been the objects of study to members of the Institute, yet that the LaminariacegB of our coast and harbors had 100 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March been entirely neglected ; and he expressed a hope that some of them would qualify to supply the omission. The study had long engaged the earnest attention of celebrated naturalists. He enumerated the following species, which are fully described in Dr. Harvey's Nereis Boreali-Americana. Alaria escidenta — On rocks about low water mark, extending south to Cape Cod. A. Pylaii. — On rocks near low water mark, Newfoundland. Laminar ia Fascia. — A very small and delicate plant, only a few inches in length, found in Halifax harbor, on rocks and stones near low water mark by Prof. Harvey — widely distributed — occurring not only at Halifax and on the New York coast, but also on the Atlantic and Mediterranean shores of Europe, and at the Falkland Islands. Specimens of the allied L. dehilis were shown from Kutzing. L. lorea. — Shores of Newfoundland. L. dermatodea. — On rocks at and below low water mark, Newfoundland. L. saccharina. — At and below low water mark. Harvey gives it as common on rocky shores from Greenland to New York, and cast up from deeper water on the New Jersey coast. Prof. Lawson has a specimen collected by Dr. Rae at Montreal Island. L. longlcruris. — Abundant below low water mark along the shores of Halifax harbor, at Point Pleasant and around the wharves at the city. The species abounds along the shores from Greenland to Cape Cod, and occurs in Newfoundland. It occurs likewise in Europe, but there the range is quite northern as it scarcely extends beyond the limits of the Arctic Sea^ whence ragged fragments are sometimes drifted upon the Northern coasts of Scotland and Ireland, Its reported occurrence in the Bahama Islands is probably a mistake. L. trilaminata. — Found floating near Narragansett, Rhode Island ; it is probably an abnormal form of L. saccharina. L. digitata. — On rocks at and below low water mark, common as far as Cape Cod. Dr. Harvey's impression that possibly more than one species is confounded under this name should induce observers to examine the numerous forms with much care. Agarum Tumeri. — The species of Agarum differ notably from Laminaria in the flat frond being pierced throughout with holes, 1870. J BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 101 hence the common name, Sea Colander, by which they are known. This species grows below low water mark, and is thrown up in quantities by southern gales at Point Pleasant. It extends from Greenland to Cape Cod, and has likewise been collected on the coast of Russian America, but it is unknown on the European shores. A. pertuswnu — Newfoundland. This plant is distinguished by its less regularly shaped and smaller and fewer perforations.. Chorda filum. — The frond is of great length attached by a small disc and very slender at the base, thickening towards the middle, and again attenuating. It is often so long that when taken out of the water it ressembles a fishing line. It occurs between tide marks and extends into deep water, and is often abundant. C. lomentaria. — Extends from our coast south to Charleston, o. C Dr. Lawson, in conclusion, read a letter from Dr. A. F. Le- Jolis, of Cherbourg, France, in which he states — that he is engaged in a monograph of the whole group of the Laminariaceas, that for such a study materials are never too numerous, and that he would be happy to receive a fresh supply of specimens from North Amer^'ca. He asks Dr. Lawson's help, and that he would inte- rest his friends in his favour. It is not necessary that the specimens be prepared for the herbarium. On the contrary, he had rather they were coarsely dried, without being washed in fresh water or compressed. The parcels may be addressed to him, and sent by any vessel sailing for France, or, if convenient, through the steam packets from New York to Hamburg, which stop at Cherbourg on their return from America. — Newspaper Report. The Diffusion of Plants. — Prof. Delpino, of Florence, has published some interesting researches on the relation between the diffusion of plants and animals. The life of every plant has three principal objects : its nourishment, its reproduction and the distribution of its seeds ; for each of these three objects special bio logical conditions being requisite. The fertilisation of many plants can be effected only by some particular animal : as Arum italicum, Aristolochia, and Asaimm, by gnats ; the fig tribe by different species of Cynips (or gall-fly) ; Arum dracunailus, Sta. pelia, and Rafflesia, by blue-bottle flies ; many others by different kinds of flies or bee-like insects (^Hymenopterd) , and some even 102 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March by small birds belonging to the family of TrochiUdoe, or humming- birds ; Rosa^ Poeonia, and Magnolia^ qrandiflora, by beetles of the chafer tribe ; others again by small slugs. If in any particular locality the animal necessary for the fertilisation of a particular plant is absent, it is certain that the plant cannot spread ; and thus the conditions for the diffusion of plants are dependent on the geographical distribution of animals. A remarkable illustration is furnished by two plants belonging to the same genus, grown in the botanic gardens in Italy, Lobelia syphilitica and L.fidgens; the flowers of the former are abundantly visited by Bomhris ter- restris and italicus, and freely produce seeds ; the latter, not- withstanding its beauty and its great store of honey, is never visited by insects in the neighbourhood of Florence, and never bears seeds spontaneously, but can be readily fertilized by artifi- cial impregnation. Prof. Delpiuo conjectures that it is naturally fertilised by humming-birds. He believes that the scarlet colour of the corolla, so common in the tropics, but comparatively rare with us, is especially attractive to small birds, but offensive rather than otherwise to Hymenoptera. As a rule, scarlet flowers are large, bag-like in form, horizontal in position, and with the nectar completely separated, which would of itself perfectly prevent their fertilisation by insects. The largest European flowers, such as the paeony and^arge bird-weed {Convolvulus sepium) are fertilised by sphinxes and rose-chafers. — Botanishe Zeitung. National Museum of Bohemia, Nov. 24, 1869.— M. T. Palacky explained his views of the botanical geography of Asia. M. Grisebach has recently divided Asia into four botanical provinces : (1) Western, or that of the Steppes ; (2) Eastern, or Chinese ; (3) Boreal, or Siberian ; and (4j Southern, or that of India. M. Palachy admits only two provinces — the one Southern, the other Boreal— including in the latter the whole of Asia beyond the Himalayas, because the first three provinces of M. Grisebach do not appear to him to differ more from one another in regard to their flora than the sub -provinces of each do. The author lays special stress upon the tropical species inhabiting China — where they are not arrested by the steppes — as far north as Pekin, and even as the Amoor. According to M. Palachy, the existing flora of Central Asia is an invasion of the Mediterranean flora which took place after the elevation of the Turcoman plateau in place of the ancient post-tertiary sea 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 103 between Europe and Asia. The principal obstacle in the way of researches connected with botanical geography, is the diversity of the views adopted by various botanists ; one species of Hooker, Wallich and others being equivalent to at least twenty-five species of Maximowicz, Ruprecht and most of the German botanists. — Nature, No. 9. Notes on Canadian Birds. — The occurrence of the following rare birds in Lower Canada deserves placing on record. Falco Candicans, Gmelin. The American Jer Falcon. — The Rev. D. Anderson, M.A., of Point Levis, an acute ornithologist, informs the writer that he has in his collection an adult specimen of this rare species, which was shot on the north shore of the St. Lawrence, near the Bay of Seven Islands. Mr. Hancock has shewn that there are two species of Gyr- falcon, both of which are now included in the list of American birds. It is just possible that the specimens described by the late Dr. Hall as Falco Dawsonls (this Journal, Vol. 7, page 62), are the young of the American Jer falcon. Nijctale alhifrons, Shaw. The White-fronted or Kirtland's Owl. — A specimen of this scarce species was procured by the Rev. D. Anderson, which was shot at a place called Breakey's Mills, about six miles from the mouth of the Chaudiere river, near Quebec. Cardinalis Virgmianus, Bonaparte. The Summer Red Bird. — In the early part of June, 1862, Mr. W. Hunter saw two individuals of this species on Montreal mountain, one of which is now in his possession. It seems to be of rare occurrence, at least in Lower Canada. j. F. w. Lower Canadian Land and Fresh Water Mollusca. — Since the publication of my paper on the above subject, a few additional species have been found in Lower Canada, as follows : Bithinia tentaculata, Linn. This common European species has been found living in the Lachine canal, by Mr. G. T. Kennedy. According to Mr. G. W . Binney, this shell has been taken in Greenland. Helix Morsei (?), Tryon. Montreal mountain. Mr. R. J. Fowler. Helix (^Pseudohyalind) exigiia, Stimpson. West Farnham, P. Q. Mr. R. J. Fowler. 104 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March Helix (^Punctwni) minutissimum, Lea. Same locality and collector as for the preceding species. Notes on other Species. — Vahata humeralis (?), Say. (^Can. Nat., Vol. 8, page 102.) Though this may not be the true Humeralis of Say, in my judgment the shells in question are perfectly distinct from any varieties of V. tricarinata, or of V. siiicera. Mr. Binney refers them to the former, and the late Dr. Gould, to whom I sent specimens, to the latter species. Dr. Lea referred them doubtfully to V. humeralis. Our shells are covered with a thickish olivaceous epidermis, and are strongly transversely ribbed. Planorhis macrostomus. Probably it would be better to unite this form, together with the PL trivolvis, lentus and corpulentus of Say, under the general name of PI. trivolvis. Say. Helix exoleta, Say, so far as I am aware, does not occur in Lower Canada. Prof. Bell's specimens, said by him to have been determined by Mr. Binney, are all H. dentifera, Binney. Pupa simplex, Gould. The shells catalogued under this name, are all Pupa badia, C. B. Adams. j. f. w. Lower Canadian Marine Mollusca. — Since the appear- ance of my paper on dredging in Gaspe, in vol. iv., p. 270 of the new series of this journal, a few species of shells, which I had no means of identifying in Montreal, have been sent to Mr. J. G. Jeffreys, F.R.S., etc., for identification. Having been compared with specimens named by Moller, Mr. Jefi'reys recognizes the following species, which must now be added to our list of Lower Canadian marine molluscs : — Utriculus turritus, Moller. Rissoa scrohiculata, Moller. Bela Plngelii, Moller. Bela impressa. Beck. The shell supposed by me to be Philine lineolata, Gouth., Mr. Jeffreys informs me, is Philine lima, Brown. In like manner, the Margarita I referred to Gould's M. argentata, is M. Glauca, Moller, sp. ; and the species queried as Diaphana dehilis, Gould, is probably Utriculus hyaUnus. j. F. w. Swiss Mammalia. — M. Fatio gives the number of mammals inhabiting Switzerland in the wild state — that is, excluding the cat, dog, horse, ass, ox, sheep, and goat — as fifty-eight, or as sixty- one, if the rabbit (which is not indigenous, but has been imported 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 105 of late years) be reckoned, and the two minute forms, Sorex pygmceus and Mus minutus, which have been said to occur, but which M. Fatio has not himself succeeded in finding. This list does not include the ibex, the stag, or the 3fus agrarms, which have become extinct. Some mammals which occur in adjoining countries are remarkable for their absence in Switzerland : thus, the two bats, Rhinolophus clivosus and i?. Eiiri/ale, which occur in Lombardy, 3Ius agrarius, occurring near the Rhine on the north, and by Como to the south, Arvicola suhterraneiis, also found near the Rhine, and A. Savil, found in Lombardy, are not met with in Switzerland. M. Fatio has increased the catalogue of Swiss mammals, as given by some of his predecessors, by the addition of nine species of bats, two insectivora, and four rodents, one of which is consi- dered a new species altogether. This new species of M. Fatio, is a little black mouse, very much like the common house mouse (^Mus musculus). but having a very dark black-coloured fur ; the two presenting much the same contrast as do the Mios rattus and 3Ius Alexandrinus, which M. Fatio agrees with M. Arthur de I'Tsle in considering one and the same species. The new mouse, however, which is called Mus Poschiavinus, from the locality where it was observed, presents more important differences when compared with Mus musculus than those of colour and proportion only. The palatine ridges in M, Poschiavinus are four in number, in place of Jive in the common species, and the anterior simple ridges are of a different form. The strange thing about this little black mouse, which is found at Poschiavo in the Grisons, is that it lives on tobacco. It was first noticed in a tobacco-factory, and was found to make great ravages among the stores of the nicotian weed. When first caught, M. Fatio thought he had possibly got hold of young specimens of the black rat, but subsequently he obtained specimens bearing evident signs of maturity. It does not appear to have suggested itself to M. Fatio's mind, that his Mus Poschiavinus may be only a sample of the deleterious effect of indulgence in the noxious herb to which these rodents are addicted. What if this new black mouse is but a stunted race of the black rat ? It would furnish an invaluable argument to the anti-tobacconists. A very pretty coloured plate, representing two Poschiavinian mice helping themselves to cigars, illustrates the description of this species. It is not a little remarkable that an animal should 106 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March normally feed on tobacco. Monkeys, as is well known to the frequenters of menageries, are exceedingly fond of the end of a cigar, and an elephant has been seen gravely to accept such an oifering ; but one would have supposed that the amount of nicotine in a pinch of snuff was enough to make a mouse unwell. The indifference of these mice to the toxic action of tobacco, calls to mind the similar indifference on the part of pigeons (rodents are like birds in many things) to the toxic action of opium in the largest doses, as lately noticed by Dr. Weir Michell. Among the rarer and more interesting forms noticed by M. Fatio as still existing, or as having existed — for he notices the contents of the quaternary deposits in Switzerland — are the Bear (Jlrsus arctos), the Wolf (^Canis lupus'), the Wild Cat (^Felis catus), the Lynx (^Fells lynx), the Bouquetin or Ibex (^Capra ibex), the Chamois {Capella rufricapra), and the Stag (^Cervus elaphus). With regard to this last, it appears that, eighty years since, very jfine specimens inhabited the Swiss valleys ; now it only appears when driven from the German forests lying to the north ; its remains are found in quaternary deposits. The fallow-deer is represented neither in the present nor in the quater- nary fauna ; the Roebuck, or Chevreuil, is the only cervine species still inhabiting the country. Wolves, lynxes, and wild cats are not uncommon in the forests of the Jura ; but the lynx has not been found in the quaternary deposits, which is noteworthy, since Dr. Ransom, of Nottingham, has found it in England in snch beds. The bear is commonest in the Grrisons; every year there is some bear-hunting to be done in these wild and elevated valleys. The ibex, though no longer found in the Swiss ' Alps, occurs in the immediately adjacent territory of Lombardy ; where, however, it is now strictly preserved. The ibex of the Alps, of the Pyrenees, of Siberia, and of Crete, each have very distinctive characters, in the direction and length of their horns, but are hardly to be considered as distinct species. Some naturalists, however, disting-uish a second species in Spain, as JEgycei^os Hispanicus, occurring farther south than the so-called JEgyceros Fyrenaicus. The domesticated Capra hircus, has no doubt largely taken the place of the indigenous ibex ; natural hybrids between the two are not uncommon. The industrious Swiss have sometimes exhibited to curious tourists an eccentric specimen of the common goat as a living idex. M. Fatio mentions such an 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 107 instance, which may put naturalist travellers on their guard. A specimen presented by the King of Italy may be seen in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park. The chamois are still very numerous in Switzerland, though the large herds of eighty and a hundred, which used to be seen in past times, are not now met with. A certain amount of care is exercised now in regard to the time of hunting, and the animals are allowed to breed in security, so that they are on the increase in localities where they had become scarce. M. Fatio mentions an old hunter who boasted of having killed as many as 3,000 chamois. The Alpine marmot, which is so common and so well known to Alpine tourists, is not the mammal which attains the highest elevation of habitat in Switzerland ; another little rodent, the Arvlcola nivalis, has that distinguished honour, living at a greater altitude than any other European mammal. Both this species and the marmot live among tho oases of rock and herbage which stand out amidst the vast masses of moun- tain ice. The Bobac marmot does not occur in Switzerland, being confined to the north-eastern districts of Europe. The Alpine marmot inhabits the Carpathians and the Pyrenees, as well as the Alps. — From a Review of Dr. V, Fatio' s Faune des Vertebres de la Suisse. Part I. Mammals. By Dr. E, Ray Lankester, in " Nature.^^ The Use op Birds and Worms. — Worms and birds are great friends to grass-turf. Where there are plenty of black- birds and thrushes you will generally find the grass to thrive. No doubt the reason is that these cheerful creatures, like other cheerful creatures, have a desire to be useful. They know they cannot live upon song, and they cannot live by singing, for no one ever thinks of paying them for their merry minstrelsy ; so they work for their crust, and on the grass find wireworms, slugs, snails and leather-jackets ; the last named being the destructive grub, or the " Daddy Long-legs," the most outrageous destroyer of grass in the world. As to earth-worms, if you drive them out of your lawn, you must expect the grass to die. They are the cultivators of it. For any other crop we dig and manure constantly. For grass, we, as a rule, do neither. But we cut down a crop of it now and then, and carry it away. Now the worms dig and manure ; that is to say, they bore holes and throw up common 108 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March soil in little heaps, and in time will reverse the order of all the articles of the top crust. — Gardener' & Magazine^ Uses of the Cockchafer. — " Through the columns of the Moniteur Scientijique we learn that nothing can be better to grease machinery with, and prepare salad, than cockchafer oil. In Prussia the people have reached the advanced stage of making cockchafer flour, which, at present, is only used for the purpose of making cakes for young pheasants, partridges, and quails. In this country (France) an attempt has been made to introduce the white worm or larva of the cockchafer into the kitchen, as a sub- stitute for the snail ; but gentlemen who are voracious when Helix pomatia is concerned, turn up their noses at the grub of Melolontha vulgaris. A servant of the name of Jonglet, proposes to extract from the cockchafer colouring matter, which, it is said, will make rapid strides in industry, and create a small revolution in the commercial world. He states that he can get yellow out of the obnoxious insect of a colour between chro- mium and gold, — and that each insect yields a few centigrammes. Several specimens of silk, dyed with this new colour, have been exhibited and much admired. Taken all in all, the cockchafer, what with the amount of manure he furnishes when slain in proper quantities, and the uses above mentioned, stands a fair chance of being classed as a valuable insect, and some day we may hear philanthropic persons calling out against its wanton destruction." — Land and Water. The Melolontha vulgaris of Europe is represented in Canada by Lachnosterna fusca^GOvamonXy called the May bug. In refer- ence to the appearance of this creature, we may state, that it occurs in immense numbers every three years ; at least, such is our experience since 1855. The years 1858, 1861, 1864, and 1867, are those when this insect appeared in greatest numbers, and in 1870 we shall probably have another visitation of cock- chafers. It must not be inferred from the above statement that no examples of these insects occurred in the intervening years, for it is always a common species in Canada. But there are years when certain species prevail in such numbers as to be noticed by everybody. One reason why the cockchafer should be tri-yearly may be owing to the circumstance that it remains in the larva state for three years. Here, then, an opportunity occurs for testing some of the alleged practical uses to which these insects may be put. A. s. R. 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 109 Tomato-Worms not Poisonous. — The Tomato-worm belongs to an extensive group (the Sphinx family), almost all of which have a stiflf pointed horn growing out of their tails — a merely ornamental appendage, such as those which are distributed in considerable numbers over the body of another magnificent larva which we illustrated some time since. Why or wherefore it is impossible to say, but this poor unfortunate Tomato-worm has been selected by the popular voice, out of about fifty others belonging to the same family, and found within the limits of the United States — all of which have a similar horn growing out of their tails, — to be falsely accused of using this horn as a sting. The Tomato-worm and the Tobacco-worm are as Hke as two peas, and produce moths which resemble each other so closely, that entomologists for a long time confounded them together. Each has exactly the same kind of horn growing on the hinder extremity of its body ; yet while the Tomato-worm is generally accused of stinging folks with his horn, nobody, so far as we are aware, ever yet said that the Tobacco-worm would or could do so. The real truth of the matter is that neither of them can sting, either with his tail or with his head, or with any part of its body. Yet not a season elapses but the newspapers publish horrible accounts of people being stung to death by Tomato-worms, and earnestly recommended those who gather tomatoes to wear heavy buckskin gloves. These stories, however, have been contradicted so flatly and so often, that latterly the penny-a-liners have struck off upon another tack. Tomato-worms, it appears, do not sting with the horn that grows on their tails, but they " eject with great violence a green caustic fluid from their mouths to a distance of from 3 to 15 in." ! Now, what is the real truth about this matter ? Tomato- worms do really discharge from their mouths, when roughly handled, a greenish fluid, and so do the larva of almost all moths, and so does every species of grasshopper with which we are ac- quainted, and so do many different kinds of beetles. But it is not true that they can spit out this fluid even to the distance of a quarter of an inch, much less to the distance of 15 or even of 3 in. ; and especially it is not true that the fluid is poisonous. If it were so, we should have been in our graves long ago ; for we have had it repeatedly daubed over our fingers, but without the least ill effects therefrom, and so have scores of other entomologists in this country. The strangest thing of all is, that of two worms almost exactly alike, one of which eats tomato-leaves, and the 110 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March other eats tobacco-leaves, the tomato-chewer should be accused of spitting, and the tobacco-chewer should be held to be guiltless of this offensive practice. Now, then, gentlemen of the public press, if tomato-worms neither sting nor spit, what is the next charge that you are going to bring against them ? Why not assert that they can leap a distance of from 10 to 20 ft., having taken deadly aim at the human eyes, which they forthwith proceed to gouge out with their rough rasp-like pro-legs ? Of course you would follow this up by recommending everybody never to go near a tomato patch, without a large pair of green goggles to protect the eyes from being destroyed. — American Entomologist. CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Hydrogenium. — The last researches of the late lamented Prof. Graham, the Master of the Mint, were devoted to the study of a new condition of hydrogen antithecal to that of oxygen in the form of ozone; and to this condition of the element he gave the name of Hydrogenium. By all analogy the new substance should be considered metallic, but like ozone, it has not been isolated. The details of Prof. Graham's researches, communicated to the Royal Society, were devoted to the rela- tions of hydrogen to palladium. He had also observed hydro- genium in meteoric iron. Concluding an account of his re- searches to the Royal Society, Prof. Graham thus remarks on the chemical properties of hydrogenium which distinguish it from ordinary hydrogen : — <' The palladium alloy precipitates mercury and calomel from a solution of the chloride of mercury without anydisengagement of hydrogen ; that is, hydrogenium decomposes chloride of mer- cury, while hydrogen does not. This explains why Mr. Stanislas Meunier failed in discovering the occluded hydrogen of meteoric iron, by dissolving the latter in a solution of chloride of mercury ; for the hydrogen would be consumed, like the iron itself, in preci- pitating mercury. Hydrogen (associated with palladium) unites with chlorine and iodine in the dark, reduces a persalt of iron to the state of protosalt, converts red prussiate of potash into yellow 1870.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Ill prussiate, and has considerable deoxidizing powers. It appears to be the active form of hydrogen, as ozone is of oxygen. " The general conclusions which appear to flow from this in- quiry are, that in palladium fully charged with hydrogen, as in the portion of palladium wire now submitted to the Royal Society, there exists a compound of palladium and hydrogen in a propor- tion which may approach to equal equivalents.^ That both substances are solid, metallic, and of a white aspect. That the alloy contains about 20 volumes of palladium united with a volume of hydrogenium ; and that the density of the latter is about 2, a little higher than magnesium, to which hydrogenium may be supposed to bear some analogy. That hydrogenium has a certain amount of tenacity, and possesses the electrical conduc- tivity of a metal. And finally, that hydrogenium takes its place among magnetic metals. The latter fact may have its bearing upon the appearance of hydrogenium in meteoric iron, in associa- tion with certain other magnetic elements." Metallic Hydrogen. — At a recent meeting of the Lyceum of Natural History in New York, a paper was read by Dr. Loew, Assistant in the College of New York, •' On the Preparation of Hydrogen Amalgam." The researches of Graham went to show that hydrogen could be alloyed with palladium, and that it was also contained in meteoric iron. He condensed the hydrogen in the palladium, and came nearer proving its metallic character than any other person had done. Schoenbein, in his search for ozone, found a method for making the peroxide of hydrogen which brought him to the very threshold of discovering hydrogenium. Schoenbein's experiment was this: — An amalgam of zinc and mercury is violently agitated in water ; the water is then filtered, and, on being examined with iodide of starch and protosulphate of iron, will be found to contain peroxide of hydrogen or oxyge- nated water. Dr. Leow has carried the investigation further, and has, instead of oxidizing the hydrogen, succeeded in combining it with the mercury. He takes an amalgam composed of no more than three or four per cent, of zinc, and shakes it with a solution of bichloride of platinum ; the liquid becomes black, and a dark powder settles to the bottom. The contents of the flask are then thrown into * Proceedings of the Royal Society. 1868, p. 425, 112 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [March water, and hydrochloric acid added to dissolve the excess of zinc. The amalgam of hydrogen and mercury at once forms in a brilliant voluminous mass, resembling in every way the well-known ammonium amalgam. It is soft and spongy, and rapidly decom- poses, but without any smell of ammonia. The hydrogen escapes, and soon nothing but pure mercury is left in the dish. The experiment appears to show conclusively that an amalgam of hydrogen and mercury can be formed, and that hydrogen is really a metal. It would also throw some doubt upon the existence of the amalgam of ammonium and mercury, and offer an explanation of that compound on the basis of its being the same amalgam of hydrogen and mercury that is prepared in the way now pointed out by Dr. Loew. The smell of escaping ammonia must be traced to some other source than the existence of that radical in combi- nrtion with mercury. — ' Scientific American.^ Artificial Production of Ice. By P. H. Vander Weyde, M.D. Calculation of the amount which can he jpio- duced fromi a given ainount of coal in the modern ice machine. — The amount of ice produced by an ice machine, worked by means of an exhaust or condensing air-pump, driven by steam power, is easily determined, theoretically, from the amount of coal burned in the furnace of the steam boiler. It has been proved that the combustion of one pound of anthracite coal produces, in round numbers, 14,000 units of heat, and that in order to freeze water of 72° Fahr., it is necessary to abstract, besides 40*^ of sensible heat, 140® of latent heat — together 180 — which for one pound of water is, of course, equivalent to 180 units of heat. As this number of the units is the eightieth part of the 14,000 units produced by the combustion of one pound of coal, it is clear that the heat produced by the combustion of one ton of coal is equivalent to the heat to be abstracted from 80 tons of water of 72®, in order to change it into ice. But in practice we find here exactly the same state of affairs as is the case with the steam engine. Theoretically, a steam engine ought to produce at least 700 units of force (foot-pounds) for every unit of heat consumed ; in practice, good machinery only produces from about 70 to 100 foot-pounds, from about one-tenth to one-seventh part of the theoretical amount. In the best ice machines thus far constructed, instead of freezing 80 tons of water for every ton of coal consumed^ only from about 8 to 11 tons of 1870.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 113 ice are produced also, from one-tenth to one-seventh part of the theoretical amount, proving, thus, the remarkable fact, that in both the steam engine and the ice machine, exactly the same relation exists between the theoretically calculated effects and the practical results. As, however, all the best ice machines accomplish the conversion of the heat of the fuel into the freezing operation by the interven- tion of a steam engine, the fact that they practically produce only from one-tenth to one-seventh of the amount of the cold they theoretically should produce, is solely due to the other fact, that the steam engine itself practically produces only from one-tenth to one-seventh of the amount of power which would be strictly equivalent to the number of heat units consumed. It must not be lost sight of that it is only the power of the steam engine which generates the cold in the freezing machines, and that therefore, improvements in the steam engine, which bring its practical results nearer to the theoretical standard, will at once exert their influence on the amount of ice the ice machines can produce, and, consequently, also on the cost of the ice manufac- tured in these machines. Moreover, it appears that the kind of freezing machines in question, which convert power into cold, notwithstanding they are yet in their infancy, have already attained such a degree of excellence, that they are ahead of that class of machines which convert heat into power, either by steam, hot air, or any other possible means, as it is proved that they produce the full theoretical equivalent of cold (negative heat) for the number of foot-pounds employed ; namely, cooling one pound of water one degree for a power equivalent to 700 pounds, descending one foot, which, expressed in the adopted scientific manner, is one unit of negative heat for every 700 foot-pounds consumed. — Scientific American. Pins pointed by Electricity. — A recent discovery has been made by M. Cadery, telegraph inspector on the Western Swiss railroad, ahd is now applied with success at Aix la Chapelle (Belgium), whence needles and pins are shipped to all parts of the world. On passing a metallic wire (brass, copper, iron or steel), connected with the negative pole of a Bunsen's battery, through the bottom of a glass tube, closed in such a way as to hold an acidulated liquid, and leading the other wire of the positive pole through the superior opening of the glass tube, closed in such a YOL. Y. G No. 1. 114 THE CANADIAN NATURALISE. [March way as to allow the positive wire to plunge into this acidulated liquid, taking care to leave a small interval between the extremi- ties of the wires ; the electric current thus established through the acidulated fluid as a conductor, produces the following phenomena. Very soon the extremity of the positive wire takes a conical point of more or less sharpness, depending on the free distance existing between the two wires plunging into the acidulated liquid. Dur- ing this phenomenon, which takes from 5 to 15 minutes, according to the acid used, its strength, the coinposition of the wire, its degree of thickness, and also the intensity of the electric current, very fine sections of the wire are seen to separate from the wire. Water, acidulated with sulphuric acid, appears to be more effica- cious, especially for iron and steel wires. Nitric acid is used in preference for brass and copper wires. The same effect will take place if to the positive pole (superior) an indefinite number of wires are tied together and dipped in the acidulated water, instead of the single wire, care being always to keep this positive wire at a Httle distance from the negative wire. I have seen a hundred brass wires after having been submitted to this operation, present points as sharp as the best English pins, although the electric current was produced by a very small Bunsen's battery. It ap- pears to me very desirable that this new method should receive proper encouragement, and everything should be tried to bring it into general use. The operation of making the points of needles and pins in their manufacture is a dangerous and costly one. Medical men in large manufacturing cities have long recognized the dangerous eff"ects produced by the fine metallic dust resulting from it, on the health of the workmen. The remedies for this evil are very imperfect, little used, and very impracticable; in- haling apparatus communicating with the outside air has been tried, but every danger would be suppressed by the method above described. — Scientific American. Another New Dye. — The aniUne dyes, it seems, have now a rival which not only vies with them in brilliancy and variety, but is of a less fleeting or more fixing character. The new colouring matter, according to the Mechanics' Magazine^ is a pure- ly vegetable extract, the plant from which it is obtained being imported from the western part of Africa, and also from the West Indies. The colouring matter is variously treated, according to 1870.] MICROSCOPY. 115 the colours required and the dyes to be prepared from it. The process of production is carried on with machinery of a special character, which has been designed by the patentees, Messrs. Walker & Co., for this manufS^. acuta, Sm. — Rare. Sandy Cove ; River Don. S. dilatafa, Sm. — Rare. Burlington Bay. S. gracilis, Ehr. — Common. Island Ponds, Toronto ; Humber Ponds. • 1870.] OSLER — ON CANADIAN DIATOM ACE^E. 149 S. punctata, Kutz. — Kare. River Don. S. linearis, Ehr. — Very rare. Pond near Niagara Falls. S. anceps, Ehs. — Common. De^jarJin Canal ; Kempenfelt Bay. PLUROSIGMA, SM. P. attenatum, Sm. — Not uncommon. Outlet of Grenadier Pond; Don Marsh; iiurliugton Beach. P. Spencerii, Sm. — Rare. Mr. Saunders' farm, London ; Des- jardin Canal. SYNEDRA, EHR. S. luiiaris, Ehr. — Bare. Humber Bay ; Stream at Barrie. S, tninutissimay Kutz. — Common. River Thames, London. S. radians, Sm. — Very common. Streams at Dundas, Weston, Paris, London, etc. S. capitata, Ehr. — Common. Sandy Cove ; Grenadier Pond. S. ulna, Ehr. — Not uncommon. Niagara Falls ; Humber Bay. S. hngissima, Sm. — Rare. Sunken boat, Humber River. S. fasciculata, Kutz. — Common. Stream at London. COCCONEMA, EHR. C. lanccolatum,Wi\v. — Common. Grenadier Pond ; Desjardin Canal. C. parvum, Sm. — Rare. Pond at Ancaster. C. cistula, Ehr. — Not uncommon. Sandy Cove; Humber Bay. GOMPHONEMA, AG. G. geminatum, Ag. — Common. On Cladopliora glomerata, in swiftly running streams, and on wharves. G. oUvaceum, Ehr. — Common. Trinity College stream, and streams at Weston. G. acuminatum, Ehr. — Not uncommon. Grenadier Pond. G. cristatum,, Ralfs. — Rare. Mouth of the Humber. G.dicJiotomum,Kuiz. — Common. Wharves, Toronto; Grena- dier Pond ; St. Lawrence, at Prescott, (Rev. W. A. Johnson.) G. curvatum. — Not uncommon. Grenadier Pond ; Desjardin Canal. MERIDION, AG. 31. circulare, Ag. — Common. Cedar swamp, Weston; streams at WesLon, Dundas, and Toronto. 31. constriction, Ralfs. — Rare. Island Pond, Toronto. 150 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June HIMANTIDIUM, EHR. H. arcus, Sm. — Not uncomnioD. Burlington Bay , Humber Ponds. H. 2>ectinalc, Kuiz. — Common. Grenadier Pond; stream at Paris. M. majusy Sm. — Rare. Kempenfelt Bay. ODONTIDIUjI, kutz. 0. mutahile, Sm. — Common. Saudy Cove ; Lake Simcoe ; stream at London. 0. Tabellarla, Sm. — Bare. Mouth of Dcsjardin Canal. 0. parasiticum, Sm. — Bare. Sandy Cove ; Lake Simcoe. 0. Harnsonii, Sm. — Frequent. Kempenfelt Bay; stream at Dundas. 0. anomalum, Sm. — Not uncommon. Don Marsli ; Grenadier Pond. FRAGILARIA, LYNG. F. ccqmcina, Desm. — Common. Streams at Dundas, Toronto, London, and Oakville. F. viresceiis, Balfs. — Not uncommon. Desjardin Canal. ACHNANTHES, BORY. A. exiUs, Kutz. — Not uncommon. Stream at Hamilton ; Humber Ponds. DIATOM A, DEC. D. vulgarc, Bory. — Very common. Grenadier Pond and else- where. D. dongatum, Ag. — Common. Desjardin Canal; stream at Orillia. TABELLARIA, EHR. T.flocculosa, Kutz.— Frequent. Humber Ponds; Burlington Bay; Cedar Swamp, Weston. T. fenestrata, Kutz.— Common. Biver Thames, London. MELOSIRA, AG. 31. vartans, Ag.— Common. Stream near Dundas ; wharves at Toronto. ORTHOSIRA, THWAITES. 0. oriclialcea, Sm. — Bare. Sandy Cove ; Lake Simcoe. 0. spinosa, Sm. — Rare. Buoy in Burlington Bay. 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 151 ENCYONEMA, KUTZ. E. prostratum, llalfs. — Common. Wharves at Toronto ; water trough near Dundas. COLLETONEMA; ERIE. C. vulgare, Thw. — Rare. Mill-stream, Dundas. C. neglccium, Thw. — Not uncommon. River Don ; Toronto Island ; Kempenfelt Bay. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. By Henry Eeeks, F.L.S., &g. ( Continued from page 47.) PiciD^. The Woodpeckers. Hairi/ Wooclpechei\ or Sapsucher (Picus villosus, Linn.) — Tolerably common, and does not migrate. Newfoundland specimens appear to agree with Professor Baird's variety — medius. jDoiimi/ Woodpecher, or Sapsucher (P. pubescens, Linn.') — Very common, and, like the preceding species, is non-migratory. Black-hacked Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides arcticus, Swains.) — This fine species is tolerably common in Newfound- land throughout the year ; and, often when the snow is drifting through these dreary forests, no other sign of animal life is noticeable than the " Woodpecker tapping " in search of the larvae of several fine species of Sirex which abound there. Banded Three-toed Woodpecker (Picoides hirsutus, Vieill.) — Scarcely so common as the preceding species, but, like that, is a resident throughout the year. I shot several males, but had a difficulty in getting a female, though I succeeded at last in killing one specimen. It is a rather darker bird than the male, and is without the yellow patch on the crown, having that part spotted with white. The transverse bands on the back are similar to those on the male. Black Woodcock, or Logcock (Hylotomus pileatus, Linn.) — This is the "great black Woodpecker" of the Newfoundland 152 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuDG settlers, and appears to be rather rare, as I did not meet with it during my stay there. It is probably a summer migrant. Flichcr (Colaptes auratus, Limi.) — This species is a summer visitor to Newfoundland, where it is called the " English Wood- pecker," and is tolerably common. It has a peculiar note, which bears a flmcied resemblance to that of the green Woodpecker (^Piais viridis ;) hence the name bestowed on it by the settlers. Three other species of Woodpecker probably occur in New- foundland, but I did not meet with them, viz., Sphyraplcus varius, Linn. ; Centurus Carolirius, Linn. ; and 3Ielanerpcs cri/throcej)halus, Linn. Cypselid^. The Swifts. American Chimney Swallow TChastura pelasgia, Linn.') — Lpparently rare, at least at Cow Head. I only examined one pecimen, shot in June, 1868. It is, of course, a summer migrant. American Nlgkt Haich (Chordeiles popetue, Vieill.) — Well ^nown to the settlers as the " Night Hawk,'' but I did not meet with a specimen. It is a summer migrant. ALCEDiNiDiE. The Kingfishers. Belted Kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon, Linn.) — Tolerably common during the summer months, and, like the British species of King- fisher, builds in banks, often at a considerable depth, and lays five or six white eggs. I have always found the belted King- fisher a very shy bird, and difficult to get a shot at. Tyrannid^. The Tyrant Flycatchers. King Bird, or Bee Martin (Tyrannus Carolinensis, Linn.) — Visits Newfoundland for nidification, and is tolerably abundant. I have shot them after the first fall of snow in the autumn. Peivee (Sayornis fuscus, Gmelin.) — A summer migrant, but not common. Wood Peiccc (Contopus virens, Linn.) — A summer migrant, arriving in May. Not common. Least Lly catcher (Empidonax minimus, Baird.) — A single specimen, obtained in the month of June, 1868. It is a summer migrant. Green-crested Flycatcher (Empidonax Acadicus, Gmelin.) — Not very common. Frequents woods in the neighbourhood of houses, and is a summer migrant. 1S70.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 153 Yellow-heUled Flycatcher (Empidonax flaviventris, Baird.) — Apparently a common summer migrant, arriving in May. TuRDTD.^. The Thrushes. Hermit Thrush (T. PaUasi, Cahanis.) — A common summer visitor, and tolerably good songster. Arrives about the middle of May. Wilson's Thrush (T. fuscescens, Stephens.) — A summer migrant, but not so common as the preceding species. One specimen, obtained in May, 1868. Olive-hacked Thrush (T. Swainsoni, CaZ>.) — A summer migrant? but scarcely so common as T. Pallasi. Migratory Thrush, or American Rohin (T. migratorius, Linn?) — A summer migrant, and by far the commonest of all tlie Turdidge. Arrives in April, and soon commences building. I have taken the eggs early in May. This bird is called the "Robin" by the English settlers, evidently from its redbreast and familiarity; it is, however, about the size of the Fieldfare [T. pilaris,') and much resembles that bird in habits. The eo-o-g are not quite so large, and of an unspotted blue. A pair of these birds occupied the same nest at Cow Head for six consecutive years. Considering the vast number of " Robins" which annually breed in Newfoundland, this habit may account for the scarcity of old nests, so apparent in passing through the thick fir woods. Blue Bird (Sialia sialis, Linn.) — A summer migrant, and said, by the settlers, to be occasionally common. I did not, however, meet with it. Ruhy-crowned Wren (Regulus calendula, Linn.) — Not un- common. Arrives in Newfoundland in May. \Uydrol)ata Mexicana, Bonap. — Has this species really occurred in Nova Scotia? Vide Downs on the "Land Birds of Nova Scotia."] Sylvicolid^. The Warblers. American Tit Lark (An thus Ludovicianus, Gmclin.') — 1 do not think this bird breeds in Newfoundland, as I have only seen it in August, or during the autumnal migration. Black and White Creeper (Mniotilta varia, Linn.) — Appar- ently a common summer migrant. Maryland Yellow thi'oat (Geothlypis trichas, Linn.) — A sum- mer migrant. Common. YoLY. K N"o. 2. 154 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Juiie Nashville Warbler (HelminthopTiaga ruficapilla, Wilson.') — A summer migrant, but apparently rare. One specimen, obtained in June, 1868. Oven Bird, or Golden- crowned Thrush (Seiurus Aurocapillus, Linn.) — A summer migrant, but not common. Black-throated Green Warhler (Dendroica virens, Gmelin.) — A summer migrant, and tolerably common, arriving towards the latter end of May. Yellow-rumped Warhltr (T>. coronata Linn.) — A common summer migrant, arriving early in May. Bay-hreasted Warhler (D. castanea, Wilson.) — Tolerably com- mon. Arrives in Newfoundland early in June. Chestnut-sided Warhler (J). Pennsylvanica, Linn.) — Tolerably common throughout the summer. Black-poll Warhler (D. striata, Forster.) — x\pparently not un- common in summer. Yellow Warhler (D. gestiva, Gmelin.) — A common summer migrant, and called, bv the settlers, ''Yellow-hammer." It makes a pretty little nest in low bushes, somewhat resembling that of our English Goldfinch. Yellow Red-poll Warhler (D. palmarum, Gmelin.) — One of the arliest spring migrants, and tolerably common. Black and Yellow Warhler (D. maculosa, Gmelin.) — Arrives in May, and is tolerably common. Green Black-cap Flycatcher (Myiodioctes pusillus, Wilson.) — A summer migrant. Arrives in June, but is not very common. Canada Flycatcher (M. Canadensis, Linn.) — Arrives in June, but not common. American Redstatt (Setophaga ruticilla, Linn.) — A summer migrant, but rare in the north of Newfoundland. It is called " Goldfinch" by the English settlers. Arrives about tiie middle of May. HiRUNDiNiD^. The Swallows. Barn Swallow (Hirundo horreorum, Barton.) — A rare summer migrant at Cow Head. Cliff Swallow (H. lunifrons, Say.) — An equally rare summer migrant with the preceding species. White-hellied Swallow (H. bicolor, Vieill.) — A summer migrant, and very common at Cow Head ; in fact, the only species of swallow to be seen there throughout the summer. 1870. J REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 155 Bank Swallow, or Sand Martin (Cotyle riparia, Linn.) — Very- rare at Cow Head, but said to be very common about the Bay of St. George, and further south. Purple 3Iartin (Progne purpurea, Linn.') — This beautiful species appears rare in Newfoundland ; at least I only obtained one specimen, shot at Daniels' Harbour in June, 18G8. The settlers did not seem to be acquainted with the bird, or know anything of its breeding habits. [Note. — Of the Bombycillidae, Ampelis cedrorum, Baird, be looked for in Newfoundland.] Laniid^. The Shrikes. Great Northern Shrike, or American Butcher Bird (Collyrio borealis, Vieill.) — Visits Newfoundland in its periodical migra- tions, but appears rare. Perhaps a few remain to breed on the island, although I have no evidence at present to prove it. Yellow-throated Flycatcher (Vireo flavifrons, Ftei7Z.) — A sum- mer migrant, and appeared tolerably common in 1868 arriving in June at Cow Head. Liotrichid^. Winter Wren (Troglodytes hyemalis, Vieill.) — Common, and resident throughout the year. Certhid^. American Creeper (Certhia Americana, Bonap.) — Apparently a summer migrant, but not very common. I am inclined to think this bird may not migrate, although I did not observe it in the depth of winter. Red-hellicd Nuthatch (Sitta Canadensis, Linn.) — Perhaps a resident on the island. The only one obtained was in April, 18G8. It is certainly a rare bird at Cow Head. Parid^. Blach-cap Titmouse (Paris atricapillus, Linn.) — Common, and resident throughout the year. Breeds in holes in trees ; some- times adopts deserted holes made by Picus j^ubescens. Iludsonian Tit. (P. Hudsonicus, Forster.) — Common, and non-migratory. Breeds in holes in trees, and associates with the preceding species in winter, at which season the juvenile New- foundlanders frequently amuse themselves by calling these little 156 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June birds around them and knocking them off the boughs with a stick, or even the ramrods of their guns. My specimens were obtained for me in this manner. Fringillid^e. American Pine Grosbealc (Pinicola Canadensis, Briss.') — Com- mon throughout the year, but apparently more abundant in winter, when they get together in small flocks of about two broods. They feed on the huds only of Vinus, Abies, Larix, &c., and are very tame, being often killed with sticks. Pro- vincial name, "Mope." Yellow Bird, or Thistle Bird (Chrysomitris tristis, Linn.") — A common summer migrant. Pine Pinch (C. pinus, Wilson.) — A summer migrant, but apparently not so common as the preceding species. From my short residence in Newfoundland the observations on the distribution of some of the smaller species belonging to the Fringillidce, Sylvicolidce, &c., may not be of much value — e. g.^ it is very probable that some birds, especially of these families, which are not uncommon, and even generally distributed over the island, may have altogether escaped my notice, while, on the other hand, some rare, or otherwise not regular migrants, may have fallen to my gun on more than one occasion during the summers of 1867 and 1868. In such cases I have naturally stated the birds to be frequent, or common, as the evidence may tend to show. American Crosshill (Curvirostra Americana, Wilson.) — Com- mon throughout the year, and an early breeder. Feeds on the seeds of Coni/erce, and is called by the settlers the 'Marge spruce bird," to distinguish it from the following species. White-winged Crosshill (C. leucoptera, Gmelin.) — These pretty little birds are common throughout the year, but more abundant during winter, when they congregate in small flocks of from five to twenty individuals, feeding principally on the cones of the White Spruce (Ahies alha.) When feeding these birds are usually very tame, and easily approached. I kept an old " Joe Man ton," loaded with small shot, in the house, for the purpose of shooting Crossbills and other small birds, and remember, on one occasion, snapping three percussion caps at a small flock of C leucoptera, within fifteen yards of me, without causing them sufficient alarm to take wing. They have a very pleasing note) 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 157 much resembling the song of the canary. The provincial name is "Spruce Bird." MeaJjj Redpole (^'Egiothus linaria, L'uinS) — Very common, and does not migrate. Breeds early, and generally in alder bushes ; hence its provincial name of " Alder Bird." Feeds on the buds of ConifercB, &c., when the ground is covered with snow. Snow Bunting (Plectrophanes nivalis, Linn.) — Yery common in its periodical migrations, but, I scarcely think, breeds on the island, although I saw a good many there in June last (1868.) Provincial name, " Snow Bird." I did not meet with P. lapponicus, Linn., but it is probably seen in some parts of the island. Savannah Sparrow (Passerculus Savanna, WUson. — Abundant throughout the summer. Frequents grassy places, building its nest on the ground. Provincial name, " Grass Bird." White-crowned Sparrow (Zonotrichia leucophrys, Forster.) — A common summer migrant, arriving in May. White- throated Sparrow (Ti. albicollis, Gnielin.) — A summer migrant, and equally common with the preceding species. Arrive in May, usually towards the latter end of the month. Snow Bird (Junco hyemalis, Linn.) — A summer migrant, arriving about the last of May, and tolerably common throughout the summer. Chipping SparroiD (Spizella sccialis, Wilson.) — A common summer migrant. Fox-coloured Sparrow (Passerella iliaca, Merrem.) — This fine species of Sparrow is a summer migrant, and very common. It is called the "Hedge Sparrow" by the settlers, and is very trouble- some in gardens, scratching up fine seeds. Breeds sometimes on the ground, at others in low bushes. ICTERID.^. Rusty Blachhird (Scolecophagus ferruginous, Gnielin.) — A regular and common summer migrant, remaining generally until after the first fall of snow. Crovj Blachhird (Quiscalus versicolor, Linn.) — A summer migrant, but rare ; at least I only saw one specimen at Parson's Pond, about twelve miles north-east of Cow Head. CORVID.^. American Raven (Corvus carnivorus, Bartram.) — Common 158 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuUG throughout the year. I think Wilson and Audubon were right in not separating this bird from the European C. Co7'ax. I cannot see the least diiFerence — at least, not more than would be found in examining a quantity of either species, if they are distinct. The more slender bill is more individual than typical of the American bird. The eggs certainly cannot be separated, but this is also the case with several of the Corvidce, which are otherwise well marked and well-known species. American Crow (C. Americanus, J[itc?zzZ)o?i.) — A common sum- mer migrant to Newfoundland, arriving in April. Frequents the sea coast, breeds in trees, and lays four or five eggs much resembling those of C. frugiJcgus. It is called the " Otter Crow" bv the settlers. Pica Hudsonica, Sahhie — May reasonably be expected to occur in Newfoundland, but I am inclined to think it does so only as a straggler. Blue Jay (Cyanura cristata, Linn.) — A summer migrant, but not common. Breeds in Newfoundland, and is called the '' Silken Jay" by the settlers. Canada Jay (Perisoreus Canadensis, Linn.) — Common, and remains throughout the year. In some of its habits, and especially its familiarity, this bird much reminds the English sportsman of Robin Redbreast at home. When camping in the woods, miles back in the country, the Canada Jay, or, as it is often called, " Whiskey Jack," was ever my constant, and, frequently, only feathered companion. Like others of its tribe it appears very partial to raw meat for food, although, when in the vicinity of houses, it becomes almost omnivorous, eating bread, fish, potatoes &c., with an evident rehsh. It is said to collect and store away large quantities of cranberries for winter use. I have never met with any of these '-stores," but have often noticed the Jays picking the berries, especially in the spring of the year, where the snow has disappeared in patches in the open marshes. In a state of nature I think the Canada Jay is even tamer than the Robin. I remember on one occasion, particularly when deer-hunting in the country, I had the hearts of three caribou hanging to the " tilt," or camp, within four feet of my head, and, although unable to leave the "tilt" for the whole day, from bad weather, the Jays managed to eat all the fat from the hearts, notwithstanding I continually drove them away, but, like vultures and carrion crows, with every re-appcarance there seemed a re-inforcement, until at 1870. MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 159 last, to save my venison, I had to amuse myself by firing balls at them from my rifle as they sat on and picked a fine fat quarter of caribou only a few yards distant from the camp. My specimens were obtained by tying a piece of meat to the pan of a rat-gin and retiring a few yards from the trap : they were invariably caught by the bill. The settlers, strange to say, cannot succeed in keeping this bird alive in confinement. I did not meet with any of the Columhidoe in Newfoundland,. Ectopistes migratoria, Linn., may prove an occasional straggler there. (To he continued.) ON THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORIGINAL OR CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. By Thomas Macfarlame. {Continued from March Nuniber.) III. — TEXTURE OF ORIGINAL ROCKS. In adverting to the origin of rocks, those which have been called original were described as analogous in nature to furnace scoriae. This may seem a forced comparison, and it may be supposed that crystalline rocks are not likely to be influenced by heat ; but the truth is that nearly every one of them have been shewn, experimentally, by Hall, Bischof, Delesse, and Sorby, to be fusible, and to be reduced by a high temperature to the same condition as furnace scoriae. But while the latter generally exhibit, on cooling, a homogeneous mass, original or compound crystalline rocks are most frequently seen to be composed of various and difi"erent minerals. While the furnace slao-s, in rapid cooling, had no time during which their chemical con- stitutents could arrange themselves into difi'erent compounds, the greater number of original rocks, having solidified in enormous masses, and, doubtless, during long periods of time, their con- stituents had opportunity for arranging themselves in such a manner as their chemical affinities suggested. The minerals, which were the result of this re-arrangement of the chemical elements, are not, however, always readily recognized in rocks. The latter have in some rare cases solidified so hurriedly that 160 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June they present merely the appearance of natural glass. Others, have had time to lay aside the vitreous character and assume a, stony appearance, but they appear so homogeneous and fine- grained that their compound nature would scarcely be suspected. This is, for instance, the case with basalt, which, on this account, was at one time regarded as a simple mineral. On grinding it to powder and washing it, however, Cordier found it to consist of several minerals with distinct physical characters. A good many other rocks are seen, on examination, to be distinctly compound, but their constituent minerals are developed in such minute grains that their determination becomes a matter of very great difficulty. It is only in the coarser and large grained rocks that the constituent minerals can be readily recognized by the student, and their physical and chemical properties easily tested. These variations in the size of the constituent minerals aro accompanied by differences in their form and position, and, both tof^ether, give rise to what is called the texture of crystalline rocks, — difference in which may easily and at once be detected by the student. Coarse and fine grained, schistose and slaty, vitreous, porous, and other such names, are used for characteriz- ing peculiarities of texture, which are not at all to be regarded as merely trifling accidents in the history of rocks, but which really possess a deeper meaning than we are inclined at first to imagine. Although neither the furnace nor the volcano can give us any conception of the magnitude of the scale upon which the earlier original, or, as they have been named, the plutonic rocks, were erupted, still, they furnish us with hints which we cannot afford to neglect. To the metallurgist, it is an every day occur- rence to observe that the same scorioD yields either a vitreous slag or a stony mass, accordingly as it has been quickly or slowly cooled. Slag cakes, a few inches in diameter, are found to be impalpable or glassy on the outside, while on breaking them, the interior is found to be porcelain-like or crystalline. Bischof made some interesting experiments on this matter at the iron-works of Magdesprung in the Hartz. He allowed common iron furnace slag to run into cold water, where it disengaged sulphuretted hydrogen, and yielded a white, easily friable pumice stone. He next allowed the slag to solidify upon cold, somewhat moist, sand. This gave a harder pumice, still retaining some of the original color of the slag. In the next experiment the slag was allowed to cool on a completely dry bottom of sand, and the result was a 1870.] MACFARLANE — OX CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 161 brownisli-green transparent glass. Under a protecting cover of dry sand, the solidified slag was found to contain crystalline quadriitic prisms in considerable numbers, and between them lay spherical concretions, consisting of regular radiating fibres, ex- tending from the middle point in every direction. In the last experiment the slag was exposed to slow cooling in a basin lined with a warm mixture of charcoal powder and clay. When broken, after cooling, it did not exhibit a trace of vitreous substance nor any quadratic prisms, but a fine radiated texture had spread itself equally throughout the whole mass. The ex- periments of Sir James Hall have often been mentioned in con- nection with this subject. Nearly seventy years ago he applied experiment, for the first time, to the elucidation of geological phenomena. It occurred to him to melt a small piece of basalt, and the result was a dark vitreous substance. But on fusing a much larger quantity, and allowing it to cool slowly, he obtained a crystalline mass. Since that time geologists gradually became accustomed to look upon the original rocks of a glossy appearance, which occur in nature, as the products of rapid, and those of a granular texture as the products of slow, cooling. Nor are there wanting instances to show that other physical causes have in- fluenced the structure of such artificial silicates as slaos. At the Eglinton iron-works in Scotland, and those of Bethlehem, Penn- sylvania, the writer observed that there is frequently developed in the slags, as they flow from the furnace, streaked bands of diff"erent colors, not at all unlike those developed in many slate rocks. Then again, when the workmen, at the establishment first named, tap off the iron and cool the small amount of scorise which follows after it with a plentiful supply of water, the slag froths up and solidifies to a porous cellular substance, the exact parallel of which is to be found in the pumice stone of volcanoes. In observing the slags of copper furnaces, nothing is more com- mon than to see those which are allowed to flow over damp ground rise up into porous scoria, while those which run over wet portions of the smelting-house floor, boil up into loose pieces, or throw themselves about in the form of little volcanic bombs and lapilli. Similar phenomena are observed in the lava streams of active and extinct volcanoes. Those of Alta Vista, in Teneriffe, consist, on the surfoce, of glittering, transparent bottle-glass-like obsidian, which, towards the interior, changes into a less glittering pitchgtone-Uke mass, which is so filled with crystals as to resemble 162 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June a crystalline rock. These instances have been given in order to show that, in studying the varying textures of original rocks, it is "well to bear in mind that such textures are, in all likelihood, the result of the influence of the physical conditions under -which their respective rocks solidified, and of the temperature and plasticity of the mass from which they were produced. The followin": modifications in the texture of orisrinal rocks may here be distinsuished : — 1st. The constituent minerals are of a comparatively large size, ranging from several inches to one eighth of an inch in diameter, generally large enough to be easily tested as to hardness, cleavage, and other physical characters. The mode of their arrangement is altogether irregular, and, although the individual minerals may sometimes have a greater length than thickness, no parallelism of their larger axes can be noticed. Granite, syenite, and diorite are examples of this order of texture, which may be called the coarse and small grained. 2nd. The constituent minerals are of a size varying from the smallest individuals to those of an inch in diameter. One or more of them have their longest axes arranged in the same direction and parallel with each other, there being thus developed a fibrous or laminated texture. This may be called the schistose order, to which gneiss and hornblende schist belong. 3rd. The constituent minerals are finer grained than in the preceding order, and more difficult of determination. A similar parallel structure, however, is visible, which occasions an easie fracture of the rock along a particular plane, or what is called a slaty cleavage. Common roofing slate may be regarded as the type of this slaty order of texture. 4th. The next order of texture to be distinguished is the porphjritic. Large individuals, or crystals of one or several minerals, are enclosed in a fine-grained or impalpable matrix. Augitic, syenitic and felsitic porphyry are examples of this order of texture, the rocks of which are distinguished from each other as well by variations in the nature of their matrices as in the compositions of the crystals developed in it. 5th. The next order may be called the varioUtic, and regarded as incipient porphyritic texture. In a fine-grained matrix, small rounded concretions are developed, without, however, being sharply separated from it. These concretions sometimes possess a fibrous structure in the interior, the fibres radiating from the 1870.] MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. IGo centre, and their existence is frequently betrayed by the weather ing of the rock. 6th. The minerals are here of a much smaller size than in the coarse-grained order, so as to be in most cases difficult of deter- mination. This texture is the same as that often possessed by the matrices of porphyries, and, being destitute of parallel structure, bears the same relation to the coarsely schistose texture. Trap and felsite belong to this order, which may be called i\iQ fine-grained. 7th. In a small or fine-grained matrix, rounded cavities have been formed, and afterwards partly or wholly filled up with various minerals. On account of the resemblance between the long drawn and flattened shape of these mineral aggregations and almonds, this texture has been called the amijgdaloidal. Trap- pean amygdaloid and the spilite of French lithologists may be cited as examples. 8th. The next order of texture includes certain fine-grained and globular rocks, characterized by their containing very ap- preciable quantities of water. The globular texture resembles the variolitic, but the concretions, instead of possessing a radiated structure, are composed of concentric layers. Pearlstone is the type of this species of rock, which is intimately connected, geologically, with pitchstone and other impalpable rocks belong- ing to this order. Phonolite and basalt -are examples of the fine-grained members of the order, which, as above-mentioned, are distinguished from the fine-grained order already mentioned by their containing a considerable percentage of water. It may, therefore, be called the fine-grained and hydrated. 9th. This order may be denominated the trachytic, and, although its rocks have frequently a porphyritic development, they are distinguished from those of that class, in having a rough porous, sometimes even cellular, matrix, and felspar crystals developed in it of a vitreous appearance and full of small fissures. The same rough uneven surface and fracture is developed in those trachytic rocks which contain no largely developed crystals, and even in many of a much more basic composition than what are usually termed trachytes. Pthyolite, andesite and dolerite are examples of this order. 10th. In this order of texture the porous appearance above referred to is developed to such a degree that a ^coriaceous or cavernous structure results. This structure is peculiar to volcanic 164 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June rocks, which also afford examples of purely vitreous texture, in which no "grain " nor any mineralogical constituents are observ- ablCj but an impalpable glassy appearance predominates. This order may be called the lava texture, and lava pumice-stone, and obsidian, mentioned as examples of it. It is not to be supposed that these varieties of texture are at all sharply separated from each other. On the contrary, rocks the most varied in their structure are found to be connected with each other by insensible gradations. Thus, vitreous rocks are gradually found to assume an impalpable and then stony character. Then again, they frequently become porous and cellular, and graduate into scoriaceous lavas. Rocks of the latter order have very often well-defined minerals developed in them, and when also the cellular texture becomes more subdued, trachytic rocks result. These, when they gradually become more compact or their felspars gradually lose their vitreous and fissured appearance, become indistinguishable from felsites and porphyries. Further, when the matrices of the last-mentioned rocks gradually become coarser grained and their crystals reduced in size, they pass into thoroughly granular rocks. When, on the contrary, the well-developed crystals of porphyries gradually disappear, fine-grained rocks are the product. Nothing is more common than to find the latter gradually assuming a slaty structure or gradually becoming coarser in the grain, and so giving rise to schistose or granular rocks. And nothing is more common than to find the constituents of granular rocks, little by little, arranging themselves in a given direction, and so producing coarsely schistose structure. But with all the frequency of gradation between original rocks of various textures, it is to be remarked that those which differ widely from each other in structure, do not exhibit sudden transi- tions the one into the other. Cavernous and coarsely granular rocks are never found to constitute part of one and the same mass, or to pass into each other, without gradually assuming the character of intermediate impalpable and fine-grained rocks. Nor is it ever the case that coarsely schistose rocks become trachytes all at once. A certain consistency or method is recognisable in all these transitions, and it is only those orders which are more nearly related to each other as regards texture, or arc more intimately associated, geologically, that graduate into each other ^n the manner above described. In the description of tliQ various 1870.] MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 165 species of texture given above, those have been placed nearest to each other which are most prone to pass into each otlicr by modifications of texture. To account satisfactorily for these variations of texture among original rocks is no easy matter ; but if the facts already given, as regards the solidification of artificial silicates, have any value as applied to lithogy, they would lead us to suppose that the coarsely schistose rocks solidified very slowly during the lapse of great intervals of time and under the influence of widely extended movements of the crystalline, but still fluid mass; that the coarsely granular rocks solidified very slowly, but in comparative rest; that porphyritic and small-grained rocks cooled more quickly than coarse granites, although crystallisation evidently took place while they were in a plastic condition ; that fine-grained schistose rocks solidified while in motion, but are the products of compara- tively rapid cooling ; that porous trachytes cooled rapidly, but in comparative rest; that very cavernous rocks came into contact with water during cooling, and we may suppose that, where that element was present in great quantity, many original rocks underwent disintegration while their solidification was in process, giving rise to the tufaceous series of derived rocks. Many of those generalisations are supported by observations recently made on the microscopic structure of rocks to which, however, it is impossible here to refer. (To he continued.^ AQUARIA STUDIES. (Part II.) By a. S. Eitchie. In the last number of this journal a description was attempted of some of the difi'erent representatives of animal life contained in our aquarium, of what may be termed its visible beauties, that is, such creatures as may be seen with unassisted vision. The present sketch is connected still further with its denizens, as beautiful in their structure, and, notwithstanding their minute- ness, no less wonderful in their design. The unassisted eye can only look at relatively few of the creator's works: it cannot enter the inner shrine of nature's 166 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June temple, or take cognizance of the myriad manifestations of the power and wisdom which enables these animated atoms to live, move, and have their being, and to enjoy themselves as well as the more complex productions of the Infinite. The microscope, however, gives us an insight into worlds here- tofore hidden from view, and shows us creatures more strano-c than "fancy ere had feigned or fear conceived." We may see in <' the small dimensions of a point" a world peopled with creatures, to which, as we believe, there is no limit. More powerful glasses are only wanted to lead us farther into the labyrinth of the creative wonders of the Almighty. Comparatively few enquire into this world of hidden wonders in order to become acquainted with its inmates, still, a few philosophical spirits are yet to be found, who^ like Sir Thomas The Good, " "Would pore by the hour O'er a weed or a flower, Or the slugs that come crawling out after a shower." At the outset of the present sketch we would premise that the glass side of our aquarium which is placed next to the wall, is never cleaned, and, in consequence of this, it is soon covered over with a growth of what botanists call Confervce. The Confervce are among the lowest forms of Algce, a group which contains a great number of very minute microscopic plants, which have been, of late years, specially studied by microscopists. Among the lower forms of these Protophytes are the Diatomacece, Desmidice and Vohocince, plants of very simple organization, only lately removed from the animal kin2:dom. Other orders are the Pahnellacea\ likewise plants of humble type; Ulvacece, plants of a rather more complex character ; Oscillato7'iacecc, remarkable for a peculiar kind of motion ; JS^ostocliacece, Ulvacece, Siplionacece, and Co7i- fervacece. First, let us scrape some of the growth off the glass at the back of the tank, then place it in the live box with a drop of water over it, and, having adjusted our microscope, what do we see? First of all notice the vegetation contained in this drop of water^ That long pointed ribbon, having the green colouring matter twisting and curling through the centre, is one of the Confervce, a species of Spirogyra, and close beside it there is another jointed species having the chlorophyll or colouring matter in patches : 1870.] RITCHIE — ON AQUARIA STUDIES. 167 this is a variety of Stlgeodonium. These are purely vegetable, and are the resort of many little creatures which revel and hide themselves among their tiny clusters of bands. The first intruder in the field of the microscope we would call attention to is that shapeless mass near the centre. It looks like a small piece of clear jelly with little black dots or granules within. But see, it has changed its shape : it is, as it were, running out ; a finger-hke process is flowing out here and there; the granules also are moving. Again we look; it has now assumed a shape something like an outline of a map of Italy. While you are looking it has again changed. You ask, what is that? That is one of the simplest forms of animal life; it is called the A^nccba or Proteus. In the Amceha we see an animal that breathes without lungs or gills, digests without a stomach, moves without limbs, and contracts without muscles. Like other animals, of simple type, which live for the most part in the deep sea, and which from the possession of root-like feet, are called RJiizojpods, its body is composed of a jelly-like substance called sarcode. Some of these creatures have siliceous and some calcareous shells, while others have none at all. You will ask how does the Amceha live, and how does it feed ? We shall endeavor to shew. Although with- out a nervous system, it is nevertheless very sensitive, as will be seen. That other creature near it is a Rotifer or wheel-bearer. If you watch you will now see how and upon what the Amceha feeds. As its body flows and contracts, it is nearing the Rotifer which is attached by its foot to the glass, nnconscious of his fate. Presently the little mass of jelly flows and touches him, but too late for the Rotifer to make his escape ; as if stimulated by the contact, the Amceha has fairly covered him, and through its transparent body the Rotifer s struggles for life are perceptible. All is over with it now, the laws of absorption have so decreed it, and soon nothing will be left of it but its silicious covering. This is the way the Amceha feeds, by absorbing the juices of its victim. This creature is reproduced by fission, that is, by splitting or dividing itself into pieces, each of which pieces becomes a perfect animal. The wheel animalcule (Rotifer vulgaris) will be our next subject for examination. He is many degrees higher in the scale 1G8 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June than the Amccla ; his body is constructed in some degree on the principle of the tube of a telescope ; he can also draw himself into a ball at pleasure ; he has a mouth and jaws, which are constantly at work; his eyes are distinctly visible. When fishing he attaches himself by a foot or tail-like process either to the glass or to the stems of aquatic plants and stretches himself out, when the entrance to his mouth opens and the cilia, or hair-like appendages with which his mouth is furnished, commence moving or rushing, thus causing a current or small whirl-pool in the water, by means of which monads and other animacules are drawn in, and amongst others, our friend the Amceha falls in, so that the victor of yester- day is the victim of to-day. Rotifers are produced from eggs, although in one species {^Actinurus Neptunius) we have distinctly seen the young one in the body of the parent, and not only so, but have noticed its jaws going as if the creature was feeding. The red eyes of the young Actinurus could also be distinctly seen. When swimming, the Rotifer is a very graceful creature, with his crown of cilia extended, he glides across the field of view with amazino; swiftness. We well remember when young at microscopy, the anxiety experienced to possess a Rotifer; the quantities of infusions of leaves of all sorts we made, including hay, straw and sage, but all to no purpose. We could get lots of monads and other varieties, but no rotifer. For two years this state of things went on, when we were tempted to bottle some water from one of the street puddles, taking some of the sediment with it. The bottle was placed, uncorked, in the window, so that the full benefit of the sun-light might be obtained. As soon as business was over that day the bottle was produced, the animalcule cage filled, the focus of the microscope adjusted, and, to our delight, the water was swarming with rotifers ; and, from that day to this, we have been close companions. This water was kept for nearly three years, and fresh water now and then added to compensate for evaporation, with a little piece of pond weed (Anacharis alsinastrum.) or duck-weed (Lemna,) to keep the water sweet. Many generations of Rotifers lived and died in that bottle, as their siliceous skele- tons testified, the sediment being full of them. Temperature has very little efi"ect on Rotifera. We have had a bottle of water containing these creatures frozen solid, and, on thawin"- them, they were as lively as ever. We have also placed 1870.] RITCHIE — ON AQUARIA STUDIES. 169 a large-sized drop of water on a slip of glass, and held it over the flame of a lamp, loDg enough for the glass to be uncomfortable to the fingers, with the like result. They only appeared to be a little more active after their warm bath. The old experiment of evaporating a drop of water on a slide containing Kotifers we have also tried, and, on again wetting the spot, have resuscitated some of them. We have had them the twenty-fifth to the thirtieth part of an inch in length ; about the fiftieth part of an inch is the usual size. A little to the left of the Kotifer, attached to a piece of Conferva, is a beautiful cluster of bell-shaped animalcules, Vorticella campaindaria. They sre attached to the plant by means of a stalk, which has a contractile muscle running from the base to the upper end : they have a ciliated mouth. Just watch that little cluster of crystal bells. They have, by means of the muscle, drawn back, until they look like an irregular mass of gelatine. Now they slowly move out again, as if all were guided by the same will. Now they are at full stretch, with cilia revolving, fishing and feeding. Again, they are all retracted with a jerk. Some of them look as if they were double. Reproduction is going on in these : it is elfected by fission. Bye-and-bye these will separate and detach themselves, and swim about till matured, when they attach themselves, to go through the same existence as their progenitors. A smaller species, Vorticella nehiilifera, is to be found attached to the bodies of some Entomosiraca, as Cijclops quadrlcornis, and on Lynceus. Another species (Carchesmm poli/pimnn) is also found attached to these creatures. We have a specimen of Cyclops mounted as a microscopic object, having Vorticella nehulifera attached to the back of the crustacean. The presence of the Vorticella on the slide was accidental, as the object was intended to be Volvox glohator only. It evidently got in either attached in some way to some of the Coiifervce, or from the water. The stalks in Carchcsium are not retractile ; the body, however, has the power of closing up by muscular action. These we have not found in nuiubors in our aquarium, but in the ponds near the city they are to be met with in abundance. Another beautiful creature— the Blue Stentor (Stentor ca^ruleus)—h'dii attached itself to a little bit of weed ; its beautiful crown of cilia is expanded, and moves rapidly, creating quite a YOL. 5. L Xo. 2. 170 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuDC small whirlpool, into which the uDfortunatc monads are drawn in and engulphed into its stomach. It is of a beautiful blue colour, and is found in ^reat abundance at times on the tops of ponds? ■which look then as if the water was covered with coal dust. On taking another drop of water from the aquarium, with more of the vegetable matter, we observe other and different creatures, resembling snakes, twisting and entwining each other in their folds : these are called Lurcos or Gluttons. They are well named, for they are very voracious, feeding on animal and vegetable life ; their bodies are aunulose, or composed of rings havin*'- hair-like processes on each segment, which enables them to move at out with considerable quickness; their mouth is capacious and ciliated ; the intestinal canal is plainly seen, and their food can be well observed through their transparent bodies. \^ c have seen them devour rotifers, monads, bell animalcules, and other species; in fact, they refuse nothing. They are produced from eggs. That slipper-shaped species is very common, and found in great numbers : it can be seen by the unassisted eye as a tiny speck coursing across the animalcule cage. It is called the Chr\'salis animalcule (^Paramecium af/relia.) It is ciliated all round the sides of its body, and moves about very swiftly ; it is like a por- poise in a shoal of herrings — dashing here and there, devouring the smaller species, such as monads, in all directions. It under- goes many changes, and assumes many shapes during its metamor- phosis ; it is produced by fission as well as from the egg. That restless little fellow with four horns is Cyclops quadricor. nis. The only way to get a good look at him is to bring a little pressure to bear by giving the cover of the live-box a slight squeeze so as to keep him still. lie is very active, and measures about the sixteenth of an inch in length. His head is furnished with four antenuai or horns, and the creature is provided with five pairs of feet, and a long tail, which is terminated by bristles. It has, in the centre of its forehead, a single red eye — hence the name Cyclops, after Vulcan's Workman. The legs of the Cyclops, at each of the joints, are furnished with hairs, evidently to help the creature in swimming, as is is also the case with aquatic beetles. The female carries two ovaries at the extremity of the abdomen, where the eggs are hatched, and, on the young leaving these sacs, they fall off. The young, according to Carpenter, undergo five changes in their development. 1870.] KITCIIIE — ON AQUARIA STUDIES. 