f J cl es < £ ne q 6 e 4 ‘ bl D KI ————— WwW Vi vv yy td er aa ty BRARY Y THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF Nat NATURAL ie hte THE CANADIAN RECORD OF SCIENCE, INCLUDING THE PROCEEDINGS OF 2s THE NATURAT HISTORY SOCIETY OF MONTREAL, AND REPLACING THE CANADIAN NATURALIST. VOL. Il. (1886-1887.) MONTREAL: PUBLISHED BY THE NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, 1887. Vo OO? — oO /8 (o° 67 I AC CRY ar x eae = ~i pCsehneas EDITING COMMITTEE. D. P. PENnHALLOW, B.Sc. Dr. T. W. Mitts. A. T. Drummonp. Dr. B. J. Harrinaton. J. Bemrose. . EK. INGERSOLL. CONTENTS OF VOL. II. PAGE. Cretaceous Floras of the Northwest. Sir W. Dawson, F.RS., &c., Principal of McGill University, Mon- RRC mre eran. MEL ree cio kaata woe sath ach owes satya Sa haere es 1 Structural Features of Discina Acadica of the St. John Group. (With Cut.) G. F. Marruew, F.R.S.C .. 9 Origin of the Ainos and their Final Settlement and Distribution in Japan. D. P. Pennatiow, B.Sc., F.R.S.C., Professor of Botany 1 in McGill Univer RINE? Conbehpagopbouonl seHoge, Bron desansepapcacb bauddogse S/aeobics ‘ll New Fresh-Water Spence from Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. (With Cut.) A. H. MacKay, B.A., B.Sc., Principal Pictou Academy, Pictou, N.S...... ee) Sun Dance of the Cree Indians. C. LANE ............... 22 Abstract of the Presidents’ Addresses. R. W. BoopLE 26 Boulder Drift and Sea Margins at Little Metis, Lower St. Mawrence: 2 SiteWe DAWSON {sch os .slc. ee ene: 36 Origin of the American Varieties of the Dog. Dr. A SL EAOIOA RIDE! not mun iuens ne nagpiie sisi sebiscec ts ee cabal 39 Pleistocene Fossils from aries Lieut.-Col. Grant AMS We DA WSO NM sitrumeisseae sscnaslseit st sco cecluss 66 44 Some Prehistoric and Ancient Linear lignans. R ORE prae ist i cc tacuk Una meMeRy ese Maacortic ones acane 48 Electrical Furnace for Reducing) Refr hon WaOUes. 20. SmERRY, Huns Till. Di WO Ol. eke e cs ose ce sone 52 The Late Dr. William Gorauin J oa scb C668 SaNOa One rbatas 56 Phteview—A-Mext-Book of Botany--4- 0s ieses-ce1 59 ra Contents. PAGE. i Miscellameoust Notes 02° 2686 ae faa feted hee 61 Proceedings of the Natural History Society ......-..... 63 Forests of Canada. (With Map.) Roperr BgEwt, JY Eel DDH81 5 Dp D Resins demas a eet Che Nem ee Bn oo cn 65 Mound-Builders. “Reve, W). J% SMYTH ease sarees eee TE Geology and Geologists in New Brunswick. ae ofessor IGWB ALL EBM (ce cic eid oa. Cae inseienas ae hates cee eee 93 Studies in the Comparative Physiology of the Heart. ( Abstracts.) T. Wxstey Mitts, M.A., M.D., &c., Professor of Physiology in McGill University...... 97 Aboriginal Trade in the Canadian Northwest. C. N. BTL) ey Ges 202 BAe Mas Use NN 0). et a ene a 162 Variation of Water in Trees and Shrubs. (With Cut.) Professor, D/P. PENHAL LOW, (9300200) .00 0205-0 eee 105 A Natural System in Mineralogy. Dr. T.Sterry Hunt 116 Physical Characteristics of the Ainos. Professor D. PD: APR NEAUR O Wels se eee cones cements Nabe 119 Meteorological Observations for 1885. Professor C. HC Molimomi ete eee Stoic). cacy 128 Miscellaneous! Notesic 2. s.00c.3echsee ac ses nna cass gen eee 131 Proceedings of the Natural: History Society............. 134 Comparative Physiology of the Heart. (Concluded.) Protessor 1. WESi ewe MItGS..5.c.csseee sere canon enone 13% Our Northwest Prairies. A. T. DRumMMoNnD........:.... 145 Protection of North American Birds. A. H. Mason, OSs oN eas Spee Meh ea cig, Ca ney aS | 153 Montreal Drinking Water. Arruur WEIR............... 171 Polyembryony. Professor D. P. PENHALLOW. ........ 177 Proceedings of Natural History Society................+5 178 Annual Address of President. Sir Wu. Dawsow...... 180 Mascellancous: Notes: a are ep Pae rE Rem SP Cte aC La 255 Invaporation. Professor W. L. Goopwiy, D.Sc., of Queen's University, Kin eston.2;- 3+ ..55- 000 ase secseees 259 Law of Volumes in Chemistry. Dr. T. Sterry Hunr 261 Mine el aMe OHA NOLES). 2065-244 svn ange) oe nave okt saws eee es 264 Presidential Address. (Concluded.) Sir Wu. Dawson 265 The Canadian Rocky Mountains. G. M. Dawson, 1D Shiga RG Pe ee ad BS EG Ol ae eee Recon 285 peeliesis of Diethyl Trimethyl Amido Beazeae R. F. Rourran, B.A., M.D., Lecturer in Chemistry, Medical Faculty, McGill University ...........,...... 301 Occurrence of Scolithus in Rocks of the Chazy Forma- One eee Ma AT W MEAS CHGS esa see cinee! wn" oe 304 Physiology of the Heart of the Sea-Turtle. Professor Pe Wirsiok ee MTT a Sie Yateley RR ek ey ae ap ad mut 306 © The Pteraspidian Fish of the Silurian Rocks. G. F NPARETEW ..5.00..o nec gens api edwin te aus ciate se aaieae eee Bee 323 Miasceliancons. Notes: . ssp iencesteceebackecass a. cenweesact saber ae 326 Physiology of the Heart of the Sea-Turtle. (With Plate. Concluded.) Professor T. Westy Mitts... 329 Chemical Notes on Wheat and Flour. J.T. Dona.p, JOT AS BN OES ARERR RRR Rin ey rl ais SBA bp Se Rene & 334 On a Permian Moraine in Pines Edward Island. COM GT aes Weaked Skog) 8. Vs parties Oe arg LAP eee mE AEE oe 341 Life in the Bahama Islands. Professor T. WESLEY IMI TS e2e a audi 2 aha tad Ny oe ioe gener, ache I 28 344 Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John Group. G. KF. MATTHEW ....-.:..-- Began) BESS bere abe sce ene 357 Note on the Occurrence of Jade in British Columbia, - and its Employment by the Natives. Dr. GrorcE IME SD AWESOM i vag... cote umes ene er the abs cine glns ater 364 Canadian Orthoptera. F. B. CauLFrEnD sep chc geen 378 Height of Clouds. Professor C. H. McLeop........ ... 383 Proceedings of Natural History Society...... ..........- 384 Whiscellancous NoLes.::. = eee tee So a ee 389 Iv Contents. PAGE. Canadian Orthoptera. (Concluded.) F. B. CAULFIELD. 393 On the Correlation of the Geological Structure of the Maritime Provinces of Canada with those of West- ern Burope. Sir Wa) DAWSON....25..000- eee A404 The Retention and the Loss of the Hair ee a Physiological Standpoint. Professor f. WESLEY 1 BOs ORM arenes Sine AN Ma RO MNBL i RLS. | 3 407 The Distribution and Physical and Past- Gadlosien Relations of British North American Plants. A. TD DRUMMOND eieeccio: ot chee acon tan elena aes cae 412 Phe Royal Society, of Camadas 00220 k coke ee 424 Reviews:and Book Notices..:. 632... 22-2. u.0.15)-2) sce eee 45 Proceedings of Natural History Society . ................ 442 The Distribution and Physical and Past-Geological Relations of British North American Plants. (Con- fined, Ac AS DRUMMON DES cessioc nero es. coer eee 457 Invaporation Professor W. L. GoopWIN...........000- 469 “The Plague of Mice” in Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island. Rev. Groraz Parrerson, D.D.... 472 The Rearing of Bears and the Worship of Yoshitsune™ by the Ainos of Japan. Professor D. P. Prn- FRAIL TO Wis ae sce uate aes Derk cle ae oa kas een oe ae eee 481 On the Physiology of the Heart of the Hee. Pro- FeSSON (Dk: WEES IU Riv Ma Se ars oe Si a ea ae 489 The Fresh-Water Sponges of Newfoundland. (With Ci) Die iNe GEL MUNCIRGAGY Yate trate ties a a hraete soe 497 Notes on Fossil Woods from the Western Territories of Canada. (Abstract.) Sir Wm. Dawson.......... 499 Squirrels: Their Habits and Intelligence, with special reference to Feigning. (Abstract.) Professor T. WeEsLEY MILLS......: CAND eal SRR Ma ia I PA 2. 502 The Meeting of the American Association for the iNdvanecementiore SClenGemeectee ud. cccn aes aoe eee 504 IREvicwsand “Books NOtIGeSicmemeceediae se eek ak a eRe 518 THE ” vg, Al bi ; : x On) SC 1 HAN CE. {LIBRAF ® a WY eg aN Ft " SCLERY VOL. II. JANUARY, 1886. INO a. CRETACEOUS FLORAS OF THE NORTHWEST. By Srr Wiiiram Dawson. The following is a summary of the general conclusions of a paper on this subject, now in the press in the “Trans- actions of the Royal Society of Canada,” and in which a number of new species recently collected by Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. Weston, and Mr. Tyrrell, of the Geological Survey, are described and figured. GEOLOGICAL RELATIONS OF THE FLORAS. In a memoir by the writer in the first volume of the Transactions of the Society will ve found a table of the Cretaceous formations of the western Northwest Territories of Canada, prepared by Dr. G. M. Dawson, and giving the geological position of the plants at that time described. The new facts detailed in the paper mentioned require us to intercalate in this table three distinct plant-horizons not previously recognized in the western territories of Canada. One of these, the Kootanie series, should probably be 1 COV rtumn eG eee 2 Canadian Record of Science. placed at the base of the table as a representative of the Urgonian or Neocomian; or, at the very least, should be held as not newer than the Shasta group of the United States geologists, and the lower sandstones and shales of the Queen Charlotte Islands. It would seem to correspond in the character of its fossil plants with the oldest Cre- taceous floras recognized in Europe and Asia, and with that of the Komé formation in Greenland, as described by Heer. No similar flora seems yet to have been distinctly recog- nized in the United States, except, perhaps, that of the beds in Maryland, holding cycads, and which were referred many years ago by Tyson to the Wealden. The second of these plant-horizons, separated according to Dr. G. M. Dawson, by a considerable thickness of strata, is that which he has called the Mill Creek beds, and which corresponds very closely with that of the Dakota group, as described by Lesquereux, and that of the Atané and Patoot formations in Greenland, as described by Heer. This fills a gap, indicated only conjecturally in the table of 1883. Along with the plants from the Dunvegan group of Peace River, described in 1883, it would seem to represent the flora of the Cenomanian and Turonian divisions of the Cre- taceous in Europe. Above this we have also to intercalate a third sub-fiora, that of the Belly River series at the base of the Fort Pierre group. This, though separated from the Laramie proper by the marine beds of the Pierre and Fox Hill groups, more than 1,700 feet in thickness, introduces the Laramie or Danian flora, which continues to the top of the Cre- taceous, and probably into the Hocene, and includes several species still surviving on the American continent, or repre- sented by forms so close that they may be varietal meiely. Lastly, the subdivision of the Laramie group, in the last report of Dr. G. M. Dawson, into the three members known respectively as the Lower or St. Mary River series, the Middle or Willow Creek series, and the Upper or Por- cupine Hill series, in connection with the fact that the fossil plants occur chiefly in the lower and upper members, enables us now to divide the Laramie flora proper into two Cretaceous in the Northwest. 3 sub-floras,—an older, closely allied to that of the Belly River series below; and a newer, identical with that of Souris River, described as Lignite Tertiary in Dr. G. M. Dawson’s Report on the 49th Parallel, 1875, and which appears to agree with that known in the United States as the Fort Union group, and in part at least with the so- called Miocene of Heer from Greenland. From the animal fossils and the character of the plants, it would seem probable that the rich flora of the Cretaceous coal fields’of Vancouver Island is nearly synchronous with that of the coal-bearing Belly River series of the western plains. It will thus be seen that the explorations already made in Canadian territory have revealed a 4yery complete series of Cretaceous plants, admitting, no doubt, of large addi- tions to the number of species by future discoveries, and also of the establishment of connecting links between the different members ; but giving a satisfactory basis for the knowledge of the succession of plants, and for the deter- mination of the ages of formations by their vegetable fossils. In connection with the subjoined table it should be understood that Tertiary floras, probably Miocene in age, are known in the interior of British Columbia, though they have not yet been recognized in the territories east of the Rocky Mountains. Before leaving this part of the subject, I would deprecate the remark which I see occasionally made, that fossil plants are of little value in determining geological horizons in the Cretaceous and Tertiary. I admit that in these periods some allowance must be made for local differences of station, and also that there is a generic sameness in the flora of the Northern Hemisphere, from the Cenomanian to the modern ; yet these local differences and general similarity are not of a nature to invalidate inferences as to age. No doubt so long as palzobotanists seemed obliged, in deference to anthority, and to the results of investigations limited to a few European localities, to group together, without distinc- tion, all the floras of the later Cretaceous and earlier Ter- 4 Oanadian Record of Science. tiary, irrespective of stratigraphical considerations, the subject lost its geological importance. But when a good series has been obtained in any one region of some extent, the case becomes different. Though there is still much imperfection in our knowledge of the Cretaceous and Ter- tiary fioras of Canada, I think the work already done is sufficient to enable any competent observer to distinguish by their fossil plants the Lower, Middle, and Upper Cre- taceous, and the latter from the Tertiary ; and, with the aid of the work already done by Lesquereux and Newberry in the United States, to refer approximately to its true geological position any group of plants from beds of un- known age in the west. The successive series may be tabulated as on the opposite page, with references for details to the fuller table in my memoir of 1883. Though the flora of the Belly River series very closely resembles that of the Lower Laramie, showing that similar plants existed throughout the Senonian and Danian periods in North America, yet it is to be anticipated that specific differences will develop themselves in the progress of dis- covery. In the meantime, it scarcely seems possible to dis- tinguish by fossil plants alone the Lower Laramie beds from those of Belly River; and, if these are really separated by 1,700 feet of marine strata, as is now believed on strati- graphical grounds, the flora must have been remarkably persistent. The Dunvegan series of Peace River probably corresponds in time with the marine Niobrara and Benton groups farther south and the Mill Creek with the Dakota group. PHYSICAL CONDITIONS AND CLIMATE INDICATED BY THE CRETACEOUS FLORAS. In the Jurassic and earliest Cretaceous periods the pre- valence, over the whole of the Northern Hemisphere and for a long time, of a monotonous assemblage of Gymno- spermous and Acrogenous plants, implies a uniform and mild climate and facility for intercommunication in the Cretaceous in the Northwest. CQQT JO MOULO, ‘SULA pus ‘sourg ‘spvoAD "EQgT jo alomleyy +=*AOAANG ‘oor, Wodayy «‘“suOpeTAjoorq, Moy B ‘sour ‘spBoAD “S88T JO TIOUETT “S' eu} jo dnoig vyoye, 0} AvTLUATS ‘SoABOT SHOWOPETAYOOTT ‘ojo ‘spvoky ‘suOpopAJOory AUB, "SRST JO ALOUTOPL ‘oy0 ‘sure ‘SuOpe[Aoorg, AUB, “G8ST JO ILOUTOTAT ‘GQgT Jo TOMO, = “SOPLUSIT YIM “ojo “LOA AT[OT TUBMOTOIVYSVG “G JO Spoq BrlussvIg: puB. vIonbeg “OULIB IAL OULIB IAL "GQQT JO LLOWMOT, PUB [PT[VAVT YGF qaodoy «‘soplUsrry YIM “O70 “OATY LooqE poy ‘for[e -IB@q WIG JO SpuRl, pvq Jo spoq BIIsIq pur BUUOT “G88T JO TOW, puB ‘“GL8T LoJ VpBURD Jo ABAING "[O9H 440d -OY ‘ALVS[VQ pUB AOATIYT SLINOg JO Spoq snuvjze[ reoeeooess Surpqyunop, AYOOY JO SOLA OLURIOO YT ‘SIA Ayo JO Spoq oywipoutsojuy ‘sorreg [voD pULIST o}JO[LVYH Woon) puv spoq TOA vMysng ooo see SULBIJUNOTA, Ayooyy JO Speq 3xoor [[LAL Teese eeres cess TOATY O0VAT JO SOLIOG UBSOATING : ‘aroy ATquqoad “og ‘ouULIBUBN JO SOINSvOTT [BOL pee eo eo ee oe oe eee eee Hwee seers TOATY ALLO oe ere rh oe ee OOo woo oe we OO we SOLO OILOL JLOIT ores rere Beh eee Coe eee secre e SOTIOG WE XOjL rere eee TOATY AIBIA, IG LO OLUIVIVT LOMOT ‘Spoq Yoo MO[[IA\ 10 otUBAV'T O[PPLIN, rereeeeesorrrpp ourdnoio,y 10 ormmvaery aedd 9, (‘ojo “ueLur -000a NT) SNO9D “BOI LOMO'T CuvlueuoUu -09 puv ULIU -O1ny,) sno090 -840I) O[PPHN (uUBIOUg pue uve) §n090¥B}0.1) sodd "SlLO9DBY OID 0} OUd005F UOTPISUBLT, & “SCHON HMO LCL YT ‘SVHOT-LAG UNV SVUOTIT ‘SCOIUAT Gnas DNIGNALOSU(T NT) ‘VGVNVO NI SQOHOV LAL GHL JO SVUOTA-ANS AGNV SVAOTH AAISSHOONS 6 Canadian Record of Science. north. Toward the end of the Jurassic and beginning of the Cretaceous, the land of the Northern Hemisphere was assuming greater dimensions, and the climate probably be- coming a little less uniform. Before the close of the Lower Cretaceous period the dicotyledonous flora seems to have been introduced, under geographical conditions which per- mitted a warm-temperate climate to extend as far north as Greenland. In the Cenomanian, we tind the Northern Hemisphere tenanted with dicotyledonous trees closely allied to those of modern times, though still indicating a climate much warmer than that which at present prevails. In this age, extensive but gradual submergence of land is indicated by the prevalence of chalk and marine limestones over the sur- face of both continents; but a circumpolar belt of land seems to have been maintained, protecting the Atlantic and Pacific basins from floating ice, and permitting a temperate flora of great richness to prevail far to the north, and especially along the southern margins and extensions of the circumpolar land. These seem to have been the physical conditions which terminated the existence of the old Mesozoic flora and introduced that of the Middle Cretaceous. As time advanced, the quantity of land gradually increased, and the extension of new plains along the older ridges of land was coincident with the deposition of the great Laramie series, and with the origination of its peculiar flora, which indicates a mild climate and consider- able variety of station in mountain, plain and swamp, as well as in great sheets of shallow and weedy fresh water. In the Eocene and Miocene periods, the continent gradu- ally assumed its present form, and the vegetation became still more modern in aspect. In that period of the Eocene, however, in which the great nummulitic limestones were deposited, a submergence of land occurred on the Eastern Continent which must have assimilated its physical condi- tions to those of the Middle Cretaceous. This great change, affecting materially the flora of Europe, was not equally great in America, which also by the north and south exten- sion of its mountain chains permitted movements of migra- Cretaceous in the Northwest. if tion not possible in the Old World. From the Kocene downward, the remains of land animals and plants are found only in lake basins occupying the existing depressions of the land, though more extensive than those now remaining. Tt must also be borne in mind, that the great foldings and — fractures of the crust of the earth which occurred at the close of the Eocene, and to which the final elevation of such ranges as the Alps and the Rocky Mountains belongs, per- manently modified and moulded the forms of the continents. These statements raise, however, questions as to the pre- cise equivalence in time of similar floras found in different latitudes. However equable the climate, there must have been some appreciable difference in proceeding from north to south. If, therefore, as seems in every way probable, the new species of plants originated on the Arctic land and spread themselves southward, this latter process would occur most naturally in times of gradual refrigeration or of the access of a more extreme climate, that is, in times of the elevation of land in the temperate latitudes, or conversely, of local depression of land in the Arctic, leading to inva- sions of northern ice. Hence, the times of the prevalence of particular types of plants in the far north would precéde those of their extension to the south, and a flora found fossil in Greenland might be supposed to be somewhat older than a similar flora when found farther south. It would seem, however, that the time required for the extension of a new flora to its extreme geographical limit, is so small in com- parison with the duration of an entire geological period, that, practically, this difference is of little moment; or at least does not amount to antedating the Arctic flora of a particular type by a whole period, but only by a fraction of such period. Ii does not appear that, during the whole of the Creta- ceous and Hocene periods, there is any evidence of such refrigeration as seriously to interfere with the flora, but perhaps the times of most considerable warmth are those of the Dunvegan group in the Middle Cretaceous and those of the later Laramie and oldest Kocene. It would appear, that no cause for the mild temperature 8 Canadian Record of Science. of the Cretaceous needs to be invoked, other than those - mutations of land and water which the geological deposits themselves indicate. A condition for example of the Atlantic basin in which the high land of Greenland should be reduced in elevation and at the same time the northern inlets of the Atlantic closed against the invasion of Arctic ice, would at once restore climatic conditions allowing of the growth of a temperate flora in Greenland. As Dr. Brown has shown,' and as I have elsewhere argued, the absence of light in the Arctic winter is no disadvantage, since, during the winter, the growth of deciduous trees is in any case suspended ; while the constant continuance of light in the summer is, on the contrary, a very great stimu- lus and advantage. It is a remarkable phenomenon in the history of genera of plants in the later Mesozoic and Tertiary, that the older ge era appear at once in a great number of specific types, which become reduced as well as limited in range down to the modern. This is no doubt connected with the greater | differentiation of local conditions in the modern; but it indicates also a law of rapid multiplication of species in the early life of genera. The distribution of the species of Salisburia, Sequoia, Platanus, Sassafras, Liriodendron, Mag- nolia, and many other genera, affords remarkable proofs of this. Gray, Saporta, Heer, Newberry, Lesquereux, and Starkie Gardner, have all ably discussed these points ; but the con- tinual increase of our knowledge of the several floras, and the removal of error as to the dates of their appearance . must greatly conduce to clearer and more definite ideas. In particular, the prevailing opinion that the Miocene was the period of the greatest extension of warmth and of a temperate flora into the Arctic, must be abandoned in favour of the later Cretaceous and Hocene ; and, if | mistake not, this will be found to accord better with the evidence of general geology and of animal fossils. While the Memoir, of which the above are the conclu- ' Florula Discoana. Cretaceous in the Northwest. Q sions, was passing through the press, the report of Mr. Whiteaves, F.G.S., Palzontologist to the Canadian Survey, on the invertebrate fossils of the Laramie and Cretaceous of the Bow and Belly River districts appeared (“ Contribu- tions to Canadian Paleontology,” Vol. I. Part i, 89 pages and 11 plates). This valuable Report constitutes an inde- pendent testimony, based on animal fossils, to the age of the beds in question, and accords in the main very closely with the conclusions above derived from fossil plants. Unfortunately, however, no animal remains have yet been found in the Kootanie series, and the only fossil recorded from the Mill Creek beds is a species of Jnoceramus, charac- teristic in the United States of the Niobrara and Benton groups, but which is found in beds which may be some- what higher than those holding the plants. THE STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF “ DiscInA ACGADICA ”’ (HARTT), OF THE ST. JOHN GROUP. By G. F. Marruew. This rather common species of the Cambrian at St. John Basin was first figured and described in the second edition of Sir J. Wm. Dawson’s “ Acadian Geology ;” but as, owing to the imperfect material in his hands, the original describer, Prof. C. F. Hartt, did not clearly apprehend the nature of this species, a few words relative to the structural features of this, one of the earliest of the gasteropods, may be of interest. Mr. R. P. Whitfield first drew attention to the calcareous nature of the test of this species, and suggested that it was a gasteropod allied to Paleacmea or Metoptoma. Mr. C. D. Walcott afterwards referred it to the former genus, after a study of the type-specimens preserved in Prof. Hartt’s col- lection at Cornell University; but he subsequently referred it to Dr. H. Hicks’ genus, Stenotheca. This is where the late Mr. E. Billings placed a similar shell found in the Cambrian limestone of S.E. Newfoundland, and to this genus they are undoubtedly closely allied ; but an examina- 10 Canadian Record of Science. tion of a series of small shells of the St. John group, which have a closer affinity for the shell from the Menevian group of Wales, which was the type of Dr. Hicks’ genus Steno- theca, leads the writer to infer that Hartt’s species acadica is not so close to Hicks’ S. cornucopia as is the group of small shells above referred to. Hence it should be distin- guished as a sub-genus, characterized by its subcircular aperture and patelloid form. Probably its nearest relatives now living are not the true limpets, but are among the Fissurellide, and especially in the genus Parmophorus, which it resembles in many important particulars. The dimensions of the adult of S. acadica are: height about 7 mm., width and length of the aperture equal, and about 12 mm. In the young shells, however, the form is quite different, being proportionately higher and much narrower at the aperture; in both of these respects resembling the small Stenothecx above referred to, The internal markings of the shell leave no doubt as to its affinities being with the Gasteropods; in the young individual herewith figured they are well displayed, the course and extent of the muscular impression being clearly defined: the apex is directed backward and the muscular scar is of an elongated horse-shoe form. Except for the absence of an involute apex this species is not unlike Carinaropsis carinata (Hall) of the Trenton formation; it is compressed near the apex, and expands rapidly toward the aperture in a manner similar to that species, but in the way in which the concentric ridges are added it is comparable with Metoptoma (?) rugosa (Hall). Tt lived in shallow seas along the coast, if one may judge from the species associated with it, and probably was a bottom-crawler. The true Stenothecz appear to have been more varied in habitat, as some are found in company with Hartt’s species, and others in finer shales, where they are buried with remains of seaweeds (?), sponges, hydrozoa, ete. A fact in relation to the variation of resembling forms like these is related by Dr. Woodward in his “ Manual of the Mollusca,’ where he speaks of several wide limpets which assume a narrow compressed form when growing on the Features of “ Discina Acadica.” iat stems of seaweeds. Similar differences of habitat may have led to the characteristic form of the aperture and other features which distinguish S. acadica from the more typical Stenothece. The vertical range of this species is not great, for it is not known either above or below Div. Ic, but it is rather common where it does occur, and its associate species are those that have been found to abound in comparatively shallow water near the shore line, At an horizon corre- sponding to that in which our species is found, occurs the Kuropean Metoptoma barrandei (Linnarsson.) Fic.