171 Besides these little creatures Ave have mentioned there are many more about Avhich nmch might be said. We have monads, vibrios in great numbers, always present in the water of our aquarium : not only there, we may state, but in the Montreal water this spring we detected, in two instances living vibrios in the water immediately taken from the pipe. In concluding this sketch of the inhabitants of our aquarium the following remarks may not be out of place. How little is known, by the great mass of mankind, of the various creations possessed with the wonderful and unknown princi- ple, " life," respecting which much more might, perhaps, be known by means of patient microscopic research. By its aid we may learn how admirably each little organ plays its part, and how the various members contribute to each of these creatures happiness in their struggle for life, for, for some wise purpose, every animated being, from the monad to the whale, is battling for existence. There is not, perhaps, a single species of animated being whose existence depends not, more or less, upon the death or destruction of others. In the plan of nature death and dissolution seem to be indis- pensable for the support and continuance of animal life. Man may be said, with a few exceptions, to have universal empire over the other animals. Carnivorous animals and birds are also engaged in this general work of destruction. In fishes, also, as their habits demonstrate, from the least to the greatest, their appetite is almost insatiable, and their object in Kfe seems to be either to devour other fishes or to avoid their own destruction. Insects, also, are no exception to the rule. We find the same struggle going on among them, each preying on, or being preyed on by other species. Even in our aquarium this struggle can be witnessed, as illus- trated in the first part of these sketches; also among micro- scopic creatures, the subject of the present paper. They also have their enemies, the fish swallow them in countless thousands while the smaller ones supply the larger with food. In the economy of nature no creature lives for its own happi- ness alone, but, by its destruction, contiibutes to the happiness of others. The balance of power is not entrusted to any particular class or species, and lie who in wisdom made them all governs and guides the whole. 172 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June ON FORAMINIFERA FROM THE GULF AND RIVER ST. LAWRENCE. By G. M. Dawson. By way of introduction to these notes, I may state that the reader will find some account of the curious and interesting animals to which the paper relates, with figures of characteristic examples, in Vol. IV, new series, of this Journal, page 413 ; and that several species found in the Gulf of St. Lawrence have been catalogued by Principal Dawson, in the same Journal, Vol. V> page 188 et seq. The following table is, however, the only approach to a complete view of the species and their distribution hitherto attempted. Many of the deeper samples were small quantities of mud brought up in sounding, bj Capt. Orlebar, R.N., of the Coast Survey, and by him kindly presented to Dr. Dawson. The specimens from Labrador were obtained from material dredged by the officers of the Geological Survey; those from Prince Edward Island, were from a specimen secured by C. Robb, Esq. ; and those from the Bank of Newfoundland, were obtained from the late Sherifi" Dickson, of Kingston. The somewhat extensive series from Gaspe Bay was obtained during a dredging expedition in the summer of 1869. The mud was sampled when brought up by the dredge, and reserved for examination, the depth being ascertained as carefully as possible. Several very rich and interesting samples are also from the dredgings of Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., in Gaspe and its vicinity. Mr. Whiteaves has also gone over this material with care, and has detected some additional species. The means were unfortunately not at hand for ascertaining the temperature at the bottom. But, though there is reason to believe that the water at Gaspe Bay is somewhat warmer than the Gulf of St. Lawrence in general, the mud as it came over the boat's side felt icy cold to the hand, showing even here what a great eifcct the iceberg-laden Arctic current has on the bottom temperature. The number of species tabulated must not in every instance be taken as a criterion of the relative richness of the localities, as much often depends on the amount of material at disposal. This is especially the case when comparing dredgings with soundings. 1870.] DAWSON — ON FORAMINIFERA. 173 The general aspect of the Gulf of St. Lawrence Foraminifera is northern, and in many places closely resembles the fauna of the Greenland coast and the Hunde Islands, as given in Parker & Jones' Memoir.''"^ The Gulf, at least so far as its Foraminifera are concerned, evidently belongs to the Arctic province, the limits of which skirt the Banks of Newfoundland and pass from thence southward to Cape Breton. The refrigeration of its waters depends on the Arctic current, which, entering the Straits of Belle Isle, floods the whole bottom of the Gulf with water almost at the temperature of the Arctic seas. To these conditions the series of collections from Gasp6 offers somewhat an exception, and is of a slightly more southern character, both as regards the species represented and the deve- lopement which they attain. This difference depends on purely local causes, which, while slightly changing the character, give opportunities for a very abundant developement of Foraminifera, more especially of the arenaceous forms. Gaspe Bay in no part exceeds 50 fathoms in depth ; is about 20 miles in extreme length, well land-locked, and disturbed by no other current than that caused by the ebb and flow of the tide. The depth is not so great as to allow of the incursion of the cold and deep layer to any great extent, and the proximity of land and the shelter thus afforded tend still further to modify its temperature. The bottom, in most of the deeper parts, is composed of fine sand and mud, and this it is which favors the very large deve- lopment of arenaceous forms. Past the mouth of Gaspe Bay sweeps the very strong tidal current of the St. Lawrence, and immediately we pass the shelter of Ship Head and come within its influence, the changes in the Foraminifera become strikingly apparent. The bottom consisting' for the most part of clean gravel or coarse sand, most of the arenaceous forms disappear at once, and instead of the abundance of Nonioninas and Miliolas previously found, a very large proportion consist of Planorbulina lobatula, which can hold its own, attached to seaweeds and polyzoons. Polystomelia Arctica also becomes somewhat prominent, while the liagenidas and Entosolenida3 appear in abundance. What few sandy forms do occur are depauperated and com- posed of very coarse particles. The Foraminifera as a whole however are very abundant, and in some samples dredged by Mr. * Philosophical Transactions, 1865. 174 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Wliiteaves almost equal in quantity those in the deeper Atlantic soundino'S. In the estuary of the St. Lawrence itself, Bulimina pyrula be- comes a somewhat common form. Among' forms which in the Gulf of St. Lawrence may be mentioned as specially characteristic of deep water, are Nodosaria (Glandulina) h:evi,c!;ata, Globigerina bulloides, very small ; Bulimina, principally B. squamosa, also small ; Uvigerina pygmcea, Cassidulina. From depths greater than 100 fathoms all the Foraminifera are very small and delicate ; and Lagenidas, Baliminidre, Globigerina bulloides, together with a few depauperated Nonioninse, constitute the greater part of the fauna. From these depths also come many Diatoms, mostly Coscinodiscus, and Sponge spicules. Polysto- mella striatopunctata is almost everywhere prevalent, though it nowhere attains to any very great size, and below about 30 fathoms, becomes small and generally rare, and continues increas- ing in rarity till it almost disappears at 300 flithoms. In some localities, at about 30 fathoms, P. Arctica is abundant, and greatly surpasses in size the ordinary Polystomella^ occurring along with it. The remaining P. striatopunctata) also at tliis depth often show a remarkable proneness to run into modifications resembling- one or other of the numerous species and varieties into which the genus is silbdivided, but as the transition series are complete, it is very difficult to place the bulk of the specimens satisfactorily under them. It has been thought better in the table to include as many as are easily seen to be modified striatopunctata3 under that name. Nonionina Labradorica, though not so universally distributed as the above, is a very characteristic species in the Gulf. It seems to be best developed and in largest numbers at about 30 fathoms. It thins off both in numbers and size as we go into shallower water, and decreases much in size, though not so perceptibly in numbers as the water deepens to 100 fathoms and below. There is a remarkable absence of Miliolas in the estuarine parts of the Gulf, which strongly contrasts with their abundance in Gaspe Bay, and also on the Atlantic coast of Nova Scotia, and south. One specimen of a curious sandy form of Cornuspira foliacea was obtained at a depth of 18 fathoms at Gaspe. Biloculina ringens scarcely occurs above 30 fathoms. At Murray Bay, which is only about GO miles below the point where, at least, the surface of the St. Lawrence becomes perma- 1870.] DAWSON — ON FOIIAMINIFEUA, 173 iiently fresh, the roraininifcra become very scarce and poor. Polystomeihi striatopimctata is the most couimon, but it has become very small. Nonionina Labraclorica, Lituola Canarien.sis, and Trochammina inflata also occur, but all much reduced iu size, and scarce relatively to the amount of material examined. On passinp; from the Gulf to the cast of Newfoundland, or to the south of Cape Breton, a change from the Gulf Fauna is imme- diately detected. Polystomella striatopuuctata, there so com- mon, becomes rare. Nonionina Labradorica to a great extent ceases to appear, and Uvigerina p3^gmaea and Cassidulinida; become more frequent. The arenaceous liippocrepina, (Fig. 2,) and Lituola) (Figs. 1 and 3) are most plentiful at depths less than 20 fathoms. Lituola. scorpiurus (Fig. 4) goes down to the greatest depths in Gaspe Bay, and is yet abundant at 10 fathoms, while the immense Rhabdopleura abyssorum (Fig. G) only appears at about 20 fathoms, and continues from that point increasing in numbers and size to the depth of 50 fathoms, which is the greatest depth in Gaspe Bay, where alone it has been found. The distribution of these Foraminifera would tend, with other facts, to show that these organisms, together with most other marine animals of low organization, do not depend, to any great extent, on the depth or intensity of daylight, but almost entirely on the temperature of the water, as Dr. Carpenter maintains in his account of his recent deep-sea dredging, so that they would not give very satisfactory evidence of the conditions of deposit ol' Post pliocene or other beds, unless other facts were at disposal to show the depth, when the Foraminifera would give valuable assistance with regard to the climatic conditions at that depth. The quality of bottom has however, much to do w^ith the general fades of the Foraminifera, as with other animals. For, as shown above, calm water, with a bottom composed of fine sand and sediment, is particularly favorable to the arenaceous forms, though, even under these conditions, they do not thrive in the very cold, deep water (such as that below 100 fathoms) in the open Gulf. A strong current at once causes all sandy Ibrms to disappear, mostly, no doubt, from want of the fine materials necessary for their shells, and brings in a large preponderance of Truneatulinas, Lagenida3, &c. * The figures refer to tlio numbers oftlio W(iOLl-cat>. 176 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June The arenaceous forms, witli the exception of those which are tubular, constitute a series parallel to the calcareous forms, and the members of which graduate into one another. It seems not improbable that the individuals of the same species may assume either appearance. It does not appear, however, that the same individual can present both forms at successive periods. On the other hand, the sandy forms may really constitute a distinct group parallel to the others. Sketches of some interesting forms are given which do not appear to be precisely similar to described species. These have been kindly examined by Dr. Parker, of London, who regards the Lituolte represented in figs. 1 and 3 as new species, to which he assigns the names L. Jindens and L. cassis. The form represented in fig. 2 he regards as the type of a new genus, to which, from the horse-shoe shaped form of the aperture, he gives the name Ilippocreplna^ naming the species H. indivisa. 1870.] DAWSON — ON FORAMINIFERA. 177 r' 6j 6; \S ■MM 'A E f /' JLv_ -<^ /%5 ^■m ^g^ II Fig, 1. Lituola lindens, P. Fig. 2. Jlippocrepina indivisa, P. Fig. 3. Lituola cassis, P. Fig. 4. Lituola scorpiurus. Fig. 5. JS'onionina scapha, var. Labradorica (313 ftms.) Fig. 6. Bulimina Presii., var. squamosa (313 ftms.) Fig. 7. Ehabdopleura ? Fig. 8. Poljstomella Arctica. Fig. 9. Biloculina riugens. Fig. 10. Lagena sulcata, var. Fig. M. Entosolenia striato-punctata. Fig. 12. Entosolenia marginata. Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 7 are drawn to a scale half that of the other figures. ■**»., C .*.'-. «,,rx:jr 'H 178 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [J une ^ 5^ <. C •% P «s o • (U C/3 !-«*» •OJ ^ I, r^ ^N^ ri Cv. Hsj >-■ "^1 ^-^ !^ t~^ t? "5^ 's. m '■Ji- CO ^ •5 (J ft Ui r< «3^ ^^ cS « •^ F Cb 5^ M f^ o (/5 rC> ■^ 'S' CO f5 "li O .'?^ 5 1 o u •siuoqiHjj o^ O} Si 'Akq /i-euni-ii 'aouajMurf -jg -aj^ \ • : ; : : : : ■^^^IHA -laiso^ 9dE3 j[jo '9DU3JAVBT -Jg J3AI^ 'OdSBQ * - * • • « I * • : a : : : • * . . . •3A03 s,32ao3f3 •;g ; : '3AajQ apuTjjQ 'X^a odsHQ ; : ■ * . '■ '■ I ci I ! I ! ♦ * .... : : K c< : ■ • * * •suioq;E j^ oS oj of '3A9ag ; * * • J I '. * • • . .* .... •suioqjE j[ ol' o; o£ 'PE3H diqg ijo '^dsEO • • . * « I . * . . K « M I I * * * * . .* • iO CO I I I « « • • • * * •suioqjEjj S£ '3A0af3 CO • * . • * * ♦ '■ '. 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" ■ r . > 3 C 3 u fj'i. 3 C ' r. : c ^ u 3 C 1 r (. 1 i > ' r i ^ ■• r A I- •x r u r z 'I c '. r . _(. • 'u • C • -r n • i- • r \ "a ■ >— • »■ . r \\ } 1 3 h il , r "■ r 3 - r r S r "c P 3 r n 3 rv 3 P : 1 : c. 3 p ; f 3 0 3 c 5 >■ ' C : E ■ r 3 3 J 0 : r ^ r 1, a 3 C 3 : • T : c }• r 3 3 n 3 r ! « : ^ 3 : 3 t • 3 P » ? 1 I i 'C : r ■■ y 3 C " r- 1 1 3 3 It <^ ."a 5 >. ' P r U C c 1 3 iO J 3 3 3 p 5 p J ; 3'J: n ■*- r C 'u : c i t : c : c ) - J t ; Z 3 ) 3 I 180 Table II. THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuDG -Supplementary List of Peculiar Arenaceous lurms. (See Figs, i to 4, and Fig. 7.) £ 4> 0) c 0 rt ■T3 '^^ , 0 /— N c j; c^ u ^ s • i ^2 01 > c FORAMINIFERA. 0 ^c 0 0 0 ca ° 0 U J.i • rtfe ^^ '^^ rttrn rS IT) rt 0 TO f,, • !5 0 w y Mopq W t. M r^ M '^ ^s ^P4 vO) -t- v^ '"' vO '-' VO a> W) S o< o2 cSs 0^0^ cS^ 00 00 .5 rt Lituola findens, Parker — Ficj. i *CL* * *R *CL*C * *r *CL * l^itiinla ^^ro'T'niiirn'fc — Kio^. a * *r *CI * *r *r T *r *r *rx Var — Fio^ a *C L *r T Rhabdonlenra — YW 7 1 * *CL * *CL *ri 1 NOTES ON THE STEUCTUEE OF THE CRINOIDEA, AND BLASTOIDEA. By E. BiLLixGS, F.Gr.S., Paleontologist of Geological Survey of Canada. Reprinted from (lie Am. Journal, Sc, and Arts, Vol. L., Septr. ISTO ; and concluded from this Journal, N. 6. Vel. 4, pp 42C— 133. G. On some points relating to the Structure of Pentremites. 1. V ..Z^r. 771- Fig 1. — Calycine plates of Pentremites, — 1), the basals ; /, one of five forked plates ; d, deltoid plate ; ?, lancet plate ; os, oral spiracle ; s, spiracle. Fig. 2. — Caryoeystites testudlnarhis, Hisiuger, — h, basal plates ; r, radials ; m, mouth. 1870.] BILLINGS— ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 181 Professor Wyville Thompson has proposed a division of the skeleton of the existii\2; Crinoid, Antcdon rosaceus into two sys- tems of plates, which he terms respectively the " i?«cZia/," and the " Fcrisomatlc " systems.^ These he considers to be thor- oughly distinct from each other in their structure and mode of growth. The radial system consists of the joints of the stem, the centrodorsal plate, the radial plates, the joints of the arms, and also those of the pinnules. In the perisomatic system he, includes the basal and oral plates, the anal plate, the interradial plates, and any other plates or spicula which may be developed in the pcrisome of the cup or disc. This I think a good arrange- ment, except in so far as it regards the stem, which appears to me to be, always, an appendage of the perisomatic, rather than of the radial system. Throughout the whole range of the Criuoidea, the plates of the radial and perisomatic system, are easily distinguished from each other. In general, the Cystidea have no radial plates in their calyces except, perhaps, in a small area around the ambu- lacral orifice. This accords well with an important observation of Professor Thompson's on the structure of Antedon, while in the earlier periods of its growth. " The entire body of the Pen- tacrinoid is," he says, " at first, while yet included within the pscudembryo and during its earliest fixed stage, surrounded and inclosed by plates of the perisomatic system alone, and it is quite conceivable that plates belonging to this system may ex- pand and multiply so as to form a tessellated external skeleton to the mature animal, the radial system being entirely absent, or represented only in the most rudimentary form." (Op. cit., 5-11). Such is the structure of all of the Cystidea. On refer- ring to fig. 2, it will be seen that the whole of the body of Carijo- cijstites tcstudiiiarius, is coverered with polygonal plates, without any trace whatever of a radiated arrangement. The plates are disposed in nine transverse ranges, girding the body like so many rings. This species is, (and so are most of the elongated sub- cylindrical Cystideans), annulated rather than radiated, so far as regards the external integument. The lower range, below the line, h, consists of the basals, whilst the upper, above the line, r, may possibly, be radiated. In all the globular or ovate Cysti- *0n the Embryogeny of Antedou rosaceus Linck (Comatula rosacea of Lamarck). By Professor "Wyville Thompson, L.L.D., &c. Philo- sophical Transactions of the Eoyal Society, vol. civ, Part II, p. 540. 182 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [June deans, with numerous plates, sucli as Sphceronifes, Malocystltes, Comaroajst'itcs, Amygdaloci/stites, and others, the shell is neither annulated nor radiated, but composed of an indefinite number of plates, reasing with the age of the individual, and arranged without any well defined or constant order. It seems clear, there" fore, that the test of the Cystidea belongs mostly to the periso- matic system. In Peniremltes the three plates wdiich arc usually called the basals, consist each of two pieces, one placed above the other, and, in general, closely anchylosed together. The lower pieces have each a re-entering angle , in their upper edges, for the re- ception of the upper pieces which stand upon them. This structure was first pointed out by Mr. Lyon (Geol. Ky., vol. iii, p. 468), and is not generally admitted, although I believe it cer- tainly does exist. It is said that the lower pieces consist of the upper joint of the column, divided into three by vertical su- tures. To me they appear to calycine plates. It is true that they do not form the bottom of the visceral cavity, but this may be due to the growth inward of the lower edges of those of the upper series. Something like this occurs in Antedon, where, at first, the bottom of the cup is formed by the basals, but after- wards principally by the first radials. The forked plates are usually called " Radials,'^ but they cer- tainly do not belong to the radial system. If they did, they would represent the first radials of the Crinoidea, and therefore they should support the bases of the ambulacra. A. little con- sideration will, however, enable any one to perceive that in Pentremites the bases of the ambulacra are situated in the apex of the fossil, and do not come in contact with the forked plates. The apex of Pentremites is identical with the actinal centre of Sea-urchins and Star fishes, in which the mouth is situated. It is here that the ambulacra originate and grow outward by the addition of new plates to their distal extremities. There can be little doubt that such was the mode of growth of the ambulacra of the Pentremites. The smaller extremity, therefore, of their ambulacra, which is received into the forked plate, is not the base, but corresponds with the apex of the ambulacrum of a Sea- urchin or of a Star-fish. It also represents the tip of the arm of a Crinoid. If the forked plate is radial, then the arrangement of the ambulacrum must be the same as that which would be exhibited in a Crinoid, with the upper end of the arm down- 1870.] BILLINGS — ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 181^ ward, aud resting on the first radial, whilst the lower end would be upward, the tip being formed of the second radial. From this it follows that the forked plates do not belong to the radial but to the perisoniatic system. The five deltoid plates alternate with the forked plates, and are also perisomatic. It is not certain that the lancet plates represent any of those plates which in the Crinoidea arc usually called "radials." They are so arranged that if they were loosened from the walls of the cup, and their smaller extremities turned upward, whilst their bases or larger ends retained their position, they would stand in a circle around the apex, as do the arms of an ordi- nary Crinoid. Their bases would alternate with the apices of the deltoid plates. They would form the outside of the arms whilst the grooves aud pinnula3 would be inside. Each would bear, on its outer or dorsal aspect, two elongated sacks, the two hydrospircs that belong to the ambulacrum. I believe that the small groove in the ambulacrum of Penfremites was occupied by the ovarian tube only. If this be true, and if, also, the lancet l>lates represent the radial plates of the arms of the Crinoids then the arm of Pentremltes w^ould have the respiratory portion of the ambulacral system on its dorsal, and the ovarian portion on its ventral aspect. In the true Crinoids, both the respiratory and ovarian tubes are situated in the groove in the ventral side of the arm.-^ In the Crinoids the pinnula) are attached to the radial joints of the arni. In Pcntremitcs they are not connected with the lancet plate, but with tlie pore plates. In P, piriformis they appear to me to to stand in sockets excavated in the suture between the pore plates. Midler compared them to the series of azygos * Thomas Say, who was the first to recogaize the Blastoidea as a group distinct from the Crinoidea, also supposed the function of the amhiiiacra to be respiratory. He says, " I think it highly probable that the branchial apparatus ccuimunicated with the surrounded fluid through the pores of the ambulacra, by means of filamentous processes ; these may also have performed the office of tentacula, in couveyiu<'- food to the mouth, which was, perhaps, provided with an exsertile proboscis ; or may we not rather suppose that the animal fed on the minute beings that abounded in the sea water, aud that it obtained them in the manner of the Ascidia, by taking them in with the water. The residum of digestum appears to have been rejected through the mouth." (Jour. Acad. X. S. Phil., voL iv, p, 296, 1825). 184 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June plates, which uuderlie that portion of the ambulacrum of Pentacrinus that runs from the mouth to the base of the arm. These resemble the lancet plates, in their being azygos and not connected "with pinnulce; but then, on the other hand, they differ from them in having, a portion at least, of the respiratory tubes on their ventral aspect. Mr. Rofe says that, " in many species of Pentremite, if not in all, this lancet plate is in reality a com- pound plate, formed of two contiguous plates, extending from the bottom to the to the top, and then turning right and left round the summit-openings, they pass down the adjoining sinus to form half its lancet-plate, leaving at the apex of the body a pen- tagonal aperture supposed to be the mouth. In some weathered specimens, the two parts of the lancet plate are separate; and in many they appear to meet only at the top and bottom of the cross section, leaving a lozenge-shaped opening between them." (Geol. Mag., vol ii, p. 249.) In a large specimen of P. ohesus (Lyon and Cassiday) which was given to me by Mr. Lyon, a polished section shows that one of the lancet plates is thus divided, but in general no trace of a suture can be seen in these plates. There are several points in the structre of the ambulacra of Pentremites that are well worthy of the study of those who have plenty of well preserved specimens. Among these, I would direct special attention to the markings in the ambulacrum of P. piriformis.. The median groove, which I suppose to have been exclusively occupied by the ovarian tubes, sends off branches right and left alternately, towards the sides of the ambulacrum. These branches do not run directly to the ambulacral pores. Each of them terminates at a point between the inner extremities of two of the pores. There is at this point a small pit which appears to be the socket of an appendage quite distinct from the pinnule. The groove docs not reach the socket of the pinnule, which is situated further out, between two of the pores. On the other hand a small groove runs from each pore inward, and termi- nates at another socket, about half-way between the pore and the main median groove of the ambulacrum. It would thus appear that besides the ordinary pinnules, there were two other rows of appendages on each side of the median groove. The general conclusions at which I have arrived from the above, are, that all the principal plates that compose the shell of Pentremites^ belong to the perisomatic system of Professor 1870.] BILLINGS— ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 185 Wyville Thompson; that it is doubtful whether or not the lancet plates arc homologous with the radial plates of the Crinoids; and that the ambulacra are more complicated in their structure than is generally supposed. 7. On the Structure of the genus Nucleocrinus. 4. m y 6. 6 Fi^. 3.— Apex of Xudeocrinus VerneiiiUi Troost. g, ambulacral groove : J), pore throiig:h which groove enters into the interior ; s, one of the ten spiracles; mv, oro-aual aperture. 4. Anterior side of a specimen; a, the anterior interradial. 5 Apex of a specimen which has lost the integu- ment that covered the centre. 6. Diagram of the plates of the test ; a, amhulacral plate ; i, the hasals ; c, plates of the apex ; d, one of the interradials ;/, forked plate. The body of this remarkable genus is ovate, elliptical or oblong, and inclosed in a shell of strong perisomatic plates, which are, in general, so closely anchylosed that the sutures between them cannot be distinguished. According to Mr. Lyon, who, through his long continued geological researches, has collected and studied a vast number of specimens, there are three minute lozenge-shaped, or quadrilateral basal plates, situated at the bottom of the YoL. Y. M Xo. 2. 186 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June columnar pit; always concealed when the column is present. These are surrounded by three other plates, the six altogether corresponding to the six pieces which constitute the compound basal plates of Pentremites. They are represented at fig. 6, h, as figured by Mr. Lyon (Geol. Ky., vol. iii, pi. v, fig 1, h.) In the next series there are five plates which are undoubtedly the homologues of the five forked plates of Pentremites. They are very short and confined to the base of the body. They form a shallow basin with ten re-entering angles in its margin. Fig. 6,/. Alternating above the forked plates, are five pieces correspond- in"- to the deltoid or interradial plates of Pentremites. Some of these are lanceolate in form (fig. 6, d), their broader extremities fitting into the angles between the forked plates. They taper to a point upward, and their sides are bevelled so as to pass under the ambulacral plates, to which they are, in general, so closely united, that the line of junction is indicated only by the difference in the markings of the surface. Owing to this structure, these plates have not always been recognised by the authors who have described this genus. They were first pointed out by Mr. Lyon. The fifth deltoid or interradial plate is truncated at its apex for the reception of the oro-anal orifice (??iv, figs. 4, 6). The sutures on each side of this plate are generally distinctly visible, especially in the upper part of the body. The ambulacra are narrow — one line wide in a specimen fifteen lines in length, with a fine median groove, about large enough to accommodate a tube of the size of a horse-hair. There are two rows of pores, those on one side of the groove alternating in posi- tion with those en the other side. These pores lead into the hydrospires. There appear to be only two rows of ambulacral ossicles. The pores are situated in the sutures between them. On each side of the ambulacrum there is a broad transversely grooved marginal plate. From each pore a small rounded ridge runs across this plate. The grooves between the ridges originate at the outer extremities of the ambulacral ossicles. In well-pre. served specimens the surface of these marginal plates exhibits no other structure than the transverse grooves and ridges; but in one weathered specimen that I have examined, they seem to be composed of a number of narrow elongated pieces, arranged trans- versely in such a manner that two of them abut against the outer extremity of each of the ambulacral ossicles, and extend outward toward the interradials. This seems to prove that the marginal 1870.] BILLINGS — ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 187 plates belong to the ambulacra, as pointed out by Mr. Lyon, and not to the interradials, as represented by other authors. Although I have studied a large number of specimens, none of them were sufficiently perfect to enable me to make out the whole structure of this part of the test of Nucleocrinus. I have, however, seen enough to convince me that the ambulacra are much more com- plex than is usually supposed. The lancet plate, if it occur at all in this genus, must be very narrow. The ambulacral groove, as in Pentreniites, sends off branches, right and left. There is also evidence of the existence of minute marginal plates on each side of the groove. The hydrospires are ten elongated sacks, each with two deep folds. They are perfectly homologous with those of Pentremites, only differing therefrom in not being united in pairs ; consequently there are ten spiracles instead of five. The mouth, or oro-anal orifice, is larger in proportion to the size of the body Fig. 7. Transverse section ,•, • • • • n ^ -^ h,t -^^ i through a specimen which hits than it IS in Fentremites. Mr. Meek all the hs'drospires preserved. • n ai, i. j.-l xi • r> h, the two ariteripr hydro- mtorms me that the mouth in some of hf^rli&rrtfni'Ttl the Blastoidea is protected by a single ^'^^''''- valve that covered it like the lid of a jug. From the structure of the orifice, I am inclined to think that in Nucleocrinus it possessed a similar protection. In the apex, nearly all the space within the circle of apertures is covered by a thin integument of small plates, fig. 3. When this is not preserved, a large snb- pentagonal aperture is seen, as shown in fig. 5. This aperture occupies the position of the mouth in the existing echinoderms. The integument, as will be shown further on, represents that which covers the mouth of an embryonic Star-fish. Mr, Conrad described this genus in 1842, as having only one aperture in the summit. " This genus differs from Pentremites, Say, in having only one perforation at top, which is central." (Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., vol. viii, p. 280, pi. XV, fig. 17). His figure represents the fossil with the apex downward. Dr. Ferd. Roemer, showed that, when perfect, there is no central opening, and he made this one of the grounds for separating the genus from Pentremites. He described the apex as being provided with six apertures, five of which were divided by a partition within each. These he considered to be the ovarian 188 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June orifices. The sixth he supposes to be both mouth and vent, which accords with my view. (Mon. der Blastoideen, p. 378). In 1868 I discovered the five small pores at the apical extremities of the ambulacral grooves. (This Jour., II, xcvii, p. 353, and Annals Nat. Hist., IV, vol. 4, p. 76). In general it is difiicult to to see these pores, but if a silicified specimen, tvhich has been fossilized in a calcareous matrix, be placed in an acid for two or three minutes, the acid cleans them out and they then become distinctly visible. I believe these to be the pores through which the ovarian tubes passed outward along the grooves to the pinnulae. There are thus, sixteen apertures in the apex oi' Niideocrimis, — ten spiracles, five ovarian orifices, and one oro-anal aperture. There are no true radial plates. The whole of the test with the exception, perhaps, of the ambulacra belongs to the perisomatic system, 8. On the occurrence of Embryonic forms among the Paleozoic Echinoderms. 8. 9, 10. 11. TTlV Fig. 8. Bipinnaria asterigeraSsiVS, (copied from Muller). a, the stomach; b, part of the body of the larva; c, ambulacral centre, position of the permanent mouth, in this stage not open ; d, one of the five ambulacral canals; e, sand canal; /, madreporic plate ; ?», entrance into the stomach ; o, oesophagus ; j:>, larval mouth or pseudostome ; y, oesophageal ring; v, vent. 9. Ideal figure de- scribed below. 10. Codonites stelliformis, ohlique view to show both body and summit. 11. Summit of fig. 10. No proposition in Natural History has been more clearly demonstrated than this : — That, in general, the paleozoic animals 1870.] BILLINGS— ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 189 resemble, both ia external form and internal structure, the embryonic stages of those of the same class at present existing. Prof. Agassiz has long taught in his lectures and various publica- tions, that this is especially observable in the Echinodermata. Judging from the figures and descriptions of Muller, Agassiz, Thomson, Carpenter and others, T should say, that in this class, the most striking; resemblance is that which occurs between the adult stages of the Cystidea, Blastoidea, and paleozoic Crinoidea,, on the one hand, and the embryonic Star-fishes on the other. The structural character that has the most important bearing on the subjects discussed in these notes, is, that in all four of these groups, the mouth is situated in one of the interradial areas, — not in the ambulacral centre, as it is in the adult forms of the existing Echinodermata. In Bipinnaria asterigera Sars, according to Muller, the digest- ive cavity is a sub-globular sack without any extensions into the rays, as there are in the adult Star-fishes. The oesophagus, fig. 8, 0, is a fleshy, consistent tube, with a large mouth or pseudos- tome, p. It passes through the wall of the stomach by an open- ing somewhat smaller than the mouth, and situated in one of the interradial spaces at ni. The madreporic plate, /, and sand canal, e, the latter holding the convoluted plate (when it occurs), are situated above the orifice, m, and between it and the ambulacral centre, c. The circular space at c, is undoubtedly the homologue of the central space in the apex of Mideocrinus, figs. 3 and 5, tjnd of Codonites, figs. 10 and 11. It is also the position of the mouth in the adult Star-fish ; but in the larval stage it is com- pletely closed by the soft external skin and sarcode of the body. In the fossils it is also closed, by an integument of thin calca- reous plates. The Bipinnaria is nourished by minute particles of matter diffused through the water, and drawn into the digestive sack through the mouth and oesophagus by the action of internal cilia. I believe [that all the fossil Crinoidea, Blastoidcca and Cystidea, ingested their food in this way, and without any aid whatever from the arms or pinnulte. Perhaps there is no embryologist who will not admit, that it is possible for an animal like Bipinnaria to develope organs of reproduction and propagate its species, none of its other parts making any further advance. Such an animal, with some slight modifications, would not be very widely difi"erent from a paleozoic Crinoid. If the sarcodic body wall were to be consolidated into a 190 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June thin calcareous integument, witli the mouth even with the surface, the swimming appendages aborted, and the vent closed up, it would resemble the cup of an Actinocrinus, fig. 9, a. The lateral orifice would then be both mouth and vent, as it is, at first (according to Prof. A. Agassiz, Seaside Studies, p. 125), in the embryo of Asteracanthion BeryUnus, The ambulacral canals oi Bipinnaria are the homologues, in a general way, of those which are found beneath the vault of Actinocrinus, and extend out into the grooves of the arms. If the ventral perisome of the Crinoid were to be removed (the internal organs remaining undis- turbed) the arrangement disclosed would be that represented in fig. 9, — a convoluted plate in the centre with the canals radiating from it. The most striking difi'erence is the absence of the oesophageal ring. According to the organization of Actinocrinus there could be no cesphagus at that point, and consequently there is no ring. The convoluted plate represents the madreporic ap- paratus. The sucking feet of the Star-fish, most probably, re- present the respiratory tentacles that border the grooves of the Crinoids, but modified into prehensile and locomotive organs. Bipinnaria and Actinocrinus agree in having the mouth in one of the interradial areas, and in the absence of an orifice through the perisome at the ambulacral centre. These two characters are enbryonic and transitory in the Star-fish, but they were perma- nent in most paleozoic Crinoids. In Codonites steUiformis (^Pentremites stelliforniis Owen and Shumard), figs. 10, 11, the ambulacral centre, c, is completely closed. Five minute grooves radiate out to the extremities of the five angles of the disc. These grooves are identical with those of Pentremites and Nucleocrinus, and were occupied by the ovarian tubes. The ambulacral canals of the true Crinoids and of the Star-fishes are represented in a rudimentary condition, in this species, by the hydrospires which open out to the surface through the ten fissure-like spiraclea, s. The oro-anal orifice is interradial. G. steUiformis in external form, the interradial posi- tion of the mouth, and the closed ambulacral centre, resembles Bipinnaria and Actinocrinus, but differs importantly in having its respiratory organs arranged in ten separate tracts, all totally disconnected from each other. It is a lower form than Actino- crinus, which in its turn is lower than Bipinnaria, and yet all three are constructed on the same general plun. G. SteUiformis, although much resembling a Pentremite, is a 1870.] BILLINGS — ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 191 true Cj'stidean. Its affinity to Cadaster was first pointed out by Dr. C. A. White, who also suggested that it should be assigned to a distinct group. (Bost. Jour, N. II., vol. vii, pp. 486487). The main difference between the Cystidea and the Blastoidea is, that in the former the hydrospires do not communicate with the piunula3, whilst in the latter the cavities of the pinnulse and hydrospires are directly connected by the ambulacral pores. The developement of the recent Crinoid, Antedon rosaceus, as described by Prof. Wyville Thomson (Phil, Trans., 1866), pur- sues a course that could not possibly result in the production of such an animal as Actinocrinus. The pseudembryo, as it is called by Prof. Thomson, is a small ovate organism, with four transverse, ciliated bands, a large key-hole-shaped mouth (pseudostome), and a small circular vent (pseudoproct). These orifices are connected by a rudimentary intestine (pseudocele). In this stage there is no trace of radiation, and the mouth, therefore, cannot be said to be interradial in its position. The nascent Crinoid originates within the pseudembrjo, but developes a mouth, vent and and stomach, of its own, all quite distinct from those of its nurse. The new, or permanent mouth, is for a short time both oral and anal in its function, but although in this respect it resembles that of Actinocrinus, its position in the centre ot the ambulacral system, shows it to represent the mouth of the adult Star-fish, while that of Actinocrinus rather homologates with the oral orifice of the Bipinnaria, At no time during its development does the ventral perisome exhibit the structure of that of the paleocrinoids, i, e., no orifice in the ambulacral centre, and at the same time one in an interradial space. In the central position of its mouth, and in the possession of an oesophageal ring, Antedon stands above Actinomnus in rank, and between it and the adult Star-fish. In none of its stages does it resemble a Bipinnaria either in form or in structure. 9. ON SOME or THE OBJECTIONS THAT HAVE BEEN ADVANCED AGAINST THE VIEWS ADVOCATED IN THE PRECEDING NOTES. In all the known species of the existing Echinodermata, the mouth is situated in the centre of the ambulacral system, and it is contended that this fact proves that such must have been its position also in the paleozoic forms. This reasoning is not strictly logical. It is true that in the 192 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June known existing species, the mouth is in the centre, but it does not certainly follow that it is so in all the Echinodermata, living and extinct. Whether it be so or not in any particular fossil species, whose structre may be under investigation, is a question of wliich fact can only he j^ositively determined hy direct observa- tion of specimens. On appealing to these we find that, in a large proportion of the fossil forms, there is no aperture in the peri- some at the ambulacral centre. It also becomes evident by the comparison that, in general, the paleozoic species resemble the embryonic stages of some of the recent Echinoderms, and that in these, (^Bipinnaria for instance), the mouth is interradial. Kules such as are relied on in this case, afford a certain amount of pre- sumptive evidenc3, which, however, cannot prevail against mate- rial and visible facts. When we can see clearly that there is no aperture in that point in the vault of a Crinoid, beneath which we know the ambulacral centre is situated, it is perfectly useless to supply one by deduction. ^^ The second objection is, that many of the fossils have a Platy- ceras attached to them, in such a position so as to cover the aper- ture which I call the mouth, and under such circumstances as to induce the belief that it lived parasitically on the Crinoid. The only answer I can make to this is that, admitting the facts, we must suppose that space was left for a stream of water to pass under the edge of the shell, into the mouth of the Crinoid. In general, where one animal lives parasitically upon another, it does not destroy his host. Some of the gasteropods of the Devonian and Carboniferous ages, were carnivorous, as is proved by the bored shells and Crinoids that are occasionly found. I have seen a great number of such specimens, and several years ago I read a paper on the subject (which was never publiished) before the Natural History Society of Montreal. There were several good Conchologists present, and the specimens exhibited were compared with bored shells of existing species. All pronounced the style * The positiou of the ambulacral centre may thus he found. "When the mouth is eccentric, the ambulacral tubes usually converge to the centre of the vault. But when the mouth is central, we first find the azygos interradius, in general easily recognized by its possessing a greater number of plates than do any one of tho other four iuterradii. On the opposite side of the fossil is the azygos arm. The ambulacral centre is always situated between this arm and the month, never on the side of the mouth torward the azj^gos interradius. 1870.] BILLINGS — ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 193 Fig. 12. Streptorliynchus Pan- dora. A specimen bored at o by a carnivorous gasteropod. From the Corniferous Limestone, Devonian, Canada, of workmanship to be precisely the same. I have the proboscis of an Act'uiocrlnus that is bored near the base, and among the fossils lent me by Mr. Wachsmuth is a Codonites stelUformis, that is bored through one of the ambul- acra. The view I took of the sub- ject in my paper, was that the gas- teropod ascended the stalk of the Crinoid, and thrust its proboscis into the mouth of the latter. The Crinoid then slowly drew its arms together and held the shell fast until both died. A third objection is the small size of the aperture in some of the species. In general, where there is no proboscis the orifice is from one-twentieth to one-tenth of an inch in diameter, quite suffi- cient for an animal that subsists on microscopic organisms. It is stated by Meek and Worthen that where there is a proboscis, the aperture is sometimes scarcely '• more than one-hundredth of an inch in diameter." I believe in many such instances the tube is filled up by calcareous deposits on its inside, and that when entirely obstructed, either a new aperture is opened out in the side of the proboscis, or that the animal died. In Mr. Wachsmuth's collect- ion, I saw a specimen with a second aperture in the process of formation. A ticket was attached to it by him, giving this ex- planation. I am also informed that in some of the existing species of Antedon " the mouth is an exceedingly minute aper- ture." A fourth objection is thtjt the aperture is so situated that the arms could not have conveyed food to it. It is however proved by Dr. W. B. Carpenter, that in the recent Crinoids the arms are not prehensile organs. The animal while feeding remains motionless, attached by its dorsal cirrhi to a stone, shell, or other object on the bottom. Its arms are either stretched out to their full length, or more or less coiled up, but quite immovable. As Dr. Carpenter's remarks have a very important bearing upon the subject, I shall take the liberty of quoting the following : — '' Whatever may be the purpose of the habitual expansion of the arms, I feel quite justified that it is not (as stated by several authors whom I cited in my historical summary) the prehension of food. I have continually watched the results of the contact of small 194 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June animals (as Annelids, or Entomostracans and other small Crusta- ceans) with arms, and have never yet seen the smallest attempt on the part of the animal to seize them as prey. Moreover, the tubular tentacula with which the arms are so abundantly furnish- ed, have not in the slightest degree that adhesive power which is possesed by the " feet" of the Echinidea and Asteriada ; so that they are quite incapable of assisting in the act of prehension, which must be accomplished, if at all, either by the coiling-up of a single arm, or by the folding- together of the arms. Now I have never seen such coiling up of an arm as could bring an object that might be included in it into the near neighbourhood of the mouth ; nor have I seen the contact of small animals with a single arm produce any movement of other arms towards the spot, such as takes place in the prehensile apparatus of other animals. Moreover, any object that could be grasped either by the coiling of one arm, or by the consentaneous closure of all the arms together upon it, must be far too large to be received into the mouth, which is of small size and not distensible like that of the Asteroid A." ^ Farther on Dr. Carpenter says : " It was affirmed by M. Dujardin (I'lnstitut, No. 119, p, 268) that the arms are used for the acquisition of food in a manner altogether dissimilar to ordinary prehension ; for recognizing the fact that the alimentary particles must be of small size, he suppos- ed that any such, falling on the ambulacral (?) furrows of the arms or pinnae, are transmitted downwards along those furrows to the mouth wherein they all terminate, by mechanical action of the digitate papillae which fringe their borders. This doctrine he appears to have abandoned ; since in his last account of this type (Hist. Nat. des Echinoderms, p. 194) he affirms that the trans- mission of alimentary particles along the ambulacral (?) furrows is the result of the action of cilia with which their surface is clo- thed. Although I have not myself succeeded in distinguishing cilia on the surface which forms the floor of these furrows, yet I have distinctly seen such a rapid passage of minute particles along their groove as I could not account for in any other mode, and * Eeaserches on the Structure, Physiology, and development of Ante- don {Comatula, Lamk.) rosaceus.—Voii I. By ~W. B. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S. Philosophical Transactions of the Eojal Society, vol. clvi, Part II. 186G. 1870.] BILLINGS — ON CRINOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 195 am therefore disposed to believe in their existence. SucJi a power- ful indraughtf moreover, must he produced about the region of tJie mouth, hi/ the action of the large cilia tuhich (^as I shall hereafter descrihe^ fringe various parts of the internal loall of the alimen- tary canal, as loould materially aid in the transmission of minute particles along those portions of the amhulacral (^?) furrows which immediately lead torward it ; and it is, I feel satisfied, by the conjoint agency of these two moving powers that the alimentation of Antedon is ordinarily affected. In the very numerous speci- mens from Arran the contents of whose digestive cavity I have examined, I have never found any other than microscopic organ- isms; and the abundance of the horny rays, Peridinium tripos, (Ehr.) has made it evident that in this locality that Infuso- rian was one of the principle articles of its food. But in Ante- dons from other localities, I have found a more miscellaneous assemblage of alimentary particles ; the most common recogniz- able forms being the horny casings of Entomostraca or of the larvae of higher Crustacea." (Op. cit., p. 700). The existence of large cilia within the intestinal canal, capable of producing a powerful indraught of water, renders any move- ment or concurrent action of the arms quite unnecessary in the ingestion of food. It does not matter, therefore in what part of the body the mouth of a Crinoid may be situated, or how remote from the reach of the arms. Attached permanently to the bottom of the sea by their columns, the Crinoidea, Cystidea and Blast- oidea remained, while feeding, most probably motionless, drawing in streams of water through their mouths by the action of their intestinal cilia. The long tubular proboscis with which many of the species are provided, would be, thus, analogous in function to the siphon of the acephalous mollusca. The indigestible particles would le, from time to time, thrown out the mouth, just as a Star-fish or a Zoophyte frees itself of the refuse portion of food, by casting it out of the same aperture through which it entered. 10. On the theory that the ambulacral and ovarian orifices are the oral apertures. Assuming that the four objections above noticed are suflBcIent to prove that the aperture which I call the mouth is not that organ, it is contended that the Cystidea, Blastoidea and Palseocrin- idea ingested their food through their ambulacral and ovarian 196 . THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June orifices. This appears to me in the highest degree improbable. In the recent Crinoids the grooves of the arms are occupied by four sets of tubes, which Dr. Carpenter calls the caeliac, the sub- tentacular, the ovarian and the tentacular canals. None of them communicate with the stomach. It is impossible that the most minute particle of food could gain acess into the interior of the animal through any of them. The structure of the arms of the paleozoic Crinoids is such, that we must presume that their grooves were occupied by similar tubes, which passed through the ambul- acral orifices into the perivisceral space. In the Cystidea and Blastoidea the respiratory organs were not situated in the grooves of the arms, and the ambulacral orifices were therefore only ovarian in their function. The improbability of their being also oral apertures is best shown by an illustration. In fig. 13, is represented (natural size) the apertures of the 13. 14. smallest specimen of Caryocrhius ornatus in our collection, selected for the present purpose because in the young of this spe- cies, the valvular orifice is larger in pro- portion to the disCj than it is in the adult. It is in this specimen, about one- third of the whole width of the apical disc, while in a full grown Carijocrinus it is only one-ninth of the width. The same proportional size of the mouth accord- ing to age, occurs in the Antcdon rosaceus. The valvular mouth at first is as wide as the disc. But as the age of the animal in- creases the disc grows wider but the mouth does not. The ova- rian pores in Caryocrhius are however as large in the small ones (once they make their appearance) as they are in those full grown. For recognizing these as ovarian pores we have the following reasons: — 1. T he v are situated at the bases of the arms where the ovarian tubes must pass from the grooves into the perivisceral cavity. 2. When compared with the ovarian pores of a Sea-urchin they have the same size, form and aspect. Fig. 14 represents the ovarian pores of the Sea-urchin Toxopneustes DrohacJiiensis Ag. natural size and arrangement. It may not appear at first view that this latter comparison has any probative efl"ect. But it has, in this way. If these apertures in Caryocrinus were large open- ings a line wide, as are some of the ambulacral orifices of the Crinoids, I would say that they were unlike true ovarian aper- tures. According to the new theory, this Echinoderm, Caryocrinus 1870.] BILLINGS ON CRISTOIDEA AND BLASTOIDEA. 197 ornatus, was a polystome animal, and drew in its food through its six ovarian apertures, the large valvular orifice being the anus. To me this appears uterly incredible. In fis;. 14 I have represented the mouth of Leshia mirahilis Gray, Both Dr. J. E. Gray and Prof. Loven have pronounced this aperture to have the structure of the valvular orifice of the Cystidea. I have not the slightest doubt whatever but that the mouth of the Cystideans foreshadows that of the Sea-urchins. There is nothing whatever in its structure to show that it is nob the mouth but the contrary. The new theory is not founded upon any peculiarities in the structure of the ambulacral orifices, which would show that they are oral apertures, but only upon the four objections above noticed. The first of these is not logical, while at the same time it is purely theoretical, and avails nothing against material and visible facts. The fourth is completely disposed of by Dr. Carpenter's observations, which prove that in the Crinoidea the arms have no share whatever in the ino-estion of food. Tho second and third objections are the same in substance, i. e., accord- ing to the second the supply of water to the mouth, is diminished by the occurrence of a Platyceras over it, while, according to the third, the same effect is produced by the small size of the aperture itself in some instances. It does not require much consideration to convince one, that if these two objec- tions are fatal to my views, they are equally so to the opposite theory. In G. stelUformis, for instance, the pores through which we must suppose the ovarian tubes issued from the interior are only large enough to admit of the passage of a fine hair. They are scarcely visible to the naked eye. The tube, under any circumstances, must have filled them entirely. If any space at all were left for the passage of a stream of water through the pore by the side of the tube it must have been exceedingly minute. When weighed as above, therefore, the evidence gives the following results : — The first and fourth objections avail nothing. The second and third militate against both theories. But when we take into account that in no instance in the existing Echinodermata, where ovarian pores occur, are they at the same time oral orifices, the balance seems to be in favour of my view. This is all I desire to say upon the subject at present. Although I now firmly believe that the valvular orifice in the Cystidea, the 198 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June larger lateral aperture of the Blastoidea, and the so-called pro- boscis of the paleozoic Crinoids are all oro-anal in function, yet I shall not maintain that view obstinately against good reason shown to the contrary. ON THE GEOLOGY OF EASTERN NEW ENGLAND. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. (Frovi a letter to Prof. James D. Dana, reprinted from the American Journal of Science and Arts, Vol. L., July, 1870.) When, more than twenty years since, my attention was turned to the geology of New England, there was no evidence of the existence between the old gneisses of the Adirondacks and the coal measures, of any other stratified rocks than those of the Huronian series, and the New York system, from the Potsdam formation, upward. It is true that Emmons had, before that time maintained the presence, in western Vermont and Massa- chusetts, of a system of fossiliferous sediments, lying unconform- ably beneath the Potsdam, but the evidence up to this time adduced with regard to these so-called Taconic rocks, has failed to show that they include any strata more ancient than the Potsdam, while most of them are certainly younger. The researches of Sir William Logan, up to 1848, had led him to refer to a period not older than the Lower Silurian the crys- talline sediments of the Appalachian region of Canada, between Lake Champlain and Quebec. These form a chain of hills, the continuation of the Green Mountains, and were found by him to be followed immediately, to the southeast, by more or less calca- reous and somewhat altered strata, associated with Upper Silurian fossils, and succeeded across the strike, near the sources of the Connecticut River, by a series, several miles in breadth, of micaceous schists and quartzose strata, occasionally containing chiastolite, garnet and hornblende. These two series of rocks, extending from the base of the Green Mountains to Canaan on the Connecticut, it was suggested by Sir William Logan, in his Report on the Geological Survey, 1847-1848, might be the altered representatives of the rocks of Gaspe, including the Lower Helderberg group, and the succeeding members of the New York system to the top of the Chemung. I then as now 1870.] HUNT — GEOLOGY OF EASTERN NEW ENGLAND. 199 conceived that these micaceous and argillaceous schists, often holding garnets and chiastolite, were identical with those which make so conspicuous a figure in the White Mountains and else- where in Eastern New England, and when, in 1849, I laid before the American Association at Cambridge, the results of the Geo- logical Survey of Canada (Sill. Jour., II, ix, 19), suggested that to the Gaspe series, as above defined, ''may perhaps be referred, in part, the rocks of the White Mountains." Lesley, subsequently, in 1860 (Proc. Philad. Acad. Nat. Sciences, page 363), adduced many reasons for believing that the rocks of these might be strata of Devonian age.-^ In the large geological map of Canada and the northern United States, lately published by Sir William Logan, no attempt is made to delineate the geology of New Hampshire, but the rocks in question, to the north of the United States boundary, are represented as Upper Silurian, with the exception of a belt of the Quebec group, which has been recognized in that region. In fact the schists and gneisses of the White Mountains are clearly distinct, lithologically,Trom the Laurentian, the Labradorian and the Huronian, as well as from the crystalline rocks of the Green Mountains, and from the fossiliferous Upper Silurian strata which lie at the southwestern base of the Canadian prolongation of the latter. Having thus exhausted the list of known sedimen- tary groups up to this horizon, it was evident that the crystalline strata of the White Mountains must be either (1) of Devonian age, or (2) something newer (which was highly improbable) ; or (3) must belong to a lower and hitherto unknown series. In the absence of any proof, at that time, of the existence of such a lower system, the first view, which referred these strata to the Devonian period, was the only one admissible. * In this connection should be recalled the views put forth in 1846, by Messrs. H. D. and "W. B. Kogers, in a paper on the Geological Age of the White Mountains, (Sill. Journal, II, i, 411). They there, for the first time, pointed out that the great mass of these mountains consists of more or less altered sedimentary strata, which upon the evidence of sup- posed organic remains they referred with some little doubt, to the Clin- ton division of the Upper Silurian. In 1847, however, they announced that the supposed fossils, on which this identification had been founded, were not really such, (Sill. Jom-nal, II, v, 116). Future explorers may,' it is hoped, be more successful, and yet discover among the strata of the White Mountains evidences of organic life, probably of primordial Silurian age. 200 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June When, however, further investigation showed that the great and progressive thickening which takes place in the paleozoic formations from the west, eastward, is not confined to the aug- mentation of existing subdivisions, but inckides the intercala- tion of new ones ; when the few hundred feet of typical Pots- dam sandstone in New York are represented in Vermont, Quebec and Newfoundland, by thousands of feet of strata lithologically very unlike the type ; while the Quebec group, not less in volume, appears representing the beds of passage between the Calciferous and Chazy divisions of New York, we begin to conceive that con- ditions of sedimentation, very unlike anything hitherto suspected in the west, prevailed to the eastward. When, moreover, we find widely separated areas of Labradorian and Huronian rocks, — remaining fragments of great series, — resting upon the Laurent- ian, from Lake Huron to Newfoundland, we get evidences of a process of denudation in past ages, not less remarkable than the sedimentation. My observations of last year have led me to a conclusion, which had previously been taking shape in my mind, that there exists above the Laurentian, a great series of crystalline schists, including mica-slates, staurolite and chiastolite-schists, with quartzose and hornblendic rocks, and some limestones, the whole associated with great masses of fine-grained gneisses, the so-called granites of many parts of New England. The first suggestions of this were given me by the observation of Dr. Bigsby, confirm- ed by specimens since received from that region, that there exists to the northwest of Lake Superior, an extended series of crystal- line schists, unlike the Laurentian, and resembling those of the White Mountains. I have already called attention to this re- semblance in a review of the progress of American Geology, in 1861 {Can. Naturalist, VI., 84). It was contrary to my notions of the geological history of the continent to suppose that rocks of Devonian age could, in that region, have assumed such litholog- ical characters, and I was therefore led to compare these rocks with a great series of crystalline schists, abounding in mica-slates and micaceous limestones, which occupy considerable areas in the Laurentian region in Hastings county^ to the north of Lake Ontario. The distribution of this series has been traced out by Mr. Vennor, who in 1869, was able to show that, although much contorted, it rests unconformably upon the old Laurentian gneisses, while it is, at the same time overlaid by the horizontal 1870.] HUNT — ON GEOLOGY OF EASTERN NEW ENGLAND, 201 limestones of the Trenton group. This intermediate series, which attains a thickness of several thousand feet, is terminated by calcareo-micaceous schists, in which Eozoon Canadense has been found, both in Madoc and in Tudor. In these localities, as shown by Dawson and Carpenter (Sill. Jour.. II., xlviv, 3G7), the calcareous skeleton of the Eozoon, insttal of being injected by serpentine or another silicate^ is simply filled with impure calca- reous and carbonaceous matter. The presence of this fossil serves to connect these rocks with the Laureutiau system, with which they had provisionally been classed, although their lithological dissimilarity had long been noticed, and in 186G Sir William Logan had remarked their resemblance to the mica-slate series found near the sources of the Connecticut Eiver (Report Geol. Survey, 1866, p. 93). Mr. Alex. Murray's report of his explorations in Newfound- land, published in 1866, throws much light on the history of the rocks immediately succeeding the Laurentian in that region. He found'in the great northern peninsula, about the Clouds Mountains and Canada Bay, not less than 5400 feet of strata, referred by him to the Potsdam group. Of these the lower 2500 feet consist of bluish-gray slates, holding near the summit, beds which become conglomerate from the presence of quartz pebbles, and are follow- ed by a mass of purplish amygdaloidal diorite, holding epidote and jaspery red iron ore. Then follow 2000 feet of argillaceous and somewhat micaceous slates with beds of quartzite and of limestone, generally impure. These contain, besides numerous fucoidal markings, the remains of a Lingula, and of Olendlus Vermontanus, a fossil characteristic of the Potsdam group. To this second division succeeds a third, consisting of about 900 feet additional of limestones and slates. Somewhat farther southward, at Great and Little Coney Arms, the lower half of the above series is not observed, but a succession of strata, supposed to represent the upper portion of the Potsdam, is more particularly described. It consists, at the base, of 300 feet of pale bluish- gray mica-slates, with iron stains, '' softer more finely laminated, and more uniform both in colour and in texture" than some micaceous strata described by Mr. Murray as occuring in the Laurentian in that region. To these succeeded 430 feet of sim- ilar soft bluish-gray mica-slates, holding numerous thin seams of dark colored limestone, and followed by 1000 feet of impure limestones and slates, often micaceous and calcareous, among Vol V. N No. 2. 202 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuDG •which are a few beds of white compact marble. No indications of fossils, savefucoidal markings, were met with in this section. At Coney- Arm Head there is seen a series of " whitish granitoid, very quartzose mica-slates," which appear to have a thickness of from 1500 to 2000 feet. The same rock is found in White Bay^ where it overlies what is supposed to be J vaurentian gneiss. The relations of these whitish granitic mica-slates are still obscure, but Mr. Murray was inclined to regard them as occupying a position beneath the Potsdam group. The latter, in Canada Bay is immediately followed by the unaltered fossiliferous limestone, and shales of the Quebec group. From these investigations of Mr. Murray we learn that between the Laurentian and the Quebec group, there exists a series of several thousand feet of strata, including soft bluish-grey mica-slates and micaceous lime- stones, belonging to the Potsdam group ; besides a great mass of whitish granitoid mica-slates, whose relation to the Potsdam is still uncertain. To the whole of these we may perhaps give the provisional name of the Terranovan series, in allusion to the name Newfoundland. Imperfect gneisses and schists are found in several parts of the province of New Brunswick, associated with what has been de- scribed as a great grantic belt. These rocks have been examin- ed by Prof. Hind, and by Mr. Eobb, on the St. John and Mirimichi rivers ; and the former of these observers some years since pointed out the indigenous character of the so-called granites. In th3 summer of 1869 I had an opportunity of ex° amining, with Prof. L. W. Bailey, the region about St. Stephen, on the river St. Croix, where he had already observed a series of ferruginous quartz ites and imperfect gneisses, accompanied by soft bluish mica-slates sometimes holding chiastolite, staurolite, and garnet. These highly crystalline schists are not more than five miles removed from unaltered shales of the Gaspe series containing fossils of Upper Silurian or Lower Devonian types, and rest unconformably upon older granitoid rocks, which Prof Bailey regards as probably Laurentian. We subsequently ex- amined the crystalline schists of the St John, which are apparent- ly identical with those of the St. Croix, and these also overlie, unconformably, an older granitoid gneiss. ^ * Subsequent examination and comparison leads me to conclude that the underlying granitic rock here referred to, which occurs on the St. .Tohn near the mouth of the Shogamoe is not an indigenous rock, but an 1870.] HUNT — ON GEOLOGY OF EASTERN NEW ENGLAND. 203 More recently Prof. Hind has pointed out that some of the so-called granites of Nova Scotia are ancient gneisses, probably of Laurentian age, and have shown that between these and the gold-bearing slates of that province, there is found, near Windsor, and near Sherbrooke, a series of beds of no great thickness, consisting of imperfect gneisses, quartzites and micaceous schists, which rest unconformably on the Laurentian, and are sometim^^is wanting altogether. These include mica-schists with chiastolite and garnet, and appear identical with those already observed by Dr. Dawson in other parts of Novia Scotia, which I had already recognized as the same with those of the White Mountains, and those of the St. Croix, just noticed. Prof. Hind, in a late paper, has called these, from their position in Nova Scotia, Huronian ; but the Cambrian or Huronian rocks recognized by Messrs. Matthew and Bailey in New Brunswick, where they are widely spread along the north side of the Bay of Fandy, consist of massive diorites and quartzose feldspar-porphyries, with occasion- al sandstones and conglomerates, and are very unlike the gneissic and micaceous rocks in question, which I believe to belong, like those of the St. Croix and the St. John rivers, to the great lerran- ovan series. The micaceous and homblendic schists, with inter- stratified fine grained whitish gneisses (locally known as granites) which I have seen in Hallowell, Au2;usta, Brunswick and West- brook, in Maine, appear to belong to the same series ; which will also probably include much of the gneiss and mica-schist of eastern New England. If this upper series is to be identified with the crystalline schists which in Hastings County, Ontario, overlie unconformably the Laurentian, and yet contain Eozoon Canadense, the presence of this fossil can no longer serve to identify the Laurentian system. To this lower horizon however, I have referred a belt of gneissic rocks in eastern Massachusetts, which are lithologically unlike the present series, and identical with the Laurentian of New York and Canada. To the upper series appear to belong the great endogenous granitic veins so well known to mineralogists as containing beryl, tourmaline and other fine crystallized minerals. The fine-grained white granitoid gneisses, often present an apparently bedded structure, which enables them to be removed in large plates or layers, lying at no great angle, and apparently con- iutrusive granite. The same view must probably be extended to the granite rocks of the St. Croix. 204 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June formable to the present surface of the country. This structure, which I conceive to have been superinduced by superficial changes of temperature, is often quite independent of the bedding, as may be seen in the quarries near Augusta in Maine, and in the cuttings on the Grand Trunk Railway near Berlin Falls, New Hampshire. It is also observed in exotic or intrusive granites, like those of Biddeford, Maine. This is, in fact, the concentric lamination of granite, long since observed by Yon Buch, and, I believe, correct- ly explained by Prof. N. S. Shaler to be due to movements of contraction and expansion in the mass, caused by variation of temperature during the changes of the seasons. He has not however observed this structre at greater depths than from three to five feet, while in some rocks I have found it penetrating prob- ably twenty feet. (See Shaler's paper, read before the Boston Nat. History Society, Feb. 3, 1869, and published in the Proceed- ings of the Society, vol. xii, page 289). While however I admit the existence in the Dominion of Canada and in eastern New England, of a great series of crys- talline schists, distinct from' the Laurentian, and apparently the same with those found by| Mr. Murray between the Laurentian and the Quebec group in Newfoundland, it is not less certain that we have in these regions rocks of Upper Silurian and Lower Devonian age, holding the characteristic fossils. These strata in Maine and New Brunswick are generally but little altered. In the Connecticut valley at Bernardston, Massachusetts, near Lake Memphremagog in Vermont, and further northward in the province of Quebec, fossils of this horizon are found in rocks which in some localities, are more or less altered and crystalline. I believe however that much of the calcareous mica-slate of eastern Vermont will be found to belong to the Terranovan series. The extent of these newer rocks, and the limits between them and the more ancient schists, of the ruins of which they are prob- ably in part composed, remain problems for farther investigation. For the solution of these Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, by his labours ill Vermont, is already well prepared, and it cannot be doubt- ed that he, with his able assistants, will in the Survey of New Hampshire, now in progress, throw much light on New England geology. It is worthy of remark, that strata holding fossils of Lower Helderberg age, or thereabouts, are not confined to the shores of Maine and New Brunswick, and the vallevs of the Connecticut and St. John rivers, but are found beyond the Green Mountains? 1870.] HUNT — ON GEOLOGY OF EASTERN NEW ENGLAND. 205 in the valley of the St. Lawrence near Montreal ; where, on the island of St. Helen they rest unconformably on the Utica slate, and at Beloeil Mountain, near by, on intrusive diorites, which there break through the shales of the Hudson River group. The relations of this Terranovan series to the porphyries and diorite rocks which, in New Brunswick, have been called Cam- brian and Huronian by Mr. Matthew (first distinguished by him as the Coldbrook group), yet remains to be determined. These rocks are found near to the city of St. John resting directly on what has been regarded as Laurentian, and are overlaid by the uncrystalline schists which contain the primordial ftiuna now so well known by the descriptions of Prof. Hartt. Rocks which I regard as identical with the same Coldbrook or Cambrian group, are found along the coast of New Brunswick, and constitute the diorites and porphyries of Eastport, Maine. They appear more- over to be the same with those met with near Newburyport, and Salem, Lynn, and Marblehead, Massachusetts. Farther research- es about Passamaquoddy Bay, where the mica-slates are found not far removed from these porphyries, will probably enable us to determine their relation to each other. It will be remembered that Giimbel has found, in Bavaria beneath the oldest fossiliferous clay-slates, a mica-gchist (and * hornblende-schist) series, reposing upon the Hercynian o-neiss which contains crystalline limestones, with graphite, serpentine and Eozoon Canadense, and which he has identified with the Laurentian of North America. He distinguishes beneath this a great mass of red gneiss, apparently without limestones, to which he has given the name of the Bojian gneiss. It will however be remembered, that in his studies of the Laurentian system on the Ottawa, Sir William Logan has shown that this immense series (his Lower Laurentain), some 20,000 feet in thicknesss, includes four great masses of gneiss and quartzite, divided by three lime- stone formations, and that it is in the uppermost of these, which is, in some parts, 1500 feet thick, that the Eozoon Canadense jia.s been found. Some of the lower gneisses of this vast system may very well represent the Bojian of Giimbel, who has not reco"-- nized in Bavaria either the Labradorian (Upper Laurentian) or Huronian series. (See Giimbel on the Laurentian of Bavaria, trAi: slated and published in the Canadian Naturalist for December 1866). Comparative studies of this kind should not be neglected in the investigation of our American rocks. 206 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. PROCEEDINGS AT THE ANNUAL MEETING, Held May ISth, 1870. The annual meeting; of this Society was held at its rooms on the evening of May 18th, the Acting President, Rev. A. De Sola, LL.D., in the absence of Sir W. E. Logan, in the chair. Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, the Recording Secretary, read the minutes of the last annual meeting ; after which the usual annual address was delivered as follows : — In the notice calling this meeting, it was announced that there would be an address by the Acting President. I fear, however, that I shall have now to prove there would be more of courtesy than of justice in dignifying my few remarks, illustrative of the work done in the past year, with a title that has frequently, even if not invariably, conveyed on such an occasion the idea of a scientific treatise. When I had the honor of last filling the presidential chair, I called your attention to '' some points of interest in the study of Natural History" ; but this evening, I do not follow this course, for two reasons, which I trust you will regard as quite sufficient. The first is, that I — and I venture to add most others in my situation — would but little desire to give opportunity of contrast with what, had he been present, our learned President, Sir Wm. Logan, would have favored us. And the second is, that multifarious and urgent official and other duties would have prevented me, however I might have felt dis^ posed to intrude in such a direction. In uniting with me, as I am sure you will, in regretting the absence of our President on this occasion, we may yet have the satisfiiction of recalling the fact that on Sir William Logan's recent retirement from the active duties of Director of the Geological Survey, this Society, which in the past had done something to help Sir William in creating the Survey, availed itself of the occasion of his with- drawal to present him with its silver medal, accompanied with resolutions expressive of the Society's desire — although it could not add appreciably to the many honors which Sir William had 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 207 received, by presenting to him its medal — yet its earnest desire to place on record, not merely on its own behalf, but on that of all the students of natural science in Canada, its high estimation of the value of his services in creating, as well as directing, the Geological Survey of this country ; in promoting the development of its mineral resources; in stimulating and aiding the efforts of scientific institutions, and in extending throughout the world the name of Canadian science. The resolutions also express our high appreciation of Sir William's admirable personal qualities, our hope that he may be spared for many years to Canada and science, and that the relief from official cares may give him the ojDportu- nity to pursue to completion the researches in scientific geology in which he is now engaged. Tu the sentiments of these resolu- tions I am sure all who are here to-night, but who were absent when they were offered, will full and cordially concur, and at the same time unite with me in felicitating the " Survey" and the cause of geological science, that Sir William's mantle should have fallen on so worthy a successor as Mr. Selwyn, whose laurels already gathered as director of the Geological Survey in Victoria will doubtless multiply and extend themselves in the new and larger field to which he has been called. The proceedings to which I have just adverted will find record in the Society's organ, The Canadian Naturalist, and it may be proper that I should here say a few words respecting this publi- cation, especially as I have not been editorially or otherwise connected with the volume just completed. This volume forms the fourth of the new series and the first of its publication as a quarterly, and I venture to say that we have much cause for gratification and pride at its appearance, especially when we look to the difficulties attendant upon its production. These difficulties are both of a financial and literary character — the various valuable articles consisting entirely of voluntary contributions — and it is to be feared that not all the members of this Society sufficiently realize or ponder these great difficulties. It must be a source of congratulation to the Editing Committee that they have been enabled to publish the volume within the year — a feat not always accomplished either by the Naturalist, or by the publications of sister societies in the Dominion. We need but look at the varied and valuable contributions in this volume to be satisfied that it has not been surpassed by any before it. And what will be considered a very gratifying fact is, that the original articles of 208 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June the Naturalist are now copied ui extenso in some of the scientific journals of tlie Mother Country and the United States. Thus, not less than six of these articles of the last volume have been wholly reproduced in the London Scientific Opinion, to wit, two by Dr. Edwards, one by Dr. Hunt, one by Mr. Ritchie, and two by Dr. Sraallwood. Articles and the monthly proceedings of this Society are also copied in Nature and other periodicals. This important testimony to the value of the book must needs prove especially gratifying to those engaged in this labor of love, and should stimulate members to extend to the journal a more general and earnest support. I would ask leave to bring before you here a list of the original papers read by members during the past year, some of which appeared in the Naturalist and reappeared, as I have said, in English periodicals. These are in addition to the interesting lectures given in the Sommerville course, which have been six in number, and which I will enumerate first : — 1. Feb., 10th, 1870. "Explorations in the Nipigon Country," by Professor R. Bell, C.E., F.G.S. 2. Feb. 17th. " Recent discoveries in Solar Physics, and the total eclipse of August 7th, 1869," by James Douglas, jr.. Presi- dent of the Literary and Historical Society, Quebec. 3. Feb 24th. '' The Chemistry of Iron and Steel," by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F. R. S. 4. March 10th. '■'' On Deep Sea Dredging," by Principal Dawson, L.L.D., F.R.S. 5. March 17th. " On Gold," by Dr. G. P. Girdwood. 6. March 24th. '' On Economic Mineral Deposits," by G. Broome, Esq., F.G.S. I will notice and classify the papers read as follows : — I. GEOLOGY. Principal Dawson's paper on "some new Gaspe fossils," after giving a general sketch of the geology of the peninsula of Gaspe, adds some newly acquired information as to the fossil plants of the Devonian rocks of that locality, and records the occurrence in these beds of fossil fishes of the genus Macliair acanthus, also of the genus Cephalaspis, — the first time this latter genus has been observed in America- 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 209 Mr. Billings has contributed two papers in the department of paloeontology. In the first, he shows that the puzzling fossils called Scolithus and ArenicoUtes are not the burrows of marine worm?, as was formerly supposed, but casts of sponges. In the other, he states that marine univalve molluscs, of the genus Oj)Jiileta, occur in beds several thousand feet lower down in the ireolojiical series than had been hitherto recorded. II. ZOOLOGY. Mr. A. S. Ritchie has brought before the Society three suggestive papers in this department of Natural History. In the first, the history of the introduction of the white cabbage butterfly, from Europe to the immediate vicinity of this city, is given. A careful description follows of the species in its three stages, with its peculiar habits, and suggestions are offered as to the best means to be adopted to check the ravages of the caterpillar of this species in our fields and gardens. The second attempts to answer the difficult question : " Why are insects attracted to artificial light ?" The third is an interesting account of the habits of some of our smaller fresh water fishes, reptiles, and crusta- ceans, as observed in the writer's own aquarium. Professor E. Bell has contributed observations on the Zoology and Botany of the Nipigon country, a district rarely visited by the naturalist. It is to be regretted that when parties are sent by the Geological Survey to explore places of which little is known, that a Zoological and Botanical investigation of the region in question should not, as in the United States, be made in addi- tion to the Geological Survey. Professor Bell also read a paper on the intelligence of animals. It seems a task of no ordinary difficulty to define where animal instinct ends, and the reasoning power is clearly seen to commence. The recent dredgings by Mr. Whiteaves in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, have added many facts to our knowledge of the creatures which inhabit Canadian seas. The marine mollusca have been carefully monographed, and instead of 60 or 70 species, we now know of nearly 130, the number having been thus nearly doubled. The careful identification of the inhabitants of the deep sea, in addition to its Zoological importance, will do much to illustrate the conditions under which the Canadian post-tertiary peposits have been accumulated. 