—Stenotheca (sub-gen. ?) acadica, Hartt, sp., magnified $, young individual exhibiting the internal characters of the shell. The horse-shoe shaped muscular impression open in front, the visceral cavity with a sharp ridge thickening and stiffening the apex. The inner area of the visceral cavity is lozenge-shaped opposite the more rigid part of the dorsal ridge. ORIGIN OF THE AINOS AND THEIR FINAL SETTLE- MENT AND DISTRIBUTION IN JAPAN. By D. P. Penwatiow. The Ainos probably displaced an earlier race of people in Japan, or at all events found remains of such a people there. Considering, then, that they are not truly autocthonous, we are led to inquire into their origin, as well as their first ap- pearance in the country. Naturally, we first of all seek evidence from the people themselves, concerning their an- cestors and their first appearance in the country ; but in so doing we are furnished with traditional lore, which, however interesting, often proves of little value in arriving at the 12 Canadian Record of Science. true facts. Yet itis proper for us to give these traditions due consideration, as being the only historical records of the people. The principal tradition of their origin is that already re-_ lated,! according to which Jinmu Tenno, the founder of the Japanese, became displeased with his daughter and set her adrift in an open boat. After floating about for some days, she landed on the distant shores of an island now called Yezo, and there formed an attachment for a dog, the result of the union being the first of the Aino people. Such a tradition possesses no value, and in all probability it did not originate with the Ainos themselves, but with the Japanese who sought to degrade them as much as possible. Moreover, the Japanese origin of this tradition seems the more probable, when we consider that they have endeavor- ed to give the story a certain plausibility by tracing an im- mediate connection between it and the word, Aino. ‘Thus, in Japanese, the word inu means a dog, and certain scho- lars maintain that the word, Aino, is but a corruption of this, it being originally applied in allusion to the supposed origin of the people. Yet again, other scholars endeavor to make the word a derivation of ai-no-ko, “ an offspring of the middle,” as signifying a cross between a woman and a dog. The entire tradition loses whatever of value it may have possessed, when we bear in mind that the Japanese occupa- tion occurred about B.C. 600, and the history of this latter people, points most unmistakably to the occupation of the country at that time by the Ainos. Moreover, if hard press- ed for a reason for holding such a tradition, the Ainos usu- _ ally reply with primative simplicity, “because the Japan ese tell us so.” ‘The reluctance which the Ainos exhibit in making this statement, is but a further evidence of the lin- gering awe with which they regard their conquerors. That they owe their existence to a god, is algo one of the leading traditions of the Ainos; but where they first appear ed, they cannot say. Mr. Griffis speaks of the word, Azno, as of rather modern 1See CANADIAN RECORD OF SCIENCE, 1. 228-236. Origin of the Ainos. 13 origin; but this there is good reason to doubt. At all events, in their own language, the word means “man” and appears to be the only equivalent.of this word in use; and every attempt to trace it back to inu or ai-no-ko would but strengthen our be- lief in attempts to degrade the Aino as much as possible. This, moreover, is in accord with the line of policy which has been pursued by the conquering people from the first up to very recent date, for we find that with their advent the Ainos were looked upon with contempt as very inferior beings ; and,’as they did not give way to the new-comers quite rapidly enough, were pursued into the northern wilds by a war of extermination. From that time on, the Japanese have considered it degrading to have any relations with the Ainos, other than those which would naturally exist between a conquering and conquered people; and, in carry- ing this policy to an extreme, there might and doubtless would arise many stories greatly to the disadvantage of the Aino, which, repeated through several centuries, would come to be looked upon by many as true, and finally accepted to a certain extent by the Ainos themselves because of their realizing the gulf which separated them from the Japanese, as well as faith in the superior knowledge of the latter. We must, therefore, look elsewhere for the origin of this interesting people; and we naturally turn at once to an ex- amination of them as they are found at the present day, as well as of localities where they have been, and where they have left undoubted evidence of their presence in words of their language which still linger as first applied to na- tural objects. Of the Aino movement previous to their occupation of Japan, we can derive no evidence from re- mains of their manufactures or structures, for none of these have yet been found; and we are thus brought to base our knowledge of their progress upon remnants of their lan- guage, which, after all, is the most reliable guide we can probably have, particularly when supplemented by physical characteristics and traditions. We are well aware that, even at the present time, the Ainos are familiar denizens of eastern Siberia, but it is de- sirable to determine whence they came for settlement even there. 14 Canadian Record of Science. Throughout the length and breadth of Japan, as we find it to-day, there are many Aino names, clearly recognizable as such, applied to mountains and other prominent natural objects as well as to places, towns and cities; and these are permanent monuments exactly similar to the lasting record of their former greatness, which our North American In- dians have left in such names as Connecticut, Winnipesau- kee, Niagara, etc., etc. Though the Aino words have un- dergone much modification at the hands of the Japanese, yet it is difficult so to disguise them that they cannot be re- cognized. Conspicuous examples of this are to be found in the present name of the town Matsumai from the Aino Mado-mai. Likewise in the modern capital town of Sapporo, we have a corruption of the Aino Satsu-poro, “a great dry place.” And if we apply this test more generally, we may readily discover traces of the Ainos over a much wider area. Thus Kurile, applied to the northern chain of islands reach- ing to Kamschatka, is a distinctively Aino word. When in this manner we get back to the continent, we there dis- cover still further undoubted traces of this people. Upon this point Latham! says:—‘“T cannot think it is by mere accident that the root, kor, appears in the names, Koria, Kurile and Koriak ; nor yet that itis by accident that, when we reach the Baltic, the same syllable appears in Kar- dia and Kurland, also reappearing in the name of the govern- ment of Kursa.” Pritchard * considers the Aino to be closely related to the Samoides and Caucasian tribes, thus leading — us to examine western Siberia for evidences of their early home and settlement. Yet again Brace’, who regards the Japanese as a graft on the Ainos, speaks of the latter in such ’ terms as might lead us to believe that they “ belong to the north Turanian family, and though their language does not precisely determine the race, probably the Tungusian.”’ Wood * gives great weight to matters of tradition, and is thereby strongly led to the belief in a western origin, for 1 Descriptive Ethnology. » Nat. Hist. of Man., p. 227. * Races of the Old World. 4 Trans. Eth. Soc., New Series, iv. 34, etc. Origin of the Ainos. 15 he tells us that, “the chief objection to a northern origin for the Aino is, that they persist in cherishing the tradition that their ancestors came from the west; thatis from some place in the direction of the Asiatic continent.” Here and there, along the northern borders of Siberia, are also to be found remnants of a language which show the undoubted presence at some former period of the Aino people, and we may thus retrace their course until, as all the evidence now at our disposal permits, we locate them in the region of the Southern Caucasus, as the centre from which they were dispersed. This view is, as we have seen, consistent also with tradition; and, if we also add the evi- dence of physical characteristics, then we must grant the probable correctness of this view. Dr. Scheube, after elaborate studies of this people, dis- tinctly states that there is ‘‘no Mongolic type in the Aino,” and he further speaks of them as most nearly comparable to the Russian peasantry. Topinard'! expresses the same view, and speaks of them as comparable to the people of the Moscow district. The appearance of the Aino is so distinct from that of the _ Japanese as to determine a wide separation of the two peo- ple, even upon the most casual inspection. What these distinctions are, will appear on another occasion; but I may observe in passing, that an unprejudiced observer at once notes the very close resemblance, even in color of skin, which the Ainos bear to Huropeans, and all the best accounts of this people speak of this. After reaching the eastern confines of Siberia, it is a com- paratively easy task to trace the Ainos in their subsequent wanderings. They appear first to have spread along the coast from Kamschatka southward, probably as far as Mon- golia. Finding the Island of Karafuto—Saghalien—easily reached by boats, and, at certain times when the tides were favorable, even on foot, they were naturally led in time to occupy a territory which afforded, in its streams, an abun- dance of food in the form of fish. Hventually, the narrow 1 Anthropology, p. 476. See also Nature, xxvi. 524, ete. 16 Canadian Record of Science. strait of La Perouse was easily crossed, and the Island of Yezo was then found to hold out the same temptations to settlement which had previously been discovered in Kara- futo. From this point, different considerations operated to tempt them in opposite directions. To the north-east, the long line of the Kuriles offered tempting fishing-grounds from which could be obtained, in the seal and sea otter, an abundance of food and warm clothing; while they would hardly encounter a more rigorous climate, probably less so, than that to which they were accustomed in Siberia. We have also to bear in mind that these islands, as well as the Aleutians, may have been occupied from the north. Again, from Yezo, as a starting point, they found temptations in an opposite direction, not only in an abundance of fish, but in an increasingly warm climate and an abundance of vegetable food which would become of a more enticing character as they constantly progressed southward. The material which they were accustomed to use for clothing in Siberia, they still found abundantly in Yezo and Northern Honshiu. Thus in course of time, the Ainos came to occupy the entire chain of Japanese Islands from the extreme north, probably as far south even as the Riu-Kiu Islands, and it was thus that the Japanese found them at the time of their occupation. As the Japanese came more fully into posses- sion of the country, they preserved and adopted into their own language such names of very prominent natural fea- tures as had been bestowed by the Ainos; and these, often with great modification, remain at the present time as evidence of the former presence of this people. At first gaining a foothold upon their new territory through peaceful overtures, the Japanese, with the conscious- ness of increasing strength ,no longer preserved the measures of precaution dictated by prudence born of a sense of the Ainos’ savage superiority; but gradually adopted more boldness, made demands where before treaty was required by good judgment, and finally became openly aggressive. Thus, gradually, they came to occupy the entire southern extremity of Honshiu and the adjacent islands. The Ainos in the meantime, at first susceptible to kindly overtures, Origin of the Ainos. NG gradually became suspicious and uneasy as the strength of the Japanese increased and their demands were more openly made amd boldly enforced. Seeing their lands and choicest hunting-grounds fast taken from them, they soon felt that, by a resort to force only, could they hope to preserve their natural rights. Then followed a series of bloody wars in which the Japanese, possessing superior skill and weapons, were in the end victorious, and the poor aborigines were driven further and further towards the northern portion of the courtry in the direction from which they came. Karly Japanese history is filled with accounts of this con- stant struggle. The retreat of the Ainos seems to have been slow, how- ever, and stubbornly made, for in A.D. 110, seven hundred years after the first landing of the Japanese, the Ainos were still in possession of the region extending southward from Tokio to the Hakone Mountains, and at this date is chroni- cled an important campaign of Yamato-Dake against the savages of this district. By the middle of the fourth century, the war, which had been continuously waged against the Ainos for so long a time, had driven them well to the north, so that they were confined principally to the region lying beyond lat. 38° N. The policy which led to constant warfare with the Ainos, continued in full force and was perhaps given fresh strength, when, quite at the end of the twelfth century, the Mikado appointed Yoritomo as his great gen- eral, or “ barbarian-subjecting great general,” the Tei-i-tai Shogun. Driven finally to the limits of Honshiu, their last hold on the main island was lost; and crossing the Straits of Tsugaru (Sangar), they found refuge in the wilds of Yezo. Not even here, however, did they find immunity from persecution, for the Japanese soon discovered the valu- able fisheries and compelled the Ainos to yield an unwilling consent to their occupation of the island. Thoroughly sub- dued at last, with broken spirits, they calmly bowed to the inevitable and became quietly submissive, and thus it is that we find them to-day. It will thus readily be seen that the relations of the Aino to the Japanese were and are precisely those of the Amer- 18 Canadian Record of Science. ican Indian to the European, and in this history. is truly re- peated. It is the same story of pacific intentions, bold de- mands, aggressive acts, and continual wars, resulting in the final subjugation and extermination of a weaker race. Dur- ing the first centuries of conquest, the Ainos were called Ebisu, literally “savages,” but later this name gave place to that by which they are now known. If we are to examine the present geographical distribu- tion of the Ainos, we find the southern limitin Yezo, where they are most abundant now. According to the most re- cent and trustworthy statistics, there are in all 16,637, of which 8,316 are men and 8, 321 women.’ They are dis- tributed in the eleven provinces of Yezo as follows :— Ishikari, 1,058 Shiribushi, 857 Iburi, 3,726 Hitaka, 5,270 Tokachi, 1,498 Teshiwo, 352 Oshima, 245 Kushiro, 1,449 Nemuro, 473 Chisuma, 460 Kitami, 1,249 Of these, however, 750 were brought from Karafuto to the province of Ishikari, when in 1876 Saghalien was ceded to Russia in exchange for the Kuriles. In addition to these, Ainos are found in Saghalien, on the opposite Siberian coast and in Kamschatka, as also to a more limited extent in Alaska. Having progressed so far eastward, it is hard to conceive why these people should not have continued in the same direction as long as there were no great barriers. Spread- ing as they did from one island to another through Japan and the Kuriles, there is no reason why they should not have visited the various members of the Aleutian chain and ' Braurfs (Science, ii. 134, see also i. 210 and 307,) endeavors to make it appear, from statements of missionaries and from estimates based upon the villages he passed, that there are at least 50,000 Ainos. His grounds, however, are wholly unwarrantable and his conclusions in direct conflict with the most reliable official statis- tics, for which he professes a profound contempt. The figures given above are essentially the same as those given by Dr. Scheube, who states the Aino population to be 17,000 in round numbers. Origin of the Ainos. 19 thus in time have reached America at a very early period. The difficulties to be met were hardly greater than those they must have encountered in passing to and from many of the islands of Japan. Weare thus seriously led to ask, if some of the resemblance between the Ainos and Esqui- maux are not indications of affinity rather than mere coin- cidences ? There thus appear possibilities of an Asiatic influence upon our earliest settlers, which may have been more than passing; but the field for speculation in this direction en- larges so rapidly, that we must await the accumulation of facts, which are now wanting, before correct judgment can be given. NEw FRESH-WATER SPONGES FROM Nova ScotTIA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. By A. H. MacKay. In the article on Organic Siliceous Remains found in the Lake Deposits of Nova Scotia, published in the last num- ber of the REcorp or ScrENcE, Nos. 3 and 8 of the list of sponges were referred to as new. I here quote the original descriptions of the species, to which I append some obser- vations. In the Annals and Magazine of Natural History of London, January, 1885, Mr. H. J. Carter, F.RS., of England, describes a species froma lake in Pictou County, Nova Scotia, as follows :— “ Spongilla mackayi, n. sp.—Sessile, spreading, charged with little subglobular bodies like large statoblasts, about 1-12th inch. Skeletal spicule acerate, slightly curved and sharp-pointed, more or less thickly spined, averaging 50 by 23—6000ths inch in its greatest diameters; [accompanied abundantly by minute birotulate flesh-spicules precisely like that of Meyenia everetti—that is 3 to 46000ths inch long, with very thin smooth shaft about four times longer than the diameter of the rotule, which is 1-6000ths inch, toothed, with the teeth recurved.] Statoblasts globular, 20 Canadian Record of Science. consisting of a thick chitinous coat filled with the usual germinal matter, from which is very slightly prolonged an everted trumpet-shaped aperture; bearing slight traces externally of microcell-structure and the polygonal tissue ; making one of twenty such which are arranged so as to form a subglobular body of the size mentioned; situated around a central cavity with their apertures inward; the whole supported by statoblast spicules of various sizes, which, intercrossing each other, form a net-like globular capsule, in which the outer parts of the statoblast are fixed and covered ; apparently (for the specimen is dry) deficient at one point, which leads to the central cavity. Statoblast spicules acerate, sharp-pointed, like the skeletal spicules, but becoming much shorter and more coarsely spined as they approach the chitinous coats of the statoblasts, where they may be reduced to at least 27-6000ths inch in length, although often increased to 4-6000ths inch in thickness, and their spines, which are very irregular in size and situation, often as long as the spicule is broad.” The words in brackets are mine. Mr. Carter goes on, however, to notice the remarkable fact that this spongilla has flesh spicules identical with those of Mf. everetti; and suggests that possibly they may not belong to S. mackayi, but that their presence may be owing to the proximity of M. everetti, which grows in the same lake. My subsequent observations go to prove that Mr. Carter’s surmise is correct, and that the flesh-spicules in the specimen are adventitious. When in St. John’s, Newfoundland, this summer, | was conducted by the well-known historian and scientific observer, Rev. Moses Harvey, to Virginia Lake, a beautiful sheet of water, a few miles from the city, in which the development of Spongilla mackayi is very luxuriant on the stones, etc., in depths of from two to four feet of water. I have not observed these flesh-spicules in the specimens from Newfoundland or in other specimens from Nova Scotia. The second new species was described by Mr. Edward Potts before the Philadelphia Academy of Natural Sciences, at its meeting of Feb, 24th, 1885, as follows :— New Fresh-Water Sponges 21 “ Heteromeyenia pictovensis, n. sp.—Sponge light green, even when dry, massive, encrusting ; texture very compact ; spicules non-fasciculated, persistent ; surface mostly smooth. —Gemmules very scarce, spherical crust thick.—Skeleton spicules cylindrical, short, robust, rounded, or abruptly terminated ; entirely spined, spines conical at the centre of the spicule, elsewhere generally curving forward, or towards each extremity. Rounded terminations of spicules covered with short spines, though frequently a single large spine or acute termination is seen at one or both extremities — HETEROMBYENIA PICTOVENSIS. A.—Skeleton spicule. B.—Long statoblast spicule. C.—Short statoblast spicule. Dermal spicules absent or undiscovered.—Birotulates of the longer class surrounding the gemmules, rather numerous, one half longer than the others; shafts conspicuously fusi- form or largest at the centre, where are frequently found one or more long spines; their rotules consist of three to six irregularly placed rays, recurved at the extremities. —Birotulates of the shorter class abundant and compactly placed around the gemmule; shafts mostly smooth, though sometimes bearing a single spine; irregularly cylindrical, but rapidly widening to support the rotules, which are Pp) Canadian Record of Science. large, umbonate, nearly flat, and finély lacinulate at their margins; occasionally bearing spines. — Measurements. Skeleton spicules 0:0075 inch long, by 0:00075 inch thick ; length of long birotulates 0°0021 inch; of short birotulates 0:0012; diameter of disc of latter 0:0009 inch.” This is one of the most beautiful of our fresh-water sponges. It isso much more compact and firm than our other sponges, that it can nearly infallibly be recognized at sight or by touch when once seen and handled. Its range in Nova Scotia is quite extensive: it has been found on the Atlantic and Gulf slopes. It is also abundant in Newfound- land. S. mackayi is also easily recognized without micro- scopic examination when once seen. Its encrusting habit, with the conspicuously large compound statoblasts, is very characteristic. Its nearest congener is the variety of Spongilla fragilis (Leidy) described by Dr. Geo. M. Dawson as S. ottawaensis. THE SuN DANCE OF THE CREE INDIANS. By CamMpPBppiut LANE. When serving with my brigade in the recent Northwest Rebellion, I had an opportunity of witnessing a traditionary custom of the Indians, which may be of interest from an anthropological point of view. The ceremony was the Sun Dance. It is sometimes known as the ‘“‘ Great Thirst Dance,” and not unfrequently as the “Torture Dance.” By the former name, however, it is more generally known among the white settlers of the Northwest. The dance I attended began at 7 o’clock p. m. on Thursday, May 28th, and was continued till Saturday, 30th, at the same hour. It was Saturday afternoon when I arrived. Chief Pie-a-Pot’s band, together with his visitors from other reserves, were all encamped in tents. Having passed through the line of deserted tepees, forming the circumference of the camp, we approached a high cen- tral tent whence issued the beating of drums, the blowing of whistles and a monotonous drone, which told of some cere- The Cree Sun Dance. | 93 mony in progress within. Entering this tent under the guidance of two medicine men, who appeared upon our ar- rival, we found the chief busily engaged in the ceremony of blowing a whistle and jumping in time to the orchestra of tom-toms or Indian drums. After the lapse of a period of time sufficient to satisfy his sense of dignity, he came for- ward and welcomed us. The tent where the dance was taking place was about forty feet in diameter. Formed like an ordinary tepee, it was decorated in the most fantastic way with colored calicoes, woollens, skins, boughs of trees and other articles. There was a large open space at the top of the tent, through which light and air were admitted. In the centre stood a stout poplar tree, shorn of its branches for some distance upwards, known as the “ Medicine Pole.” The tent was divided into three portions. One was reserved for spectators, consisting of small children, mothers with babes, old men and women and others who took no official part in the proceedings. The two other divisions of the circle were devoted to the braves and squaws who, after the system followed in the synagogue, were kept apart. Directly opposite the entrance was an orchestra of fifteen tom-toms. This musical instrument’ is formed by stretching a skin over a round wooden hoop, about the size of a side-drum head. Underneath are two transverse bars of wood, which the musician holds in his right hand, while he beats with his left. The time kept is what is known as double time, or the same as that ofa jig. Round the interior border of the tent were two rows of stalls, an inner and outer, in which the participants in the Sun Dance were placed. In front of these stalls there was a wooden railing, or fence, breast high. When the dance began, on an incantation from one of the medicine men—there being two who assumed direction of the ceremony—all those in the stalls jumped and blew whistles, keeping admirable time with the tom-toms. There was also a circle of warriors in full fighting attire, musket in hand, in the centre. Between each dance, which lasted from ten to fifteen minutes, came an interval of from three to five minutes. 24 Canadian Record of Science. When the tom-toms ceased to beat, the medicine man se- lected from the line of warriors a brave, who immediately fell out of the ring. With an air of great dignity he parad- ed before the orchestra, reciting his experiences as a public man. These were twofold. He told with accuracy of de- tail how many Blackfeet or hostile Indians he had killed, and how many horses he had stolen, being rated by the rest of the tribe accordingly. In the course of his narrative he frequently adopted the highly tragic vein, and gesticulated freely. He then fell again into the ring, and in a circle they all jumped to the music which had recommenced, mut- tering an indescribable, partially suppressed howl. Such are the attendant circumstances to the great event of the festival. All those engaged in the dance were in war paint, even including the women, but no special pattern was followed, and the result was a curious blending of inharmonious colours and unsymmetrical patterns on the same face. The object of the Torture Dance is to initiate warriors. The young “ bucks” or ‘‘ squaw-bucks,” as they are called, in order to graduate into the class of warriors or “ braves,” must undergo this ordeal. Before they become initiated they are on a par with the squaw as regards the division of labour, which means that, like the squaw, they have all the menial and. heavy work to do, the full-fledged brave merely going on the warpath and stealing horses. The young “buck” is in full war paint, and, when his turn comes, is called out by the medicine man, before whom he appears perfectly nude but for a breech-clout about his Joins. Stepping to the front near the entrance to the tent, he takes up too small flags or bannerettes, one in each hand, and after a few preliminary facings in the way of extend- ing his arms, advancing towards and retiring from the me- dicine pole, sits down. The medicine men then close in around him, as the rest of the tribe are not allowed to see the incision, and with a sharp knife cut into his breast an inch above the nipple. As our party wore uniforms, we were invited to witness the operation. The knife used on this occasion resembled somewhat a shoemaker’s knife, and bo The Cree Sun Dance. 