210 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Dr. P. P. Carpenter has given a verbal account of the recent dredgings by Mr. McAndrew, in the Ked Sea, those of Captain Pedersen in the Gulf of California and by Mr. Dall in Alaska. III. GENERAL. The peculiar appearances of the rose-coloured prominences of the Sun's chromosphere during the solar eclipse of last August, have been described in detail in a paper read by Dr. Smallwood. On that occasion I referred to the want of good astronomical instruments in the city, and now revert to it as a circumstance much to be deplored by those interested in the progress of phy- sical science in our midst. Besides the subjects already mentioned Dr. Carpenter favored the Society with two papers. The first on the Vital Statistics of Montreal for 1869 ; with special reference to the great dispro- portion in death rate between the French, the Irish, and the English portions of the population. And the second, on different modes of computing Sanitary Statistics, with special reference to the opinions lately published by Mr. Andrew A. Watt. Although not issued under the immediate auspices of the Na- tural History Society, yet I may be permitted here to refer to a publication emanating from one, of whose valuable services to this society and to education generally, we can never too highly or too gratefully speak ; one who, with our President, shares largely the respect and applause of the scientific world — I need scarcely say I refer to Principal Dawson, whom we trust to see soon among us again, occupying the highest place in the directorship of this In- stitution, for its benefit, and our gratification. The issue of the text-book of Canadian Zoology during the past year, must be a matter of congratulation to all members of this Society. The want of such a volume has been long felt, and the name of Principal Dawson is in itself a sufl&cient guarantee of the able way in which the subject has been treated. Let us hopefully look forward to a new edition, in which further details respecting the vertebrata of Canada will be included. The list of papers just recited may be fairly regarded as evinc- ing the desire of members to carry out as fully as possible the objects of the Society in one direction ; but they have not been idle in others. One of their efforts to advance the study of natural science in the past year, and which is most likely to be 1870.] NAURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 211 crowned with uscftil and beneficial results, was their determination to avail themselves of an offer made them by their esteemed curator, Mr. J. F. Whiteaves, to place his private collection of shells and fossils in the Society's museum, in such a way as to be accessible to students and visitors, on the very liberal conditions that the collection be kept separate — that the Society find cabinets, &c., for its reception, and insure the collection, Mr. Whiteaves himself undertaking to mount and label the specimens. In avail- ing themselves of such an offer, and voting the amount required to carry out its conditions, the Society was merely doing what other Societies in the mother country have done before them, and in this way : Possessors of a large and valuable collection which they were unable or unwilling to part with entirely, and still desired that the votaries of science generally should benefit by, would offer to deposit, uuder certain restriction, their collection in the museum of a society such as ours, which not having present means to acquire a valuable collection, would only be too glad to avail themselves of such an offer, and thus the cause of science would become well served. Now, although Mr. Whiteaves deposits his collection in this way, and retains the right of withdrawin"- it after notice be given to that effect, yet I am sure I do but echo the general opinion that the Society is greatly indebted to that gentleman for his liberal and considerate offer, and indulge the hope that ultimately both Mr. Whiteaves and the Society will find the way of securing his unusually valuable and varied collec- tion as a permanent addendum to the Society's Museum. Another of the members' efforts in the good cause calling for notice on this occasion, was the originating of the Montreal Micro- scopic Club. Although formed in 1868, this Club has not hitherto received the notice at our annual retrospects of work done, which I think it deserves. Founded for the promotion of microscopic knowledge among its members, by regular meetings for practical microscopic work, and for the interchange of ideas and experiences on microscopical subjects, it has done good and useful work at its fortnightly meetings, which are eminently of a social character, and are held during the winter season. I need scarcely say here how very acceptable we find the presence of our microscopic-brigade, with their costly, improved instruments and beautifully prepared specimens, at our annual conversazione, and how pleasant we regard the evidences of their useful investigations not merely on those occasions, but in the pages of the Society's 212 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June journal and in other directions. In England, such clubs have proved very useful and successful. The modus operandi is very simple, and is thus described by the honorary secretary of our Montreal organization. " The club appoints a secretary, who arranges for the meeting, and suggests a special subject for illustrations at each. The host for the evening is the president of the club ; minutes are recorded and read ; visitors introduced ; miscellaneous business discussed and microscopic investigations proceeded with. At 10.30 p.m., the president announces the adjournment, the microscopes are returned to their cases, and a parting cup of coflfee closes the seance." The chairman of the Council, in his report, will doubtless refer to the Society's more general social reunions, the field day at Belceil, and the annual conversazione, both of which were very successful. The latter occasion was distinguished by the presence of His Royal Highness Prince Arthur, to whom the Society presented an address. It was cause of great regret to the Committee to feel that, while they could safely direct the special attention of the Prince to the museum, at the extent and arrangement of which, indeed, His Royal Highness expressed to me much gratification and approval, they felt more than ever, that the library might be considered as display ins: evidence of apathy and neglect — evidences which it is earnestly hoped will soon give way to others of a more fitting and gratifying character. One of the most important measures contemplated by the Society outside its immediate sphere of action, during the past year, is the dredging of the Gulf and River St. Lawrence. Those who were privileged to hear Dr. Dawson's most interesting lecture on deep sea-dredging, delivered during the past winter's Sommer- ville course, will need no farther exposition of the importance for pursuing such investigation, as will certainly not those who have attentively read the proceedings of the last meeting of the British Association at Exeter. Professor Forbes had previously surmised as a result of his investigations in the ^gean and Mediterranean Seas, that life probably did not exist in the sea below 300 fathoms in depth. His views never received, however, anything like oeneral acceptance with scientific men, and at that Exeter meeting, a most interesting letter was read from Professor W. Thompson on the successful dredging of H.M.S. " Porcupine," in 2,435 fathoms. Professor Sars, in a communication on the distribution of animal life in the depths of the sea, has enumerated not less 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCITEY. 213 than 437 species ; and as a result of an expedition originated by the British Government, who sent the " Lightning " to dredge in the sea between the Hebrides and the Faroe Islands, we learn — and especially from an account of the expedition, given by Dr. Colhns, in the Transactions of the Royal Society — that there were found to be currents of different temperature running side by side. In one place the temperature of the surface was 54^, and at the bottom 48°, and in the other the surface was 54*^ and the bottom 38^. Dr. Collins considered that one was the back current of the water that had coursed from the tropics to the poles. These and many other interesting facts which time will not permit me to notice, however briefly, on this occasion, may be some warrant for the desire evinced by the Society to do its share of labour in this field, and would be sufficient apology, if any were needed, for the resolutions unanimously adopted by the Society in March last, which afl&rmed it to be important to the cause of science and conducive to the interests and reputation of this Dominion, that researches by dredging should be prosecuted in the Gulf and River St. Lawrence, in order to ascertain the character of marine life in the greater depths and at the confluence of the fresh and salt waters of the river. And as this Society and individual members thereof, have so far entered upon such researches as to prove their feasibility and importance, but have not the means of continuing them effectually, the Society was of opinion that aid should be afforded to such operations by the government, in the manner in which this has been done in Great Britain and other countries, especially by giving for a short time in summer, fiicilities on board a government vessel to a party to be furnished and fitted out by this Society, which would undertake to pro3ure observers and scientific apparatus and make reports upon such results as might be obtained. A committee, consistino- of Drs. Smallwood, P. P. Carpenter, and Messrs. E. Hartley and J. F. Whiteaves, was organized to correspond with the Dominion Government, through the Hon. the Minister of Marine, with the view of effecting the desired results, and Principal Dawson has been requested, while in London, to obtain information as to the best methods of making such subsidiary observations on the tem- perature, chemical quality, &c., of the water at great depths, as have been made by the recent dredging operations under the auspices of the British Government, and, if possible, to procure specimens of the necessary apparatus. I will only say further on 214 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June this subject that the committee have already taken steps in the matter, which may be safely left in their hands for a successful issue, and should — which is by no means impossible — the Govern- ment decline to allow our investigators a free passage in one of their ordinary cruisers, it will then become the duty of this Society to decide whether they themselves will provide the necessary means for the investigations contemplated by the resolutions, which would really not involve a very large ex- penditure. I have already detained you so long, that I must leave for some other occasion a few minor topics on which I had proposed to say a few words. Permit me, before sitting down, to ask your earnest attention to the important matters referred to in the reports about to be read, and your cordial co-operation, not merely with reference to the details of those reports, but in all that can subserve the interests of the Natural History Society, and verify and realize its motto^ — Tandem fit sijrculus arbor. The Chairman of the Council (Dr. J. Baker Edwards, F.C.S.,) then submitted the following : — REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 3Iay, 1870. In reviewing the scientific work of the past Session, your Coun- cil feel it especially due to the active members of the Society to recognize the valuable contributions placed on the Society's record, and which they believe will be found equal, both in value and general interest, to those of any preceding session. Your Council have felt increasingly, of late years, the desir- ability of popularizing the proceedings of the Society as much as possible, so as to interest a larger number of members in the objects. To accomplish this they have established field meetings ; invited ladies to join the Society as associate members; added to the attraction of the annual Conversaziones ; secured more comfortable accommodation for their guests ; and popularized the character of their scientific periodical, '' The Canadian Naturalist." They cannot but feel, however, that the response to their efi"orts has been but of a partial character, and much has yet to be done to establish that ^^ entente cordiale" — that ^^ corps cC esprit^ ^ amongst the members which actually prevails in European socie- ties of a like nature. 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 215 It is also a matter of regret that a succession of our wealthy and influential citizens are retiring from the annual subscription list, without placing their names upon the life members' roll, a course your Council would strongly recommend to those who desire to retire from active participation in the Society's affairs. A sufficient loss is felt by the Society even by such retirement ; and the withdrawal of some fifteen members from active subscrip- tion to and interest in the work of the Society, to the roll of life membership, forms a serious episode in the history of the present year, as it too often follows that life members lose some of their interest in the practical working of a voluntary association. A vigorous effort has been made during the past two years to extinguish the debt upon the building, and this effort has been attended with considerable success. The mortgage debt on the building amounts to $2,600, and towards this $1,630 have already been promised, and it behoves the earnest friends of the Society to raise the balance if possible during the present year, in the meantime it is absolutely necessary to pay some attention to the drainage of the building, which is now flooded in the winter, and to paint and whitewash the premises ; and it may be necessary to devote some portion of this subscription to the temporary use of putting the premises in necessary repair. The Council, therefore, feel the necessity of a renewed effort towards the liquidation of this debt, and also to replace on the roll of annual subscribers the number of members who, from various causes, have retired there- from. Our losses have numbered thirty subscribers during the past session, whilst we have added only seven to the list. The number of lady associates we regret to say has not been extended. An appeal is therefore necessary to existing members to add to the ranks of the Society. Theoretically, subscriptions are due in advance, in order to meet the current expenses of the year, but practically, members are apt to defer their payments, so that the income of the year becomes a debt instead of an asset. This practice is a source of embarrassment to the Treasurer, which your Council trusts will not become chronic. Again, the " Naturalist " is a charge upon the Society of a grave character. In addition to the 100 copies purchased for the members, the Society distributes, for the purpose of exchanges, about 70 copies gratuitously. It is quite necessary, therefore, 216 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June that the subscription list should be free from arrears. At pre- sent 30 subscriptions only have been received out of a list of 85. The Council feel that it will be impossible for them to maintain the efficiency of this periodical, in which they take a literary pride, unless supported by the prompt discharge of those obliga- tions which the subscribers have undertaken, and upon the good faith of which the Council have assumed the responsibility of its publication. Three objects present themselves to your Council as most desirable to secure, and they commend their consideration to their successors, viz : — 1st. The funding of the Somerville bequest, so as to apply the interest thereof to the extension and success of the Somerville lectures. 2ndly. The discharge of the debt on the building, so as to enable the Society to be rent free. 3rdly. The appropriation of the Government grant to the main tainance and increased efficiency of the "Canadian Naturalist" and to the extension of the museum. In order to secure these objects, your Council desire to see the current expenses of the Society borne by the annual income by subscription, and to this end feel the necessity of a large accession to the list of members and associates. Your Council have been called upon to relinquish the services of their faithful janitor and skilful taxidermist, Mr. W. Hunter, under the painful circumstances of failing health and of domestic bereavement ; and it has been a matter of anxious consideration whether his valuable services can be replaced. The retirement of Sir Wm. Logan from the direction of the Geological Survey, has deprived the Society of his valuable pre- sence and aid in the Presidental Chair ; but your Council desire to express their obligations and thanks to the Senior Vice-Presi- dent, Dr. DeSola, who has so efficiently filled his place during the present session. In his able hands the Council have left the review of the ordinary business of the past session. The extraordinary meetings, with which so much pleasure was combined with science, were the charming excursion to Beloeil, on the 9th June, to the success of which Dr. T. Sterry Hunt so largely contributed; and the Conversazione of 9th March, when the Society had the honor of receiving H. R. H. Prince Arthur. It is to be regretted that, whilst great efforts were made 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 217 upon these occasions to interest the members, the amount of their response did not accomplish a financial success. The excursion prize was awarded to Miss I. Mcintosh, for a large collection of named species, and juvenile prizes were awarded to Master R. Dawson and G. T. Robinson. Very creditable gatherings were also made by Master R. Lewis and E. P. Peavey. Full reports of these airreeable re-unions will be found in the " jSTaturalist." Your Council has accepted the oiFer of our esteemed Curator, Mr. Whiteaves, to deposit his valuable private collection of shells and fossils in the Museum of the Society, for the inspection of members and students, which will add greatly to the attraction of the Society's collection. The Council, in retiring, desire to acknowledge the very valu- able services of their active officers, who have carried throuizh the business of the session. J. Baker Edwards, Chairman. After which, Mr. Whiteaves read the following: — REPORT OF THE SCIENTIFIC CURATOR. In consequence of the protracted ill health of our taxidermist Mr. Hunter, also, in some measure, from the want of funds, my attention, so far as the Museum has been concerned, has been almost exclusively devoted to the lower animals, and to the Society's collection of fossils. Consequently, not many new mammals or birds have been added during the past session. A fine example each of the Canadian Otter, from Gaspe, and of the White-Bellied Mouse, from Labrador, have been added to our series of mammals. Six weeks, during the past summer, were spent in careful dredging round the peninsula of Gaspe, and the results obtained are of considerable interest and importance. So many specimens were obtained that the whole of the material has not yet been worked up. Commencing with the molluscs, 16 species, new to Canada, one of which is new to science, were pro- cured. This jiroup of animals has been very closely studied ; and where there were any doubts about the identification of species the specimens have been sent to the best English authorities. An exhaustive monograph of the sea shells inhabiting the river and gulf of the St. Lawrence, has been published in the last volume of the "Canadian Naturalist." In it 118 marine Bhells and 5 naked molluscs are described as inhabiting the seas of Canada, Vol. V. () Xo. 2. 218 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [J une only about 65 species being previously recorded. Thus the dredo-ino- expeditions of 1867 and 1869 have just doubled the number of species previously known to occur in our waters. These Gaspe species are, in many instances (say 50 per cent, of the whole), conspecific with those discovered by Moller in Green- land, and described by him. Unfortunately, Holler's work on the shells of Greenland (published in Denmark) is very rare and out of print. Not having access to the work, my Gaspe shells have nevertheless been carefully compared with specimens in the British Museum and in the cabinets of Messrs. Jeffreys & Hanley, which had been named and distributed by Moller. The import- ance of such identifications will be apparent, not only to the student of Canadian zoology, but also to those interested in the study of Canadian post-pliocene fossils. Twelve additional species of Crustacea, mostly small species, were obtained in these dredgings, named species of each of which will be found in their proper place in the museum. The Canadian Marine Polyzoa have been submitted to a care- ful microscopical investigation, and the whole of the collection, includins: many recent additions, have been re-mounted and labelled. The recent receipt of an elaborate monograph of the recent Bryozoa of Scandinavia, by F. A. Smitt, published by the Royal Society of Stockholm, will, however, necessitate a re-study of this group. The Foraminifera obtained in the recent dredg» ings have been also subjected to microscopical examination, and, so far, 22 species or varietal forms have been observed. It is proposed to mount a series of the larger species for the collection, and a number of Canadian and exotic specimens have been put aside with that end in view. Materials are being collected for a paper on the distribution of the Marine Protozoa of the Biver and Gulf of the St. Lawrence which will embody some of the results of both Principal Dawson's and my own collections and study. Several rare sponges and other marine aniiials, especially Hydrozoa, have been added to our fauna, but these have noi yet been worked up. Duplicates of the rarer Canadian sea shells have been sent to well known collectors in England, in exchange for other specimens. In this way we have received a fine series of English cretaceous and crag fossils (about 80 species), and hope shortly to receive other interesting specimens which have been pro- mised. The fossils above alluded to have been mounted and labelled. I have concluded to place my own collection of recent shells and 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 219 Britisli Jurassic fossils, under certaiu restrictions, in the Society's Museum, so as to make it available for purposes of reference. A large proportion of time during the past session has been devoted to the editini? of the " Canadian Naturalist." Delavs in the appearance of the journal have occurred more frequently than might be -wished, this has been owing to the difficulty of getting sufficient original matter in time. It is hoped that the volume for the past year, notwithstanding some almost inevitable shortcomings, is, nevertheless, on the whole, creditable alike to the Society and to the Editing Committee. Attention has been given, as in former years, to the publication of abstracts of our proceedings in the public press, and in the " Naturalist." Copies of these reports have been punctually sent to the scientific journals in England, by whom they have been reprinted. In the library, as much work has been done as our limited means would allow ; a few standard works have been added ; some of our incomplete sets of periodicals have been completed and bound ; and the two new microscopical journals, so far complete, have been added. J. F. Whiteaves, F.G.S., &c. 220 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June The following financial statement was submitted by the Treasurer, James Ferrier, jr. : — o « CO < a H a c5 o -si <5 P^ H ;^ O o H M O o >^ P^ O H xn < H C3 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o CO o CO 1—1 CO ^ 00 i>- J-~- c; O -1-3 a P o -1-3 -si go o 5 o CO in. o cq o OS r-H o 1 .■^ "^ O CO ri2 cTpq o fi O S OQ ^ o o a? o rO M ri rA.-> o ;-l r/? ^ -f-i r'l CI ^ K^ ^' «4-( o O -t-3 a p:^ OOOOCQC-liOOOOfOOcMO OOOO"— lOOCO-^OCOI^-COOO o o o o o o Jc- C^ CD O O O Cvl CO 05 O Til -^ CC 05 £- CO o o CC o c3 o i=l o •»-H o o o o to CO ^ go • -*3 - ^•f^ 1^ tH - o o c3 CC o ^ o fe I o o si c3 o cr;^. -^ o ^^ ^^ ^ -l-l to CC CO o a X -♦J -(-3 o p-l a m u -1-3 UT o l-H -<* • • CO Ttl CO o 00 CO oq -^ m ?^ ci 'cSj CO ■^ o ^ o co-^S ( O rS O cS WW CO o O o o c3 c3 o -^ cTpq P O H O O CO CO o H^ eg:::::::::--- :::::--.---c;.^ 1— CO "^ --^ -C5::::::::::::: :::!::::::::: ..eS CO _ ■•>-/-> 25 ss H w c3 o H p^ 1^ o O ^ <+-4 OQ O y 00 H-l - —I ^ - -3 I— ( pq CJ Hi pcT y 1—1 Ph P^ &^ fe oc fd <1 ~ ^ ^^ -1^ ft. a c^ X o o j^- CO 00 (-1 I— 1 O ^ ■ 1— ( CO CO s r=Sl o 1 — 1 Ti a ,_r CS o ca ti ;-( -M O C! f=l O r-< Tj* C^ J>- 00 CD CO lO o Iz; 02 CC p:i CO o ^•2 g O r-j 02 ,:d -d -^^ -Z3 .Ti '-' o Pi o o^P^ Id g a o - o <1 in o o o: CO O 02 o S P^ 5 CO c> ci O B< O CC ri:3 rt iSfO.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 221 It was then moved by Dr. John Bell, seconded by E. E. Shelton, and unanimously resolved : '• That the reports just read be adopted, printed and distributed to the members." The following resolution, having been moved by John Leeming and seconded by Dr. Smallwood, was carried by acclamation : '• That the thanks of this meeting and of the Natural History Society be presented to Rev. Dr. De Sola, acting President, for his able and interesting address, also to the officers of the Society for the past session, and especially to Mr. J. F. Whiteaves as Scientific Curator, and for the deposition of his valuable collection of shells and fossils in the Society's Museum under the very rea- sonable restrictions which he has placed thereunto." The following gentlemen were elected officers for the session 1870-71, Messrs. Ritchie and Marler acting as scrutineers. OFFICERS FOR 1870-71. President. — Principal Dawson L.L.D., F.R.S. Vice-Presidents. — Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. : Rev. A. De Sola L.L.D. : Dr. P. P. Carpenter : E. Billings F.G.S. : C. Smallwood, M.D., L.L.D., D.C.L. : A. Selwyn: John Leeming: G. Barnston: Sir. W. E. Logan L.L.D. , F.R.S. Treasurer. — On motion of Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, seconded by Dr. Trenholme, James Ferrier Esq. Jun. was re-elected by accla. mation, the form of balloting being dispensed with. Corresponding Secretary. — Prof. P. J. Darey M.A., B.C.L. Curator and Recording Secretary. — J. F. Whiteaves F.G.S. , &c. Council.— (j^. L. Marler: D. A. P. Watt: M. H. Sanborn: A. S. Ritchie: J. H. Joseph: D. R. McCord, M.A., B.C.L. : Dr. J. Baker Edwards F.C.S. : Champion Brown, and E. Hartley F.G.S. The library and membership coramitee of the past session were re-elected. It was moved by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, seconded by E. Hartley and duly resolved : "That the meeting do now adjourn.'' 222 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. Cephalaspis Dawsoni. — Mr. E. Ray Lankester describes this species in the Geological Magazine for September as follows : — Principal Dawson, of Montreal, Canada, has placed in my hands for description a remarkably interesting specimen, indicat- ing a species of the genus Cephalaspis in transatlantic Silurio- Devonian beds. He writes, " The specimen was found by one of my assistants, Mr. G. T. Kennedy, B.A., when collecting with me, in a bed charged with remains of Psilopliyton, on the north side of Gaspe Bay. The geological horizon is below the middle of the Gaspe Sandstones, but several hundreds of feet above their actual base, so that the specimen may be regarded as either Lower Devonian or Lower Middle Devonian. It occurred in beds containing PsUopliyton 2}rinceps and P. rohustus, and also drift- trunks of Prototaxites Logani, the latter in the sandstones asso- ciated with the coarse shaly bed containing the Cephalaspis. In these sandstones there are also spines of Macliairacantlius sulcatus of Newberry — a large fish characteristic of the Devonian of Ohio. No marine remains were found in the bed holding the Cephalaspis^ which is blackened with vegetable matter and holds many frag- ments of land plants ; but in shales at no great vertical distance there are shells of Lingula and 3Iodiomorpha, resembling species found in the Hamilton group of New York." The specimen presents in slight relief a small Cephalaspis, with head-shield and greater part of the body, and is much flattened. The shield appears to be larger in proportion to the body than in any British species. The orbits are not shown, and the matrix has not preserved the scales of the body with much distinctness? though it is possible to make out the lateral and marginal series. No trace of pectoral, dorsal, nor caudal fins is to be made out. This species clearly belongs to the section Eu-cephalaspis as defined in my Monograph of Cephalaspiclce. Its best character as a species is to be found in the very fine, almost granular, tuber- cles which are preserved on some parts of the surface, and repre- sent the apparently universally present tubercular ornament of the Osteostraci. These fine tubercles are more minute than on any British CephaJaspid, and, though seemingly not very well shown 1870.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 223 ill this specimen, furnisli a specific mark. Amongst other frag- ments from this bed, which Dr. Dawson has submitted to me, is a small piece of tubercle ornament, possibly belonging to the same species of CepJialaspis. In this, the tubercles are very sharply moulded and nearly hemispherical. Various other fragments which cannot be identified, but are probably bits of fish bones, etc., are amongst the collection. A very fine fish-spine — the Machairacanthus sulcafus — was also obtained in the sandstones associated with the shale which furnished the CepJialaspis. This sandstone is not unlike the sandstone of Glamis, and other parts of Perthshire and Forfarshire which furnish CepJialaspis ; whilst the shale strongly recalls the Forfar- shire shale, which has furnished Mr. Powrie with his beautiful CepJialasjyis Pagei. The spines which occur in the Cornstones of Herefordshire, which have not yet been worked out, are of various forms and are usually "lumped" as OncJiiis. None, however, appear to resem- ble 3IacJiairacantJius, with its remarkable keeling like the petiole of a s^veet-pea, I propose to call the new American CepJialaspis after the illjstrious geologist who has allowed it to be figured here : CepJialaspis Dawsoni. Embryology of Limulus. — Dr. Packard has presented to the American Association a very interesting account of the early stages of the development of the Limulus p)oli/pJiemus of the iVmerican coast. In one of its earlier stages it bears a remarkable resemblance to such Trilobites as Trinucleiis. In a subsequent stage the abdominal segments became consolidated, and it re- sembles not the adult but the larva of Trinucleiis. The develop- ment in these two groups is thus in opposite directions — tli:it of Limulus tendino; to the consolidation of the abdominal ses-ments, O O 7 that of Trilobites to the addition of new se2;ments between the original head (cephalothorax ?) and abdomen. In this way Dr. Packard's facts raise new questions as to the grade and affinities of Trilobites, especially when taken in connection with Mr. Billings' observations as to their feet. The alliance between the two forms is evidently very close. Dr. Packard thus sums up his conclusions : — Conclusions. — The eggs are laid in great numbers loo.se in the sand, the male fertilizing them after they are dropped. This is an exception to the usual mode of oviposition in Crustacea ; 224 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Squilla and a species of Gecarcinus being the only exception known to me to the law that the Crustacea bear their essis about "with them. Besides the structureless, dense, irregularly laminated chorion, there is an inner egg membrane composed of rudely hexagonal cells ; this membrane increases in size with the growth of the embryo, the chorion splitting and being thrown off during the latter part of embryonic life. Unlike the Crustacea generally the primitive band is confined to a minute area, and rests on top of the yolk, as in the spiders and scorpions, and certain Crustacea, i.e., Eriphia spinifrons, Astacus JliiviatiUsf Palcemon adspersus, and Crangon maculosus, in which there is no metamorphosis. The embryo is a Nauplius; it sheds a Nauplius skin about the middle of embryonic life. This Nauplius skin corresponds in some respects to the "■ larval skin" of German embryologists. The recently hatched young of Limulus can scarcely be con- sidered a Nauplius, like the larvse of the Phyllopoda, Apus and Branchippus, but is to be compared with those of the trilobites, as described and figured by Barraude which are in Trinucleiis and Agnostus born with only the head and pygidium, the thoracic sesrments beins; added during: after-life. The circular larva of Sao hirsuta, which has no thorax, or at least a very rudimentary thoracic region, and no pygidium, approaches nearer to the Nauplius form of the Phyllopods, though we would contend tha* it is not a Nauplius. The larva passes through a slightly marked metamorphosis. It differs from the adult simply in possessing a less number of abdo- minal feet (gills), and in having only a very rudimentary spine. Previous to hatching it strikingly resembles Trinucleiis and other trilobites, suggesting that the two groups should, on embryonic and structural grounds, be included in the same order, especially now that Mr. E. Billings^ has demonstrated that Asaphus pos- sessed eight pairs of five-jointed legs of uniform size. The trilo- bate character of the body, as shown in the prominent cardiac and lateral regions of the body, and well marked abdominal seg- ments of the embyro, the broad sternal groove, and the position *Proceeclings of the Geological Society of London. Eeported in " ISTatnre." June 2, 1870. In this communication Mr. E. Billings an- nounces the important discovery of a specimen of Asaplius platycepha- his, showing that the animal possessed eight pairs of five-joined feet» widely separated as their insertions by a broad sternal groove. 1870.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 225 and character of the eyes and ocelli, confirm this view. The organization and the habits of Limulus throw much light on the probable anatomy and habits of the trilobites. The correspond- ence in the cardiac region of the two groups shows that their heart and circulation was similar. The position of the eyes shows that the trilobites probably had long and slender optic nerves, and indicate a general similarity in the nervous system. The genital organs of the trilobites were probably very similar to those of Limulus, as they could not have united sexually, and the eggs were probably laid in the sand or mud, and impregnated by the sperm cells of the male, floating free in the water. The muscular system of the trilobites, must have been highly organized as in Limulus, as like the latter they probably lived by burrowing in the mud and sand, using the shovel-like expanse of the cephalic shield in digging in the shallow palaeozoic waters after worms and stationary soft bodied invertebrates, so that we may be warranted in supposing that the alimentary canal was con- structed on the type of that of Limulus, with its large, powerful gizzard and immense liver. Cope's Synopsis of the Extinct Batrachia and Kep- TILIA OF America. — The second part of this admirable mono- graph has appeared, and includes the known species of fossil Birds, in addition to the reptiles. It affords an invaluable guide to the student of American Fossil Beptilia, and places for the first time before those who have been engaged in this study, a conspectus of what is known, with the addition of many new discoveries, and profound general observations of the author, who has long been engaged in studies of this kind, more especially in New Jersey and Pennsylvania, and has made himself completely master of his subject. Prof. Cope thus states in his preface his aims and results: — " It is not designed in the present essay to give descriptions of the known remains of the Batrachia, Beptiles and Birds, which have been more or less fully made known by others. This is left for the day when our knowledge shall more nearly approach completeness. While the subject is in its infancy, I have thought best to describe only those species and types which are new, and those portions of imperfectly known forms which will throw additional light on their relations and affinities. In adhering to this plan, I have been able to add no little to the history of the 226 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June Reptiles already described by my predecessors — Leidy, Owen, Dawson, Wyman, Lea, etc. Where, however, I have had nothing to add, I have referred to their published descriptions, which are numerous and well-known. The literature of the subject will then be found under the respective specific heads." " In the course of these investigations, prosecuted during the past six years, with reference to the structure and relations of the extinct Reptilia, the following general conclusions have been attained to, besides many of lesser significance. First — That the Dinosauria present a graduated series of approximations to the birds, and possess some peculiarities in common with that class, standing between it and the Crocodilia. Second — That serpents exist in the Eocene formations of this country. Third — That the Chelydra type was greatly developed during the American Cretaceous, and that all the supposed marine turtles described from it are really of the first named group. Fourth — That the Reptilia of the American Triassic are of the Belodon type. Fifth — The discovery of the characters of the order Pythono- morpha. Sixth — The development of the characters of numerous members of the Batrachian Sub-order Microsauria in the United States." Marine Crustaceans in Lakes. — Several years ago Prof. Loven discovered in fresh-water lakes in Sweden forms of Crus- tacea previously found only in the sea, and inferred that these species had been left behind in the upheaval of the land, and were thus living witnesses of the great subsidence and re-elevation of the land in the Post-pliocene period. It was, we believe, suggested at the time in this Journal that our Canadian Lakes afi'orded an admirable opportunity to extend these observations ; but in so far as we know this has not been done until last summer, when Dr. Stimpson, by dredging in the deeper parts of Lake Michigan, obtained a species of Mysis closely allied to one of the Swedish species ; thus apparently indicating a former marine condition of the basin of our great lakes. The subject deserves further attention, and would well repay the exertions of any of our Canadian naturalists residing in the vicinity of the lakes, in the deeper parts of which the dredge would no doubt discover many 1870.] GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. 227 curious forms of aquatic life, which, if of marine types, might be of great interest with reference to the history of this continent in the Post-pliocene period ; and might also help to account for some of the alle2:ed miGirations of the fishes of the lakes. Such facts might also illustrate the possibility of the continued resi- dency in lakes of fishes usually migrating to the sea, since in the depths of the lakes they might find food similar to that which they could obtain by visiting the ocean. Figures of Characteristic British Fossils. — The second number of this extremely useful work, by Mr. Bailey, of the Geological Survey of Ireland, appeared some time ago. It con- tinues the series of illustrations up to the Wenlock ; and is most interesting and useful to Canadian students, as showing in the clearest manner to the eye the similarity of the succession of fossils in the series in Britain and in this country. Being com- posed almost entirely of names and figures, the work does not afford materials for quotation, but as a means of comparison it should be in the hands of all students of Canadian geology. Besides the figures and lists of species, there are useful introductory explana- tions of the structure of the principal types of fossils, with the terms applied to their parts. BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY British Edible Fungi. — Mushrooms and their congeners seem never to have been in good repute since Agrippina employed one of the tribe to poison her husband, and Nero with villanous pleasantry called it the "food of the Gods." With proverbial tenacity the bad name thus incurred has clung to the whole family of Agarics, and what within certain limits might be called a wholesome dread has become a deep-rooted and irrational preju- dice, excluding from popular use a really valuable class of vege- table esculents. "^^e cannot altogether go along with those enthusiastic mycophagists who recognize a substitute for meat in every edible fungus, and dilate on the ozmazome and other nutritious properties of the tribe ; but we readily acknowledge that their merits as secondary sources of food-supply have hitherto 228 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June been unduly neglected. The great difficulty always felt in advocating the claims of the class to more extensive use has arisen from the want of some definite rules, some formula at once simple in expression and universal in application, by which to dis- tinguish the noxious from the innocent members. Pliny, in his Natural History, goes so far as to say that the first place amongst those things which are eaten with peril must be assigned to agarics, and he expresses his surprise at the pleasure which men take "in so doubtful and dangerous a meat." But his observa- tions show that fungi of all sorts, including even such growths as the Fistulina hepatica, were known to his countrymen and eaten by them without scruple. Indeed, in one particular the wisdom of the ancient Komans seems to have been superior to that of their descendants, for, while Horace lays down the rule : — Pratensibus optima fungi itfatura est ; aliis male creditur — the modern j^diles of the Roman market condemn to instant destruction every specimen of the meadow mushroom ( A. cam. pestris) which comes within their reach. Although, however, it is not always easy to distinguish the wholesome from the unwhole- some fungus, and the organs of sight and smell require some training before they can be wholly trusted in the matter, yet the dangers have been greatly exaggerated, and, as a matter of fact hogweed is more often mistaken for parsnip and aconite for horse, radish than are Boletus satanas and Amanita verna for their innocent brethren. No better opportunity for engaging in the study of this branch of natural history could be found than that which the present season affords; and if the treatises of Mr. Berkeley, Dr. Badham, or Mr. Worthington Smith be not at hand, the following notes on the chief edible fungi which are now to be met with may prove acceptable to some of our readers.-'' With the ordinary meadow mushroon (J.. Campestris) and its near relative the horse mushroom (J., arvensis), every one is familiar, and both of them have occurred in profusion this autumn. Against the latter an unfounded prejudice prevails in some districts, but its larger size and coarser texture require only a * At the conclusion of " Mushroom Cultm-e, its Extension and Im- provement " (London : "Warne, 1870), Mr. TV. Eobinsou gives some useful information, derived chiefly from the above authorities, and from The Proceedings of the "Woolhope Field Club. 1870.1 BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 229 little extra cooking to develop the flavour and correct indigesti- bility. In [spite of all that has been said to the contrary, we maintain that these agarics are entitled to the first place, and for the second much rivalry exists between the orange-milk mushroom (Lactarius delicious) and the Parasol Agaric (^Agaricus procerus'). Both are readily distinguishable, and may be eaten with equal impunity. The former is chiefly found in plantations of Scotch tir and larch, is of an orange-brown colour, and firm flesh, and yields, when bruised, an exudation of orange-red milk, which turns green after a few minutes' exposure. The latter is common in the pastures, and may be recognized by its tall habit, the stalk gradually enlarging at the base, the umbo of a brownish colour with spots or patches, and the gills white and unconnected with the stem. The plum mushroom (A, prunulus) is for the autumn months what the St. George's mushroom (J., gamhosiis) is for the spring — a large fleshy fungus, delicate in flavour, though not so choice as the Orcella, for which it is often mistaken. It is to be found in shady places pretty generally throughout England, and is conspicuous from its whiteness. The gills are close together and of a pale rosy hue, and the smell of the plant has been compared to that of fresh meal. We must mention two other fungi, common enough and easily recognised, but of their culinary virtues we do not entertain a very high opinion. These are the puff-ball, and the maned agaric {Coprinus comatus). The former needs no description, and perhaps others may be more fortunate than we have been in detecting the latent flavour of omelette which it is said to possess. The latter is called by Dr. Bull the "agaric of civilisation." We have met with it in farm yards, on lawns, on railway-cuttings, and, in fact, in nearly every waste place. It looks like an attenuated cocoon, snow-white at first, but s-raduallv changing in colour and splitting upwards in a dozen places. The gills, white at first, become pink and then black ; the last stage, which is very quickly reached, presaging the immediate dissolu- tion of the plant, which gradually deliquesces into an inky-black fluid. It would be easy to amplify this list, but we desire to avoid all risks of confusing tho tyro's mind with too many details, and have purposely confined our remarks to those fun2;i which belong- to the autumn season. One caution must be addeJ. All agarics are more wholesome 230 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JuDG fresh than stale, and with some the neglect of this rule may lead to unpleasant consequences. It is rigidly enforced in the Roman market, where all specimens which are " muffi, guasti," or " ver- minosi " are seized and thrown into the Tiber, and it should be distinctly understood in every English kitchen into which even the common mushroom is allowed to enter. The fungus which to-day successfully simulates a sweetbread, may to-morrow simu- late with equal success a handful of snufif. — C. J. Rohinson^ in " Nature.'' NOTES ON CANADIAN BIRDS. The following species, more or less rare, have been obtained in the Province of Quebec, with the exception of two species, during the summer of 1870 : — Falco anatum, Bonaparte. The Duck Hawk. — A fine adult male of this species was obtained by Mr. Marcel at St. Jjambert's, near Montreal. Buteo lineatus, Jardine. The Red shouldered Hawk. — A nest of this species, containing four eggs, was taken in May, by Mr. C. A. Craig, at Longue pointe, near Montreal. The nest was placed in an elm tree, about 50 feet from the ground, the tree itself being 80 feet high. It was large, and roughly constructed of cedar twigs and leaves, and lined with moss. One of the eggs is in the Society's collection. An egg which closely resembles that obtained of Mr. Craig, was given me by Master E. A. AV. Kittson, who informs me that it was taken in a wood near Sorel. Otus Wilsoniauus, Lesson. The Long-eared Owl. — Mr. Craig has been so fortunate as to find a nest of this species also, this summer, at Hochelaga (near Montreal) containing four eggs. He informs me that it was built on the branch of a spruce tree some 25 feet high, about 18 or 20 feet from the ground. The nest was like that of a crow's, but larger, and made roughly of twigs and moss. Two of these eggs have been secured for the collec- tion of the Society. Butorides virescens. Green Heron. — One specimen of this species was shot by a friend of Mr. Craig' s at St. Genevieve. This is the first time, so far as we are aware, that this species has been obtained in the Province of Quebec. Phalaropus Wilsonii, Sabine. Wilson's Phalarope. — A speci- men of this species was shot near the Victoria bridge, in August last. Mr. Craig says that he has met with it not very unfre- quently on the Island of Montreal, 1870.'! BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 231 Cygnus buccinator, Richardson. Trumpeter Swan. — The late Dr. A. Hall, in this Journal, Yol. 7, page 414, describes the American Swan, Cygnus Americanus, from a specimen then and now in the Society's collectien, which was shot at Longueuil. The individual in question is a young individual of the Trumpeter Swan. Fulix affinis, Baird. The Lesser Scaup, " Blue Bill," or ''Little Black Head" — Occurs occasionally in the neighbour- hood of Montreal, in company with the common Scaup Duck. Aythya vallisneria, Bonaparte. Canvass-back Duck. — Two specimens of this species were shot this autumn at Dundee, by Mr. James Hopkins, and are now in the Society's collection. The species seems rare in Eastern Canada. The pair in question occurred in a flock of the closely-allied red-headed duck. Bucephala Islandica, Baird. Barrow's Golden Eye. — Bare on, or near, the Island of Montreal ; a few were shot in the autumn of 1869, and stragglers are occasionally to be met with among the common species. The male is easily distinguished from the common golden-eye, but to separate the females of the two species is much more difficult : a careful study of the shape and coloring' of the bill will enable the student to separate them. J. P. W. On the Gulls of the Nova Scotian Coast. By J. Matthew Jones, F. L. S. — According to the catalogue of North American Birds published by the Smithsonian Institution, I find the following species of Laridce inserted, as having been observed on the North-east coast of this continent. 1. Pomarine Skua {^Stercorarius pomarinus, Temm.) 2. Glaucous Gull (Larus glaucus, Briinn.) 3. White-winged Gull (L. leucopterus, Fabr.) 4. Great Black-backed Gull (L. marimcs, Linn.) 5. Herring Gull (L. argentatus, Briinn.) 6. Eing-billed Gull (L. Belawarensis, Ord.) 7. Bonaparte's Gull (Chroicocephahis Philadelphia, Ord.) 8. Kittiwake (^Rissa tridacfi/Ia, Linn.) 9. Ivory Gull (Pagophila ehumea, Kaup.) 10. Fork -tailed Gull (Xema Sahinii, Bon.) 11. Wilson's Tern {Sterna Wilsoni, Bonap.) 12. Arctic Tern {S. macroura, Naum.) 13. Least Tern (S.frenata, Gambel.) Of this list of thirteen species nine have been identified by myself, and one by Major Wedderburn, (late 42nd Highlanders,) as occurring on the coast of Nova Scotia, and seven of these are in my own cabinet. The ten 232 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June species identified as Nova Scotian up to the present time, are Stercorarius pomarinus ; Larus glaucus ; L. marinus ; L. argentafus ; L. DelsLwarensis ; Chroicocephalus ^Philadelpliia • Rlssa tridacti/la ', Pagopliila ehurnea] Sterna macroiira; S. Wilsoni. To tliis list, it is probable, several other species may be added in the course of time, but in a country like this where the naturalist must rely almost entirely upon his own exertions, to secure specimens and note their haunts and habits, the task of forming anything like a complete list of the several members of any zoological family is not an easy one. I therefore trust my present brief account of the Laridas frequenting the coast of Nova Scotia may merely be received as the commencement of one more complete. — iXova Scotia Institute of Natural Science. Position of the Brachiopoda in the Animal Kingdom. — For some time past Mr. Edward S. Morse has had reasons for believing that the Brachiopods, with the Polyzoa, had greater affinities with the worms than with the moUusks. He has studied attentiYelj Tereh^atuUjia and Discina as well as their early stages, and in all points of their structure interprets articulated characters, and not molluscan characters. Without entering into particulars at this time, he states that in the structure of the shell he finds the greatest resemblance to the shell of Crustacea, both as regards the peculiar tubular structure, and the scale-like appearance, and its chemical composition. In Lingida, while the carbonate of lime amounts to only six per cent., the phosphate of lime amounts to forty-two per cent. The horny setss which friniie the mantle are remarkable worm-like. In worms the bristles are enclosed in muscular sheaths, while in other articulate animals the hairs are simple tubular prolongations of the epidermal layer. In the Brachiopods these bristles are secreted by follicles and are surrounded by muscular fibres, and are freely moved by the animal. The structure of these setoe differs but little, if at all, from those of the worms. The lophophore with the cirri is to be compared to similar parts in the tubicolous worms, and the mantle which covers and conceals their arms is to be compared to the cephalic collar, as seen in Sabella, for instance, where we find it spHt laterally, and a portion reflected. If this were greatly developed so as to cover the expanded fronds of cirri, we should recoo-nize quickly the relation between the two. Dr. G-ratiolet has compared the circulatory system of the Brachiopods to that 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 233 of the Crustacea, and Burmeister has shown a resemblance between the respiratory apparatus of certain cirripedes and that of Lin2;ula. In the reproductive system there is a close similarity existing between the oviducts of Brachipoda, with their trumpet- shaped openings, and similar organs in the worms. In the little knowledge we have of their embryology, the strongest proofs exist of their affinity with the worms. Lacaze-Duthiers figures the embryo of Thecidium, and it is a little animal with four segments. Fritz Muller figures an early stage of Discina, and we have recalled to us a positive articulate and worm-like character. From the body of this embryo prominent bristles project. Smitt figures the same in the embryo of Lepralia, wherein he describes six bristles that appear locomotive ; and Claparede figures the embryo of Nerine, a worm, in which we find similar bristles projecting from the body. In this connection it is interesting to note that in the winter eggs, or statoblasts, of Polyzoa we have a relation to similar characters among the lower Crustacea, the ephippia of Daphnia and the winter eggs of Botifers for example. Leuckart places the Polyzoa with the worms, and the close affinity of the Polyzoa with the Brachipoda is now freely admitted, and we now recall those peculiar worms, or early stages of them, which so strongly resembles in almost every essential point of their structure the hippocrepian Polyzoa. As many of the foregoing points need ample illustration, and as the writer has in preparation a memoir on the subject, he will now only call attention to the fticts sup- porting these views, evolved from the study of living LingulaB. It is but justice to state that six months previous to the observa- tions made on Lingula, he had come to conclusions herein ex- pressed, and had freely ?,rgued it with his colaborators. He saw the necessity of examining Lingula, however, before advancing these views, and for this sole purpose had visited North Carolina in company with Dr. A. S. Packard, junr., who with his observa- tions on the worms and Crustacea of that region yet found time to follow the writer, step by step, in his studies of Lingula, and was deeply impressed by the disclosures there made. His sincerest gratitude is due to Dr. Elliott Coues, U.S.A., and Major Joseph Stewart, U.S.A., commandant at Fort Macon, North Carolina, for their constant aid and sympathy in furtherance of the object of his visit there. After nearly a week's fruitless search, Lingulae were found in a sand shoal, left at a low tide. They were found buried in the sand. The peduncle, which was about six times Vol V. p No. 2. 234 THE CANx'^DIAN NATURALIST. June] the length of the shell, being encased in a sand tube differing in no respect from the sand tubes of neighbouring annelids. In many instances the peduncle was broken in sifting them from the sand, yet the wound was quickly healed and a new sand-tube promptly formed. When placed on the surface of the sand they were noticed to move quite freely, by the sliding motion, in all directions, of the dorsal and ventral plates, aided at the same time by the rows of setae or bristles, which swung back and forth like a galley of oars, leaving a peculiar track in the sand. The peduncle was hollow, and the blood could be seen coursing back and forth in this channel. It was distinctly regularly ringed^ and presented a remarkably worm-like appearance. It had layers of circular and longitudinal muscular fibre, and coiled itself in numerous folds or unwound at full leuo-th. It was contractile, also, and quickly jerked the body beneath the sand when alarmed. But the most startling discovery in connection with this interest- ing animal was the fact that its blood was red. This was strongly marked in the gills, which were found in the shape of a series of rows of simple lamellae, hanging from the internal surface of the mouth ; thus proving the correctness of Vogt's observations from alcoholic specimens. At times the peduncle would become con- gested, and a deep rose blush was markedly distinct. The sexes were distinct. The writer believes the Brachiopods to be true articulates, having certain affinities with the Crustacea, but properly belonnfino' to the worms, comius' nearest the tubicolous annelids They may better be regarded as forming a comprehensive type, w'.t'i general articulate features. Possibly they have affinities with the mollusks, through the homologies pointed out by Allman as existing between the Polyzoa and Tunicates. It is interesting to remember that Lingula, though one of the earliest animals created, has yet remained essentially the same through all geolog- ical ages to the present time. — American Naturalist. At a meeting of the Brighton and Sussex Natural History Society, held June 9th, 1870, a paper " On Diptera and their Wings," by Mr. Peake, was read in the absence of that gentleman by Mr. Wonfor, Hon. Secretary. While wings are common to the whole order of insects, the Diptera consists entirely of two-winged flies, which, instead of a second or hinder pair, have little thread-like bodies terminated by knobs and called haltereSj originally considered balancers, supposed 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 235 now by some to be organs of hearing, and by others olfactonj organs. From many points of resemblance, he thought they were analogous to the hind wings of other insects, and that, at present, their special use had not been ascertained. Besides these halteres they had also winglets (^alulce), which were thought to be only appendages to the fore-wings. Among the Diptera three classes of fliers were found, differing in the form of their bodies and shape of their wings ; first, the slender flies, such as the gnats, having long bodies, narrow wings, and long legs, but without winglets ; secondly, those whose bodies, though slender, were more weighty, as the Asilidce, having larger bodies, shorter legs, and very minute winglets ; lastly, those like the house-fly, with short, thick, and often very heavy bodies, furnished with propor- tionate wings, shorter legs, and conspicuous winglets. From these circumstances it misrht be inferred that the long lefrs of the li^'ht- J CD Cj CD bodied flies acted as rudders, while the winglets helped the wings in flying. The wings consisted of two laminae united by veins or nervures, and upon their arrangement and the form of the an- tennae, as seen in the great groups Xemocera and Brachycera, the distinguishing characters of the Diptera are founded. The * several parts of the wings and their nerves, and their differences as seen in the two above-mentioned groups, were next pointt'd out, and the paper illustrated by very beautiful drawings and microscopic preparations of wings. — 3Iontlily Microscopic Journal. GLEANINGS FROM THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION MEETING OF 1870. — Mr. R. McAndrew, F.B.S., presented a report on the Marine Mollusca of the Gulf of Suez. This report gives the general result of a dredging excursion to the Gulf of Suez in February and March 1869. Mr. E. Fielding accompanied the author. Leaving Suez on the 10th February in a boat of about twelve tons burthen, with one about five tons for dredoimr, and a small boat for landing, the party reached Tur in about three weeks' time. Their crew consisted of Maltese and Neapolitans, an Arab, who proved an excellent diver, and a native of Tur, who acted as pilot. From Tur they crossed over to the Point of Zeite and the desolate islands situated towards the western side of the Straits of Jubal. After working about a week among these, and finding it a very rich collecting ground, they bore away to Ras Mahommed, where they ended their labours, proceeding from this to Tur, from whence they went by land to Suez. The number 236 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [JunC of species obtained (not including the Nudibraucliiates) was 818. Of these 619 have been identified, the remainino: beino; still un- determined. About 355 have not previously been recorded as from the E-ed'Sea, Of these, 53 species, including three genera, are new to Science, and have been described by Messrs. H. and A. Adams. Professor Issel^ of Genoa, records 640 species as from the Red Sea, and his hst includes 100 new species. Some of these were figured but not described in Savigny's " Description de I'Egypt." JMr. McAndrew dvrelt on the extraordinary dissi- milarity between the Fauna of the Red &'ea and that of the Mediterranean; the number of species common to Japan, the Philippines, Australia, and to the Red Sea, is worthy of further observation. In addition to the Mollusca, a collection of Echino- derms, Crustacea, and Corals, was made and divided among the British, Edinburgh, and Liverpool Museums, The sponges col- lected were sent to Dr. Bowerbank, except one, which had been described by Mr. Carter as a new genus under the name of Grayella. • On the Structure of the Shell in the Pearly Nautilus. — Mr. H. Woodward. After referring to the great interest attachins: to the Nautilldce on account of their vast geological and geographical range, the author proceeded to des- cribe the structure of the shell with its septa and siphuncle, the latter structure being only found in the Cephalopoda and nearly confined to the Tetrabranchiate division of the class. The cam- erated structure, however, is found both among the Bivalves and Gasteropoda, and the author suggested that if any incipient character could be found leading up as it were to the siphuncle, we might fairly infer that that structure was only a more highly, differentiated form of shell-growth. Such incipient structure occurs in the Ostroeadce and Spondt/lus, in which the shell-muscle dips down from layer to layer, offering a rough similarity to the siphuncle in Aturia and some other Nautili. Mr. AVoodward described the structure of the shell, and showed by actual dissec- tion that no vascular system exists between the shell and the animal by means of the siphuncle. The siphuncle proves only to be a pearly tube, within which is another composed of an exten- sion of the periostracum, and quite destitute of vascular or cellular structure. Shell structure proves, when once formed, to be dead matter, destitute of change, and can only be repaired when in contact with the mantle of the shell. 1870.] CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. 237 CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS. Underground Temperature. — Shortly after the meetinp; of the British Association, the sccetary of the Underground Temperature Committee addressed a letter to Prof. Henry, secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, United States, re- questing his co-operation in furthering the object which the committee have in view, at the same time forwarding one' of their protected thermometers. In June ot the present year an answer was received from Prof. Baird, assistant secretary in charge, to the effect that Prof. Henry's ill-health during the present seoson had prevented his communicating to us the results of his labours in response to request. The letter addressed to Prof. Henry made special reference to an artesian well of extraordinary depth which was understood to be in course of sinking at St. Louis, and at the same time a letter was ad- dressed, and a special thermometer sent, to Mr. C. W. Atkeson, the superintendent of the work of boring at St. Louis. No reply has been received from Mr. Atkeson, who appears to have left St. Louis before the letter arrived; but letters have been received through the Smithsonian Institution from Br. Chas. W. Stevens, superintendent of the County Insane Asylum at St. Louis, this being the institution for whose uses the well was sunk, together with a very interesting newspaper cutting, consisting of Mr. Atkeson's report on the works. The boring of the well was commenced (at the bottom of a dug well 71 J feet deep) on the 31st of March, 1866, and was continued till the 9th of August, 1869, when the work was stopped at the enormous depth of 3,843J- feet, exceeding by more than one-half the depth of Bu- kinfield Colliery. The strata penetrated consisted in the aggregate of 63 teet of clay, 6 feet of coal, 380 feet of shales, 2,725 feet of limestone, and 620 feet of sandstone. A cast-iron tube of 11 J inches bore was first put down, reaching from the top and secured in the limestone at the bottom. This tube was then lined inside with a wooden tube, reducing the bore to 4J inches. A 4J-inch drill was put down through this tube on the above-mentioned date. The bore was afterwards enlarged to 6 inches, and sub- sequently to 11 J inches to a depth of ISlJfeet. A sheet-iron tube was then put down, extending from the top to this depth, and the bore below was enlarged, first to 6 and afterwards to 10 inches diameter, to the depth of 953 feet. A sheet-iron tube, 79 238 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST [June feet long, was then put down, wliicli rests on the oflfset at the bottom of the 10-inch bore. The 4Mnch bore was then enlarged to 6 inches to the depth of 1 ,022 feet, and a wrought iron tube of 5 inches bore, weiging more than six tons, was introduced, reaching from the top and resting of the offset at the bottom of the 6-inch bore, thus securing the work to this depth, and reduc- ing the bore to a convenient size to work in. The 4J-inch bore has been continued to the depth of 3,843 feet 6 inches without further tubing. At the depth of 3,029 feet the first observation of temperature was taken, and the reading of the thermometer was 107^ F. This first observation is stated by Dr. Stevens to be specially worthy of confidence, as having been confirmed by several repetions, or rather, to use Dr. Steven's own words, '■ this was the maximum of several tiials." It was taken, as well as those that followed it, by means of a registering thermometer (kind not mentioned) ; but in answer to our inquiries, Dr. Stevens states, upon the authority of the carpenter who attached the thermometer to the pole by which he was lowered, '' that no means were taken to defend the bulb from pressure." In the absence of further information (and Mr. Atkeson himself has not yet spoken), we can place no reliance upon the temperature recorded, as the thermometer had to bear the pressure of f of a mile of water. The temperature registered at lower depths, the deepest being 800 feet lower, were all, strange to say, somewhat lower than this, a circumstance which is all the more remarkable because the pressure (which tends to make the reading higher) must have increased with the depth. At the bottom, or rather at 3,837 feet, being 6J feet from the bottom, the temperature indicated was 105^^. Either of these results, taken apart from the other and compared with the surface temperature, would give a result not improbable in itself. The mean temperature of the air at St. Louis appear to be about 53°, but it seems desirable to avoid publishing calculations till the data are better established. Unfortunately, the apparatus which was employed in boring has all been removed, after the insertion of two wooden plugs, with an iron screw at the upper end of each, one at the offset at a depth of 1,022 feet, and the other at the offset at the depth of 953 feet, for the purpose of separating the fresh from the salt waters. These plugs were driven in with great force, and can only be withdrawn with the aid of a series of poles and other appliances, such as were used in boring, which will be rather 1S70.] MISCELLANEOUS. 239 costly. The poles alone are estimated to cost $1,152, or £200. If the plugs were withdrawn — and, according to Dr. Stevens, there is nothing but the expense to prevent — the whole well would be available for observation. The committee will make every effort to prevent so rare an ojDportunity from being lost. — From third rejjort of the Underground Temperature Committee submitted to the British Association in 1870. MISCELLANEOUS. SCRAPS FROM "NATURE."' — We are glad to be able to state that Dr. "Wyville Thompson has entirely recovered from the attack of gastric fever which pre- vented his taking part in the Porcupine expedition this summer. He is at present going over the zoological collection brought home in that vessel, at the University of London, with Dr. Carpenter, and he reports some very remarkable additions to his new group of vitreous sponges, mainly from the coast of Spain and Portugal. These, with some others procured by Mr. Saville Kent, in Dr. Marshall HalFs yacht, will nearly double the number of known forms referred to the order. They are no pigmies. One of them forms a lovely lace-like vase upwards of three feet in diameter at the lip ! — Owens College, Manchester, has lately received a very valu- able donation to its large geological collection, in the shape of a collection of fossil Marsupials from Australia. This collection was to have been presented to the British Museum, but the donor ultimately decided to bestow it on Manchester instead. — In the aquarium of the Dublin Zoological Gardens there are several specimens of the blind fish (Amh/i/opsis speloeus) lately brought from the Kentucky caves by Prof. Mapother. The small specimens, being very transparent, show the vertebral column, the heart, and the optic bulbs very distinctly. In the largest there are dark red spots over the optic bulbs, probably due to their having been kept in an iron vessel, which may have given colour for a rudimentary pigment membrane. — The American Journal of Science and Arts, which has from its commencement been the leading vehicle for the original papers of the scientific men of America, will be continued after the close of the present year as a monthly journal This increased fre- quency of lub'icalion will, it is beUeved, meet a wish often ex- 240 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [June pressed by authors for a more rapid intercliange of views, aud an earlier knowledge of the progress of research ; and the editors hope that the friends and patrons of science will aid in promoting its wider circulation. W^e believe that there are many public and private libraries and reading-rooms, throughout the country, which are not yet supplied with this journal, which is certainly one of the most important of existing scientific publications. — The expedition of Yale College students, under the leader- ship of Prof. 0. E. Marsh, spent several months in the Rocky Mountain regions, investigating its flora and fauna, and collecting for the Yale Museum as fine collections as possible of the extinct animal remains found in such abundance in the tertiaries and cretaceous deposits of Nebraska, Dakota, and Wyoming. Leaving this region they will visit California, and after investigating the geolo2;y of the Pacific coast, will return through Colorado and Kansas, reaching New Haven, if possible, in November. We have since learned that their endeavours have been crowned with great success. They spent three weeks examining the geology of the country between the north and south branches of the Pviver Platte, and discovered in Northern Colorada an extensive ter- tiary deposit, abounding in fossil remains. The formation is identical with the " Mauvaises terres'' deposit of Dakota, and apparently forms the south-western border of some ancient fresh- water lake. These beds were traced to the north, and along the North Platte River ; several thousand specimens were collected, and among them a number of new species of tertiary mammals. — There has iust been started in the citv of Baltimore, U.S., a society of fifteen members, called " The Maryland Academy of Sciences." It is intended to pay special attention to microscopy. The principal officers are Philip T. Tyson, President ; John G. Morris, Yice-president ; Edwin A. Dalrj^mple, Corresponding Secretary. — Prof. Verrill, of New E[aven, has just returned from an expedition to the Bay of Fundy. The greatest depth encountered in dredoino; even as far as fiftv miles from the coast, was not beyond 120 fiithoms. Yery large collections were made, many rare and about sixty new species were discovered, the number of species in Prof. Stimpson's list being more than doubled. We hope soon to have a catalogue of the fauna of the bay from Prof. Yerrill. Published Jan. 9th, 1871. THE CANADIAN NATUKALIST AND (Quart^dy ^ourual of 5ri'h the museum contains rooms for experimental physics, the University has greatly enlarged its means of instruction in this department, by the erection in the vicinity of the museum of a physical laboratory, which I believe will cost about £40,000, and which, in the perfection and completeness of its arrangements, will surpass all similar workshops of science, not only in England, but in the world. Prof. Clifton, who himself showed me the building, and explained its plan, has endeavoured to make this laboratory in itself a model of practical science, considered as the art of doing everything in the best way, by applying in the most perfect manner every known improvement and many original inventions of his own, to secure convenience and accuracy of working. The building has a central hall for apparatus, and for certain experiments requirino; large space ; a class-room, which is a model of acoustic perfection and mechanical arrangement; and a number cf work-rooms, in which all the most delicate kinds of operations in weighing and measuring can be carried on with the best apparatus and with every precaution against error. This laboratory was to be opened in the present autumn, and I was informed by Prof. Clifton that he expected to begin with about thirty practical students. The object of the laboratory is two- fold— (1) to train observers and experimenters more thoroughly than heretofore; (2) to undertake original physical researches with more perfect appliances than those now available. The Oxford new Museum, with the neighbouring Physical Laboratory, thus constitutes in itself a great educational institu- tion in physical science, managed by some of the ablest instructors and original investigators of the day, and providing for studies in experimental physics, chemistry, mineralogy, geology, physiology, and zoology, botany being otherwise provided for in connection with the Botanic Garden: It has seven large class-rooms and a multitude of working-rooms and laboratories, with the scientific department of the Radcliffe Library. These appliances arc as yet large in comparison with the number of students who use them ; but the number of students is increasing, and this appar- ently not at the expense of the literary courses of study. It is to be observed, moreover, that the aim of the Oxford Science School is high. Its object is not so much to train practical workers in YOL. Y. S K'o. 3. 274 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. science as applied to the arts, as to give the education necessary to enable those who receive it to take their places as original investigators in the advancement of theoretical science, and in connection with this to bring out the true value of physical science as a means of securins; the highest mental culture. Viewed with reference to these ends, Oxford is undoubtedly an excellent Science school ; and a University which offers its highest honours, in courses, in which practical chemistry and physics, and dissec- tions of invertebrate animals, constitute important parts, cannot be regarded as unfavourable to the cultivation of science. It must be admitted however that these improvements have been effected only after severe contests between the advocates of modern science and the conservative element in the University, contests in which my valued friend, Dr. Acland, well known to many of us here, has borne an influential part. MOVEMENT IN EDINBURGH. Edinburgh has as yet no organized Science school, and has undoubtedly been falling behind the English schools in its repu- tation for training in natural science. This is, however, a relative rather than an actual decadence, and there is a very strong desire on the part of many of the friends of the University to restore its ancient reputation in this respect. In evidence of this we have the recent endowment of the Baxter Chair of EngiueeriDg, and the still more recent offer of Sir Roderick I. Murchison to give £6,000 as the endowment of a Chair of Geology, which I am informed the Government is likely to supplement with a like sum. The Department of Science and Art has also attached to the University a museum on the plan of that of South Kensington, under Prof. Archer; but few lectures are delivered in connection with it. No Institution in Great Britain has a better field for science education than Edinburgh, and it possesses many excel- lent teachers, but their action is to some extent paralyzed by want of facility for mutual co-operation, and by the want of some professorships necessary to complete the course of study. In the meantime, there are excellent practical classes in chemistry, ex- perimental physics and botany, and there is an academical course for a science degree. In this course the candidate is required to have the degree of B.A., M.A., or M.D., or to hold certificates of having passed the examinations in two of the departments of the University course, or to have matriculated in the University of 1S70.] DAWSON — ON SCIENCE EDUCATION ABROAD. 275 London. Otherwise he must pass u preliminary examination. He must then pass a general examination in mathematics, physics, chemistry, zoology, and botany ; but may omit this examination if an M.A. who has taken honours in natural science, or an M.B. or M.D. who has taken honours in natural history, and has passed the examinations in physics, higher mathematics, and logic. There is then a final examination, in which the student may select one of three branches in which to pass, viz. : (1) Mathe- matical science ; (2) physical and experimental science ; (?>) ■ natural science. On passing this examination he is entitled to the Degree of Bachelor of Science ; and at the end of twelve months may come up for the degree of Doctor of Science, in the examination for which he must show profound knowledge of a special scientific subject. The number of candidates for these degrees is not as yet large, but is increasing. They might obviously be rendered much more valuable and attractive by connection with special science courses, leading to applications to the arts or to definite branches of original research. It may be well to mention here that the Principal of Edinburgh University, in his inaugural address, has suggested the omission of Greek from the University course for M.A., to make room for science culture, and that the chairman of the endowed Schools Committee has, as already mentioned, put this idea in a practical shape before the English Universities, in an official letter to the Vice-Chanceliors, in which he intimates the design of the Com- missioners to establish schools in which Latin alone shall be taurrht, in addition to science and modern lau2;uao;es and litera- ture, and invites them to open their examinations for degrees and honours to the pupils of such schools. While it is to be doubted whether any such change is required here, where classics have not been so exclusively insisted on in the schools as in England, the arguments adduced by Lord Lyttleton in his circular are well deserving of study, as indicating the strong feeling among parents and educated persons in England that science education for their children is a matter of absolute necessity, and that, if it cannot otherwise be obtained, some portion even of their cherished literary culture must be sacrificed to a want, on the supply of which even national existence may depend. GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. But though much is being done in England and the United 27G THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. States, science and teclinical education are carried to a still hioiier point in Germany and Switzerland, which perhaps excel all other countries in this respect. In the former country, while every one is educated, general education is made to lead to technical education in a great variety of schools, suited topersons in all conditions of life, and culminating in the great technical Univer- sities, a kind of institution as yet unknown in the English-speaking- world, unless Cornell University can be regarded as a step in this direction. In Germany there are now no less than six technical Universities, and a large number of technical collesies or higher schools to train students for these Universities, or for directly entering into employments in arts and manufactures. TECHNICAL UNIVERSITIES. Mr. Scott Russell, in his work on Technical Education, takes the Polytechnicou, or Technical University of Switzerland, as an example of the most perfect organization of this kind ; and I may abridge from his notes the following facts as to its scope and organization. Its courses of study are arranged under 145 subjects, divided among 31 professors, 10 assistant professors, and 16 private teachers and lecturers. They consist entirely of science, applications of science to the arts, and modern languages, literature and history. Among the few subjects not included under these heads are the Swiss federal consititution and rights, and the Biblical History of Creation, a subject scarcely thought of in the English world, even in the education of theological students. The students are either regular or "free," the latter taking selected courses ; but of 762 students only 173 are free or occasional. In the regular programme of study the 145 subjects above referred to are divided into eight groups : (1) Preparatory subjects necessary for those who come imperfectly prepared; (2) subjects relating to architecture and building; (3) civil engineering ; (4) mechanical engineering ; (5) practical chemistry ; (6) agriculture and forestry ; (7) subjects necessary for scientific workers, professors and teachers ; (8) a general course of philosophy, statemanship, literature, art, and political economy. In aid of these courses of study the University posses- ses an astronomical observatorv, arranaed for teachins; observers ; a chemical and mechanical laboratory, for experiments in new inventions, &c. ; a chemical laboratory, for ordinary practical teaching, which Mr. Scott Russell calls a palace of science in 1870.] DAWSON — ON SCIENCE EDUCATION ABROAD. 277 comparison with similar places ia England ; collections of draw- ings, models and machines; a collection of architectural models and sculpture ; collections in zoology, geology, and antiquities ; and a botanical garden. To the foundation of the University the Federal Government of Switzerland contributed £20,000, and the canton of Zurich £136,000. Its annual expense is very moderate, being only £13,459 sterling. From such institu- tions in Germany and Switzerland annually proceed numbers of educated young men who are prepared to advance every branch ' of art by the applications of science, who are distancing England in so many manufactures, and who are now contributino- so largely to the wonderful success of the German armies. It is well for us to remember that the Technical University of Zurich ministers to the wants of a population of only two millions and a half, or considerably less than that of Canada, and that even the little state of Wurtemburg, with a population of less than two millions, has its Technical University at Stuttgardt, with no fewer than 57 professors and teachers. It is further to be ob- served that these Universities are but the higher principles of a complete system of technical education, descending from them to the humblest schools of practical science, for the children of labourers. It is scarcely necessary to add that they do not detract from or interfere with the great general Universities of Germany, in which scholarship and philosophy have reached so high a pitch of development. A recent Englisli writer thus eulogizes the Prussian system : — " The Prussians, whatever their other qualities, are emphati- cally a scientific people, and to that predominating characteristic first and foremost arc their recent military triumphs due. We do not mean that because they are great chemists, astronomers, and physicists, therefore are they necessarily great soldiers ; so narrow a proposition would hardly be tenable. What we mean is that the spirit of science possesses the entire nation, and shows Itself, not only by the encouragement given throughout Germany to physical research, but above all by the scientific method con- spicuous in all their arrangements. What does the word Science, used in its wider sense, 'un^\j ? Simply the employment of means adequate to the attainment of a desired end. AVhether that end be the constitution of a government, the organization of an army or navy, the spread of learning, or the repression of crime, if the means adopted have attained the object, then science has been at 278 THE CANADIAN NATUKALIST. [Sept. work. The method is the same, to whatever purpose applied. The same method is necessary to raise, organize, and equip a bat- talion, as to perform a chemical experiment. It is this great truth that the Germans, above all other nations, if not alone amongst nations, have thoroughly realized and applied, In all the vast combinations and enterprises with which they have astonished the world, no one has been able to point to a single deficiency in any one essential element. Every post has been adequately filled and every want provided for ; from the monarch, the statesman, and the strategist, to the lowest grade in the army. This is the method of science, literally the same method which teaches the chemist to prepare his retort, his furnace, and his re-agents, before commencing his experiment." WANT OF SCIENCE TEACHING IN CANADA. Let us now turn to our own country, and study its means and appliances for the pursuit of practical science. The task is an easy one, for with the exception cf two or three small and poorly supported agricultural schools, this Dominion does not possess a school of practical science. With mining resources second to those of no country in the world, we have not a school where a 3'oung Canadian can thoroughly learn mining or metallurgy ; and, as a consequence, our mines are undeveloped or go to waste under ruinous and unskilful experiments. With immense public works, and constant surveys of new territories, we have not a school fitted to train a competent civil engineer or surveyor. Attempting a great variety of manufactures, we have not schools wherein young men and young women can learn mecbanical engineering, practical chemistry, or the art of design, or we are very] feebly beginning such schools. We have scarcely begun to train scientific agricul- turists or agricultural analysts. Our means for giving the neces- sary education to original scientific workers in any department, or of training teachers of science are very defective. Hitherto we have been obliged to limit ourselves to the provision of general academical courses of study, and of the schools necessary for training men in medicine, law and theology. Other avenues of higher professional life are, to a great extent, shut against our young men, while we are importing from abroad the second-rate men of other countries to do work which our own men, if trained here, could do better. Let us enquire then what we are doing in aid of science education, more especially in this commercial and 1S70.] DAWSON — ON SCIENCE EDUCATION ABROAD. 279 manufacturing uietropolis of Canada, which wc may surely ven- ture to regard as at least a Canadian Manchester, and something more important than a Canadian Zurich. WHAT IS BEING DONE IN MONTREAL. (1) We have at least advanced so far as to regard physical science as a necessary part of a liberal education. In McGill University some part of natural or physical science is studied in each year of the College course, and we provide for honour studies in these subjects, which are at least sufficient to enable any one who has faithfully pursued them to enter on original research in some department of the natural productions and resources of the country, and to receive some considerable portion of the training which such studies can give. We have provided in our apparatus, museum, and observatory, the means of obtaining a practical ac- quaintance with several important departments of science. But in a general academical course of study too many other subjects require attention to allow science to take a leading place ; and it is not the proper course of educational reform to endeavour to in- trude science in the place of other subjects at least quite as neces- sary for general culture. We require to add to our general course of instruction special courses of practical science, presided over by their proper professors, and attended by their own technical students. (2) The lower departments of science education are to some small extent provided for by the teaching of elementary science in the schools. This, imperfect though it is, is of value, and I at- tribute to the partial awakening of the thirst for scientific know- ledge by the small amount of science teaching in the ordinary schools in the United States and in this countr}^ much of that quickness of apprehension and ready adaptation to new conditions, and inventive ingenuity which we find in the more educated por- tions of the common people. The Provincial Board of Arts and Manufactures also deserves credit for the attempts which it has made, under many discouragements, to provide science and art classes for the children of artisans. Proposals are also before the Local Legislature for .Schools of Agriculture. The Local Gov- ernment lias procured reports on this subject from the Principals or' the Normal Schools, and has also sent a special agent to study and report on the Agricultural Schools of France and Belgium, which are well worthy of imitation. A still more important sug- 280 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. gestion has been made to the Dominion Government by the Di- rector of the Geological Survey for the erection of a School of Mining. These arrangements and proposals are valuable as far as they extend ; but they fiill short of providing the full measure of the hiaher science education, whether with reference to the training; of original investigators, or of the various kinds of professional men required for the developement of the resources of the country. Let us enquire how this wider and higher science culture can be secured. SUGGESTIONS FOR HIGHER SCIENCE TEACHING. The higher technical and science education may be provided for in either of the following ways. (1.) We may have special schools of mining, engineering, &c., each pursuing its own course, and not connected with any general institution. The objections to this are, that it is not economical, that it cannot provide the necessary literary and general training, that the pupils of such schools are very likely to be of various degrees of excellence and very partially trained. Such objections are applicable to schools like the Royal School of Mines in London, and I think they would prove fatal to the influence of such schools in this country. (2.) We might imitate the German technical universities. This would be the most thorough course possible ; and were the means forthcoming, I cannot conceive of any greater educational bene- fit to this country than the institution of such an University. But it may be long before we shall find in our Legislatures, general and local, the wisdom and patriotism which actuated those of Switzerland in establishing the Zurich School ; and we may have to wait quite as long for the appearance of a Canadian Cornell to give and to stimulate le2;islative liberality by his giving. (3.) The last, and, it appears to me, the only practicable course at pre- sent, is to ask for endowments similar to those of Lawrence and Shefiield, and thus to establish special courses of Science in con- nection with academical institutions, on the plan so well carried out in Owens' College, Manchester, and in the Sheffield School of Yale. This has proved the course most successful in the United States and in the Mother Country, and I have no doubt will prove so here. It is to be observed in this connection that I would not propose merely the institution of a Science degree. We have in this University the means to do this now, but I doubt its expe- 1870.] DAWSON — ON SCIENCE EDUCATION ABROAD. 281 diency, more especially as our honour course in Mathematical and Natural Science is equivalent to that for such a degree and some- thing more, and can be as readily and easily pursued. Nor could I follow the advice above referred to as given by the Principal of Edinburgh University and the chairman of the Endovred Schools Commission, to curtail the classical part of the ordinary course in ffivor of science studies. Such an arransfement would, I have little doubt, injure the literary part of the academical course more than it would benefit science. I would prefer a regular and defi- nite science school, with a course extending over three or four years — the first year to be identical with or similar to that of the ordinary course, or an equivalent examination to be exacted, at least, in modern literature and science ; and the remaining years to be occupied with mathematical, physical and natural science, and modern languages, branching in the closing two years into special studies leading to particular scientific professions. The staflf and appliances of such an institution would depend on the extent of its range; and this, to ensure success, should not be small. It may be asked, would students be forthcoming ? I may with confidence answer the question in the afiirmative. From the ap- plications made to me on the part of young men for whom I can do little or nothing, I believe that one central well-appointed tech- nical university in this Dominion, would be well sustained, in so far as the number of students is concerned ; and that the exten- sion of population, of mines, manufactures, railroads, and other works, would afford an ample outlet for all the men it could train, while the professional work of such men would itself tend to in- crease the demand. It is certain, l:owever, that if the Government of this coun- try could be induced to sustain a system of elementary technical schools similar to those of the Department of Science and Art in England, or similar to those of Prussia, a double benefit would be secured, in so far as the higher science education is concerned, in finding occupation as teachers of science for some of the graduates, and in giving the necessary preliminary training to students. At the same time the efi"ects of such schools would be of incalculable importance to the working classes of this country. Local bene- factors might do something for such schools ; but for a proper system the Legislatuj-e must intervene, and it can secure the end only by payment for results on the English system, under proper arrangements for examination and inspection. 282 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. THK EARTHQUAKE OF OCTOBEll 20tli, 1870. By PRiNCif AL Dawsox, LL.D., F.R.S., &c. One of the uses of tliis Journal is to record, in a permanent manner, any rare or unusual natural phenomena, the notices of which, in the daily and weekly press, would soon perish. This function the Naturalist has hitherto performed with respect to Earthquakes. In our number for October, 1860, a detailed ac- count was given of the Earthquake of the 17th of that month, which, in many respects, resembled that of this year. In connection with that event, a general notice of the received theories of Earthquakes was given, and also a catalogue of all the previously recorded Earthquakes felt in Eastern America, about 87 in number, of which at last 29 were felt in Canada, more or less severely — by far the most violent having apparently been that of February 5th, 1<363.''^ The next earthquake of any importance was that of April, 1864, a detailed notice of which will be found in the Naturalist, Yol. 1., N.S,. p. 156. The following extracts from newspapers show the intensity of the shock, and, approximately, its time at different places, arranged in the order of their longitudes. Frederickton, N. B. — Shock felt at 11 .45. Bic. — An earthquake was sensibly felt here at 11.30 this mornino-, lastinsf half a minute. The direction seems to be from AVest to East. River du Loup, ai has, 11.13. — The shock commenced and lasted 45 seconds ; appeared to come from N. W. ; accom- panied by rather heavy rumbling. Point Levi, 11.15. — A dreadful shock of earthquake was felt here at 11 . 15. Quebec. — At 11.17 a.m. a severe shock of earthquake was felt here. Buildings shook and bells rang ; several chimneys were knocked down in Desfosses street, and two persons nearly killed. Boston. — A shock of earthquake was felt here and all along the line from Montreal. The Earthquake. — Inverness, P. Q., Oct. 20th. — A severe shock of earthquake was felt here to day at about 11 .25 a.m. which lasted tor over a minute. The course of the undula- tion seemed to be in an easterly direction. It caused great alarm in this vicinity. *Caiiadian ifaturalist, 1st Series, Yol. Y. p. 363. 1870.] DAWSON — ON EARTHQUAKE OF OCT. 20. 1870. 283 Sherbooke, — Felt earthquake here at 11.25. Shook the office books off the table, and the clock down. Richmond, 11.17 a.m. — A severe shock just felt here. Buildings at station rocked a good deal. Durham, P. Q., Oct. 20. — A slight shock of an earth- quake passed here about 11.15 a.m., moving north. It shook the houses quite perceptibly, and lasted several moments. Three Rivers, 11.25. — A very severe earthquake has been experienced in this city. The vibrations were very severe, lasting several minutes. The people ran out of their houses. NicoLET. — A violent earthquake was felt here at 11.19. The whole building tottered, as if about ndling. It lasted about 20 seconds. Berthier. — We had an earthquake very strong in Berthier at half past eleven to-day. SoREL, 11.14 a.m.— A shock of earthquake was distinctly felt here, of nearly a minute duration. St. Hyacinthe. — A strong shock of earthquake was felt here at 11.15, lasting about thirty seconds. AVaterloo Village, P. Q., Oct. 20th.— The shock of an earthquake was felt here at 11.30 to-day; duration about fifty seconds. It commenced with a low rumblinsf noise. Buildino-s shook and trembled, and people rushed out of their houses terrified. Rouse's Point, 11.20. — Severe shock of earthquake here. The Railroad depot shook very much. St. John's P. Q. — Quite a severe shock of earthquake at 11.15. Montreal. — The shock was felt at Quebec about 30 seconds before it reached here. The operator at Quebec was just in the act of asking his confrere of Montreal if any shock was felt when wall and instrument began to rock and shake. Albany. — Not felt within IG miles from here. Felt in Schenectady, N. Y., Cambridge, N. Y., and Cooper's Town N. Y. New York. — A severe shock of earthquake was felt in this city this morning about 11 o'clock. Shocks were also felt in Schenectady, N. Y., Cleveland, 0., Boston, Burlington, Vt., Portland, Me., Troy, Saratoga, Warrensburg and Warsaw, N. Y. St. Andrews. — Shock of earthquake this morning ; lasted 30 seconds. 284 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [Sept. L'Orignal, 11.15. — We felt a very severe shock of earth- quake, which lasted about half a minute. It shook the Court House iu which the telegraph office is, Coteau Landing. — Severe shock of earthquake this morn- ing ; shook buildings. Ottawa, Oct. 20. — A strong shock of earthquake here this forenoon. Drizzling rain and cold. St. Catherines. — A shock of earthquake felt here. Owen Sound, Oct. 20. — A shock of earthquake was felt here this morning, commencing at 10.52, and lasted about 3 minutes. In several places it is noticed that the shock was much more severe on sandy and loose ground than on solid rock. This is an ordinary occurrence, depending on the rapid and unobstructed passage of the vibrations through solid rock. This same cause no doubt accounts for the circumstance that at some places the shock was not felt at all, while in others not far distant it was felt severely. The following notice sent to one of the newspapers by Mr. Bennetts, of the Capel Mine, is curious, as in other cases such shocks are often felt severely in mines ; but the rapid or vertical transmission of the shock may account for it in connection, per- haps, with the direction of the vein and of the workings. — "At this mine the shock of the earthquake was very plainly felt at the surfacs ; but at the time of its occurence I was some 200 feet un- derground and neither the miners, of whom there were about twenty, nor myself, felt the shock or noticed anything unusual. Could it be ascertained, it would be interesting to know to what extent other mines were affected by such an unusual occur- rence." On the other hand I am informed by Mr. James Douglas, of Quebec, that in the Harvey Hill Mine, in rock not dissimilar from that at the Capel Mine, and in the same region, though more to the eastward, the shock was sufficiently violent to throw down masses of rock, and greatly to terrify the miners, then at work in the mine. In a notice contributed to Silliman's Journal, for November, by Prof. Newton, it is stated that the first shock began at New Haven, at llh. 19.m45s. A.M., New Haven mean time. "It lasted 10 seconds, and its individual vibrations were about two thirds of a second in duration, or one and one third of a second 1870.] DAWSON — ON EARTHQUAKE OP OCT. 20, 1870. 285 for a complete double vibration. The second series of vibrations occurred after an interval of 5 seconds, and lasted 11 seconds. The direction of vibration was NNE and SSW. It was felt at Boston a minute and three quarters before reaching New Haven. At Cleveland, Ohio, it was felt at the same time as at New Haven. " Slight vibrations were felt as far south as Richmond, Va., and as far west as Dubuque, Iowa." Prof. Bell, of the Geological Survey, informs me that the shock was felt at Sault St. Marie, and on the North Shore of Lake Superior, and was ac- companied by a cracking or rending sound in the rocks. The followinii" account of the Meteorolo2;ical Phenomena, attending the earthquake at Montreal, is contributed by Dr. Smallwood of the McGill College observatory. " Rain fell on the 13th day, followed by a rise in the Baro- meter, and a splendid display of the Aurora Borealis on the night of the 14th day. Numerous and very large spots were present on the solar disc, which had been the case for some considerable time, more especially during the presence of the Aurora on the nights of the 23rd, 24th, 25th, and 26th days of last month (September.) " The maximum reading of the Barometer at 7 a. m. on the morning of the ICtli day, indicated 30.215 inches, and was suc- ceeded by a very fine, warm day, the mean temperature of which was 63.9 degrees, wind S. AV. Showers of rain fell on the 17th from 10 a. m. till 3 p.m., with a west wind and with a falling Barometer, which at 9 p. m. of that day stood at 30.000 inches. From 1 a. m. of the 18th (Tuesday)" a very rapid and sudden fall was observed, viz : 0.G39 of an inch in six hours, and it attained its minimum, 29.361 inches, at 7 a.m. on that day. " From that hour a gradual and somewhat sudden rise took place accompanied by a very heavy gale of wind. The clouds were passing from the West, but the wind veered to all points of the compass. The register of the Anemometer at the Observa- tory shows a complete disc of concentric circles, with a velocity varying from 35 to 15 miles per hour. '- There was also a rise of 0.507 of an inch in the Barometer, with a falling temperature. Frost occurred during the night, and a good breeze continued from the West. The Thermometer at 7 a. m. showed 33.1 degrees, and the Barometer 30.070 inches. " From this time the temperature rose and the Barometer fell, and this moroing at 7 a. m., stood at 29 .499 inches. Rain set in 286 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. during the Dight, and at 7 o'clock 0.21-i of an inch had fallen. Thermometer 42 degrees. Wind S. W. Mean yelocity, 3 . 14 miles per hour. " At 11 h. 17 m. Montreal mean time, a very considerable shock of an earthquake was felt generally throughout the city ; the first series of vibrations lasted for from 10 to 15 seconds, and was succeeded by a slight interval of a few seconds, when a second shock occurred, of less duration and of less intensity, lasting from 5 to 8 seconds. No wave of sound was perceptible, and the wave of motion was undulating and in a straight line (rectilinear) and of considerable relaxation. Domestic articles rocked to and fro, but no damage to buildings has resulted. '' The magnets were very seriously affected at 10.30. •' The barometer continued to fall after the first shock. At 2 p. m. it stood at 29.299 inches ; thermometer 44. 8 degrees ; wind S. Vi., with rain. Professor Kingston telegraphed me that the magnets at the Toronto Observatory showed slight shocks at 10 minutes to 11." " As usual with Canadian earthquakes, this was felt most severely on the Lower St. Lawrence, .more especially at the junc- tion of the Lower Silurian and Laurentian formations in the vicinity of Bay St. Paul, Murray Bay, and the Saguenay. The following graphic account is given by Rev. Mr. Plamondon, Parish Priest of Bay St. Paul, in a letter to " L\Evenement.''' '- Un mot a la hate pour vous faire connaitre les desastres causes, tout a coup ici et dans les environs, par le tremblement de terre le plus etrauge qui soit arrive de memoire d'hommes. Environ une demi-heure avant midi, un coup de foudre (c'est la seule denomination que je puisse lui donner) une enorme detona- tion a jete tout le monde dans la stupeur et la terre s'est mise non a trembler, mais a bouillonner de maniere ii donner le vertige, non- seulement a tons ceux qui etaient dans les maisons, mais encore II ceux qui etaient en plein air. Toutes les habitations semblaient 6tre sur un volcan, et la terre se fendillant en cinq ou six endroits, lan^ait des colonnes d'eau a six, huit et peut-etre quinze pieds en Fair, entrainant apres elles une quantite de sable qui s'est etendu sur le sol. Presque toutes les cheminees se sont ecroulees, de sorte que je ne pense pas qu'il en soit reste six debout dans tout le village. Des pans de maisons se sont abattus, et ici et la les poeles, meubles et autres objets out ete reuverses, emportant avec eux les ustensiles, la vaisselle, etc. 1870.] DAWSON — ON EARTHQUAKE OF OCT. 20, 1870. 287 '•' Notre couvent, qui ^tait sous la direction cles bonnes soeurs de la Congregation est inhabitable pour le moment, trois cliemi- nees et le plafond des mansardes etant demolis en partie. Trois eleves et une servante de cet etablissement on etc blessees par des pierres provenant de I'eboulement des cheminees : cependant aucune d'elles n'est gravement atteinte. " L'eglise a beaucoup souiFert ; une partie de son portail s'est ccroulee, emportant un morceau de la voute, et le reste des murs est tellement lesarde qu'il est douteux qu'on puisse les reparer. " La stupeur a etc telle que pendant les trois ou quatre minu- tes qu'a dure la secousse, tout le monde pensait que e'en etait fini, et que nous alliens tous perir. Nous sommes encore sur le qui vivc ; car de temps en temps de legeres secousses se font encore sentir. Chacun redoute la nuit prochaine et se demande oii il sera domain matin, II est certain que si cette catastroplie fut arrivee pendant la nuit, nous aurions a deplorer la perte d'un grand nom- bre de vies. " II nous est venu des gens de di verses concessions, de sorte que nous avons des nouvelles d'un circuit d'environ quatre lieues et nulle part il n'est reste une habitation intacte, partout la secousse a ete aussi yiolente. A I'heure ou j'ecris ces lignes, la terre tremble encore, et qui sait si je pourrai terminer. Aussi veuillez excuser le decousu de ces quelques details que je vous donne a la hate, ainsi que les fautes qui peuvent s'y etre glissees." Other correspondents mention the opening of chasms in the ground, from which streams of water and sand burst forth. This phenomenon arises from the landslips produced in the terraces of Post-pliocene clay which in that part of the country rest against the steep sides of the Laurentian hills. These are ready to slide downward with any slight movement of the earth, and to press the water out of the sandy layers associated with them, or give outlet to hidden springs and streams. It is also stated, that a mass of rock 400 feet in length fell from the face of the cliff, at Cape Trinity, in the Sagueuay. Cape Trinity is a cliff of Laurentian gneiss, presenting to the river a vertical front about 1500 feet hio-li. It will be observed that the earthquake of Oct. 20th extend- ed over 25 degrees of longitude, from the Bay of Fundy west- ward, and over at least 12 degrees of latitude from the North Shore of the St. Lawrence, southward. Its extension to the northward into Rupert's Laud, is not yet known. 288 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. The general direction of the vibration, as shown by the times at the different places mentioned above, and by observations of Prof. Winslow, at Cambridge, and by Mr. Douglas, at Quebec, was from north east to south west. The shock must therefore have been propagated from the Laurentian regions north ot the St. Lawrence, into the Silurian and later formations to the south- . ward. This is of interest in connection with the facts already related as to its severity at the edge of the Laurentian formation at Bay St. Paul, and elsewhere. It is also deserving of notice, that at Bay St. Paul and Les Eboulements several shocks are recorded; and that additional shocks are stated to have occurred at the latter place on the 26th October, six days after the principal shock. It has been observed on previous occasions that the Barome- ter is low at the time of the occurrence of earthquakes, in Eastern America. Dr. Smallwood, has kindly furnished the following table in illustration of this. It gives the state of the Barometer at Montreal, on the days of eleven of the most recent earthquakes felt here. Date of Earthquake. Barometer. 1855. Feb. 8 29.806 — — 19 29.800 1856. Jan. 1 30.163 1857. Oct. 16 29.308 1858. Jan. 15 30.292 — Mav 10 29.800 — June27 29.800 1860. Oct. 17 29.964 1864. Apr. 20 29.900 1870. Mar. 4 30.300 1870. Oct. 20 29.299 It will be observed that the Barometer was unusually low on the day of the late earthquake, and according to information kindly sent to Dr. Smallwood from the observatory at Washing- ton, this was very general over the continent. It is thus extremely probable, that, whatever the prioiary cause of the movement, its occurrence on the particular day in question, may have been determined by this removal of pressure from the surface of the land. It is further to be observed, that this would place the phenomena in harmony with that general cause to which the frequent small earthquakes on the Eastern Coast of America, were formerly assigned by the writer, namely the removal of material from the land, and its accumulation on the banks off the American Coast, producing unequal pressure and 1870.] DAWSON — ON EARTHQUAKE OF OCT. 20, 1870. 289 consequent tension of the earth's crust, and this connected with the ascertained slow subsidence of the coast, and perhaps with slight elevation of the interior of the continent. In a notice of the earthquake in Silliman''s Journal, for Jan- uary, 1871, by Mr. A. C. Twining, the following statement occurs with reference to the intensity of the shocks at Bay St. Paul and Les Eboulements — *' They are in general conformity to what has long been known to British geologists, respecting the volcanic character of the region specified," with some other remarks based on this strange statement, which has actually no foundation in fact, other than the junction, at those places, of the Laurentian and Lower Silurian rocks, and the occurrence of thick beds of Post-pliocene clay, resting on inclined rock surfaces, and there- fore very liable to slip. Captain Bonnycastle's ideas on the sub- ject, referred to by Mr. Twining, were probably founded merely on the irregular contour of the surface, the occurrence of crystalline Laurentian rocks, and the exaggerated accounts of land-slips in previous earthquakes, contained in the memoirs of the Jesuits. iJToTE. — A slight shock of Earthquake was felt at Uawkesbury on the Ottawa, on the 3id January. Dr. Smallwood states that, though not appreciable at Montreal, it was indicated by the Seismometer. NOTES OX THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. By Henry Reeks, F.L.S., &c. ( Continued from page ]59J Tetraonid^. Canada Grouse, or Spruce Partridge, T etrao csiuadensis, Linn. — A very rare and uncertain visitor from the mainland : two killed, and two others seen by the settlers during my residence at Cow Head. Willow Grouse, Lagoi[i\isa\hus(Gmelin), — Common throughout the year, and the only lowland or subalpine species indigenous to Newfoundland. From my own experience I think the willow grouse invariably roost on the ground, although I have frequently shot them when feeding in the tops of birch and alder trees, more 't'OL. Y. T No. 3. 290 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. especially when the ground is covered with deep and light snow. Their food consists chiefly of the buds and tender shoots of birch, alder, black spruce (^Abies nigra), juniper (^Larix americana) , &c., but they seem partial at other seasons to the partridge berry (^Mitchella repens) and cranberry (^Oxy coccus 'palustris). I do not possess specimens of willow grouse from Europe or northern North America (Hudson's Bay, &c.), but Professor Baird says, " I find a considerable difference in different specimens of the large ptarmigan [L. albus] before me. Those from eastern Labrador and Newfoundland appear to have decidedly broader, stouter and more convex bills than those from the Hudson's Bay and more northern countries. I think it not improbable that there may be two species " Professor Newton, however, informs me that " none of Professor Baird's later writings have gone to strengthen the suspicion expressed by him formerly as to the existence of a second species of willow grouse," and adds, " I have compared a pretty good series of skins from many parts of North America, extending from Alaska to Newfoundland, and so far as I can judge I have no doubt they are all of one and the same species, which is further identical with the willow grouse of Europe (^Tetrao saUceti, Temminck; T, suhalpinus, Nilsson)." I have never suceeeded in driving the willow^ grouse into a bank of snow, as Sir John Richardson states in * Fauna Boreali Ame- ricana,' vol. ii., p. 352, as ^being a habit peculiar to the species, nor had the settlers observed anything of the kind. They are sometimes so tame that they may be killed with a stick ; at other times so wild that they will not allow you to approach within gunshot, and such is generally the case in winter when the snow is hard and crusty, and the noise of your rackets (snow-shoes) alarms them. They are shot at all seasons by the settlers, and generally when sitting on the ground although there is every excuse for doing so, especially in thick woods, for if once flushed there is rarely a chance of coming up with the covey again, and this an important consideration where food and powder and shot are not too plentiful among the poorer population. In one of my walks soon after I landed on the island I came up with a small covey of willow grouse and killed a brace, but owing to my dog — a borrowed one, which was evidently more used to rushing into the water for wounded seals and ducks, than retrieving grouse, — I was unable to get another shot at the birds. Upon showing the brace I had killed to the owner of the dog, on my return, the 1870,] REEKS—ON BIRDS OP NEWFOUNDLAND. 291 following conversation ensued : — " Got two pat fridges then, sir ?" " Yes." " All there was there, I 'spose ?" " Oh, no ; there were ten in all, I think." " Then they was wild I 'spose, sir ?'' " No, they allowed me to get sufficiently near to kill one with each barrel as they rose." " What, sir, you never fired at 'em to wing!" ** Of course I did ; how would you have me shoot at them ?" *' Why, sir, if I had been there I should have walked round and round them pat tridgis till I had got 'em all in a heap, and then I should have killed nearly all at a shot : I never heard of nobody ' firing at apattridge to wing.'' If the settlers could be induced to observe a close time for these and other valuable game birds, the practice of shooting them in this apparently wholesale manner would not greatly diminish their numbers. The willow grouse is called the '• partridge" by the settlers, and frequents beds of alder and dwarf birch in swampy places, especially on the borders of lakes and rivers. It breeds on the ground among stunted black spruce, in rather drier situations. One peculiarity in the New- foundland bird is, that I have veri/ rarely found the middle, or incumbent pair of tail-coverts " entirely white" in winter, as they are stated to be in ' Birds of North America,' p. 634. Roch Ptarmigan, L. rupestris (Gmelin). — A truly aipine species in Newfoundland ; rarely found below the line of stunted black spruce, except in the depth of winter, when they descend to the low land and feed on the buds of dwarf trees, sometimes in company with the willow grouse, but I never saw this species perch on trees : it is called by the settlers the *' mountain partridge." Gruid^. I was informed by one of the settlers that a '' brown crane" was killed a few years since at Codroy, Newfoundland, and some others seen. I am of opinion that they must have been "stragglers," and it is therefore hard to determine the species. Did they really belong to the genus Grus ? ARDEIDiE. American Bittern, Botaurus lentiginosus, (^Montagu). — A summer migrant to Newfoundland, and the only species of the heron family that I met with. A pair of bitterns are generally found frequenting the margins of wooded lakes and ponds in the lowlands throughout the summer, arriving early in May and 292 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. departing again about the last of September. Yarrell describes the legs and feet as "greenish brown;" they are, however, of a pretty yellow-green, but soon lose this colour after death. The American bittern makes a curious thumping noise, very much resembling the noise made by fishermen when driving oakum into the seams of their boats ; hence probably arose its popular name of " stake-driver" in the United States, and '' corker" (? caulker) in Newfoundland. Charadrid^. American. Golden Plover^ Charadrius virginicus (Borck). — Visits Newfoundland abundantly in the autumnal migration, but very rarely, if at all, in the vernal. KiUdeer, ^gialitis vociferus (Linn.) — Not so common as the preceding, otherwise the remarks on that species are equally applicable here. Ring Plover^ or Semipalmated Plover, A. semipalmatus (Bon.) — A summer migrant and breeds on the coast : this and the following species are called " beach birds." Piping Plover, A. melodus (Orc^.)— Appeared to be a common autumn migrant, congregating in large flocks. Grei/ Plover, or Blackhellied Plover, Squatarola helvetica (Linn.) — Very common in the fall of the year, but I did not meet with it in spring: the plovers evidently take some other, and probably more direct route than vid Newfoundland to their breeding grounds in the far north. HiEMATOPODID^. Turnstone, Strepsilas interpres (Linn.) — Abundant on the sea- shore in the fall of the year, and generally so fat that the settlers have bestowed on it the appropriate name of" fat oxen." Of the Recurvirostridae I did not meet with either Recurvirostra amcricana, Gmelin, or Himantopus nigricoUis, Vieillot, although both, but more especially the former, may reasonably be expected to occur periodically. Phalaropodid^. Red Phalarope, Phalaropus fulicarius (Linn.) — Visits New- foundland generally in the month of June, and is sometimes tolerably common, but I doubt whether it breeds on the island. This is undoubtedly our old friend Phalaropus lobatus in its nup- 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND 293 tial dress, and the American authors have done well in restorins to it the Linnean name of fulicarius, because it is yet a matter of doubt whether the Trinsra Lobata of Linnoeus in Svstemre Naturae ever applied, or was intended to apply, to this species. It is the only species of phalarope I got in Newfoundland, and was called by the settlers the *' gale bird." It is wonderful to watch these pretty and delicate-looking little birds swimming and taking their tiny food from the crests of waves that would " swamp " any boat and many schooners. They are very tame, and swim almost within arm's length of the rocks, giving one the idea that the next immense wave which is fast approaching will cast them on shore, or smash them against the rocks : at such times it takes a quick shot to kill them on the water. SCOLOPACID^. European Woodcock, Scolopax rusticola, Linn. — A single specimen is said to have been killed in the neighbourhood of St. Johns, in elanuary, 1862 (See "' Ibis," 1862, pp.284, 285). If no deception has been practised here, it is certainly a very extra- ordinary capture, as is also that of another specimen since taken near New York. To those who have spent any length of time on the coast of North America, the problem of the occurrence of so many American birds in Europe is soon solved: it is undoubtedly caused by the prevalence, especially in the fall, of great gales of westerly winds, which probably take most of our American strag- glers off the east coast of Newfoundland ; but how to account for the appearance of two stray specimens of S. rusticola being killed in America — far apart, but in each case near a populous city, and by those so well up in ornithological literature as to be aware of the value of such captures^ presents a difficulty by no means so easily disposed of Of course it is probable that land birds may occasionally get blown off our west coasts by rough easterly winds, but it is equally probable that before they had gone one-third across the Atlantic they would take the wind dead ahead, which would cause them to 'bout ship and be thankful for a fair breeze home. It docs not require a great stretch of the imagination to account for the appearance of an Icelandic species in Greenland, or the northern parts of the American continent, or even in New- foundland, but if I remember right the European woodcock is not found in Iceland. American Woodcock, Philohela minor {Gmelin). — Probably 294 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST, [Sept. occurs on the island, but my accident prevented my thoroughly searching situations likely to produce this species. It would only occur as a summer migrant. Wilson'^s Snipe, Gallinago Wilsoni (Temm.) — A common sum- mer migrant, arriving generally about the last week in April, and soon commences breeding. When the female is sitting on her nest the male frequently rises in the air, drumming and making a peculiar rushing noise with its tail, which may be heard a con- siderable distance. Grai/ Snipe, Macrorhamphus griseus (Gmelin), — A summer migrant. The remarks appended to the proceeding species appear equally applicable to this. Grai/ Back; Rohin Snipe, or Knot, Tringa canutus (^Linn.')— Visits Newfoundland only in its periodical migrations. Purple Sandpiper, Tringa maritina, Brunnich. — A summer migrant, but rather rare at Cow Head; probably more common on the southern shores of the island. American Dunlin, T. alpina. var. americana, Cassin. — A sum- mer migrant, but much more abundant in the fall of the year. American Jach Snipe, T. maculata, Vieill. — A summer migrant, and tolerably common. Least Sandpiper, T. wilsonii, Nuttall. — A common summer migrant. Bonaparte' s Sandpiper, T. bonapartii, ScJilegel. — A common summer migrant, collecting in flocks in the fall of the year at the seaside, and generally so tame that a dozen to twenty may often be killed at a shot. This remark applies also to some other allied species of sandpipers and small ringed plovers which congregate on the coast every autumn, from some flocks of which upwards of sixty have been killed at a shot ; giving some idea of the im- mense quantities of these little birds. The pretty little pigeon hawk (^Falco columharius) is a cruel attendant on these flocks of small Tringae. Professor Newton informs me that " Tringa bona- partii is the Schinz's Sandpiper of Yarrell and other English authors, though not the true T. schinzi." Sanderling, Calidris arenaria (^Linn.') — Visits Newfoundland periodically : abundantly in the fall, but very sparingly, if at all, in the spring. Semipilmated Sandpiper, Ereunetes petrificatus, Illiger,—^ Another common species on the coast in the fall. Stilt Sandpiper, Macropalama himantopus (Bon.) — Not com= 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 295 mon at Cow Head. I killed one specimen in September, 1867, and saw a few others which appeared of the same species. Willet, Symphemia semipalmata (GmeUn). — Common in the fall of the year, especially in the spotted or immature plumage. Tell Tale, or, Stone Snipe, Gambetta melanoleuca {Gmelin). — A summer migrant, but not so common as the following species. Yellow Legs, or Yellow shanked Sandpiper, G. flavipes {Gmeliri)' — A summer migrant, arriving in May and departing again in October. A great many pairs breed in the marshes, but I think' the majority pass on to more northern regions, and return in August and September in increased numbers, generally at that season very fat and much appreciated for the table, but being small birds they are not usually shot at by the settlers unless four or five can be killed at a shot. Sometimes they are very tame and take little notice of men or dogs : at other times they are so wild that I know no bird more difficult of approach, and then they are a perfect nuisance to the sportsman, as they not only keep out of range themselves, but alarm every other bird by their incessant cry of '• twillick," " twillick." Many a blessing (?) have I bestowed on these birds when, after crawling on my hands and knees a quarter of a mile through long wet grass on boggy soil to get a shot at a flock of black ducks (^Anas ohscura') , I have heard the everlasting ''twillick" and seen the ducks take wing instantly, perhaps not eighty yards from me. I fear, since my visit, many a skeleton of poor "twillick" lies bleaching in the marshes by the sea-coast near Cow Head. Provincial names of this bird are " twillick," *' twillet" and *' nansary''— the latter name more frequently in the south of the island. Solitary Sandpiper, Rhyacophilus solitarius (^Wilson.') — Not uncommon in summer, generally towards autumn. Spotted Sandpiper, Tringoides macularius (^Linn.) — A common summer migrant, arriving early in May : breeds on the coast, and lays its four eggs sometimes in a hollow on the bare shingle ; at other times in short grass, but always just above high-watermark. Provincial name "wagtail." Bartram's Sandpiper, Aetiturus bartramius (Wilsoii). — Visits Newfoundland periodically, but it is rarely met with during the vernal migration. I doubt if it breeds in Newfoundland, although known to do so on the mainland both north and south of that island. Like the peewit at home this species prefers inland and cultivated districts. 296 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Buffhreasfed Sandpiper, Tryngites rufescens (Vieill). — A summer migrant, but not very common. I did not succeed in taking eggs of this species, but I think it breeds on some of the drier spots in marshes in Newfoundland. Marhled Godwit, Limosa fedoa (Limi). — Only a periodical visitor ; most common in the fall. This and the following species are called "dotterels" by the settlers. Hudsonian Godwit, L. hudsonica {Latham). — Visits New- foundland in its periodical migrations, but is most common in the fall of the year, when it is generally very fat and much appreciated for the table. Longhilled Curlew, Numenius longirostris, Wilson. — A perio- dical migrant much sought after by the settlers, who are great adepts in imitating its whistle, by which means they kill many that would otherwise pass a long distance out of range. It is a fat, good- eating bird in the fall. Hudsonian Curlew, N. hudsonicus, Latham. — Frequently confounded by the settlers, under the name of ''Jack Curlew," with the preceding species, with which it is about equally common, and like that visits Newfoundland in its migrations, but does not breed there. Esquimaux Curlew, N. borealis (^torster). — By far the most common species of curlew, but like the preceding species is only a periodical visitor ; coming by thousands in the fall, but very rarely in the spring; in fact, I think they take some other and more direct route at that season. They feed on the berries of Empetrum nigrum., which stain the feathers posteriorly a rich dark purple. These birds arrive in Newfoundland on their migration about the last week in August, and remain until the end of September, when they are always very fat, and delicious eating. I was told by one of the old English settlers that they were so abundant some seasons that he had himself shot fifty in one morning before sunrise. Virginia Rail, Rallus virginianus, Linn. — A summer migrant, and apparently rare — I saw only one specimen ; but the well known habits of the i?aZ?io?ce— that of concealment among reeds in marshy places — may account for a seeming paucity in individuals. Cornmon American Bail, Porzana Carolina, Vieill. — A summer migrant, and, although not common, is probably more so than the preceding. American Coot, Fulicaamericana, (?me?i«. —Although this bird 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 297 is perhaps a regular summer migrant to Newfoundland I never met with it, neither do I think it is the " Coot" of the settlers ; if so, I know it is frequently confounded with Pelionetta perspi' cillata (Linn.), the surf scoter. ANATIDiE. American Swan, Cygnus americanus ? Sharpless. — Apparently a rare and accidental visitor to the western coast of Newfoundland: I saw only one specimen, which was an adult bird flying south in. the fall of 1867. Snow Goose, Anser hyperboreus, Pallas. — Very rare : I heard of one or two being obtained in the north of the island, and an equal number on the west coast. American Whiufrontecl Goosey A. gambeli, Hartlauh. — Equally rare with the preceding, or perhaps more so. It seems extraordinary that these two common species of American geese should be so rare when we consider that Newfoundland, in one place, is only, separated by twelve or fifteen miles of water from the mainland. Canada Goose, Bernicla canadensis (Linn.) — A regular summer migrant, and by far the most abundant species, arriving in April and in May by "countless thousands," The majority pass on to more northern regions to breed, although a great many remain for that purpose in Newfoundland ; but, besides a general discrepancy in size, I have almost invariably found the northern migrants of this species much darker on the breast ; in fact, so much so, that we used to call them the "little blackbreasted northerners." The colour of the " down" appears a good distinction between the sexes ; on the male it is light gray, and on the female dark gray, almost black. This was pointed out to me by the settlers, who, however, know how to separate the sexes by the shorter bill and head of the goose. The Canada goose is greatly prized for the table, and the settlers are adepts in " toling'' them within gunshot in the spring of the year, but it cannot be done in the fall, or during the autumnal migration : a dog is generally used for this purpose. The sportsman secretes himself in the bushes or long grass by the sides of any water on which geese are seen, and keeps throwing a glove or stick in the direction of the geese, each time making his dog retrieve the object thrown : this has to be repeated until the curiosity of the geese is aroused, and they commence swimming towards the moving object. If the goesc are a 298 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. considerable distance from the land, the dog is sent into the water, but as the birds approach nearer and nearer the dog is allowed to show himself less and less : in this manner tliey are easily toled within gunshot. "When the sportsman has no dog with him he has to act the part of one by crawling in and out of the long grass on his hands and knees, and sometimes this haa to be repeated continuously for nearly an hour, making it rather a laborious undertaking, but I have frequently known this device succeed when others have failed. The stuffed skin ofa yellow fox (^Vidpes fulvus) is sometimes used for toling geese, and answers the purpose remarkably well, especially when the geese are near the shore, by tying it to a long stick and imitating the motions of a dog retrieving the glove or stick. Foxes have frequently been observed to practice the same device in a state of nature, and the settlers who prize fur more than feathers commence toling poor Reynard within range of the fatal shot, which, strange to say, considering the general craftiness of the animal, is very easily done. The Canada goose may often be toled from a long distance when on wing, by " cronking" or imitating its cry. When these geese fly, either in pairs or in flocks, a gander invariably leads : this fact is so well known to the settlers that when firing at a pair of geese they invariably shoot at the hinder bird, not only because the goose is the fattest (in the spring), but because the gander will generally fly round and round its dead mate for some little time : such affection but too often proves fatal, especially when the shooter has the use of two barrels, but such is not generally the case among the settlers, who chiefly use the old-fashioned long duck guns, single barrelled, of ten or twelve bore. Ice-gazes and false geese are also employed on the ice for killing these beautiful birds in the spring of the year. Like the domestic goose, which has been known to live upwards of a hundred years, these birds are supposed by the settlers to live to a great age. A few years ago a specimen of the Canada goose was shot at Grrasswater Bay, on the Labrador, which had a thin brass collar on its leg initialed and dated just thirty years previous to its capture. This species does not commence laying until three years old, and from examining the ovaries of several evidently young females I found them to contain from 180 to 190 eggs, which, averaging six per annum, would limit the laying period to some thirty or thirty-one years; so that, bar accidents, the birds would not probably live more than forty or forty=five years. 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 299 Brent Goose, B. brenta, Stephens. — Very common on the southern and western parts of Newfoundland, in its periodical migrations, but very rare farther north than St. George's Bay, in 48^ North latitude, or occasionally Port au "Port, whence it crosses to Anticosti, and thence up the Labrador shore. Two specimens were said to have been seen on wing at Cow Head last spring (1868,) but the double-crested cormorant (Graculus dlhplius) flies much like a small goose, and I fancy the bii'ds thought to be Brents were of this species. Mallard, or Common Wild DucJc, Anas boschas, Linn. — Very rare ; I only examined one normal specimen of this species, also one of the supposed hybrids, between this species and the Muscovy, [Cairina moscJiata,') which had been shot and skinned by two of the settlers a few years since, and preserved as curiosi- ties. The larger bird was considered by them a drake of the domesticated variety, and I have certainly seen some of the des- cendants of the " Lincolnshire" breed much resembling it ; but as I was informed no ducks, except eiders (^S. moUissima,) were kept domesticated on the island, the bird had probably wandered north in company with a flock of some other species. Black Duck, A. obscura, Gmelin. — This is the common wild duck of the island, and is abundant throughout the summer. It breeds among rushes and long grass on the borders of lakes and rivers, and lays from ten to fifteen eggs, which much resemble those of the preceding species. The black duck is much esteemed for the table, but is usually a very shy bird, and not easily approached, except from the leeward, as it will " wind you like a deer." Pintail DucJc, Dafila acuta (^Liiin.) — Very rare, but known to some of the settlers as the "long-tailed duck." N. B. — The true "long-tailed duck" (^ffarelda glaeialis) is called a "hound" in Newfoundland. Gretn-winged Teal, Nettioncarolinensis(G^77ie?m.) — A summer migrant, and appears to be the " common teal" of the island. Blue-winged Teal, Querquedula discors (Linn.) — Rare in the neighbourhood of Cow Head, and probably nowhere on the island so common as the preceding species. Shoveller, Spatula clypeata (Linn.') — A summer migrant, and generally distributed over the island, but is by no means common. It is called " Pond diver " by the settlers. 300 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Gadwall, or Grai/ Duck, Chaiilelasmus strepems (Linn,) — Rare : does not breed on the island, but is occasionally killed durino' its periodical migration. Baldpate, or American Widgeon,^ Mareca americana {Gmelin.) — A common summer migrant, and when fat one of the best flavoured of American ducks. The adult male of this species, which is called a " Cock Widgeon " by the settlers, is, in summer plumage and fresh killed, one of the handsomest ducks in Newfoundland. English Widgeon^ M. Penelope ? (Linn.) — Although only a straggler ta the continent of Morth America, it is not improbable that this species occasionally occurs in Newfoundland, especially en route from Greenland to the United States, whence most of the captures are recorded. Scaup Duck, or Big Blackhead, Fulix marila (Linn.) — A very rare struggler to the N. W. coast. American Scaup Duck, F. affinis, (Eyton). — Occasionally shot in spring or fall, but rarely seen at Cow Head. Bing-necked Duck, F. collaris (Donovan). — Equally rare with the preceding species. Aythya americana (Eyton) and A. vallisneria (Wilson) may reasonably be expected to occur in Newfoundland. American Golden Eye, Bucephala americana (Bon.) — A very common summer migrant ; one of the first to arrive in spring and remains until frozen out in the fall. Breeds in holes in trees, sometimes near the ground, but very frequently fifteen or twenty feet high, and often a considerable distance from water. The hole is generally made in a rotten tree, and I think always by the bird itself: it is called the " pie duck" by the settlers, and the young birds are considered good eating. Buff el-headed Duck, or Butter Ball, B. albeola (Linn.) — Rare ; at least at Cow Head, where it is called the " Spirit Duck." * A male Mareca which I obtained in Newfoundland differs from type specimens in being of an uniform dark brown on the back, without the ordinary tranverse bars; in its smaller size (barely 19 inches ; wing 10; tarsus 1.10) ; legs and feet blue ; irides white ; culmen less convex ; and by having a broad conspicuous white band on the wings. Mr. G. R. Gray and Professor I^ewton are unable to refer the specimen to any other species than M. americana, — H. E. 1876.] REEKS— ON BIRDS OP NEWFOUNDLAND. 301 Harlequin JDucJc, Histrionicus torquatus (^Linn.) — A common summer migrant, and breeds on the borders of lakes and rivers flowing into the sea, frequently many miles in the country, whence it brings its young in July, The male of this species, which is called a " lord " in Newfoundland, is decidedly the handsomest little duck inhabiting those cold regions, and is a most expert diver. It seems extraordinary that any bird when quietly settled on the water, and within twenty yards of you, should escape by diving from the shot of a percussion gun ; but how far more astonishing is it that birds on the wing, and within easy range, should employ the same device, and yet the little " lords '' and "ladies" (females) frequently escape by doing so! The amateur sportsman, unacquainted with this fact, is amazed at his own prowess, when, having shot at eight or ten of these birds on the wing, he sees the whole flock drop apparently ''stone dead" into the water; but his vexation perhaps exceeds his amazement when, in a few seconds, he again sees his little flock of harlequins on wing, and that too just out of range for his second barrel. The harlequin duck is frequently found sitting on rocks many feet above the water, but, from its small size and resemblance to the parti-coloured rocks, is very difficult to see in time to get a shot by stalking. Adult males are generally distinguished as "old lords," and females as "jennies.'' Long-tailed Duck, Harelda glacialis (^Linn.) — This handsome species is very common all along the coast in fall and spring, — in fact, as long there is any open water throughout the winter ; but I think does not breed anywhere in Newfoundland, although I have an adult male, in summer plumage, which was shot at Cow Head on the 13th of June, 1868. To the naturalist and sportsman there can be few more interesting sights than seeing several hundreds of " hounds," as these birds are called by the settlers, in a flock, and hearing their clamorous cry of " Cow-cow-wit;" " Cow-cow-wit," which, when borne on the breeze from a distance, has a fancied resemblance to a pack of hounds in full cry, and, however fanciful the comparison, it always proved sufficiently obvious to recall many pleasant reminiscences of bygone days. The longtailed ducks usually frequent shoals and beds of "killup" (kelp) in one to five fathoms of water, but I have seen them diving for food in thirty fathoms of water. Like many other oceanic birds they are expert divers, and it is sometimes almost impossible to kill them when sitting on 302 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. the water ; and I really think the nearer you are to them the more likely are they to evade the shot, but, of course, everything depends on the day ; if dull and cloudy, or with snow on the ground, they dive at the flash with the rapidity of lightning, while on bright sunny days they are shot as easily as any non-diving birds. On the 12th of October, 1867, 1 killed two males of this species at a shot. It was a lovely day, frosty in the morning but the thermometer marked 50 degrees Fahr. at noon, and the ducks which were fishins; side by side, at the distance of about forty yards, made no attempt to dive. " Old Wife " is another provincial name for this species. Labrador Duck. Camptolaemus labradorius {Gmelirt). — Pro- bably occurs on some parts of the coast, but I did not meet with it during my stay at Cow Head. Velvet Duck, Melanetta velvetina (Cassin). — Common, and probably breeds on the island, as individuals may be seen throughout the summer; although supposing the birds to assume the adult plumage the second year, which I have reason to doubt they may be non-breeding birds, as they certainly do not breed until the third year. Provincial name " Whitewinged diver." JSurf Duck, Pelionetta perspicillata (^Linn.) — Common, especially during the migratory season. The remarks on the plumage and breeding habits of the preceding species applies equally to this and the following species. Provincial names '' Bottle-nosed diver " and " Bald coot." American Scoter, (Edemia americana (Swainson). — Very common throughout the year; at least until driven from the coast by drift ice, which is not usual until the first week in January. It is called the "sleepy diver" and " little black diver " when adult, by the settlers. American Eider Duck,^ Somateria mollissima ? (^Linn). — By far the most abundant species of duck in Newfoundland, but not 60 plentiful now as a few years since, owing in a measure to an increase in population, but more particularly to a wholesale robbery of eggs which is carried on with impunity from the islands along the coast, and others in the straits of Labrador and Belle Isle. * Professor ISTewton is of opiuion that the American eider diflTers from the Em-opeau far more strikingly than do some other so-called American species of ducks (especially the genus (Edemia), and I quite agree with him. — H. R. 1870.] REEKS— ON BIRDS OF NEWEOUNDLAND. 303 Several hundreds of these beautiful ducks breed on some islands in the Bay of St. Paul, about five miles v^^est of Cow Head, and are strictly preserved by an old Englishman, the only human resident in the bay. So abundant were these birds in Newfound- land a few years ago that a man living at Cow Head killed one hundred and ten eiders at two shots in one day, and on another occasion Jifti/-t7iree at owe shot: forty, also, had frequently been killed at a shot, and I saw a youth, seventeen years of age, knock down twenty at a shot in January, 1868, but even this last, number is now rarely obtained so easily. To the sportsman who is content with a duck to each barrel this comparative scarcity is of small import, but to the poor settlers it is a matter of great consideration. The common eider does not breed or assume the adult plumage until the third year: it is called the " sea duck" by the settlers. The young males resemble the females, but lack the tinge of reddish brown which is characteristic of adult females of this and the following species. King Elder, S. spectabilis (Linn.) — The adult male of this species is a large handsome bird and much sought for by ornitho- logists, especially those who go to the trouble and expense of visiting either its summer or winter haunts. The king eider, which is called " king bird " in Newfoundland, is tolerably common durinj; its periodical migrations, and is frequently shot in company with the preceding species. On the 17th of December, 1867, 1 obtained an adult male " king biid ;" and on the 19th an immature male : the latter was one of two killed at a shot with eight of the common eider. King eiders are more abundant some seasons than others : in 1865 twenty of these birds were killed at a double shot by one of the settlers at Cow Head. Young males the first year resemble the females, but in the second year have the throat and neck copiously spotted with white. The adult female of this species is easily separated from its congener, {^S. molli&sima) by its much smaller size, its shorter bill, and by having a more decided rufous tinge on the upper plumage. Ruddy Duchj Erismatura rubida (Wilson). — A rare and un- certain visitor on the north-west coast. Goosander, Mergus americanus, Cassin. — A summer mi^^rant and tolerably common : it breeds on the margins of lakes and rivers and is called the "gozzard" by the settlers. Redhreasted Merganser, M. serrator, Linn. — A very common summer migrant, remaining in Newfoundland as long as any open 304 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. water can be found. At early morning the redbreasted mergan- sers fly out to sea in large flock?, but return to fresh water in the evening : its provincial name is " shell bird." Hooded Merganser, Lophodytes cucullatus (i/i7i?i.)Apparently rare on the north-west coast, and generally obtained in the imma- ture plumage. (^To he Continued.) ON THE ORIGIN AND CLASSIFICATION OF ORIGINAL OR CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. By Thomas Macfarlane. ^Continued from June Nuiiiber.) IV. — CHEMICAL COMPOSITION. Crystalline or original rocks have been hitherto regarded and described as aggregates of minerals. No doubt the larger number of them may be correctly enough thus characterised, but it is doubtful whether the description applies to all the original rocks. For instance, obsidian has always been classed among these, and, on all hands, it is admitted that no minerals are discernable in it, that it is perfectly vitreous, as much so as bottle or window glass. A similar vitreous substance, unresolvable by the microscope, forms, according to Vogelgesang, part of the matrix of all true porphyries. Then we have many instances of rocks, almost impalpable in texture, belonging to various families, in which the microscope certainly reveals the presence of separate minerals, but, frequently, leave their nature and^ always, their composition undetermined. Besides the uncertainty which thus very frequently surrounds our knowledge of the mineralogical constitution of fine-grained rocks, there are other considerations which tend to shew that the composition of a rock is not ascertained even after its constituent minerals have been determined. In the first place, the relative quantities of these present cannot be ascertained, and, secondly, even when this is done approximatively, the uncertain composition of the mineral species renders the chemical composition of the rock almost as doubtful as before. It would therefore appear simpler and tend to a juster view of the nature of original rocks, to regard them 1870.] MACFARLANL — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS, 305 not so much as aggregates of minerals, as mixtures of their eiiemical components, alkaline and earthy silicates, which, during crystallisation, arianged themselves into compounds of more definite atomic composition, namely, into minerals. As has been already remarked, the primary source of all original rocks must have been the original fluid globe, and also that part of it, which, until the present day, has remained in a state of igneous fluidity. The elements which originally com- posed the fluid-globe must have been the same as those which enter into the composition of the earth at the present day. If, however, we leave out of consideration those volatile and craseous elements which, from their nature, must have gone to form the primitive atmosphere, and also the greater bulk of the metals, which, from their gravity, must have accumulated at the centre of the earth, we have the following list of substances, which in all likelihood, constituted the upper zone of the original fluid- globe: — Silicic, boracic, phosphoric, stannic, titanic, niobic, tung- stic, and tantalic acids: among bases, potash, soda, lithia, lime, magnesia, alumina, ferric oxide, zirconia, manganic oxide, mau- ganous oxide, ferrous oxide, glucina, ceria, yttia, oxides of zinc, lanthanum and uranium. All of these substances make their appearance in original rocks, many of them however in compara- tively minute quantity and entering only into the composition of their so-called accessorial constituents. If we, for the sake of clearness, lea\e these rarer substances aside for the present, we have the followinir. which may be reuarded as the essential chemical constituents of original rocks: Silicic Acid Vluuiira Prottixide of iron. Magnesia, Lime,. . . . . , ,Soda, Potash. These substances, we may suppose, were, in the original fluid magmas from which original rocks crystallised, present in the same manner in which we see them combined together in furnace slags or gla.s.-^. PJach of these constituents, the alkalies excepted, is of a most reiractory nature by itself, but, when several of the earths unite with the silica, compounds result of various degrees of fusibility, Tn this there is merely a repetition of the well-known phenomena of chemical combination, where elements the most antagonistic combine to form a substance innocent of any of the properti-^s of its constituents. The silica or quartz, infusible and chemically indiff'erent as it may appear under ordinary circum- stances, acts in this case as an aei«], and, with the aid of heat, Vol. Y. u Xo. 3, 06 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. combiues with the equally refractory bases, forming' readily fusible compounds. The simple silicates, formed by the union of silica or silicic acid with one base, are not always fusible. Those of the alkalies and iron oxides are, but the silicates of alumina (clay), magnesia (serpentine), and lime (wollastonite),are almost or com- pletely infusible. Nevertheless, the three latter combined form the scoriae of most frequent occurrence in the arts, namely, those of iron furnaces. In these slags the proportion of silica present often mounts as high as 75 per cent., while those from puddling furnaces do not contain more than 35. The former are termed very acid or siliceous, and the latter very basic slags. Such variations in the silica contents of these compounds are accom- panied by corresponding changes in their chemical and physical properties. Basic slags are more easily fused than siliceous slags, although the latter do not solidify as rapidly as the former. The same variations in the quantity of silica w'hich occur in farnace slags are also to be found in original rocks, and just as furnace scoria have been ranged under diflerent chemical formulae, so, likewise, it has become possible to classify original rocks in a similar manner. When the student of chemistry has gradually added an acid to an alkali, or other base, until the mixture neither reddens litmus nor browns turmeric paper, he has formed a neutral salt consisting of one atom of bas3 to one of acid, such as sulphate of iron (FeO S.O3) and nitrate of potash (KO N.O..0- The salts of the peroxides, although frequently possessing acid properties, are, nevertheless, also regarded as neutral or normal and contain, for every atom of base, three of acid, such as per- sulphate of iron (re2 O3 3 SO3) or tersulphate of alumina (Ag 0^ 3 SO3). Similarly in mineralogy those silicates are regarded as neutral which contain one atom of monoxide combined with one of silica acid or silica, or one atom of sesquioxide combined with three of silica. Thus the mineral leucite, which consists of one atom of potash, one of alumina, and four of silicic acid, may be regarded as the type of a neutral mineral. Its formula is KO. AI2 O3. 4 Si. O2 and it wall be observed that its bases contain four while its acid contains eight equivalents of oxygen. Neutral or monosilicates, therefore, are those in which the proportion of oxygen in the bases, to that in the acid, is as 1 is to 2. If we search among crystalline rocks for those in which this oxygen ratio exists, we shall find them to be w^ell-defined rock species which are not usually considered from, a chemical point of view 1870.] MACFARLANE— -ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 307 at all. These rock species are syenite, melaphyre and andesite, which respectively represent the neutral development of the granular, porphyritic, and trachytic orders of original rocks. If, from among the syenites, melaphyres and andesites which have been subjected to analysis, we select those whose oxygen ratio best corresponds to neutrality, we have the following : — oxy^^nor 0:y.enor ^Sll^^H, ■ 1. Syenite from the Stcilen Stiege, intbe Hartz,— Fachs.......". . 1 1848 56-30 I r. Syenite from Monte Margohi, near Fredazzo, — KJerulf 1 2 2'2d oS^Oo lir. Svenite from the Schonberirer Thai in the JJergstrasse, — G. Bischof ] -i-OaJ 58-90 IV. Syenite from Plauenscheu Grund, near Dresden,— Zirkel. t 2*288 59.83 Average I 2-104 .58.28 I. Mehiphyre from Schueidmiil- lorsberg, in llmeuthal, near llmeuau, — Yon Kichthofen.. . 1 1-938 .■')5-51 ir. Khombic porphyry of Vetta- kolleu, classed with the mela- phvres, bv Xaumaun, Delesse Kjerulf. .^ I 2-017 50-— ill. Melaphyre from Bahrethal, near llfeld,— Streng 1 2-01 1 56-22 1\'. Melaphyre from Leuchtburg, in the Thurimriau Forest, — Sochting \' 1 2-133 59-18 Average 1 2-0-24 .50-73 II. Augiiic andesite from Lowen- Inn-g, in Siebeugebirge, — Kjerulf 1 1-868 55-6'5 II. H(n-nblendic Andesite, from Mcrapi, in .Java, — Frolss 1 1-975 57-60 III. llorablendic .Vudesite from Stary Swietlan, — Tschermak. 1 2-091 56-92 IV. Hornblendic Andesite, from Stenzelljerg, in Siebengebirge, — Kammelsberg .". . . 1 2-332 -59-22 Average 1 2 -060 57-85 It would seem therefore from these iigures, that those rocks which, in eompo.sition, are neutral or monosilicates, contain an amount of silica averaging 57.62 per cent. As in chemistry we have acid salts, in which one atom of base is combined with more than one atom of acid, so in litholosy we have rocks in which the silica is present in much larger quantity than is required for monosilicates. A very well defined series of rocks is known in which the silica is present in such excess as to 308 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. o aive them the comnositioa of bi-iiilicates, in which two atoms of silica arc present for every one of mon-oxide, and six for every two of sesqui-oxide, or in which the ox3'gen ratio between bases and acid is as one to four. The orauular, porphyritic and trachytic developenients of those rocks are respectively represented by granite, felsitic porphyry and rhyoiite. Proceeding in the same manner as with the neutral rocks we find the following among this series to approach most closely in composition to bi-siiicates : O. IJATI.'). Quantity of Miica In I'hi B.iScs, Si]ic';t. parts rock. I. Granite from Heidelberg,— Streii, a I :J 893 72.11 n. Granite from Doochary Bridge, Donegal,— Houghton 1 3.7GU 72.21 III. Granite of Fox Eock, near Dublin, — Uougbtou 1 4.077 7Ll IV. Granite of Striegan near Silesia, —Strang 1 4.3G4 73.13 Y. Granite of Blackf>tairs Moun- tian, Wexford,— Houghton .. - 1 3.953 73.20 Average I 4 009 72.73 I. Felsitic porphyry from Miihlberg near Halle, — Laspeyres 1 4.051 72.24 I. Quartzose traehyt from Hohen- burg, near Berkum, opposite the Siebeugebirge, Bischof .. 1 3.824 72.23 II. Quartzose trachyte from the I.<- landofPonza. — Abich 1 4.152 73.40 Average 1 3.988 72.86 It appears, therefore, that the oxygen ratio 1 to 4 corresponds to an average silica percentage of 72.61, and to such bi-silicato rocks the name silicic might be applied. But besides this silicic series of rocks there is found another series of very different chemical con.stitution, and in which the bases, and not the silica, preponderate. It is only, however, in rare instances among these rocks that the silica disappears to such an extent as to form a disilicate, i.e., a compound of one equivalent of silica with two of base, or in which the quantities of oxygen contained in acid and base are equal. A very well marked series of basic rocks may, however, be pointed out in which two equiva- lents of silica are combined with three of base, and in which the oxygen ratio is as IJ- to 1. The rocks which represent this basic development of the porphyritic and trachytic textures, are, respectively, augitic porphyry and nephelinite. The following are instance of these rocks in which the oxygen ratio most closely approaches 1*333=1 : — 1870.] MACFARLANE — ON CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 309 Augitic porphyry from Fassatha.l in Tyrol Xophelinite from Wiekensteiu in Lower Silesia, — Lowe OXYGEN RATIO. Bases. 1 Silica. 1-391 1-347 Quantity ot Siliia in HhJ parts rock. 4,') -or. 41-87 The uumber of analyses of these basic rocks being somewhat limited, it is not possible to arrive at their average silica contents so closely as in the case of the neutral and silicic rocks. These instances, however, she\Y that the oxygen ratio l*3o3:l corresponds to a percentage of about 43. 4G silica. Rocks thus constituted being two-third silicates, might be conveniently called sub-silicates, and, in contradistinction to the .silicic series, might be termed the basic rocks. Between the basic and neutral rocks, on the one hand, and the latter and the silicic rocks on the other, there exist many other rocks of intermediate composition and forming gradual transitions between each of the series, which have been more minutely referred to in the foregoing. It thus becomes possible to point out a series of rocks passing gradually from the basic extreme to that of acidity in composition, not only for each of the granular porphyritic and trachytic order of rocks, but also for every variety of texture specified in the preceding chapter. The following Table gives an arrangement of these various series of rocks and an exhibition of the distinctive character.s as to texture and chemical composition possessed by each. In constructing this table, it has been found that by limiting the variations in silica contents of each family to 7 per cent, very correct lines of separation may be drawn betwixt them : — Table I, hihowing the General Chemical Composition of the Families of Original Rocks. Orclcr of Texture. I Baste Kocks, '. (subsilicates), containing lest ! tliau 49 per j cent. Silica. I. Coarse and siuall-! prai' ed Anorthosite- II. Schistose iBasic schst. III. Slaty. IV. Porphyrite Augitic por- V. Variollte '■ ../.'..?..' VI. Flne-.'iained i «asal\ VII. Trachy.lc Nephellnlte. Vm Volcanic INephellnite . lava. Basous Rocks containing from 49 to 55 per cent. Silica Orepnstonf. Hornblende cbist;. Greenstone slate. Green-tone porphyry. Variollte. Trap. DolerltP. Dolejlc* lava Neutral Rocks,' Siliceous (monosilicatesh Rocks, Silicic Rocks, containing | containing containing from ; 6 to 63 ; from fiS to 70 , more than 70 percent. Silica, per cent. Silica [per cent. Silica Syenite. Syenite schist. Clay slate. Melaphyre. Grantlte. Gneiss. Siliceous slate. Porphyrite. iVar.basaltite IBasaltite. Eurite. ■Andesite. ,Tracbyt*?. ;Acde8lte irachytlc lavd. lava. Granite, !Guil..site. S'llclc slate. Felsitic por- I pliyry. iSpuarolite, jFelslte. RhvoMte, lObsldlau, 310 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Befure procecdinii; to explain the foregoing table, it ma}- be mentioned that no new names have been used in its construction ; that names to which definite ideas as to mineralogical constitution are attached, have been, as much as possible, excluded. Such names as trap, greenstone, and melaphyre, which have been, in the early history of the science, much abused and misapplied, and more recently condemned as useless for the purpose of indicating any special rock, are introduced into our table', and advantage- ously used in designating the families of rocks to which they were originally applied. If it were made a rule in the science to exclude from it all names which have been at one time or other misused, very few petrological terms would escape obliteration ; and the fact that the names above mentioned, in spite of their condemnation by some lithologists, continue in common use, suffi- ciently proves that they possess a certain degree of usefulness and applicability. It will be observed that in the table the terms basic and basous, silicic and siliceous, are used in a manner analoirous to that in which the stron2;er and weaker bases and the strono-er and weaker acids are indicated in chemical nomenclature. A baste slate always contains a larger percentage of bases than a baso^.s' one, and a silictc porphyry in the same way contains more silica than a h'lViceous one. [t will next be observed that we have in the table eight different horizontal series of rocks, or rather rock families, corresponding to the eight different varieties of texture which have been before particularized. On passing in each of these series from left to right, we pass from the basic to the siliceous extremes, through rock families gradually increasing in silica contents, as the figures at the head of the vertical columns shew. With this increase in the amount of silica a corresponding change in the nature of the bases with wliicli it is combined takes place. Towards the basic extreme these are principally magnesia, lime, and protoxide of iron ; but as the silica increases these bases diminish, and alumina with the alkalies increase until, at the silicic extreme, alumina and potash become the preponderating bases. We have also in the table five different vertical series, among which the neutral, basic and silicic groups already referred to, occupy places in the middle and at the sides, while the inter- mediate groups, which were also mentioned above, and which have been called the basous and siliceous rocks, occupy positions iramediatelv to the left and ri2:ht of the central column. The 1870.] MACFARL\NK — O.N CRYSTALLINE ROCKS. 311 rock families of cacli of tliCoC vertical series, although they may differ widely a-; rcLrarJs their texture, all possess a similar chemical composition. 'J'lie chemical nature, texture, and affini- ties of any original rock or rock family are seen from tliis table at a glance. Thus, porphyrite appears as the porphyritic develope- ment of the siliceous group of rocks ; as less siliceous than felsitic porphyry, and more so than melaphyro. Basalt is seen to be the most basic member of the fine-grained order, and to contain less than forty-nine per cent, of silica. The affinities of any rock may be ascertained by observing the names of the rocks placed next to it, for in almost every case it is into these that it is most prone to graduate. There arc other of the general relations among original rocks visible from this table than those which refer to their composition texture and affinities. Not only do the rock families mentioned in each vertical column resemble each other in chemical composi- tion, but they also exhibit similar coincidences as regards their general colour, hardness and fusibility, and gradual transitions in each of these respects are found to exist from rock to rock along each horizontal series. The basic rocks are generally darker coloured, less hard, and more readily fusible than the rocks which correspond to them in texture but differ from them in containing a larger percentage of silica. On the other hand the more siliceous a rock is, the lighter it will generally be found to be in colour, the harder and more difficult to penetrate or excavate, and the more refractory on exposure to high tempera- tures. There is yet another physical property belonging to those original rocks, in which they show a similar correspondence with their chemical composition. Still speaking generally, the more siliceous a rock the lighter it is, not only in colour, but in weight ; the more basic the rock, the heavier it becomes. Thus it is the case that, in each order of texture on passing from the siliceous to the basic rocks, a gradual increase of density takes place, and, on the other hand, the transition from the basic rocks to the more siliceous exhibits a gradual diminution of specific gravity. So constant is this relation that it may be taken advantage of in determining the general composition of a rock. To take as an 312 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. instance the coarsely granular series of rock families the general range of their specific gravities may be said to be as follows : — Granite - - - - - 2.65 and under. Granititc - - - - 2.65 to 2.8. Syenite ■ - - - - 2.8 to 2.875. Greenstone- - - - 2.875 to 3. — This part of the subject is one of very great interest, but it would be premature at present to discuss it minutely. {To he contimicd ) NOTES ON THE BOTANY OF A PORTION OF THE COUNTIES OF HASTINGS AND ADDINGTON. By B. J. Hakrixgton, B.A., During a portion of the summer of 1869, I accompanied Mr. Vennor as his assistant in his exploration, among the Lauren tiau rocks of Ontario, and although my labours were of necessity for the most part geological, I could not resist the temptation of taking an occasional botanical stroll, and jotting down the names of a few old and familiar friends. While many other Townships were entered, it was principally in those of Elzevir, Kaladar and Barrie that attention was given to Botany. The hilly and broken character of the Laurentian country is well known, and this, together with the imperfect drainage of the crystalline rocks, and the frequently scanty and light soil arising from their disintegration, cannot well fail to exert a marked influence upon the vegetation. Thus, among the granitic hills of Elzevir, Caprifoliacc£e are exceedingly abundant, fourteen species being represented. Of the genus Viburnum there were five species, several of these being very common. In the lower ground Ericaceous shrubs, and in some places, more particularly in cedar (Thuja occidtntaUs) swamps, several species of northern Orchids were found. I say low ground, but there is much of the country having this character which is in reality elevated, the imperfect drainage, mentioned above, caus- ing the formation of bogs, marshes and lakes in the hollows among the hills. 1870.] UARRIXGTON — BOTANY OF HASTINGS. 313 On the 10th June we left Belleville by stage for Bridgewater, a village about thirty miles back. The road for the first twenty miles passes through a beautiful farming country, with here and there a grove of Maples and Beech (Fagiis ferruginea). In clumps along the fences, the Dogwood {Cornits stolonifera), with its red stems and newly-opened flowers, was occasionally to be seen, and just before reaching the bridge over the Moira, we saw the May-Apple {^Podopliyllum jjeltatinn') with its umbrella-like leaf. Next morning found us among the Laurentian hills at. Bridgewater, with the river Scutomatto ("turbulent water") rolling past, in the low ground near which we found two species of Crow-foot (^Ranunculus recurvafus et ahortivvs) : a Meadow-Rue (Thalictrum dioicum). the Cranberry Tree {Viburni'm Opulus), an Elder (Samhucus pubens), the Choke-cherry {Prumis Virginiana) and Red Cherry (P. Ptnnsijlvanica) were in full bloom, and a little liigher up, the showy Bunch-berry (Cornus Canadensis), the Service-berry (AmelancMer Canadensis), the Barren Strawberry {Waldsteinia fragarioides), the Indian Turnip (Arisaema tri- phyllum) and the Wild Sarsparilla (Aralia nudicaulis). Close to the river the Star-Lily (Smilacina stellata) grew, its starry flowers looking all the whiter over the black mud, and a short distance from the bank several species of Horsetail were waving like plumes in the breeze, the most common being Equisetum sylvaticum. Here and there a Trillium (71 gnindiflorum) was expanding its petals to receive th) sunshine after being watered by nearly a week's rain, and two Violets ( Viola cucul- lata et hlanda) dotted the meadow with their tiny flowers. On tlie road-side some of the usual stragglers (Ci/noglossum officinale^ VerhasGum Thajysus and Capsella Bursa-pastoris) were growing in abundance, as if preferring the society of man to the retirement of the forest ; and hard by in a swamp I gathered the three Flowering Ferns (Osmunda regalis, 0. Claytoniana and 0, cin- namomea), the fertile fronds of the last standing straight as soldiers on duty. Alongside these grew the Sensitive Fern (Onoclea sensibilis), and, where the ground was dryer, the Bracken (Pteris aquiUna). On a ridge of granitic gneiss to the East, we found the Fly-Honeysuckle {Lonicera ciliata) ^ the Wild Gooseberry {Ribes Cy:iosbati), the Fringe-Jointed Knotweed {Polygonum cilinode) and the Sheep Sorrel (Rumex Acetosella). On the highest point of the rock, the common Polypody (Po^ypodium vulgare) seemed to find suJBScient nourishment to grow quite luxuriantly, 314 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. ubilo its less aspiring brother {P. Drijopterls) had chosen a more congenial spot in the hollow at the base. The delicate Bladder Fern (Ci/stoj^teris fmgilis) peeped out from crevices in the rock, while two Shield-Ferns (^Asjyidwm sp'uudosum and J., marglnale) and the Lady-Fern {Asplenlum FlUx-fmmlna) clothed the borders of a little brook. In the dry fields the Plantain-leaved Everlasting {Antennaria plantaglnifoUci) was everywhere abundant. Throughout the Laurentian country the soil upon limestone bands is in general much richer than that upon other kinds of rock, and its influence upon the vegetation is very marked. The X^ines and other evergreens which generally accompany gneissose rocks, give place to hard-wood trees ; the shrubs, and other plants, too, are those which are usually found in rich, moist woods. The following list of plants, collected on the 12th of June, while following the Bridgewater limestone southwards, makes this evident : — Acer rubrum, Tiarella cordifolia. saccharin am, Trillium erectum, spicatum, Trieutalis Americana, Aquilegia Canadeusi^<, Dentaria diphylla, Sanguinaria Canadensi.s, Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Osmorrhiza hrevistylis, Yiola Canadensis, Actpea spicata, A^iburnum lantanoides, TTvnlavia grandiflora, Polygonatum biflorum, Smilacina bifolia, Streptopus roseus, racemosa, Adiantum pedatum, Dicentra Canadensis, Aspidium acrosticboides, Caulopbyllum thalictroides, Polypodium Pbegopteris, and Aralia trifolia, Botrychium Yirginiauum. Mitella dipbylla, On the 13th June, we followed the limestone in the opposite direction from the day before, and found other circumstances coming in to alter the character of the vegetation. The limestone occupied a depression, bordered on either side by high ridges of gneiss, and the water accumulating in this hollow had formed a Cedar and Black Ash {Fraxinus samhudfolid) swamp, which would be well nigh impenetrable to any but an enthusiastic naturalist. On the borders of this swamp we found Aspidium Thehjpteris and A. cristatum, and just within its dismal confines gathered Asplenium thelypteroides. A little further and the Clintonia (C horealis) spread its broad leaves over the moss, and seemed to tinkle its bell-like flowers, and the delicate Twin-flower (^Linncea horealis) covered the stumps as if to con- 1870.] IIARIUXGTON — UOTAxNY OF HASTINGS. 