25 though sharp, was hardly as pointed as the large blade ina pocket pen-knife. As the incision was made, a noise resem- bling the tearing of linen, a good deal deadened, was heard. The effect on a white man is not altogether pleasant. The knife came out of the flesh about three or four inches from the spot at which it entered. It was left there until the medicine man stooped to pick up a skewer about as thick as a common lead pencil. It was then withdrawn and the skewer inserted in its place. During the whole of this operation the young buck never quailed, nor did his eye, which bore a perfectly stolid ex- pression, reveal the slightest trace of suffering. Suspended from the top of the medicine pole were two ropes, to the end of each of which was fastened a leather thong. This latter was attached to each of the skewers (for the incision was made in each breast), and the buck thus firmly tied. This performed, an incantation by the medicine man follow- ed. The music as described, recommenced, and the dance in all its ghastly earnestness began. The young buck was compelled to dance in time, swinging through the circle in which the spectators were found, and keeping the ropes tightened by a centrifugal tension. The flesh and skin of his breasts were thus drawn out in a pointed shape about half a foot from his chest. He had to continue pulling on the ropes in this way until by degrees the wooden pegs were torn out. When he had succeeded in doing this, the medi- cine men moistened the ends of their fingers with some herb they were chewing, and applied them to the lacerated flesh, completely staunching all effusion of blood. They then turned the exhausted man over on his face and called for the next novice. Sometimes, instead of breast-pins, shoulder-pins are driven through the upper arm in line with the collar bone. Another mode of torture is the fastening, by a similar pro- cess, of a cord between the shoulder blades, to which is ap- pended a buffalo head and horns. The buck is then made to walk about the tent, dragging it on the ground behind him. There are also various other refinements of cruelty practised. They had just released a youth from the shoulder- 26 Canadian Record of Science. pin test when I arrived. He stood there fainting and trembling from mingling exhaustion and pain.! For those candidates who are initiated at the opening of the dance, the feeling is simply that of intense physical pain. But those who undergo the test after forty-eight hours of fasting, and after taking part in the ceremony day and night without sleep, frequently faint under the agony, and: have to be cut down. This involves their going through the torture de novo in order to become braves. Such is the Sun Dance. The young bucks never shrink from the crucial test of valour, but seem rather to court it- It seems strange, however, that *he degree of nerve and in- difference to suffering which this dance engenders, should not develop in the Indians a greater courage. Yet the youth who bears with unflinching pluck these terrible ago- nies, is taught never to fight, when on the warpath, unless he considers himself to be at an advantage. AN ABSTRACT OF THE PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES. By R. W. Boonie. Whether the Presidents of the British and American Associations speak as the representatives of the lay world to the world of science (and this was their chief duty dur- ing the earlier years of the British Association), or whether their annual addresses are primarily intended as a means of popularizing the recent progress of science—they are naturally listened to with profound attention. Neither Sir ‘Lyon Playfair’s address at Aberdeen, nor Professor J. P. Lesley’s at Ann Arbor,’ however, falls within these cate- gories. The former is of an eminently practical nature, devoted to pointing out the defects of popular education as it exists in Great Britain at the present moment. On the 1 It sometimes takes an entire day for the pin to make its way through the flesh outwards. » The two addresses bear date: Sir Lyon Playfair’s, September 9 ; Professor Lesley’s, August 26. The Presidents’ Addresses. oul other hand, Professor Lesley prefers to speak to the inner circle of scientists as one of themselves, and his address might have been called ‘The True Temper of the Scientist.” The result is that the two addresses cover very different grounds and can hardly be compared together, though each is interesting in a different way. The address of the American President cannot fail to strike the reader as being distinctly conservative in tone. He poses as the representative of older scientists to the ris- ing generation, dwelling on the dangers and folly of empiri- cism. ‘Do not go too fast!’ he says, ‘ Your own character is more important than the construction of new theories. We have too many of these: what we want is solid work and extreme caution.’ Character, he insists, should not be sacrificed to science, which is ‘“‘our means, and not our end. Self-culture is the only real and noble aim of life.” There is danger of an over-accumulation of scientific information : ‘““Not only the avarice of facts, but of their explanations also, may end in a wealthy poverty of intellect for which there is no cure. . . . How much we know is not the best question, but how we got at what we know; and what we can do with it; and above all what it has made of us. I beg you to reflect that it is as true of science as of religion, that the mere letter of its code threatens its devotee with intellectual death ; and that only by breathing its purest spirit can the man of science keep his better character alive.” The pursuit of science should be made ancillary to the public good. They are indeed closely connected. “ Every advancement in science is of its own nature an improvement of the commonwealth. Every successful study of the laws of the world we inhabit inevitably brings about a more intelligent and victorious conflict with the material evils of life, encouraging thoughtfulness, discouraging superstition, exposing the folly of vice, and putting the multitudes of human society on a fairer and friendlier footing with one another. The arts of philanthropy are therefore as direct an outcome of science as is the lighting of the public streets, or the warming of our homes,” 28 Canadian Record of Science. Among other questions closely connected with science is the problem of universal education; and while only a few in each community can acquire wealth of knowledge, these few must get it for themselves, and must work hard for it. It is not desirable to make the acquisition of knowledge too easy. ‘‘The harder the dinner is to chew, the stronger grows the eater. Canned science, as a steady diet, is as unwholesome for the growing mind as canned fruits and vegetables for the growing body. The wise teacher imitates the method of nature, who has but one answer for all ques- tions: Find it out for yourself, and you will then know it better than if I were to tell you beforehand.” The lecturer recognized an evil tendency “in the present popular rage for over- classification, unification, and simplification of science; for ultra-symmetrical formule, and excessive uniformity in nomenclature.” There is no logical consistency in Nature ; nor can the work of the student be over-simplified with- out danger of its failing to produce genuine men of science. It is characteristic of science that great discoveries can come only at long intervals, and the claim to special atten- tion made by inexperienced stumblers on forgotten facts should be deprecated. The progress of science the Presi- dent compared to a procession, in which “two facts arrest attention : first, the eager gaze of expectation which the crowd of lookers-on direct towards the quarter from which the procession comes, and their unaccountable indifference to what has already passed; and secondly, the wonderful disappearance, the more or less sudden vanishing out of the very hands of the carriers, of a large majority of the facts and theories of which they make so pompous an exposure ; few of them however seeming to be aware that thereby they have lost their right to participate in the pageant, and should retire from it into the throng of spectators, at least until good fortune should take pity on them and drop some new trifle at their feet to soothe their wounded vanity.” The audacity with which young students take up difficult problems should be discouraged. ‘Shall such themes as the nebular hypothesis, the probable solidity or fluidity of our planet, the metamorphosis of rocks, the origin of ser- The Presidents’ Addresses. 29 pentine or petroleum, the cause of foliation, the stable or unstable geographical relationships of continent to ocean, the probable rate of geological time, the conditions of ¢li- mate in the ages of maximum ice, the probable centres of life-dispersion, the unity or multiplicity of the human race, the evolution of species, be babbled over by men, the amount of whose efficient work in any branch of science is measur- able with a foot-rule; while those, whose entire lives have been but one exhausting struggle with the shapes which people the darkness of science, speak with bated breath and downcast eyes of these great mysteries ?” Young scientists test the value of old truths by new dis- coveries, but veterans reverse the rule and try new discov- eries by well-established principles. The progress of science depends on the interaction of these mode of procedure. ‘Not by the mere increment in number of facts learned, not by the mere multiplication of discoverers, teachers and students of those facts, but by the elevation of our aims, by the enlargement of our views, by the refinement of our me- thods, by the ennoblement of our personalities, and by these alone can we rightly discover whether or not our Associa- tion is fulfilling its destiny by advancing science in Am- erica.” Professor Lesley concluded his address by insisting on the absolute necessity for more “ Dead-work”’ being done by the true scientist. This department of science ‘‘ comprises the collection, collation, comparison and adjustment, the elimin- ation, correction and re-selection, the calculation and re- presentation—in a word, the entire, first, second, and third handling of our data in any branch of human learning,— wholly perfunctory, preparatory, and mechanical, wholly tentative, experimental, and defensive,—without which it is dangerous to proceed a single stage into reasoning on the unknown, and futile to imagine that we can advance in science ourselves, or assist in itsadvancementin the world.” Tn regard to this, five propositions were laid down: “ (1) That without a large amount of this dead-work there can be no discovery of what is rightly called a scientific truth. (2) That without a large amount of dead-work on the part 30 Canadian Record of Science. of a teacher of science he will fail in his efforts to impart true science to his scholars. (3) That without a large amount of dead-work no professional expert can properly serve, much less inform and command, his clients or em- ployers. (4) That nothing but an habitual performance of dead-work can keep the scientific judgment in a safe and sound condition to meet emergencies, or prevent it from falling more or less rapidly into decrepitude ; and (5) That in the case of highly-organized thinkers, disposed or obliged to exercise habitually the creative powers of the imagina- tion, or to exhaust the will-power in frequently recurring decisions of difficult and doubtful questions, dead-work, and plenty of it, is their only salvation; nay, the most delicious and refreshing recreation ; a panacea for disgust, discour- agement and care; an elixir vite; a fountain of perpetual youth.” In the course of illustrating these propositions, President Lesley insists on the impossibility of delegating dead-work to other men. “The man who cannot himself survey and map his field, measure and draw his sections properly, and perfectly represent with his own pencil the characteristic variations of his fossils forms, has no just right to call him- self an expert geologist. These are the badges of initiation, and the only guarantees which one can offer to the world of science that one is a competent observer and a trustworthy generalizer. Nor has one become a true man of science until he has already done a vast amount of this dead-work ; nor does one continue in his prime, as a man of science, after he has ceased to bring to this test of his own ability to see, to judge, and to theorize, the working and thinking of other men.” ‘Teachers in science have special need to bear this in mind, for learning is not knowledge, but, as Lessing says, our knowledge of the experience of others. ‘‘ Know- ledge is our own. No man really comprehends what he him- self has not created» Therefore we know nothing of the universe until we take it to pieces for inspection and rebuild it for our understanding. Nor can one man do this for an- other: each must do it for himself; and all that one can do to help another is to show him how he himself has morsel- The Presidents’ Addresses. 51 lated and recomposed his small particular share of concrete nature, and inspire him with those vague but hopeful sug- gestions of ideas which we call Learning, but which are not Science.” If the science of Canada should profit by the matured wisdom of Professor Lesley, our educationists have greater need to listen to Sir Lyon Playfair’s address. It would be idle to maintain that education in Canada is in an ideal state of perfection. We are haunted by the phantom of a literary and classical training which is a realityin England. If the literary system of education is out of date there, it is a sham here. “In a scientific and keenly competitive age,” the President says, ‘‘an exclusive education in the dead languages is a perplexing anomaly.” It is a still greater anomaly where the conditions of society are altered, and education is generally allowed to be a training for business rather than the acquisition of polish. . Sir Lyon Playfair’s address naturally opens with remarks suggested by last year’s visit of the Association to Montreal, in the course of which he pays graceful compliments to Canada, and alludes to Sir William Dawson’s selection for the Presidency at Birmingham in 1886. “Our last meeting at Montreal,” he says, “ was a notable event in the life of the British Association, and even marked a distinct epoch in the history of civilization. It was by no mere accident that the constitution of the Association enabled it to embrace all parts of the British Empire. Science is truly Catholic and is bounded only by the universe. The inhabitants of Canada received us with open arms, and the science of the Dominion and that of the United Kingdom were welded. . . . Our great men are their great men; our Shakespeare, Milton, and Burns belong to them as much as to ourselves; our Newton, Dalton, Fara- day, and Darwin are their men of science as much as they are ours. ‘Thus a common possession and mutual sympathy made the meeting in Canada a successful effort to stimulate the progress of science, while it established, at the same time, the principle that all people of British origin—and | would fain include our cousins in the United States—possess 32 Canadian Record of Science. a common interest in the intellectual glories of their race, and ought, in science at least, to constitute part and parcel of a common empire, whose heart may beat in the small islands of the Northern seas, but whose blood circulates in all her limbs, carrying warmth to them and bringing back vigour tous. . . . No doubtscience, which is only a form of truth, is one in all lands, but still its unity of purpose and fulfilment received an important practical expression by our visit to Canada. This community of science will be continued by the fact that we have invited Sir William Dawson, of Montreal, to be our next President at Birming- ham.” The four next sections of the address are devoted to the relations of Science to the State, to Secondary Education, to the Universities, and to Industry. Into the details of Sir Lyon Playfair’s subject I have no intention of following him : I shall merely select such remarks as have special bear- ing upon the educational problem of Canada,—a problem which she has hitherto attempted to solve by following in the wake of the mother country and adopting, with little alteration, a system commenced before science in the modern sense was thought of, and continued because education in Great Britain is still too much regarded as the luxury of the few rather than a necessary training for the many. ‘How is it,” Sir Lyon Playfair asks, ‘that in our great commercial centres, foreigners—German, Swiss, Dutch, and ‘even Greeks—push aside our English youth and take the places of profit which belong to them by national inherit- ance? How is it that in our colonies, like those in South ‘Africa, German enterprise is pushing aside English incapac- ity ? How is it that we find whole branches of manufac- tures, when they depend on scientific knowledge, passing away from this country, in which they originated, in order to engraft themselves abroad, although their decaying roots remain at home. The answer to these questions is that our systems of education are still too narrow for the increased struggle of life.” Too much attention is paid purely to Latin and Greek, The Presidents’ Addresses. 33 too little to the studies that are vital to the present age. “Generally, throughout the country, teaching in science is a name rather than a reality.” In only three schools in Great Britain, according to the testimony of Playfair, is science adequately taught. Turning to the Universities, Sir Lyon Playfair complains that with the wealthy exceptions of Oxford and Cambridge these are starved by the State. ‘The universities and col- leges of Ireland have received about £30,000 annually, and the same sum has been granted to the four universities of Scotland. Compared with imperial aid to foreign universi- ties such sums are small. A single German university like Strasburg or Leipsic receives above £40,000 annually, or £10,000 more than the whole colleges of Ireland or of Scot- land. Strasburg, for instance, has had her university and library rebuilt at a cost of £711,000, and receives an _ annual subscription of £43,000. In rebuilding the Univer- _ sity of Strasburg, eight laboratories have been provided, so as to equip it fully with the modern requirements for teach- ing and research.’ Prussia, the most economical nation in the world, spends £391,000 yearly out of taxation on her universities. The recent action of France is still more remarkable. After the Franco-German war the Insti- tute of France discussed the important question :—‘ Pour- quoi la France n’a pas trouvé dhommes supérieurs au moment du péril?? The general answer was because France had allowed university education to sink to a low ebb.” Startled by the intellectual sterility demonstrated by the war, ‘‘ France has made gigantic efforts to retrieve her position, and has rebuilt the provincial colleges at a cost of £3,280,000, while her annual budget for their support now reaches half a million of pounds. In order to open these provincial colleges to the best talent of France, more than 1 The cost of these laboratories has been as follows:—Chemical Institute, £35,000; Physical Institute, £28,000; Botanical Institute, £26,000; Observatory, £25,000; Anatomy, £42,000: Clinical Sur- gery, £26,000; Physiological Chemistry, £16,000; Physiological ‘Tnstitute, £13,900. 4 54 Canadian Record of Science. five hundred scholarships have been founded at an annual cost of £30,000. France now recognizes that it is not by the number of men under arms that she can compete with her great neighbour, Germany, so she has determined to equal her in intellect. You will understand why it is that Germany was obliged, even if she had not been willing, to spend such large sums in order to equip the university of her conquered province, Alsace-Lorraine. France and Ger-: many are fully aware that science is the source of wealth and power, and that the only way of advancing it is to encourage universities to make researches and to spread existing knowledge through the community. Other Huro- pean nations are advancing on the same lines. Switzer- land is a remarkable illustration of how a country can compensate itself for its natural disadvantages by a scien- tific education of its people. Switzerland contains neither coal nor the ordinary raw materials of industry, and is separated from other countries which might supply them by mountain barriers. Yet, by a singularly good system of graded schools, and by the great technical college of Zurich, she has become a prosperous manufacturing country.” Atter thus comparing the aids given to university and to technical training on the Continent of Europe with the sums given by the State for such purposes in HEngland— sums which appear magnificent, if compared with the sub- sidies received by our own Royal Institutions—the Presi- dent concludes: “Hither all foreign States are strangely deceived in their belief that the competition of the world has become a competition of intellect, or we are marvellously un- observant of the change which is passing over Hurope in the higher education of the people.” In speaking of Science and Industry, Sir Lyon Playfair happens, though with a different purpose in view, to touch upon a subject more fully discussed by Professor Lesley in his address. “Though the accumulation of facts is indis- pensable to the growth of science, a thousand facts are of less value to human progress than is a single one when it is scientifically comprehended, for it then becomes generalized in all similar cases.” Passing on, however, to the practical The Presidents Addresses. - 35 side of the subject, the President shows how the progress of the arts, even before science came to aid them, was traceable to three conditions: (1) The substitution of natural forces for brute animal power. (2) The economy of time. (3) Methods of utilizing waste products, or of endowing them with properties which render them of increased value to industry. ‘‘ All these results are often combined when a single end is obtained—at all events, economy of time and production invariably follows when natural forces are sub- stituted for brute animal force.” And Sir Lyon Playfair points out that, during the last twenty years, the steam power of the world has risen from 115 million to 29 million horse-power, or 152 per cent. The concluding section of the Address is devoted to “Abstract Science, the Condition for Progress.” Sir Lyon Playfair guards himself against the misconception that he is opposed to literary training. ‘“‘ My contention is that science should not be practically shut out from the view of a youth while his education is in progress, for the public weal requires that a large number of scientific men should belong to acommunity. . . . No amount of learning without science suffices in the present state of the world to put us in a position which will enable England to keep ahead or even on a level with foreign nations as regards knowledge and its applications to the utilities of life.’ In illustration of this fact, the advantages that the world gained from the learning of Erasmus are compared with those that accrued from the discoveries of Newton. The impetus given by the latter was not confined to the world of science. “ Newton’s discovery cast men’s minds into an entirely new mould, and levelled many barriers to human progress. This intellectual result was vastly more important than the practical advan- tages of the discovery, . . . Truth was now able to dis- card authority, and marched forward without hindrance. Before this point was reached, Bruno had been burned, Galileo had abjured, and both Copernicus and Descartes had kept back their writings for fear of offending the Church.” Turning to the great intellectual revolution of our own day, Sir Lyon Playfair adds that, “ the recent acceptance 36 Canadian Record of Science. of biology has had a like effect in producing a far pro- founder intellectual change in human thought than any mere impulse of industrial development. Already its application to sociology and education is recognized, but that is of less import to human progress than the broaden- ing of our views of Nature.” The address concludes with the following remarks: “ Abstract discovery in science is, then, the true foundation upon which the superstructure of modern civilization is built; and the man who would take part in it should study science, and, if he can, advance it for its own sake and not for its applications. Ignorance may walk in the path lighted by advancing knowledge, but she is unable to follow when science passes her, for, like the foolish virgin, she has no oil in her lamp. An established truth in science is like the constitution of an atom in matter—something so fixed in the order of things that it has become independent of further dangers in the struggle for existence. The sum of such truths forms the intellectual treasure which descends to each generation in hereditary succession.” The importance to Canada of such an address as Sir Lyon Playfair’s lies, as I have said before, in the application. Canada can hardly regard her educational system as more than tentative, when she has no institutions devoted to the study of science exclusively and supported by Government aid. Note oN BouLDER DRIFT AND SEA MARGINS AT LittLE Metis, Lower St. LAWRENCE. By Sm Wiiiram Dawson. At Little Metis, as elsewhere on the south side of the St. Lawrence, the coast is fringed with a broad belt of boulders, wholly covered at high tide, but exposed at low tide, and occupying in many places a breadth of 30 to 50 paces, within which the boulders are packed very closely. They vary in size from 9 or 10 feet in diameter downward, and consist : Boulders at Little Metis. - By principally of orthoclase, gneiss, Labradorite rock and other crystalline rocks from the Laurentian of the north shore, here about 35 miles distant at the nearest point. With these are masses of the hard sandstones of the Lower Silu- rian rock of the south coast, and occasionally, though rarely, blocks of the Upper Silurian limestone of the inland hills to the south. The boulders of this belt, though stationary in summer, are often moved by the coast ice in winter. This is well seen where they have been partially removed to form tracks for launching boats. In this case it is not unusual to find in the spring that such tracks have been partially refilled with boulders. On my own property, a track of this kind was completely blocked a few years ago by an an- gular boulder of sandstone nine feet in length, which had been lifted from a spot a few feet distant; and it is quite usual to find in a boat-track, cleared in the previous sum- mer, a dozen boulders of two feet or more in diameter that have been dropped in it by the winter ice. Whether any of these blocks are being drifted at the present time from the north shore, is not known; but they are moved freely up and down the coast, and in dredging in depths of eight to fifteen fathoms, I have found evidence that large boulders are not uncommon on the bottom; and judging from the small spe- cimens taken up by the dredge, they are similar to those on the shore, though apparently with a larger proportion of flat slaty fragments. If the coast were now in process of subsidence, there can be no question that the boulders would be pushed upward and would eventually form sheets and ridges of boulders embedded in mud, much in the manner of the marine boulder-clays now found inland. Above high water, on certain portions of the coast, there is a low terrace, only a few feet above the sea, and consist- ing of sand, shingle, and gravel, often with fragments of marine shells. Boulders are not numerous on this terrace and are usually merely fragments from ledges of local sand- stone. Bones of large whales occasionally occur on this terrace, 38 Canadian Record of Science. Proceeding inland, we find a second terrace about thirty feet above the sea, and consisting of sand, resting on hard boulder-clay or till. This last at different places along the coast is seen to vary in quality, being sometimes hard and loaded with boulders, in other cases a clay with marine shells, and again a clay with few boulders except at its junction with the sand above. On the inner side of this terrace, where it adjoins the rocky ledges inland, there is often a raised boulder-beach like that on the present shore, but with fewer and smaller boulders, as if the transporting power had been less than at present, and possibly the time of its action more limited. But still higher, on rocky ledges rising to the height of fifty to sixty feet, there are large Laurentian boulders, on the average larger than those of the present shore, perched upon the bare rock and with a few Upper Silurian boulders from the south, which become more numerous and larger further inland. In some places these Silurian limestone boulders are sufficiently numerous to afford the material for the supply of lime-kilns Dae for local requirements. The exposed ridges of rock on the second terrace are sometimes. polished with ice action, but without distinet striation, and especially on the southern and eastern sides. I had no opportunity to observe the condition of the rock surface under the boulder-clay. _On the greater part of the sixty feet terrace, the rock surfaces are rough, and yet large boulders often rest directly upon them, The till or hard boulder-clay of this coast would be claim- ed by some glacialists as glacier work; but there can be no doubt that these clays locally cayaitetin marine shells, and there is therefore no need of invoking land ice for their de- position. In this respect they agree with the drift deposits of the Lower St. Lawrence generally, except in the case of certain lateral valleys of the north shore which seem to have been occupied with local glaciers descending from the Laurentian highlands. ! "See Notes on Post-Pliocene of Canada, Canadian Naturalist, 1871-2. American Varieties of the Dog. 39 ORIGIN OF THE AMERICAN VARIETIES OF THE Doa.! By Dr. A. 8. PACKARD. The impression that the domestic dog of the old world has descended from wild species distinct from the wolfmay be well founded, but in America the evidence tends to prove that the Eskimo, and other domestic varieties of dogs, were domesticated by the aborigines and used by them long an- terior to the discovery of the continent by the HKuropeans, the varieties in question originating from the gray wolf or prairie wolf. First as to the’ Eskimo dog. From the fol- lowing extract from Frobisher it appears evident that the Eskimo had the present breed of domestic dogs long ante- rior to the year 1577. Frobisher’s account of the Hskimo themselves is, so far as we know, the first extant, and is full and characteristic. After describing the natives he goes on to say: “They frank or keepe certaine dogs not much vnlike wolues, which they yoke togither, as we do oxen and horses, to a sled or traile: and so carry their necessaries over the yce and snow from place to place: as the captive, whom we haue, made perfect signes. And when those dogs are not apt for the same vse : or when with hunger they are constrained, for lack of other vituals, they eate them : so that they are as needful for them in respect of their big- nesse, as our oxen are for vs.” ? Regarding the Eskimo dog, Richardson remarks in his “Fauna Boreali-America,” p.75: ‘The great resemblance which the domestic dogs of the aboriginal tribes of America bear to the wolves of the same country, was remarked by the earliest settlers from Hurope (Smith’s ‘ Virginia’), and has induced some naturalists of much observation to con- sider them to be nearly half-tamed wolves (Kalm). With- out entering at all into the question of the origin of the domestic dog, I may state that the resemblance between the wolves and the dogs of those Indian nations, who still pre- "From the American Naturalist, September, 1885. * The Second Voyage of Master Martin Frobisher, 1577. Written by Master Dionise Settle, Hakluyt, New Ed., London, 1810, iii. 62. 