315 ceal their rottenness, scarce leaving room for tlie little Goldtlireail (Coptis tiifoUa). Here and there might be seen the downy little Dalibarda (D. repens), and but a short distance beyond, the northern green Orchis (PJatanfhera Jnjj^erhorea) stood as stiff and straight as an obelisk. In a spot a little more open, but still wet and mossy, I gathered a Coral-root {Corallorliiza Macraei) in full bloom ; it was not again met with during the summer. Club-Mosses (^Lijcopodlum dendroideum, L. (ouwtuutm and L. clavatum) were there very abundant. Returning by the road, we found among the rocky hills a Sumach (Rhus tiiphina) growing in abundance, also the Blackberry (Euhus viUosus) and Red Raspberry (it. sfrigosus). On the borders of a moist wood, the little Hejxttica triloba grew in the shade of a Bassvfood (Tilia Americana). The long, green racemes hung like earrings from the Striped Maple (Acer Peuiui/l- vanicum), contrasting strongly with the broad, white cymes of a Cornel (Conius alfcrnifolia). Within the wood we found Fyrolt sccunda, Medeola Virginica, Circcea aJpina and Gaultlieiia 2>ro- cumhens. In the fields near the road the Crowfoot (Rammculus acm), Chickweed (Cerastiimi vuJgatW7i), and Dandelion (Tar- axacum Dens-leonis) were growing everywhere. On the day following, I found the first Strawberry (Fragaria Virginiana) of the season, and among the granitic hills on the Flinton Road, Corydalis glauca, Geranium Carolinianum, and Diervilla trifida, all three in flower. In the swampy depressions, before mentioned, the white blossoms of the Choke-berry (Pi/rus arhutifoUa) were now and then to be seen. From Bridgewater to Flinton (a small settlement in Kaladar) is a distance of about twelve miles by the direct road ; there is, however, another, known as the Old Flinton Road, which is more circuitous, and passes through the corner of Hungerford. Upon this road, about five miles from Bridgewater, the following plants were collected on the 16th of June : — Mitchella repens, Geum rivale, Chimaphila umbellata, GaUum triflorum, Calla palustris, Iris versicolor, Cicuta maculata, Eupatorium purpureuui, Sium lineare, Xaumburgia tbyrsiflora, Sauicula Marilandica, Senecio aureus, Ruhus odoratus, Myosovis arvensis, and Physahs viscosa, Erigeron Philadelpbicum. A few days later, in crossing over to the village of Madoc, we 316 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. left the road aud took a short cut through the woods, where we found the Yellow Wood-Sorrel (Oxalis stricfa). On reaching the river Moira, the Persicaria (^Polygonum ampliibium') was growing in the shallow water, its elliptical leaves floating upon the surface, and not far oif the AVater Plantain (AUsma Plantago). The road from Bridgewater to Queensborough (a small village near the western boundary of Elzevir) follows for the most part the course of the green dioritic rocks which succeed the great granitic area of Elzevir. The soil is light and sandy nearly all the way, but there are occasional marshy spots. Along this road the following plants were collected on the 25th of June: — Ledum latifolium, Nepeta Cataria, Caltha palustris, Leucanthemum vulgare, Eupatorium perfoliatum, Tanacetum vulgare, Triosteumperfoliatum, Gnaphalium polycepbalum, and Galium circeezauH, Anemone Peunsylvauica. Yiburnum nudum, At a place called Hasard's Corners, a few miles from Queens- borough, we saw a few Butternut trees {Juglans cinerea). This was the only place in which this tree was met with during the summer, and the reason of its occurrence here is probably to be found in the deposits of drift, which form a richer soil than that derived from the wear of the metamorphic rocks. Proceeding, we took the direct road across the granitic area of Elzevir, gathering by the way a number of plants. On a sandy hill, near Bridgewater, we found Viburnum puhescens, and on the road sides Erigeroii strigosum, Potentllla norveglca and Silene noctifiora. In the depressions among the granitic hills, the Common Meadow-Sweet (^Spircea sallcifolid) was exceedingly abundant, and ^S'. tomcntosa not uncommon. The shrubbery was composed of different species of Arrow-wood, and in addition to those already mentioned, the Viburnum acerifoUum. The white blossoms of the Mountain- Ash (Pi/rus Americana) were here and there to be seen, and where fire had been at work, the great Willow-herb (Epilobium angusti folium'). Growing upon the almost bare rock, we found everywhere the Bristly Sarsparilla (Aralia hisplda). On the borders of a little pond were growing the Galium trijidum and the Sarracenia purjmrea, and in the water, Nuphar advena. In a moist wood on the eastern side of the granitic area, we found the Wocd-Sorrel (Oxalis Acetosella), 1870.] HARRINGTON — BOTANY OF HASTINGS. 317 the Gossamer-Fern {Dicksonia punctiloLula) and the Moose-wcod (Di)'ca pcdusti'is.') The day following, June 29t!i, we start3d to survey the old road from Flinton towards Bridgewater. A considerable portion of this road passes through dry Pine woods (Plnus Strobus) ; here we found Honeysuckles (^Lonicera hirsutci) in full bloom, and L. parvifiora in fruit ; also Pijrola rotundifoUa both in flower and fruit. The Goldenrod (^SoUdago squarrosa) was seen occa- 8ionally, but had not yet spread its showy rays ; but the Loosestrife (^Lysimachii quadrifoUa) grew in abundance. On the way back to FJinton, we saw in the sandy fields the common Yarrow (^AcJii/- lea mill e folium'). At the beginniog of July we left for the Township of Barrie, and on the Addingtou Road found the following species : — Epilobium coloratum, Laportea Canadensis. palustre, Verbena hastata, Apoc3'num androsfsmilolium, J\)lygonum Convolvulus, and Thalictrum Cornuti, Alnus incana. Barrie is studded with numerous and beautiful lakes, and much of our time was spent in following their shores in canoes this being the easiest way of obtaining sections across the Town- ship. The first lake visited is known by the name of ' Mazinaw,' or, among the settlers, ' Micliinog '; it is about nine miles hna:,. varying greatly in width. On the eastern side the Mazinaw Clifi" rises from the water to a height of about 200 feet perpen- dicular, at one part slightly overhanging. The Red-man gazes with awe upon this rock, and, if you question him, tells you that it is the abode of the Evil Spirit. In years long past he has ventured to approach the base in his birch canoe, and paint upon it figures of men and various animals. The oldest settlers say that the figures were there when they were young, but that thev still retain their original brightness. Much as we had desired to see them, we only obtained a glimpse of the top of an Indian's head, since a dam had been built at the foot of the lake, raisin^'- the water several feet The settlers have much to tell about the rock ; they say that it contains wealth untold, and that in days gone by the silver could be seen hanging from the face like great icicles. Some persons have spent weeks of search, but have always been obliged to come to the conclusion that the rock is nothiog but a great mass of granitic gneiss, and that whatever fcilver may have been there in the past, the Evil Spirit has since o 18 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. appropriated. As we paddled along, we could not wonder at the superstitions of the savage, for we were awed to silence by the grandeur of the scene. Our tiny craft seemed to arow more and more tiny as we advanced ; we felt like pigmies, and feared lest the plash of the paddle might arouse the ire of the Spirit who had chosen the rock for his abode. The summit of the rock is covered with evergreens, and on the steep sides a little Evergreen or a Birch (Betula pap)/racea) is here and there seen struggling for a foothold. By a clear spring which trickled down the rock, the Poison Ivy (^Rhus Tox- icodendroii) trailed, and along the face of the rock the Harebell (Campanula rofimdi/oUa^ nodded in the breeze. Pentstemoii puhescens was very abundant, and here and there we saw tufts of Woodsia Ilvensis and of Ci/stopteris /ragilis. In the neighbourhood of Lake Mazinaw, we found at different times during the month of July, the following plants : — Corallorbiza multi flora, Adlumia cirrhosa, Piuus resinosa, Potentilla palustris, Moneses uniflora, Geum strictum. Pyrola chlorantha, Fragaria vesca, Monotropa Hypopitys, Eibes prostratum, Platantbera orbieulata, Saxifraga Yh-ginieusi^;, bracteata, Aralia racemosa, psycodes, Cornus cireinata. Sambucus Canadensis, Sagittaria variabilis, Cephalantbus occidental!?, Aspidium Xoveboracense, Corylus Americana, Betula exceisa, CEnotherapumila, Quercus rubra, • biennis, Larix Americana. Aster punicens, Kalmia glauca, cordifolius, Andromeda polifulia. Lysimachia stricta, Cassandra calyculata. Hypericum paribliatum, JMplopappus umbellatus, Scutellaiia galericulata, Hypericum ellipticum, and Bruuella vulgaris, Ulmus Americana. Shepherdia Canadensis, On the -ith of August we crossed from Mazinaw to Buckshot Lake. If any one would test his powers of endurance, let him shoulder his pack and try this " portage," much of which passes through swamps and beaver-meadow, where the mud and water are knee deep, and the mosquitos make their onset with a ferocity beyond description. Here we found — Potentilla fruticosa, Monotropa uniflora, Pontedcviii. r.ordata. Cypripedium acanle, 1870.] HARRIXQTOX — BOTANY OF HASTINGS. 310 Campanula apariniodes, Goodyera pubesceus, and Clematis Tirginiana, Lycopodium complanatum. Kosa Carolina, Wliiie spending a few days on and about the Froutenac Koad, near the Mississippi River, we found the following plants: — Lobelia inflata, Eupatorium a«:eratoides, ardirlali^•, Solidago Cauadensi;-;, Mimulus ringeu?!, altissiraa, .Scutellaria lateriflora, Agrimonia Eupatoria, and Lycopus Europrcn^!, Asclepias inearnata. Such, then, is an imperfect account of the plants collected from tlic middle of June until the latter part of August, in a small portion of our Laurentian country. The lists were not intended for publication, but w^re kept merely for private gratification, otherwise they might and would have been more complete. Bein^- fully aware of their imperfection, I have only been persuaded to publish them in the hope that they may be of some small service to those who are studying the distribution of plants in Canada. MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION, Held at Liverpool ui Septcmher, 1870. THE president's address. My Lords, Ladies, and Gentlemen, — It lias long been the custom for the newly-installed President of the British Association ibr the advancement of Science to take advantage of the elevation of the position in which the suffrages of his colleagues had, for the time, placed him, and casting his eyes around the horizon of the scientific world, to report to them what could be seen from his watch-tower; in what directions the multitudinous divisions of the noble army of the improvers of natural knowledge were marchinf-- ; what important strongholds of the great enemy of us all. Ignorance, had been recently captured ; and, also, with due impartiality, to mark where the advanced posts of science had been driven in, or a long-continued siege had made no progress. I propose to endeavour to follow this ancient precedent, in a manner suited to the limitations of my knowledge and of my 3l0 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. capacity. I shall not presume to attempt a panoramic survey of the world of Science, nor even to give a sketch of what is doing in the one great province of Biology, with some portions of which my ordinary occupations render me familar. But I shall endeavour to put before you the history of the rise and progress of a single biological doctrine ; and I shall try to give some notion of the fruits, both intellectual and practical, which we owe, directly or indirectly, to the working out, by seven generations of patient and laborious investigators, of the thoughts which arose, more than two centuries ao^o. in the mind of a sao;aciaus and observant Italian naturalist. It is a matter of every-day experience that it is difficult to prevent many articles of food from becoming covered with mould ; that fruit, sound enough to all appearance, often contains grubs at the core ; that meat left to itself in the air, is apt to putrefy and swarm with maggots. Even ordinary water, if allowed to stand in an open vessel, sooner or later becomes turbid and full of living matter. The philosophers of antiquity, interrogated as to the cause of these phenomena, were provided with a ready and a plausible answer. It did not enter their minds even to doubt that these low forms of life were generated in the matters in v/hich they made their appearance. Lucretius, who had drunk deeper of the scientific spirit than any poet of ancient or modern times except Goethe, intends to speak as a philosopher, rather than as a poet, when he writes that '* with good reason the earth has gotten the name of mother, since all things are produced out of the earth. And many living creatures, even, now spring out of the earth, taking form by the rains and the heat of the sun.*' The axiom of ancient science, " that the corruption of one thing is the birth of another," had its popular embodiment in the notion that a seed dies before the young plant springs from it ; a belief so widespread and so fixed, that St. Paul appeals to it in one of the most splendid outbursts of his fervid eloquence : — " Thou fool, that which thou sowest is not quickened, except it die." (1 Corinthians, xv. 36.) The proposition that life may, and does, proceed from that which has no life, then, was held alike by the philosophers, the poets, and the people of the most enlightened nations, eighteen hundred years a.<^o • and it remained the accepted doctrine of learned and unlearned Europe, through the IMiddle Ages down even to the seventeenth century. It is commonly counted among the many merit>- of our great 1S70.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 321 countryman, Harvey, that he was the first to declare the opposition of fact to venerable authority in this, as in other matters; but I can discover no justification for this wide-spread notion. After careful search through the ' Exercitationes de Generatione,' the most that appears clear to me is, that Harvey believed all animals and plants to spring from what he terms a^primordium vegetale,'" a phrase which may now-a-days be rendered " a vegetative germ" • and this, he says, is '' ovi/orme,^' or " egg-like" ; not, he is careful to add, that it necessarily has the shape of an egg, but because it, has the constitution and nature of one. That this ^^ primordlum oviforme'^ must needs, in all cases, proceed from a living parent is nowhere expressly maintained by Harvey, though such an opinion may be thought to be implied in one or two passages ; while, on the other hand, he does, more than once, use language which is consistent only with a full belief in spontaneous or equivocal generation. In fact, the main concern of Harvey's wonderful little treatise is not with generation, in the physiological sense, at all, but with developement ; and his great object is the establishment of the doctrine of Epigenesis. The first distinct enunciation of the hypothesis that all living matter has sprung from pre-existing living matter, came from a contemporary, though a junior, of Harvey, a native of that country, fertile in men great in all departments of human activity, which was to intellectual Europe, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, what Germany is in the nineteenth. It was in Italy, and from Italian teachers, that Harvey received the most important part of his scientific education. And it was a student trained in the same schools, Francesco Redi — a man of the widest knowledge and most versatile abilities, distinguished alike as scholar, poet, physician, and naturalist, — who, just 202 years ago, published his ' Esperienze intorno alia Generazione degl' Insetti,' and gave to the world the idea, the growth of which it is my purpose to trace. Redi's book went through five editions in twenty years ; and the extreme simplicity of his experiments, and the clearness of his arguments, gained for his views, and for their consequences, almost univcrs'al acceptance. Kedi did not trouble himself much with speculative considerations, but attacked particular cases of what was supposed to be '' spontaneous generation" experimentally. Here are dead animals, or pieces of meat, says he ; I expose them to the air in hot weather, and in a few days they swarm with maggots. You tell YoL. Y. V Kg. 3. 322 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. me that these are generated in the dead flesh; but if I put similar bodies, while quite fresh, into a jar, and tie some line gauze over the top of the jar, not a maggot makes its appearance, while the dead substances, nevertheless, putrefy just in the same way as before. It is obvious, therefore, that the maggots are not generated by the corruption of the meat ; and that the cause of their formation must be a something which is kept away by gauze. But gauze will not keep away aeriform bodies, or fluids. This something must, therefore, exist in the form of solid particles too big to get through the gauze. Nor is one long left in doubt what these solid particles are; for the blow-flies, attracted by the odour of the meat, swarm round the vessel, and, urged by a powerful but, in this case misleading instinct, lay eggs, out of which maggots are immediately hatched, upon the gauze. The conclusion, therefore, is unavoidable ; the mas-gots are not generated by the meat, but the eggs which give rise to them are brought through the air by the flies. These experiments seem almost childishly simple, and one wonders how it was that no one ever thought of them before. Simple as they are, however, they are worthy of the most careful study, for every piece of experimental work since done, in regard to this subject, has been shaped upon the model furnished by the Italian philosopher. As the results of his experiments were the same, however varied the nature of the materials he used, it is not wonderful that there arose in Redi's mind a presumption, that in all such cases of the seeming production of life from dead matter, the real explanation was the introduction of living germs from without into that dead matter — (Redi, Esperienze, pp. 14-16). And thus the hypothesis that living matter always arises by the agency of pre-existing living matter, took definite shape; and had henceforward a right to be considered and a claim to be refuted, in each particular case, before the production of living matter in any other way could be admitted by careful reasoners. It will be necessary for me to refer to this hypothesis so frequently, that, to save circumlocution, I shall call it the hypothesis of Biogenesis ^ and I shall term the contrary doctrine — that living matter may bo produced by not living matter — the hypothesis of Ahiogenebis. In the seventeenth century, as I have said, the latter was the dominant view, sanctioned alike by antiquity and by authority ; and it is interesting to observe that Redi did not escape the customary tax upon a discoverer, of having to defend himself 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 323 against the charge of impugniug the authority of the Scriptures (Redi, I. c. p. 45, Fsperienze, p. 120) ; for his adversaries de- chired that the generation of bees from the carcase of a dead lion is affirmed, in the Book of Judges, to have been the origin of the famous riddle with which Samson perplexed the Philistines : Out of the eater came forth meat, And out of the strong came forth sweetness. Against all odds, however, Redi, strong with the strength of demonstrable fact, did splendid battle for Biogenesis; but it is remarkable that he held the doctrine in a sense which, if he had lived in these times, would have infalHbly caused him to be classed among the defenders of '^ spontaneous generation." *' Omne vivum ex vivo," " no life without antecedent life," aphoristically sums up Kedi's doctrine ; but he went no further. It is most remarkable evidence of the philosophic caution and impartiality of his mind, that, although he had speculatively anticipated the manner in which grubs really are deposited in fruits and in the galls of plants, he deliberately admits that the evidence is insufficient to bear him out ; and he therefore prefers the supposition that they are generated by a modification of the liviog substance of the plants themselves. Indeed, he regards these vegetable growths as organs, by means of which the plant gives rise to an animal, and looks upon this production of specific animals as the final cause of the galls and of, at any rate, some fruits. And he proposes to explain the occurrence of parasites within the animal body in the same way. It is of great importance to apprehend Bedi's position rightly ; for the lines of thought he laid down for us are those upon which naturalists have been working ever since. Clearly he held Biogenesis as against Abiogenesis ; and I shall immediately proceed, in the first place, to inquire how far subsequent investisration has borne him out in so doinc*. But Iledi also thought that there were two modes of Biogenesis. By the one method, which is that of common and ordinary occurrence, the living parent gives rise to offspring which passes through the same cycle of changes as itself — like gives rise to like ; and this has been termed Homogenesis. By the other mode, the living parent was supposed to give rise to offspring which passed through a totally different series of states from those exhibited by the parent, and did not return into the cycle of the parent : this is what ought to be called Heterogenesis, the offspring being 324 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept altogether, and permanently, unlike the parent. The term Heterogonesis, however, has unfortunately been used in a different sense, and M. Milne-Edwards has therefore substituted for ifc Xencg3nesis, which means the generation of something foreign. After discusing Redi's hypothesis of universal Biogenesis, then, I shall go on to ask how far the growth of science justifies his other hypothesis of Xenogenesis. The progress of the hypothesis of Biogenesis was triumphant and unchecked for nearly a century. The application of the microscope to anatomy, in the hands of Crew, Leeuwenhoek, Swammerdam, Lyonet, Valiisnieri, Beaumur, and other illustrious investigators of nature of that day, displayed such a complexity of organization in the lowest and minutest forms, and everywhere revealed such a prodigality of provision for their multiplication by germs of one sort or another, that the hypothesis of Abiogenesis began to appear not only untrue, but absurd; and in the middle of the eighteenth century, when Needham and Buffon took up the question, it was almost universally discredited. (' Nouvelles Observations,' p. 169 and 176.) But the skill of the microscope-makers of the eighteenth century soon reached its limit. A microscope magnifying 400 diameters was a chef-d\euvre of the opticians of that day ; and, at the same time, by no means trustworthy. But a maguifying- power of 400 diameters, even when definition reaches the exquisite perfection of our modern achromatic lenses, hardly suffices for the mere discernment of the smallest forms of life. A speck^ only 2V of an inch in diameter, has, at ten inches from the eye, the same apparent size as an object Toornjth of an inch in diameter,, when magnified 400 times ; but forms of living matter abound^ the diameter of which is not more than Tuoiruth of an inch. A filtered infusion of hay allowed to stand for two days, will swarm •with living things, among which, any which reaches the diameter of a human red blood-corpuscle, or about aVooth of an inch, is a giant. It is only by bearing these facts in mind, that we can deal fairly wath the remarkable statements and speculations put forward by Buffon and Needham in the middle of the eighteenth century. When a portion of any animal or vegetable body is infused io water, it gradually softens and disintegrates ; and as it does so,, the water is found to swarm with minute active creatures, the so- called Infusorial Animalcules, none of which can be seen excepfe 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 325 by the aid of the microscope ; while a large proportion belong to the category of smallest things of which I have spoken, and which must have all looked like mere dots and lines under the ordinary microscopes of the eighteenth century. Led by various theoretical consideratioos, which I cannot now discuss, but which looked promising enough in the lights of that day, Buifon and Needham doubted the applicability of Redi's hypothesis to the infusorial animalcules, and Needham very properly endeavoured to put the question to an experimental test. He said to himself, if these infusorial animalcules come from germs, their germs must exist either in the substance infused, or in the water with which the infusion is made, or in the superjacent air. Now the vitality of all germs is destroyed by heat. Therefore, if I boil the infusion, cork it up carefully, cementing the cork over with mastic, and then heat the whole vessel by heaping hot ashes over it, 1 must needs kill whatever germs are present. Consequently, if Redi's hypothesis hold good, when the infusion is taken away and allowed to cool, no animalcules ought to be developed in it ; whereas, if the animalcules are not dependent on pre-existing germs, but are generated from the infused substance, they ought, by-and-by, to make their appearance. Needham found that, under the circumstances in which he made his experiments, animalcules always did arise in the infusions, when a sufficient time had elapsed to allow for their developement. In much of his work Needham was associated with BufFon, and the results of their experiments fitted in admirably with the great French naturalist's hypothesis of '* organic molecules," according to which, life is the indefeasible property of certain indestructible molecules of matter, which exist in all living things, and have inherent activities by which they are distinguished from not living matter. Each individual living organism is formed by their temporary combination. They stand to it in the relation of the particles of water to a cascade or whirlpool ; or to a mould, into which the water is poured. The form of the organism is thus determined by the reaction between external conditions and the inherent activities of the organic molecules of which it is composed ; and, as the stoppage of a whirlpool destroys nothing but a form, and leaves the molecules of the water, with all their inherent activities intact, so what we call the death and 326 THE CANADIAN NAURALIST. [Sept. putrefaction of an animal or a plant ia merely the breaking up of the form, or manner of association, of its constituent organic molecules, which are then set free as infusorial animalcules. It will bs perceived that this doctrine is by no means identical with Abiogenesis, with which it is often confounded. On this hypothesis, a piece of beef or a handful of hay is dead only in a limited sense. The beef is dead ox, and the hay is dead grass ; but the '' organic molecules " of the beef or the hay are not dead, but are ready to manifest their vitality as soon as the bovine or herbaceous shrouds in which they are imprisoned are rent by the macerating action of water. The hypothesis, therefore, must be classified under Xenogenesis rather than under Abiogenesis. Such as it was, I think it will appear, to those who will be just enough to remember that it was propounded before the birth of modern chemistry and of the modern optical arts, to be a most ingenious and suggestive speculation. But the great tragedy of science — the slaying of a beautiful hypothesis by an ugly fact — which is so constantly being enacted under the eyes of philosophers, was played almost immediately, for the benefit of Buffon and Needham. Once more, an Italian, the Abbe Spallanzani, a worthy successor and representative of Bedi in his acuteness, his ingenuity, and his learning, subjected the experiments and the conclusions of Needham to a searching criticism. It might be true that Needham's experiments yielded results such as he had described, but did they bear out his arguments ? ^yas it not possible, in the first place, that he had not completely excluded the air by his corks and mastic ? And was it not possible; in the second place, that he had not sufficiently heated his infusions and the superjacent air ? Spallanzani joined issue with the English naturalist on both these pleas ; and he showed that if, in the first place, the glass vessels in which the infusions were contained were hermetically sealed by fusing their necks, and if, in the second place, they were exposed to the temperature of boiling-water for three quarters of an hour (see Spallanzani, 'Opere' vi. pp. 42 and 51), no animalcules ever made their appearance within them. It must be admitted that the experiments and arguments of Spallanzani furnish a complete and a crushing reply to those of Needham. But we all too often forget that it is one thing to refute a proposition, and another to prove the truth of a doctrine which 1870. J BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 327 implicitly, or explicitly, contradicts the proposition ; and the advance of science soon showed that thouQ-h Needham might be quite wrong, it did not follow that Spallanzani was quite right. Modern Chemistry, the birth of the latter half of the eighteenth century, grew apace, and soon found herself face to fiice with the great problems which Biology had vainly tried to attack without her help. The discovery of oxygen led to the laying of the foundations of a scientific theory of respiration, and to an examination of the marvellous interactions of organic substances with oxygen. The presence of free oxygen appeared to be one of the conditions of the existence of life, and of those sing-ular chan2;es in organic matters which are known as fermentation and putrefaction. The question of the generation of the infusorial animacules thus passed into a new phase. For what might not have happened to the organic matter of the infusions, or to the oxygen of the air, in Spallanzani's experiments'? What security was there that the developement of life which ought to have taken place had not been checked, or prevented, by these changes ? The battle had to be fought again. It was needful to repeat the experiments under conditions which would make sure that neither the oxygen of the air, nor the composition of the organic matter, was altered, in such a manner as to interfere with the existence of life. Schulze and Schwann took up the question from this point of view in 1836 and 1837. The passage of air through red-hot glass tubes, or through strong sulphuric acid, does not alter the proportion of its oxygen, while it must needs arrest, or destroy, any organic matter which may be contained in the air. These experi- menters, therefore, contrived arrangements by which the only air which should come into contact with a boiled infusion should be such as had either passed through red-hot tubes or through strong sulphuric acid. The result which they obtained was that an infu- sion so treated developed no living things, while if the same infu- .sion was afterwards exposed to the air such things appeared rapidly and abundantly. The accuracy of these experiments has been alternately denied and affirmed. Supposing them to be accepted, however, all that they really proved was, that the treatment to which the air was subjected destroyed sometliing that was essen- tial to the developement of life in the infusion. This " something" might be gaseous, fluid, or solid; that it consisted of germs remained only an hypothesis of greater or less probability. 328 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Contemporaneously with these investigations a remarkable dis- covery was made by Cagniard de La Tour. He found that com- mon yeast is composed of a vast accumulation of minute plants. The fermentation of must, or of wort, in the fabrication of wine and beer, is always accompanied by the rapid growth and multi- plication of these Torula3. Thus fermentation, in so far as it was accompanied by the developement of microscopical organisms in enormous numbers, became assimilated to the decomposition of an infusion of ordinarv animal or vesretable matter ; and it was an obvious suggestion that the organisms were, in some way or other, the causes both of fermentation and putrefaction. The chemists, with Berzelius and Liebig at their head, at first laughed this idea to scorn; but in 1843, a man then very young, who has since performed the unexampled feat of attaining to high eminence alike in Mathematics, Physics and Physiology, — I speak of the illustrious Helmholtz, — reduced the matter to a test of experi- ment by a method alike elegant and conclusive. Helmholtz sepa- rated a putrefying, or fermenting liquid, from one which was simply putrescible, or fermentable, by a membrane, which allowed the fluids to pass through and become intermixed, but stopped the passage of solids. The result was, that while the putrescible, or the fermentable^ liquids became impregnated with the results of the putrescence, or fermentation, which was going on on the other side of the membrane, they neither putrefied (in the ordinary way) nor fermented; nor were any of the organisms which abounded in the fermenting, or putrefying, liquid generated in them. Therefore the cause of the developement of these organisms must lie in something which cannot pass through membrane ; and as Helmholtz's investigations were long antecedent to Graham's researches upon colloids, his natural conclusion was, that the agent thus intercepted must be a solid material. In point of fact Helmholtz's experiments narrowed the issue to this : that which excites fermentation and putrefaction, and at the same time gives rise to living forms in a fermentable, or putrescible fluid, is not a gas and is not a difi"usible fluid ; therefore it is either a colloid, or it is matter divided into very minute solid particles. The researches of Schroeder and Dusch in 1854, and of Schroe- der alone, in 1859, cleared up this point by experiments which are simply refinements upon those of Kedi. A lump of cotton- wool is, physically speaking, a pile of many thicknesses of very fine gauze, the fineness of the meshes of which depends upon the close- 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION, 329 ness of the compression of the wool. Now, Schroeder and Dusch found, that, in the case of all the putrefiable materials which they used (except milk and 5^olk of egg), an infusion boiled, and then allowed to come in contact with no air but such as had been filtered through cotton-wool, neither putrified nor fermented, nor developed living forms. It is hard to imagine what the fine sieve formed by the cotton-wool could have stopped except minute solid particles. Still the evidence was incomplete until it had been positively shown, first, that ordinary air does contain such particles; and, secondly, that filteration through cotton-wool arrests these par- ticles and allows only physically pure air to pass. This demon- stration has been furnished within the last year by the remark- able experiments of Prof. Tyndall. It has been a common objec- tion of Abiogenists that, if the doctrine of Biogeny is true, the air must be thick with germs ; and they regard this as the height of absurdity. But nature occasionally is exceedingly un- reasonable, and Prof. Tyndall has proved that this particular absurdity may nevertheless be a reality. He has demonstrated that ordinary air is no better than a sort of stirabout of exces- sively minute solid particles; that these particles are almost wholly destructible by heat ; and that they are strained off, and the air rendered optically pure, by being passed through cotton- wool. But it remains yet in the order of logic though not of history, to show that, among these solid destructible particles, there really do exist germs capable of giving rise to the developemcnt of living forms in suitable menstrua. This piece of work was done by M. Pasteur in those beautiful researches which will ever render his name famous, and which, in spite of all attacks upon them, appear to me now, as they did seven years ago (' Lectures to Working Men on the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature,' 1863, to be models of acurate experimentation and logical reasoning. He strained air through cotton-wool, and found, as Schroederand Dusch had done, that it contained nothing competent to give rise to the developemcnt of life in fluids highly fitted for that purpose. But the important further links in the chain of evidence added by Pasteur are three. In the first place, he submitted to microscopic examination the cotton-wool which had served as strainer, and found that sundry bodies, clearly recognizable as germs, were among the solid particles strained off. Secondly, he proved that these germs were competent to give rise to living forms by simply 330 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. sowing them in a solution fitted for their developement. And, thirdly, he showed that the incapacity of'air strained through cotton- wool to give rise to life was not due to any occult change effected in constituents of the air by the wool, by proving that the cotton- wool might be dispensed with altogether, and perfectly free access left between the exterior air and that in the experimental flask. If the neck of the flask is drawn out into a tube and bent down- wards, and if, after the contained fluid has been carefully boiled, the tube is heated sufficiently to destroy any germs which may be present in the air which enters as the fluid cools, the apparatus may be left to itself for any time, and no life will appear in the fluid. The reason is plain. Although there is free communica- tion between the atmosphere laden with germs and the germless air in the flask, contact between the two takes place only in the tube ; and as the germs cannot fall upwards, and there are no currents, they never reach the interior of the flask. But if the tube be broken short off where it proceeds from the flask, and free access be thus given to germs falling vertically out of the air, the fluid, which has remained clear and desert for months, becomes, in a few days, turbid and full of life. These experiments have been repeated over and over again by independent observers V7ith entire success; and there is one very simple mode of seeing the fact for oneself, which I may as well describe. Prepare a solution (much used by M. Pasteur, and often called ^' Pasteur's solution") composed of water with tartrate of ammonia, sugar, and yeast-ash dissolved therein. Infusion of hay treated in the same way, yields similar results ; but as it contains organic matter, the argument which follows cannot be based upon it. Divide it into three portions in as many flasks ; boil all three for a quarter of an hour ; and, while the steam is passing out, stop the neck of one with a large plug of cotton-wool, so that this also may be thoroughly steamed. Now set the flasks aside to cool, and when their contents are cold, add to one of the open ones a drop of filtered infusion of hay which has stood for twenty -four hours, and is consequently full of the active and excessively minute organisms known as Bacteria. In a couple of dayg of ordinary warm weather, the contents of this flask will be milky, from the enormous multiplication of Bacteria. The other flasks, open and exposed to the air, will, sooner or later, become milky with Bac- teria, and patches of mould may appear in it ; while the Hquid in 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 331 the flask, the neck of whicli is plugged with cotton-wool, will remain clear for an indefinite time. I have sought in vain for any explanation of these facts, except the obvious one, that the air contains germs competent to give rise to Bacteria, such as those with which the first solution has been knowingly and purposely inoculated, and to the mould Fungi. And I have not yet been able to meet any advocate of Abiogenesis who seriously maintains that the atoms of sugar, tartrate of amonia, yeast-ash and water, under no influence but that of free access of air and the ordinary temperature, re-arrange themselves and give rise to the protoplasm of Bacterium. But the alternative is to admit that these Bacteria arise from germs in the air ; and, if they are thus propagated, the burden of proof, that other like forms are generated in a diiferent manner, must rest with the asserter of that proposition. To sum up the effect of this long chain of evidence: — It is demonstrable, that a fluid eminently fit for the develope- ment of the lowest forms of life, but which contains neither germs nor any protein compound, gives rise to living things in great abundance, if it is exposed to ordinary air ; while no such develope- ment takesplaceif the air with which it is in contact is mechanically freed from the solid particles, which ordinary float in it, and which may be made visible by appropriate means. It is demonstrable, that the great majority of these particles are destructible by heat, and that some of them are germs, or living particles, capable of giving rise to the same form of life as those which appear when the fluid is exposed to unpurified air. It is demonstrable, that inoculation of the experimental fluid with a drop of liquid known to contain living particles, gives rise to the same phenomena as exposure to unpurified air. And it is further certain that these living particles are so minute that the assumption of their suspension in ordinary air present not the slightest difficulty. On the contrary, considering their lightness and the wide diffusion of the organisms which pro- duce them, it is impossible to conceive that they should not be suspended in the atmosphere in myriads. Thus the evidence, direct and indirect, in favour of Biogenesis for all known forms of life must, I think, be admitted to be of sreat weisrht. On the other side, the sole assertions worthy of attention are, that hermetically sealed fluids, which have been expo-ed to great 332 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST [Sept. and long-continued heat, have sometimes exhibited living forms of low organization when they have been opened. The first reply that suggests itself is the probability that there must be some error about these experiments, because they are performed on an enormous scale every day, with quite contrary results. Meat, fruits, vegetables, the very materials of the most fermentable and putrescible infusions, are preserved to the extent I suppose I may say, of thousands of tons every year, by a method which is a mere application of Spallauzani's experiment. The matters to be preserved are well boiled in a tin case provided with a small hole, and this hole is soldered up when all the air in the case has been replaced by steam. By this method they may be kept for years, without putrefying, fermenting, or getting mouldy. Now this is not because oxygen is excluded, inasmuch as it is now proved that free oxygen is not necessary for either fermentation or putrefaction. It is not because the tins are exhausted of air, for Vibriones and Bacteria live, as Pasteur has shown, without air or free oxygen. It is not because the boiled meats or yege- tables are not putrescible or fermentable, as those who have had the misfortune to be in a ship supplied with unskillfully closed tins well know. What is it, therefore, but the exclusion of the germs ? I think that Abiogenists are bound to answer this ques- tion before they ask us to consider new experiments of precisely the same order. And in the next place, if the results of the experiments I refer to are really trustworthy, it by no means follows that Abiogenesis has taken place. The resistance of living matter to heat is known to vary within considerable limits, and to depend, to some extent, upon the chemical and physical qualities of the surrounding medium. But if, in the present state of science, the alternative is oflfered us, either germs can stand a greater heat than has been supposed, or the molecules of dead matter, for no valid or intel- ligible reason that is assigned, are able to re-arrange themselves into living bodies, exactly such as can be demonstrated to be fre- quently produced in another way, I cannot understand how choice can be, even for a moment, doubtful. But though I cannot express this conviction of mine too strongly, I must carefully guard myself against the supposition that I intend to suggest that no such thing as Abiogenesis ever has taken place ia the past, or ever will take place in the future. With 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 333 organic cbemistry, molecular physics, and physiology yet in their infancy, a:id every day making prodigious strides, I think it would be the height of presumption for any man to say that the condi- tions under which matter assumes the properties we call '-vital" may not, some day, be artificially brought together. All I feel justified in affirming is^ that I see no reason for believing that the feat has been performed yet. And, looking back through the prodigious vista of the past, I find no record of the commencement of life, and therefore I am devoid of any means of forming a definite conclusion as to the conditions of its appearance. Belief, in the scientific sense of the word, is a serious matter and needs strong foundations. To say, therefore, in the admitted absence of evidence, that I have any belief as to the mode in which the existing forms of life have ori- ginated, would be using words in a wrong sense. But expectation is permissible where belief is not ; and if it were given to me to look beyond the abyss of geologically recorded time to the still more remote period when the earth was passing through physical and chemical conditions, which it can no more see again than a man may recall his infancy, I should expect to be a witness of the evolution of living protoplasm from not living matter. I should expect to see it appear under forms of great simplicity, endowed, like existing Fungi, with the power of deter- mining the formation of new protoplasm from such matters as ammonium carbonates, oxalates and tartrates, alkaline and earthy phosphates, and water, without the aid of light. That is the expectation to which analogical reasoning leads me ; but I beo- you once more to recollect that I have no right to call my ooinion anything but an act of philosophical faith. So much for the history of the progress of Kedi's great doctrine of Biogenesis, which appears to me, with the limitations I have expressed, to be victorious along the whole line at the present day. As regards the second problem offered to us by Eedi, whether Xenogenesis obtains, side by side with Homogenesis ; whether that is, there exist not only the ordinary living things, giving- rise to offspring which run through the same cycle as themselves, but also others, producing offspring which are of a totally different character from themselves, the researches of two centuries have led to a different result. That the grubs found in galls are no product of the plants on which the galls grow, but are the result of 334 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST [Sept. the introduction of the eggs of insects into the substance of these plants, was made out by Yallisnierij Reaumur, and others, before the end of the first half of the eighteenth century. The tapeworms, bladderworms and flukes continued to be a stronghold of the advocates of Xenogenesis for a much longer period. Indeed, it is only within the last thirty years that the splendid patience of Von Siebold, Van Beneden, Leuckart, Kuchenmeister, and other helminthologists, has succeeded in tracing every such parasite, often throughthe strangest wanderings and metamorphoses, to an egg derived from a parent actually or potentially like itself; and the tendency of inquiries elsewhere has all been in the same direction. A plant may throw off bulbs, but these, sooner or later, give rise to seeds or spores, which develope into the original form. A polype may give rise to Medusae, or a pluteus to an Echiuo- derm, but the Medusa and the Echinoderm give rise to eggs which produce polypes or plutei, and they are therefore only stages in the cycle of life of the species. But if we turn to Pathology, it offers us some remarkable approx- imations to true Xenogenesis. As I have already mentioned, it has been known since the time of Vallisnieri and of Beaumur that galls in plants and tumours in cattle are caused by insects, which lay their eggs in those parts of the animal or vegetable frame of which these morbid structures are outoTOwths. Again, it is a matter of familiar experience to everybody that mere pressure on the skin will give rise to a corn. Now the gall, the tumour, and the corn are parts of the living body, which have become, to a certain degree, independent and distinct or"-anisms. Under the influence of certain external conditions, elements of the body, which should have developed in due subor- dination to its general plan, set up for themselves, and apply the nourishment which they receive to their own purposes. From such innocent productions as corns and warts there are all o-radations to the serious tumours which, by their mere size and the mechanical obstruction they cause, destroy the organism out of which they are developed ; while, finally, in those terrible struc- tures known as cancers, the abnormal growth has acquired powers of reproduction and multiplication, and is only morphologically distinguishable from the parasitic worm, the life of which is neither more nor less closely bound up with that of the infested organism. If there were a kind of diseased structure, the histological elements of which were capable of maintaining a separate and 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 335 independent existence out of the body, it seems to me that the shadowy boundary between morbid growth andXenogenesis would be ejffaced. And I am inclined to think that the progress of discovery has almost brought us to this point already. I have been favoured by Mr. Simon with an early copy of the last published of the valuable ' Reports on the Public Health,' which, in his capacity of their Medical Officer, he annually presents to the Lords of the Privy Council. The Appendix to this Report contains an introductory essay ' On the intimate Pathology of Contagion,' by Dr. Burdon Sanderson, which is one of the clearest, most compre- hensive, and well-reasoned discussions of a great question which has come under my notice for a long time. I refer you to it for details and for the authorities for the statements I am about to make. You are familiar with what happens in vaccination. A minnte cut is made in the skin, and an infinitesimal quantity of vaccine matter is inserted into the wound. Within a certain time, a vesicle appears in the place of the wound, and the fluid which distends this vesicle is vaccine matter, in quantity a hundred or a thousand- fold that which was originally inserted. Now what has taken place in the course of this operation ? Has the vaccine matter by its irritative property produced a mere blister, the fluid of which has the same irritative porperty ? Or does the vaccine matter contain living particks, which have grown and multiplied where they have been planted ? The observations of M. Chauveau extended and confirmed by Dr. Sanderson himself, appear to leave no doubt upon this head. Experiments, similar in principle to those of Helmholtz on fermentation and putrefaction, have proved that the active element in the vaccine lymph is non-difi"usible, and consists of minute particles not exceeding -zoojis of an inch in diameter, which are made visible in the lymph by the microscope. Similar experiments have proved that two of the most destructive of epizootic diseases, sheep-pox and glanders, are also deiDcndent for their existence and their propagation upon extremely small Uving solid particles, to which the title of microzi/mcs is applied. An animal sufi'ering under either of these terrible diseases is a source of infection and contagion to others, for precisely the same reason as a tub of fermenting beer is capable of propagating^ its fermentation "by infection," or "contagion," to fresh wort. In both cases it is the solid living particles which are efficient ; the liquid in which they float, and at the expense of which they live, being altogether passive. 336 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Now arises the questioD, are tliese microzymes the results of Homogenesis or oi Xenogenesis ; are they capable, like the Torulce of yeast, of arising only by the developement of pre-existing germs ; or may they be, like the constituents of a nut-gall, the results of a modification and individualization of the tissues of the body in which they are found, resulting from the operation of certain conditions 1 Are they parasites in the zoological sense, or are they merely, what Virchow has called " heterologous growths"? It is obvious that this question has the most profound importance, whether we look at it from a practical, or from a theoretical, point of view. A parasite may be stamped out by destroying its germs, but a pathological product can only be annihilated by removing the conditions which give rise to it. It appears to me that this great problem will have to be solved for each zymotic disease separately, for analogy cuts two ways. I have dwelt upon the analogy of pathological modification, which is in favour of the xeuogenetic origin of microzymes ; but I must now speak of the equally strong analogies in favour of the origin of such pestiferous particles by the ordinary process of the genera- tion of like from like. It is, at present, a well-established fact that certain diseases, both of plants and of animals, which have all the characters of contagious and infecti#us epidemics, are caused by minute organisms. The smut of wheat is a well-known instance of such a disease, and it cannot be doubted that the grape-disease and the potato-disease fall under the same category. Among animals, insects are wonderfully liable to the ravages of contagious and infectious diseases caused by microscopic Fungi. In autumn, it is not uncommon to see flies, motionless, upon a window-pane, with a sort of magic circle, in white, drawn round them. On microscopic examination, the magic circle is found to consist of innumerable spores, which have been thrown ofi" in all directions by a minute fungus called Empiisa muscce, the spore- forming filaments of which stand out like a pile of velvet from the body of the fly. These spore-forming filaments are connected with others, which fill the interior of the fly's body like so much fine wool, having eaten away and destroyed the creature's viscera. This is the full-grown condition of the Empusa. If traced back to its earlier stages, in flies which are still active, and to all appear- ance healthy, it is found to exist in the form of minute corpuscles which float in the blood of the fly. These multiply and lengthen 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION, o3T ID to filiiments", At the expense of the fly's substance ; and when they have at last killed! the patient, they grow out of its body and give off spores. Healthy flies shut np with diseased ones catch this mortal disease and perish like the others. A most competent observer, M. Cobn, who studied the development of the Empusa in the fly very carefully, was utterly unable to discover in what manner lhe smallest germs of tha Empusa got into the fly. The spores could not be made to give rise to such germs by cultivation ; nor were such germs discoverable in the air, or in the food of the %■. It looked exceedingly like a case of Abiogenesis, or, at any TViti'b, of Xeuogenesis ; and it is only quite recently that the real ■course of events has been made out. It has been ascertained, that when one of the spores falls upon the body of a fly, it begins to germinate, and sends out a process which bores its way through the fly's skin ; this, having reached the interior cavities of its body, gives off" the minute floating corpuscles which are the earliest stage of the Empusa. The disease is " contagious," because a healthy fly coming in contact with a diseased one, from which the spore- bearing fliaments protrude, is pretty sure to carry off" a spore or two. It is " infectious" because the spores become scattered about all sorts of matter in the neighbourhood of the slain flies. The silkworm has long been known to be subject to a very fatal contagious and infectious disease called the Muscadine. Audouin transmitted it by inoculation. This disease is entirely due to the development of a fungus, Botrijtls Basuana, in the body of the caterpillar ; and its contagiousness and infectiousness are accounted for in the same way as those of the fly disease. But of late years a still more serious epizootic has appeared among the silk worms ; and I may mention a few facts which will give you some conception of the gravity of the injury which it has inflicted on France alone. The production of silk has been, for centuries, an important branch of industry in Southern France, and in the year 1853 it had attained such a magnitude, that the annual produce of the French sericulture was estimated to amount to a tenth of that of the whole world, and represented a money value of 117,000,000 francs, or nearly five millions sterling. What may be the sum which would represent the money-value of all the industries connected with the working up of the raw silk thus produced, is more than I can pretend to estimate. Suffice it to say, that the City of Lyons is built upon French silk, as much as Manchester ^vas upon American cotton before the civil war. Vol. T. W . Xo. 3. 338 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Silkworms are liable to many diseases ; and even, before 1853. a peculiar epizootic, frequently accompanied by the appearance of dark spots upon the skin (whence the name of " Pebrine" which it has received), had been noted for its mortality. But in the years following 1853 this malady broke out with such extreme violence, that, in 1856, the silk-crop was reduced to a third of the amount which it had reached in 1853 ; and, up till within the last year or two, it has never attained half the yield of 1853. This means not only that the great number of people engaged in silk- growiug are some thirty millions sterling poorer than they might have been ; it means not only that high prices have had to he paid for imported silk-worm-eggs, and that, after investing his money in them, in paying for mulberry-leaves and for attendance, the cultivator has constantly seen his silk-worms perish and himself plunged in ruin, — but it means that the looms of Lyons have lacked employment, and that, for years, enforced idleness and misery have been the portion of a vast population which, in former days, was industrious and well to do. In 1858 the gravity of the situation caused the French Academy of Sciences to appoint Commissioners, of whom a distinguished naturalist, M. de Quatrefages, was one, to inquire into the nature of this disease, and, if possible, to devise some means of staying the plague. In reading the Report (Etudes sur les Maladies Actuelles des Vers a Soie, p. 53) made by M. de Quatrefages, in 1859, it is exceedingly interesting to observe that his elaborate study of the Pebrine forced the conviction upon his mind that, in its mode of occurrence and propagation, the disease of the silk- worm is, in every respect, comparable to the cholera among man- kind. But it differs from the cholera, and, so far, is a more formidable disease, in being hereditary, and in being under some circumstances contagious, as well as infectious. The Italian naturalist, Filippi, discovered in the blood of the silkworm affected by this strange disease, a multitude of cylindri- cal corpuscles, each about ^ooo of an inch long. These have been carefully studied by Lebert, and named by him Panhistophyton ; for the reason that, in subjects in which the disease is strongly developed, the corpuscles swarm in every tissue and organ of the body, and even pass into the undeveloped eggs of the female moth. But are these corpuscles causes, or mere concomitants, of the disease ? Some naturalists took one view and some another ; and it was not until the French Government, alarmed by the continued 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 33^ ravages of the malady, and the inefficiency of the remedies which liad been suggested, despatched M. Pasteur to study it, tliat the question received its final settlement; at a great sacrifice, not only of the time and peace of mind of that eminent philosopher, but, I regret to have to add, of his health. But the sacrifice has not been in vain. It is now certain that this devastating, cholera-like, Pebrine is the effect of the growth and multiplication of the Panhistophyton in the silkworm. It is contagious and infectious because the corpuscles of the Panhisto- phyton pass away from the bodies of the diseased caterpillars, directly or indirectly, to the alimentary canal of healthy silkworms in their neighbourhood ; it is hereditary, because the corpuscles enter into the eggs while they are being formed, and consequently are carried within them when they are laid ; and for this reason, also, it presents the very singular peculiarity of being inherited only on the mother's side. There is not a single one of all the apparently capricious and unaccountable phenomena presented by the Pebrine, but has received its explanation from the fact that the disease is the result of the presence of the microscopic organism , Panhistophyton. Such being the facts with respect to the Pebrine, what are the indications as to the method of preventing it? It is obvious that this depends upon the way in which the Panhistophyton is generated. If it may be generated by Abiogenesis, or by Xeno genesis, within the silkworm or its moth, the extirpation of the disease must depend upon the prevention of the occurrence of the conditions under which this generation takes place. But if, on the other hand, the Panhistophyton is an independent organism, which is no more generated by the silkworm than the mistletoe is gene- rated by the oak, or the apple-tree, on which it grows, though it may need the silkworm for its developement, in the same way as the mistletoe needs the tree, then the indications are totally differ- ent. The sole thing to be done is to get rid of and keep away the germs of the Panhistophyton. As might be imagined, from the course of his previous investigations, M. Pasteur was led to believe that the latter was the right theory ; and guided by that theory, he has devised a method of extirpating the disease, which has proved to be completely successful wherever it has been properly carried out. There can be no reason, then, for doubting that, among insects, contagious and infectious diseases of great malignity are caused by 340 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. minute organisms which are produced by pre-existing germs, or by Homogenesis ; and there is no reason, that I know of, for believing that what happens in insects may not take place in the highest animals. Indeed, there is already strong evidence that some diseases of an extremely malignant and fatal character to which man is subject, are as much the work of minute organisms as is the Pebrine. I refer for this evidence to the very striking facts adduced by Prof Lister iu his various well-known publications on the antiseptic method of treatment. It seems to me impossible to rise from the perusal of those publications without a strong convic- tion that the lamentable mortality which so frequently dogs the footsteps of the most skilful operator, and those deadly consequences of wounds and injuries which seem to haunt the very walls of great hospitals, and are even now destroying more men than die of bullet or bayonet, are due to the importation of minute organisms into wounds, and their increase and multiplication ; and that the surgeon who saves most lives will be he who best works out the practical consequences of the hypothesis of Redi. I commenced this Address by asking you to follow me in an attempt to trace the path which has been followed by a scientific idea, in its long and slow progress from the position of a probable hypothesis to that of an established Law of Xature. Our survey has not taken us into very attractive regions ; it has lain chiefly in a land flowing with the abominable, and peopled with mere grubs and mouldiness. And it may be imagined with what smiles and shrugs practical and serious contemporaries of Eedi and of Spallanzani may have commented on the waste of their high abilities in toiling at the solution of problems which, though curious enough in themselves, could be of no conceivable utility to mankind. Nevertheless, you will have observed that before we had travelled very far upon our road, there appeared, on the right hand and on the left, fields laden with a harvest of golden grain, immediately convertable into those things which the most sordidly praclical of men will admit to have value, — namely money and life. The direct loss to France caused by the Pebrine in seventeen years cannot be estimated at less than fifty millions sterling ; and if we add to this what Fvedi's idea, in Pasteur's hands, has done for the wine-grower and for the vinegar-maker, and try to capitaliz3 its value, we shall find that it will go a long way towards repairing the money losses caused by the frightful and calamitous war of this autumn. 1870.] BRITISH ASSOCIATION. 341 And as to the equivalent of Iledi's thought in life, how can we over-estimate the value of that knowledge of the nature of epidemic and epizootic diseases, and, consequently, of the means of checking or eradicating them, the dawn of which has assuredly commenced ? Looking back no further than ten years, it is possible to select three (1SG3, 1864 and 1869), in which the total number of deaths from scarlet fever alone amounted to 90,000. That is the return of killed, the maimed and disabled being left out of sight. Why, it is to be hoped that the list of killed in the present bloodiest of all wars will not amount to more than this ! But the facts which I have placed before you must leave the least sanguine without a doubt that the nature and the causes of this scourge will one day be as well understood as those of the Pebrine are now; and that the lonsj-suffered massacre of our innocents will come to an end. And thus mankind will have one more admonition that the " people perish for lack of knowledge" ; and that the alleviation of the miseries aod the promotion of the welfare of men must be sought, by those who will not lose their pains, in that diligent, patient, loving study, of all the multitudinous aspects of Nature, the results of which constitute exact knowledge, or Science. It is the justification and the glory of this great Meeting that it is gathered together for no other object than the advancement of the moiety of Science which deals with those phenomena of Nature which we call Physical. May its endeavours be crowned with a full measure of success ! GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY. The Student's Elements or Geology. Ey Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., F.Il.S. — The Elements and Principles of Geology, by Sir Charles Lyell, have been probably the most successful works on that science ever published. The former has gone through six editions, and the latter is now in its tenth. A new edition of the Elements being required, Sir Charles was induced to curtail it to such dimensions as would make it a more suitable manual fur students, without sacrificino- anv of its essential features. This he has accomplished in the present '' Student's Elements," which is a perfect gem in its way. Com- 342 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. pact in size, admirably arranged, its well filled pages beautifully illustrated, it brings up every department of geology to the latest point in regard to facts, while the discussions in regard to theoretical views are very strict, pithy and well-weighed. While the formations of Europe are, as is usual in British text-bool^'s, taken as types, those of other parts of the world are well worked in ; and a fair share of attention is given to the discoveries which have recently been made on this continent. Sir Charles notices fully the recent remarkable discoveries of fossils in the Lower Cambrian of Britain, which extend a rich fauna back into the Longmynd Group, at one time supposed to be nearly barren of fossils. He proposes, in connection with this to establish firmly the once debateable Cambrian system, and to extend it as far upward as the Tremadoc. He thus arranges these rocks : — Upper Cambrian : Tremadoc Slates (Primordial of Barrande in part.) Lingula Flags (Primordial of Barrande.) Lower Cambrian : Menevian Beds (Primordial of Barrande.) 7- T r^ {a. Hailech Sfrits. Longmi/nd ixroup < . ° (. b. Llanberis slates. He regards the Potsdam Sandstone as equivalent to the Upper Cambrian, and places the Huronian as the possible equivalent of the Lower Cambrian, He barely notices our richly fossiliferous Lower Potsdam or Acadian group, and does not include it in his table, though it would have enabled him to find an equivalent for his Menevian beds. He still regards Ilistioderma as a worm- burrow, not being, apparently, aware of Mr. Billings' more pro- bable explanation of it as a cast of a sponge. It would, however, be useless to follow in detail a work of this kind, which every student and amateur in geology should have in his hands as a book of reference, and which as nearly as is possible in that science whose goal to-day is its starting point to-morrow, brings up the subject to a level with the present state of knowledge, and compresses all its more important facts into the shortest possible space, while exhibiting them with the utmost clearness. Geological Discoveries in Brazil. — The following letter to one of the Editors from Prof. Hartt, a Nova Scotian by birth 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 3-i3 and educatioa, and now Professor in Cornell University, gives some interesting notes on his present explorations in Brazil. The letter is dated from near Mont Alegre, Rio des Amazonas : — " I have been making some discoveries down here that I think will interest you. On the Hio Tapajos I found a large area occupied by Carboniferous (lower) strata, affording fossils in pro- fusion. The rocks are sandstone, limestone and shale, — the two former full of fossils. The strata are horizontal. The fossils bear a very close resemblance, many of them, to Nova Scotiau species. There is a Productus cora and a P. semireticulatus wonderfally like the forms found at Windsor. I have between one and two hundred species of these fossils, and most of them will admit of determination. 3Iany of the brachiopods, &c., are perfectly free from the rock, and shew interiors, loops, &c. I have one species of Trilobite, probably PhUUpsia. Of fishes I have teeth, scales, and spines. I am in doubt whether the deposits are Sub Carboniferous or Lower Coal Measures ; I think the latter the most probable. I am going to give up my little steamer, which, through the kindness of the President of the Province I have had for two months, and divide up my party. I shall then return to the Tapajos to study out carefully these carboniferous deposits and Agassiz's drift. By the bye in this last there are, at Mont Alegre and Aveiros, trap beds." BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. The Geographical Handbook of Ferns; by Katharine M. Lyell, London, 1870. — Mrs. Lyell has done good service to botanical students by compiling and publishing this excellent and most laboriously prepared handbook. The labor incident to such work can be appreciated only by those who have made similar attempts at compilation and geographical distribution. The globe is divided into eighteen sections or botanical areas, and the catalogues of all the species known to occur in each of these sec- tions occupies the bulk of the volume; an indication of the distri- bution of species throughout the section is given in addition to the name, — thus NiyhrocUum fragrans occurs in three of these catalogues, first in one of the sections of Asia.. '-Northern, 344 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Central and Western Asia, China and Japan"' where its habi- tat is said to be "high-arctic and sub-arctic regions, Caucasus '•to Kamtschatka, Manchuria, and Amur; '^ — and then in two of the N. A. areas. The last forty pages of the book are occupied bj a systematic catalogue of all the species, with the occurrence off each throughout these eighteen areas tabulated in parallel columnsj North America is botanically deemed to go no further south than- the northern Mexican boundary and is divided into three areas : — 1st, British America east of the Rocky mountains, and Greenland,. 2nd, the United States east of the Eocky mountains and Bermuda!,, and 3rd, the territory west of the Bocky Mountains from Alaskas. to the Mexican boundary. As the two first are not botanically/ separable by any geographical line perhaps that chosen by Mrs^ Lyell is as good as any. Of the forty-four species given as^; occuring in the Canadian division, four have probably beeni inserted without sufficient authority ; Woodsia scopulhia, Loma-- via Spicaut and Pohjpodmm cdpestre are known only from the west side of the Rocky Mountains, and the occurrence oiAsplcnium marinum in New Brunswick still awaits rerification. On the other hand nine undoubted natives have been omitted, some of them through an inadvertence as Mrs. Lyell informs me i tbey are, — . Uhcilanthes gracilis (" base of the Kocky Mountains, Aug. 13, ]858," Bourgeau no. 3689 in Herb. Hook.'*), Pteris aquilina, Woodwardia Yirginica, Scolopendrium vulgare, TVoodsia Oregana (Lake Winnepeg and westward;. A«pidiiun Louebitis, ISTepbrodium iSToveboracenj^e, BotrycbiiimmatricariaifuliuniJ.jBr (iueluding B. lanccokitum and=^. rutaceam in Syn>. Fil.- of Hooker, bat not of Swartz),^^ and Ophioglossum vulgatum. Of these forty-nine species at least twenty are common to both sides of the Rocky Mountains, all of which (with a doubt as to * Prof. Eaton was kind enough to trace out the exact locality for me — " AYiudy mountain near Lacs des Arcs, jST. lat. 51 ^ 1' 44, vide Dr. Hector's journal m the ' Blue Book' on Capt. Palliser's Expedition. > This station is probably its northern limit. In the U.S. it occm-s on both sides of the Kocky mountains and as far south as Arizona fHerb. Eaton) and Xew Mexico (Cb. Wright nos. 818, 2125;. It is the Ch. vestita of Hook. n. Bor. Am. ii, p. 264 and Sp. Fil. ii, p. 98, the Cli. lanufjinosa of Gray's Manual. 1870.] BOTANY A.'^D ZOOLOGY. 345 the two species which are marked) are also known to occur oa the mountains themselves ; these are, — "Woodsia Oregana, Agpidium aculeatiun, Cjstea fragilis, Xephrodium Filix-iuas, Adiantum pedatum 1 fragrans, Ciyptogvamme crispa, spiuulosum, Pell?ea atropurpurea, Polypodium viilgare, Pteris aquilina, Phegopteris, Asplenium viride, Diyopteris, Trichomanes I Botrychiuni Liinaria, Filix-fcemina, ternatum, and Aspidiuui Lonchitis, virginianum. On the east side ot the Rocky Mountains, but apparently not extending as far west as the mountains, are twenty- three species, as follows, — Ouoclea sensibilis, Scolopendrium rhizophylluni, Struthiopteris, Nephrodium Thelypteris, "Woodsia glabella, is'oveboracense, hyperborea, Goldieauum, Dicksouia punctilobula» Polypodium hexagonopteram, Cystea bulbifera, Osmunda regalis, Pellaea gracilis, Claytoniaua, AVoodwardia Yirginica, ciunamomea, Asplenium ebeneum, Botrycliium simplex, augustifolium, matricaria'folium, and ' thelypteroides, Ophioglossum vulgatum. Scolopendrium vulgare. The remaining six species of this area are found on the Rocky mountains, all of them (except Ch. gracilis which is not known east of Illinois) also extending eastward to the Atlantic ; they are, Cheilanthes gracilis, Aspidium acrostichoides, C^'stea montana, iSTephrodium cristatum, and AVoodsia Ilveusis, marginale ; making forty-nine species indigenous to that portion of British America to the east of the Rocky mountains. From the moun- tains westward to the Pacific we have but eleven other species which may be noted here. They are, — On the Rocky Mountains and westward, Woodsia scopuHna, Polypodium alpestre. — On the West Coast, but not extending as far east as the Rocky Mountains, TToodsia obtusa,* Cheilanthes gracillima. * It is somewhat singular that this species which is common throughout Prof. Chapman's and Dr. Gray's limits, coming right up to our borders 346 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Pelleea densa, Gymuogramme triangularis, Lomaria Spicant, Xephrodiumrigidum, (A. argutum, Polypodium Scouleri, Kaulf.), intermedium, and Aspidium munitum, thus giving British America a known fern-flora of sixty species of which twenty-eight occur on the Rocky mountains. On another page is given a list of the ferns of Labrador which includes gome species not hitherto published. Thanks to Mr. Beckct (one of the staff of the Geological Survey of the Island) and to Dr. Bell (this journal vol. iv. 1869, p. 256) we have now a tolerably long list of the ferns of Newfoundland though doubtless eight or ten species more would reward any careful collector. It is as follows : — Onoclea seusibilis, A^eplirodium fragrans (Bell), "U^oodsia Ilvensis, Filix-mas cKunze), glabella (Becket — robust spiuulosum (varum et specimens like some of dilatatum), Macoun's from Lake Superior), Polypodium Dr^^opteris, Cystea fragilis, Phegopteris, bullDifera, vulgare, Pellsea gracilis, Osmunda regalis, Pteris aquilina, Claytouiaua, Aspleuium viride (Becket), ciunamomea, thelypteroides (Bell), Botrychium Lunaria (Lyell), Filix-foemina, teruatum (Hookerj, Aspidium aculeatum (Bell — the virginianum (Hooker). var. Braunii), A list of the ferns of Greenland, an outlying province of North America but with a European flora even along its western shores, has an interest in this connection. It is copied from Prof. Lan2:e's eatalo2;ue in Rink's ''Gronland" the author's nomencla- ture being preserved. Polypodium Dryopteris L. Cystopteris fragilis Bcrnli. Phegopteris L. ^oodsia ilvensis B. Br. alpestre Hojppe, hyperborea B. Br. Aspidium Loncbitis Sw. Botrychium Lunaria Sw. Iragrans Willd. rutaceum Fries (=B. Lastrfea Fihx-mas Fresl, matricariaefolium A. Br.) dilatata Presl, Mrs. Lyell adds Woodsla glabella and Asplenium viride without in the State of New York, should be unknown on the east side of the Rocky mountains in British America and unknown on the west side in the United States. Its Br. Am. station is on the authority of Kew specimens collected in 1861 on Galton mountains by Dr. Lyall of the Oregon Boundary Survey. 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 317 giving her authority and probably in error. Not one of these twelve species is peculiar to America ; none of them are likely to have come from America unless Aspidiiim fragrans, a non- European plant wide-spread in north Asia. Turning to Mrs. Lyell's second area, the United States east of the Rocky Mountains and north of Mexico, we find that the admitted species number seventy-eight, of which these four have probably been inserted in error : — Cjstea montana(the Rocky Moun- tains habitat of which is north of K lat. 49^), Pellrea densa (*' Washington " Ter- ritory being on the west side), A good many species should be added which may be conve- niently divided into various groups: — A. Species which occur on the Kocky Mountains, but not as far north as lat. 49o — Cheilanthcs gracillima, and "Woodsia scopuHna (neither of which occur on the east side of the mountains). Cheilanthes Fendleri, Asplenium Septentrionale, Xcthochlaina Fendleri, dealbata : — [These four species added to the twenty-eight above noted, gives thirty-two species as the fern flora of the Rocky Mountains.] B. Species which occur on both sides of the mountains (Cali- fornia, Arizona or New Mexico, and Texas) — Pellsea Wrightiana, Xothoclajua sulphurea (Mr. Baker's mucronata, species is probably too com. prehensive). C. Species w'hich have to be removed from the third area into this — Xothochlfcna sinuata, ferruginea, Gymnogramme pedata, Aneimia Mexicana. Cheilanthes "Wrightii, Lindheimeri, Pellffia aspera, pulchella, cordata, Aspidium juglandifulium, This division must be held to include the trans-Mississippi States east and north of the Rio Grande, some of which (as Texas, Missouri, etc.) Mrs. Lyeil erroneously quotes as belonging to her third area. D. Two Eastern species are omitted, probably in error — Wood- sia glabella (New York and northward); Woodsia hyperborea (Vermont, H. Mann, and northward). These additions bring up the number of the known species inhabiting this area, to ninety-four ; to which may be added 348 THE CANADIAN NATCRALIST. [Sept. Woodsia Peruviana, shonld Chas. Wright's no. 2120 prove to be that species, and a new Asplenium recently found by Prof. Bradley in Tennessee. Mrs. Ly ell's third division, embracing all North America to the west of the Rocky Mountains and north of Mexico, is well sepa- rated into a botanical area, but, considering its extent and variety of climate, its fern flora is small though in many respects pecu- liar. Mrs. Lyell enumerates sixty species which number must, I fear, be considerably reduced, inasmuch as a great part of the range of mountains known as Sierra Madre is in (old) Mexico, not in New Mexico, and while such States as that last named and Colorada are common to both second and third areas, others, such as Texas, Kansas, Missouri, and Nebraska, are wholly in the second. The omissions should probably be as follows : — A. The eleven species above enumerated as belonging to the second area not beina; known to occur on the west side of New Mexico. B. Eight species not known on the west coast further north than Mexico proper : — Adiantum Capilus-veneris (which, however, occm*s on the east side from Alabama south- ward), Cheilauthes Seemanni microphylla (there is a Cheilanthes viscosa, Polypodium Madrense, Gjmnogramme tartarea, podophylla, Acrostichnm conforme. Kew tradition that this species occurs in Texas, hut it needs confirmation), A few species should be added, some of which I enumerate :■ i^ephrodium fragrans (X. ^. America, Seemann), dilatatum, (same locality and collector). Cheilanthes argentea (said to have been collected by a Russian botanist in Alaska), Xewberrii Eaton (San Diego, Dr. Newberry and Prof.Wood), Pellaea ( Sierras, 1869, Prof. Bolander — probably a new species). The scanty fern flora of the west coast may be seen from the following list copied from " A Catalogue of the Plants of San Francisco," by H. N. Bolander, 1870, which is said to include all the ^' species found about a hundred miles north and south of San Francisco, and as far east as Mount Diablo " : — iC Polypodium Scouleri, Californicum, Adiantum pedatum, Chilense, 1S70.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 349 Cystopteris fragilis, Aspidium muuitiiin, Californicum, iS^ephrodium rigiduni, Filix-ma;^, Petris aquiliua, Pella^a mucronata, densa, andromedrefolia, Gy m n ogvam m e t riari gul avis, ■\\"oodwardia radicaus, or only fifteen species ia all. Within the same distances of Montreal vre could muster nearly three times as many. Mrs. Lyell has folWed the "Synopsis Filicum" of Hooker and Baker in nomenclature and species limitation, and, in the fore-. going remark?, I have more or less closely followed her example. Notice of Fucus Serratus found in Pictou Harbour. By Rev. A. F. Kemp, M.A.— On the 29th June, 1869, 1 had an opportunity of examining the shores of the harbour of Pictou, Nova Scotia, and was fortunate enough in finding very fine speci- mens of Faciis serratus Linn. This plant is very common on the rocky sea-shores of Europe, and specially so in the northern parts of the British Islands. Harvey, in his Preface to the Nereis Boreali- Americana, says that Fucus serratus has not yet (1851) been detected in America. In the supplement to that work (1858), he says : " I have received a small fragment of this " common European plant, stated to have been found at Newbury- " port, Mass, U.S. It is hardly probable that it is either con- " fined to one locality, or even rare, wherever it occurs ; yet none *' of my other correspondents have sent it, nor do I know " the circumstances under which Captain Pike obtained it. I " hope this notice may lead some one on the coast to investigate '' the subject; for European botanists are yet uncertain whether " F. serratus be really bona fide native of the American coast, or " merely a stray waif accidentally cast ashore.'' I have myself examined several points on the eastern coast of America where, if anywhere, this plant might be expected to grow, but have never seen a fragment of it. At Portland, and along the coast of Maine, northward, the shore is highly favourable for the growth of the larger fuci. At Peak's Island I found a peculiar analogue of F. serratus, occupying very much its place, and having nearly the same form^and habit, excepting the serratures of the margins. It was very abundant on the outer shores of the islands in Casco Bay, but seems very much to be confined to that locality. I did not find it on the northern shores of the State around Eastport. Harvey thinks the plant is Fucus anceps. It is as prolific and 350 THU CANADIAN NATtTRALTST. [Sept. abundant as F. serrafus is in Europe. I have also examined several localities on the northern shores of Nova Scotia and in the harbour of HaUfax, and have not seen a fragment of F. serratus, nor have I ever found it in the collections of amateurs. It was on the western shore of the harbour of Pictou, north of the town, that I first met with this plamt. It was cast ashore along with other sea-weeds. I however found it nowhere growing there. F. nodosus and F. vesiculosus were abundant in situ, but not this one. I searched carefully for it at low water, and only found at last a few fronds of it growing on a flat stone about a foot and a half in length and six inches in breadth, and lying loose on other stones, on the shore about a mile to the south of the town. From the quantity that lay on the shores, it was obvious that it grew abundantly in the harbour, but in deep water. This is not its usual habit. Along with allied species it generally occupies the space between tide marks. From these circumstances I have been led to think that F. serratus is not indigenous to this continent, and has been introduced from Europe. Probably it has been brought in the ballast of British ships, which used at a former time to be discharged in to the deeper parts of the harbour. This will also account for its deep-sea habitat. The fronds which I found growing were, as I have noted, on a flat stone that might easily have been washed ashore by the force of the waves, floated, as it would be to some extent, by the luxuriant vegetation which covered it. I have every reason to believe that this is the first authenticated instance of the existence of this plant on the eastern coast of America ; and is probably the first instance in modern times of a naturalised European alga. Labrador Plants.— The Kev. S. K. Butler, who has re- cently returned from a residence extending over several years in Labrador, has been good enough to give me a list of all the plants collected by him when there, from which I have compiled the following catalogue. Mr. Butler explains his localities thus : — '' The two places I have most thoroughly examined are Caribou *' Island and Forteau Bay. When a plant is marked < Caribou,' " it is meant that I found it only at that place ; when ' Forteau ' " is mentioned, the plant may occur all round Forteau Bay, *' while 'Amour' means that I have found it only in 'L'ance '' Amour,' and that it is not likely to occur elsewhere in the Bay; 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY 351 " and wheu no locality is specified, the species may be expected to " occur at many places, if not all along the coast." Amour Point is in the Strait of Belle Isle in long. 56° 50', and is thus in La- brador proper, while Caribou, three-fourths of a degree to the west- ward, is in the Dominion. Mr. Butler adds that he collected neither pines, willows nor glumaceous plants, and that his more obscure species were named for him by Prof. Eaton, of New Haven. This gentleman has kindly furnished me with a list of the collections of Miss Macfarlane in and around the same localities, which contained several species not mentioned by Mr. Butler; these I have inserted in their proper places, with the collector's name attached : Ranunculus acris Linn. — level grassy places, Forteau, Anemone parviflora Michx — hill- sides, Forteau. Thalictrum dioicum Linn. — liill- sides and along brooks. Caribou and Forteau. Cornuti Linn. — (Miss Mac- farlane No. 1). Coptis trifolia Salisb. — in swamps along the coast. Nupliar advena Aiton — in ponds. Caribou . Arabis alpina Linn. — brook-sides, Forteau. Draba incana Linn. — Caribou. Cochleariatridactylites LiJin. — sea- shore, Caribou. hill-tops, Forteau. Viola blanda Willd. — moist places, common along the coast. Muhlenbergii Torrey — hill- sides, common. Drosera rotundifolia Linn. — in swamps. Parnassia parviflora Cand. — hill- sides, Amour. Silene acaulis Linn. — hill-tops Amour, also Old Fort Island. Arenaria Groenlandica Spreng. — hill-sides, Bale des Roch- crs. peploides Linn. — in sand near the sea-shore, Cari- bou and Forteau. verna Linn. — hill-sides, Amour. lateriflora LAitn. — level grassy places. Stellaria longipes Goldie — near the sea-shore. Edwardsii R. i?r.— (Miss Macfarlane No. 9. Tor- rey & Gray very properly reduce this to a variety of the last species). borealis BUjelov: — hill-sides, Caribou. crassifolia Ehrh. — marshy flats. Cerastium alpinum Linn. \ arvense Linn. j — abundant about Forteau, Astragalus alpinus LAnn. \ Hedysarum boreale Nuttall f — hill-sides. Amour. Lathyrus maritimus Bigelow — Cari- bou and Amour. palustris Linn. — Caribou. j Oxytropis campestris Cand. — -hill- side near Forteau light- j house. : Sanguisorba Canadensis Linn. — I abundant on hill-sides. ; Alchemilla vulgaris Ljinn. — abun- dant on hill-sides, Amour. Dryas octopetala Linn. — hill-tops, Amour. Geum rivale Lijin. — brook-sides. Potentilla Norvegica Linn. — along the sea-shore. Anserina Linn. — flats near shore palustris Scopoli — marshy places, Caribou. tridentata Aiton — abundant everywhere. maculata I'ourret — hills, Amour. 352 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept Fragaria Virginiana Ehrh. — spar- ingly on hill-sides. Eubus Cliamjemorus Linn. — abun- dant everywhere. articiis Linn. — in level grassy places. ■ triflorus Richn — on hill- sides. ■ strigosus Michx — in inland gulches. castoreus Fries? — Forteau. Pyrus Americana Cand.- — in gulches and on hills. Amelanchier Canadensis Torrey et Gray Var. oligocarpa Gray — in swanips. ^Epilobium augustifoliuni Linn. — on hill-sides, Caribou. < alpinum Linn. — wet places, Forteau. « palustre Linn. — marshy places, common. latifolium Linn. — sea-shore, Amour. Kibes lacustre Poiret \ prostratum L Ller. / — ravines, common in the interior. Sedum Khodiola Cand, — on rocks and hill-sides. Saxifraga aizoides Linn.-^ow rocks, Forteau. oppositifolia Linn. — on rocks, Amour. ca?spitosa Linn. — in level sandy places, Forteau. Mitella nuda Linn. — hill-sides, Forteau. Cornus Canadensis Linn. — com- mon everywhere. Heracleum lanatum Michx Archangelica atropurpurea Lloffm. ? — ^liill-sides and ravines. Ligusticum Scoticum Linn. — Cari- bou. Lonicera Ccerulea Linn. ") Linntea borealis Gronov. j on hill-sides. Viburnum pauciflorum Pylaie — in ravines. Galium trifidum, var. pusillum A. Gray — (Miss Macfarlane No. 25). Senecio pseudo-Arnica Lcssing — on hill-sides. — — aureus Linn. var. Balsami- tae Gray — in swamps. Aster Radula Aiton — on the sea- shore. Vaccinum Ccespitosum Michx — on hill-sides. uliginosum Linn. — in swamps. Yitis-Idcea Linn. — on hills. Oxycoccus Linn. — in swamps. Pennsylvanicimi Lam. var. angustifolium Gray. — on hill-sides. Chiogenes hisi^idula Torrey et Gray — (Miss MacF. No. 35). Cassandra calyculata Don — in marshy places. Andromeda polifolia Linn. — in swamps. Kalmia glauca Aiton- — hill-sides and swamps. Rhodora Canadensis Linn. — hill- sides, Caribou. Ledum latifolium Aiton — common on hills. Pthododendron Lapponicum Wahl. — on a hill-top near Amour. Loiseleuria procumbens Desv. — on hills, Caribou. Pyrola rotundifolia Linn. — in swamps. Amour. Moneses uniflora Gray — in damp* shady places. Armeria Labradorica Boissier — oh a hill-top. Amour. Primula farinosa Linn. — along shore and on hill-sides. stricta Hornem. — Fox Island near Caribou (P. Mistas- sinica Michx.) Trientalis Americana Pursh — com- mon on hills. Plantago paucifiora Pursh- — (Miss Macfarlane No. 42). Pinguicula vulgaris Linn. — in moist places. Eujihrasia officinalis Linn. — on hill- sides, Caribou. Rhinanthus Crista-galli Linn.-— common on hill-sides and on flats. Mertensia maritima Don — in sand on the sea-shore. Diapensia Lapponica Linn. — com- mon on hill-tops at Cari- bou. Gelitiana acuta 3Iichx — on flats, Caribou, 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 353 propinqua Richn \ Halenia deflexa Griseb. j — on hill-sides, Amour. Pleurog3'ne rotata Griseb. — on flats at Caribou and shores of Esquimaux river. Menyanthes trifoliata Linn. Diapensia Lapponica Linn. — com- mon on hill-tops, Caribou. Polygonum A'iviparum Linn. — com- mon. Empetrum nigrum Linn. — every- where common. Myrica Gale Linn. — (Miss Macfar- lane No. 56). Betula nana Linn. \ glandulosa Michz / — on hill-sidts everywhere. pumila Linn. — (Miss Mac- far lane No. 57). Larix Americana Michx — in swamps and ravines. Juniperus communis Linn. — on hill-tops. Sparganium simplex LIudson — (the vars. genuinum and an- gustifolium of Gray) — in ponds, Caribou, JHabenaria olitusata Richn — on hill- sides, Caribou. dilatata Gray \ hyperborea R. Br. / — in swamps and on hill- ■ sides. Listera cordata R. Br. — in ravines, Caribou. Iris versicolor Linn. — common on flats and hill-sides. Smilacina bifolia Ker "> tri folia De^f. / — in marshy places. stellata Desf. — on the sea- shore. Clintonia borealis Rafin. — on hill- sides. Streptopus roseus Michx — in ravines. amplexifolius Cand, — (Miss Macfarlane No. 62). Eriophorum capitatum Host — on hill-tops. russeolum Fries — in swamps and on high hills. Luzula parvifolia Desv. — on hills. Poa pratensis Linn. — on the sea- shore. Hierochloa borealis Roem. et "j SchuUes V Elymus mollis Trinius j — on the sea-shore. Lycopodium annotinum Linn. — ravines and hill-sides. Polypodium Dryopteris Linn. — on rocks. Phegopteris Liiin. — in ravines. Pelltea gracilis LLook. ) rocks, Cystea fragilis Smith j Amour. montana (Lam.) — Amour. Aspidium spinulosum Sivartz — ravines and hills, common. Athyrium Filix-foemina Roth — on hill-sides. Botrychium Lunaria Swartz — hill- sides, Amour. The Student's Flora op the British Islands. By J. D. Hooker, C.B., etc. London : MacMillan & Co — Yet another flora of Britain ! is one''s involuntary exclamation on opening this book — making not a fifth wheel but something like a tenth wheel to the proverbial coach. Nor is this feeling modified after a careful perusal of the book ; the work is, of course, well done — remarkably well done, as is everything that Dr Hooker does — but why should one of the first botanists of the day waste such good work on a thread-bare subject ? Had Dr. Hooker given us a condensed flora of north Europe, or, better still, taking in Ledebcur's ground, of the northern portion of the eastern hemisphere, not merely British students, but students the world over would have thanked him ; as it is, one cannot help feelins: that a great deal of good work has been thrown away. Dr. Vol. Y. X No. 3. 354 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Hooker may well afford to leave the naming and describing of some twenty varieties of Ranunculus aquatilis and the thirty varieties of Rubus fruticosus to less busy pens. There are in this book some remarkably good features well worked out. Dr. Hooker gives the affinities of each family, oftentimes a note of its properties (p. 259, '' a few are purgative or emetic or intensely bitter or very poisonous"), always its distribution throughout the world and the numbers of genera and species comprised in it. He gives the same details under each genus and the geographical distribution of each species. As regards our personal hobby, the ferns, his notes on such of the species as are also American are remarkably correct, much more so than in any foreign flora we have seen. I note only the following corrections : Tricliomanes radicans occurs in Alabama which is not " trop. Am." ; Asplenium marimim is still given as " Brit. N. America" ; and Scolopen- drium vidgare is said to occur in ^*' N. W. America," while it is known only from Western Canada and New York. Dr. Hooker in orthodox in his mode of quoting authors ; hence he writes the name of a well-known Linnean plant as " Selaginella selaginoides Grai/,'^ thus depriving Link of what little credit may be due to him, but giving compensation elsewhere by writing *' Cystopteris montana Link,''^ which species is certainly Bernhardi's in view of what he wrote in Schrader's neus Journal for 1806, part 2nd, p. 26 ; moreover this old blunderer's impossible genus (Joe. clt., table ii., fig. 9) having been accepted, he may as well get the benefit of any doubt touching one of the species. Dr. H. intro- duces a new name to fern honors, the Acrostichum septentrionale of Linneaus being referred to its proper genus Asplenium as A. septentrionale Hidl, an author unknown to us. It would add greatly to the value of such manuals if the reference were given in addition to the name of the author of the species ; Asplenium germanicum Wets Plantae Crypt, p. 299, or Scolopendrium Smith in Turin Mem., v., p. ^421, do not occupy much space, and are necessary to the proper understandiog of the names quoted. Dr. Hooker writes " Nephrodium cristatum Bich." probably for Richard, and referring to Michaux's Flora, of which work he was author. If this be correct some other author's name must be found to attach to this well-known Linnean plant, inas- much as Prof. Eaton has shewn that Michaux's cristatum is spinulosum, as might have been surmised from the omission of the latter species from that work, though it is much more general 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 355 than cristatum, and is one of the commonest of ferns in this country. The reference, '■ A. cristatum Sw.^' under Nephrodium, Filix-mas, is probably a slip of the pen. The " var. uliginosam (Rabenhorst, no. 19) is correctly referred to this species, and is the same as our Aspidinm Boott'd of Tuckerman in Hovey's Mag. of Hort. and Bot. vol. ix. (1843), p. 145, which Dr. Hooker, however, quotes as a variety of his " sub sp. dilatatuni '' under " N. f^pinulosum Desv." — wherein, I think, he errs. The last- named species is divided into three sub-species : (1) "spinulosum proper"; (2) dilatatum having four varieties — glandulosum, nanum, Boottii and dumetorum, and also, as I suppose dilatatum proper, ; and (3) remotum. Of dilatatum it is said that it '• ex- tends into AY. Asia and E.N. America,)" but if I be correct in referring Seemann's no. 1760 and some of Dr. Lyall's British Columbia specimens to this variety, its range in North America is much more extensive. The usually noted differences between it and spinulosum, as color and shape of scales, color of the frond, and whether glandulose or otherwise, are all inconsistent ; the outline of the frond I judge to be the only consistent character. The publishers have done their part well; the letter-press is remarkably clear and distinct, and the type well chosen, after the style first set by Dr. Gray. The paper, though good, is too soft to bear ink, and the fifty pages of advertisements are rather too heavy an imposition. Saponaceous Plants. — Many plants in different countries furnish useful substitutes for soap to the natives, where there are no conveniences or materials for manufacturing the ordinary soap of commerce. Prominent among these are the soapworts, tropical plants belonging to the genus Sapindus. The Hindoos use the pulp of the fruit of Sapindus detergens for washing linen. Several of the species are used for the same purpose instead of soap, owing to the presence of the vegetable principle called sapo- nine. The root and bark also of some species are said to be saponaceous. The capsule of Sapindus emarginatus has a deter- gent quality when bruised, forming suds if agitated in hot water. The natives of India use this as a soap for washing the hair, silk, &c. The berries of Sapindus laurifolius, another Indian species, are also saponaceous. The name of the genus is merely altered from Sapo-indicus, Indian soap, the aril which surrounds the seed of S. Saponaria being used as soap in South America. 356 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. According to Browne, the seed-vessels are very acrid ; tliey lather freely in water, and will cleanse more linen than thirty times their weight of soap, but in time they corrode or burn the linen. This assertion, however, requires confirmation. Humboldt tells us that proceeding along the river Oarenicuar, in the Gulf of Cariaco, he saw the native Indian women washing their linen with the fruit of this tree, there called the Pai a para. Sapon- aceous berries are also used in Java, for washins*. The fresh bark of the root J/omi/na ^oZystoc/u'a called "Yalhoi," pounded and moulded into balls, is used by the Peruvians in place of soap. Saponine exists in many other seeds and roots — in the legumes of Acicici conciiina, in which a considerable trade is carried on in some parts of India, and in the root of Vaccaria vulgaris, Agrostemma Githago and Anagallls arvensis. It also occurs in various species of Dianthus and Lychnis, and in the bark of Silene injiata. Gypsopyila strutldum is used by the Spaniards for scouring instead of soap. The bruised leaves of Saponaria offi,cinaUs, a native of England, forms a lather which much re- sembles that of soap, and is similarly efficacious in removing grease spots. The bark of Qaillaia saponaria of Central America answers the same purpose, and is used as a detergent by wool dyers. It has been even imported largely into France, Belgium, &c., and sold in the shops as a cheap substitute for soap. The fruit of the Bromelia Pinguin has also been found useful as a soap substitute. A vegetable soap was prepared some years ago in Jamaica from the leaves of the American aloe f^Agave Ameri- cajia), which was found as detergent as Castile soap for washing linen, and had the superior quality of mixing and forming a lather with salt water as well as fresh. Dr. Robinson, the naturalist, thus describes the process he adopted in 1767, and for which he was awarded a grant by the House of Assembly of Jamaica: — " The lower leaves of the Curaca or Coratoe (^Agave karatii) were pressed between heavy rollers to express the juice, which, after being strained through a hair cloth, was merely inspissated by the action of the sun, or a slow fire, and cast into balls or cakes. The only precaution deemed necessary was to prevent the mixture of any unctuous materials, which destroyed the efficacy of the soap. Another vegetable soap, which has been found excellent for wash- ing silk, &c. may be thus obtained : — To one part of the Ackee* add one and a-half parts of the before-named Agave Jcaratu, ma- cerated in one part of boiling water for twenty four hours, and 1870.] BOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 357 with the extract from this decoction mix four per cent, of rosin." In Peru, the leaves of the Maguey agave are used instead of soap ; the clothes are wetted, and then beaten with a leaf which has been crushed ; a thick white froth is produced, and after rinsing the clothes are quite clean. The pulpy matter contained in the hard kernel of a tree called locally ' Del Joboncillo' is also used there for the same purpose. On being mixed with water it produces a white froth. In Brazil, soap is made from the ashes of the bassena or broom plant (^Sida, lanceolata) , which abounds with alkali. There are also some barks and pods of native plants used for soaps in China. The soap-plant of California, Ph'.dangiumpomeridlanumy is stated by Mr. Edwin Bryant to be exceedingly useful. The bulbous root, which is the saponaceous portion, resembles the onion, but possesses the quality of cleansing linen equal to any olive soap manufactured. From a paper read before the Boston Society of Natural History, it appears that this soap- plant grows all over California. The leaves make their appearance about the middle of November, or about six weeks after the rainy season has fairly set in ; the plants never grow more than a foot high, and the leaves and stalk drop entirely off in May, though the bulbs remain in the ground all the summer without decaying. It is used to wash with, in all parts of the country, and, by those who know its virtues, it is preferred to the best of soap. The method of using it is merely to strip off the husk, dip the clothes into the water, and rub the bulb on them. It makes a thick lather, and smells not unlike brown soap. At St. Nicholas, one of the Cape Verde Islands, they make a soap from the oil of the Jatropha ciircas seeds, and the ashes of the papaw tree leaf. The oil and ashes are mixed in an iron pot heated over a fire, and stirred until properly blended. When cool it is rolled up into balls about the size of a six pound shot, looking much like our mottled soap, and producing a very good lather. — P. L. S. in the Journal of Applied Science. The Vultures and Humming Birds of Tropical America. — At the recent meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, held at Troy, N.Y., in August, 1870, Prof. James Orton read a paper upon the '^ Condor and the Humming Birds of the Equatorial Region." The following abstract of the Professor's paper is taken from the October (1870) number of the American Naturalist : — 358 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. " He rewarked that probably no bird is so unfortuuate in the hands of the curious and scientific as the Condor. Fifty years have elapsed since the first specimen reached Europe, yet to-day the exaggerated stories of its size and strength are repeated in many of our text books, and the very latest ornithological work leaves us in doubt as to its relation to the other vultures. No one credits the assertion of the old geographer, Marco Paulo, that the Condor can lift an elephant from the ground high enough to kill it by the fall ; nor the story of the traveller, so late as 1830, who declared that a Condor of moderate size, just killed, was lying before him, a single quill feather of which was twenty paces long. Yet the statement continues to be published that the ordinary expanse of a full grown Condor, is from fifteen to twenty feet, whereas it is very doubtful if it ever exceeds or even equals twelve feet. I have a full grown male from the most celebrated locality in the Andes, and the stretch of its wings is nine feet. Humboldt never found one to measure over nine feet; and the largest specimen which Darwin saw, was eight and one half feet from tip to tip. An old male in the Zoological Gardens of London, measures eleven feet. It is not yet settled that this greatest of unclean birds is generically distinct from the other great vultures. My own observation of the structure and habits of the Condor, incline me to think it should stand alone. Asso- ciated with the great Condor is a smaller vulture, having brown or ash-colored plumage instead of black and white, a beak wholly black instead of black at the base and white at the tip, and no caruncle. In inhabits the high altitudes, and is rather common. This was formerly thought to be a distinct species ; but lately ornithologists have with one accord pronounced it the young of the Sarcoramphus grypbus — a conclusion which the speaker did nob seem wholly to endorse. As to the royal Condor, Professor Orton ofi"ered the following observations, either new or corroborative : Its usual habitation is between the altitudes of ten thousand and sixteen thousand feet. The largest seem to make their home around the volcano of Cayambi, which stands exactly on the Equator. In the rainy season they frequently descend to the coast, where they may be seen roosting on trees ; on the mountains they rarely perch, but stand on the rocks. They are most commonly seen around vertical clifi's, perhaps because their nests are there, and also because cattle are likely to fall there. Flocks are never seen 1870.] DOTANY AND ZOOLOGY. 359 except around a large carcass. It is often seen singly, soaring at a great height in vast circles. Its flight is slow. It never flaps its wings in the air, but its head is always in motion as if in search of food below. Its mouth is kept open and its tail spread. To rise from the ground it must needs run for some distance > then it flaps its wings three times and soars away. A narrow pen is therefore sufficient to imprison it. In walking the wings trail on the ground and the head takes a crouching position. Though a carrion bird it breathes the purest air, spends much of its time soaring three miles above the sea. Humboldt saw one fly over Chimborazo. I have seen them sailing atone thousand feet above the crater of Pichincha. Its gormandizing power has hardly been overstated. I have known a single Condor, not of the largest size, to make away in one week with a calf, a sheep, and a dog. It prefers carrion, but will sometimes attack live sheep, deer, dogs, etc. The eyes and tongue of a carcass are the favorite parts and first devoured ; next the intestines, I never heard an authen- ticated case of its carrying off children, nor of it attacking adults, except in defence of its eggs. In captivity it will eat everything except pork and fried or boiled meat. When full fed it is exceedingly stupid, and can be caught by the hand ; but at other times it is a match for the stoutest man. It passes the greater part of the day sleeping, searching for prey in the morning and evening. It is seldom shot (though it is not invulnerable as once thought), but is generally caught in traps. The only noise it makes, is a hiss like that of a goose — the usual tracheal muscle being absent. It lays two white eggs on an inaccessible ledge. It makes no nest proper, but places a few sticks around the eggs. By no amount of bribery could I tempt an Indian to search for Condor's eggs, and Mr. Smith, who had hunted nearly twelve years in the Quito Valley, was never able to get sight of one. Incubation occupies about seven weeks, ending in April or May (in Patagonia much earlier, or about February.) The young are scarcely covered with dirty white down, and are not able to fly until nearly two years old. D'Orbigny says they take the wing in about a month and a half after being hatched, a manifest error, for they are then as downy as goslings. It is five months moult- ing, and while at that stage when its wings are useless, it is fed by its companion. As may be inferred the moulting time is not uniform. Though it has neither the smelling powers of the dog (as proved by Darwin), nor the bright eyes of the eagle, somehow 350 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. it distinguishes a carcass afar off. He described in fall the appearance of the Condor, remarking that the female is smaller than the male, an unusual circumstance in this order, the feminine eagles and hawks being larger than their mates. Professor Orton next spoke of the Humming Bird, of the habits and economy of which our knowledge is very meagre. The relationship between the genera is not clear, and one species is no more typical than another. The only well marked divisions we can discover, are those adopted by Gould and Gray, the Phae- thornithinas and Polytminse. The former are dull colored and frequent the dense forests. They arc more numerous on the Amazon than the other group ; and I know of no specimen from the Quito Valley, or from an altitude above ten thousand feet. Their nest are long, covered with lichens, lined with silk and hung over water courses. The latter comprises the vast majority of the Humming Birds, or nearly nine-tenths. They delight in sunshine, and the males generally are remarkable for tiieir brilliant plumoge. Their head-quarters seem to be near New Granada ; some species are confined to particular volcanoes, or an area of a few miles square. Of the four hundred and thirty known species of Humming Birds, thirty-five are found in and around the valley of Quito, thirty-two on the Pacific slope, and seventeen on the Oriental side of the Andes, making a total of eighty-four, or about one-fifth of the family within the Bepublic of Ecuador. If the wanton destruction of Humming Birds for mere decorative purposes, continues for the next decade, as it has during the last, several genera may become utterly extinct. This is evident when we consider that many a genus is represented by a single species, which species has a very circumscribed habitat, and nmltiplies slowly, producing but two eggs in a year. He noticed one fact in re- gard to the nests of Humming Birds, which he could not explain. Our northern hummer glues lichens all over the outside ; so do a number of species in Brazil, Guiana, etc. But in the valley of Quito moss invariably is used, though lichens abound. A similar variation is seen in the nests of the chimney sw^allow — our species building of twigs glued together with saliva, while its Quito representative builds of mud and moss. The time of incubation at Quito is twelve days, and there is but one brood in a year." 1870.] MISCELLANEOUS 361 MISCELLANEOUS. On the Comparative Steadiness of the Ross and the Jackson Microscope-Stands. — In most of the older Micro- scopes the Body was a fixture, and the focal adjustment was obtained by giving motion to the Stage. This plan, however, was very soon abandoned when the improvement of the Micro- scope, in its mechanical as well as its Optical arrangements, was seriously taken in hand by men of real constructive ability ; and the Stage being made a fixture, two different modes were adopted for supporting and giving motion to the Body, of one or the other of which nearly all the different patterns devised by our now numerous makers may be regarded as modification;;?. The one in which the Body is attached at its base only to a transverse Arm, borne on the summit of a racked stem, I have elsewhere termed the Eoss model; not because Mr. Boss could in any sense be considered its inventor, but merely because he was among the first to employ it, and his original patterns are now in general use, with extremely little modification. The other, in which the Body, having the rack attached to it, is supported for a great part of its length on a solid Limb, to the lower part of which the Stage is fixed, may with more propriety be distinguished as the Jackson * model ; since it was originally devised by Mr. Jackson, and was thenceforth almost uniformly adopted by the Firm which may be considered as the represen- tative of his ideas. It has always appeared to me that the Jackson model is so obviously preferable mechanic all i/, that if it had been introduced before the Boss model had come into use, it would have been the one more generally adopted ; and having lately had an oppor- tunity of comparing the performance of two instruments, one constructed on the Boss and the other on the Jackson model, under peculiarly trjang circumstances, and having found my previous opinion most fully confirmed, I have thought it well to bring my experience in this matter before those whom it most especially concerns, namely, Microscope-makers and practical * In the last edition of my ' Microscope ' I inadvertently designated this as the Lister model, having supposed it to have been devised by Mr. J. J. Lister. Vol. V. Y No. 3. 362 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. Microscopists. In order that the bearing of that experience may be rightly understood, it will be desirable in the first instance to examine the conditions on which tremor of the Microscopic image depends. When the building in which the Microscopist is at work is thrown into vibration as a whole, as by the passage of a heavily- laden cart in the street outside, — or the floor of the room in which he is seated is made to vibrate by the tread of a person crossing it, — the Microscope and the observer move together; and if the frame of the Microscope were perfectly rigid, there would be no tremor of the image. For this tremor is the result, not of the vibration of the Microscope as a whole, but either (1) of the difference between the vibration of the Body as a whole and that of the object on the Stage ; or (2) of the difference between the vibration of the two extremities of the Bodv, the ocular and the objective. Now it scarcely seems to me possible to conceive a method of construction which should be more favourable to this differential vibration, especially at the ocular end of the Body, than that which is adopted in the Koss model. The long tubular body, fixed only at its base, is peculiarly subject to it ; and although the oblique stays with which it is sometimes furnished diminish the vibrations of the tube, they by no means prevent it. The transverse arm and the stem which bears it, each have a vibration of their own ; and it is obvious that the nearer to the fixed point of the whole system — which, in this arrangement, is the part of the racked Stem embraced by the tube that carries the Stage — flexure takes place, the greater will be the vibration of the Eye- piece, which is at the greatest distance from that fixed point. The only mode in which this vibration can be kept in check, is the giving great solidity to the Stem, the Arm, and the Body, especially the two former ; and this, while objectionable on account of the cumbrousness which it imparts to the Micros- cope-stand, is by no means effectual for its purpose; as every Microscopist knows to his cost, when using very high powers under any condition but that of the most perfect stillness of the support. On the other hand, in the Jackson model, the support of the Body along a great part of its length reduces to a minimum the vibration of the tube, and the consequent differential vibration of the eye-piece ; and even in those modifications of it in which the 1870.] MISCELLANEOUS. 363 tube has but a short bearing, as the support is given to it in the middle of its length, instead of at its lower extremity ; the vibra tion equally affects its ocular and its objective extremities. The form of the Limb makes the Body much less liable to vibration as a whole, than when supported on the transverse Arm and vertical Stem of the Ross model ; and as there is no fixed point from which vibration can commence, increasing in extent with the distance from that point, the Body and Stage are much more likely to move together, such motion imparting no tremor to the image. In the '' Porcupine " Expedition for the Exploration of the Deep Sea, in which I took part last summer, microscopi3 inquiry had to be carried on under conditions very different from those which obtain on shore. When our ship was lying-to under sail, even if the swell was sufficient to produce considerable pitching and rolling, the motion, being imparted equally to the Microscope as a whole and to the Observer, did not produce any tremor of the image ; and the only difficulty lay in the maintenance of the observer's own position, which was most effectually secured by firmly grasping the leg of the table (which was fixed to the floor of the cabin) between his knees. When the ship was going under " easy steam," with either a fair wind or a light contrary breeze, there was enough general vibration to produce a con- siderable differential vibration in any Microscope liable to it, and thus to occasion a decided tremor in the image even when only moderate powers were employed. But when we were steaming with full power against a head-sea, the general vibration became so great as to be the severest test of the mechanical arrangements of our Microscopes. Now, it happened that whilst my own instrument — a portable Binocular Microscope weighing less than seven pounds, which is my usual travelling companion — is con- structed on the Jackson model. Professor Wyville Thomson was provided with an instrument of about the same scale, but heavier by some pounds, made upon the Boss model; and we thus had an opportunity of fairly testing the two plans of con- struction under circumstances peculiarly critical. The differ- ence in their performance was even more remarkable than I had anticipated. I found that I could use a l-4th-inch objective on my own Microscope, with an even greater freedom from tremor in the image than I could use a 2-3rds-iuch objective on Pro- fessor Wyville Thomson's. In fact the image '^ danced " very 364 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Sept. perceptibly in the latter, even when the 1 J-inch objective was in use. Now I purposely abstain (for obvious reasons) from uamiug the Makers of these two instruments. But I think it well to say this much, in order to meet the possible objection, that the differ- ence lay rather in the worhmanship of the two instruments than in their plan of construction, — that the advantage, if any, lay on the side of the Ross model. And my own very decided convic- tion is, that the adoption of the principles of the Jackson model would be decidedly advantageous, alike for y?rs^class Microscopes, in which the steadiness of the image when the highest powers are being employed ought to be a primary consideration, — for those second-class instruments, which are intended, at a less cost, to do as much of the work of the first-class as they can be made to perform, portability being here of essential importance, — and for those tliird-QlsiSS instruments in which everything has to be reduced to its simplest form, so as to permit the greatest reduction in their cost. — Dr. W. B. Carpenter, in Transactions of the Royal Microscopic Society. — Mr. J. Gwyn Jeffreys, who had just returned from the south of Europe, after having accomplished his part of this year's deep-sea exploring expedition in H.M.S. Porcupine, stated that in this cruise he had dredged across the Bay of Biscay, and along the coasts of Spain and Portugal to Gibraltar. The weather had not been favourable; but the depth reached was 1,095 fathoms. A large collection of Mollusca, Echinoderms, Corals, Sponges, and Hydrozoa, had been made. Half a-dozen specimens of a beautiful new Pentacrinus (^P. icyviUe-thomsoni) had been taken in 795 fathoms depth, between Vigo and Lisbon. Both Northern and ^Mediterranean species of shells were met with. — Congress has granted $30,000 for the erection of a Govern- ment Winter Garden, either at New York or Washington, some- what similar to that at Kew, but on a smaller scale. This will partake partly of the nature of an economic garden, in which useful plants can be raised and then disseminated far and wide throughout the States. Published, April 10, 1871. TUE CANADIAN NATURALIST AKD (Qunrtfrtu ^/ournal of J»cunrc, A FEW HOURS AT CAPE-TOWN, SOUTH AFRICA. By Licut.-Major George E. Bulgee, F.L.S., F.K.G.S., C.M.L.S., etc. It was on tlie 3rd December, 1864, at the beginning of the South African Summer, that, with two companions, I left Cape Town by the 7.14 a.m. train for Salt River, where we had hopes of obtaining a few curlews, as well as some of the various kinds of Tringce and Charadriadoe, which, with other wild fowl, frequent the banks of the stream, and the adjacent shores and inlets of Table Bay, in considerable numbers. Our expedition was deci- dedly more ornithological than sporting, for success with the cur- lews could only be regarded as a possible contingency, while we looked upon good specimens of the smaller birds as almost certain trophies. Ten minutes travelling brought us to Salt River Station, where, quitting the railway, we struck down towards the beach, on foot, and speedily arrived at one of the branches of the stream, six or seven yards across, by about the same number of inches in depth, which intersected the sands, and cut us off from the part we wished to explore. The water was beautifully clear but brackish and quite cold, as we soon learnt by walking through it, no other means of crossing having presented itself. After this, as it was low tide, we kept along the shore of the Bay, where the sand was hard and firm, and where we could enjoy the cool, fresh and delicious breeze that came sweeping in steadily from seaward, the heavy Vol. Y. Z Xo. 4. 3G6 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. Dec] surf-rollers crasLing and breaking a short distance to our left, while the spent waves curled up to our very feet, and the spray drifted across us like showers of fine rain. For some distance we found nothing more extraordinary than the crushed and broken fragments of sea-shells, shreds of coarse algoe, and some six or seven specimens of a pretty little Coccindla with yellow spots ; and then came another branch of the Salt River slightly deeper and a good deal broader than the last: hoivever, we forded it without diflficulty, and, leaving the beach, took the river-bank as a guide to further progress. Thereabouts the land on either side of the stream was very flat, though it rose gradually on the left hand, in low, sandy undulations, and at last, swelled up to a ridge along the sea-shore fourteen or fifteen feet, in some places, above the water level. The Zout, or Salt River rises near Riebeck's Castle, a mountain in the District of Malmesburg, 3109 feet high, and, after a course of about forty miles, falls into Table Bay a short distance below where we crossed it. At the time of our visit, the water was very low, and much of the flat sandy bed was uncovered, affording great attraction to the sandpipers and small plovers that were feeding merrily upon its surface. Of these we recognized Cha- radrius tricollaris, Kittlitzi et marginatus, the turnstone ((Jin- clus inferjyres), the red shank {Totanus calidris), the green sand- piper [Totanus ochropus)^ the greenshank {Totanus glottis), the pigmy curlew {Tringa Siiharquata'), the sanderling (^Cali- di'is arenaria)^ and the little stint (^Tringa minuta), the last three in largish flocks, the others far less abundant, and the turn- stones keeping, as L. — remarked, apart from the rest in a little band of six or seven. No curlews were in sight, nor any other birds besides those I have mentioned, excepting a few swifts, and two or three swallows, which were careering through the pure air with their usual grace and rapidity : the former appeared to be all representatives of Ci/pselus opus, and the latter of Hirundo rustica. There was an alluvial deposit of mud on either bank of the river, and this, on the side next the sea, where we were, w^as cov- ered with wild chamomile, (^Mntrlcaria hirtd), whose white- rayed blossoms perfumed the air with their fragrance. There were also quantities of samphire (Crithmum maritimiuii) , quite crimson in some places, apparently where it had been covered at hi^^h water by the Salt Stream. Outside of this border of alluvial 1870.] BULGER — A FEW HOURS AT CAPE TOWN. 367 mudw as the sand, aJorued with several species of Mesembryun- themum, and other plants, amongst which, the most striking and beautiful was a small, graceful shrub with pale-coloured? finely cut foliage, and a profusion of round, scarlet orange berries, which had an agreeably astringent taste. I had never met with this ele2:ant little bush before, and neither of mv companions appeared to recognize it, though L. — said he believed the fruit was known to the Dutch Colonists as " skildpatbesjes " or tortoise-berries, a name applied, however, by Pappe-'^ to the, drupes of a very different plant, the Mandtia sp'uwsao^ Kunth. T have since been informed, through the kindness of a friend, that the graceful little stranger was the Chymococca empetro'ides of De Candolle. It appeared to grow in considerable abundance, and was conspicuously gay from the brilliant colour and beauty of its clusters of bria'ht berries. Almost immediately after crossing the river, a flock of sander- lings sprang from the ground before us, and flew along towards the sea, while one solitary curlew (^Numemiis ca'quatus),j arose uttering his peculiar alarm note, got up from the opposite bank and soon disappeared : no others were visible, and as far as we could S3e, the river margin was only tenanted by the smaller birds. For some distance we walked on without meeting with any more curlews, but, at last, half a dozen came flying up the river at a tolerable height above us, entirely, as I thought, out of range; however, L. — , who was a short distance to my left, was of a different opinion, as he fired at the nearest bird, and brought it down satisfactorily. The river-sands and mud-banks were alive with little, busy, graceful creatures, now running over the moist edges of the stream, now taking wing and wheeling with the speed and wonderful unity of action, so to speak, which characterizes the aerial movements of the gregarious plovers and sandpipers, while the music of their plaintive, whistling notes rose and fell upon the breeze, as they swept past us, hither and thither, over their desolate feeding-grounds ; but no more curlews were to be seen, and we soon diverged from our course to the sea shore, where we seated ourselves upon a log, and preceded to refresh the inner man with sandwiches and other portable kinds of food. * FJorce caiiensis medicoi prodromus. t Layard says {Birds of South Jfrica, p. 322) " Schlegel separates our South African species from the European bird ou account of its size, and calls it XumcniKS major.'^ 368 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. While we were thus employed, the j'ounger of my two companions who had separated from ns about two hours before, returned from an unsuccessful chase after an oyster catcher (^Ilcematopus Moqnlni) which, though severely wounded, had escaped him by SAviuiniing out to sea. Between three and four o'clock we began to retrace our steps along the river-bank, and, very soon several large flocks of curlew passed before us, having been driven inland by the advancing tide, but they were all out of range, and it was too late in the afternoon to follow them to the upper sands, where they appeared to be con- gregating. We procured, however, specimens of Totcmus glottis, Trlnga suharquafa and Charadrius KiftUtzi, and, in a field near the road, L. — added a beautiful hobby (Hi/potriorchis suhhufeo), to the collection. This charrain^r little falcon is rare in South Africa, and my companion told me very few specimens had been obtained. Swifts and Swallows were abundant, and amongst them in addition to Cgpselus apus and Hirundo rustica, already men- tioned, wc recognized Ci/psdus meiha et caffer, as also Cotyle pa- histris, and Hirundo rufifrons et capensis, we only saw one peli- can, (Fclecaruis onocrotalus !), although, at times, L. — assured me they are common enough in this locality, and that, occasionally, the rarer and more beautiful Pelecanus ru/escens is also to be ob- tained. I observed no other birds, excepting a solitary jackal- vogel, the Bateo jackal of Shaw. Butterflies were apparently rare, and not being of special inter- est to me at the time, I did not examine those I saw, excepting one very lovely kind, which L. — said was Zeritis tliyshe: its pre- dominant colour was orange, and I did not observe the blueish gloss said to characterize the species.* Plants of course were abundant, and some of them very peculiar, but we had no leisure to pay much attention to them. A lovely golden-yellow Meseinl>ryanthemiim-\ was very plentiful, as well as other species of the same genus, but only one of them was known to me, the ordinary Hottentot fig (^Mesemhrijantliemum ednle.) Miuidtia spi?iosa, and the fou\-^me\\iug Mel ianthus major, which * I find that Trimen says {Ehopaloccra Jfricw ausiraUs p. 226) that Zeritis ilnjsbe proper does not occur near Cape'town, but that it is there represented hy a different variety of the same species {Papilio palmus of Cramer) destitute of the blue gloss referred to. t Probably Mcsemhryantlicmiun rcptans of Harvey and Souder's Flora capcnsis, but I cannot be sure. 1870.] DAWSON — SPORE-CASES IN COAL. 369 the Datch call " Truytje roer my niet," (Gertrude don't touch me) the wild water-melon or '• bitter appel," of the colonists Citrul- Jus amurus, and the brilliant Leonotis Leonurus, were common. The scarlet blossoms of the last-mentioned, as usual, being very conspicuous amidst the greenery around them. ON SPORE-CASES IN COALS. (^From the American Journal of Science and Arts for April^ 1871.) By J. W. Dawsox, LL.D., F.R.S. When in London, last spring. Prof. Huxley was kind enough to show me some remarkably beautiful slices of coal mounted by his assistant, Mr. Newton, and showing with great distinctness multitudes of spore-cases and spores, some of them very well pre- served. He further stated to me his belief that such material had been largely or mainly instrumental in the production of Coal. At the time I declined to accept this conclusion, on the ground that the specimens probably represented layers of coal exceptional- ly rich in spore-cases; and that even in these specimens a large quantity of matter was present which long experience in the ex- amination of coals enabled me to recognize as cortical or epider- mal matter, which I had previously shown by my examination of the coals of Nova Scotia to be the principal ingredient in ordinary coal. I promised, however, on my return to Canada, to look over my series of preparations of coal, with a view to the occur- rence of spore-cases, and also to make trial of the somewhat im- proved method of preparation employed by Mr. Newton. On my return I gave the results of my examination to Prof. Huxley in a letter which he has quoted in the brilliant exposition of his obser- vations and conclusions in the " Contemporary Review" for Novem- ber,^ and which will probably give a tone to the representations of popular writers on this subject for some time. While, however, admitting the great interest and importance of Prof. Huxley's observations, and prepared to contribute some additional illustra- tions of the occurrence of spore-cases in coal, I think it well to direct attention anew to the actual composition of the substance, " 111 the quotation the word •• cubical" has been substituted for " cor- tical." 370 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC. as proved by its mode of occurrence, and illustrated by my own extensive series of observations on the coals of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, including the series of eighty-one seams exposed at the South Jospins, the whole of which I have examined in situ and under the microscope. The occurrence of bodies supposed to be spore-cases in coal, is, as Prof. Huxley states, no new discovery ; but in reality these may be said to be the first organisms recognized by any micros- copic observer of coal — that is, if all the clear spots and annular bodies seen in slices of coal are really spore-cases. They were noticed by Morris as early as 1836, and they had been observed and described long before by Fleming in Scotland. Goeppert mentioned and fio-ured them in his " Treatise on Coal" in 1848. Balfour described them in 1859 as occurring in Scottish coals, and Quekett figured them in his account of the Toibane Hill mineral in the same year. In 18-45 the latter microscopist showed me in London slices exhibiting round bodies of this kind, very similar to those now described by Huxley ; but at that time I regarded them as concretionary, though Prof. Quekett was disposed to con- sider them organic. Mr. Carruthers has summed up most of these facts in his account of his genus Flemingites in the Geo- logical Magazine for October, 1865. The subject has also attracted the attention of microscopists in connection with the Tasmanite, or "White Coal" of Tasmania, which consists in great part of spore-cases of Ferns. I suppose that the oldest spore-cases known are those described by Hooker from the Ludlow formation of the Upper Silurian ; but these, if really spore-cases, are difi"erent in structure from those ordinarily found in the coal-formation, more especially in the great thickness of their walls, and I am not aware that they have anywhere been found in considerable quantities. The oldest bed of spore-cases known to me, is that at Kettle Point, Lake Huron. It is a bed of brown bituminous shale, burning with much flame, and under a lens is seen to be studded with flattened disc-like bodies scarcely more than a hundredth of an inch in diameter, which under the microscope are seen to be spore-cases, slightly papillate externally, and with a point of attachment on one side and a slit more or less elongated and gap- ing on the other, figs. 1, 2, 3, I have proposed for these bodies the name Sporangites Huronensis. When slices of the rock are made, its substance is seen to be filled with these bodies, which, 1870.] DAWSON— SPORE-CASES IN COAL. 371 viewed as transparent objects, appear yellow like amber, and show little structure, except that the walls can, in some cases, be dis- tinguished from the internal cavity, and the latter may be seen to inclose patches of floccuient or granular matter. In the shale containing them there are also vast numbers of rounded translu- cent granules which may be the escaped spores. The bed at Kettle Point is stated in the report of the Geologi- cal Survey to be 12 to 14 feet in thickness ; but to what degree either in its thickness or horizontal extent it retains the charac- ters above described, I do not know. It belongs to the Upper Devonian, being supposed to be a representative of the Gennessee slates of New York. It contains stems of Calamites inornatiis and of a Lfpulodeiidron, obscurely preserved, but apparently of the type of L. Veltheiniianum, and possibly the same with L. primceoum of Rogers. The spore cases are not improbably those of this plant, or of the species L. G.ispianum, which belongs to the same horizon, though not found at this locality. The occur- rence of this bed is a remarkable evidence of the abundance of LycopodiacGOus trees, whose spores must have drifted in immense quantities in the wands, to form such a bed. It is to be observed, however, that this is not a bed of coal, but a bituminous shale of brown color, and with pale streak, no doubt accumulated in water, and even marine, since it contains Spiroplu/ton^ and shells of Lingula. In this it agrees with the Australian Tasmanite, which though composed in great part of spore-cases of Ferns, is, as I am informed by IMr, Selwyn, an aqueous deposit, containing marine shells. There is, however, one bed of true coal known in the Devonian of Eastern America, that of Tar Point, Gaspe, and it is curious to observe that this is not composed of spore-cases, but of succes- sive thin layers of rhizomata and stems of Psilophf/ton, with occasional fragments of Lepldodendron and Cij do stigma. Round- ed disks which may be spore-cases, occur in it, but very rarely. In the bituminous shales associated with this coal, the microscope shows amber-colored flakes of irregular form, but these are easily ascertained to be portions of the epidermis of Psilophyton, or of the chitinous crusts of crustaceans which abound in these beds. Ascending to the Lower Carboniferous (sub-carboniferous), there are great quantities c^ rounded spore-cases of the size of * The well known Cauda-gaUi fueoid. 372 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. mustard seeds (Sporangites glabra of my papers) in the rocks of Horton Bluff and Lower Horton, Nova Scotia. They are some- times globular, and filled with pyrites of a granular texture which perhaps represents the original cellular structure or the micro- spores. In other cases they are flattened and constitute thin car- bonaceous layers. They are almost without doubt the spore- cases of Lepldodendron corrugatiim, which abounds in the same beds, and constitutes in one place a forest of erect stumps. I de- scribed them in a paper on the Lower Carboniferous of Nova Scotia in the Proceedings of the Geological Society of London for 1858, though not then aware of their true nature, which was, however, recognized by Dr. Hooker in some specimens which I had sent to London. In my paper on the conditions of the accumulation of Coal, (Proceedings of Geological Society of London, May, 18GG), I pro- posed the name Sporangites for these bodies, in consequence of the difficulty of referring them certainly to any generic forms. Carruthers had in Oct. 1865, described a cone containing round- ed spore-cases of not dissimilar type, under the name Flcmingltes. In the paper above referred to, I stated that out of eighty one coals of the South Joggins Section examined by me, I recognized these bodies and other fruits or Sporangia, in only sixteen ; and of these only four had the rounded Lycopodiaceous spore-cases similar to those of Flemingites. These are the following: — (1.) Coal group 12, of Division IV^, has a bed of coal one foot thick, of which some layers are almost wholly composed of Sporan- qites papiUata. (2.) Coal group 13, Div. lY, has in some layers great quanti- ties of Sporangites glabra, especially in the shaly parts of the coal. (3.) In Coal group 14, Div. IV, a shaly parting contains great numbers of similar Sporangites. (+.) In Coal group 15 a, Div. IV, the shaly roof abounds in sporangites, but I did not observe them in the coal itself. In addition to these cases, all of which curiously enough occur in one part of the section, and among the smaller coals, I have noted the occurence of clear amber spots in several of the compact coals bnt I did not regard these as certainly organic, suspecting them to be rather concretionary or segragative structures. The great coal beds of Pictou are, in so far as my observation has extended, remarkably free from indications of spore-case?, and 1870.] DAWSON — SPORE-CASES IN COAL. 373 consist principally of cortical and ligneous tissues with layers of finely comminuted vegetable matter. A layer of cannel, however, from a bed near New Glasgow has numerous flattened amber- colored discs, Avhich may be of this character. In those of Capo Breton, the yellow spore case-like spots are much more abundant; but these coals I have less extensively examined than those of the mainland of Nova Scotia. Of American coals the richest in spore- cases that I have seen, is a specimen from Ohio, which contains many large spore-cases, and vast numbers of more minute globu- lar bodies apparently macrospores. It quite equals in this respect some of the English coals referred to by Huxley, (fig. 4). I have also a specimen of Anthracite from Pennsylvania, full of spore- cases, some of them retaining their round form and filled with granular matter which may represent the spores. It is not improbable that sporangites or bodies resembling them, may be found in most coals ; but the facts above stated in- dicate that their occurrence is accidental rather than essential to coal accunmlation, and that they are more likely to have been abundant in shales and cannel coals, deposited in ponds or in shallow waters in the vicinity of Lycopodiaceous forests, than in the swampy or peaty deposits which constitute the ordinary couls. It is to be observed, however, that the conspicuous appearance which these bodies and also the strips and fragments of epidermal tissue, which resemble them in texture, present in slices of coal, may incline an observer not having large experience in the exami- nation of coals, to overrate their importance, and this I think has been done by most microscopists, especially those who have con- fined their attention to slices prepared by the lapidary. One must also bear in mind the danger arising from mistaking con- cretionary accumulations of bituminous matter for sporangia. In sections of the bituminous shales accompanying the Devonian coal above mentioned, there are many rounded yellow spots, which on examination prove to be the spaces in the epidermis of Psilophy ton through which the vessels passing to the leaves were emitted. To these considerations I would add the following condensed from my paper above referred to, in which the whole question of the origin of coal is fully discussed. '=^ (1.) The mineral charcoal or " mother coal'' is obviously woody- tissue and fibres of bark ; the structure of the varieties of which See also Acadian Geology, 2d edit., pp. I3S, 4()J, 493. 374 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. and the plants to which it probably belongs, I have discussed in the paper above mentioned. (2.) The coarser layers of coal show under the microscope a confused mass of fragments of vegetable matter belonging to various descriptions of plants, and including, but not usually largely, sporangites, (3.) The more brilliant layers of the coal are seen, when separated by thin laminae of clay, to have on their surfaces the markings of Sigillariae and other trees, of which they evidently represent flattened specimens, or rather the bark of such specimens. Under the microscope, when their structures are preserved, these layers show cortical tissues more abundantly than any others. (-4.) Some tliin layers of coal consist mainly of flattened layers of leaves of Cordaites or Pychnophjllum. (5.) The Stigmaria underclays and the stumps of Sigillaria in the coal roofs equally testify to the accumulation of coal by the growth of successive forests, more especially of Sigillarise. There is on the other hand no necessary connection of sporangite beds with Stigmarian soils. Such beds are more likely to be accumu- lated in water, and consequently to constitute bituminous shales and cannels. (6.) Lepidodendron and its allies, to which the spore-cases in question appear to belong, are evidently much less important to coal accumulation than Sigillaria, which cannot be affirmed to have produced spore-cases similar to those in question, even though the observation of Goldenberg as to their fruit can be relied on ; the accuracy of which, however, I am inclined to doubt. On the whole then, while giving due credit to Prof. Huxley and those who have preceded him in this matter, for directing attention to this curious and no doubt important constituent of mineral fuel, and admitting that I may possibly have given too little attention to it, I must maintain that Sporangite beds are exceptional among coals, and that, cortical and woody matters are the most abundant ingredients in all the ordinary kinds ; and to this I cannot think that the coals of England constitute an exception. It is to be observed, in conclusion, that the spore-cases of plants, in their indestructibility and richly carbonaceous character, only partake of qualities common to most suberous and epidermal matters, as I have explained in the publications already referred 1870.] DAWSON — SPORE-CASES IN COAL. 375 to. Such epidermal and cortical substances are extremely rich in carbon and hydrogen; in this resembliug bituminous coal. They are also very little liable to decay, and they resist more than other vegetable matters aqueous infiltration ; properties which have caused them to remain unchanged and to resist the penetration of mineral substances more than other vegetable tissues. These qualities are well seen in the bark of our American white birch. It is no wonder that materials of this kind should constitute considerable portions of such vegetable accumulations as the beds of coal, and that when present in large proportion they should afford richly bituminous beds. All this agrees with the fact, apparent on examination of the common coal, that the greater number of its purest layers consist of the flattened bark of Sigillariae and similar trees, just as any single flattened trunk imbedded in shale becomes a layer of pure coal. It also agrees with the fact that other layers of coal, and also the cannels and earthy bitumens appear, under the microscope, to consist of finely comminuted particles, principally of epidermal tissues, not only from the fruits and spore-cases of plants, but also from their leaves and stems. The same considerations impress us, just as much as the abundance of spore-cases, with the immense amount of the vegetable matter which has perished during the accumulation of coal, in comparison with that which has been preserved. I am indebted to Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, for the following very valuable information, which at once places in a clear and precise light the chemical relations of epidermal tissue and spores with coal. Dr. Hunt says — " The outer bark of the Cork tree and the cuticle of many if not all other plants consists of a highly carbona- ceous matter, to which the name o^ suherin has been given. The spores of Lycopodium also approach to this substance in composi- tion, as will be seen by the following, one of two anal3^ses by Duconi,'-^ along with which I give the theoretical composition of pure cellulose or woody fibre, according to Payen and Mitscher- jich, and an analysis of the suberin of Cork from Quercus suher, from which the ash and 2*5 per cent of cellulose have been deducted. t *Liebig and Kopp, Jahresbuch, 1847-48. t Gmelin, Handbook, xv. 145. 376 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. Cellulose Carbon, 44-44 Hydrogeu, 6*17 Nitrogen, - Oxygen, 49-39 Cork Ljcopodium 65-73 64-80 8-33 8-73 1-50 6-18 24-44 20-29 100-00 100-00 100-00 This diflference is not less striking when we reduce the above centesimal analyses to correspond with the formula of cellulose, C24H20O20 and represent Cork and Lycopodium as containing 24 equivalents of carbon. For comparison I give the composition of specimens of Peat, Brown Coal, Lignite and Bituminous Coal.^ Cellulose, C24 H20 O20 Cork, C-25H8iA06ffi Lycopodium, - C24 H]9f^ NOsf^ Peat, (Vaux), ----- C24 H14 f^- Oio Brown Coal, (Schrother), C24 Hi4-j3,- Oiof;^ Lignite, (Vaux), - C24 Hn-^i^ Og/^ Bituminous Coal, (Regnault), C24 Hio OS'i^^- It will be seen from this comparison that, in ultimate composi tion, Cork and Lycopodium are nearer to Lignite than to woody fibre ; and may be converted into coal with far less loss of carbon and hydrogen than the latter. They in fact approach closer in composition to resins and fats than to wood, and moreover like tho?e substances repel water, with which they are not easily moistened, and thus are able to resist those atmospheric influences which efifect the decay of woody tissue." I would add to this only one further consideration. The Nitrogen present in the Lycopodium spores no doubt belongs to the protoplasm contained in them, a substance which would soon perish or decay ; and substracting this, the cell-walls of the spores and the walls of the spore-cases would be most suitable material for the production of bituminous coal. But this suitableness they share with the epidermal tissue of the scales of Strobites, and of the stems and leaves of Ferns and Lycopods ; antl above all with the thick corky envelope of the stems of Sigillarije and similar trees, which as I have elsewhere shown, j from its condition * Canadian Naturalist, vi. 253. t Vegetable structures in Coal, Jouru. Geol. Soc. xv, 6-26. Conditions of Accumulation of Coal. lb. xxii, 95 ; Acadian Geology, 197, 464. 1870.] DAWSON — SPORE CASES IN COAL. 377 in the prostrate and erect trunks contained in the beds associated with coal, must have been highly carbonaceous and extremely enduring and impermeable to water. In short, if instead of ''spore-cases," we read "epidermal tissues in general, including spore-cases," all that Huxley has aflBrmed will be strictly and lit- erally true, and in accordance with the chemical composition, mi croscopical characters and mode of occurrence of coal. It will also be in accordance with the following statement, which I may be pardoned for quoting from my paper on the Structures in Coal, published in 1859. "A single trunk of Sigillaria in an erect forest, presents an epitome ot a coal-seam. Its roots represent the Stigmaria under clay ; its bark the compact coal ; its woody axis, the mineral charcoal; its fallen leaves (and fruits), with remains of herba- ceous plants growing in its shade, mixed with a little earthy matter, the layers of coarse coal. The condition of the durable outer bark of erect trees concurs with the chemical theory of coal, in showing the suitableness of this kind of tissue for the produc- tion of the purer compact coals. It is also probable that the comparative impermeability of the bark to mineral infiltration, is of no importance in this respect, enabling this material to remain unaffected by causes which have filled those layers consisting of herbaceous materials and decayed wood with pyrites and other mineral substances." Fig. 4. Fig. 3. Fig. ].— Part of a slice of shale from Kettle Point, shewing two spore- cases and remains of spores; 70 diameters. Fig. 2 and 3.— Spore-cases from the same as opaque objects x 70. Fig. 4.— Part of a sHce of Ohio coal, showing at one side a large spore- case and numerous spores x 70. 378 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. BIVALVE CRUSTACEANS FROM THE GULF OF ST. LAWREXCE, DESCRIBED BY G. S. BRADY, Esq.. C.M.Z.S. Introduction. Ill tbe great class of Crustacea or soft sliell-fisb, there is a group of microscopic creatures, found both in fresh and salt waters, which have the peculiarity of being covered with a bivalved shell, which is not unlike ihat of some bivalve moliusks. These are the Ostracoda of zoologists. Some of the species may be found in abundance in our fresh water pools, where they move about with great rapidity, and are very voracious devourers of any animal substance that may come within their reach. If a quantity of them be taken up in a bottle with some of the water in which they live, and examined with a magnifying glass, they will be seen to extend little tufted antennoe or feelers from the end of the shell, and little jointed feet from the front, with which they scramble along in a curious lop-sided way, but with much swiftness. If a bit of meat be placed in the water, they crowd around it with iireat eafrerness. and it is amazinoj to witness the rapidity with which it will disappear under their attacks. These fresh-water species belong to the genus Cffpris, and several species occur in different parts of this country ; but the marine species are much more numerous, and may be found in all depths and in all latitudes. They are also an ancient tribe ; many species being found in our old limestone rocks, and they seem at all periods and in all places to have been among the most efficient scavengers of the waters. The species noticed in the following lists and descriptions are all from the Gulf of St. Lawrence. They were obtained from specimens of marine sand and mud in the collection of Dr. Dawson, and obtained by him partly in his own dredging ex- peditions, and partly from dredgings and soundings by Capt. Orlebar, R.N., Mr. Whiteaves, F.G.S., of Montreal, and the officers of the Geological Survey. The whole of these collections were placed in the hands of Mr. G. M* Dawson, for the purpose of selecting the minute microscopic shells of the order Foraminifera. In picking out these, any other organic bodies were also selected, 1870. BRADY — OX BIVALVE CRUSTACEANS. 379 and amoDg the rest the crusts of the OstracoJa. These being somewhat numerous and varied, were sent to Mr, Brady, of Sunderland, wlio is the best living authority on these curious creatures, and who kindly undertook their determination. The results have just been published by him in the ''Annals of Natural History," and are reprinted below as an interesting contribution to a little known department of Canadian Natural History. We may add that the original specimens mounted by Mr. Brady, will soon be in this city, and will be available for purposes of comparison by any naturalist who may care to study these little creatures. — Ed. Feb., 1871. RECENT OSTRACODA FROM THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE. By George Stewardson Brady, C.M.Z.S. The specimens which form the subject of the present notice have been kindly placed in my hands by Dr. Dawson, of Montreal, for examination and description. They were .selected by Mr. G. M. Dawson from dredgings and soundings made in various parts of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, in depths varying mostly from 10 to 50 fathoms, but in one case reaching 250 fathoms. The following is the list of species : — Argilloecia, sp. Cytheridea punctillata, Brady. Cy there leioderma, Norman. Sorbyana, Jones. kitea, Midler. \ % elongata, Uradi/. pellucida, Baird. emargiuata, Sars, sp coucinna, Jones. tuberculata, Sars. Eucythere Argus, Sars, sp. Loxoconcha, sp. Xestolcberis depressa, Sars. Cytherura uudata, Sars (var.) canadensis, nov. sp. pumiJa, C, B, Sars. Pconcentrica, C.,7?.c|"-/i.(MS) dunelmensis, Norman, sp. i Cytheropteiou nodosum, Brady. Dawsoni, nov. sp. Bytbocythere turgida, Sars. abyssicola, Sars. sp. Cytberideis foveolata, nov. sp. (?) 'Wbiteii, Baird, ^^. ? Pbilomedesinterpuueta, Baird, sp. eostata, Brady. Bradycinetus, sp. Cytberidea papillosa. Bosquet. The determination of these species has been a most perplexin"- task, owing to their variation in most cases from the types as known to us on this side of the Atlantic. It is probable, indeed that many which I have here identified with well-known species 380 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. would by otlier carcinologists be thought worthy of disthict specific rank ; but, considering the small number of specimens at my disposal for examination, I have thought it better to err, if err I must, by allowing too much latitude to variation, rather than by unnecessary species-splitting. The variation, though in most cases such as to be almost incommunicable by drawings or written description, is nevertheless sufficient to be puzzling, consisting in very slidit modifications of the shell in almost all directions — in outline, proportions, and degree of surflice-ornament. Such re- marks as I have thought it necessary to make on these points will be found under the names of the different species. It would be unwise to generalize hastily from the small number of dredgings here described ; yet we cannot help noticing that the general facies of this fauna much more nearly approaches to that of the Shetland seas or of the Scottish glacial clays than it does to that of England, while it has scarcely any thing in common with that of the Mediterranean. The species which give it an emphatically boreal character are Cijtliere leioderma (perliaps the most abundant species in these dredgings, and hitherto found only in the Shetland seas), C. emarginata , C. cosfafa and Cytlieridca Sorhyana^ all of which may be said to range, on our side of the Atlantic, north of the 60th degree of north latitude. And several other members of the list become with us very scarce south of 54-° : these are Cytliere concinna, C. Jutea, C. tuherculata, C. duncimensis. Cj/theridea pajyiUosa, and C. punctillata. Except the three species here described as new, these two lists include all the characteristic species of Dr. Dawson's dredgings, the rest being represented in each case only by one or two specimens, often imperfect. Argilloecia, sp. One specimen, possibly referable to A. ci/Ihidrica, Sars. Cy there leioderma, Norman. (Norman, Shetland Dredging Report, p. 291.) Carapace, as seen from the side, subquadrate, slightly higher in front than behind; greatest height situated at the anterior third, and equal to about half the length ; anterior extremity obtuse, obliquely rounded ; posterior subtruncate, sinuated in the middle : superior margin scarcely arched, obsoletely angular about the eye-tubercles ; inferior nearly straight, with a slight 1870.] BRADY— ON BIVALVE CRUSTACEANS. 381 median sinuation. Seea from above, the outline is broadly ovate (almost elliptical), only slightly narrower in front than behind ; greatest width equal to the height, and situated near the middle : extremities broadly and evenly rounded. Hinge- margins somewhat depressed; hinge-processes strongly developed. Surface of the shell smooth and polished, beset with n.ore or less numerous circular punctures, each bearing a short rigid hair. Colour yellowish white. Length --h inch. This is the most abundant species in the dredgings here des- cribed, and occurs in greater or less quantity in almost all the localities. In Britain it is known only from the single (?) speci- men described by Mr. Norman, which was taken in *' very deep water " in Unst Haaf. Mr. Norman's description applies accur- ately to the American specimens, except in the matter of the "distant punctured papillse." The ornamentation, it is true, does appear papillose in some lights ; but this is, I think, an optical illusion : when carefully examined, the seemingly elevated circles resolve themselves into concave pits, each with a little central bristle. I have seen a single fossil valve of this species from the Scottish glacial clay. Cythere tuherculata, Sars. These specimens are much less rounded in outline and more rugged in general appearance than is usual with European speci- mens ; there is also a tendency, more or less pronounced, to the formation of one or more longitudinal ridges near the ventral border. But the distinctions do not seem sufficient to warrant the separation of the form as a new species. Cythere Canadensis^ nov. sp., figs. 4-6. Carapace elongate, compressed ; seen from the side, quadrate ; greatest height situate at the anterior third, and scarcely equal to half the length ; anterior extremity very obliquely rounded, and bordered at the lower angle with several small teeth ; pos- terior subtruncate, slightly emarginate in the middle ; superior margin gently sloping, nearly straight, sinuated behind the anterior hinge ; inferior margin also straight, excepting a slight median sinuation. Seen from above, somewhat lozenge-shaped, somewhat tapered toward the front, more rounded behind widest near the middle : width equal to about two-fifths of the length; extremities obtuse, subtruncate. Shell-surface uneven, Vol. V. A* No. 4. 382 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. irregularly pitted, marked with more or less prominent, flexu- ous longitudinal ribs, and bearing usually a rounded central tubercle ; bordered in front, a little within the anterior margin, by a wide, elevated, and rounded ridge ; posterior margin having a similar but less conspicuous border. Length -3V inch. This species approaches very closely to C. ahyssicola Sars, and C. Stimpsoni, Brudy. From the former it differs chiefly in having a less pronounced marginal belt, a more rugged surflice, and a less angular outline when viewed from above ; from the latter in the absence of any sharply cut longitudinal crests, and by its more rounded contour and elevated anterior margin. There is, however, considerable diversity amongst the specimens here grouped under the specific name Canadensis, and it is possible that a more ex- tended series might have shown that they belong to two or more species. The chief difference resides in the surface-ornament, some exhibiting several short, rough and abruptly elevated ridges, others being only moderately pitted, while some (from one of which our drawings are taken) are intermediate in character, being rather delicately ridged, chiefly on the posterior half, and vaguely pitted and ridged in front. Cy there Dawsoni, nov. sp. (Figs. 8-10.) Carapace, seen from the side, quadrangular, highest in front; greatest height equal to half the length; anterior extremity obliquely rounded, bordered with strong, blunt teeth ; posterior narrower, rectangularly truncate, slightly rounded : superior margin nearly straight, gently sloping backwards, irregularly emarginate ; inferior almost straight. Seen from above, sub- hexagonal; sides nearly parallel, suddenly tapering towards the extremities, which are obtusely mucronate ; outline throughout very rugged. Surface marked by irregularly scattered rounded tubercles, and by two irregular longitudinal rows of transversely elongated tubercular eminences. Length ts" inch. This is apparently a very distinct species ; but the single speci- men contained in these dredgings was unfortunately lost while the drawings here given were in course of completion ; so that I am unable to describe it as accurately as might be wished. Cytheridea elongafa, Brady. The specimen so named is very doubtfully referred to this species ; and the same remark may apply to Xestoleherls depressa, Sars, 1870.] BRADY— ON BIVALVE CRUSTACEANS. 383 of which only a poor specimen occurs, and may perhaps belong to some other member of the genus. CytJierura undata, Sars, var. A specimen which I suppose to belong to C. undata differs enoudi to make it worth while in fisrure it. The difference is chiefly in surf\ice-sculpture, but slightly also in outline. Cytherura pumila, C, B. & R., and Cytherura concentrica, C, B. &R. These species have already been figured and described (in MS.) by the author in conjunction with Messrs. Crosskey and Robert- son, from fossil post-tertiary specimens ; and I have not thought it right here to forestall those descriptions, the publication of which I hope may not be long delayed. Cytlierideis foveolata, nov. sp, (Figs. 1--3. Carapace elongate, compressed; seen from the side, siliquose, slightly depressed in front ; greatest height situate about the middle, and equal to rather more than one-third of the length ; extremities rounded, the anterior much the narrower; superior margin almost straight, inferior slightly sinuated in the middle. Seen from above, elongate ovate, widest near the middle, tapering gradually toward the front, more abruptly behind; extremities acuminate ; width equal to one-third of the length. Shell surface smooth, minutely and somewhat densely punctate, semitransparent, horny. Length -gV inch. Nearly allied to C. suhidata^ Brady, but more robust and more densely punctate. EXPLAJfATIOX OF PLATE OF RECENT OSTRACODA FROM THE GULF OF ST. LAWREIS^CE. Fig. L Cytherideis foveolata, carapace, seen from the left side. ) Fig. 2. The same, seen from above. V x 40. Fig. 3, The same, seen from below, J Fig. 4. CytJicre canadensis, carapace, seen from the left side. ^ Fig. 5. The same, seen from above. > s 50. Fig. 6. The same, seen from the front. ) Fig. 7. Cytherura undata, var., carapace, seen from the left side, x 84. Fig. 8. Cythere Dawsoni, carapace, seen from the left side. ) Fig. 9. The same, seen from above. \ x 50. Fig. 10. The same, seen from below. ) Fig. 11. Cythere Icioderma, carapace, seen from the left side. ) Fig. 12. The same, seen from above. ', x 40. Fiy. 13. The same, seen from behind. ) 384 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec, RECEXT OSTRACODA FROM THE GULF OF ST. LAWRENCE. 1 2 3 9 10 11 "mm 12 13 1870.] CANADIAN FOSSIL OSTRACODA. 385 EXTRACT FROM NOTES ON FOSSIL OSTRACODA FROM THE POST-TERTIARY DEPOSITS OF CANADA AND NEW ENGLAND. By George Stewardson Brady, C.M.Z.S., and H. W. Crosskej F.G.S. (^Froiii the Geological Ma grizlne for Feh.^ 1871.) We are indebted for the material from which the following notes have been compiled to Principal Dawson of Montreal, and to the Secretary of the Portland Society of Natural History, to whom our best thanks are due for the opportunity thus afforded us of comparing the fossils of the North American Clay Beds with those of our own country. By carefully washing the clays kindly forwarded to us, we have obtained many specimens in excellent condition for examination. Of the thirty-three species here noticed, twenty-three are well known to us as occurring in the Scottish Glacial Clays, twenty-five are living inhabitants of the British Seas, while six {Cytliere cuspidata, C. MacChesneyi, C. Logani, Ci/therura granulosa, C. cristata, Cytheropteron complanatuin) are new to science, being here for the first time described. We know too little of the recent American Ostracoda to institute any very precise comparison between them and the fossil fauna represented by the following Hst of species ; but when com- pared with British collections, we find the contents of the Canadian fossiliferous clays to resemble very closely those of some similar formations in Scotland, and less closely those of dredgings obtained in the seas around the Hebrides and Shetland, The character of the Mollusca with which the Ostracoda are associated justifies the same observation. About two- thirds of the Mollusca collected from the Scotch glacial clays are also found in the corresponding beds of Canada ; and the difference between the glacial fossil fauna of Canada and that now existing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence is far less marked than the difference between the glacial fauna of the Clyde beds and that now existing in the Firth. The fossil fauna of Canada is slightly more arctic than that of the Gulf, but does not contrast with it so broadly as the fauna of the Scotch glacial clays with the Mollusca still living 386 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. in the neighbouring waters. The resemblance between the fossil glacial Ostracoda of America and the Ostracoda of Scotch glacial clays, being closer than the resemblance between the glacial and the living Ostracoda of Scotland, renders the determination of their relationship to living American Ostracoda of considerable geological importance. It may be useful to geologists to enumerate the Ostracoda found in the various clays we have examined, and indicate at the same time the general character of the groups of Mollusca with which they are associated. Portland. — Out of 31 species of Mollusca catalogued, 18 occur fossil in Scotch glacial clays, includiog such characteristic forms as Pecteii Groenlandicus ; Fecten Islandicus ; Ledapygmoea ; Tellina calcarea (proximo) ; Natica affinis (dausd) ; Buccinum Groelandicum. The associated Ostracoda are : Cytbere emarginata (Sars). Cytherura Sarsii (Brady). " coDcinna (Jones;. ' " cristata, nov. sp. " Dawsoni (Brady). " striata (Sars). " limicola (ISTorman). " granulosa, nov. sp. " dunelmensis (ISTorman J. " undata, var. Cy theridea papillosa ( Bosquet). Cytheropteron latissimum ( j^orman) " Sorbyana (Jones). " nodosum (Brady). Loxoconcba granulata (Sars) Sclerocbilus contortus (i!^ormau). Xestoleberis depressa (Sars). Paradoxostoma variabile (Baird). Cytberura nigresceus (Baird). Saco (^Maine). — On the banks of the Saco river, about ten miles from its mouth, 15 species of Mollusca are catalogued, of which only five occur in the Scotch clays, viz. : Leda pygma^a ; Leda arctica ; Nucula inflata ; Menestho alhida ; Katiea affinis — M. ulhida, however, being rather doubtful and very young^ The great abundance of Leda arctica constitutes a remarkable analogy between this bed and the clay at Errol near Dundee, and at Moss in Christianiafjord. The associated Ostracoda are : Cytbere leioderma riSrorman). Cytberide^ papillosa (Bosquet). " lutea (Miiller). " cornea (Brady aud Robertson). " MacCbesneyi, nov. sp. " Sorbyana (Jones). " emarginata (Sars). " "Willianisoniana'? (Bosquet). " limicola (ISTorman). Cytheropteron latissimum iSTorman. " cuspidata, nov. sp. " complanatum, nov. sp. " dunelmensis (iJ^ormau). Lcwiston, 110 feet above the sea. Only two species of Mollusca can wc find yet determined from near this place, viz. : 3fya arenaria 1870.] CAOADIAN FOSSIL OSTRACODA. 