40 Canadian Record of Science. serve their ancient mode of life, continues to be very re- markable, and it isnowhere more so, than at the very north- ern extremity of the continent, the Esquimaux dogs being not only extremely like the gray wolves of the Arctic circle, in form and color, but also nearly equaling them in size. The dog has generally a shorter tail than the wolf, and car- ries it more frequently curled over the hip, but the latter practice is not totally unknown tothe wolf. . . . J have, however, seen a family of wolves playing together, occa- sionally carry their tail curled upwards.” The Hare Indian dog is also supposed to be a domestic- ated race of the prairie dog, as shown by the following ex- tract from Richardson’s “ Fauna Boreali-Americana ” :— “ Canis familiaris, var. B. lagopus, Hare Indiandog. This variety of dog is cultivated at present, so far as I know, only by the Hare Indians and other tribes that frequent the border of Great Bear lake and the banks of the Mackenzie. It is used by them solely in the chase, being too small to be useful as a beast of burden or draught.” It is smaller than the prairies wolf. ‘On comparing live specimens, I could detect no marked difference in form (except the smallness of its cranium), nor in fineness of the fur, and arrangement of its spots of color. . . . It, in fact, bears the same re- lation to the prairie wolf that the Esquimaux dog does to the great gray wolf.” Another variety of Indian dog is Richardson’s Canis fam- iliaris, var. D. novecaledonie, Carrier Indian dog. The Att- nah or Carrier Indians of New Caledonia possess a variety of dog which differs from the other northern races. “ It was the size of a large turnspit dog and had somewhat of the ‘same form of body; but it had straight legs, and its erect ears gave it a different physiognomy.’”’ The Spitz dog, Mr. J. A. Allen informs us, is with little doubt a domesticated subarctic variety of the prairie wolf. Sir John Richardson, in the appendix to ‘ Back’s Narra: tive,” Paris, 1836, p. 256, remarks: ‘ Indeed, the wolves and the domestic dogs of the fur countries are so like each other, that it is not easy to distinguish them at a small dis- tance; the want of strength and courage of the former being American Varieties of the Dog. A the principal difference. The offspring of the wolf and In- dian dog are prolific, and are prized by the voyagers as beasts of draught, being stronger than the ordinary dog.” The origin of the ordinary Indian dog of North America is obscure, but Richardson, who names it Canis familiaris, var. C. canadensis, North American dog, throws much light on its origin :— “By the above title I wish to designate the kind of dog which is most generally cultivated by the native tribes of Canada, and ‘the Hudson Bay countries. It is intermediate in size and form between the two preceding varieties, and, by those who consider the domestic races of dog to be de- rived from wild animals, this might be termed the offspring of a cross between the prairie and gray wolves. The fur of the North American dog is similar to that of the Esquimaux breed, and of the wolves. The prevailing colors are black and gray, mixed with white. Some of them are entirely black. ” THe quotes from Theodot’s “ Can- ada,” written in 1630, to show that in the early period, and “perhaps even before the arrival of Europeans, they formed an esteemed article of food of the natives.” Confirmatory of the theory of the Pre-Columbian origin of the Indian deg may be cited the following extract from ‘‘ Hakluyt’s Voy- ages’ regarding the Indian dogs seen on Cape Breton island, p. 1593 :— “Here divers of our men went on land upon the very cape, where, at their arivall they found the spittes of Oke of the savages which had roasted meate a little before. And as they viewed the countrey they sawe divers beastes and foules, as blacke foxes, deere, otters, great foules with red legges, pengwyns, and certain others. . . . Thereupon nine or tenne of his fellows, running right vp over the bushes with great agilitie and swiftness, came towards vs with white staues in their hands like halfe pikes, and their dogges of colour blacke not so bigge as a grayhounde fol- lowed them at the heeles; but wee retired vnto our boate witboutany hurt at all received.” (The Voyage of the Ship ealled the “Marigold” of M. Hill of Redrise vnto Cape Breton and beyond to the latitude of 44 degrees and an half, 42 Canadian Record of Science. 1593, written by Richard Fisher Master Hilles, man of Redriffe. Hakluyt, iii. 239.) It is probably this variety, the bones of which have been found by Dr. J. Wyman, in the shell heaps of Casco Bay, Maine. ‘The presence of the bones of the dog might be accounted for on the score of its being a domesticated animal, but the fact that they were not only found mingled with those of the edible kinds, but, like them, were broken up, suggests the probability of their having been used as food. We have not seen it mentioned, however, by any of the earlier writers, that such was the case along the coast, though it appears to have been otherwise with regard to some of the interior tribes, as the Hurons. With them, game being scarce, ‘venison was a luxury found only at feasts, and dog fleshwas in high esteem.’ . . . A whole left half of the lower jaw of a wolf was found at Mount Desert, measuring 7.5 inches in length, making a strong contrast in size with a similar half from a dog found at Crouch’s cove. ‘This was more curved, and a length of a little less than five inches.” (Amer. Nat., i. 576, Jan., 1868.) It is possible that the Newfoundland dog was indigenous on that island, and also an offshoot of the gray wolf allied to the Eskimo. In their “ Newfoundland,” Messrs. Hatton and Harvey say that there are few specimens of the world- renowned Newfoundland dog to be met with now in the island from which it derived its name. ‘“ The origin of this fine breed is lost in obscurity. It is doubtful whether the aborigines possessed the dog at all; and it is highly impro- bable that the Newfoundland dog is indigenous. Some happy crossing of breeds may have produced it here. The old settlers say that the ancient genuine breed consisted of a dog about twenty-six inches high, with black ticked body, gray muzzle, and gray or white stockinged legs, with deer claws behind.” Judicious treatment has greatly improved the breed. “Their color is white with black patches, curly coats, noble heads and powerful frames. The favorite New- foundland dog at present is entirely black, of large size, from twenty-six to thirty inches in height, remarkable for his majestic appearance. It is now generally admitted that American Varieties of the Dog. 43 there are two distinct types of the Newfoundland dog, one considerably larger than the other, and reckoned as the true breed; the other being named the Labrador, or St. John’s, or Lesser Newfoundland. The latter is chiefly found in Labrador, and specimens are also to be met with in New- foundland,” pp. 194-195. Regar dae the dogs of the Mexican Indians, Nadaillac says in his ‘‘ Prehistoric America”: “The European dog, our faithful companion, also appears to have been a stranger to them.' His place was very inadequately filled by the coyote, or prairie wolf, which they kept in captivity and had succeeded in taming to a certain extent.” In a recent visit to Mexico, not only along the railroads, but in the course of a stage ride of about five hundred miles through provincial Mexico, from Saltillo to San Miguel, we were struck by the resemblance of the dogs to the coyote ; there can be little doubt but that they are the descendants of a race which sprang from the partly tamed coyote of the ancient Mexican Indians. At one village, Montezuma, we saw a hairless or Carib dog as we supposed it to be; similar dogs are sometimes seen in the United States. Finally that the domestic dog and gray, as well as the prairie wolf, will hybridize has been well established. Dr. Coues has observed hybrids between the coyote and domestic dog on the Upper Missouri (see the American Na- turalist, 1873, p. 385.) To this we may add our own obser- vations made at Fort Claggett on the Upper Missouri in June, 1877. We then were much struck by the wolf-like appearance of the dogs about an encampment of Crow In- dians, as well as the fort; they were of the size and color ‘Certain kinds of dogs were, however, domesticated in Amer- ica. They were called Xulos in Nicaragua, Tzomes in Yucatan, and Techichis in Mexieo. These were considered to afford very delicate food after having been castrated and fattened. * Canis latrans, Baird. In a description of Virginia, published in 1649, we read: “ The wolf of Carolina is the dog of the woods. The Indians had no other curs before the Christians came amongst them. They are made domestic. They go in great droves in the night to hunt deer, which they do as well as the best pack of hounds.” 44 Canadian Record of Science. of the coyote, but less hairy and with a less bushy tail. They were much like those lately observed in Mexico, and I have never seen such dogs elsewhere. Their color was a whitish tawny, like that of the Eskimo dog. Confirmatory of these observations is the following note by J. L. Wortman in the report of the Geological Survey of Indiana for 1884: “During extended travel in Western U.S. my experience has been the same as that recorded by Dr. Coues. It is by no means uncommon to find mongrel dogs among many of the Western Indian tribes, notably among Umatillas, Bannocks, Shoshones, Arrapahoes, Crows, Sioux, which to one familiar with the color, physiognomy and habits of the coyote, have every appearance of blood relationship, if not, in many cases, this animal itself in a state of semi-domestication. The free inter-breeding of these animals, with a perfectly fertile product, has been so often repeated to me by thoroughly reliable authorities and whose opportunities for observation were ample, that I feel perfectly willing to accept Dr. Coues’ statement.” To these statements may be added that of Mr. Milton P. Pierce, published in Forest and Stream for June 25, 1885, as follows: “ Hybrid wolves have always been very common along our Western frontiers. I have seen several of them, sired both by dogs and wolves, and all I have seen have re- sembled wolves rather than dogs.” It is to be hoped that. our mammalogists may collect and examine this subject, particularly the skulls and skins of numerous specimens both of dogs and wolves and of the hybrids between them. Farther observations are also needed as to the fertility of the hybrids. NoTES ON PLEISTOCENE Fossius FROM ANTICOSTI. By Lievut.-Cout. C. E. GRANT AND Srr W.- Dawson. The late Mr. Richardson of the Geological Survey, to whom we owe most of our knowledge of the geology of Anticosti, notices in his Report for 1857, the occurrence of travelled boulders and of beds of clay, holding rounded fragments of Fossils from Anticosti. — 45 limestone and forming cliffs sixty to seventy feet high, but makes no mention of any pleistocene fossils. The specimens collected by Col. Grant, and referred to in this note, are the first that have come under my notice, and have been kindly presented by their discoverer to the Peter Redpath Museum of McGill University. The following are extracts from a letter of Col. Grant, referring to their localities, and the mode of their occur. rence :— “The Post-Tertiary shells were first noticed in patches of blue clay in the south-west of Anticosti, in the bed of Becscia River, close to its mouth. When first seen, I thought it probable they had been washed in by a high tide from the Gulf, but on proceeding a short distance up stream, I found the clay and shells in situ, capped by a considerable thickness of drift, boulders, etc., in the river bank. The shells appeared to be unusually large. I collected a con- siderable number. Many got subsequently broken in rough weather. “The Pleistocene clay, (Leda Clay) occurs also in the bank and bed of Chaloupe River, and it is exposed along the cliff within a few miles west of the South-west Point light- house, and at several other points on the south shore. On proceeding up Salmon River, north of Anticosti, at about seven miles from the mouth, the high cliff on the right bank is capped by a deposit of drift. “Hight miles from the village of English Bay (east), a small stream from the top of the cliff lays bare several feet of blue clay, containing great numbers of very large shells of Mya. The high tide reaches the base of the clay and washes out numbers of specimens, as does the brook adjacent. I was unable to examine the coast-line except for a short distance. The cliffs, for some miles beyond, from forty to seventy feet high, are crowned by drift deposits. Where they slope, the boulders or rounded pebbles from the top get mixed up with the clay below. Fragments of shells are here numerous ; complete specimens are few. “The cliff to the west of Ellis or Gamache Bay, called, I think, ‘ Junction Cliff,’ by Richardson, is also crowned by a 46 Canadian Record of Science. drift deposit. I succeeded in reaching part of the slope where some of the Leda Clay from above had lodged. I found it contained many specimens of Saxicava rugosa, and a few of Mya truncata, the latter much smaller than those at Beescia River and eight miles east of Hnglish Bay. Glaciated or polished flags (chiefly Hudson River lime- stone) are not unusual in the drift of this part of the island. _ Laurentian boulders were frequently remarked in the river beds, some of considerable size also on the land. There is one imbedded in the soil on a partly cleared farm near English Bay. “The Island of Anticosti seems to be rising (the old resi- dents on various parts of the coast think the sea is gradually retiring). I was assured by an inhabitant of English Bay, that the tops only of two large Laurentian boulders, lying on the reef in front of the village were visible at low water some twenty years ago; the base and many yards of the reef beyond are now exposed to view. gnujsayo os10 eee ae oe, deur 4jOS "sess QTdeu yooy “** B09} LOSIO? MONT tree W9QQsA8 JOVI teres Jopye Would ‘fedeold VIUISIT A sete + QdBId ISOLT “YOVUNs ULOYsRyG s* Yovuns WJoouMg “++ MOABOT] JO OL, esses DOOM SsUq > 90.1} dIpny, “ANVN HSTIONG Cece venece Dag eouoec espe Hoan oD oben HCN “ee eietelelenvisiehei™ . perttessseseo ry ConuBIsBocddiy snjnosay eheisleleheltiers aj #ials)-)'olelejalsiein tsar eteleletelerata sry toMaqnt oe Ts Buny UMULIBYyooRS 100 V “WAOVANIAVG Pine eeeeeeeeseeesessesssourr ésnUgoTIOMIe snyjoueeg “HAOV NICVHYY AeinemerroneeraG Sere Renee OOE TT T ‘suepuros snaysvjeg ‘WAOVULS VIAQ Prreeeereese ese pug ByBTTOOIVIOA XOTT ‘WANIOVIT cots eyougy “eljojmbumb sisdojedury cece etree “thse Cy OUAy *B1[OJIP1O9 SI4TA_ ‘WAOVEIA “ov eurgdsy ,, Press el qels snyy ‘WAOVIGUVOVNY corsssss fay ‘snso[npurls snqyusB[ry ‘WCOVLAY Dh wee sete cere cere r etter eese cee call | ‘BUvOLIOMe BILE *WAOVITL, chotele} Jeleicscicleleleleheicleloleiarereselhoia UT ‘elosidipyny UuoIpuspolyy “‘WHOVITONSV IT “‘Saloddg a 109 n Trees. t Variation of Water eee ee BIGksS ls Reet ay HSH SHH ian Ye oF tet or) eb OO HOD 1D oD l= S BBaS 2 LQ SH SHLD CD 2 COO we veee se econ seo0ecee aeons se cease eo oc eee GPS G1G sonaee ee ec coeee so ooo ee seco eee soe eens jee eeee soe eee G'9¢ O'S 90 aleveoee 9:09 ee eeee se ec ees cece ees so oecees tPF 0°FS so cece se ecco 18h *coccece pe ooens see se oes we eee ee se eoeee 6 FS slleweccat sores s|loveeee seseeereres BaTRZW “hess usnq oorpR9 ease reso cree sccoene se usnqg Wong 7199074 AITOGURID “IOPlO Poltoq-pory reeeereceses LOPLAT seesecorees Orodny, “++ poomsop AHI ‘IIpOOMSOp 3.LOMOTH seeees Tome YOUM uloyL, creerees tisnqd peyg eoeceee® POeee o[ddy Ivdd 9ouIn?) See ‘£LIOUO sees AITOYO YOBV[ sane wn eet tees vocce yovog eisieleie;e)-10.e;e)eLe Go0=s0 sreees QSNOOrT sree aSnodo, AOUO FL pistelie(ehehes orexeieele eseaciutinnhesuerelenuicneiecusee faelGsLO EE INU Bo[VZV see ceertereseeaseree sens toccesss 2/7 (BLIO IIIB] BIU[V a sio ee) neieisieleiveisics srieine ©1927. ‘RULISNST] Bpoulorpuy ‘WaOVOlag, eee re eoeesee ese sees Coo T ‘SI[ByUapt900 snyjuepeydap “© AOVIGNY Pere e tee ccoas FOP FO52 C88 % vereseeeerr ésnmmdo WNUANGE A: ries soeeceessens sees QyoUpr ‘stequd ” ‘sory Sisuopvure shonqueg cee eee soe een ooerser ee re von *WAOVITOALAIV/) oe Pees eee eee se esses ceases BUDAL ‘BLOW {NU BSSANT Sete eens een e cere ceee seer rene ssoceeT (BODLIOS 3 Pte se ee eens seus reeeseerrerrecresesereT (UDTIOP SNUIOD *WAOVNIOOD sesseeesoosecconccoreoerocoe. 7 BOTUTSILA SITOUVUB AL "WAOVIUNVAY FL Shee eee senereaeesrens secceces 7 BSOIMOMIO} SNIN}BL) teeterecsecress sey D Loy ‘SISUOPBURO LOLYOUBlOUL YW Tare eeee sees eteeeeseceeeceseccc ees s 7 (SnTBUL =A sete ene fe eeecceceeerscceeces FF SSTUNULULOD SNATG ° tee roeccerereesceceeerserecroes rr (SLIBSINA VIMOPAD sdecsiiekenuisselie) -ieieith0/*ieu eneiiehe rie ichaec te aaah ‘snselod = JUDY LY ‘BUTZOLOS es viefelojeisieselecerensle) slersjerrisselet}cicie comet ie Olg SoU OD snunid seeeerseeeeesecoees cecesovore. 17 “BOISIOM SN[VPSATAY seeee eevee er eeec err esoecesoaesoeees *HAOVSOY woe e ere eer esecoere sa aenerres TT erovoepnosd BLUlqQ Ory eee eooooeress so O00088 shenere tel ‘SOUJUVIVIL} BITOSIIPIL *WSONINDDG'T Canadian Record of Science. 110 Vise) Tiss SLE) #88 v0S | S'6P BSS | 90S 9°0S | O'S we eens Py eee ements wees G66 etree nafeeeeees Cs eC weer eee TL¢ we eee 3g see eee seme eerl er eoeee we ewes se ee eesl pe ceoes ry ee ay se voeerl, see eee wee e eee ee Oe eerie eeeees PPE Lop ee eeoes S88 VOX PUG) AVIA JST “*UMANATOT(T IVA PUZ)AVOA JST EC ESOC AEC EN IVOAPUZ AVIA IST woxXpuz “Tad y “HOUWV PAL IWOX JST eee wer eae [esti 9° Tg 0S 8°66 slew eens 6'TE 8'1¢ 9°63 0°CE TWO PUG IV A 4ST *RUVOUEAT see eeeee ant Legg, . 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GaTETaN: a stew eeeenveee “T SBQ|B SNIOPL "T ‘BUROLIOTIR . gl Feuw)aiabeseioseselesesollleinleasiepslslescilelelelee Lyouy ‘BAN snudy (7 CO SR ee POO t oe eer se eoet tess tesssans “WHOVOLLY() te ear aiae LC a OC OOO CY TUNIBG.LBO UNO ATT “@AOOVNY TOG teeee DODDEOOOOOOOOOCSCOOOOUY:ry, Vac} 9:100 ti (0) SUIJRSSVS *WHOVANVT et eeee eee e cree ecceverercecesooesoe TF SIIISN] Bd BOIL “WUOVATANAHT, efoto iieueheralelejoleieiesehejeleleieielisitusuneegaOR UOT OULE SNUIXBL “KAOVATO “sa10aag 111 Variation of Water in Trees. POC ORO DCO UG O17 4 *snqorys a tresses eees aA SYpPISIL SHUT, sreeererss O01 ‘SISTOPVULS BINS], sreeeeeecoceeerr “RUBIUIBIIA SNIOdIUN Ce ee ey De A ‘podoino XLUVT ¢| 1°¢9 G| s'g¢ b| 1 r 6° 9G “'-ourd YoU 6GF | SOF |] 9°6P | Acep ifs t Yooruto a GSP 129 SGN | |tekeretatel a niesseicien teresa eG DOO MDOMT sereee df kettle gig | ggg feceseces see! qOaUrE “HL UMTINO LD, Pe 8°6P eee erro eee uodsy Ce seeeereroees “Ua ‘SOPLlopnuULs.ty snjndog ¢ | 8:6 O°1g | $8 ; g Be ee More ent AL. fasoue setrceceh enim REaee aura aa ener nehre G reg || 26r| peg ioe *“WHOVOITVG O'S | 6° 8P | T'68 | 0°SF Got | PP Gy | LF | sicieeieiwia| etevvisielernlsiolereseleta tus Oare P:0G ||" -AopyR poppoodg sesso seesesen1y “BUBOUL ,, Seon ZS Gop ctr ce cree eels sees = Topye tee DODO RDO DUD SOUS DGHOUADOOUOODOUOO UD KA a sii oyn UN (Shad ft est eer AbSEP NORGE. si: OP yl meme LOsuLC OULU ENN | cect 8 -Yooay “RTO FTNAod “9a *VqTv seteeeall ZGa Jeeteeeall ep |" Youd MOTOR |fe0te' Hees youn Romy — 5, vetoes 6°9e 6° PP . sfeeeeeee seeee eT OLIG ALLOY seen SOD RO DOD UDODODSOGOUO CEL, aticnhe oy icy pliers ¢ “MOV LAL folate ralexnvalllcterere evo?e||lfsisielereiere|(olererete efsl|||\sieletezereys|llovelle!efe/siei)ltvaseteteraieill ele: niecefece 0°OF OOF |i ttt ‘udoy yoomg Fee eee esse geeeeeeressorns 127 SBITOIIUOTAS VINOJAULOD “A MOVOLAA TAL ANAK Hams HSS SSsS reese sou BUBOTIOULG SNULATED sores sense 179044 SVOTULBILA BASE, teteeseees sense 1944 *BUVOLLOULG SN{ALOD, *ROINGING "0A SROTYWATAS seer eeee 9017 (ROULINILOT sna "| 8°OP GOS Nccallo-er reseed] Goge, vessel SoGE P'6e | Lge fcc ctt 8? poos wory 9°ge | 928 {I *pooM LOAO'T coeeeeels te etenn DORE eka Bf * ooo o[ ding reese OORT seem er rler wea eeliene Lv | GO 'bP I) HOmMtHDOOO GPP . toes ee eens 9° CP . sare melee ween sewer eee qnuysoyy See woe rere “7 BOSOA BOUVISBD) amu OOD-cODG 9°88 4 Sele ers CONDOM ey PI UO OG f *BIQna 5) eeeeeey f . sees . wees 6 Le : . yuo ynuysoyy aoe aoe T ‘snutid 55 6°68 5 q see t]eeenee 8°68 OP |l- seeeeerees HO UL DUDODOGDOCOUDUC TI a7 ¢ g slajsnypud a $790 i 0 wees s|eaerece P68 9'0P II" teeeree FBO QULOG seereeresre renee HUDAA MBITOFLOTL 9 *yRoO JOTLvO * BUDA “BILOZOULY *.A “ROTTDN09 1 3 TLOPOULL | ” SOOOOU (30) AURA sj eleioleleielereierajereieis\visiejaiene] Se sielutisievay 990 44 ‘1oTOOIq ¥ seeeees BO OFLU AA Seven se ever ce teeeneeeeereneceeeseerss or SBOTR SNOLONE seed] Q-ge | gap ||: G68 | T'S |] 498) Sih || 288] 9°OF a i ise) SOONDAEr ANE OSD 1D SO HOI SEI 321919 8) DS SHH SH HSH SH SH SH SH SH SH SH SH WUT OANY 112 Canadian Record of Science. If we next inquire into the relation which seasons bear to the contained water, we shall observe that the percentage continually rises from the midwinter period until spring, and that it again falls from the close of summer to the midwin- ter period. The extreme variations as exhibited in our figures, show, between February and September, a difference of 8.4 p. c. for the youngest growth, and 7.1 p. c. for that which is older. Mean Hypration oF Woops. Per Cent. Water. || No. for Average. Monrtus. Jig ape Ist Year.| 2nd Year. |/ist Year./2nd Year. INE OIA dooene ooOmocbe 44.7 3.9 37.0 38.0 Marchi: cathenbonoeee 47.2 44.8 59.0 60.0 /Ngallakhnegoned soed eso ley 48.4 6.0 Ua) September............. 53.1 51.0 1920 18.0 WMecemiben) waver. acyecevac 48.8 47.2 61.0 58.0 MIRAI e secimies ae 49.0 47.1 36.4 36.2 Our figures also indicate that the maximum hydration of the tissues must occur either in September, or at some period intermediate to this month and April. By graphic representation of these results, it will become possible to determine with approximate accuracy the true period at which this maximum is reached. The figures show that, from February to April, the rate of percentage increase is much more rapid than the rate of percentage decrease from September to December. A curve which will show this, should also show the period of maximum percentage. By reference to the chart, it will be seen that the curves for both young and old wood run nearly parallel, but that they tend to approach at their greatest depression, and to separ- ate more widely at their greatest elevation. It is also seen that, from midwinter to spring, the curve rises rapidly and reaches its greatest elevation about May 18th for the youngest wood, while that for the older wood attains its maximum a few days later, or about the 22nd. From this Variation of Water in Trees. 113 time on, the curve descends at a more gradual rate until December, when it suddenly drops to its minimum depres- sion, which evidently occurs in January. PERIODS OF CESSATION OF GROWTH. As, upon theoretical grounds, the tissues contain most water when the growth is most active, data which will enable us to fix accurately the limiting periods for the sea- son’s growth, will have an important bearing upon this question. Mr. W. E. Stone, ' accepting the completion of terminal buds as marking completion of the longitudinal growth for the entire year, has obtained the following data, as establishing periods limiting growth in trees for the latitude of West Point, New York, 41° 23’ N.:— JuNE Ist. Acer saccharinum. Wang. rubrum.) i: Amelanchier canadensis. Torr & Gr. Carya alba. Nutt. Fagus ferruginea. Ait. Fraxinus americana. L. Hamamelis virginica. L. Kalmia latifolia. L. Populus tremuloides. Michzx. Quercus alba. L. i bicolor. Willd. coccinea. Wang. prinus. L. Sambucus pubens. Micha. Tilia americana. L. Ulmus americana. L. “ fulva. Michz. 66 JUNE 15TH. Betula lenta. L. Carpinus americana. Micha. Castanea vesca. L. Juglans nigra. L. Lindera benzoin. Meissner. Morus rubra. L. Ostrya virginica. Willd. Prunus cerasus. J. 1 Bull. Torrey Bot. Club., xii. 8,83. 8 114 Canadian Record of Science. Jury 19TH. Andromeda ligustrina. Muhl. Alnus ineana. Willd. Nyssa multiflora. Wang. Staphylea trifolia. L. INDETPRMINATH PHRIOD. Ampelopsis quinquifolia. Miche. Celastrus scandens. L. Rhus. Sp. Vitis. Sp. This, therefore, gives us the following percentage quanti- ties, showing cessation of growth at different periods :— May Ist, commencement of growth. June Ist, cessation of growth in 51.5 p. c. June 15th, eg ss 22 July 19th, “ a 2 Indeterminate period “ 2B b= Growth in length having ceased at these periods, the energy of the plant then becomes directed to the lignification of tissues and the deposition of reserve material for growth the following year. These changes, however, involve of necessity, a continual decrease in the contained water. The data above, also, show that the majority of plants complete their longitudinal growth within the first six weeks of the growing season; that most of these complete their growth in from three to four weeks; and that, as the season advances, the number of plants still growing rapidly diminishes until the middle of July, after which there are left but few, those being plants like the grape, which continue to grow to the very end of the season. A graphic representation of these changes will enable us to institute a comparison with the relations of seasons to hydration of the structure. The lower figure of the chart is the curve expressing this decrease of growth with advanc- ing season. A comparison of both curves will show most conspicuously, that that period, during which growth for Variation of Water in Trees. 115 the season is most rapid, is coincident with the period of maximum hydration of the tissues. JUNE. It is evident from the facts stated, that the amount of water contained in trees can have no direct relation to their bleeding when punctured. Indeed, it is a well-known fact that the bleeding of trees, such as enables us to collect maple sugar, isa purely physical process, wholly dependent upon the effect of external temperature in producing variable internal tension, hence in no sense connected with physiological processes ; that this bleeding may occur at any time during the rest period, provided the conditions of temperature are favorable; hence, that it is most pronounced when there is the least water in the tissues: that during the seasons of most active growth, when the plant contains most water, no bleeding occurs. CONCLUSIONS. From the foregoing facts, we are justified in the conclu- sions which follow :— (1.) The hydration of woody plants is not constant for all seasons, and depends upon conditions of growth. (2.) The hydration reaches its maximum during the latter part of May or early June, and its minimum during the month of January. 116 Canadian Record of Science. (3.) Hydration is greatest in the sap wood ; least in the heart wood. (4.) Greatest hydration is directly correlated to most active growth of the plant,—lignification, and storage of starch and other products, being correlated to diminishing hydration. These conclusions are to be understood as applying only to latitudes lying between New Yorkand Boston. For other latitudes, certain modifications might be necessary. A NaturaAL System IN MINERALOGY. By T. Sterry Hunt. In farther illustration of the system set forth by the writer in his memoir on “A Natural System of Mineralogy,” which appears in the third volume of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, and of which a partial analysis has already appeared in the Recorp (Vol. I. pp. 129, 244), we make the following extracts :— The same mineral types, which serve to divide each of the suborders of natural silicates into well-defined tribes, reap- pear in the non-silicated oxyds, and serve for their classifi- cation. Reserving for another occasion the details of clas- sification of this great order of OxXYDATES, we may note that while the Oxyadamentoid tribe embraces such species as periclasite, chrysoberyl, the spinels, magnetite, corundum, diaspore, hematite, quartz, rutile, cassiterite, etc., the Oxy- spathoids include cuprite, zincite, crednerite, pyrolusite, tri- ‘dymite and senarmontite, and the Hydroxyspathoids, gibb- site, gothite, and manganite. Among the Oxyphylloids are brucite, pyrochroite, massicot, minium, melaconite, hydro- talcite and pyraurite, while the Oxycolloids or Opaloids embrace bauxite, limonite, opal, urangummite and eliasite. The metals proper, together with the bodies of the sul- phur and the arsenic series, and the various binary and ter- nary compound of all these, make up the great natural order of MeraLLATEs, which includes two suborders. Of these the first or Metallometallates, distinguished by opacity and Natural System in Mineralogy. 117 metallic lustre, is divided into six tribes, which are: 1. Metalloids,—native metals and metal-like elements; 2. Ga- lenoids,—argentite, galenite, stannite, chalcopyrite, pyr- rhotite, alabandite, etc.; 4. Smaltoids,—smaltite, niccolite, breithauptite, with other arsenids, antimonids, etc.; 5. Ar- senopyritoids,—including arsenopyrite, cobaltite, etc.; 6. Bournonoids,—enargite, bournonite, zinkenite, etc. The various selenids and tellurids form subtribes distinct from the sulphurous or Thiogalenoids. In the second suborder are included those species more or less resinous or adaman- tine in lustre, generally red in color or in streak, and often transparent or translucent, whence the distinctive name of Spathometallates. In this suborder we distinguish at least two tribes: 1. Sphaleroids, corresponding to galenoids, and including cinnabar, realgar, christophite, marmatite, spha- lerite, greenockite and hauerite; 2. Proustoids, correspond- ing to bournonoids, and embracing proustite and other red silver ores, tetrahedrite, livingstonite, dufrenoysite, binnite, etc. It is worthy of notice that while sulphid of mercury, in the forms of metacinnabar and cinnabar, appears in both suborders of the Metallates, the sulphid of antimony is_ also represented among the Spathometallates by the red and generally uncrystalline kermes. The various forms of sul- phur and of phosphorus, together with vitreous selenium, will constitute a third tribe of the second suborder of Metal- lates. The Spathometallates, as seen in their typical forms, sphalerite, wurtzite, greenockite, cinnabar, proustite, etc., serve, through the sulphoxydates, kermesite and voltzite, and through sulphosilicates like helvite and danalite, to con- nect the order of Metallates with spathoid Oxydates and Silicates. In these various tribes the relations of hardness to con- densation are not less apparent than in Silicates and Oxy- dates. Dividing the simplest atomic formula of the complex Metallates by the number of atoms, we get, as the most con- venient term for comparison, the mean weight of the ele- mental unit from which to deduce the volume V. We thus find for the pyritoids, pyrite and marcasite, values for V of 4:0 and 4:2; for linneite, 4:4; for pyrrhotite and chal- 118 Canadian Record of Science. copyrite, 5:0 and 5°3; and for alabandite, 5:4. The smalt- oids, niccolite and smaltite, give 4°4 and 5:1; the arseno- pyritoids, cobaltite and gersdorffite, from 4°3 to 4:6; the thiogalenoids, for chalcocite, 7:0, for stibnite, 7:4, for galen- ite, 7-9, and for argentite, 85. Of the sphaleroids, hauerite gives 5°8; sphalerite, 6-0, and other species, 70-74. The contrasts between the last two tribes and the preceding three, alike in their hardness, and in their condensation, as shown in the different values of V, are apparent ; and these are not less marked, when the hard and dense arsenopyrit- oids are compared with the chemically analogous, but softer, bournonoids and proustoids. Of the former of these, enargite gives for V, 6°9, and bournonite, zinkenite and jamesonite, 7°7-7°8; while of the proustoids, miargyrite, proustite, pyrargyrite and polybasite give from 8:0 to 9.0, and dufrenoysite, and tetrahedrite, from 7:2 to 83. By reason of the variations in the recorded specific gravities of most of the species compared, the values here given for V must be regarded as but approximations to be corrected with the help of more exact determinations. The native compounds of the haloid elements may be included under the order Hatorpare, with the four subor- ders of Fluorid, Chlorid, Bromid and JIodid. 'Titanates, nio- bates, tantalates, tungstates, molybdates, chromates, vana- dates, antimonates, arsenates, phosphates, nitrates, sul- phates, borates, carbonates and oxalates constitute as many distinct orders. Of these the soluble chlorids, sulphates, borates, carbonates, etc., belonging to the salinoid type, form tribes under their respective orders, as Chlorosalinoid, Sulphatosalinoid, Borosalinoid and Carbosalinoid. The native combustible carbons and hydrocarbonaceous bodies are included in a single order, which, from the fire-making property of these may be aptly designated as the order of Pyricaustates. This is divided into two suborders: 1. Car- bates, including the phylloid, graphite, and the adamantoid, diamond, representing two tribes; and 2. Carbhydrates, which may be conveniently grouped in the four tribes, Naphthoid, Asphaltoid, Resinoid and Anthracoid. Of these orders, Metallates, Haloidates and Pyricaustates Natural System in Mineralogy. 119 will each constitute a Class,—all the remaining orders being included in another Class. These four classes, with their orders and suborders, may be tabulated as follows :— CLASSES. ; ORDERS AND SUBORDERS. ite 1. Meratiatus: a. Metallometallates; 6. Spatho- metallates. 2. OxypaTes.—3. Sruicatns: a. Protosilicates; b. Protopersilicates ; c. Persilicates.—4. Trran- ATES. — 5. NIoBaTEs. —6. TANTALATES. — 7. Tunesratns.—8. Motysppatis.—9. CHROMATES. Il. 10. VANADATES.—11. ANTIMONATES.—12. ARSE- NATES.—13. PHospHates.—14. Nirrates.—15. SuLPHATES.—16. Borates.—17. CARBONATES.— 18. OXALATES. TI. 19. Hatormpares: a. Fluorids; 6. Chlorids; ¢c. Bro- mids; d. Iodids. IV. 20. PyricaustTaTEs: a. Carbates; b. Carbhydrates. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AINOS. By D. P. PaenwaAtiow. The great timidity of the Ainos, coupled with an instinc- tive delicacy with reference to all matters of a personal nature, offers a great obstacle to the acquisition of exact knowledge concerning their physical development. That these feelings are not easy to overcome and often raise an insuperable barrier, has been the experience of nearly if not quite all those who have undertaken a study of them. Many important measurements are thus wanting, but the follow- ing determinations may be of some value as contributing to a more exact knowledge of their leading characteristics. The Ainos, occupying Yezo and the Kuriles, are usually spoken of as the ‘‘ Hairy Kuriles”’ in allusion to one of their more prominent characteristics. They constitute that group usually designated as “‘ Yezoines” or “ Kurilians,” to distin- guish them from those of markedly different aspect, occu- pying the Russian territory of Saghalien, Kamschatka and the lower Amoor district in Siberia. Among those who have attempted to study the Ainos, 120 Canadian Record of Science. there appears to be a greater diversity of opinion with regard to their hirsuteness, than any other subject concerning them. This has arisen too often from superficial observa- tion; again from second-hand evidence, and yet again from the expression of an unrestrained enthusiasm. ‘‘ Covered with hair like animals,” is the unqualified description which has more than once been applied to this people; while Mr. Griffis as boldly asserts to the contrary, that they are “Not more hairy as to their bodies than many Japanese or other peoples who eschew pantaloons and shirts,” and that the term “ Hairy Kuriles or Ainos, is rather the pet phrase of some closet writers than the expression of a fuct.”’ It would appear, however, that Mr. Griffis did not have a suf- ficient number of typical Ainos, upon the examination of whom he could base a reliable opinion, since his studies were confined to the few who were sent to Tokio for educa- tion. From my own personal acquaintance with these same men, it was evident that a study of them could lead to no other conclusion than that reached by Mr. Griffis, but unfortunately they were few in number and not types. Wood * remarks that ‘Esau himself could not have been more hairy than are these Ainos.’ Again, Mr. B. 8. Lyman, * for several years geologist to the Kaita- kushi, and thus possessing unusual opportunities for the study of these people, says “It was surprising to see how many of them were wholly or partially bald, and though they are reckoned by the Japanese as so very hairy, how many were, naturally, comparatively free from hairs on their faces and bodies.” Miss Bird* correctly observes that “There is frequently a heavy growth of stiff hair on the chest and limbs.” Prof. Wm. Wheeler employed a guide during one of his surveys, of whom he afterwards said to me, “ The hair on his back and over the entire chest was long and matted, and reminded me strongly of the fur coat- ing of an animal.” 1 Bull. Amer. Geog. Soc., 1878, No. 2. 2 Trans. Eth. Soc., New Ser., iv. 34, etc. * Rept. Horace, Capron., p. 390. * Unbeaten Tracks, ii. 10. Characteristics of the Ainos. 120 My own experience, extending over four years of inti- mate acquaintance with these people, hundreds of whom were brought under observation, shows that while all these views express a measure of truth, they do not accurately represent the true facts. With reference to the baldness spoken of by Mr. Lyman, it should be pointed out that, while it is a very common occurrence, it is by no means a true physical characteristic, since it arises, in large part at least, from the great prevalence of scalp diseases among the children and youth. As to the hairiness of the body and limbs, one remarks the most extreme variations. During one of my own expe. ditions, eighteen Ainos were employed as boatmen. Of these, twelve were exceedingly hairy, more so than I had ever before observed man to be. Of the others, three, formerly students at Tokio, and studied by Mr. Griffis, were quite smooth, and one had a very fair skin. It has repeat- edly been brought to my notice that the Yezoines are not more hairy than Europeans, while in many more cases I have observed the exact reverse to be conspicuously true. The conclusion appears justifiable that, the Yezoine in gen- eral, is to be regarded as possessing a more than ordinarily hairy body, enough so at least, to make him deserving of the epithet of “Hairy Kurile.” A stranger gains his first impression of the great hairi- ness oj these people from their exceedingly bushy hair and beards. The latter are a general feature of the men, their absence being rather exceptional; but their very bushy growth is doubtless due as much to the fact that the men never shave and seem rarely even to clip their beards, as to any natural excess of growth. The hair of the head is straight, black and rather coarse. It is never brushed, but is allowed to fall naturally, usually to the base of the neck, being trimmed uniformly to this length all round. There is also a frequent tendency in the hair to stand straight out from the head. The effect of all this upon the stranger is to impress him at once with the uncouth aspect and great hairiness of the people. We shall see, however, that the Saghalien Ainos present 122 Canadian Record of Science. a striking departure from the rule of hairiness which essen- tially characterizes the Yezoine; and this would, therefore, rather appear, not as a race characteristic, but as a feature due to the peculiar and widely different conditions of life, dress and exposure to which these people have been sub- jected. In stature, the Ainos are much below the average height of Europeans, but their bodies are generally well formed and robust, shoulders square, chests full, and limbs muscu- lar. Accustomed to a forest life, and depending for susten- ance upon the product of the chase and fishing, the men are early accustomed to considerable hardship and are soon capable of much endurance. This renders them invaluable as boatmen and as porters, in which latter capacity they will carry very heavy loads over long distances for days at atime. In my journal of an expedition into the interior, I find the following note with reference to this: “ During the whole of our tramp of eighteen miles, the three men carried loads on their backs weighing from fifty to one hundred and twenty pounds, and that too through places where it was enough for me to carry myself and gun; yet they never seemed exhausted, but walked with a firm, strong step to the last.” The following determinations will show some of the lead- ing features of the Aino physique :— Isrri AINo.— Shoulders square; breadth 17.25 inches. Chest well formed, full. Height 5 feet 4.25 inches. Forehead well formed; breadth 5.5 inches; height 4 inches. Eyebrows well developed and prominent. Facn (exclusive of forehead) : Facial angle 67°. Height 5.25 inches. Breadth 6.0 inches. Cheek-bones high: Eyes brown and dull. Chin well formed, medium. Characteristics of the Ainos. 128 Maranr Aino.—— Shoulders rather square; breadth 16.2 inches. Chest medium. Height 5 feet 3.75 inches. Forehead rather contracted and narrow in front; breadth 4.4 inches; height 4 inches. Faca (exclusive of forehead) : Facial angle 74.30 °. Breadth 5.33 inches. Height 5.5 inches. Chin medium and well formed. Cheek-bones rather prominent. Eyebrows large and overhanging. Eyes medium, dark brown and dull. Ennoski AIno.— Shoulders sloping ; breadth 16.75 inches. Chest medium. Height 5 feet 2.75 inches. Forehead broad in front; breadth 5 inches; height 4 inches. Facn (exclusive of forehead) : Facial angle 73 °. Height 5.5 inches. Breadth 5.5 inches. Eyebrows poorly developed and flat. Chin well formed and small. Eyes large, dark-brown and rather bright. ~ Cheek-bones prominent. Urreguru Aino.— Shoulders square and well formed ; breadth 17 inches. Chest well developed. Height 5 feet 5.25 inches. Forehead narrow towards the front; height 4 inches, breadth 5.33 inches. Face (exclusive of forehead) : Facial angle 73 ©. Breadth 5.33 inches. Height 4.6 inches. Chin small and rather retreating. Cheek-bones prominent. Eyebrows rather flat and poorly developed. Eyes rather large, brown and dull. 124 Canadian Record of Science. Nurran Arno (Woman).— Shoulders well formed; breadth 15.5 inches. Height 4 feet 7.62 inches. Forehead rather well formed; breadth 5.17 inches, height 3.67 inches. Chin well developed. Cheek-bones very prominent. Eyebrows well formed, medium. Facial angle 74.30°. So many valuable data have been obtained by Mr. B. S. Lyman, that it seems desirable to introduce them here in his own words :— “The average weight of the Ainos with their light cloth- ing was 141 pounds, varying from 108 pounds—the boy— to 183 pounds—the ferryman. In general, their hair was thick, with a tendency to stand out all over the head. The forehead varied from low to high, commonly of middling height; it was always round. Their brows were always overhanging ; their eyes commonly of middling size and always black; their cheekbones were rather high; their nose commonly with a very low bridge and with broad nos- trils, was often turned up, but sometimes straight. Their mouth, lips and chin commonly hidden by the beard, seemed to be of middling character, the mouth not very small, the lips, as compared with Europeans, not unusually thick and the chin not very large, perhaps even rather small. Of those who had special compensation and were therefore bound to submit to anything, we took a number of other dimensions. Their average age was twenty-six, height 5.46 feet, and weight 161 pounds. Their heads measured on the average from front to back 0.68 feet; from side to side 0.55 feet, and from chin to crown or rather vertical height 0.77 foot; from chin to mouth 0.10 foot. The facial angle was taken very imperfectly but seemed to be about 65 degrees. The upper arm measured on the average 1.08 foot long ; the forearm 0.83 foot; the hand from the wrist bone 0.66 foot; in all from shoulder to finger tips 2.57 feet, a rather unusual length, I believe, for Europeans of their height. The average length of the leg down from the hip bone— taken by mistake instead of the joint—was 3.10 feet or Characteristics of the Ainos. 125 probably the true length of the leg 2.70 feet, of which 1.14 was thigh and 1.56 feet, measured, foot and leg below the knee. The foot averaged 0.85 foot long by 0.37 foot wide, and the heel was always short. The shoulders averaged 1.46 feet in breadth, the neck 0.20 foot in length, the body from shoulders to hip bone 1.60 feet, or to the hip joint probably 2.00 feet. But their muscles were the most strik- ing feature from their enormous size. The men seemed one mass of hard muscle, and in feeling for the hip bone I could not perceive it, even when they pointed out to me its place. Around the chest they measured on the average 2.99 feet ; around the upper arm 1.04 feet; forearm, 0.97 foot; wrist, 0.56 foot; thigh, 1.76 feet; calf, 1.26 feet; ankle, 0.86 foot. A few other measurements were also taken, but. probably less important ones.” The following detailed list is also from the same source :— NAMB. AGE. WHIGHT. HEIGHT. POUNDS. FRET. Chaboreers.o Hs tt haat 36 135 4.80 (At aShites siete: ocsie cae eee 35 147 5.38 TREY s\er-y ove SaaS OE Mics Apa oP 35 136 5.28 Chilkamakura <2 22 seco. 33 133 5.07 fSlobhntsyaediheztoais ooo webe ao ors 150 5.49 Kousaren Gara c.: cls lol nafen Oe 155 5.46 likinyernejao uses ose! cocoon 27 142 5.98 Yoshimatsu ...... Ee OG 150 5.40 Shussa ‘no Aino:....% .. c. 75) 184 5.74 Shokulbashite s-sec-ecee oe 23 150 5.40 laktiabeynlibl apo500 0065 Coos 25 135 5.37 Patekuwengum .......... 28 150 5.35 Td atsibausvec ia cceelociecs: 28 137 Dez: ING OD aleecty ais saielyciereae cvopiceeneiets 28 133 5.20 Jevsauivolabo bod booden sos 25) 150 5.34 Pashiktunrapsscs see a Oe 145 5.28 Wukkyashito- e Ssciies 2 3 21 133 5.22 IRGROMOVMIDERSS acacia: nogudd sc 16 142 5.29 Okonokanale-w- nce 40 142 O22 VOU G seein fi es ee 34 128 5.06 Test tare eee aioe rela 28 155 Bone ISMEREO) Goods ce0lob8 Sob aoc 26 128 5.39 iKetnshutkcame ene sce 1 ee 26 132 5.18 IOAN Goo oon moo dbo noe 25 137 0-11 AEROS abides SUE OES Ss 23 132 5.00 Ntakicharioce-cee ee eae 13 108 5.16 126 Canadian Record of Science. From the facts thus obtained, we may fairly summarize the physical characteristics of the Ainos as follows .— The forehead is usually high, though narrow; eyebrows heavy and overhanging; nose somewhat inclined to flat- ness, though but little more so than in Europeans; mouth wide, but well formed; chin well formed and medium size ; eyes straight, brown and dull; cheekbones inclined to be prominent; facial angle high, the mean of our measure- ments giving an angle of 72°; the body is compact, well built and muscular; much more than ordinarily hairy ; skin of light color, comparable to that of Kuropeans. With regard to the ages given, it may be stated that the Ainos have no definite method of reckoning age, and it is exceedingly difficult to determine how old a man really is. The same standards according to which we would estimate age among our own people, will by no means apply here, and one is as likely to guess too much as too little. Thus most of the ages given are only approximations. In a few instances they seemed to be known with some degree of accuracy. From the heights given it would appear that Davis’ con- clusion, based upon measurements of skeletons, ‘That the Ainos average not far from 5 feet 2 inches in height,” * is not very far from the actual truth, though it possibly falls a little below. The Ainos from Saghalien and other Russian territory, are in some respects quite different from the Yezoines. In stature and general proportion of both men and women, there is no essential difference. Their hair is also worn ‘long, but, unlike that of the Yezoines, it is not cut so squarely; it is also not so bushy, but falls more gracefully around the head and neck, while the ends frequently have a strong tendency to curl, and in both men and women it is usually neatly brushed and parted, much care frequently being displayed in this respect. Doubtless this, as many other striking departures from a more savage appearance, as common to their southern relations, is to be traced to the } Man. Anthrop. Soc., ili, 366, etc. Characteristics of the Ainos. nA influence of more intimate contact with civilizing influ- ences. Whatever the cause, however, the result is a total disappearance of that extreme uncouthness which so impresses the stranger when first brought in contact with a Yezoine. The latter, however, are capable of the same change, as is amply proved by those Ainos of the Ishikari tribe, who spent some time at the Tokio schools. In their case, the removal of accumulated dirt and unkempt beard and hair, did much to reveal, in a fair skin and intelligent face, the natural good qualities they possessed. One peculiarity which at once distinguishes the Saghalien Aino from the Yezoine, is the greater absence of beards, nor do they appear to have so hairy bodies generally. I have frequently seen Saghalien Ainos divested of their clothing, and their bodies were in no case more hairy than those of Europeans, and it seems highly probable that the great dif- ference in hairiness, between these people and the Yezoines, is to be ascribed to their different conditions of life; the Saghalien usually being provided with plenty of warm cloth- ing, furs, etc., while the Yezoine makes little or no change between his summer and winter clothing. The skin is quite light and may very properly be com- pared with that of the Caucasian, the hue of which it very closely resembles. The foreheads are high but narrow, in some cases conspicuously so. The carriage of the men is active, and their general bearing and facial expression denote an intelligence much superior to that of the Yezo- jnes; in fact, if we are to measure their mental ability by their achievements, then the Saghaliens must certainly be accounted the superior, for since their residence in Yezo they have applied themselves with success to various pur- suits, including silk-weaving, boot-making, tanning, harness- making and several other industries in which the Yezo Aino does not or cannot engage. One or two have also become petty officials in the agricultural bureau, showing that they have capacities capable of improvement and expansion. As one first encounters the Aino, their general appear- ance is by no means calculated to produce a favorable 128 Canadian Record of Science. impression, but rather as Wood remarks’ “The uncouth- ness and wildness of their aspect is calculated at first to strike a stranger with dismay or repugnance.” Upon closer examination, however, the forbidding exterior is largely lost sight of in view of their quiet demeanor and gentle though rude politeness which is so constantly manifested. In respect to external features, the Saghaliens produce a really favorable impression which is in very marked con- trast to the feelings developed by contact with a Yezoine. It is hardly to be doubted, however, that this arises largely from the fact that the former are usually cleanly in appear- ance, while the bodies of the latter look as if water had never come in contact with them. The opinion is sometimes expressed that the Japanese are an offshoot of the Ainos, but a critical examination of the pure types would not permit such a belief to be entertained. There is an undoubted mixture of Japanese and Ainos, as invariably occurs along the border line of contact between two distinct people, and this half-breed type is as easily recognized in those parts of northern Japan where it chiefly occurs, as it is in our own Northwest. The Japanese, how- ever, are unquestionably Mongoloid, while the facts here stated not only show the Ainos to be physically distinct, but the accounts given by our best authorities all agree in the great resemblance which they bear to Europeans,—the prevailing view being that they are distinctly Aryan. METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS FOR 1885. By C. H. McLeop. The table on a succeeding page is a summary of the meteorological observations made in 1885 at the McGill College Observatory, Montreal. The observatory is situ- ated at the height of 187 feet above the level of the sea, Latitude N. 45° 30' 17”. Longitude 4° 54™ 18° 55, W. The year 1885 had an average temperature of 2°.6 below } Trans. Eth. Soc., New Ser., iv. 34, ete. Meteorological Observations. 129 the normal and was the coldest year since 1875. The devi- ation in temperature for the year is almost entirely due to the very low temperatures of the months of February and March, which, as will be seen on inspection of the table, made the very marked departure of over 10° below the mean. August and September were also considerably below the average. The year may be described as having a very cold winter, a cold summer, and a spring and autumn of average temperature. The greatest heat 87°.1 was on July 17th, the greatest on the records of the past eleven years is 93°.9. The lowest temperature, 21°.3 below zero, was on Jan. 22nd, while the lowest on the records is 26°.0. The greatest range of the thermometer on one day was 35°.9 on April 23rd, and the least range 3°.0 on Nov. 6th. The mean temperature of the warmest day, July 30th, was 75°.5 and that of the coldest day 15°.0 below zero. The highest — barometer reading was 30.747 on Jan. 23rd, and the lowest 29.104 on Jan. 12th. The extremes of barometric pressure which have been recorded here in eleven years are 350.999 and 28.766. The average weight of vapour in the air was slightly less than the lowest in eleven years, the lowest value being 0.234 for 1883. The driest state of the air was on May 29th, when the relative humidity was 21. The greatest mileage of wind in one hour was 46 on January 17th, when the velocity in gusts was at the rate of 64 miles per hour. The total mileage of the horizontal component of the wind during the year was 93,279, and the resultant mileage 46,290 in the direction S. 67°.6 W. The rainfall is slightly in excess of the average, and the snowfall very decidedly so, being 55 inches above the normal and the greatest, by 17 inches, for any one year on the records. The rainfall in October, of which 4.06 inches fell during 28 hours, is the greatest recorded here during any one month in the past eleven years. Although the amount of precipi- tation measured in depth was above the average the num- ber of days on which rain or snow fell was considerably below the average. The year is thus marked as one of) heavy falls of both rain and snow. The amount of clouded sky has been slightly less than usual, while there has been 9 130 Canadian Record of Science. THERMOMETER. * BAROMETER. Le T S5/ 28 ao g 3 co) aue!a MONTE: I pean _ | Mean Mean S Ba 3-4 ® a Max.