387 and Leda truncata, both also Scotch fossils. The associated Ostracoda are: Cj'there emarginata Sars. Cytheridea Sorbyana Joues. Cytheropteron inflatuin B., C, aud R., MS. Sclerochilus coutortus Normau. Montreal. — Upon examining catalogues given by Dr. Dawson in the Canadian Naturalist, it appears that out of 20 species of LamelUhmnchiata, 15 occur fossil in Scotland, and 17 out of 27 species of Gasteropoda. The beds contain nearly all the most characteristic Scotch glacial fossils. The associated Ostracoda are : Cy there MacChesneyi, nor. sp. Cytheridea Sorbyana (Jones). " Dawsoni Brady. Cytherura Robertsoni Brady. " globulifera Brady. Cytheropteron complauatum.nov.sp. " Logani, nov. sp. " inflatum B., C. and R., MS. Cytheridea papillosa Bosquet. " angulatum B., C, audR. MS. " puuctiliata (Brady). Encythere argus. There is no doubt both that many more species of Ostracoda will be discovered upon examination of larger quantities of material than we have yet obtained, and that the number of Mollusca will be increased by every fresh exposure of the clays ; but these lists have been given, merely tentatively to indicate general relationships, which, when further developed, may prove of geological value in classifying the various deposits of the Glacial epoch. One of the writers of this paper (Mr. Brady) has described 29 species of recent Ostracoda from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, dredQ;ed in depths varying from 10 to 50 fathoms, but in one case 250 fathoms (Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., Dec, 1870). Of these 29 species, 13 are found in our list of fossils from the American glacial clays, viz. : Cythere leioderma. Cytheridea papillosa. " lutea. " punctillata. " emarginata. Eucythere argus. " concinna. Xestoleberis depressa. " dunelmensis. Cytherura undata. " Dawsoni. Cytheropteron nodosum. Although, as Mr. Brady remarks, it is unwise to generalize hastily, yet we cannot help noticing that the general facies of the recent Ostracoda from the Gulf of St. Lawrence much more nearly approaches to that of the Shetland seas or of the Scottish glacial clays, than it does to that of England, while it has scarcely any- 388 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. thing in common with that of the Mediterranean, — a fact which has an important connexion with the suggestions we have made in this paper. NOTES OX GRANITIC ROCKS. By T. Sterry Hunt, LL.D., F.R.S.^ First and Second Parts. Eead before the American Association for the Advancement of Science at Troy, August 20, 1870. Contents of Sections. — §1-2, Definitions of granite and syenite; § 3 Structure of granitic and gneissic rocks ; § 4-5, Felsites and felsite- porphyries; § 6, Gneisses and granites of Xew England; $7, Granitic dykes and granitic vein-stones; §8, Scheerer's theory of granitic veins; § 9-10. Elie dc Beaumont on granites and granitic emanations; § 11, Granitic distinguished from concretionary veins; §12, Yon Cotta on granitic veins ; § 13-14. The authors views on the concretionary ori- gin of granitic veins; §15. The banded structure of granitic veins ; §16, Granitic veins of Maine, Brunswick; § 17, Topsham, Paris; § 18, WestbrookjLewiston; crystallinelimestones; § 19, Danville, Ketchum ; § 20, Denuded granitic masses; § 21. Banded veins; Biddeford, Sher- brooke ; § 22, Yeins at various N'ew England localities ; § 23, Mineral species of these veins ; § 24, Veins in erupted granites ; § 25, Geodes in granites ; § 26, Yeins distinguished from dykes ; § 27. Yolger and Fournet on the origin of veins ; § 23, 29, Certain fissures and geodes distinguished from veins opening to the surface; § 30, 31, Tempera- tures of crystallization of granitic minerals. § 1. The name of granite is employed to designate a supposed eruptive or exotic nustratified composite rock, granular, crystal- line in texture, and consisting essentially of orthoclase-feldspar and quartz, with an admixture of mica, and frequently of a triclinic feldspar, either oligoclase or albite. This is the definition of granite given by most writers on lithology, and applies to a great portion of what arc commonly called granitic rocks ; there are, however, crystalline granite-like agregates in which the mica is replaced by a dark colored hornblende or amphibole, and to such a compound rock many authors have given the name of syenite, while to those in which mica and hornblende co-exist, the name of syenitic granite is applied. It is observed that in certain of these hornblendic granites the quartz becomes less in amount than in ordinary granites, and finally disappears altogether, giving rise to a rock composed of orthoclase and hornblende only. To this * From the American Journal of Science for February and March, 1871 . 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 389 binary aggregate von Cotta and Zirkel would restrict the term syenite, which was ah-eady defined by d'Omalius d'Halloy to be a crystalline aggregate of hornblende and feldspar, by which ortho- clase-feldspar may be understood, since he describes varieties of syenite, as passing into diorite ; a name by most modern lithologlsts restricted to a compound of albite or some more basic triclinic feldspar with hornblende. It is apparently by failing to appreciate the distinction between orthoclase and triclinic feldspars, in this connection, that Haughton has lately described under the name of syenite rocks composed of crystalline labradorite and hornblende. § 2. Naumann, regarding orthoclase and quartz as the essential constituents of granite, designates those aggregates which contain mica as mica-granites, and thus distinguishes them from horn- blende-granites, in which the mica is replaced by hornblende. These definitions seem the more desirable as the name of granite is popularly applied both to the hornblendic and the micaceous ag- gregates of orthoclase and quartz. There are not wanting ex- amples of well-defined rocks of this kind in which both mica and hornblende are almost or altogether wanting. Such rocks have been designated binary granites, a term which it will be well to retain. Chloritic and talcose granites, into the composition of which chlorite and talc enter, need only be mentioned in this con- nection. The name of syenite, so often given to hornblendic granites, will, in accordance with the views already expressed, be restricted to rocks destitute of quartz. While the disappearance of this mineral from hornblendic granites is held to give rise to a true syenite, the same process with micaceous granites afi'ords a quartzless rock consisting of orthoclase and mica, for which we have no name. Great masses of an eruptive rock, granite-like in structure, and consisting of crystalline orthoclase or sanidin, with- out any quartz, occur in the province of Quebec. This rock con- tains in some cases a small admixture of black mica, and in others an equally small proportion of black hornblende. The latter variety might be described as syenite, but for the former we have no distinctive name, and I have described both of these by the name of granitoid trachytes, a term which I adopted the more willingly on account of the peculiar composition of the feldspar ; and also because compact and finely granular rocks in the same region, having a similar chemical composition, present all the characters of typical trachytes, and apparently graduate into the 390 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. Dec] granitoid rocks just noticed.^ In all attempts to define and classify compound rocks, it should be borne in mind that they are not definite lithological species, but admixtures of two or more mineralogical species, and can only be arbitrarily defined and limited. § 3. Having thus defined the mineral composition of granitic rocks, we proceed to notice their structure. Gneiss has the same mineral elements as granite, but is distinguished by the more or less stratified and parallel arrangement of its constituents, and lithologists are aware that in certain varieties of gneiss, this structure is scarcely evident, except on a large scale, so that the distinction between gneiss and granite rests rather on geognosti- cal than on lithological grounds. To the lithologist, in fact, the granitoid gneisses are simply more or less stratiform granites, while it belongs to the geologist to consider whether this structure has resulted from a sedimentary deposition, or from the flowing of a semi-fluid heterogeneous mass giving rise to a stratiform arrangement. § 4. The rocks having the mineralogical composition of granites present a gradual passage from the coarse structure of ordinary micaceous hornblendic and binary granites to finely granular and even impalpable mixtures of the constituent minerals, constituting the rocks known as felsite, eurite and petrosilex. These rocks are often porphyritic from the presence of crystals of orthoclase, and sometimes of crystals or grains of quartz imbedded in the finely granular or impalpable paste. These felsites and felsite-porphyries are, in very many cases at least, stratified or indigenous rocks, and they are sometimes found associated with o-ranular aa'^resates of diff'erent dciirees of coarseness, which show a transition from true felsites into granitic gneisses. The resem- blances in ultimate composition between felsites, granites and granitic gneisses are so close that it cannot be doubted that their difl'erences are only structural. § 5. Felsites and felsite-porphyries are well known in eastern Massachusetts, at Lynn, Saugus, Marblehead and Newburyport, and may be traced from Machias and Eastport in Maine, along the southern coast of New Brunswick to the head of the Bay of Fuudy, with great uniformity of type, though in every place subject * Amer. Jom-nal of Science, II, sxxviii, 95, See also Zirkel^ Fetro- grci])hie, ii, HO. 1870,] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 391 to considerable variations, from a compact jasper-like rock to more or less coarsely granular Tarieties, all of which are often porphy- ritic from feldspar crystals, and sometimes include grains or crystals of quartz. The colors of these rocks are generally some shade of red, varying from flesh-red to purple ; pale yellow, gray, greenish and even black varities are however occasionally met with. These rocks are throughout this region distinctly stratified, and are closely associated with dioritic. chloritic and epidotic strata. They apparently belong, like these, to the great Huronian system. § G. Many of the so-called granites of New England are true gneisses, as for example, those quarried in Augusta, Hallowell, Brunswick, and many other places in Maine, which are indigen- ous rocks interstratified with the micaceous and hornbleudic schists of the great White Mountain series. To this class also, judging from lithological characters, belong the so-called granites of Concord and Fitzwilliam, New Hampshire. These indigen- ous rocks are tenderer, less coherent, and generally finer grained than the eruptive granites, of which we have examples in the micaceous granite of Biddeford, Maine, and the hornblendic granites of Marblehead and Stoneham, Mass., and Newport, Rhode Island, in all of which localities the contact of the eruptive mass with the enclosing rock is plainly seen, as is also the case farther eastward, on the St. Croix and St. John's Rivers, in New Bruns- wick, and in the Cobequid Hills and elsewhere in Nova Scotia. The hornblendic granites of Gloucester, Salem and Quincy^ Massachusetts, seem also, from their lithological characters, to belong to the class of exotic or true eruptive granites.^ The farther discussion of the nature and origin of these gneisses and granites is reserved for another occasion, and we now proceed to notice the history of granitic veins. § 7. The eruptive granitic masses just noticed, not only include fragments of the adjacent rocks, especially near the line of contact, but very often send off dykes or veins into the surrounding strata. The relation of these with the parent mass is however generally obvious, and it may be seen that they do not differ from it except in being often finer grained. These injected or intruded veins are not to be confounded with a third class of granitic aggregates, which I have elsewhere described as granitic veinstones, or, to * T. S. Hunt on the Geology of Eastern Xew England, Amer. Journal of Science for July 1870, p. 88 ; also Notes on the Geology of the vicinity of Boston, Proc. Boston Xat. Hist. Soc, Oct. 19, 1870. 392 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. express their supposed mode of formation, endogenous granites. They are to the gneisses and mica-schists, in which they are generally enclosed, what calcite veins are to stratified limestones, and although long known, and objects of interest from their mineral contents, have generally been confounded with intrusive granites. § 8. Scheerer, in his famous essay on granitic rocks, which appeared in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of France in 1847, (vol. iv, p. 468), conceives the congealing granitic rocks to have been impregnated with '''a juice" which was nothing else than a highly heated aqueous solution of certain mineral matters. Thi-, unJcr great pressure, oozed out, penetrating even the str itiiieJ I'ocks in contact with the granite, filling cavities and fis-ui-es in the latter, and depositing therein crystals of quartz and of hornblende, the arrangement of which shows them to have been of successive growth. Neither Scheerer nor Virlet d'Aout, who supported his views, however (ihid., iv. p. 493) extended them to feldspathic veins, though Daubree, at an earlier date, had described certain g-rauitic reins in Scandinavia as havino; been formed bv secretion rather than by igneous injection as maintained by Durocher. § 9. Elie de Beaumont, starting from the hypothesis of a cooling liquid globe, imagined " a bath of molten matter on the surface of which the first granites crystallized." From the ruins of these were formed the first sedimentary deposits, but directly beneath were other granitic masses, which became fixed immedia- tely afterward. "Some parts of these masses, coagulated from the commencement of the cooling process, but not completely solidified, were then erupted through the sedimentary deposits" just mentioned. " In these jets of pasty matter" were contained many of the rarer elements of the granitic magma, which were thus concentrated in the outermost portions of the granitic crust, and in the ramifications formed by these portions in the masses through which they were forced by the eruptive agents. Those portions of the granitic masses and their ramifications in which these rarer elements are concentrated, are distinguished from the rest of the masses alike by their exterior position and their pecu- liar structure. They are often coarse-grained, and include the pegmatites, tourmaline-granites, and veins carrying cassiterite and columbite often aboundmg in quartz. These mineral products are to be regarded as emanations from the granite, and are de- scribed as a granitic aura, constituting what Humboldt has call- 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 393 ed the penumbra of the granite. {Bull. Soc. Geol. de France, (2) iv, 1249. See particularly pages 1295, 1321 and 1323). § 10. While Fournet, Durocber and Riviere conceived the granitic magma to have been purely anhydrous, and in a state of simple igneous fusion, Elie de Beaumont maintained with Poulett- Scrope and Schcerer that water had in all cases intervened, and that a few hundredths of water might, at a low red heat, have given rise to the condition of imperfect liquidity which he imagin- ed for the material of the injected granites. The coarsely crystal- line granitic veins were, according to him, veins of injection, and he speaks of them as examples in which " the phenomena essential to the formation of granite had been manifested with the great- est intensity." The granitic emanations, which are supposed to have furnished the material of these veins, appear to be regarded by him as the result of a process of eliquation from the congealing granitic mass. De Beaumont is careful to distinguish between them and those emanations which are dissolved in mineral waters or are exhaled as volcanic vapors (page 1324). To the agency of such waters he ascribes the formation of concretionary veins, which are generally characterized by their symmetrically banded struc- ture. He further adds that granites, as to their mode of forma- tion, offer a character intermediate between ordinary veins and volcanic and basic rocks. This is conceivable as regards granitic veins, since these, according to him, although formed by injec- tion, and not by concretion, result from a process of emanation from the parent granitic mass, which may be described as a kind of segregation. I have thus endeavored to give, for the most part in his own words, the views on the origin of granites enunciated by the great French geologist in his classic essay on Volcanic and Metalliferous Emanations, published in 1847. They belong to the hisiory of our subject, and are remarkable as a clear and complete exf ris>i(.n of those modified plutonic views which are piobably h< hi by .i great number of enlightened geo'ogists at the present time. My reason for dissenting from them, and the theories which I offer in their stead will be shown in the sequel, § 11. Elie de Beaumont, while regarding the formation of granitic veins as a process in which water intervened to give fluidity to the magma, was careful to distinguish the process from that of the production of concretionary veins from aqueous solution, and supposed the fissures to have been filled by the injection of a 394 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC. jet of pasty matter derived from a consolidating granitic mass. Daubrde and Scheerer, in describing the granitic veins of Scandina- via, conceive the material filling them to have been derived from the enclosing crystalline strata instead of an unstratified granitic nucleus, but do not, so far as I am aware, compare their formation to that of concretionary veins. Their publications on this subject, it should be said, are both anterior to the essay of de Beaumont. § 12. The notion that all granitic veins are the result of some process of injection, and not to be confounded with concretionary veins, seems indeed to have been general up to the present time. Even von Cotta, while strongly maintaining the aqueous and concretionary origin of metalliferous veins in general, when describing those consisting of quartz, mica, feldspar, tourmaline, garnet, and apatite, with cassiterite, wolfram, etc., which occur at Zinnwald and at Johaun georgenstadt, is at a loss whether to regard these veins, from their granitic character, as igneous-fluid injections or as concretionary lodes. In support of the latter view he refers to their more or less regular and symmetrically banded structure, and while recalling the fact that mica and feldspar may both be formed in the humid way, considers the nature of these veins to be very problematical, and the question of their origin a diflacult one. — {Ore Deposits., Prime's translation, 1870, pages 110—12-1). § 13. I have for several years taught that granitic veins of the kind just referred to are concretionary and of aqueous origin. In 1863 I described certain veins in the crystalline schists of the Appalachian region of Canada, "where flesh-red orthoclase occurs so intermingled with chlorite and white quartz as to show the contemporaneous formation of the three species. The orthoclase generally predominates, often reposing upon or surrounded by chlorite; at other times it is imbedded in quartz, which covers the latter. Drusy cavities are also lined with small crystals of the feldspar, and have been subsequently filled with cleavable bitter-spar, sometimes associated with specular iron, rutile and sulphuretted copper ores." A study of these veins shows a tran- sition from those " containing quartz and bitter-spar with a little chlorite or talc, through others in which feldspar gradually pre- dominates, until we arrive at veins made up of orthoclase and quartz, sometimes including mica, and having the character of a coarse granite ; the occasional presence of sulphurets of copper and specular iron characterizing all of them alike. It is probable 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 395 that these, and indeed a great proportion of quartzo-feldspathic veins are of aqueous origin, and have been deposited from solu- tions in fissures of the strata, precisely like metalliferous lodes. This remark appHes especially to those granitic veins which in- clude minerals containing the rarer elements. Among these are boron, phosphorus, fluorine, lithium, rubidiam, glucinum, zirco- nium, caesium, tin and columbiura ; which characterize the mineral species apatite, tourmaline, lepidolite, spodumcne, beryl, zircon, allanite, cassiterite, columbite, and many others." — (^Geology of Canada^ p. 476, also p. 644.) In this connection I referred to the occurrence of orthoclase with quartz, calcite, zeolites, epidote and native copper in certain mineral veins of Lake Superior, so well described by Prof. J. D. Whitney. (American Journal of Science II, xxviii, 16). The associations, according to him, show the contemporaneous crvstal- lization of the copper, natrolite, calcite and feldspar, which last was found by analysis to be a pure potash-orthoclase. § 14, In 1864, this view was still farther insisted upon in the Amer. Journal of Science (II, xxxvii, 252), where, in speaking of mineral veinstones "^ which doubtless have been deposited from aqueous solution," it is added, " while their peculiar arrange- ment, with the predominance of quartz and non-silicated species, generally serves to distinguish the contents of these veins from those of injected plutonic rocks, there are not wanting cases in which the predominance of feldspar and mica gives rise to aggre- gates which have a certain resemblance to dykes of intrusive gran- ite. From these, however, true veins are generally distinguished by the presence of minerals containing boron, fluorine, phosphorus, caesium, rubidium, lithium, glucinum, zirconium, tin, columbium, etc. ; elements which are rare, or found only in minute quantities iu the great mass of sediments, but are here accumulated by de- position from waters, which have removed these elements from the sedimentary rocks and deposited them subsequently in fissures." In the Report of the Geological Survey of Canada for 1865 (p. 192), I have, in describing the veins of the Laurentian rocks, in- sisted still farther on the distinction just drawn between granitic dykes and granitic veinstones, which latter I have proposed to call endogenous rocks, to indicate the mode of their formation, and to distinguish them from intrusive or exotic rocks, and sedi- mentary or indigenous rocks. § 15. The peculiar banded arrangement, which is so charac- 396 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. teristic in concretionary veins not granitic in composition, is pro- bably not less marked in granitic veinstones, and often appears in these in a remarkable manner, showing that they have been form- ed by successive depositions of mineral matter, and generally in open fissures. This structure, and various peculiarities to be ob- served in granitic veinstones, will be best illustrated by descrip- tions of various localities, most of w^hich I have personally examin- ed. It is proposed to notice first, the veins of the gneiss and mica- schist series of New England, and secondly those of the Lauren- tian rocks of New York and Canada. In the latter class will be noticed the more or less calcareous veinstones into which the Laurentian granitic veins are found to graduate. § 16. It is in the series of micaceous schists with interstratified gneisses (§ 6) which I have elsewhere provisionally designated the Terranovan series,^ that I have seen concretionary granitic veins in the greatest abundance and on the grandest scale. This stratified system, which is well seen in the White Mountains, appears to extend southward to Long Island Sound and north- eastward beyond the limits of Maine. It is in this state that I have particularly studied the granitic veinstones of this system, whose history may be illustrated by a few examples from notes taken on the spot. In Brunswick the strata near the town are fine-grained, friable, dark colored, micaceous and hornblendic, passing into mica-schist on the one hand, and into well-marked gneiss on the other, and dipping to the S. E. at angles of from 15^ to 40'^. Very similar beds are found in the adjoining towns of Topsham, and in both places they include numerous endogenous granitic veins. The course of these is generally N. W., or at right angles to the strike, though occasionally for short distances with the strike, and intercalated between the beds ; the veins vary in breadth from a few inches to sixty feet, and even more. They generally consist in great part of orthoclase and quartz, with some mica and tourmaline, and offer in the associations and grouping of these minerals many peculiarities, which are met with not only in different veins but in different parts of the same vein. In * Anier. Journal of Science for July, 1 870, page 83, and Can. Xaturalist, Y. p. 198. — The rocks of this White Mountain series are in the present state of our knowledge supposed to be newer than the Huronian system noticed in § 5, to which, withMacfarlane and Credner, I refer the crystal- line schists with associated serpentines and diorites of the Green Mountains. 1870.] T. S. IlLNT— ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 397 some caseis, colorless vitreous quartz predomiQatcs greatly, and en- closes crystals of milk-white orthoclase, often ir.odified, and from- one to several inches in diameter. At other times pure vitreous quartz forms one or both walls, or the center of the vein, or else is arranged in bauds parallel with the sides of the vein, and some- times a foot or more in thickness, alternating with similar bauds consisting wholly or in great part of orthoclase, or of an admixture of this mineral with quartz, having the peculiar structure of what is called graphic granite, or else presenting a finely granitoid mixture of the two minerals, with little or no mica, and with small crystals of deep red garnet. Prisms of black tourmaline are also met with in these veins, and more rarely beryl and even chryso beryl. In the rock-cutting on the Lewiston railroad, just below Topsham bridge over the Androscoggin, there is a fine exhibition of these veins, which present alternate coarser and finer grained layers, traversed by long spear-shaped crystals of dark mica pass- ing from one layer to another. § 17. A remarkable example of a vein of considerable dimen- sions is seen in the feldspar-quarry in Topsham, which occurs in a dark fine-grained friable micaceous schist. At the time of my visit, in 1869, the limits of the vein were not seen, though large quantities of white orthoclase and of vitreous quartz had already been extracted. These were each nearly pure, and in alternate bands, the quartz presenting drusy cavities lined with remarkable tabular crystals. One band was made up in great part of large crystals of mica, and portions of the vein consisted of a granular saccharoidal feldspar. The famous locality of red, green and blue tourmalines, with beryl, lepidolite, amblygonite, cassiterite, etc., at Mount Mica in Paris, is a huge granitic vein, which, with many others, is included in a dark colored very micaceous gneiss. § 18. In AVestbrook numerous small veins of this kind, holding coarsely lamellar orthoclase with black tourmaline and red garnet, intersect strata of fine-grained whitish granitoid gneiss. In Wind- ham the dark colored staurolite-bearing mica-schist of this series is traversed by a granitic vein holding crystals of beryl. In Lewiston a large vein of coarse graphic granite, holding black tourmaline, and showinti; fine-iirrained bands, cuts a areat mass of bluish gneissoid limestone, which forms an escarpment near the railroad, about half a mile below the town. This limestone, which dips eastward about 15'^, is interlaminated witli thin quartzite beds, which are seen on weathered surfaces to be much contorted. Yol. Y. B ** Xo. 4. 398 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [D ec. The bluish crystalline limestone is mixed with grains of greenish pyroxene, and includes nodular granitic masses of white crystalline orthoclase with quartz, enclosing large plates of graphite, crystals of hornblende, and more rarely of apatite. These associations of minerals are met with in the granitic veins of the Laurentian limestones, to be noticed elsewhere. The limestone of Lewiston, however, appears to be included in the great mica-schist series of the region ; where similar beds, though less in extent, are met with in various places, sometimes associated with pyroxene, garnet, idocrase and sphene. A thin band of impure pyroxenic limestone, like that of Lewiston, occurs with the mica-schists on the 3Iaine Central Railroad, near Danville Junction, and beds of a purer crystalline limestone were formerly quarried in the south-east part of Brunswick, where they are interstratified with thin-bedded dark hornbiendic and micaceous gneiss, dipping kS. E. at a high angle. § 19. At Danville Junction strata of hornbiendic and mica- ceous gneiss, passing into mica-schists, dip S. E. at moderate ancles, and include huge veins of endogenous granite. Two of these appear in the hill just south of the railroad station, appar- ently running with the strike of the beds. They are seen to rest, upon the mica-schist, and in one of them a mass of this rock, three feet in width, is enclosed like a tonsue in the granite, which has a transverse breadth of about seventv-five feet. Notwithstanding the apparent intercalation of these granitic masses the proof of their foreign origin is evident in a transverse fracture and slight vertical dislocation of the mica-schist, around the broken edges of which the granite is seen to wrap. The endogenous character of this granite is well shown by its banded structure ; belts of white quartz some inches wide alternate with others of coarsely cleavable orthoclase, while other portions hold black tourmalines and garnets of considerable size. The evidence of disturbance of the strata in connection with these endogenous granites is seen on a large scale at the falls of the Sunday River in Ketchum. There, mica-schists and gneisses, similar to those already noticed, enclose great masses of endoge- nous granite, which are seen to be transverse to the strata. On one side of such a mass more than sixty feet wide, the schistose strata are twisted from their regular N. E. strike to the N. W., and so enclosed in the granite as to appear as if interstratified with it for short distances. The banded structure of the trans- V3rse granite veins is here very marked. Some portions present 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 399 cleavage- planes of orthoclase six inches in diameter ; other parts, which are less coarse, abound in mica. Similar banded granite veins abound in the adjoining towns of Xewry and North Bethel, and sometimes present layers of quartz six inches or more in thick- ness, besides large crystals of mica, and more rarely apatite. These veins are often irregular in shape and bulging at intervals, and they sometimes lun partially across the beds, which seem to have been distended and disturbed, a fiict which was also observed in the thin-bedded schists in contact with some of the veins in Brunswick, and is apparently due to the expansive force of crystallization, as noticed in § 27. § 20. The locality already described at Danville offers an iiistructive example of a phenomenon often met with in the region now under consideration, where granitic masses, resisting the actions which have deirraded the soft enclosino; schists, stand out in relief on the surface, and seem to constitute the rock of the country. A careful search will however show that they are simply veins or endogenous masses of very limited dimensions, rising from out of the mica-schists, which are often concealed by the soil. This is well seen about the lower falls of the Presump- scott near Portland, where the mica-schists with some fine-grained gneisses, dipping S. E. at angles of from 30*^ to 40°, enclose large numbers of granitic veins, which, though sometimes but a few inches in breadth, often measure twenty or even fifty feet, and are usually very coarse-grained, with white mica, black tourmaline, and more rarely beryl. They are sometimes transverse to the stratification, but more often parallel, and, rising above the soil, are very conspicuous. §21. AVe have already noticed the exotic granites of Bidde- ford, which are intruded among fine-grained bluish or grayish silicious strata. These latter are traversed by numerous veins of endogenous granite, which are very imlike in aspect to the intru- sive rock. One of these veins near Saco Pool, has a diameter of about an inch and a half, and presents on either wall a layer of yellowish crystalline feldspar about one fourth of an inch in thick- ness, which includes long plates of dark brown mica. These penetrate the central portion of the vein, which is a broadly crys- talline bluish orthoclase, enclosing small portions of quartz after the manner of a graphic granite. The yellowish and less coarsely crystalline feldspar with its accompanying mica, had evidently lined the walls of the vein while the centre yet remained open, and 400 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. had moreover entirely filled a small lateral braucli. The same conditions are seen in the filliQcr of other veins in this vicinitv, which are often much larger, and present upon their walls bands of an inch or two of the yellowish feldspar with mica. The successive filling of a granitic vein is still more clearly shown in a specimen from Sherbrooke, Nova Scotia, which I owe to the kindness of Prof. H. Y. Hind. The vein, which is seen to be transverse to the adherent fine-grained mica-schist, lias a breadth of nearly four inches, about two-thirds of which is sym- metrical, and is included between two layers, perpendicular to the walls, consisting of a fine-grained mixture of white feldspar and quartz, each about one-fourth of an inch thick, and marked by subordinate zones, more or less quartzose. AVithin these two bands is a coarser aggregate, consisting of two feldspars, with some quartz and muscovite, plates of w^hich, and crystals of pink orthoclase penetrate an irregular la3'^er of smoky quartz varying from one-eighth to one-half an inch in diameter. This fills the center of the symmetrical portion of the vein, on one side of which is the mica-schist, while the other is bounded by a band of more than half an inch of fine-grained granite with yellowish-green mica, presenting large crystals of feldspar near the outer margin; where it is succeeded by a layer of pure smoky vitreous quartz of about the same thickness, whose outer surface, against the wall, shows irregular bosses or nodular masses, the depressions between which are occupied by a finely granular micaceous aggregate unlike any other part of the vein in texture. This description may be read in connection with the remarks in § 27. Dana has described and fi2;ured a similar granitic vein, band- ed with quartz, observed by him at Valparaiso in Chili, (Manual of Geology, 1862, p. 713). -•' and has moreover maintained that such granitic veins, like ordinary metalliferous lodes, are clearly concretionary in their origin, and have been filled by slow and suc- cessive deposits from aqueous solutions. His testimony to the views which I have advocated in this paper had been overlooked by me, or it would have been noticed in § 12. § 22. The numerous granitic veins so well known to mineral- ogists in the mica-schists and gneisses of New Hampshire, Mas- sachusetts and Connecticut, including among other familiar localities, Grafton, Acworth, lloyalston, Norwich, Goshen, Ches- * From U, S. Esploring Expedition, Report on the Geology, 1849, p. 570. 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 401 terfield, Middleton aud Haddam, seem from descriptions, and from their mineral constituents to be similar to those of Maine, already mentionad. With the exception of Royalston however these localities are as yet only known to me from specimens and descriptions. It ii noteworthy that at this last the finely-crystal- lized beryls are directly imbedded in vitreous quartz, and the same is the case with the blue and jireen tourmalines of Goshen. A remarkable example of a vein of this character occurs in Buck- field, Maine, described to me by Prof. Brush, where large isola- ' ted crystals of white orthoclase, nearly colorless muscovite aud brown tourmaline occur in a vein of vitreous quartz. At Paris and at Hebron, Maine, tourmalines are found penetrating crystals of quartz. The flattened tourmalines and garnets found in mus- covite at several localities in New England, are well known to col- lectors, and a curious example of enclosure has been observed by Prof. Brush at Hebron, where crystals of muscovite are encased in lepidolite. § 2o. The following list includes the principal mineral species found in these granitic veins in New England : apatite, ambly- gonite, triphylline, autunite, yttrocerite, orthoclase, albite, oligo- clase, spodumene, iolite, muscovite, biotite, lepidolite, cookeite. chlorite, chlorophyllite, garnet, epidote, tourmaline, beryl, zircon, ([uartz, chrysoberyl, automolite, cassiterite, rutile, brookite, uran- inite, columbite, pyrochlore, scheelite, and bismutite. As I am not aware that chlorite has hitherto been mentioned as a constitu- ent of these veins, it nuiy be said that it occurs in one at Albany, Maine. To the above should probably be added the rare species nepheline, cancrinite and sodalite, which have long been known in boulders of a granite-like rock in Maine. According to informa- tion given me by Prof. Brush, green claeolite with white ortho- clase and black biotite occurs in a granitic vein twenty feet in breadth, lately observed in the northwest jmrt of Litchfield, Maine. § 24. "We have seen that these endogenous veins are found alike in the gneisses, mica-schists, limestones and quartzose strata • 'f tills region. They are also met with in the eruptive granites, small fissures in which are sometimes filled with coarsely crystal- line orthoclase, smoky quartz, various micas and zircon. Examples of this are seen in the granites of Ilampstead, New Brunswick, and Mt. Uniacke, Nova Scotia. The fine green feldspar of Cape Ann, Mass., and the miens, cryophyllite and lepidomelnne with 402 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. zircon, described by Prof. Ccoke, from the same region, occur in veins in the horublendic granites of that locality, Small veins cat'ing a scmewtat similar rock at Marblehead, contain crystal- lized green epidote with white quartz and red orthoclase. § 25. The veins which we have described are frequently of very limited extent, and seem to occupy short and irregular fis- sures, while in other cases the mineral aggregates which charac- terize them occur in nests or geodes. This is seen near Fall Brook in the Nerepis valley in New Brunswick, where the red micaceous granite is in one part very friable, and presents irregu. lar geode-like cavities, sometimes several inches in diameter, which are partially filled by radiating prisms of black tourmaline, accompanied with quartz and albite crystals, and more rarely small octahedrons of purple fluorine. The enclosing granite is composed of deep red orthoclase, with small portions of a white triclinic feldspar, smoky quartz and black mica. The conditions seen at this place recall the description of the ftimous locality of feldsnars, etc., at Fariolo near Baveno in Northern Italy. The rock described as a granite, resembles, in a specimen before me^ some of the intrusive granites of New Brunswick, and contains a pink and a white feldspar, with a little Hack mica. It includes veins of graphic granite, and also spheroidal masses, which differ in texture from the mass of the rock, and present geodes of con- siderable size, lined with fine large red and white crystals of or- thoclase, accompanied by albite, epidote, quartz, fluorine and a greenish mica (or chlorite) all of which, according to Fouruet, are so mingled and interlocked as to show that they are of contem- poraneous origin. To these are to be added, as occurring in the o-eodes, prehnite, calcite, hyalite, and specular iron. The ortho- clase crystals often have adhering to their opposite faces crystal- line plates of albite, which are larger than the planes to which they are attached. The crystals of orthoclase moreover frequently present hollowed-out or hopper- shaped faces, which Fournet happily describes as resulting from the forming of the frame-work or skeleton of the crystals, when the material was not sufiicient for their completion. A process analogous to this is often seen in crystallization, whether from fusion, solution or vaporous condensation, giving rise in some cases to external de- pressions, and in others to internal cavities in the resulting crystals. Fournet ascribes the formation of th3 geodes in the granite of Fariolo to a process of shrinking and a subsequent segregation 1870, J T. s. Huxr — ON granitic rocks. 403 filling the resulting cavities, in wbicli he is forced to recognize the intervention of water, though by no means admitting the aqueous origin of veins, since he holds even those of quartz to liave been formed by igneous injection. (Gcologie Lt/onnalsc^ ='^■278. § 2G, When we consider the cause which has produced the fis- sures in the mica-schisis and gneisses of New England, which hold the granitic veins already described, it is to be remarked that their comparative abundance, their shortness and their ir- regularity destinguish them from the fissures which are filled with eruptive rocks. Examples of the latter maybe seen near Dan- ville. Maine, where dykes of fine-grained dolerite are posterior to the eudouenous granitic veins here occuring in the mica-schist. These dykes may be supposed to be dependent upon movements in the earth's crust opening deep fissures which connected with some softened rock far below. Through such openings were ex- travasated the exotic rocks, whether granites or dolerites, — more or less homogeneous mixtures, often widely different in composition from the encasing rocks. The endogenous veins, on the contrary, are distinguished not only by their more or less heterogeneous and often banded structure, but by the fact that their principal con- stituents are the mineral species most common in the adjacent strata. § 27, A'^olgcr has attributed the formation of the openings containing concretionary veins to the force of crystallization, which is shown to be very great in the congelation of water and the crystallizing of salts in cavities and fissures. Such a process once commenced in an opening in a rock would, he conceived, be sufiicient to make still wider the fissure, which might be fed by fresh solutions passing by capillarity through the pores of the rock. If this process were to become concentrated around several points, the intermediate space might be so opened that free crystallization could go on, resulting in the production of geodes in veins thus formed. Fournet, on the other hand, suggests that contraction in the cooling of erupted granites gave origin to the fissures and geodes now filled or partially filled with crystalline minerals at Fariolo, and we may readily suppose that a process of contraction attendant upon the crystalline aggregation of the materials of sedimentarv strata, would give rise to rifts or fissures therein. The lesions thus produced in the solid rocks become more or less completely 404 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. repaired, if we may so speak, by an effusion of njineral matter from the walls, and thus are generated geodes, irregular masses and many veins. That the process imagined by Volger may in some cases intervene, and may act subsequently to the one just imagined, is highly probable, though we are disposed to assign it but a secondary place in the production of vein-fisures. It offers however the most plausible explanation of the distortion of the thin-bedded strata already noticed in connection with some of the concretionary granitic veins of Maine, which seem, by a process of "Towth. to have bent outward the adjacent beds. The vertical transverse veins are, in many cases at least, unsymmetrical, as if they had grown from one side, while the distortion of the beds, sometimes attended by irregular concretions in the banded vein- stone, appears at the opposite wall. The notion that the vein- fissures opened as crystallization advanced, has been defended by Griiner. § 28. It is not here the place to discuss how far the greater and deeper fissures of the earth are dependent upon the contraction of sediments, as just explained, or upon the wider spread move- ments of the earth's crust, though even of these it may be said that they are more or less directly the results of a process of contraction. It should however be noted that while some fissures of this kind are filled with dykes of erupted rocks (§ 2(3), others hold concre. tionary veins, which are to be distinguished from the class of veins just described, inasmuch as the openings in which they were deposited evidently communicated with the surface of the earth. Examples of these are seen in the lead and zinc-bearing veins with calcite amd barytine, which traverse vertically the carboniferous limestone in England, and enclose in their central portions material of liassic age, abounding in the remains of a marine and a fresh, water fauna, which show these veins to have been deposited in fissures communicating with the surface-waters of the liassic period. For a description of these veins by Mr. Charles Moore, see the Report of the British Association, for 1869, and Amer. Jour, of Science II, 1, 365. Similar evidence is afforded by the existence of rounded pebbles imbedded in veins, as observed in Bohemia, and also in Cornwall, where numerous pebbles both of slate and quartz were found at a depth of six hundred feet in a lode, cemented by tinstone and sulphuret of copper. (Lyell, Student's Elements of Geology, p. 593. Not less instructive in this connection are the observations of Mr. J. A. Phillips, on the silicious veinstones 1870.] T. S. HUNT — ON GRANITIC ROCKS. 405 now in process of formation in open fissures in Nevada (L. E. and D. Pliil. Mag. (4), xxxvi, 321, 422, Amer. Jour, of Science II, xlvii, 138). We cannot doubt that the ancient, like these modern veins, have been channels for the discharge of subterranean mineral waters, and it would seem that while the deposition of the incrust- inn: materials on the walls of the fissure is in part due to coolin"-. and in part perhaps to the infiltration, in some cases, of precipitants from lateral sources, it is chiefly to be ascribed to the reduction of solvent power consequent upon the diminution of pressure as the waters rise nearer to the surface. This conclusion, deducible from the researches of Sorby on the relation of pressure to solubility, I have pointed out in the Geological Magazine for February, 1868, p. 57. See also Amer. Jour, of Science, II, 1, 27. § 29. There is evidently a distinction to be drawn between veins which have been open channels, and the segregated masses and geodes formed in cavities which appear to have been every- where limited by the enclosing rock. In the former case, a free circulation of the mineral solution would prevail, while in the latter there could be no renewal of it except by percolation or diffusion through the rock. A comparison between the contents of geodes and fissure-veins, whether in granite rocks or in fossiliferous lime- stones, will however show that these differences do not sensibly affect the mineral constitution of the deposits. § 30. The range of conditions under which the same mineral species may be formed is apparently very great. Sorby, from his investigations of the fluid-cavities of crystals, concludes that the quartz which occurs with cassiterite, mica and feldspar in the granitic veins of Cornwall, must have crystallized at temperatures from 200° to 340° Centigrade, and under great pressure, con- ditions which we can hardly suppose to have presided over the production of the crystallized quartz found in the unaltered tertiaries of the Paris basin, or the auriferous conglomerates of California. In like manner beryl, though a common mineral of the tin-bearing granite veins, like those studied by Sorby, occurs at the famous emerald mine of Muso in New Grenada, in veins in a black bituminous limestone, holding ammonites, and of neoco- mian age, its accompaniments being calcite, quartz and carbonate of lanthanum (parisite). Small crystals of emerald are dissemi- nated through this aigillaceous somewhat magnesian limestone which contains moreover a small amount of glucira in a condition 406 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. soluble in acids. (Lewy, Ann. de Ch. et Pht/s., liii, 1 — 26, and Fournet, Gcol. Lyonnaise. 455). § 31. To these we may add the production of various hydrated crystallized silicates, including apophyllite, harmotome and cha- bazite, during the historic period in the masonry of the old Roman baths at Plombieres and Luxeuil, and by the action of waters at temperatures of from 46^ to 70^ Centigrade ; the presence of apophyllite, natrolite and stilbite in the lacustrine tertiary limestones of Auvergne ; apophyllite iucrusting fossil wood, and chabazite crystals lining shells in a recent deposit in Iceland. The association of such hydrated silicates with ortho- clase, as already noticed (§ 13) and as described by Scheerer. where natrolite and orthoclase envelope each other, showing their contemporaneous formation, with many other facts of a similar kind, lead to the conjecture that orthoclase, like beryl and quartz, and perhaps some other constituents of granitic veins, may have crystallized in many cases at temperatures much lower than those determined by Sorby, and thatthe conditions of their production include a considerable range of temperature ; a conclusion which is however, probably true to some extent, of zeolites also. It is proposed to continue the subject of granitic veins, and in a third part of this paper to give some facts in the history of the veinstones of Laurentian rocks. NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. By Hrnry Ekeks, Y.^a[., F.L.S., <^'e. (^Continued from page 304.) Procellakiid.e. Fulmar Petrel, Proccllaria glacialis, Linn. — Apparently common in its migrations, but I could not learn that it bred on the island. LeacJis Pcttel, Thalassidroma Leachi {Temm.) — Tolerably common, and probably breeds on some of the islands in company with the following species. 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 407 Wilson's Stormij Petrel, T. Wilsoni, Bon. — Appeared to be more coniiuon than T. LeacJii, and was said to breed on several islands along the coast of Newfoundland, especially at Port an Port ; it is very probable, however, that some of these reported breeding places refer to the following species. Stornii/ Petrel or Mother Carejfs Chicken, T. pelagica (^Linn.) — A common summer migrant, remaining probably until the appearance of the drift ice. Breeds on many of the islands round the coast. Greater Shearwater, Puffinus major (^Faber.) — I have never observed this species so far north as Cow Head, but it appeared tolerably common in the Gulf of St. Lawrence^ on the west coast of Newfoundland. Sooti/ Shcaricater, P. fuliginosus, Strick. — Common on the banks of Newfoundland, but rather rare in the Straits of Labrador. Manx Shearicater, P. anglorum, luii/. — Tolerably common, especially about the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The shearwaters are rarely, if ever, seen on the islands near the coast of Newfoundland. They are to be seen at all seasons in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, which has given rise to some curious ideas among the sailors, viz., that these birds never breed, or that during; the breeding season the females retire to some vnhiouii islands for that purpose. Their breeding stations are equally unknown to the settlers, but they are probably on some of the surf bound islands on the "banks" — once the fiwourite resort of the creat auk. Larid^. Pomartne Skua, Stercorarius pomarinus, Ternm. — Common, especially in the fall of the year. Arctic Skua, S. parasiticus (^Linn.) — Most common in spring and fall. This and the preceding are called '• dung birds" by the settlers, evidently from the manner in which they persecute the smaller species of Laridec, and devour not only their disgorged food but also their foeces. Buffonh Skua, S. cepphus {Bnlnn.) — Appeared to be a rather rare periodical migrant, but it is difficult to distinguish the three skuas on wing, even with the aid of a good glass ; from specimens obtained this species seems to be the rarest. Glaucous Gull, Larus glaucus Brtinn. — Tolerably common in its periodical migrations, especially in the fall of the year, and 408 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. during stron;^: gales of north-westerly winds. It is called the '' large ice gull." White-winged GuU, L. leucopterus, Fabcr. — Like the preced- ing species a periodical migrant, and most common in the fall of the year. Great Blachhached GuU, L, mariuus, Linn. — A common sum- mer migrant, arriving towards the last of April and remaining un- til the drift-ice appears. It builds its nest of grass and rushes, on rocks and small islands, most commonly in fresh-water ponds and lakes, but very frequently in similar situations in bays, kc. Provincial name, " Saddler Gull." Herring Gull,^^ L. argentatus, Brunn. — Abundant throughout the summer, and breeds in similar situations, and often in com- pany with the preceding and following species. It is called the '' blue gull" by the settlers. Ring-hilled Gull, L. Delawarensis, Ord. — Common throughout the summer. Provincial name"squeezy gull." x\ll the above species of Larus are carnivorous, but more especially L. glaucus and L. marinus. No sooner does a dead or dying bird appear on the surface of the water (the raven generally secures such prizes when washed ashore.) than it Is quickly espied by the gulls, which immediately commence squalling and in circUng flights survey their victim. Should it prove to he a goose or duck, or even one of their own species, the '-old saddler" (L. Diarinus) usually commences operations ; this it does, if the bird is quite dead, by standino" oi the floating body and picking first the neck and then the breast, and in a wonderfully short time the gulls devour every part of a tine fat goose except the bones and feathers : I liave often watched the process in, I fear, a rather dog-in-the-manger spirit — having first killed or crippled the goose for them. Bonapjrtes Gull, Chroicocephalus Philadelphia(Ord'.) — I have every reason to believe this little gull occurs occasionally in the Straits of Labrador. During the fall (Aug. and Sept.) of 18G6, and again in 1867, I saw gulls (on wing) which I could refer to no other species, and the settlers, to whom I showed specimens of the following species, said they were larger than the " tickler." — a small gull with which they evidently seemed familiar, and one ^ Professor Newton informs me "' that the American form of this bird has been of late regarded as distinct under the name of i. Smithsonianws." 1870.] REEKS — ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAM>. 409 which I think will prove to be this species.^ As the species of some of the Larldce in immature plumage ar3 not easily deter- mined, even by naturalists, there is room to doubt the testimony of fishermen, as well as my own, as to the identity of C. Philadel- phia with the provincial name "tickler;" at the same time I think it would be negligent on my part not to mention (he evidence in favor of its occurrence on the coast of Newfoundland. Because so celebrated an ornithologist as Audubon did not see it, there is no reason why another person may not. Kittiwahe GnU, Eissa tridactylus (Linn,) — Tolerably com- mon, especially in its periodical migrations. 1 did not hear of any breedino; station on the island. luov}/ Gull, Pagophila eburnea (^Gmelin.) — A very rare period- ical migrant on the X. W. coast of Newfoundland. Two were ob- tained at Parson's Pond in January 1867, and another in January 1868; they were brought to me for identification, being unknown to the settler who shot them, and who, strange to say, killed all the three specimens. They were shot during a gale from the S. E., so that they must have flown across the island, which is narrow at this part, and not more than fifty miles from water to water. Sabine's Gidl ov Fork-tailed 6'i(Z/, Xema Sabinii (^Saline). — A periodical visitor, but not common at Cow Head. Caspian Tern. Sterna caspia, Pallas. — A tolerably common summer migrant, and breeds on many of the islands along the coast : I obtained eggs in the Bay of St. Paul. The settlers call it the '-'mackerel bird." Wilson's Tern, S. Wilsoni, Bonap. — The most abundant species on that part of the coast which I visited. It arrives early in June, congregating and breeding on the coast islands as well as the main- land. Arctic Tern, S. macrura, Nawnan. — Hare at Cow Head ; otherwise I confused it with the preceding species. Both are called '' steerings " by the settler — a name which their cry sug- gests. Some few small islands round the coasts of Newfoundland have been named " Steering" Islands from the number of terns which breed on them, althouiih the name susjrest a nautical derivation. "" There is certainly a possibility that the American Black headed Gull ( Chroicocephalus atriciUa) goes farthernorth than Massachusetts, and visits the coasts of XewfoundlaucI ; perhaps in company with C. PhilacMphia. 410 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. Least Terji, S. frenata, Gamhel. — Apparently very rare. I only examined one specimen, which was shot about the 10th of September, 1887. This bird was probably blown across to New- foundland by X.W. gales, which often prevail at that season. SULID.E, Common Gannet, Sula bassana (^Linn.^ — A very common summer migrant and constant attendant on the large shoals of mackarel and herring, which are migratory in spring and fall, the seasons of which are indicated to the settlers by gannets and gulls. Phalacrocoracid.t: — The Cormorants. Common Cormorant, Graculus caibo (^Linn.) — A summer migrant and very abundant at some breeding stations along the coast. Douhle-crested Cormorant, G. dilophus (Swain.') — Equally abundant with the preceding ; both species fly in the form of the letter Y reversed, and breed in colonies: G. dilophus is said to breed in trees in Hawk's Bav, Newfoundland. C0LYMBID.E. Loon or Great Xortliern Diver, ColymbusTorquatus, Brann. — A very common summer migrant to Newfoundland, where it is called ''Loo," not Loon. At this season nearly every lake and large pond is tenanted by its pair of loos; I say by its pair, because I believe the same pair, unless destroyed or continually disturbed, invariably return to the same site for many years. In 1867 a female loo hatched her two es2;s on a rock in Parson's Pond, within gunshot of a house of one of the settlers. The house was not usually tenanted during summer, but some of the family were daily going to and fromit. Tie same pair of birds (?) had for many years hatched their young on this rock, which sloped gra- dually into the water, and was nowhere at that season more than a foot out of water. "When built on an island, or by the side of a lake, I have never known the nest more than three feet from the water, and very rarely so much : the birds are very awkward walk^ ers, although wonderfully strong on wing, and breed on many ol' the lakes in the interior of Newfoundland; not only on the plains but on the high table-land, upwards of two thousand feet above ihe sea. Loos are often taken in the salmon-nets of the settlers: 1 got a very fine adult male taken in this way on July 10th, 1867. 1S70.] ItEEKS — ON BIRDS OT NEWFOUNDLAND. 411 The settlors easily *•' tole" these birds withiu gunshot by secretiug themselves and waving a cap or red handkerchief. So fascinating is the red handkerchief that I have seen the same bird " toled" up within easy range, and shot at two or three times before it was killed; they are such expert divers, that they are far more easily toled than shot on the water. Young birds are sometimes so fat in the fall of the year, that I have seen the fat lining the inside of the skin average half an inch in thickness ! The settlers affirm that there are two species of Loos ; the great northern, which they call the '" spotted loo," and another with the throat white, which is termed the " whitethroated loo." and which is distinguished from the young of C. torquafns in its first years plumage by having the feathers on the back spotted with white instead of '' margined with greyish white.' Certain it is that plenty of such birds are seen every summer, /. e., June and July; and, although the settlers say that they have found nests of the *' whitethroated species (?), I am under the impression that they will prove to be non-breeding birds of C. torquatus in the second year's plumage — a state of which I have seen no description. The fiict, however, of these birds being found at mid-summer white-throated and with the back spotted is worthy of note, because the great northern diver has scarcely commenced laying at that season.^'' Redthwatcd Diver, C. Septentrionalis, Linn. — A common summer migrant, breeding generally in some of the smaller ponds in the marshes ; placing its nest on a tussock of grass surrounded by water, Podiceps ? A species of grebe was caught in the marshes near Cow Head by one of the settlers, and was considered a great curiosity by all who saw it. This occurred a year or two before I got there, and unfortunately no part of the bird was preserved ; it was probably a straggler from the Labrador shore, as none have been taken since, neither could I learn of any pre- vious capture. Alcid.e. Great Auk; A!c i impennis, Linn. — With this species I arrive at the most interesting of Newfoundland birds — once abundant, but now, alas! T fear extinct, or nearly so. Almost the sole ob- * Adult specimens of C. Torquatua had the bill black tipped with horn ; while immature birds had the bill horn coloured, with ridge of upper mandible dlctck. 412 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec ject of my visiting the island was to collect further information from those who were likely to have met with this bird, — which is called "Pinwing"^' by the settlers, mud not Penguin, as Audubon informs us, — in a living state, and also, if possible, to visit the is- lands OQ the east coast, more especially Funk and neighboring is- lands. The latter intention was, however unfortunately frustrated by the severe accident I met with so shortly after my arrival, and, although I met several old settlers who had seen the living bird fishing in the mouths of Bonne Bay, Bay of Islands and Bay of St. George, none could with certainty tell me when the last was either seen or captured. I was, however, informed by some of the settlers that " a living pinwing was caught by one Captain Stirling about twelve years ago," but whether destroyed or not I could not learn : Captain Stirling was crowned and his vessel wrecked some seven or eight years since. I have no doubt this tale is true in the main ; the only questionable part being the exact date which, from my experience of these good-hearted peiple, is just as likely to have been fifteen or sixteen years ago as " about twelve." The fact recorded by Col. Drummond-Hay (Ibis,' 18G1, p. 397) of a living specimen of A. impennis being seen on the banks of Newfoundland so recently as 1852, and also of another picked up dead the following year in Trinity Bay, goes far to substantiate the statement of the settlers, and, I think, to fix the time at about that date. The settlers generally believe that the pinwing is not extinct, but such testimony cannot be of the slightest value, as they have no reason ichj it should not be so ; neither have I, although I fondly — some will perhaps say foolishly — cherish the same belief, except that vessels have no object in going within several miles of the surf-bound and dangerous islands on the southern and eastern coasts, which are the most likely to hold the great auk at the present day. As Mr. Gurney ('Zoologist,' S.S., p. 1640) appears under the impression that the mummy of the great auk forwarded to the • Professor Newton tells me that more than ten years ago he formed the opinion (from the fact that the operation known as "jjinion/??^; " is called " pin-iL'in(jing " in some parts of England) that the name " Penguin," or " Pingwin "' as it is often also spelled, was hut a corrup- tion ot the word Pin win.;, and had been applied to certain sea-fowl which being unable to flj appeared to have been ''pin-winged." Until quite lately informed by me, he did not know that the 2s'ewfoundlaud name of Alca impennis was so pronounced as to give support to his theory. 1870.1 REEKS— ON BIRDS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. 413 British Museum by Mr. J. M. Jones,* President of the Nova Scotia Institute of Natural Science, was '' found by the Bishop of Newfoundland while on a missionary cruise at Funk Island," I will take the liberty of transcribing his lordship's letter t) Mr. Jones as it appears in the "Transactions of the N.Scotia Institute of Nat. Science," the more so as I wish to make a few remarks thereon. The italics are mine : — ''ht too heavy for him, the energy which would have appeared as work, takes the form of heat : a result deducible by the law of correla- tion from the steam-engine. The last of the so-called vital forces which we are to examine, is that produced by the nerves and nervous centers. In the nerve which stimulates a muscle to contract, this force is undeniably motion, since it is propagated along this nerve from one extremity to the other. In common language, too, this idea finds currency in the comparison of this force to electricity ; the gray or cellular matter being the battery, the white or fibrous matter the conduc- tors. That this force is not electricity, however, Du Bois-Rey- mond has demonstrated by showing that its velocity is only 97 feet in a second, a speed equalled by the greyhound and the race-horse.^" In his opinion, the propagation of a nervous impulse is a sort of molecular polarization, like magnetism. But that this aaent is a force as analogous to electricity as is magnetism, is shown not only by the fact that the transmission of electricity along a nerve will cause the contraction of the muscle to which it leads, but also by the more important fact that the contraction of a muscle is excited by diminishing its normal electrical current ; ^^ a result which could take place only with a stimulus closely allied to electricity. Nerve- force, therefore, must be a transmuted potential energy. AVhat, now, shall we say of that highest manifestation of animal life, thought-power? lias the upper region called intelligence and reason, any relations to physical force? This realm has not escaped the searching investigation of modern science ; and 428 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. although in it investigations are vastly more difficult than in any of the regions thus far considered, yet some results of great value have been obtained, which may help us to a solution of our problem. It is to be observed at the outset that every external manifestation of thought-force is a muscular one, as a word spoken or written, a gesture, or an expressson of the face; and hence this force must be intimately correlated with nerve-force. These manifestations, reaching the mind through the avenues of sense, awaken accordant trains of thought only when this muscular evidence is understood. A blank sheet of paper excites no emotion ; even covered with Assyrian cuneiform characters, its alterations of black and white awaken no response in the ordinary brain. It is only when, by a frequent repetition of these im- pressions, the brain-cell has been educated, that these before meaningless characters awaken thought. Is thought, then, simply a cell-action which may or may not result in muscular expression, — an action which originates new combinations of truth only, precisely as a calculating machine evolves new combinations of figures ? Whatever we define thought to be, this fact appears certain, that it is capable of external manifestation by conversion into the actual energy of motion, and only by this conversion. But here the question arises. Can it be manifested inwardly without such a transformation of energy? Or is the evolution of thought entirely independant of the matter of the brain ? Expe- rimeots, ingenious and reliable, have answered this question. The importance of the results will, I trust, warrant me in examining the methods employed in these experiments somewhat in detail. Inasmuch as our methods for measuring minute amounts of electricity are very perfect, and the methods for the conversion of heat into electricity are equally delicate, it has been found that smaller difi'erences of temperature may be recognized by convert- ing the heat into electricity, than can be detected thermometri- cally. The apparatus first used by Melloni in 1832,^- is very simple, consisting first, of a pair of metallic bars like those de- scribed in the early part of the lecture, for effecting the conversion of the heat ; and second, of a delicate galvanometer, far measuring the electricity produced. In the experiments in question one of the bars used was made of bismuth, the other of an alloy of antimony and zinc.^^ Preliminary trials having shown that any change of temperature within the skull was soonest manifested externally in that depression which exists just above the occipital 1870.] BARKER — ON VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. 429 protuberance, a pair of these little bars was fastened to the head at this point; and to neutralize the results of a general rise of temperature over the whole body, a second pair, reversed in direction, was attached to the leg or arm, so that if a like increase of heat came to both, the electricity developed by one would be neutralized by the other, and no ejBFect be produced upon the needle unless only one was affected. By long practice it was assertained that a state of mental torpor could be induced, lasting for hours, in which the needle remained stationary. But let a person knock at the door outside the room, or speak a single word, even though the experimenter remained absolutely passive, and the reception of the intelligence caused the needle to swing- through 20 degrees.^^ In explanation of this production of beat, the analogy of the muscle at once suggests itself. No conversion of energy is complete ; and as the heat of muscular action repre- sents force which has escaped conversion into motion, so the heat evolved during the reception of an idea, is energy which has escaped conversion into thought, from precisely the same cause. Moreover, these experiments have shown that ideas which affect the emotions, produce most heat in their reception ; " a few minutes' recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, producing more effect than several hours of deep thought." Hence it is evident that the mechanism for the production of deep thought, accomplishes this conversion of energy far more perfectly than that which produces simply emotion. But we may take a step further in this same direction. A muscle, precisely as the law of correlation requires, develops less heat when doing work than when it contracts without doing it. Suppose, now, that beside the simple reception of an idea by the brain, the thought is expressed outwardly by some muscular sign. The conversion now takes two directions, and in addition to the production of thought, a portion of the energy appears as nerve and muscle-power ; less, therefore, should appear as heat, according to our law of correla- tion. Dr. Lombard's experiments have shown that the amount of heat developed by the recitation to one's self of emotional poetry, was in every case less when that recitation was oral ; i e., had a muscular expression. These results are in accordance with the well-known fact that emotion often finds relief in physical demonstrations ; thus diminishing the emotional energy by con- verting it into muscular. Nor do these facts rest upon physical evidence alone. Chemistry teaches that thought-force, like YoL.Y. D* Ko.4. 430 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. muscle-force, comes from the food ; and demonstrates that the force evolved by the brain, like that produced by the muscle, comes not from the disintegration of its own tissue, but is the converted energy of burning carbon. ^^ Can we longer doubt, then, that the brain, too, is a machine for the converssion of energy ? Can we longer refuse to believe that even thought is, in some mysterious way, correlated to the other natural forces ? and this, even in face of the fact that it has never yet been measured ?^® I cannot close without saying a word concerning the part which our own country has had in the development of these great truths. Beginning with heat, we find that the material theory of caloric is indebted for its overthrow more to the distinguished Count Eumford than to any other one man. While superintend- ing the boring of cannon at the Munich Arsenal, towards the 3lose of the last century, he was struck by the large amount of heat developed, and instituted a careful series of experiments to ascertain its origin. These experiments led him to the conclusion that " anything which any insulated body or system of bodies can continue to furnish without limitation, cannot possibly be a material substance." But this man, to whom must be ascribed the discovery of the first great law of the correlation of energy, was an American. Born in Woburn, Mass, in 1753, he, under the name of Benjamin Thompson, taught school afterward at Concord, N. H., then called Bumford. Uojustly suspected of toryism during our Bevolutionary w^ar, he went abroad and distinguished himself in the service of several of the governments of Europe. He did not forget his native land, though she had treated him so unfairly ; when the honor of nobility was tendered him, he chose as his title the name of the Yankee village where he had taught school, and was thenceforward known as Count Rumford. And at his death, by founding a professorship in Harvard College, and donating a prize-fund to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, he showed his interest in her prosperity and advancement.''' Nor has the field of vital forces been without earnest workers belonging to our own country. Professors John W. Draper^^ and Joseph Henry^^ were among its earliest explorers. And in 1851, Dr. J. H. Watters, now of St. Louis, published a theory of the origin of vital force, almost identical with that for which Dr. Carpenter, of London, has of late received so much credit. Indeed, there is some reason to 1870.] BARKER — ON VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. 431 believe that Dr. AVatters's essay may have suggested to the distinguished English physiologist the germs of his own theory/" A paper on this subject by Prof, Joseph Leconte, of Columbia, S. C, published in 1859, attracted much attention abroad.^' The remarkable results already given on the relation of heat to mental work, which thus far are unique in science, we owe to Professor J. S. Lombard, of Harvard College ; *'- the very combination of metals used in his apparatus being devised by our distinguished electrical engineer, Mr. Moses Gr. Farmer. Finally, researches conducted by Dr. T. R. Noyes, in the Physiological Laboratory of Yale College, have confirmed the theory that muscular tissue does not wear during action, up to the point of fatigue ; *^ and other researches by Dr. L. H. Wood have first established the same great truth for brain-tissue.^* We need not be ashamed, then, of our part in this advance in science. Our workers are, indeed, but few ; but both they and their results will live in the records of the world's progress. More would there be now of them were such studies more fostered and encouraged. Self- denying, earnest men are ready to give themselves up to the solution of these problems, if only the means of a bare subsistence be allowed them. When wealth shall foster science, science will increase wealth — wealth pecuniary, it is true : but also wealth of knowledge, which is far better. In looking back over the whole of this dicussion, I trust that it is possible to see that the objects which we had in view at its commencement have been more or less fully attained. I would fain believe that we now see more clearly the beautiful harmonies of bounteous nature ; that on her many-stringed instrument force answers to force, like the notes of a great symphony ; disappear- ing now in potential energy, and anon reappearing as actual energy, in a multitude of forms. I would hope that this wonderful unity and nuitual interaction of force in the dead forms of in- organic nature, appears to you identical in the living forms of animal and vegetable life, which make of our earth an Eden. That even that mysterious, and in many aspects awful, power of thought, hy which man influences the present and future ages, is a part of this great ocean of energy. But here the great question rolls upon us. Is it only this? Is there not behind this material substance, a higher than molecular power in the thoughts which are immortalized in the poetry of a Milton or a Shakespeare, the art creations of a Michael Angelo or a Titian, the harmonics of a 4.32 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [1870. Mozart or a Beethoven ? Is there really no immortal portion separable from this brain-tissue, though yet mysteriously united to it ? In a word, does this curiously-fashioned body inclose a soul, God-given and to God returning ? Here Science veils her face and bows in reverence before the Almighty, AYc have passed the boundaries by which physical science is inclosed. No crucible, no subtle magnetic needle can answer now our questions. No word but His who formed us, can break the awful silence. In presence of such a revelation Science is dumb, and faith comes in joyfully to accept that higher truth which can never be the object of physical demonstration. E'OTES AXD REFERENCES. 1. Humboldt, Yiews of Xatiire, Bohn's ed., London, 1850, p. 380. This Allegory did not appear in the first edition of the Yiews ot Xature. In the preface to the second edition the author gives the following account of its origin : " Schiller," he says, " in remembrance of his youthful medical studies, loved to converse with me, during my loUiT stay at Jena, on physiological subjects." * * * " it was at this period that I wrote the little allegory on Vital Force called the Rhodian Genius. The predilection which Schiller entertained for this piece, which he admitted into his periodical. Die Horen, gave me courage to introduce it here." It was published in Die Horen in 1795. 2, Humboldt, oj). cit, p. 386. In his Aplwrismi ex doctrina Phijsio- logice c/ie»uc«?PZ«n^«)'«t'«, appended to his Flora Frihcrgeiisia siihterranea, published in 1793, Humboldt had said " Yim interuam, qum chymicse affiuitatis viucula resolvit, atque obstat. quominus elemeuta corporum libere conjungantur, vitalem vocamus." " That internal force, which dissolves the bonds of chemical affinity, and prevents the elements of bodies from freely uniting, we call vital." But in a note to the allegory above mentioned, added to the third edition of the Yiews of Xature, in 1849, he says : " Reflection and prolonged study in the departments of physiology and chemistry have deeply shaken my earlier belief in peculiar so-called vital forces. In the year 1797, * * ^ I already declared that I bv do means regarded the existence of these peculiar vital forces as established." And again : "The difficulty of satisfacto- rily referring the vital phenomena of the organism to physical and chemical laws depends chiefly (and almost in the same manner as the prediction of meteorological processes in the atmosphere) on the com- plication of the phenomena, and on the great number of the simulta- neously acting forces, as well as the conditions of their activity." 3 Compare Henry Bence Jones, Croonian Lectures on Matter and Force. London, 1868, John Churchill & Sons. 4 lb, Preface, p. vi. 1870.] BARKER— ON VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. 433 5 Rankine, W. J. M., Philosophical Magazine, Feb. 1853. Also Edinburgh PhilosophicalJournal, July, 1855, 6 Armstrong, Sir TTm. In his address as President of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Kep. Brit. Assoc, 1863, li. 7 Grove, W. R., in 1842. Compare " ]N'ature" i, 335, Jan. 27, 1870. Also Appleton's Journal, iii, 324, March 19, 1870. 8 Id., in Preface to The Correlation of Physical Forces, 4th ed. Re- printed in the Correlation and Conservation of Forces ; edited by E. L. Youmans, p. 7. New York, 1805, D. Appleton & Co. 9 Id., ib.. Am. ed., p., 33 et seq. 10 Joule, J. P., Philosophical Transactions, 1850, p. 01. 1 1 See American Journal of Science, II, xxxvii, 290, 1804. 12 The work {W) done by a moving body is commonly expressed by the formula W=MV^ in which M, or the mass of the body, is equal to w — ; i. e., to the weight divided bv twice the intensity of gravity. The 2g " IX (1100)'' work done by our cannon-ball then, would be =9,404" 14 foot- 2X64^ tons. If, further, we assume the resisting body to be of such a character as to bring the ball to rest in moving i of an inch, then the final pressure would be 9,404-14x 12X4=451,3987 tons. But since, "in the case of a perfectly elastic body, or of a resistance proportional to the advance of the centre of gravity of the impinging body from the point at which contact first takes place, the final pressure (provided the body struck is perfectly rigid) is double what would occur were the stoppage to occur at the end of a corresponding advance against a uniform resistance," this result must be multiplied by two; and we get (451,3987 X2)=902,797 tons as the crushing pressure of the ball under these conditions. [The author's thanks are due to his friends Pres. F. A. P. Barnard and Mr. J. J. Skinner for suggestions on the, relation of impact to statical pressure.] 13 The unit of impact being that given by a body weighing one pound and moving one loot a second, the impact of such a body falling from a height of 772 feet— the velocity acquired being 222i feet per second (= V 2s^)— would be 1 X (222^)2 =49,408 units, the equivalent in impact of one heat-unit. A cannon ball weighing 1000 lbs. and moving 1100 feet a second would have an impact of (1100)2X1000=1,210,000,000 units, Dividing this by 49,408, the quotient is 24489 heat-units, the epuivalent of the impact. The specific heat of iron being 1138, this amount of heat would raise the temperature of one pound of iron 215,- 19rF., (24,489 X -1138) or of 1000 pounds of iron 215° F. 24489 pounds of water heated one degree, is equal to 136J pounds, or 17 gallons U. S., heated 180 degrees ; i. e., from 32° to 212^ F. 14 Assuming the density of the earth to be 5-5, its weight would be 6,500,000,000,000,000,000,000 tons, and its impact— by the formula given above — would be 1 ,025.000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 foot-tons. 434 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC. Making the same supposition as in the case of our cannon-ball, the final pressure would be that here statetl. 15 Tyxdall, J , Heat considered as a mode of Motion, Am.cd., p. 57, Xew York, 1863. 16 Rankine (The Steam Engine and other prime Movers, London, 1866) gives the efficiency of Steam-engines as from l-15th to l-20thof the heat of the fuel. Armstrong, Sir Wm., places this efficiency at 1-1 0th as the maximum In practice, the average result is only l-30th. Rep. Brit. Assoc, 1863, p. liv. Helmholtz, H. L. F., says; "The best expansive engines give back as mechanical work only eighteen per cent, of the heat generated by the fuel." Interaction of Natural Forces, in Correlation and Conserva- tion of Forces, p. 227. 17 Thomsen, Julius, PoggendorflPs Annalen, cxxv, 348, Also in abstract in Am. J. Sci., II, xli, 396, May, 1866. 18 American Journal of Science; II, xli. 214, March, 1866. 19 In this calculation the annual evaporation from the ocean is assum- ed to be about 9 feet. (See Dr. BuiST, quoted in Maury's Pays. Geo- graphy of the Sea, Xew York, 1861, p. 11.) Calhng the water-area of our globe ]50,000<000 square miles, the total evaporation in tons per minute, would be that here given. Inasmuch as 30,000 pounds raised one foot high is a horse-power, the number of horse-powers necessary to raise this quantity of water 3^ miles in one minute is 2,757,000,000,000. This amount of energy is precisely that set free again when this water falls as rain. 20 Compare Odling, "Wm., Lectures on Animal Chemistry, London, 1866, "In broad antagonism to the doctrines wbich only a few years back were regarded as indisputable, we now find that the chemist, like the plant, is capable of producing from carbonic acid and water a whole host of organic bodies, and we see no reason to question his ultimate ability to reproduce all animal and vegetable principles whatsoever." (p.58.) "Already' hundreds of organic principles have been built up. from their constituent elements, and there is now no reason to doubt our capability of producing all organic principles whatsoever in a similar manner." (P, 52.) Dr. Odling is the successor of Faraday as Fullcrian Professor of Chemis- try in the Rojal Institution of Great Britian, 21 Marshall, John, Outhnes of Physiology, American Edition, 1868, p. 916. 22 Fran KL AND, Edward, On the Source of Muscular Power, Proc, Roy. Inst., June 8, 1866 ; Am. J. Science, II, xln, 393, Xov. 1866. 23 LiEBiG, JusTUR VON, Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologic, Braunschweig. 1842. Also in his 1870.] BARKER — ON VITAL AND PHYSICAL FORCES. 435 Animal Chemistry, editicm of 1852 (Am. ed. p. 2G), where he says " Every motion increases the amount of organised tissue which undergoes metamorphosis." 24 Compare Draper, John TVm., Hbiman Physiology. Playfair Lyon, On the Food of Man in relation to his useful work Edinburgh, 1865. Proc. Roy. Inst., April 28, 1865. Ranke, Tetanus eine Physiologische Studie, Leipzig, 1865. Odling, OJ). cit. 25 YoiT, E., Uutersuchungen iiber den Einfluss des Kochsalzes, des Kaffees, und der Muskelheweguugeu auf deu StofFwechsel, Munich, I860. Smith, E., Philosophical Transactions, 1861, 747. FiCK, A., and Wmlicenus, J., Phil. Mag., IV, \x\, 485. Frankland, E., loc. cit. Is"oYEs, T. R., American Journal Medical Sciences, Oct., 1867. Parkks, E. a , Proceedings Royal Society, xv, 339, ; xvi, 44. 26 Smith, Edward, Philosophical Transactions, 1859, 709. 27 Authorities differ as to the amount of energy converted by the steam-engine. (See Xote 16.) Compare Marshall, oj). cit., p. 9 J 8. '* Whilst, therefore, in an engine one-twentieth part only of tlie fuel consumed is utilized as mechanical power, one-fifth of the food absorbed by man is so appropriated."' 28 Heidenhain, Mechanische Leistung Wiirmeeutwickelung und Stoffumsatz bei der Muskelthatigkeit, Breslau, 1864. See also Haughton Samuel, on the Relation of Food to "Work, pub- lished in " Medicine in Modern Times," London, 1869, Macmillan & Co. 29 Heidenhain, op. cit. Also by Fick, Untersuchungen iiber Muskel- orbeit, Basel, 1867. Compare also " is^ature," i, 159, Dec. 9, 1969. 