| Min. | daily | Mean. | Max.} Min.| daily eo g zo = OAnE range. range 5, aa January .- 380.747] ¢ 79.2 February 30.461 83.7 March 30.466 76.6 April ..... 380.542 69.2 May feist 30.254 58.4 June.:.... 80.178 66.6 July....... 30. 150 73.5 August -..| 30.185 74.0 September 30.311 74.6 October .. 30.396 76.8 November 30.380 84.1 December. 30.717 82.6 Means 1885| 39.20| —2.65 "| 15.6 | 29.9500 | ..... ji 74.9 Moan a years, andi ATSB |v batts ei iets cca al eh scan Oe 29.9728 | ..... 74.3 1885. = a= a= lq .laB |e nies 3..| 22 oe | + | oe |e) Bleep eee Mean sa iS io) 3 a5 a aS SO wa ne Montu. | Dew Mean | © 8 & < o.8 is Eg 2 a a | Be wie we point.} Resultant |velocity] - 3] 29 | a] SG| Ge] SS ia i558) 845 in miles} O) .29 Seq = | San nos S Oo} Ee a| EF eho |e fa | ee, | SEI alge | 2s January ..| 6.7 14.50 | 63 | 23.5 | 1.11 Die 21e Sy | Sean oes ae 20 ebruary 17/ 13.36 | 49 | 49.9 | 0.50 tT) 43.55) 13)" | e4e79 at 13 March .. 7.0 12.70 | 56) 53.2 | 0.36 38 [29:1 | 15) 22983 15 April..... 27.8 12.58 | 49 | 55.5 | 1.16 10 | 29.8 9 14.05) 5 14 Ehainciso o 39.6 8.7 64.| 63.1] 1.66] 10 0.0 0 | 1.66) 0 10 June ..... 50.2 11.08 } 57] 49.2 | 3.61 15 0.0 0 | 3.61) 0 15 Oils reece 59.9 7.43.1 52 | 64.1 | 2.85 9 0.0 0 | 2.85] 0 9 August ... | 54.0 8.83] 62] 55.4 | 2.46] 14 0.0 0 | 2.46] 0 14 September| 46.9 9.05} 45] 64.4 | 4.16 2 0.0 0 | 4.16) 0 12 October... | 36.8 8.51} 66 | 34.6 | 7.17 | 15 2.8 aba Se). al 15 November | 28.0 9.20 77 | 16.7 | 2.27] 12 | 14.4 OY Was 3 18 December. | 14.9 11.52] 74 | 26.3 | 1.38 8 | 36.5; 18 | 5.07 | 4 22 Means 1885| 31.1 |S. 67°.6 W.| 10.63 | 58.7| 46.3 a Re OS Totals 1885 . se. |28.69 | 114 | 177.6) 83 | 46.06} 20 | 177 Means nape i 11.00 | 60.8] §46.8 |27.40 | 134 | 122.1) 85 | 39.56) 16 | 203 1885. * Barometer readings reduced to 32° Fah., and to sea level. + Inches of mercury. { Relative, saturation being 100. § For 4 years only. | ‘+ indicates that the temperature has been higher; ‘‘—’’ that it has been lower than the average for eleven years, inclusive of 1885. The monthly means are derived from readings taken every 4th hour, beginning with 3h. 0m., Eastern Standard time. Meteorological Observations. 131 an average amount of bright sunshine. Auroras were observed on 17 nights, but may have occurred oftener. There was hoar-frost on 15 days, fogs on 19 days, lunar halos on 9 nights, thunderstorms on 13 days, and light- ning without thunder on 3 days. The sleighing of the winter closed on April 17th. The first snow of the autumn fell on October 30th. The first sleighing of the winter was on Nov. 25th. Upper river navigation opened on May 5th, and the river was open to ocean ships on May 6th. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES. Naturau History Socrrry or Toronto.—This Society has amal- gamated with the Canadian Institute of this city, of which associa- tion it forms the Biological Section. We have received their pro- gramme for the Winter Session which was as follows:—Jan. 18th, Medicinal Plants, by Mr. Hollingworth; Fauna Canadensis, by Mr. Brodie. Feb. Ist, The Acadian Owl, by Mr. Melville; Flora of Ontario compared with that of England, by Mr. Moore. Feb. 15th, Buds, by Mr. Noble; Destruction of Wild Animals, by Mr. Williams. March Ist, Chlorophyll, by Mr. Pearce; Blood, by Mr. Pursey. March 15th, Entomological Reports, by Mr. Armstrong; Fauna Canadensis, by Mr. Brodie. Natura History Sociery or New Brunswick.—At the regular. January meeting a preliminary paper on the “ Alge of the Bay of Fundy ” was read by G. U. Hay. It contained an enumeration and description of the principal species of marine plants found on the northern shore of the Bay of Fundy from collections made at St. John and Frye’s Island, Charlotte County, in the summer of 1886. The causes of the paucity of our marine flora were alluded to—chiefly, the erosive action of the tides, the influence of Arctic currents, etc. The economic plants, such as Chondrus crispus, Por- phyra vulgaris, Rhodymenia palmata and the Fuci, were described with their uses and characteristics. The Annual Meeting of this Society was held on Jan. 26th, at which Dr. Botsford, the President, read his annual address on “Some Thoughts on Social Science.” Dr. Botsford was re-elected President. The following officers for the current year were elected : Vice-Presidents, G. F. Matthew, M. A., Edwin Fisher ; Corresponding Secretary, G. U. Hay; Treasurer, Alf. Seely; Recording Secretary, W. J. Wilson; Treasurer, Alf. Morrisey. 132 Canadian Record of Science. At the February meeting, a paper on the “Occurrence of Arctic Plants” in New Brunswick from the pen of Rey. Prof. Fowler, of Queen’s University, Kingston, was read. Quite a large proportion of the Arctic plants are found in New Bruns- wick and the paper from Prof. Fowler was accompanied by a list showing their distribution and occurrence. Movement oF Trnprits.—D. P. Penhallow contributes an import- ant paper to the American Journal of Science (xxxi. 46, 100 and 178,) on the movement of tendrils in Cucurbita maxima and pepo, incidentally dealing with other phenomena of growth in these plants. The results obtained are based upon observations covering a period of ten years, the original and principal facts having been obtained in 1875 by a series of experiments which involved almost continuous observa- tion through night and day, for a period of one week. He fully discusses the relation which meteorological conditions bear to growth, and confirms previous observations concerning the stimu- lating influence of combined heat.and moisture, but the retarding effect of the former, when acting alone. .The daily periodicity in growth, dependent upon alternation of day and night, is shown to be quite marked, the influence of conditions during the day being found to be greater in promoting the general growth than the retarding influence of sunlight, so that the general extension of parts during the day exceeds that for the same number of hours of night as 44.4 to 34.3, a result whieh confirms that previously obtained by Rauwenhoff. The most important facts, however, are those relating to the mechanism of movement. This is found to depend primarily upon the presence of three active bands of paren- chyma tissue, which traverse the tendril throughout its entire length, and by their more rapid rate of growth produce, through unequal tension of the various tissues, all the phenomena of torsion and circumnutation usually noticed. These bands, which the author calls Vibrogen, in allusion to their peculiar relation to move- ment, are found, one on the upper side of the tendril arm, and one on each side, somewhat above the horizon of the major and trans- verse axis of the section. Their direct connection with the circum- nutation is most ingeniously obtained from the figures described by the circumnutating tip of the tendril. Each figure is shown to exhibit changes of direction in movement, which are exactly reversed or follow an intermediate course, accordingly as any one band is directly succeeded by greater activity of its opposite or the remaining two bands; the direction thus taken being the direct expression of more vigorous growth in one band, or representing the resultant of activity in two bands at the same time. He next shows that the total latitudes of movement are one-half the total departures, thus bringing out in a more conclusive manner the pre- cise relation of vibrogen to motion. Miscellaneous Notes. 133 The final conclusions, with reference to the cause of motion, are as follows :—(1) Movements of the tendril and petiole are due to unequal growth, as producing uuequal tension of tissues. (2) The unequal growth is chiefly defined in the vibrogen tissue, which may therefore be regarded as the seat of movement. (3) The band of unequal growth does not arise at successive points of the circum- ference. (4) The vibrogen tissue consists of three longitudinal bands, each of which becomes more active in turn, without regular -order. (5) The collenchyma tissue is that which is chiefly con- cerned in variations of tension under mechanical stimuli. (6) Bending or coiling under the influence of irritation results from release of tension, or (free coiling) from inequality of tension through maturity of tissues. (7) Transmission of impulses is effected through continuity of protoplasm in the active tissues. Dr. C. J. E. Morrpen.—On February 28th Dr. Morren died at the age of 53 years. He was Professor of Botany in the University of Liége, Director of the Botanical Institute of the same city, and Secretary of the Belgian Horticultural Society. In allof these posi- tions he rendered important services to Botany and Horticulture. Pror. Epwarp Tuckerman, LL.D.—Dr. Tuckerman died at Amherst, Mass., on March 15th, at the age of 69 years. Although not actively engaged in teaching, he filled the chair of Botany at Amherst College from 1858 to the time of his death. He will be chiefly remembered for his studies of Lichens, having been recog- nized as one of the leading lichenologists of the day, and the high- est authority on this continent. Fpnpine Insects with “Comma” Bacitius.—Dr. R. L. Maddox, in a paper before the Royal Microscopical Society, details the results of further experiments in feeding insects with the comma bacillus. His observations were chiefly made upon the common blow-fly (Musca vomitoria), and included a very large number of microscopical determinations, special cultures of the comma bacil- lus being used for the purpose of feeding. The results of all his investigations lead him to believe that the comma bacillus from cultures can pass through the digestive tubes of some insects in a living state, and through this fact, such insects are likely to become an important means of distributing disease, especially to animals, birds and‘fishes which feed uponthem. This, therefore, is in accord with the quoted ,views of Dr. Grassi, “ That insects, especially flies, may be considered as veritable authors of epidemics and agents in infectious maladies.”—Journal Royal Mic. Soc., 2nd S., V. 602 and 941. 134 Canadian Record of Science. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL History SocIETY. The Third Monthly Meeting of the Session took place on Monday evening, January 18th, 1886, Sir Wm. Dawson being in the chair. The minutes of the previous meeting were read, also those of the council meetings of December 22nd, 1885, and January 12th, 1886. Dr. W. H. Hingston presented the Society with a copy of his work on “ the Climate of Canada.” Mr. T. D. Watson, through Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, presented the Society with a specimen of Walking Stick, Spectrum femoranthum (Say), and a dipterous insect, Pyrgota undata (Weidman). Dr. Harrington reported that the list of the Course of Sommerville Lectures had been completed as follows, viz. :— February 4th, “‘ Antiseptics and Disinfectants.’’ By Alfred H. Mason, F.C.S., F.S.Se. February 11th, “The Chalk Formation.” By Rev. W. J. Smyth, M. A., Ph. D. February 18th, ‘‘The Source of Igneous Rocks.” By Thos. Macfarlane, F.R.S.C. February 25th, “'The Chemistry of Bread and other Farin- aceous Foods.” By Dr. Casey A. Wood, C.M. March 4th, “Cotton and Cotton Manufactures.” By Wil- ham Hobbs. March 11th, “ Breathing and Ventilation.” By Dr. J. B. McConnell. March 18th, “The History of a Modern Volcano.” By Sir William Dawson, LL.D., F.R.S. Prof. Penhallow reported that, having been in Quebec a few days ago, the question of a renewal of the annual grant was referred to, in the presence of some of the members of the Cabinet, when the assurance was given that the proposed petition to be presented to the Government, on the eve of the next session of the Provincial Parliament, would receive favorable consideration. The President named the following Committee to prepare the necessary petition and press upon the Ministry the Proceedings of Natural History Society. 135 ' urgent claims of the Society for a renewal of the grant, viz., John S. Shearer, Major Latour, P. S. Ross and the Cor- responding and Recording Secretaries. Dr. J. Baker Edwards gave notice of motion to change the date of the Annual Meeting from the 18th day of May to the last Monday in May of each year. The following candidates were duly elected :—Wm. Drys- dale, C. N. Bell, F.A.G.S., Dr. T. Wesley Mills and Captain John Lawrence; while Mr. R. R. Stevenson, Rev. Dr. Wm. J. Smyth, and Dr. Thomas Roddick were proposed as Ordinary members. The Hon. Thomas White was proposed as a Cor- responding member. Prof. Penhallow then read a paper on “the Hydration of Wood Tissues in Trees and Shrubs,” and Dr. J. Baker Edwards followed with one on “the Danger of Poisoning from the Commercial Uses of Arsenic.” Prof. Penhallow also read a paper on “ Physical Charac- teristics of the Ainos,” which elicited some discussion. A suitable vote of thanks was passed to both gentlemen for their respective papers. Mr. Edward Murphy exhibited some microscopic speci- mens of arsenic in connection with Dr. Edwards’ paper. | The Fourth Monthly Meeting of the Session was held on Monday evening, February 22nd, 1886, the President Sir Wm. Dawson occupying the chair. The minutes of the previous meeting, with that of the last meeting of council, were read and approved. Mr. Charles Robb presented several volumes of rare works to the Society, which were accepted with thanks and an acknowledgement was ordered to appear in the RecorD or ScIENCE. Mr. Wm. G. Oswald, of Hill Farm, presented the Society with a curiosity of vegetation in the form of a natural bud- ding or grafting by the interlacing of Beech root branches, for which a vote of thanks was passed to the donor. It was moved by Edward Murphy and seconded by J. H. Joseph, “ that in accordance with notice of motion by Dr. J. Baker Edwards, the date of the Annual Meeting be 136 Canadian Record of Science. changed from the 18th day of May to the last Monday in May of each year.”” The same motion also embodied the following resolution, viz., “‘that the Bye-laws as revised be and are hereby adopted.” Carried. Dr. Harrington then proceeded with a very interesting description of Canadian minerals, and displayed a fine selec- tion of specimens from the collection of the late Mr. Miller, of Ottawa, recently purchased by Mr. John H. R. Molson. for McGill College. Sir Wm. Dawson, Charles Robb, C. E., and Mr. Thomas Macfarlane followed with some remarks on the different forms of crystals found in Norway and Canada. Sir Wm. Dawson next read extracts from a letter by Pro fessor Bailey, referring to recent criticisms on the Geologists of New Brunswick. THE (ONADIAN RECORD OF SCIENCE. ‘ VOL. IL JULY, 1886. NO. 3. STUDIES IN THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE 1 minnie Heart. GOL 7 By T. Waustry Mitts. | ( Concluded.) ON THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART OF THE ALLIGATOR. The animals experimented upon belonged to the species Alligator Mississippiensis. The heart in the Crocodilia, with its two auricles and paired ventricles, though showing much resemblance to lower forms and retaining the pulsatile sinus venosus, both in its general appearance and in its action, approximates sufficiently to that of the higher vertebrates to suggest on superficial examination the heart of a mammal or bird (with slower action). The blood, too, is more highly oxidized than in the Chelonians, so that altogether the cir- culatory system shows physiological as well as anatomical advance. With the exception of Gaskell’s short paper on the crocodile, (Journal of Physiology, Vol. V., No. 1), nothing has 10 e 138 Canadian Record of Serene been published on the heart physiology of this group of animals. The work of the present writer, while it confirms Gaskell’s conclusions as regards the cardiac accelerator, is wholly at variance with his views as to the functions of the vagus. The vagus in the Crocodilia, at least in the alligator, is not a pure cardial depressor, but is on the contrary a powerful cardiac augmentor. The result of the stimulation of the vagus may be thus stated : (1.) Stimulation of the vagus with a weak, interrupted current may weaken the cardiac beat with or without arrest of the auricles; the latter may be arrested and give rise to — a brief stop of the ventricles. (2.) With a stronger current, the sinus may be so weak- ened as to lead to arrest of the auricles and ventricles ; or the sinus may be arrested wholly, in which case the auricles and ventricles invariably cease to beat. (3.) When the cardiac beat recommences, it may be in the order, sinus, sinus extension, ventricles; or sinus, auricles, s. extension, ventricles, 7. ¢., the auricles may remain quiescent as in the Chelonians and fishes when all the rest of the heart is beating. (4.) The rhythm after vagus stand-still may be (a) without acceleration, or (b) accelerated. The augmentation in the force of the beat is more marked than acceleration in the rate. Both rate and force follow, as in the Chelonians, the law of inverse proportion. Comparison of the Vagi and Results of their Prolonged Alter- nate Stimulation. The vagi in the alligator, as in the Che- lonians, have not, as a rule, equal power in causing and maintaining cardiac inhibition; the right, as in the other cold blooded animals examined, being more effective. Prolonged stimulation of the vagi alternately leads to corresponding lengthened cardiac arrest. Accessory Vagi. Certain small nerves are in the alligator given off from the Glossopharyngeal shortly after its exit from the skull, proceed downwards, apart from the vagus, and pass beneath the trachea over the vessels to the heart. Physiology of the Heart. 139 Stimulation of these nerves has led to similar results to those furnished by stimulation of the vagus, 7. ¢., retardation of the rate, weakening of the beat and after acceleration. Hence they have been called by me accessory vagi. There seem to be nerves of somewhat similar function in the sea turtle. Peculiar Cardiac Inhibition followed by Acceleration, Special attention is called to the following experiment which is be- lieved to be unique in physiology. In a small alligator with the whole brain destroyed for some time, both vagi divided and dead throughout the greater part of their course (stimula- tation not producing cardiac arrest), a sharp tap over the liver and stomach with a dissecting forceps caused car- diac arrest of brief duration, then slowed irregular rythm followed by acceleration of a very pronounced kind (from 40 to 50 beats). Here then were the usual phenomena of reflex vagus inhibition, as when the vagi and medulla are intact. This experiment was tried three times. It does not seem pos- sible to explain this unparalleled result by present theories. T conclude that the impulses passed through the sympathetic system of nerves and that probably other inhibitory fibres than those of the vagus were concerned, and that accelera- ting fibres were also involved. It is also possible to conceive that terminations of the vagi were in some way reached by these impulses, but in any case the results are new to phy- siology, the only published case at all resembling it being Marshall Hall’s experiment on the eel’s stomach (Todd's Cyclopedia of Anat. and Phys., article ‘““Heart.”) Cardiac Augmentors. As described by Gaskell, there is in the Crocodilia, from the ganglion of the eleventh metamere of the sympathetic chain, a strong well-defined branch passing to the heart. Stimulation of this nerve has given rise to [1] accelera. tion following the law of inverse proportion, which seems applicable to all kinds of acceleration. [2] Decided augmen- tation of the force of the beat. This is more marked than the acceleration in rate, and in fact may disguise the effects of the nerve, for no actual acceleration of beat may follow. Tn all cases, stimulation of a genuine cardiac augmentor 140 Canadian Record of Science. causes increase in the work done by the heart, hence these nerves should be called augmentors rather than accelerators, Application of the Rapidly Interrupted Current to the Heart itself. In addition to the white dots seen at the points of application of the electrodes and the dilation and blue appear- ance following the use of a weak or moderate current, another effect noticed in the alligator, on the use of a very strong current deserves mention. From the part where the electrodes touched the auricle, a considerable area took on a pale, even whitish aspect and seemed to diminish in size; by gradually moving the electrodes along, more and more of the auricle passed into the same condition. The part involved was thrown out of action, as in the case of the dilated posi- tion. This condition seemed to be one of pronounced con- traction, probably tetanic, and confirms the view that the white dots seen in all cases just where the electrodes touch are caused by the contraction of the muscle fibres, THE CARDIAC RHYTHM OF FISHES AND THE ACTION ON THE SAME OF CERTAIN DRUGS AND POISONS. The object of the investigation was (1) to ascertain whether there were considerable physiological differences in the hearts of different fishes, and (2) to ascertain the laws regulating the rhythm of some one fish heart specially suit- able for investigation, and (3) to determine the action of certain drugs and poisons on the fish’s heart ; these being, many of them, such as have been studied in their influence on the heart of the frog. In general it may be said that the hearts of fishes are so sensitive to changes in normal conditions, and that most fishes are so easily killed, that it is not possible to pursue prolonged investigations on their hearts in situ. This re- mark applies especially to the Selachians, whose hearts, from many points of view, are exceedingly interesting. Batrachus Tau (toadfish), is a fish of great vitality, resist- ing unfavorable conditions admirably, and its heart has a corresponding vital resistance, and being excellently suited for experimentation, this fish was the subject of a majority Physiology of the Heart. 141 of the experiments of this investigation. Most of the work was done on the heart in situ, but the isolated heart was also studied. For the former experiments, the fish was kept on its dorsal surface in a dish of water, the latter reaching suf- ficiently high to cover the gills but not flow over the exposed heart. The respirating centre was left intact. Under these circumstances, the heart may be maintained fairly normal for several hours. Considerable differences in physiological behavior have been found in the hearts of fishes, some of which will be noticed under different headings in this synopsis. The Structure and Action of the Fish’s Heart. In the Sela- chians, as examined by the present writer in the shark and and skate, the heart consists of a Conus arteriosus, in addition to the sinus, auricle and ventricle. This structure is pulsa- tile and seems to be the most sensitive part of the whole heart. The corresponding Bulbus arteriosus of other fishes is highly elastic but not pulsatile. In observing such a heart as that of Batrachus during systole of the ventricle, the longitudinal and transverse diameters of the latter are seen to be shortened and the antero-posterior lengthened. It is seen that the apex ascends and the bulbus descends. In the Selachians, the beat is more highly peristaltic than in the hearts of other fishes, and in the former, a reversal of the order of pulsation for the different parts is most easily originated and maintained. In some fishes, as in the eel [McWilliam] and Batrachus, there is a part of the heart intermediate between the sinus and the auricle proper, as to appearance, structure, and func- tions; and, as it is in most respects physiologically like a corresponding part in the Chelonians, has been named by me sinus extension in both fishes and Chelonians | “‘ basal” wall, and “ flattened” portion of Gaskell, “ Canalis Auricu- laris” of McWilliam]. This part of the heart is often, under peculiar circumstances, in action when the auricle proper is quiescent, and then serves to conduct the wave of construc- tion on from the sinus to the ventricle. WAP Canadian Record of Science. Injluences Affecting the Natural Rythm of the Heart. Among | these, in addition to mechanical excitation inducing a re- versed rythm already referred to, must be especially men- tioned the condition of the blood supplying the heart as to degree of oxidation. Blood, poor in oxygen, with greater readiness than in other cold-blooded animals, causes irregu- larity or arrest of the heart in a fish. Faradisation of the heart in the fish leads to results very - closely allied to those obtained in the Chelonians. Reflex Cardiac Inhibition. The ease with which the heart of a fish can be reflexly inhibited by the stimulation of various parts of its body, is one of the most remarkable facts brought out by investigation on the heart physiology of the animal. The results are much the same whether mechanical or electrical stimulation with the rapidly interrupted current be employed. The parts that have been found most effective in Batrachus are the gills, the air bladder, the abdominal viscera, the mucus lining of the mouth, the tentacular appen- dages of the mouth, the pectoral fins, the anus and the tail. The results may be either (1) decided arrest of the heart for several seconds, followed by a slowed rythm, or (2) brief arrest of the slowed and irregular rhythm or (3) the latter lasting from one to two minutes or longer without any actual stop of the heart. In some cases the operative procedure necessary to expose the heart is sufficient stimulus to keep the heart long inhibited., The results of inhibition are not uniform. In some cases no acceleration seems to follow, but in others and the majority, there is decided acceleration of the rythm. Peculiar Results associated with Reflex Cardiac Inhibition. Stimulation of several of the parts mentioned above, and especially of the anus and tail, have given the following results : (1.) At first an accelerated rhythm followed by a slowed rhythm, or (2.) An accelerated rhythm followed by a slowed rhythm on increasing thé current, or (3.) Only an accelerated rhythm. Physiology of the Heart. | 143 This subject is further treated in the account of the turtle and aliigator above. It should be noted that in the skate, stimulation along certain lines on the ventral surface of the fish, apparently the course of mucous glands and likely associated with special sensitive structures, has produced remarkably good cardiac inhibition, and the results have been constant. The mucous membrane of the mouth, is also in the skate, a part giving decided results. Independent Rhythm of Various Parts of the Heart. A large number of experiments on both the isolated heart and the heart in situ have brought out the following facts: (1.) There is very great variety in the hearts of different fishes as to capacity for independent rhythm; between such fishes as the skate, the shark and the toadfish (Batrachus) this difference is enormous. (2.) In Batrachus every part of the heart is capable of good, independent rhythm ; even the apex of the heart when isolated has shown such. (3.) The order of the parts of the heart with greatest independent rhythmic power is—sinus, sinus extension, auricle, ventricle. [4.] The independent rhythm of the ventricle aio Ws soon after its separation from the rest of the heart (by ligature), speedily reaches a maximum and gradually declines. The Action of Certain Drugs and Poisons on the Heart. Ex periments have been made on the heart in situ and the results confirmed on the isolated heart. The agent was in each case applied in solution directly to the heart itself. The results are stated below very briefly. Pilocarpin and Atropin in one per cent. solution. (1.) These agents are antagonistic in action. (2.) Pilocarpin is a cardiac depressant; atropin an excitant; the former lowers cardiac excitability; the latter most decidedly heightens it; the former weakens the beat and tends to arrest the heart in diastole, the latter calls into action the resources of the heart quickly and fully. Carbonates of Soda and Potash in five per cent. solution. These agents are antagonistic in action. Sodium carbonate 144 Canadian Record of Science. is a cardiac excitant, potassium carbonate a depressant. The former tends to quicken the beats and diminish diastole. A heart arrested in diastole by potassium carbonate may be excited to action by sodium carbonate. Potassium carbonate must be regarded as a cardiac poison. Lactic Acid. (1) In five per cent. solution this is a rapid cardiac poison. (2) In one per cent. solution its action is slower, but it proves a decided depressant, and the heart arrested by lactic acid cannot be excited to action by digitalis, sodium carbonate, Xe. Nicotin in one per cent. solution. (1) Its first action was often to arrest the heart in diastole. (2) This was some- times followed by an irregular, slowed rhythm giving way to amore rapid but weaker heart beat. But the fish heart shows great power of resistance against the effect of nicotin in weak solution and can, it would seem, recover almost wholly from the effect of this poison. Nicotin tends strongly to produce inco-ordination of the beat. Chloroform (undiluted) acts as a decided cardiac depres- sant, tending to arrest the heart in diastole. The heart can, however, recover fairly well from a considerable a of this poison applied directly to it. Acetate of Strychnia in one per cent. solution. This poison did not seem to have the most pronounced action, but tended to strengthen the systole, diminish diastole and arrest the heart in systole. Veratria in rather less than one per cent. solution. The most distinct action is on the diastole, which it retards. The heart in action has a generally sluggish movement rather than a weakened one; the systole may in fact be slightly improved. It also tends to cause arythmic pheno- mena—want of harmony in the sequence of the beats of different parts and of different fibres in the same part, é. g., there may be two or more beats of the auricle for one of the ventricle, &c., or one part of the ventricle may be pulsating out of harmony with the rest. Digitalin in somewhat less than one per cent. solution has more than any other of the agents tested a constant, decided and well-defined action. (1) A short time elapses before its Physiology of the Heart. 145 action is manifested ; but when this begins it quickly and steadily rises to a maximum. (2) It causes diminished diastolic relaxation; but especially characteristic is the effect on the systole which is both more perfect and when complete more prolonged than usual. (3) The ventricle is always arrested in most pronounced (tetanic?) systole and then always looks very small aud pale, It is inexcitable. The action of drugs on such sensitive hearts as those of the Selechians was found correspondingly rapid. The action on the isolated heart was also more rapid than in the heart in situ, a8 was to be expected. In many cases the first effect of a drug was to arrest the auricle proper, leaving the sinus extension comparatively unaffected. Our NortH-WEsT PRAIRIES, THEIR ORIGIN AND THEIR FORESTS. By A. T.. Drummonp. The origin of our North-West prairies may be traced ‘to two causes, one long since removed, the other still operating. During the pre-glacial and glacial periods, the inequalities of the surface over vast tracts of the country in our North- West were filled up by clays and gravels, and more or less levelled. These clays were, to some extent, subsequently re-arranged under water, and at the same time new material, chiefly gravels, sands and sandy loam, was deposited. Then these extensive tracts were gradually upheaved above the level of the water or were left dry by the fall in the water through the diminution in the sources of supply, or by the greater facilities afforded for rapid drainage. There had been previous upheavals during the drift period, and there were traces of resulting vegetation. The second cause, then, or immediately previously, came into play, and consisted in the annual growth and decay, for long periods of time, of grasses, sedges and aquatic plants generally, over extensive areas in the shallower waters and along the shallow lake 146 Canadian Record of Science. margins, each year forming a deposit there on the lake bot- tom and gradually thus increasing the encroachments of the Jand upon the water. There is strong evidence which seems to point to the fact that about the close of the drift period, or immediately after it, when the glaciers, probably, were slowly retreating, the central portions of the continent formed the bed of a vast fresh water inland sea, of which Lakes Winnipeg, Manitoba and Winnipegosis, are now the mere remnants. The outlet of this sea to the ocean was probably at that time by way of the Mississipi Valley. Into this sea the glaciers from the Rocky Mountains and from the country north and east of the Saskatchewan, perhaps for long periods of time, flowed, and huge icebergs freighted with boulders, debris and earth were continuously floated off to wend their way at the will of winds and currents. It was not the first time during the drift period that this part of the country had been under water. The resemblance to the Polar Seas of to-day was probably very striking, except in these points that the icebergs would be more deeply sunken, for the water was fresh, and that this inland sea was more vast, covering not merely our . North-West prairies, but extending probably as far south as Iowa and Illinois. Boulders were thus scattered at ran- dom over the bottom of the sea hundreds of miles away from their point of origin. Huge masses were carried enormous distances. Dr. George Dawson mentions one of the Huro- nian quartizite, lying near the Waterton River, which mea- sured forty-two feet long, forty feet broad and twenty feet high, and which must have come from east of Lake Winni- peg or the Red River. The very uniform nature of the deposits over very great areas would indicate quiet waters, at least in later periods of the occurrence of this inland sea, probably ending, as the land rose, in the creation of vast marshes, like the existing great grass swamps at Westbourne, and on the Boyne River in Manitoba, but on an immense scale. The successive an- nual growth and decay of sedges and grasses in these marshes ‘gave rise to deposits of vegetable loam which have gone on increasing since the rise of the land to its present level, by Our North-West Prince 147 the annual decay of the ordinary prairie grasses, and per- haps of forest trees. The elevation which took place in the land was greatest at the Rocky Mountains and the different steppes between these mountains and the eastern limits of the prairie, would seem to indicate different stages or inter- vals in the elevation during which the various sandhills and stretches of sand at the extended edges of these steppes have been formed. The contraction in the area of this inland ocean took place from the Rocky Mountains eastward, so ‘that the present Province of Manitoba east of the Duck, Riding and Pembina Mountains, is the most recently formed as well as the lowest in level. Between the mouth of the Saskatchewan at Grand Rapids and the Assiniboine River between Portage la Prairie and Winnipeg and thence to the United States boundary line, there is not much difference in level, as the following heights above the sea indicate: ake WVIMNIPCS: 0. ho as deieey ie cosueasccsin (LO nteeUs Stay Mian timisnlalke nes sein enae! len Sulake Mecca (Olen ale Manitoba t: sesaicetse. cess se osdece cence sen Up River Assiniboine, near Baie St. Paul...... SG & ake: WiAnTIPCPOSIS. sareesenens accesses Os Cedar Lake, near Grand Rapids, on the a Satelit chro wai alms eee eenee inser eee Onn This comparatively level area occupies a stretch of country 330 miles in length by an average of 150 miles in breadth. Lakes Winnipegosis and Manitoba, and St. Martin’s and Water Hen Lakes, are mere shallow depressions on the sur- face of the prairie. The two first named lakes are each over a hundred miles in length, but increase in depth so gradually that at the narrows where they nearly unite, Winnipegosis has only six feet of water at 2,000 feet from the shore, whilst Lake Manitoba, at a mile from the shore, shows a depth of only three feet. St. Martin’s Lake, again, has only eight feet, and Water Hen Lake an average of three feet of water. Lake Winnipeg is deeper, being an average of forty feet. to sixty feet, with a somewhat uniformly level bottom, but it is relatively very shallow for alake of its great 148 Canadian Record of Science. extent. Its eastern shores form here the western limits so far as observable, of the great eozoic rocks, and were also, no doubt, the eastern shore of the great inland sea. It has been proposed to lower the level of Lake Manitoba by removing the obstructions in the channel through which its waters are conducted by way of St. Martin’s Lake to Lake Winnipeg, and there is no doubt that ii this could be effected to the extent of only a few feet, large tracts of country would be reclaimed which around its margin are presently more or less under water. The southern end of the lake is now bounded by a narrow sand bank elevated a few feet above the water. Inside of this are very considerable tracts once forming a part of the lake and now more or less sub- merged, but in which the process of growth and decay of the grasses and aquatic plants and the resulting annual de- posit of soil will eventually end in their reclamation from the water. This same process is going on in a large tract cov- ering four or five townships about ten miles to the westward of Lake Manitoba, known as the Big Grass Marsh, as well as in many other places in the province, and will, in coming years, result in the formation of prairie land with a rich covering of black vegetable loam. The County of Essex in Ontario has a considerable ex- tent of prairie land which was no doubt largely formed under similar conditions of annual growth and decay, and which in its origin points to a time when Lakes Hrie and St. Clair, were more intimately connected than they now are. Long Point, Point Pelée and Sandusky Harbour, all on Lake Hrie, are illustrations of prairies now in process of formation. These prairies all have a fresh water origin. ‘Those south of Montreal, and extending beyond St. Johns and St. Hyacinthe, are rather of marine origin, dating back to the Ledaclay period, when the drift clays were re-assorted under water and added to, and the land then elevated to its present level. Probably contemporaneous with the formation of the prairies was the creation of the deep valleys of the Assini- boine and the Qu’Appelle Rivers. The valley of the Assini- boine above Brandon has an average depth of towards 200 Our North-West Prairies. 149 feet; that of the Qu’ Appelle is somewhat less. Their width varies from half a mile to a mile. As the waters fell in the prairie country to the east of Brandon, these rivers, which appear to have been enormous streams with strong currents, cut their way into the drift deposits of the upper steppe gradually downward to the level of the lower steppe below Brandon. The sources of supply for these streams may have been in part the retreating glaciers, but were more probably a greater rainfall than now and the general drain- age of the country through which they ran. This country must have been in its earlier days covered with grass marshes. The smaller river valleys as those of the Souris, Cut Arm Creek and the Little Saskatchewan have probably somewhat similar origins. A contributing cause in every case has however no doubt been the annual spring freshets which extend into the month of July in the larger rivers, and which year by year carry down with them in their con- stantly turbid waters large quantities of soil to the Red River. A writer in the February number of The Century, speak- ing of the vast prairies of the valley of the Mississippi and its tributary streams, tells us “This region was not origin- ally wooded. This is proved not only by the story told by the soil, but by the fact that though it was not without its woodlands at its settlement, it has no characteristic trees. All are derived either trom the Appalachian region or from the west and north, ninety varieties coming from the east and only nine or ten from the west and north. The great prairie region has sought all the trees it possesses from ad- joining regions.”” This opinion probably expresses the gen- erally prevailing impression of the relations of forest trees to the prairies. And yet in regard to our Canadian prairies, whether in the North-west or in Ontario and Quebec, it is not altogether correct. The subject isin some respects asso- ciated with the early history of the prairies. There is no doubt that when these prairies were in process of formation, when immense areas were in the condition of marsh in which tall grasses were the leading feature, and when this marsh was being gradually changed in its character to dry 150 Canadian Record of Science. land by the successive annual growth and decay of these grasses, circumstances existed which rendered the growth of forest trees impossible. Great tracts of country are still in this condition. There are also many areas of great ex- tent, as on the Pembina branch of the Canadian Pacific Rail- way, around Gladstone and Westbourne on the Manitoba & Northwestern Railway, and between Baie St. Paul and Lake Manitoba, where, during the wet seasons—and these seem periodically to follow each other for two and three years in succession—very extensive tracts of magnificent prairie land, which in other seasons are dry and capable of cultiva- tion, are practically under water for most of the summer months. Thus trees, which in dry seasons might spring up in such stretches of country, would during the successive wet seasons be gradually killed. Wherever such conditions have prevailed, whether in far distant or present times, forests, for the time, could not be expected to appear. The question however arises whether, once the condition of dry land was attained, did trees spread over the prairies as they have elsewhere, and whether subsequent causes may not have prevailed in removing them. That certain trees will freely grow on the prairies is proved by the frequent bluffs of timber, especially to the north of the Assiniboine and Qu’Appelle. These bluffs often occur in stretches of miles in extent and often again are found isolated. North of the Qu’Appelle they are so frequent as to give the coun- try a park-like appearance and to render that country very attractive for settlement. Beyond this point northward they continue to occur until they finally merge into the true forest region which in this section extends from Lake Win- nipeg westward to the sources of the Athabasca River, and from between these localities northward to the extreme limits of forest growth—including within this are a great stretches of what should correctly be termed prairie coun- try. On the prairies proper the prevailing trees are the poplars, and only in the deep river valleys or skirting the margins of the lakes and the smaller streams and on the hills are the other trees of the prairies found in numbers. It is quite true that the total number of species of trees Our North-West Prairies. — 151 in our North-west is limited. Most of the Ontario and Que- bec species do not range west of Lake Superior or Lake of the Woods and probably Manitoba, west of the Red River, does not include more than sixteen species. Were there, however, forests in this part of Manitoba as there are in On- tario and Quebec, this paucity of species would probably not be so marked. That there has been a time when the pre- sent prairies of Manitoba and the North-west Territories have been more or less under wood is extremely probable. There seems no reason why the true forests should have extended everywhere northward, often covering, even there, what would be otherwise prairie, and should have left the vast country to the south an open, more or less treeless, plain. The deep valleys of the Assiniboine, Qu’Appelle and other streams would seem to indicate a greater rainfall to have at one time prevailed, and this greater rainfall would result from extended areas of forest. It is not an argument against this that the prairies with us can hardly be said to have any characteristic trees. The vast forests to the north- ward have none. It is not because trees will not grow, as bluffs of timber are of frequent occurrence and wherever tried, hardy trees, when properly protected, readily thrive. Those who have observed the almost yearly occurrence in almost every part of the prairie country of great fires, sweep- ing sometimes over immense stretches of country, and of the destructive effects of forest fires in Ontario and Quebee, can readily suppose that such fires may have been an im- portant factor in rendering the prairies largely treeless and that, aided by the light rainfall and the dry atmosphere, they have gradually widened the areas originally burned, until these areas have attained their present extent. The general flatness of the country and consequent exposure to winds has contributed much to the rapid accomplishment of this. In the country bordering the upper reaches of the Peace and Athabasca Rivers and their tributaries there are at present large stretches of prairie land completely sur- rounded by forest, and which suggest an origin resulting from forest fires. Prairie fires are almost invariably the result of human agency, so that the present condition of D2 Canadian Record of Science. the prairies probably dates its origin within a compara- tively recent period. Certainly these prairie fires now prevent the encroachments of the forest upon the plain, as otherwise these forests would in the natural order of things extend themselves westward and southward if allowed to do so. The same is true of the bluffs or stretches of timber found growing in frequent places south of the true forests, though even there the trees are of relatively moderate size proving that these bluffs are of comparatively recent or of very slow growth. There can be no question that as prairie fires cease with the progress of cultivation of the land and with the enforcement of pre- ventive laws, the tendency of these stretches of timber and of the true forests will be to extend themselves further over the prairie. In the meantime, the effect of the absence of timber is to create a drier climate by diminishing the rain- fall, and on account of the general flatness of the prairie by exposing every object upon it to constant and unbroken, drying winds. That there is, therefore, a general tendency of trees to skirt the river banks can be readily understood, as there they obtain that moister atmosphere which is absent on the open prairie. Even in the valleys of such great streams as the Assiniboine and the Qu’Appelle, trees are generally found on the southwestern or western sides, the eastern being frequently bare, and this can only be accounted for by the greater protection from drying winds the western and southern banks have, and therefore the greater moisture in the soil there. Again, only in the river valleys, on and near the lake margins and on the hills or rising grounds are the forest _ trees of the North-west completely represented, and it is suggestive whether the trees there are not the relics of a larger forest flora which more or less covered the whole country. At present the cosmopolitan poplars are the chief occupants of the plains, their very hardiness, however, con- stituting them fitting pioneers of new forests some day to appear. I cannot help thinking that as the prairies become thickly settled and protective laws are properly enforced, prairie Our North-West Prairies. © 1583 fires will largely cease and trees will have an opportunity to extend their area of growth in every direction. Further, as cultivation increases and a drainage system is more gen- erally carried out, summer frosts will largely disappear and the climate become more suitable for forest trees as well as grain. The extension of the forests will, no doubt, have its effect in somewhat increasing the rainfall, but will also afford breaks to the winds which now prevail. The general effect must be a modification of the climate in some degree, probably rendering the atmosphere less dry and somewhat moderating the cold in winter. THE PROTECTION oF NorTH AMERICAN BIRDs. By Aurrep H. Mason, F.CS. . ‘ A communication on this subject having been addressed to the Society by Mr. Montague Chamberlain, a member of the Council of the “American Ornithologists’ Union” and Canadian Superintendent of that union, the Council of the society decided that it was a subject of importance to naturalists, and I was invited to bring the matter forward. The American Ornithologists’ Union was organised in 1883 at New York, at a convention of the leading scientific workers in that branch of study. The object of the Union is to advance the study of ornithology and to organise for systematic and combined action in the determination of important questions. It has issued a new classification of North American Birds, established a successful journal “The Auk,” and organised and made successful a very large body of observers of the phenomena of bird migration. Allen, Baird, Coues, Merriman, Ridgway and Henshaw, are among the leading professional Zoologists of America. Avraor’s Norn.—This paper consists mainly of a résumé of the work of the American Ornithological Union, and of extracts from its recent circular, and the chief object® aimed at is to aid in direc- ting general attention to the ruthless destruction of birds. 11 154 Canadian Record of Science. Brewster and Lawrence are gentlemen of large fortune, who study the science for occupation, and for the love of it, and stand high as scientists. Lawrence helped Baird with his greatest ornithological work, published in 1859. One of the investigations being conducted by the Union is that of Bird migration and the geographical distribution of North American Birds, and during the first year of its existence, it received communications from more than a thousand observers. The area over which these observers are scattered is co-extensive with the boundaries of the inhabited portions of the North American continent, and includes parts of the West Indies, and Central and South America. Stations now exist in every state in the Union, and in every Territory excepting Nevada. The extreme points from which reports have actually been received will appear from the following: in the east, the southernmost station is Sombrero Key, off Southern Florida (Lat. 24°37’); and the most northern, Belle Isle off Labrador (Lat. 51°53’), whilst from the west, reports have been received from Arizona and Southern California, as well as from Point Barrow, the most northerly point of Arctic Alaska (Hat. 71°18’). The most eastern station from which data have been obtained, is St. John’s Newfoundland (West Long. 52°45’) projecting well into the Atlantic; while on the Pacific, the committee has observers at various points in California, Oregon, Washington and British Columbia. Hence it appears that the migration stations are sprinkled over 46°41’ of latitude (approximately three thousand two hundred miles in a north and south direction) and 72°15’ ‘of longtitude (approximately three thousand five hundred miles in an east and west direction.) The distance in a straight line between the two most remote points (Sombrero Key and Point Barrow) is about four thousand three hund- red miles. This territory is divided into sixteen districts, each under the immediate direction of a competent superintendent. In Canada there are stations with the following superintendents:—North West Territories: Ernest E. T. Seton, Assiniboia, via Carbery, Manitoba; British Protection of North American Birds. 155 Columbia: John Fennin, Burrard Inlet, B.C.; Manitoba: Prof. W. W. Cooke, Moorhead, Minnesota; Quebec and Maritime Provinces: Montague Chamberlain, St. John, New Brunswick; Ontario: Thomas Mclllwraith, Hamilton. Each observer is asked to give a brief but careful descrip- tion of the principal physical features, including latitude, longitude, and altitude, of the locality which is the seat of his observations, and the data collected arranged in three general classes; (a) Ornithological Phenomena, (b) Me- teorological Phenomena, (¢) Contemporary and Correlative Phenomena. The first class requires the observer to pre- pare a complete list of the Birds known to exist in the vicinity of his station, indicating to which of the following five categories each species pertains :— 1. Permanent Residents, or those that are found regularly throughout the year. 2. Winter Visitants, or those that occur only during the winter season, passing north in the spring. 3. Transient Visitants, or those that occur only during the migrations, in spring and fall. 4. Summer Residents, or those that are known to breed, but which depart southward before winter. 5. Accidental Visitants, or stragglers from remote districts. The second class requires information upon :— 1. The direction and force of the wind. 2. The direction, character and duration of storms. 3. The general conditions of atmosphere, including rain- fall. 4. The succession of marked warm and cold waves, including a record of all sudden changes of temperature. Whilst the committee ask for a large amount of informa- tion upon a variety of subjects, they are also glad to receive meagre and isolated records. Comparatively few of the observers are ornithologists or even bird collectors, the great majority being intelligent farmers, tradesmen and light-keepers. Those who know only the commonest birds, such as the Robin, Bluebird, Bobolink, Martin, Humming- bird and Chimney Swift, can furnish important data and their services are eagerly sought. 156 Canadian Record of Science. Another object engaging the attention of the Union is to determine as nearly as possible the true status in Amer- ica, of the Huropean Home Sparrow (Passer Domesticus), commonly known as the English Sparrow—by collecting the facts necessary to settle the question of the eligibility or ineligibility of this sparrow as a naturalized resident of the country. The question is regarded as one of great economic consequence, to be determined primarily by ascer- taining whether this bird be, upon the whole, directly or indirectly, injurious or beneficial to agriculture and horti- culture, its economic relations, depending directly and mainly upon the nature of its food; indirectly upon the effect, if any, which its presence may have on useful native birds and beneficial insects. The chief object of my communication this evening, is to call attention to that portion of the work of the Union which relates to the consideration of the important question of the destruction of the native birds in North America, and more especially, to join in the crusade against the fashion of wearing birds for decoration. This work is not likely to have been initiated by those scientists whom I have named, had they not been quite certain that there was an urgent need for it. In the bird-world, as elsewhere, the struggle for existence even under natural conditions, is a severe one, undue in_ crease being held well in check. Birds and their eggs and young, are not only the natural prey of many predaceous mammals and reptiles, but also of predaceous birds. Squirrels spermophiles and mice, although not in a strict sense rapacious, are among the worst natural enemies of the ‘smaller birds, whose eggs and young they seek and devour with avidity; while many birds, not usually classed as predatory-as the jays, crows, grackles, cuckoos, and some others, wage unremitting warfare upon the eggs and young of the weaker species. ‘The elements are also far more destructive of bird-life than is commonly recognized. Late cold storms in spring destroy many of the early migrants, sometimes nearly exterminating certain species over con- siderable areas where they had become prematurely settled Protection of North American Birds. 