30 Du Bois-Raymond, Emil, On the time required for the trans- mission of volition and sensation through the nerves, Proc. Roy. Inst. Also in Appendix to Bence Jones's Croouiau lectures. 31 Marshall, ojy. cit., p. 227. 32 Melloni, A-un. Ch. Phys., xlviii, 198, See also Xobili, Bibl. Univ., xliv, 225, 1830; Ivii, 1, 1834. 33 The apparatus employed is illustrated and fully described in Brown- Sequard's Archives de Physiologic, i, 498, June, 1868. By it the l-4000th of a degree Centigrade may be indicated. 34 Lombard, J. S., Ne^ York Medical Journal, v. 198, June, 1867. [A part of these facts were communicated to me directly by their dis- coverer. ] 35 Wood, L. H., On the influence of Mental Activity on the Excretion of Phosphoric Acid by the Kidneys. Proceedings Connecticut Medical Society for 1869, p. 197. 436 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [I)eC. 36 On this question of vital force, see Liebig, Animal Cbemistiy. " The increase of mass in a plant is determined by the occurrence of a decomposition which takes place in certain parts of the plant under the influence of light and heat." "The modern science of Physiology has left the track of Aristotle. To the eternal advantage of science, and to the benefit of mankind it no longer invents a horror vaciii, a qiiinta essentia, in order to furnish credulous hearers with solutions and explanations of phenomena, whose true connection with others, whose ultimate cause is still unknown." " All the parts of the animal body are produced from a peculiar fluid circulating in its organism, by virtue of an influence residing in every cell, in every organ, or part of an organ." " Physiology has sufficiently decisive grounds for the opinion that every motion, every manifestation of force, is the result of a transforma- tion of the structure or of its substance ; that every 'conception, every mental afi'ection, is followed by changes in the chemical nature of the secreted fluids ; that every thought, every sensation is accompanied by a change in the composition of the substance of the brain." " All vital activity arises from the mutual action of the oxygen of the atmosphere and the elements of food." " As, in the closed galvanic circuit, in consequence of certain changes which an inorganic body, a metal, undergoes, when placed in contact with an acid, a certain something becomes cognizable by our senses, which we call a current of electricity ; so in the animal body, in con- sequence of transformations and changes undergone by matter previously constituting a part of the organism, certain phenonamena of motion and activity are perceived, and these we call life or vitality." " In the animal body we recognise as the ultimate cause of all force only one cause, the chemical action which the elements of the food and the oxygen of the air mutually exercise on each other. The only known ultimate cause of vital force, either in animals or in plants^ is a chemical process." " If we consider the force which determines the vital phenomena as a property of certain substances, this view leads of itself to a new and more rigorous consideration of certain singular phenomena, which these very substances exhibit; in circumstances in which they no longer make a part of living organisms." Also Owen, Eichard, (Derivative Hypothesis of Life and Species, forming the 40th chapter of his Anatomy of Vertebrates, republished in Am. J. Sci. II, xlvii, 33, Jan. 1869.) In the endeavour to clearly compre- hend and explain the functions of the combination of forces called ' brain,' the physiologist is hindered and troubled by the views of the nature of those cerebral forces which the needs of dogmatic theology have imposed on maakind." * " '' Religion pure and undefiled, can best answer how far it is righteous or just to charge a neighbour with being unsound in his principles who holds the term ' life ' to be a sound expressing the sum of living phenomena ; and who maintains these phenomena to be modes of force into which other forms of force have passed; from potential to active states, and reciprocally; through the 1870.] NAtURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 437 agency of these sums or combinations of forces impressing the mind with the ideas signified by the terms ' monad,' ' moss,' * plant,' or ' animal.' " And Huxley, Thomas H., " On the Physical Basis of Life." TJuiver- sity Series, Xo, 1. College Courant, 1870. Per contra, see the Address of Dr. F. A. P. Barnard, as retiring Presi- dent, before the Am. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science, Chicago meeting, August, 1868. " Thought cannot be a physical force, because thought admits of no measure." Gould, Benj, Apthorp, Address as retiring President, before the American Association at its Salem meeting, Aug., 18C9. Beale, Lionel S., " Protoplasm, or Life, Matter, and Mind." Loudon, 1870. John Churchill tt Sous. 37 For au excellent account of this distinguished man, see Youmans' Introduction to the Correlation and Conservation of Forces, p. xvii. 38 Draper, J. W., loc. cif. 39 Henry, Joseph, Agric. Rep. Patent Office, 1857, 440. 40 "Wattees, J. H., an Essay on Organic or Life-force. Written for the degree of Doctor of Medicine in the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, 1851. See also St. Louis Medical and Surgical Journal, II, V, Nos. 3 and 4, 1868, Dec, 1868, and I^ov., 10, 1869. 41 LeConte, Joseph, The Correlation of Physical, Chemical, and Vital Force, and the Conservation of Force in Yital Phenomena. Amer. Journal of Science, II, xxviii, 305, Xov. 1859. 42 LOMARBD, J. S. loc. Cit. 43 Noyes, T. R., loc. cit. 44 "Wood, L. H., loc. cit. NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, MONTREAL. Monthly Meetings for the Session 1870-71. First Monthly Meeting, October 31st, 1870, the President, Principal Dawson, in the chair. The following donations were announced and exhibited : TO THE LIBRARY. Hooker's Himalayan Journals, 2 vols., illustrated ; and Gould's Monograph of the Partridges of North America, with 32 colored plates, of life size. Both from Major G. E. Bulger F.L.S., F.R.G.S., &c. Catalogue of Fi.shes, vol. 8. From the Trustees of the British Museum. 438 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. TO THE MUSEUM. Pair of Eider Ducks, one Black-backed Gull, and one Red- breasted Merganser, from Labrador. Presented by W. D. B. Scott, Esq. Twenty-three species of Fossils from the United States; from Principal Dawson. A series of seventeen specimens of English Game Birds ; from A. Jewitt, Esq., of Manchester, England. Seven rare birds from British India; also a series of East Indian woods, seeds, and miscellaneous objects. From Major G. E. Bulger, F.L.S., F.K.G.S., &c. One Snowy Heron, one Raven, and one Buffon's Skua, also an extensive series of North American birds; from the Smithsonian Institute, Washington. PROCEEDINGS. Mr. A. S. Ritchie read a paper entitled Aquaria Studies? part 2nd, which will be found at pages 165-171 of the present volume. Mr. Billings then made a communication on the bones of a Whale lately discovered at Cornwall, Ont., of which the following is an abstract kindly furnished by the author : " Several months ago, Mr. Charles Poole, of Cornwall, wrote to the Secretary of the Society that a large skeleton, resembling that of an Icthyosaurus, had been found in that neighborhood, by the men engaged in excavating clay for brick. In another letter he stated that Mr. T. S. Scott, architect, of this city, had procured the lower jaws. On receipt of this information, Mr. Billings called upon Mr. Scott, who very liberally presented the jaws to the Geological Museum. Mr. Billings then went up to Cornwall, and obtained from Mr. Poole the bones which were in his posses- sion. These were discovered in the Post-pliocene clay about sixteen feet below the surface. They are those of a small whale closely allied to the White Whale, Beluga leucas, which lives in the Northern seas, and at certain seasons abounds in the Gulf and lower parts of the St. Lawrence. The lower jaws are nearly perfect. The skull and upper jaws are much damaged and some of the parts lost. Thirty-five of the vertebras, the two shoulder blades, most of the ribs, and a number of small bones were collected. The length of the animal was probably about fifteen feet. The lower jaws have the sockets of eight teeth upon the right side and of seven on the left. The number of teeth in the upper jaw 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 439 could not be ascertained. Tn the head of a White Whale belong- ing to the cabinet of McGill College, there are nine teeth in the right lower-jaw and eight in the left. The teeth of the fossil, judging from the size of the sockets, were longer than those of the White Whale. In 1849 a small whale was discovered in Vermont about twelve miles south of Burlington, in a railway cutting through a deposit of clay of the same formation as that of Corn- wall. Judging from the figures and descrii^tion published in Silliman's Journal by the late Professor Thompson, there can be little doubt that ours is the same species as the one described by him under the name Beluga Vermontana. Another specimen consistig of about half of the back bone was discovered several years ago near the city of Montreal, and is now in the Museum of the Geological Survey. The Cornwall locality is about half a mile from the railway station, sixty feet above the St. Lawrence, and over two hundred feet above the level of the sea." A paper on Canadian Diatoro.aceae, by W. Osier, was then read by the Recording Seccretary. This will be found at page 142. The President^ in inviting a discussion on the phenomena observed during the recent earthquake, said that there were records published or preserved of the appearances observed durino- 83 earthquakes in Canada, and neighbouring parts of N. America. A severe shock was felt in Canada in 1860, an account of which might be found in the Canadian Naturalist for that years Many of the phenomena noticed in 1870 were observed in the shock of 1860. Judging from the facts on record, there would seem to be a periodicity in earthquakes. They seem to occur much oftener in autumn and winter than in spring or summer and between the 60th or 70th years of a century. On this ground he had stated that the shock of this year might prove to be the beginning of a series, if the law of periodicity holds good. A slight shock was however felt in Canada in the spring of 1864. The President next referring to the causes which produce earth- quakes, said that here there are no centres of active io^neous agencies as in Southern Italy and elsewhere. He suggested the idea that large masses of sediment are drained off by rivers from this continent and deposited on the Atlantic coast, and when in addition to this, a pressure amounting to many millions of tons of atmospheric air is removed from the denuded portion, vibrations occur from long continued tension of the earth's crust, and finally a break takes place. It was found that during the last earthquake, 440 THE CANADIAN NATtHALlST. [DeC. the mercury ia the barometer was an inch lower than the average. Dr. Smallwood gave a description of peculiar phenomena ob- served in the heavens before and after the earthquake. Among these were noticed several clusters of spots on the sun's disc in con- nection with peculiar auroral displays. He exhibited diagrams shewing the barometrical and thermometrical appearances pre- sented before and during the shock. During the continuance of the vibration the descent of the mercury was most marked in this respect, confirming Dr. Dawson's view. From telegrams received by the courtesy of Mr. Dakers it would appear that the first shock was observed at Owen Sound, at 10.52 a. m. local time, and the latest at St. John's, N. B., at 11.45 a. m. local time. Accounts were received also from Toronto, Montreal, Quebec, and intermediate places. Judging from the telegrams received, the extent of the vibration thus recorded would appear to have been from S. W. to N. E., and the shock to have occupied fifty-three minutes of time in traversing the 840 miles, without calculating for the difi"erence of longtitude between the places. This would give a rate of about sixteen miles per minute, but if the differences of longtitude were calculated, the rate would be about thirty-two miles per minute. This last estimate agrees nearly with that given by Humbolt and Mallet. The width or amplitude of the vibration, judging only by telegrams received by the speaker would appear to have been some 340 miles. After remarks by several members, the meeting adjourned. 2nd Monthly Meeting, held November 28th, 1870, Principal Dawson in the chair. Messrs. G. T. Kennedy, B. A. and M. H. Brissette were elected members of the Society. Mr. Gordon Broome, F. G. S., read a paper on Canadian Phosphates with special reference to their economic value. The essay will le found at pages 241-163 of the present volume. At the conclusion of the paper, Dr. Hunt, Mr. Macfarlane and Dr. Dawson made comments upon the subject. Dr. Hunt read a paper by Mr. Kinahan, of the Irish Ger- logical Survey, on the Origin of Granite. A paper on Fora- minifera from the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence, by G. M. Dawson, was presented by the Secretary. Dr. Smallwood read one on the coming eclipse, and Dr. Dawson made some remarks upon the recent earthquake. Dr. Hunt, Vice-President of the Society then referred in a feeling manner to the loss sustained by science in Canada, and by 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 411 the members of the Natural History Society in particular, by the death of Mr. Hartley, late of the Geological Survey, who, though only twenty-three years of age, was one of the most promising young men in the country ; he moved, seconded by Dr. Small- wood, the following resolution : Whereas — In the death of Mr. Edward Hartley, this Society has lost a member, who although young had by his remarkable attainments, his zeal in study and his untiring industry and devo- tion to scientific pursuits, given promise of great usefulness, and of eminence in the career which he had chosen, Resolved therefore — That the members of the Natural History Society, of Montreal, hereby testify their deep sorrow at his early death, and tender their warmest expressions of sympathy and condolence to his afflicted parents. 3rd. Monthly meeting, held Deer. 19lh, 1871, the President (Principal Dawson) in the chair. After the minutes of the previous meeting had been read and confirmed, the President alluded to the loss the society had sus- tained by the death of the Chairman of its Council, Mr. A. S. Kitchie, and called on the Secretary (Mr. Whiteaves) to read an obituary notice which he had prepared, as follows. '- The late Mr. A. S. Ritchie, whose loss we have so much reason to deplore, was born at Pittenweem, a small town on the coast of Fifeshire. His father, Mr. Robert Ritchie, was a magistrate of that place. Accompanied by his cousin, Mr. David Ritchie, who now resides in Brantford, Ont., he left Scotland for Canada, in 1853. He remained in Montreal one year, during which time he was in the employ of Messrs. Morrison, Cameron & Empey. He then removed to Brantford, where he resi- ded several years, and where he appears to have been very highly respected. Finally, he returned to Montreal in 1860 or 1861. where he remained until the time of his death. In the month of May, 1864, he was elected a member of this Society, and from May, 1866, to the present year, he was, as many here well know, an active member of the Council, of which, in 1867 and the pre- sent year, he was unanimously elected chairman. He was also a member of the editing committee of the Canadian Naturalist. During the six years of his connection with this Society, he brought before us seven papers, six of which are printed in the Naturalist. 442 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. The following are the titles of the papers, and the datos at which they were read. March, 1865. — On the structure of inscclS; illustrated by microscopical preparations. March, 1866.— On the ''Walking Stick" Insect, Spectrum femoratum. Nov. 1868.— On the Beetles of the Island of Montreal. Oct. 1869. — On the White Cabbage Butterfly, Pleris rapoe. Feb. 1870. — Why are insects attracted to Artificial lights. April 1870. — Aquaria Studies, No. 1. Oct. 1870.— do do No. 2. His favourite study was entomology, and this he pursued in a philosophic spirit, studying the habits of insects in their native haunts by day, and examining the details of their anatomy under the microscope at night. He was also well acquainted with other departments of Zoology, especially with the infusoria. A little before his decease he was preparing a lecture, " On the Inhabitants of a drop of water " for the young men connected with Erskine Church, and for this Society, a paper on a curi- ous ichneumon parasite of the white cabbage butterfly. He died on the 13th December, 1870, at the early age of 34. Rev. A. De Sola, LL.D., spoke of Mr. Ritchie, as a most enthusiastic member who had devoted all his spare time to the study of science, which it would be to the advantage of business men to cultivate, and he trusted that many others would follow his example. He moved the following resolution which was una- nimously adopted. Moved by Rev. Dr. De Sola, seconded by Mr. J. Ferrier, and Resolved — That this Society would desire to express its sincere sympathy with the widow of the late Alexander S. Ritchie, Esq., in her bereavement, and also thus publicly to state their high esti- mation of the value of the services of Mr. Ritchie to the Society as one of its most indefatigable members, and a contributor of interesting and valuable papers to its meetings and journal, and more recently as the chairman of its Council. That this resolution be published in the proceedings of the So- ciety, and communicated by the Secretary to Mrs. Ritchie. Mr. Whiteaves announced the following among the recent donations to the Museum : 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 443 A large aud fine series of English game birds, from Mr. Albert Jowett, of England ; through Mr. Champion Brown, '* Alaska and its resources," by Dall, presented by Mr. John Paitou ; and from Hon. Thomas Ryan, a wooden tally. The Secretary then read a paper by Major G. E. Bulger, F. L. S., F. R. G. S., entitled, Notes on Vegetable Productions. This will be found at page 66 of the present volume. Professor Bell's paper on the various species of deer inhabiting the Dominion was read. This paper was illustrated by maps, showing by means of colours, the geographical distribution of the four species of deer referred to, namely, the Moose, the "Wapiti, the Caribou, and the Red Deer. The author said he would not describe the characters or habits of these animals, but would refer principally to their geographical distribution, and to the necessity which exists for their better protection from destruc- tion. The writer on the Mammals of America had not pointed out the geographical range of each species of deer with as much precision as would be desirable. The range of the Moose and the Wapiti had been greatly contracted since the settlement of the continent by white men, and since firearms had been placed in the hands of Indians. At the present time the Moose was said to be confined principally to the region between the Ottawa and the Saguenay and James' Bay, the northern part of Maine, the Gaspe Peninsula, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia; while the Wapiti is found only in the Western States and North West Territories, although at one time it ranged from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Canada to Virginia. • The encroachments of civilization had not affected the distribution of the Caribou and Red Deer nearly as much as that of the other two species. This was owing to the circumstance that the region of the Caribou was not of such a character as to invite the white man, and in the case of the Red Deer to the fact, that they are not driven away by the settlement of the country but rather increase in numbers if afforded shelter and protection. Caribou were said to be found across the whole breadth of the continent from Canada, northward to the Arctic Ocean, while the Red Deer ranged southwards from the St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. Mr. Bell next referred to the evils arising from the too frequent changes which are being made in the Game Laws of Ontario and Quebec, and to the still imperfect nature of these laws. It was 444 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. only very recently that the practice of snaring and trapping deer by the most destructive contrivances had been put a stop to in these Provinces. Among the improvements which it would be desirable to effect in the existing Game Laws, especially in reference to deer, the author suggested the following : To shorten the open season, during the next few years at any rate ; to prevent foreigners trespassing, particularly in making a trade of hunting our deer for foreign markets ; to limit the number of deer which any one may kill in a season, even by fair means, as is said to have been done with good results in regard to Moose in Nova Scotia, or to compel hunters to take out a licence ; to prohibit the use of "jacks '' and all kinds of artificial lights ; and above all, to put a stop to the barbarous and unsportsmanlike practice of driving the deer into lakes and rivers with do2:s, and killin<2: the defenceless creatures when in the water. A proper and permanent revision of the Game Laws could be based only on a complete knowledge of the habits of the animals, and the variations of these habits, according to locality, &c., and of the various abuses and practices which it is desirable to prevent Messrs. Marler and McKay spoke of their knowledge, for years past, of the haunts of some species of deer. Mr. Alfred Rimmer regretted that a Bill was before the Legislature, limiting the close season to the 1st March. It was very easy to kill fawns and deer, at this season, by running them down and despatching them with clubs. Such sportsmen had aptly been called " pot-hunters." He protested against the Bill, as it would sanction a wholesalesalc destruction of deer, at a season when they were not fit for food. He hoped this Society would take some action in the matter. Another alteration made in this Bill was one fixing the opening of duck shooting on the 1st August, at which time the birds were only flappers, and could not fly. He had learned that an immense business was done in duck, which were largely consumed, and if killed this way, would soon, like other birds, be extinct. Dr. Dawson said there were three aspects to this matter; one was the extinction of species, another was that in which this Society was most particularly concerned, the collection of informa- tion about the habits of animals, and further what would be done to protect wild animals. He suggested the appointment of a committee to enquire into the subject. 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 445 The meeting being in favour of the appointment of a Committee, Messrs. Bell, Marler and Kimmer were appointed, with power to add to their number. T)r. Carpenter read a paper on the Natural and Unnatural History of Man. He suggested the formation of a Social Science Association, in which all the different subjects at present occupying the attention of so many societies, could be considered, and thus a saving of much valuable time could be effected. He thought a committee might be appointed to consider the subject. Dr. Dawson believed that action on this proposal should be spontaneous, and proffered the use of the Hall of the Society for a preliminary meeting, should it be deemed advisable to have one. Dr. De Sola was of opinion that the question of a Social Science Association required most mature deliberations, as there were so many societies now in existence. Dr. Dawson suggested that it be referred to the Council, who could talk the matter over with any persons interested. On motion of Mr. Terrier, seconded by Mr. Buhner, the subject was left to the consideration of the Council. 4th monthly meeting, held January 30th, 1871, the President in the chair. Prof. 11. Bell presented a preliminary report on behalf of the committee appointed to examine into the present state of the laws for the protection of game. The committee was authorized to prepare the report for publication. Mr. J. F. Whiteaves read a paper on Canadian Foraminifera. The author stated that in his dredging excursion to Gaspe in the summer of 1869 he had preserved large quantities of sand, mud, etc., obtained at various depths from ten different localities. Mr. G. M. Dawson had examined portions of six of these dredgings for Foraminifera; and the writer, with Mr. D. B. Scott, had carefully gone over the rest of the material. The species found by the writer and Mr. Scott agreed very closely with those in Mr. Dawson's published list, but some additional forms were observed, A large series of specimens was exhibited and the subject was copiously illustrated by the members of the Montreal Microscopic Club. ToL. Y. E * Is^^o. 4 446 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. 5tli monthly meeting, held Feb. 27th, 1871, the President in the chair. Messrs. C. McNab, John Robertson, and Scott Barlow, were elected ordinary members, and Prof. J. Wajeika, of St. Peters- burgh, Russia, a corresponding member of the Society. Principal Dawson exhibited some new specimens in Fossil Botany. The following is an abstract of his remarks on them. The first point mentioned was the occurrence of spore-cases in the Devonian Shales of Kettle Point, Lake Huron, and in several coals. Details of this part of the communication have been already printed in this volume. The author next referred to the discovery of specimens indicat- ing the existence of three or four species of Tree-ferns in the De- vonian of New York and Ohio. He had described last year in memoir contributed to the Royal Society of London two kinds oi stems surrounded with aerial roots, which he believed to be tree- ferns. They were from the collection of Prof. Hall, of Albany. More recently he had received from Prof. Newberry of New York, a specimen collected by Rev. Mr. Lockwood from the same loca- lity with Prof. Hall's specimens, which shewed the upper part of a stem with five leaf stocks attached to it. This he had named Caulopteris Lochicoodi. Three other specimens collected by Prof. Newberry in Ohio indicated the existence of three distinct species belonging to two genera. The two most important had been named by Prof. Newberry, Caulopteris antiqua and Protopteris peregrina. They are fiom the carboniferous limestone, and thus carry down tree-ferns to the bottom of the middle Devonian. One of them has the cellular structure and vascular bundles in such preserva- tion as to show their microscopic structure, which is precisely similar to that of modern ferns. Descriptions of these plants will probably appear in the proceedings of the Geological Society of London, and in the forthcoming Report on the Geology of Ohio, by Prof. Newberry. After the reading of the paper, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt made some remarks on the subject, and gave an interesting account of the chemical composition of spore cases, and of the cuticle and cortical layer of plants generally. Mr. A.R. C. Selwyn, Director of the Geological Survey of Cana- da, read a paper " On the Occurrance of Diamonds in New South AVales," by Mr. Norman Taylor, late of the Geological Survey of Victoria, and Professor Thompson, of the L^niversity of Sydney. 1870. J NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 447 The authors state that the diamond drifts are on hills above the present river bed, and are overlaid by from 30 to 40 feet of basalt. These hills ^-reatly resemble the basaltic hills in some gold districts in Victoria. The underlying rock is Upper Silurian or Devonian, intersected by greenstone dykes, and the whole watershed to the Cudgegong Valley is carboniferous, resting in places on granite. Tiie carboniferous rocks are full of Glossopteris, Splienopteris, etc. The authors are of opinion that the diamonds are not of drifted origin, but that they have been formed where they are now found. There is no Itacoluraite or Psammite. The works were commenced in 18G9, and 6,000 diamonds have been collected in one district, extending about seven miles along the valley of the Cudgegong River, in latitude 33^ south. The view of the dia- mond having been formed in the tertiary drift deposits coincides with the view expressed by Dr. Hartt on this subject in his re- cent work on the Brazils. Dr. Hunt gave a succinct account of what is known up to the present time with regard to the geological history of the diamond. In India, Brazil, Virginia, jSorth Carolina, Oregon and Europe, diamonds have been found, associated with other gems, and with gold, in drift deposits. He said that the original matrix of the gem was not clearly ascertained, but that lie was inclined to the view that it would be found to be in the oldest geological forma- tions, possibly in veins in granite. He stated that he had care- fully examined many samples from the Chaudiere gold regions, but had failed to detect diamonds in any of them. 6th ordinary monthly meeting, March 27th, 1871, Dr. Small- wood in the chair. After the reading of the minutes of the last meeting, it was moved by G. L. Marler, seconded by A. T. Drummond, and resolved : *' That the thanks of the Society be voted to those gentlemen who kindly gave their assistance at the Annual Conversazione lately held.*' Dr. 11. T. Godfrey and Mr. T. C. Weston, were elected members of the Society. Prof. E. S. Morse Tof Boston, Mass.), made a communication on the structure and affinities of the Brachiopoda. Until quite recently the Brachiopoda, which have a special interest to the student of organic remains, as being by far the oldest of existing 448 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC. animals, were thouglit to be aberrant bivalve'molluscs. Througli the polyzoa and the tunicates, their affinities were supposed to be with ordinary bivalves, such as the oyster, mussel, cockle, or clam. Prof. Morse has carefully examined the anatomy of several species of Brachiopoda, and has been struck with the close struc- tural resemblance existing between them and the marine worms. The so called hearts of the Brachiopods, according to Prof Morse, are really ovaries, and what were thought to be arteries turn out to be nerves. An elaborate account was given of the minute points in the anatomy of brachiopods and of marine worms illustrated by graphic diagrammatic sketches on the black board, and it was shown that the structural affinities of these two groups were very close. In conclusion, the lecturer stated that the bra- chiopods, in his judgment, should be removed from the mollusca, and grouped near to the marine worms. Mr. Billings said that the trilobites and echiuoderms of the primordial zone had a very worm-like character, and that in the Black Biver limestone he had obtained a specimen of Lingula, with its penduncle silicified ; also a bivalve with parts of its adduc- tor muscle preserved in the same way. Mr. Whiteaves made some remarks on the anatomy and affinities of the Brachiopoda, and exhibited a series of rare exotic species from his own cabinet ; also alcoholic preparations of the Canadian species, dredged by himself in Gaspe Dr. Carpenter said that he had the pleasure of seeing the living Lingula which Prof. Morse had collected in South Carolina and of observing their habits, and expressed his belief that Prof. Morse's views v>^ould ultimately meet with general acceptation. A vote of thanks to the lecturer, having been moved by Dr. Edwards, and seconded by Mr. Cotte, was unanimously adopted, after which the proceedings terminated. 7th ordinary meeting, held April 24th ; the President in the chair. The Lecture and Conversazione Committee submitted a report to the Society, of which the following is an abstract. With reference to the conversazione, the report stated that although it had been productive of more than ordinary interest in consequence of the introduction of some new features, it had yet not proved successful pecuniarily. The price of admission had been lower than heretofore; but even at the reduced rate it was thought a diifcrent result could be attained on future occasions by 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 449 a little exertion on the part of members. An enumeration of the winter course of lectures followed. They had been rery success- ful, the lecturers being Principal Dawson, Dr. T. Stevry ITunt, Dr. J. B. Edwards, Professor Bell, Messrs. C. Piobb, A. T. Drumuiond and Professor Goldwin Smith. The lecture of the latter gentleman had been remarkably well attended, and had resulted in an addition of $134 to the society's funds. In conse- quence of discussions that had arisen, the committee recommend- ed that in future the public lectures of the society be restricted as far as possible to purely scientific subjects. The report concluded with expressions of acknowledgment to the lecturers, and to the chief contributors to the conversazione. The following donations to the Museum were announced: Twenty-two specimens of Englisb birds, from Albert Jowett, Esq., of Sheffield, England. Cast of an Indian pipe, found at Port Hope, Out., from H. G. Yennor, Esq. Dr. W. G. Beers was elected a member of the society. A communication on a Mineral Silicate injecting Paleozoic Crinoids was then made by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.Pt.S. The author described a gray granular paleozoic limestone from New Brunswick, which had been examined by Dr. Dawson, and found to consist almost entirely of the coumiinuted remains of brachiopod and gasteropod shells, Crustacea, and the joints and plates of crinoids, cemented with a little calcareous spar. The crinoidal remains were, however, found to have their pores filled with a peculiar silicate, which is exposed in relief when the surface of the limestone is attacked by an acid, and then appears as a congeries of small cylindrical rods or bars, anastomosing and forming a beautiful net-work which, under a magnifying glass, exhibits a frosted crystalline surface, and resembles the variety of aragonite known ^s flosferri. This silicate, which also fills small interstices among the other calcareous fragments making up the limestone, is greenish in color, and forms about five per cent, of the rock. Though insoluble in dilute acids, it is completely decomposed by strong acids, and is found to be a hydrous silicate of ferrous oxide and alumina, with some magnesia, and a little alkali, closely allied to fahlunite and to jollyte. The results of its analysis will appear in ^illiman's Journal for May. Dr. Hunt remarked that this process of infiltration, by which 450 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. the minute structure of these paleozoic criuoids has been preserved, was precisely similar to that seen in the glauconite casts of more modern foYaminifera, and in the Eozoon of older times. This ancient calcareous rhizopod though most frequently preserved by serpentine, had been shown, both by himself in Canada and by Hoffmann in Bohemia, to be in some cases injected by silicates related in composition to that of these criniods. He then pro- ceeded to speak of the great class of silicates of which serpentine, loganite, pyrosclerite, fahlunite and jollyte are members and which are generally described as the results of pseudomorphic changes of pre-existing silicated or carbonates, but which he, since 1853, has maintained to be original aqueous depositions, similar in their origin to the related mineral glauconite; a view now adopted by such investigators as Naumann, Scheerer, Giimbel and Credner. He noted in this connection the bearing of these facts on the Eozoon Canadense, the organic nature of which, though almost universally admitted by zoologists and miner- alogists, was nevertheless still questioned by Messrs. King and Rowney. These gentlemen object that the ancient rocks in which Eozoon is found are what are called metamorphic strata, which have been, according to them, subjected to pseudomorphic changes, and therefore the Eozoon may be the result of some unexplained plastic force, which has fashioned the serpentine and other mineral silicates into forms so like those of foraminiferal organisms as to deceive the most practiced observer. This, said Dr. Hunt, was goino; back to the notions of those who rather than admit that mountains had been formed beneath the sea, imagined that the fossil shells which they often contain were not the real shells of animals, but the result of some freak of nature. The argu- ment of Messrs. King and Rowney that the Eozoon rock is a result of pseudomorphic alteration because it contains serpentine, is a begging of the question at issue, by asking us to admit that the presence of serpentine is an evidence of metamorphic change, which is denied. He then remarked that the specimens of this oro-anic limestone, with its injected crinoids, differed from Eozoonal rock only in containing at the same time recognizable frao-ments of other organic remains, and in presenting in its in- jected portions the differences which distinguish the minute structure of a crinoid from that of a calcareous rhizopod. In con- clusion, he again adverted to the views which he had long main- tained as to the origin of great masses of silicated rocks by a 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 451 direct process of depositioa from watery solutions, in which they were formed' by chemical re-actions. Dr. Dawson spoke, confirming the observations of Dr. Hunt, which he had verified by microscopic examinations. He alluded to the structure of crinoids, which in the fossil state were generally filled with carbonate of lime, so .as to obliterate their pores and to give them a highly perfect crystalline structure. The infiltratin'*- silicate in the present case however showed, especially in delcal- cified specimens, that these ancient crinoids closely resembled in their minute structure the modern forms lately studied by Dr. W. B. Carpenter and Professor Wyville Thompson, especially Coma- tula. Figures of these delcalcified specimens were exhibited and will be published. Dr. Dawson alluded farther to the process of filling up the porous calcareous skeleton of the crinoids, which was clearly shown to be prior to the cementing and consolidation of the fragmentary limestone. A letter from Mr. John Mozer, giving an account of the dis- covery of tamarack (^Larix Americana') stumps under the surface in marshes at Upper Sackville, N.B., was read by the Recording Secretary. Principal Dawson stated that remains of submarine forests had been described by him in his Acadian Geology as occurinf more than twenty feet below high-water mark on the coast of Nova and that these and Mr. Mozer's observations tended to corroborate the view that a gradual subsidence of the land had taken place and was still being effected over a considerable area in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Mr. J. P. Clark exhibited and presented to the Society a series of engravings of incised rocks found in Northumberland and Argyleshire. A discussion ensued as to the meaning of the markings figured in the drawings. Some members thought they were intended to commemorate funeral rites, or other reli'dous ceremonies; others thought they were ground plans of villages or camps. Public Lectures. The following is a list of the Somerville lectures, with the names of the authors and the dates at which the lectures were delivered. 1. Jan. 19th, 1871. On the Primordial Period in Geology. By Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. 452 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. 2. Feb. 2ii(i, 1871. On Astronomy and Geology. By Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F.R.S. 3. Feb. 16tli., 1871. On Applied Science, illustrated in the manufacture of Glass. By Dr. J. B. Edwards, F.C.S. 4. Feb. 23rd, 1871. On the wonders of the Glacial Period. By Prof. R. Bell, F.S.G. 5. March 2nd, 1871. On Tides and Currents, especially on the Acadian Coast. By C. Piobb, C.E. 6. March 16th, 1871. Sketches of Plant life in Canada. By A. T. Drummond, B.A., LL.B. 7. March 23rd, 1871. On the Thirty Years War. By Prof. Goldtvin Smith. Annual Conversazione. The 9th Annual Conversazione was held at the Booms on Thursday evening, March 9th, 1871. The Committee had decided to make exhibition of as large a series of specimens illustrative of Canadian and aboriginal antiquities as could be brought together, the special feature of the evening. The proceedings commenced with an address by the President, Principal Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S., which we subjoin. The President's Address. Ladies and Gentlemen, — The ordinary work of this Society is of a very unobtrusive character. It seeks to keep alive in the community a taste for the study of nature; to record and illustrate new facts as to the natural history and resources of Canada ; to provide a place of safe keeping for such objects as appear of any value to the progress of science; and to afford in its museum and lectures the means of pleasant and profitable recreation and improvement to all classes of our citizens. Once a year only we open our rooms to this annual conversazione, and it affords me much pleasure on the ninth of these occasions to welcome here so laro-e an assemblage of our friends, who, we hope, will enjoy with us the present improved aspect of our collections, and the special attractions which we have gathered for this evening. On the present occasion we have made a special effort to collect as many objects as possible in illustration of the arts and antiquities of the aboriginal tribes of Canada, and I cannot conceive a collection more fitted to interest any thoughtful mind than that now before us. You have here the specimens accumu- lated by the Society; considerable collections from the museum 1870. J NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 453 of McGiil College; collections made by the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society ; a selection of very interesting objects kindly lent to us by the Principal of Queen's College, Kingston ; a number of antique implements from the Geological Survey ; plates illustrating American antiquities from the library of the Seminary ; and a variety of objects of interest exhibited by Mr. Barnstou, Mr. Vennor, Mr. Whiteaves, Mr. Murphy, Prof. Bell, I\Ir. Bagg, Mr. Mott, and other members of this Society. These objects are not only curious as illustrations of the rude but often ingenious and tasteful arts of a primitive people, but some of them are relics of tribes which have passed away. Amon"- these none have greater interest than those which represent the ancient Hochelaga of Cartier, the predecessor of our modern Montreal, and of which many memorials have been found in the excavations for the foundation of our modern city. In one case you see specimens of the pottery of these people arranged in accordance with its patterns, on which the Indian women of the olden time bestowed so much skill and taste. In my own collections I have from the ancient site fragments which represent 165 distinct vessels; and the patterns worked on these may be arranged under the heads of the " corn-ear" pattern representinf*- the rows of grain in the ear of corn ; the '^ basket-pattern ;" the " ring" or bead pattern, usually combined with the last, and the simpler "crimped" pattern. With this you may see a few specimens of ancient British pottery, which, in material and style, might have been formed by the same artists, and on which the old potters made ornamental marks, by impressing the points of their fingers on the clay, exactly in the manner of our old potters of Montreal. You will also find, besides our collections of stone implements of this country, others from the British Islands, and proving the absolute identity of the primitive weapons and tools of these widely-separated regions. Perhaps, however, nothing in the curiosities exhibited this evening is more worthy of interest than some of the smaller objects, especially the beads of wampum. Beads are ancient and universal ornaments, and among many rude nations they exist also as currency, and as public records and pledges of treaties. I believe we have the earliest instance of them in that strange and archaic passage of Genesis describino- the Edenic Paradise, in which it is said of the Land of Havilah, that it has ''gold and bdellium and the onyx stone, " an expression 454 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. which might fairly be read '• gold, and wampum shells, and flints or implements" — the three great treasures of aboriginal man. In the collections before you there are several forms of these ornaments. Some are spiral shells, with a hole ground in one side. Such beads are common to various parts of Europe and America, and they constituted the wampum of several tribes of this country. Others are laboriously ground out of larger shells. Some on our tables, from Newfoundland, are made of the large Mactra soUdis- sinia Others from NewBrunswick are made of the white and blue portions of the coast wampum shell, the Venus mercenarUi] and one from the old Hochelaga, an ornament of some dusky belle of Montreal three or four hundred years ago, is made of the hinge of a fresh-water mussel. Others from the same site are discs of clay, crimped on the edges, and burned in [the fire. Others, from Ontario, have been hammered out of native copper. A string from Brockville presents a curious example of the transmission of objects of value from place to place, and of the way in which even rude peoples make distant regions tributary to their tastes. It consists partly of copper beads from Lake Superior, and partly of shells of Purpura lapiUus from the Atlantic coast, localities which must have been the very ends of the earth to the chief who possessed these precious ornaments. Some beads from the river Tobique, New Brunswick, in one of our cases, were taken from the grave of an Indian child, buried in those forest solitudes by some bereaved mother, who expressed her grief, and perhaps her hopes and fears as to the welfare of her darling in the spirit land, by winding around its little corpse her precious strings of wampum, which, to her simple faith, had, perhaps, some value even on that unknown shore. Her gift was not wholly in vain. It reminds us to-night of that light of nature by which the invisible things of God and of a future life are manifested even to the rude children of the forest; of the future tribunal before which we and the poor Indian must alike stand, to be judged according to that which was given to us ; and of those common afi'ections and hopes and fears, which prove the kinship of man in all times and conditions. But I shall not turn this address of welcome into a lecture ; and I must now invite you to inspect for yourselves the treasures which we have collected, and some of the more minute of which Dr. Edwards has kindlv consented to exhibit with the lime-light. I may also commend to your attention the objects which the members of the Microscopic Club are prepared to exhibit in the 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 455 Library; and have merely, in conclusion, to express in your presence the thanks of the Society to those who have contributed from their collections to the entertainment of this evening; and our acknowledgment to the committee who have superintended the arrangements; and more especially to Dr. De Sola, Mr. Shelton, Dr. Smallwood, and Mr. Bagg, who have been especially active in the matter. Durins; the eveninii' Dr. J. Baker Edwards aave illustrations of coins and antiquities, also of various microscopical preparations, by the lime-light. The members of the Montreal Microscopic Club exhibited a large series of specimens of insect structure, some good music was provided, and the Society's museum was thrown open as usual. A large and interesting series of Canadian and aboriginal antiquities was collected, probably the most extensive one ever brought together in Montreal. We give a condensed list of the objects exhibited, with the names of the contributors. The Numismatic Antiquarian Society exhibited an interesting collection of medals and coins, amongst which may be mentioned a series of medals connected with the history of Canada. 1. Medal to commemorate the defeat of Sir William Phipps in 1690. " Francia in novo orbe victrix. Kebeca Liberata" Struck in Paris by order of the King, Louis XIV. 2. Foundation of Louisburg 1720. Struck in Paris by Louis XV. 3. Brass Medal. Laureated Bust of George II. Reverse Shield bearing an inverted fieiir de lis and inscribed with names of Battles and Commanders, 1759. 4. Bronze. Capture of Quebec "Quebec taken 1759'' '^ Saunders, Wolfe." 5. Capture of Montreal ''Conquest of Canada completed, 1760." 6. Large Silver Medal. George III. (young head)). Reverse, a Lion (England) and a Wolf (France) ; probably struck at the cession of Canada, about 1760, for distribution to the Indian chiefs. 7. Large Silver Medal. George III. (old head) 1814, for distribution amongst the Indian Chiefs at the close of the war between England and the United States. This medal weighs 4J- ounces. 8. Bronze. Treaty of Ghent, December 24.th, 1814. Figure of Peace with olive branch and cornucopia. Legend '' On earth peace, good will to men." 456 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. Also, a complete collection (so far as known) of the Educational Medals of Canada. In miscellaneous medals may be recorded a large one in silver commemorative of the Acquittal of the seven Bishops (temp. James II) ; a copy of the Medal struck by order of the Parliament after the Battle of Dunbar ; and a copy in bronze of the Gold Medal ?itruck by the U. S. Congress for presentation to Mr. Cyrus Field on the completion of the Atlantic Cable. A Castorland Half Dollar, 1796. " Franco Americana Colouia." Reverse " Salve magna parens frugum." Figure of plenty, with cornucopia and maple tree tapped with sugar pan. Fac simile of a Medal (Photograph) to commemorate the great fire at Montreal, May 1765. The only known record of this medal was discovered in the Parliamentary Library at Ottawa. Communion Token of the first Protestant Church in Montreal Bev. James Somerville, minister. The Canadian series of coins was probably the finest and most complete ever exhibited; and the general series was large and beautiful, from the fact, that in addition to the best specimens from the collection of the Numismatic Society, several members of the Society, had lent for the occasion the finest and most interesting pieces, from their private cabinets. The following relics of Indian manufacture were exhibited by Principal Dawson : — Several stone hammers, round polishers or grinding stones, gouges, axes, chisels, flint knives and arrow heads ; a tray of flint chips from the manufacture of arrows, etc. ; stone hammers, flint arrows and porcelain beads, from Nova Scotia- Wampum, and ivory implements made from walrus' teeth, and clay beads, from New Brunswick; flint arrow-heads from Maryland, United States, for comparison. Besides the above, there were also various bone implements, from the sup- posed site of the ancient Indian village of Hochelaga, in Montreal, consisting of skewers or borers, and a portion of a human skull, probably used as a scoop, or drinking vessel ; a series of fragments of Indian pottery of various styles, showing the corn, basket, rinf>, pitted, and rim patterns; also examples of clay pipes and beads ; and charred specimens of corn, beans, and acorns from the same place. The following is a list of objects, kindly lent by Principal Snod- grass, from the collection of Queen's College, Kingston :— Six stone scrapers, of difl'erent shapes and sizes ; one grooved axe ; one 1870.] NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY. 457 gouge ; three large spear heads ; one large and two small stone arrow heads ; one round pointed arrow head ; one hair supporter; two carved pipe howls ; one semicircular coucavely cut stone ; three copper ornaments ; five large and twenty small copper heads. A fine series of aboriginal stone implements was sent by the ofiicers of the Geological Survey. Mr. E. Murphy contributed a number of objects, dug up nearly opposite Prince of Wales Terrace, Sherbrooke street, as follows: — Twenty-five specimens of pottery ; five pipes, and six pipe stems ; one figure of a human head, in baked clay ; one stone hatchet ; jaw and tooth of beaver ; fragment of human skull; one iron nail and a knife blade, and ten bone implements of various kinds. He also sent a number of curious Irish manuscripts. Mr. G. Barnston exhibited a number of Esquimaux and other Indian objects of interest. Among them were two dressers, or leather coats, of a Blackfoot chief and of a Niscawpie Indian ; a Blackfoot bow and arrows ; a Red Kiver hunter's horn and shot bag, with beaded belts and leggings ; an Esquimaux dog whip ; three pronged dart or har- poon and socket ; small model fish kettle in serpentine ; walrus : ivory comb ; pickers ; ornaments, such as necklaces and ear pendants, and needle cases ; range of snares of whalebone for taking ptarmigan, etc., etc. Messrs. Smith & Co. sent three very old musical instruments — two violins and a violincello — which were used in the convent choir of the nuns of the General Hospital, Quebec, before the appearance of pianos or organs in the New World, and which bear date 1720, 1734, 1743. Numerous specimens of Indian work and aboriginal and other antiquities, were exhibited by Prof. Bell, and Messrs. Vennor, Bagg, Whiteaves and others. The Gentlemen of the Seminary sent a volume of plates illustrating the travels in North America of the late unfortunate Prince Maximilian. Among the more miscellaneous objects exhibited, Mr. Laggatt contributed a case of fine native minerals, and Mr. Passmore lent a series of rare Canadian mammals and birds, among the last were specimens of the duck-hawk, American avocet, marbled godwit, and American swan. 458 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC, MISCELLANEOUS. Deep Sea Explorations. — In the Eeport before us ^- are given the preliminary proceedings and equipment, the narrative of the three cruises performed during 1869, the general results so far as they relate to Physics and Chemistry, and, in an appendix, a summary of the observations upon, and analysis of, samples of sea water and deep sea bottom collected during the cruise, l^assing over the first portion for the sake of brevity, (though there is much, especially in the description of the equipment, to interest all naturalists), we learn that the Porcupine, with Mr. Jeffrey's and Mr. W. B. Carpenter on board, left Woolwich, May 18th, and after coaling at Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, cauised, dredging at intervals, to the southward and westward. The greatest depth reached was 808 fathoms and an essentially northern fauna was discovered throughout. Among the collections, were Nucula pumila, Verticordia ahi/ssicola, '^ Fusiis " n.sp. like " i^." Sabinii, Phahellia ventilahrani, Gonoplax rhomhoides^ Eballa n.sp., EtJiusa n.sp, Geryon tridens and many small crustaceans. The next dredgiugs were taken in a line eleven degrees of longitude due west from Galway, and reached a depth of 1239 fathoms. All the mollusca except Aporrhais Serresianus were northern (the temperature of the bottom being 37'^ 8 Fahr.) ; several new species and two new genera of the family Arcidce were found, as well as TrocJms minutusimus Mighels (which has two conspicuous eyes), a species of AmpcUsca, an eyed crustacean, and numerous gigantic foraminifera. A third trip, from Killebegs to the Rockall Bank was then made, and dredgings as deep as 1746 fathoms succeeded in obtaining an abundance of life. Among the species were an imperforate brachiopod with a septum in the lower valve, which Mr. Jeffreys calls Atretia gnomon, KelUeUa ahi/ssicola Sars, Gumecea n.sp., several small new crustaceans ; Pourtalesia, probably P. miranda, A. Ag. and many fine foraminifera, including an OrlifoJites of the size of a sixpence. The vessel reached Belfast at the end of her cruise on the 13th of July, 1869. The second cruise, under Prof. Wyville Thompson * Preliminary Eeport of the Scientific exploration of tlie Deep Sea in H. M. Surveying Yessel Porcupine, during the summer of 1869. Conducted by Dr. 'W. B. Carpenter, Y.P.R.S., J. Gwyn Jeffre3-s, F.R.S., and Prof. Wyville Thompson, L.L.D,, F.R.S., (Proc. R. Soc. No. 121). 1870.] MISCELLANEOUS. 459 and Mr. Hunter, was undertaken for the purpose of getting a haul of the dredge in 2500 fathoms of water and thus affording a reasonable ground for belief that, if life existed at that depth, it could have no bathymetrical limits. In Lat. 47" 38 north, and Lon. 12^ 08 AY. Gr. a depth of 2435 fathoms was obtained, and a dredge weighing 225 lbs. was sent down with a heavy weight attached to the line five Imndrcd fathoms from the dredge, in order to make it bite the bottom. This apparatus, attached to 3000 fathoms of line, was ten minutes in running out. When hauled in, the dredge contained 150 lbs. of pale gray ooze, containing 23 per cent, of silica, Gl per cent, of carbonate of lime, with some alumina, carbonate of magnesium, and oxide of iron. The animals brought up were, among others, Dentalium n.sp. (large), Pecfen fenesfratus, Dacridium vitreum, Scrobicidaria nitida, Noan-a ohesa, Anonyx Holhollii Kroyer, AmpeJisca aqidcornls Bruzel, Mnnna n.sp., several annelids; Ophiocten Kroyev'i Lutken, Echinocucumis typlca, Sars ; a stalked crinoid allied to Ehizocriniis; Salicornaria, n.sp., two fragments of a hydriod Zoophyte ; numerous foramiuifera, with a branching flexible rhizopod having a chitinous cortex studded with Glohigerina, enclosing a sarcodic medulla of olive green hue; several small sponges belonging to a new group, etc., etc. Another subsequent haul brought up a Pleurotoma n.sp., DentaUum n.sp., and Ojphiocaniha spinulosa, besides others previously mentioned. IMany of the animals were brilliantly phosphortscent and the eyes in species of all classes were well developed, showing that in these abysses light of some kind must exist. The temperature at the bottom in this case was 30*^ 5 Fahr. against 65*^ G Fahr. at the surface. The third cruise in charge of Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Prof. Wyville Thompson and Mr. P. Herbert Carpenter, was devoted to the exploration of the icarm and cold areas which had previously been shown to exist between the north of Scotland, the Hebrides, and the Faroe Islands. Space will not admit of even a condensed exhibit of the valuable results obtained on this cruise. The most important and valuableof the results of these dredgings, due to the great liberality of the British Government, may be succinctly stated as follows. 1. It has been practically proved that there is no limit to the existence of animal life as far as depth is concerned, and that the difference in the specific gravity of the water at the surf^ice and 4G0 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [DeC. at 2500 fathoms is less than that between salt and fresh water. 2. That there is a constant interchange between the carbonic acid gas from the bottom and the oxygen at the surface, by which the animals at great depths are provided with means of respiration. 3. An abundant supply of dilute protoplasm in the water serves as food for the protozoic inhabitants of the deep sea, upon which latter the higher animals subsist. 4. A glacial suhmarine clinmiQ may exist over any area, without reference to the terrestrial climate of that area. 5. Cold and warm areas may exist in close juxtaposition, at great depths, and at the same time present quite distinct faunal characters. 6. The bottom, as analysed by David Forbes, F.R.S., differs essentially in composition from the chalk rock (cretaceous) of England, and no evidence whatever has accumulated to sustain the hypothesis of Dr. Carpenter that the Cretaceous period is at present progressing in the Atlantic sea-bed ; indeed, that gentleman, in a late letter in '' Nature " has practically abandoned this theory. 7. Temperature is the great agent which determines the distribution of submarine animals ; a view previously maintained by many eminent naturalists and now permanently established by these, and other dredgings in the Atlantic, and by the researches of American naturalists in the North Pacific. It is to be regretted that the views of Mr. Jefi'reys in regard to the specific and generic limits of animals, di0"er so widely from those of the majority of modern naturalists. In the present report he unites animals belonging to difi'erent genera under the same specific name ; e. g., Waldlieimia septlgera and TerebrateUa scptata, and those who have had occasion to critically examine his British Conchology, find in it many similar cases. Such deter- minations, of course, will tend to invalidate any conclusions which may be drawn from his report, and will undoubtedly throw a certain amount of confusion upon the whole subject. — W. H. Dall, in The American Naturalist. On Astronomy and Geology. — The following is an abstract of a Somerville lecture, bearing the above title, delivered by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, F. R. S., in the Hall of the Natural History on the 2nd of February, 1871 : — The lecturer explained the reason for coupling together celestial and terrestrial science by 1870.] 3IISCELLANE0US. 461 remarking, that astronomy had shown us that the planetary- bodies are worlds like our earth. This has its astronomical history, and the others have doubtless their geological one. Having briefly defined the province of geological science, and shewed that it investigates the developement of our planet in obedience to physical, chemical and biological laws, the lecturer proceeded to argue that these laws were doubtless applicable, mutatis mutandis, to the other bodies of this and other solar sys- tems. The nebular hypothesis, which sought to explain the deri- vation of a solar system from the condensation of a vaporous mass, was briefly explained ; and the history of the nebulae, as made known to us by the telescope and spectroscope, was noticed. The sun is to be looked upon as a partially condensed mass of nebulous matter, in which we have by spectroscopic examination been able to detect most of the chemical elements of our own earth. The history of cooling and condensing nebulous matter and its conversion into solid matter, like our globe, was explained : as was also the doctrine of the internal heat of the earth, and its inevi- table slow refrigeration and final reduction to the temperature of the intcrplanetry spaces. The moon is conceived from its small size to have already reached that condition, or at least to have arrived at such a point that the air and ocean which once sur- rounded it had been absorbed into the cold and porous mass. The question of the probable identity of chemical and vital phenomena in other worlds than ours was then touched upon, and the history of uranolites or meteoric stones briefly noticed. It was contended that in their chemical and and mineralogical constitution we see evidence that they were found under conditions very like those of crystalline rocks of our own globe, and that we have every reason to conclude that vegetable and probably animal life played a part in the celestial bodies from which these uranolites have been derived. These matters are generally crystalline, but we shall possibly find one day among them uncrystalline sedimentary rocks, in which we may hope to find organic forms. Such materials, however, make up but a very small proportion of the mass of our planet, and have, moreover, much less resistance than the harder crystalline rocks, so that the chances of finding them among ura- nolites are comparatively small. The history of the seemingly earthy and hydrocarbonaceous meteoric stones was then briefly noticed. The intense heat which is developed in the flight of these bodies through our atmosphere afi"orded the lecturer occasion Vol. V F * No. 4. 462 THE CANADAIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. for explaining the nature of force and lieat, and the intense tem- perature which would be developed by collision among the celes- tial bodies, sufficient as has been calculated to reduce them once more to the vaporous state, ready, as may be supposed, to pass again through the various phases of condensation, thus perpetu- ally renewing the miracle of the universe. The thought of a cool- ing globe, a frozen moon and a gradually dying-out sun, is lost in the contemplation of the fact that these are but phases in the life of the Cosmos, and of its evolution in obedience to the laws im- pressed upon it by the Great First Cause, creating from the luin of the present order of things a new heavens and a new earth. Dredging of the Gulf Stream. — We are much gratified to learn from Harper's Weekly that preparations are now being made, under the direction of the Superintendent of the Coast Survey, for a very complete and thorough investigation of the deep-sea bottom, and especially of the channel of the Gulf Stream off the eastern coast of America, with an examination also of the Straits of Magellan and of a part of the Pacific Ocean. A steamer is now being built, which will shortly be launched, with the special object of continuing the deep-sea dredgings which, under the direction of Count Pourtales, have given the Survey so much reputation. It is expected that the arrangements will be completed by the end of August, and that the whole matter will be specially in charge of Prof. Agassiz, assisted by Count Pourtales, whose experience eminently qualifies him for the post. The plan of operations is, first, to run a line of dredging across the Gulf Stream between New York and Bermuda, and, if necessary, far enough eastward to completely cross the Gulf Stream current. The course will be thence to Trinidad, where a careful examination will be entered into to ascertain whether there is any difference in the deep-sea fauna of the adjacent waters and that of the coast of Florida. The expedition will then probably proceed to San Paulo for the purpose of examining the deepest known portion of the Atlantic, reaching to, at least, five thousand fathoms. From San Paulo it will again cut across the Brazilian current, and after possibly spending some time on the coast between Buenos Ayres and the Straits of Magellan will proceed by a zigzag course to the Falkland Islands, in the neighbourhood 1870.] MISCELLANEOUS. 463 of which the expedition will remain for some time, for the purpose of solving certain important problems relating to both the deep-sea fauna and to that of the coast. It is next proposed to spend at least a month in the Straits of Magellan during the summer season of that portion of the globe. The work at the Straits being completed, the party exp&ct to pass up along the western coast of Chili, next to the island of Juan Fernandez, and thence across to Callao. From this point the course will be to the Gallapagos, and thence across the Chillian current to some point on the west coast of Mexico — possibly to Mazatlan. The llevil- lagigedo Islands will next be visited, whence the party will proceed to San Francisco. The entire exploration will probably occupy ten months, and bids fair to be the most important attempt ever made, at determining the character of the fauna of the deep seas. The experience gained in all the former American and foreign expe- ditions of this kind will be freely used on this occasion ; and no pains will be spared in the way of outfit to render the whole undertakinc; an entire success. The fact that this expedition is under the direction of the Coast Survey is a sufficient guarantee that nothing will be neglected to secure satisfactory results in the way of investigations upon the physics of the ocean, as well as its natural history, as it is intended to make use of the most approved apparatus for the determination of depths, temperatures, chemical composition of the waters, etc. — Nature, A Cruise in a Whitebait Boat. — I know of nothinc; more disagreeable than having the traditions one has clung to from boy- hood nipped in the bud by the practical hand of some seeker after science. "Who, I should like to know, cares to be told that turtle soup is a decoction of cold-blooded reptile, or that venison hung the right time to acquire tenderness and flavour is simply animal matter undergoing a chemical change, and that the silvery whitebait we, at this time, so thoroughly enjoy when nicely cooked with just a dash of cayenne, are neither more nor less than the ' fry ' of the herring. I have always eaten and enjoyed these tiny dainties, in the pleasant belief that a whitebait was a white- bait, and my own impression has always been that it was quite as well known, and ever}'- bit as easy to recognize, as a salmon, a cod, or a turbot ; but far from it, for the learned in fish at ooce 464 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec upset my creed by positively stating tliat there exists no sucli "fish " as a whitebait, so called by Yarrell (Culjpea alba), who, in writing about its habits, thus says : " The whitebait differs materially from all the British species of Cliipea that visit our shores or our rivers. From the beginning of April to the end of September this fish may be caught in the Thames as high up as Woolwich or Blackwell every flood tide in considerable quantity. During the first three months of this period neither species of the genus Cliipea, of any age or size, except occasionally a young sprat, can be found and taken in the same situation by the same means." But there are other writers of more recent times who now maintain that the so-called whitebait is made up of the young of other fish, while there are those again who say they are herring fry. To satisfy my own mind upon this vexed question, I have recently made expeditions in the boats employed in catching whitebait for the market. When we reached the fishing-ground the tide was ebbing fast, and the whitebait net was set. The net employed is about twenty feet in length, gradually tapering from the mouth to the small end, or " purse," which is not more than three inches in diameter, and so fine in the mesh that a shrimp cannot get through it. The mouth of the net — about four feet wide — is nearly square, and ingeniously ' rigged ' to crossbeams of timber that keep it extended to its full width. Whilst fishing, the boat is anchored in the tideway, the net is lowered to a depth of about four feet, and the purse then is drifted back astern of the boat, and every living thing that enters at the net's mouth is impounded in the purse. By the aid of a boat-hook the fisherman hooks the purse into the boat, unties its end, and empties its contents upon a kind of shelf erected for the purpose. This process is repeated about every ten minutes so long as the fishing continues. The proceeds of one haul will be sufficient for description. First come the silvery little fish the fishers so carefully select and designate ' bait,' and regarding the paternity of which so much discrepancy of opinion exists. These fish varied much in size, from six inches long to one-twelfth of an inch. These very minute fish were evidently not long from out the egg. It was only the small and intermediate sized fish that were retained, the larger ones being again returned alive to the Thames. Those picked out for sale are called 'smig-bait.' Then we caught sprats, but it was very easy to distinguish them from the ' bait,' sticklebacks, ' pole-wigs ' (so the fishermen call 1870.] MISCELLANEOUS. 465 them, but properly the speckled goby), shads, flounders, and lamperns. It will be of interest if I note the contents of the stomach of one of the whitebait I opened, which was about five inches in length. The greedy fellow had devoured twenty- one squilla3 or ' mantis crabs,' and three small shrimps. So far so good. Now it may be asked what I have to adduce in support of my assertion that a whitebait is a whitebait. They are not young shads certainly, for the shad we cauo-ht could as easily be picked out from amongst the ' bait ' as a pio- from a flock of sheep. And this applies with equal force as a regards the sprat. If they be young herrings how comes it that great proportion of the ' bait ' caught had only just escaped from the egg ? Surely no one believes that herrings have just spawned in the muddy Thames? And if they have not, whence come these baby herrings, if such they be ? Is is impossible to believe that fish so young and fragile could have made their way up the Thames as high as Greenhithe from the sea. Hence the fair deduction is that they were hatched from the egg near where they were caught. Granting this then they are most assuredly not young herrings, but the young of mature whitebait that had spawned early in the year. My experience, acquired ' aboard ' the white- bait boat^ has but the more firmly convinced me that the whitebait is a distinct species, entitled to its name ((7. alha), and not the young of the herring, or any other fish.— J. K. Lord, in The Leisure Hour. A New Species op Erythronium, by Professor Asa Gray.-— Ordinarily it is hardly worth while to make a separate article for a single new species of plant, even when discovered in a district in which a new flowering plant is unexpected. But the species. of Erythronium are so few, and the present one is so pecu- liar, and its habitat so closely bordering the region included in my Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States, that I need not apologize for bringing it at once to notice. The specimens before me, accompanied by a colored drawing- are just received from Miss S. P. Darlington (a daughter of the late Dr. Darlington, long the Nestor of American botanists and one of the best of men), and were collected at Faribault, Minne- sota, by Mrs. Mary B. Hedges, the teacher of Botany in St. Mary's Hall, a school of which Miss Darlington is Principal. The flower is much smaller than that of any other known spe- 466 THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. [Dec. cies, being barely half an inch long ; and its color, a bright pink or rose, like that of the European E. Dens-Canisy reflects the meaning of the generic name (viz. red), which is lost to us in our two familiar Adder-tongues, one with yellow, the other with white, blossoms. The most singular peculiarity of the new species is found in the way in which the bulb propagates. In E. Dens- Canis new bulbs are produced directly from the side of the old one, on which they are sessile, so that the plant as it multiplies forms close clumps. In our E. Americanum long and slender off- shoots, or subterranean runners, proceed from the base of the parent bulb and develop the new bulb at their distant apex. Our Western E. aJbidum does not diff'er in this respect. In the new species an offshoot springs from the ascending slender stem, or subterranean sheathed portion of the scape (which is commonly five or six inches long), remote from the parent bulb, usually about mid-way between it and the bases or apparent insertion of the pair of leaves : this lateral offshoot grows downward, sometimes lengthening as in the foregoing species, sometimes remaining short, and its apex dilates into the new bulb. This peculiarity was noticed by Mrs. Hedges, the discoverer of this interesting plant, to whom great credit is due. Most lady botanists are content with what appears above the surface ; but she went to the root of the matter at once. I learn that E. alhi^ dmn abounds in the same locality. E. Americanum is also found in the region, but is scarce. It is not easy to find or frame a specific name which will clearly express the most remarkable characteristic of this new species. But I will venture to name it ERYTHRO>'iUii PROPULLANS ;— E. scapo infra folia pnUultane; foliis oblongo-lanceolatis acuminatus parum maculatis ; perianthio roseo-pur- pureo (semipollicari), segmentis acutis basi luteo tinctis ommno planis (nee calloso-dentatis nee suleatis) ; antheris oblougis ; stylo fere equabili integerrimo ; ctigmate parvo vix tridentato ; ovulis in loculis 4-6. Scape bulbiferous from its sbeatbed portion below the developed leaves, these oblong-lanceolate, acnminate, slightly mottled ; perianth rose- pui-ple or pink (half an inch long) ; the segments acute, all with a yellow spot but plane at the base, the inner like the outer destitute of either groove or tooth-like appendages, but a little more narrowed at base ; anthers merely oblong; style hardly at all narrowed downward, entire, the small stigma even barely three-lobed ; ovules few (4-6) in each cell. ■ — The American Naturalist^ INDEX. Page Apatite, Canadian, Broome on 241 Aquaria Studies, by A. S. Ritchie. Part I ] Partll 16.5 Barker, Prof, on Vital and Physical Forces 416 Bell, Dr. John, on plants of the West Coast of Newfoundland 54 Bell, Prof. R., on the Nipigon territory 118 Billings, £., on some specimens of Lower Silurian Trilobites 90 '* on the structure of the Crinoidea and Blastoidea 180 Birds, Canadian 108, 230 " of Newfoundland, notes on the, by H. Reeks 38, 151, 289, 406 *' and Worms, on the use of 107 Blastoidea, Billings on the Structure of the 180 Botanical Geography of Asia 102 Botany of the counties of Hastings and Addington 312 BoiAxY :— Asiatic Geographical Botany 102 British Edible Fungi 227 Geographical Handbook of Ferns 343 Labrador Plants 350 North American Laminariaceae 99 Notice of Fucus aerratua found in Pictou Harbour 349 Saponaceous Plants 355 The Diffusion of Plants 101 The Student's Flora of the British Islands 353 Brachipoda, Prof. Morse on the 232 Brady, G. S., on Bivalve Crustaceans from the Gulf cf St. Lawrence 378 Brady, G. S., and Crosskey, on fossil Ostracoda from Canada and New England. 385 Brazil, Geological discoveries in 342 Broome, Gordon, on Canadian Phosphates 141 Bulger, Major G. E., notes on Vegetable productions 66 " " a few hours at Cape Town, South Africa 365 Butterfly Parasite 115 Cape Town, South Africa, a few hours at 365 Carpenter, Dr. W. B., on the comparative steadiness of the Ross and the Jackson Microscope Stands 361 Cell Doctrine, Dr. J. Tyson on the, noticed 97 Cephalaapia Vawaoni 222 CHmiSTRY AND PhtsiCs :— Another new dye II4 Artificial production of Ice 112 Chemical Analysis of a sample of E.xtract of Meat 115 Ilydrogenium HO Metallic Hydrogen HI Pins pointed by Electricity 113 Underground Temperature 237 Cockchafer, the uses of the 108 Cope's (Prof.) Synopsis of American extinct Batrachia and Reptilia, notice of. 225 Crinoidea, Billings on the 180 Crosskey, Rev. H. "\V., on fossil Ostracoda from Canada and New England .... 3*5 Crustaceans, Bivalve from the Gulf of St. Lawrence, G. S. Brady on 378 " Fossil Bivalve, from Canada and New England 335 468 INDEX. Crustaceans Marine, in Lakes 226 Cythere Canadensis Brady 380 Cythere Daicsoni Brady 382 Cythere leioderma Norman 3S0 Cythere tuberculate Sars 381 Cytherideis fovcolasa Brady 383 Dawson, G. M., on Foraminifera from the River and Gulf of St. Lawrence- • . 172 Dawson, Principal, on the Graphite of the Laurentian of Canada 13 '' " on Baphetes and Cephalaspis 99 " " on the Earthquake of October 20tb, 1870 282 " " on Science Education Abroad 263 " " onSigillaria 98 " " Spore cases in Coals 366 Deep-sea Explorations 458, 462 Diatomaceae, Canadian 142 Diptera and their wings 234 Disinfectants and Disinfection, by Dr. Smith, review of 92 Douglas, James, jr., on Recent Spectroscopic Observations of the Sun and the Eclipses of 1868 and 1869 121 Dredging in Deep Water 458, 462 Dye, another new 114 Earthquake, of October 20th, 1870, Dawson on the 282 Eaton, Prof. D. C. on Ferns in the Herbaria of Linne and Michaux 24 Echinoderms, Palaeozoic, on the occurrence of larval forms among the 188 Eophyton, note on the genus 20 Eozoon, Dr. Dawson on 13 " Dr. T. S . Hunt on 7 Erythronium propullans Grey 466 Ferns in the Herbaria of Linn^, Michaux and Pursh 24 " Mrs. Lyell's Geographical Handbook of, reviewed 343 " of Labrador and Greenland 346, 353 " of Northern North America 344 '• of California 348 Fishes, Canadian Fresh Water, on the Habits of 1 Flora of the British Islands, Hooker's, noticed 353 Foraminifera, of the St. Lawrence 172 Fossils, Figures of characteristic British, noticed 227 Fucus serratus 349 Fungi, British Edible 227 Geology of Arisaig, Nova Scotia 92 Geology of Eastern New England, Dr. T. S. Hunt on the 198 Geology, the Student's Elements of, noticed 341 Geology and Mineralogy :— Carboniferious and Devonian of Canada 98 Cephalaspis Dawsoni 222 Cope's Synopsis of American fossil Batrachia and Reptilia 225 Embryology of Limlus 223 Figures of British Fossils 227 Geological Discoveries in Brazil- 342 Marine Crustaceans in Lakes 226 Notes on some new Animal remains from the Carboniferous 98 Notes on the Structure of Sigillaria 98 The Student's Manual of Geology 341 Granitic Rocks, by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt 388 Graphite of the Laurentian of Canada, on the 13 Gulls of Nova Scotia 92 Harrington, B. J. on the Botany of parts of the Counties of Hastings and Addington 312 Hippocrepina indivisa Parker I'i^S INDEX. 469 Honeyman, Rev. D., on the Geology of Arisaig, N. S 92 Hooker's (J. D.) Flora of the British Islands, notice of 353 Humming Birds of Tropical America 357 Hunt, Dr. T. Sterry, on the Geology of Eastern New England 198 " on Granitic Rocks — — : 388 •' on Laurentian Rocks in Eastern Mass 7 " on Norite or Labradorite Rock 31 *• on Astronomy and Geology 460 Huxley, Prof., President's Address to the Meeting of the British Association for 1870 319 Hydrogenium 110 Hydrogen, metallic Ill Ice, artificial production of 113 Jones, J. M., on the Gulls of Nova Scotia 231 Kemp, Rev. A. F., on Fucus serratus in Pictou Harbour, N. S 319 Labradorite Rock, on 31 Labrador Plants 350 Laminariaceae, North American 99 Laurentian, on the Graphite of the Canadian 13 Laurentian Rocks in Eastern Massachusetts 7 Lawson, Prof., on North American Laminariaceae 97 Lights, artificial, why are insects attracted by 61 Limulus, on the embrjology of 223 Linnd, on some of the plants in the Herbarium of 24 Lituola cassis Parker 176 Lituola findens Parker 176 London, Geological Society of, Proceedings 390 Lord, J. K. on Whitebait 49 Lyell, Mrs. K. M., Geographical Handbook ot Ferns, reviewed 343 Lyell. Sir Charles, Student's Elements of Geology, noticed 331 Macfarlane, Thomas, on the Origin and Classification of Original or Crystalline Rocks. Parts I. and II 47 Part III 159 Part IV 304 McAndrew, R., on the Marine Mollusca of the Gulf of Suez 235 Mammalia, Swiss 104 Massachusetts, on Laurentian Rocks in Eastern 7 Meteorology :— Contributions to Canadian 22 Meteorological results for Montreal for the year 1869 10 Meat, chemical analysis of a sample extract of 115 Michaux, on some plants in the Herbarium of 24 Microscopy :— American Microscopical Society 117 Butterfly Parasite 115 Microscopic Examination of Dust 116 New American Nat. Hist, and Micros. Society i 118 On the comparative merits of the Ross and Jackson Microscope Stands. . . 361 MiSCKLLAXEOUS :— American Association for the advancement of Science 120 Scraps from "Nature." 239 MoUuaca, of the Gulf of Suez 235 " Lower Canadian land and fresh water 103 •• " " marine 104 Morse, Prof. E. S., on the Brachiopoda 232 Natural History Society (see contents) Nautilus, on the Structure of the Shell of the Pearly 236 Newfoundland, Dr. Bell on the Plants of the AVest Coast of 45 470 INDEX. Newfoundland, H. Reeks on the Birds of 38, 151, 289, 406 Nipigon Territory, Prof. Bell on the 118 Norite, on, or Labradorite Rock 31 Nucleorinus, on the genus 185 Observations, Spectroscopic, of the Sun 121 Original and Eruptive Rocks, on the Origin of 47 Orton (Prof. Jas) on the Vultures and Humnaing Birds of Tropical America. . 357 Osier, W., on Canadian Diatomacese 142 Ostracoda, fossil, from Canada and New England 385 " recent, of the Gulf of St. Lawrence 379 Pentremites, on the genus — : 180 Phosphates, Canadian, with reference to their use in Agriculture 241 Pins pointed by electricity 113 Plants, Labradore 350 Plants of the Counties of Hastings and Addington 312 Plants of the West Coast of Newfoundland 54 Plants in the Herbaria of Linne and Michaux 24 Plants, the diffusion of 101 Protoplasm, Dr. Lionel Beale on, reviewed 97 Reeks, H., on the Birds of Newfoundland 38, 151, 289, 406 Reviews and Notices of Books :— Disinfectants and Disinfection 93 Protoplasm ; or. Life, Matter, and Mind 97 The Cell Doctrine : its History and Present State 97 Reviews of Botanical Works (see Botany) " Geological " (see Geology) Ritchie, A. S., Aquaria Studies, No. 1 1 No.2 165 " Why are insects attracted by artificiallights ? 61 Rocks, Granitic, on. Dr. T- S- Hunt 388 Rocks, Original or Crystalline, on the Origin and Classification of 47, 159, 304 Saponaceous plants 355 Science Education Abroad, Dawson on 2(^3 Scraps from " Nature " 239 Sigillaria, Principal Dawson on 98 Smallwood, Dr., Contributions to Canadian Meteorology 22 " Meteorological results for Montreal, for the year 1869 10 Smith's Dr . R. A. , Disinfectants and Disinfection reviewed 93 Spore cases in Coals, Principal Dawson on 359 Sun, Spectroscopic observations of the 121 Temperature, underground 237 Tomato-worms, not poisonous 199 Tribolites, Billings on some Lower Silurian 91 Vultures of Tropical America 357 Watt, D. A., Notes by 24 " " Reviews by 343 " " on North American Ferns 343 " •' on Labrador Plants 351 Whitebait, Lord on 463 Woodward, H. on Asaphus 91 " on the Shells of the Pearly Nautilus 237 Worms and Birds, on the use of 107 Zoology:— Diptera and their Wings 234 Lower Canadian MoUusca 103, 280 Marine Mollusca of the Red Sea 285 Notes on Canadian Birds 103, 220 On the Gulls of Nova Scotia 231 INDEX. 471 Zoology :— On the Structure of the Shell in the Pearly Nautilus 236 Position of the Brachiopoda in the Animal kingdom 232 Swiss Mammalia 104 The Vultures and Humming Birds of Tropical America. 327 The use of Birds and "Worms 107 Tomato-worms not Poisonous J09 The uses of the Cockchafer 108 J. F. W. MOXTREAL : PRINTED AT THE GAZETTE STEAM PRINTING HOUSE. y«w ^•nc •■..i^H^ iijiiiii 3 2044 103 225 744 ^'-*^' v^. 1^ r^ ^^-*'■-i -N, .03 ^/ ;A^ •' r'TI V, ktf t ^•i -<> ■ 3?- w :-i .^ ^ ■i ■'t/ 1 'Hr 1S^ •^il-, ^c » ^/ > l«v^ 5i^; 'V^V '>i^i ,/- \ ^^ «'*' (5*^ t k ^v H^ \-c/: ,cy w. 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