157 for the season. The unusual southward extension of severe cold waves and heavy snow-falls, such as have marked the present winter, are destructive to the bird-life of the regions thus Perepuonally visited. During the migrations, both in the fall and spring, immense numbers of birds are some- times caught by storms, and blown far out to sea and drowned, or perish in attempts to cross the larger inland lakes. There is abundant evidence to show that the annual destruction of birds by the elements alone must prove a severe check upon their increase. But all this is a part of nature’s routine, which has characterized past ages as well as the present, and which, so far as we know, may be only the natural and necessary check upon undue increase. It is only when man comes upon thescene that nature’s ba- lance is seriously disturbed. “Man’s destructive influence is to some extent unavoid- able, but in far greater part selfish and wanton. The removal of forests, the drainage of swamps and marshes, the con- version of wild lands into farms, and the countless changes incident to the settlement of the country, destroy the haunts and the means of subsistence of numerous forms of animal life, and practically result in their extermination over vast areas. The birds, particularly the larger species, suffer in common with vertebrate life in general. Hlectric-light towers, light-houses, and light-ships are also a fruitful and modern source of disaster to birds, particularly during their migrations, when, in thick weather, thousands upon thou- sands kill themselves by dashing against these alluring obstructions. Telegraph-wires contribute also largely to the destruction of bird-life. While the destruction by these agencies is greatly to be regretted, it is not directly charge- able to cupidity and heartlessness, as is the far greater slaughter of birds in obedience to the dictates of fashion. “The history of this country, as is well known, is the record of unparalleled destruction of the larger forms of animal life. Much of this destruction, it is true, was unavoidable, sooner or later. But it is no less true that the extirpation of our larger game animals has been need- lessly hastened by what may be fairly termed a disgraceful 158 Canadian Record of Science. greed for slaughter,—in part by ‘pot hunting’ on a grand scale, in part for the mere desire to kill something,—the so-called ‘love of sport.’ The fate of extermination, which, to the shame of our country, has already practically over- taken the bison, and will sooner or later prove the fate of all of our larger game-mammals and not a few of our game- birds, will, if a halt be not speedily called by enlightened public opinion, overtake scores of our song-birds, and the majority of our graceful and harmless, if somewhat less ‘beneficial,’ sea and shore birds. “The decrease in our song and shore birds is already attracting attention; and the protest against: it, which reaches us from many and widely distant parts of the country, is not only painful evidence of this decrease, but gives hope that the wave of destruction, which of late years has moved on in ever-increasing volume, has at last reached its limit of extension, and that its recession will be rapid and per- manent. but to secure this result, the friends of the birds— the public at large—must be thoroughly aroused as to the magnitude of the evil, and enlightened as to its causes and the means for its retrenchment.” The American Ornithologists’ Union, through its Com- ~ mittee on Protection of Birds, “has caused the publication of a series of papers to throw some light upon the extent, the purposes, and the methods of the present wholesale slaughter of native birds. Birds are killed for food, for sport, for na- tural history specimens, to stuff as objects of curiosity or ornament, and for personal decoration. The birds killed for food are, of course, mainly the commonly so-called game- birds,—pigeons, grouse of various kinds, ducks and geese, and the great horde of smaller waders, known as ‘peeps, snipes, plovers, rails, etc. The slaughter of these has been so improvident, and their decrease of late so marked, that they are now more or less cared for by the numerous game- protective associations, but are still, in the main, very ina- dequately guarded. In addition to the birds commonly recognized as game-birds, many song-birds are hunted for food, notably the reed-bird, or bobolink, the robin, the meadow-lark, the blackbird, and the flicker, and, in some Protection of North American Birds. 159 localities, all the larger song-birds. This is particularly the case in portions of the south, where strings of small birds may be seen suspended in the game-stalls. In March of last year, a well-known ornithologist reports finding in the market at Norfolk, Va., hundreds of wood-peckers and song-birds exposed for sale as food, the list of species including not only robins, meadow-larks, and blackbirds, but many kinds of sparrows and thrushes, and even warblers, vireos, and wax- wings. While some of the stalls had each from three hundred to four hundred small birds, others would have but a dozen or two. ‘ Nearly all the vendors were colored people, and doubtless most of the birds were captured by the same class.’ This ‘daily exhibition in southern markets’ indicates an immense destruction of northern-breeding song-birds which resort to the southern states for a winter home,” and we in Canada must not overlook the fact that many of our birds migrate to these districts, to escape our severe winter, never toreturn, and hence this is a subject for serious consideration by us. The eggs of many species of terns, gulls, plovers, and other marsh and shore breeding species, are systematically taken for use as food, the egg-hunting busines being prose- cuted to such an extent as to prove a serious cause of decrease of the species thus persecuted, while the value as food of the ego's thus destroyed, is too trivial to be for an instant regard- ed as of serious importance. Mr Sennett writes a paper in which he refers to the des- truction of young birds rather than to eggs, and makes a statement which he says, for fiendish enterprise, exceeds anything that has ever come under his notice. In 1877, and also in 1878, while studying the birds about Corpus Christi Bay, Texas, he examined a low grass-flat called Pelican Island, so named on account of the numbers of brown peli- cans that had for years taken it for their breeding-place, to the exclusion of all other species. Here many thousands of these great birds were tending their eggs and young, breed- ing in such numbers that one could step or jump from nest to nest, over nearly, if not quite, every square yard of the island. Four years later he cruised over the same course, 160 Canadian Record of Science. and noticed that the pelicans had deserted this grassy island entirely, and were scattered, in diminished numbers, on other islands which were not occupied by them when he made his former trips. On inquiring into the cause of this change, he learned from prominent citizens, that two or three enterprising (?) men had conceived the idea of making their fortunes from pelican-oil, and had erected ‘trying-out’ shanties on the mainland. They went to the island in ques- tion in large boats, and carried off cargoes of young pelicans in all stages of growth, and boiled them up for their oil. The only satisfaction he could get from the history. of this experiment was, that the men could not sell the oil, and had nothi g but their nefarious labor for their pains. Think of the enormous sacrifice of life for a foolish experiment! This heartless slaughter is hardly equalled in cruelty by the so- called sport of the union troops during the war against secession, who, while idly lying in transports off the passes along the coast, amused themselves by fastening a fish to a plank which was so weighted as to be quite submerged: they would then watch the pelicans dive for the fish, while bets were freely interchanged as to the probability of the bird getting a broken neck, with the odds decidedly in favor of the death of the pelican. Instances without num- ber might be given to show that man, unchecked by law, will ruthlessly destroy the very things most useful to him if preserved and protected. “The same havoc prevails all along the coast lines; and many localities might be cited where the destruction is equally sweeping, as on the Pacific coast and at frequent points on the Atlantic coast from Florida to Labrador,— wherever, in fact, the birds occur in sufficient numbers to render such wholesale plundering practicable. The marsh- breeding rails are at some localities subject to similar pro- secution. At one locality on Long Island, it is reported, a ‘bay-man,’ who keeps a house of entertainment for sports- _men during ‘the season,’ supplies his table for weeks ata time with the eggs of the rails that breed numerously in this vicinity,—in strange conflict, too, with his own in- terests, since, by destroying the eggs of rails, he ‘kills Protection of North American Birds. 161 the goose that lays the golden egg’ for the rail-shooting season. ‘Tn general, the game and quasi-game birds are killed for sport rather than for gain or for their intrinsic value as food ; exception, however, is to be made of the ‘ professional’ or ‘market’ gunners, by whom the ranks of the water-fowl are so fearfully thinned, and who often resort to any wholsesale method of slaughter their ingenuity may be able to devise, But the slaughter of’ birds in general is doubtless largely due to the mere fascination of ‘shooting.’ Many song-birds are killed ‘for sport’ by the ‘small boy’ and the idler, whose highest ambition in life is to possess a gun, and whose ‘game’ may be any wild animal that can run or fly, and wears fur or feathers. Some slight depredation on the small fruits of the garden, or on field-crops, is ample pretext for a war of exter- mination on robins, catbirds and thrashers, jays and che- winks as well as blackbirds and crows, and the birds so un- fortunate as to fall into the category of hawks and owls, notwithstanding the fact that every one of these species is in reality a friend. Yet the slaughter is winked at, if not ac- tually encouraged, by those who are most injured by it; while the ‘general public’ of the districts where such prac- tices prevail are either too ignorant of the real harm done, or too apathetic, to raise any serious protest. “Among the important agencies in bird-destruction is the ‘bad small boy ’—and in the ornithological sense his name is legion—of both town and country. Bird-nest robbing is one of the besetting sins—one of the marks ‘of natural depravity ’—of the average small boy, who fails to appre- ciate the cruelty of systematically robbing every nest within reach, and of stoning those that are otherwise inaccessible. To him the birds themselves, too, are also a fair target for a stone, a sling, a catapult, or a ‘ pea-shooter;’ to the latter many a sparrow, a thrush or warbler falls a victim. Saysa recent writer on the subject of bird-destruction, ‘Two ten- year old lads in that quiet and moral hamlet [ Bridgehamp- ton, Long Island] confessed this autumn, that with pea- shooters they had killed during the season fifty robins and other birds which frequent the gardens, orchards and 162) 1): Canadian Record of Science. cemetery. Such boys exist all over the country, and war on birds as things made to be killed. . . . The pea-shooter gives no sound, and can be carried in the vest-pocket; but so, destructive is it in the hands of a skillful child that the legislatures of some of the western states were obliged to pass laws making the sale of the thing a misdemeanor, and preventing the possession or use of it. “The destruction of birds by taxidermists, and for alleged ‘scientific purposes,’ has justly attracted attention and has unjustly brought into disrepute the legitimate collecting of both eggs and birds for scientific use; but much of this alleged scientific collecting is illegitimate, being really done under false colors, or wrongly attributed to science. Of the birds killed or mounted by taxidermists, some, not unfrequently a large part, are for museums or private cabinets: another large share is put up for parlor or hall ornaments, either as groups or singly. All this by a little license, may be allowed as legitimate, or at least not seriously reprehensible. But, unfortunately, the average taxidermist has too often an unsavory alliance with the milliner, and in addition to his legitimate work, is allured into catering ona large scale to the ‘hat-trade.’ Although a few of them are too-high principled and too much the naturalist at heart, to thus prostitute their calling, taxidermists as a class are at present in deserved disrepute, and are to a large degree responsible for much of the public and mistaken criticism of scientific collecting. This critictsm is perhaps more especially directed against the ‘ egg-collector,’ who ranges in calibre and purpose from the schoolboy, who gathers eggs as he.gathers postage stamps or ‘ show-cards,—for the mere purpose of ‘ making a collection’,—to the intelligent oologist or ornithologist, who gathers his eggs in sets, prepares them with great care, with the strictest regard to correct identifi- cation, and in series sufficient to show the range of variation —often considerable—in eggs of the same species, and takes a few additional sets for exchange. He may have in the ageregate a large collection, numbering hundreds of species, and thousands of specimens: but, in general, the same species is not laid under serious requisition, and the sets are gathered Protection of North American Birds. 163 at considerable intervals of time and from a large area of country. A squad of street urchins set loose in the suburbs will often destroy as many nests in a single morning’s foray asa collector, gathering for strictly scientific purposes, would take in a whole season, and with far more harmful results, because local and sweeping. Much of the egg-collecting by schoolboys should be stopped, and can be easily checked under proper statutory regulations.” Having called your attention to various agencies and objects affecting the decrease of birds, we now come to con- sider the most important— many-times exceeding all the others together—the most heartless and least defensible, namely, the sacrifice of birds to fashion, for hat and bonnet ornamentation and personal decoration. Startling as this assertion may seem, its demonstration is easy. “Tn the United States of 50,000,000 inhabitants, half, or 25,000,000, may be said to belong to what some one has forcibly termed the ‘dead-bird wearing gender,’ of whom at least 10,000,000 are not only of the bird-wearing age, but— judging from what we see on our streets, in public assemb- lies and public conveyances—also of bird-wearing proclivi- ties. Different individuals of this class vary greatly in their ideas of style and quantity in the way of what constitutes a proper decoration for that part of the person the Indian de- lights to ornament with plumes of various kinds of wild fowl. Some are content with a single bird, if a large one, mounted nearly entire: others prefer several small ones,—a group of three or four to half a dozen; or the heads and wings of even a greater number. Others, still, will content them- selves with a few wings fancifully dyed and bespangled, or a wreath of grebe ‘ fur,’ usually dyed, and not unfrequently set off with egret-plumes. In the average, however, there must be an incongruous assemblage made up of parts of vari- ous birds, or several entire birds, representing at least a number of individuals. But let us say that these 10,000,000 bird-wearers have but a single bird each, that these birds may be ‘made over’ so as to do service for more than a single season; and still what an annual sacrifice of bird-life is entailed! Canit be placed at less than 5,000,000 ?—ten 164 Canadian Record of Science. times more than the number of specimens extant in all our scientific collections, private and public together, and pro- bably a thousand times greater than the annual destruction of birds (including also eggs) for scientific purposes. “Fortunately, perhaps, the supply of bird-skins for deco- rative purposes is not all drawn from a single country, the whole world being laid under tribute. The ornithologist recognizes in the heterogeneous groups of birds on women’s hats, met with on every hand, a great preponderance of North American species; but with them are many of the common birds of Europe, and a far greater variety from South America, and many from Africa, Australia, New Guinea, and India. But, on the other hand, it is well known that our own birds are exported in immense num- bers to Europe; but, whether the exportation exceeds the importation, it is impossible to determine, from lack of proper statistics. ‘With the foregoing facts before us in regard to the annual destruction of birds, it is no longer surprising that many species, and even genera, of birds, are fast disappearing from our midst. Considering that this slaughter has been waged for years, but with rapid increase year by year, is it not rather a wonder that so many birds are still left ? “The destruction of 40,000 terns in a single season on Cape Cod for exportation, a million rails and reed-birds (bobo- links) killed in a single month near Philadelphia, are facts that may well furnish food for reflection. The swamps and marshes of Florida are well known to have recently become depopulated of their egrets and herons, while the State at large has been for years a favorite slaughter-ground of the ' milliner’s emissaries. The present winter parties organized and equipped in this interest are said to be prosecuting the same wholesale warfare against the birds at various points along the whole gulf-coast. “But why, some may be supposed to ask, should the slaugh- ter be interfered with? Does it not yield profit to many an impecunious idler, who receives so much per head from the ‘taxidermist’ for the freshly killed birds? Do not their preparation and manufacture into the gaudy or otherwise Protection of North American Birds. 165 untasteful hat-gear give employment to many a needy hand, and add materially to the milliner’s gains? Why is not their use for personal decoration, @ la sauvage, as legitimate and defensible as their use for food, with the added advan- tage of being able to utilize decoratively a great many species otherwise of no commercial value? Why should we be anxious to preserve our birds? Are they, when alive, of any practical value, or do they contribute in any way to our pleasure or well-being ? “Tn regard to the first of these inquiries, the men and boys really get little more in the average for the raw material than enough to pay them for their powder and shot: it is -the ‘sport’ that affords them their real reward. The middle- men,—the skinners and manufacturers,—and an occasional professional gunner, make most of the profit, which must be more or less considerable to induce them to run the gaunt- let of public opinion and the occasional risks of prosecution in their illegal enterprise. The milliner shares, of course, in the profits of the trade in such supplies; but, if birds were not used to such an extent, other and more fitting decorations would be adopted in their place, and their busi- ness would not suffer. : “ Respecting the latter inquiries, birds may be said to have a practical value of high importance and an esthetic value not easily overestimated. Birds in general are the friends of man, and it is doubtful whether a single species can be named which is not more beneficial than harmful. The great mass of our smaller birds, numbering hundreds of species, are the natural checks upon the undue multiplica- tion of insect-pests. Many of them rarely make use of other than insect-food, while all, as shown by scientific investiga- tions already made, depend largely or wholly, during con- - siderable periods of the year, upon an insect-diet. Hven the ill-reputed hawks and owls prey upon field-mice, grasshop- pers, and other noxious insects or vermin, some never mo- lesting the farmer’s poultry, and others only exceptionally. In the present general summary of the subject, it may be sufficient to say, that, while the beneficial qualities of birds vary widely with the species, none can be set down as 166 Canadian Record of Science. proven to be unmitigatedly injurious. With the decrease of birds at any point is noted an increase of insects, especi- ally of kinds injurious to agriculture. The relation of birds to agriculture has been studied as yet but imperfectly ; but results could be cited which would go far to substantiate the above statement of their general utility. The investigation of the subject has now been systematically entered upon by the department of agriculture at Washington, under the supervision of experts especially fitted for the work. “Birds, considered eesthetically, are among the most grace- ful in movement and form, and the most beautiful and attrac- tive in coloration, of nature’s many gifts to man. Add to this their vivacity, their melodious voices and unceasing activity,—charms shared in only small degree by any other forms of life,—and can we well say that we are prepared to ~ see them exterminated in behalf of fashion, or to gratify a depraved taste? Says arecent writer, ‘A garden without flowers, childhood without laughter, an orchard without blossoms, a sky without color, roses without perfume, are the analogues of a country without song-birds. And the United States are going straight and swift into that desert condition.’ “Indeed, as previously noted, there is already an encour- aging recognition of that fact. Here and there bird-pro- tective associations are being formed, and more care is taken to secure proper bird-protective legislation ; but the public at large is still too apathetic, or too ignorant of the real state of the case, to insist upon, and support by proper public sentiment, the enforcement of legislative acts already on our statute-books. The American ornithologists’ union has moved in the matter by the appointment of a large and active committee on bird-protection, which is at present bending its energies toward the diffusion of information among the people, in the hope of awakening a healthy sen- timent on the subject, and is also working to secure not only more effective and intelligent legislation, but the proper enforcement of the laws enacted in behalf of birds. This, too, notwithstanding a recent writer in a popular magazine characterized ornithologists as being among the worst ene- Protection of North American Birds. 167 mies birds have, and to whose egg-collecting and bird-stuf- fing propensities was principally attributed the woful decrease of our song-birds! “Tn England the same rage for hat decoration with dead birds has gone so far that anti-plumage-wearing societies have already been established by the more intelligent women of that country; and it has already been suggested, apparently independently of any similar action abroad, by ladies themselves, that the women of this country throw their influence in a similar way against the barbarous cus- tom of using birds for personal decorations. Much could doubtless be done in behalf of the birds in this way; for, once let it come to be considered vulgar and in ‘bad form’ to thus decorate one’s person, and the power of fashion would be a mighty weapon in defence of the birds. “Of all the means that may be devised for checking the present wholesale bird-slaughter, the awakening of a proper public sentiment cannot fail of being the most powerful. Without this, all other means would prove, to a great de- gree, ineffectual. Laws, however good, cannot be enforced unless backed by public opinion. To arouse this, it seems only necessary to enlighten the community respecting the nature, the enormity, and the leading cause of this great evil.” It is with this object that the Union appeals to us as work- ers in Natural History—and asks for sympathy, encourage- ment and support; and to aid them to.prevent the birds being exterminated by thoughtlessness, they ask us to en- dorse their work and to help them in drawing public atten- tion to it, and thus to create a public sentiment in favor of the movement. Already in the larger cities of the United States, in New York, Boston, Philadelphia and Buffalo, and indeed all over the States, the movement is gaining rapidly, and people of all classes are becoming interested in it, and assisting to advance it. Already the Natural History Society of Toronto have taken up the subject energetically and at their last meeting, it was moved by Mr. J. H. Pearce, and seconded by Dr. Brodie, the President, and carried :— 168 Canadian Record of Science. “That the President be authorized to issue a circular to the ministers of the various congregations of the city espe- cially, and as far as possible of the Province, and ask them to bring to the notice of the ladies of their respective con- gregations, the subject of the slaughter of birds for millinery purposes, of which five to ten millions are ruthlessly and unnecessarily slaughtered every year to decorate their head-gear.”’ It would be an easy matter to cite instances of the extent of this bird decoration; as you walk in the streets you have only to look at the head-dress of the ladies and count the birds as you go along. Look in the milliner’s windows, and you will be astonished, as I have been. A gentleman walk- ing on Yonge street Toronto, last week, between Trinity Square and Wellesley street, counted no less than 38 whole birds on hats, not to mention all the wings &c. used as em- bellishments. ‘The assemblage of diverse and incongruous forms sometimes met with on the same hat is often striking in the extreme; birds from the opposite ends of the earth, and of the ornithological scale of classification, being brought into most inharmonious combination, viewed even from the artistic stand-point. Bearing on this subject, and illustra- ting the range of taste in such matters, as well as the extent to which birds are used for hat embellishment, may be given the following inventory, furnished by an ornithnological friend, of what recently met his eye in a Madison Avenue horse-car in New York. The car contained thirteen women, of whom eleven wore birds, as follows: (1) heads and wing of three European starlings ; (2) an entire bird (species un- known), of foreign origin: (8) seven warblers, representing . four species; (4) a large tern; (5) the heads and wings of three shore-larks; (6) the wings of seven shore-larks, and grass-finches ; (7) one-half of a gallinule; (8) asmall tern ; (9) a turtle-dove; (10) a vireo and a yellow-breasted chat; (11) ostrich-plumes. That this exhibition was by no means exceptional as to number or variety is obvious to any one who has given close attention to the ornithological displays one daily meets with in street-cars and elsewhere, wherever he may travel. Advertisements in newspapers, by milli- Protection of North American Birds. 169 ners, of the stock in hand, also give some suggestions of the extent of the traffic in wings and bird-skins; it being not uncommon to see thousands of wings(plain or fancy, in na- tural colors or dyed), as well as thousands of bird-skins (mounted or made up) and thousands of plumes (dyed or plain), advertised by asingle dealer, while the dealers them- selves number hundreds, if not thousands, in each of our larger cities. Add to these the smaller shops, in country and city, throughout the land, and we get at least some com- prehension of the extent of the traffic in birds by the mil- liners, and the support they receive from the ladies of our population. “Take up any daily or fashion paper, and one can see such items as the following, clipped from a New York newspa- per of recent date: ‘ [Miss | looked extremely well in white, with a whole nest of sparkling, scintillating birds in her hair, which it would have puzzled an ornithologist to classify,’ and ‘[Mrs. | had her gown of unre- lieved black, looped up with blackbirds; anda winged crea- ture, so dusky that it could have been intended for nothing but a crow, reposed among the curls and braids of her hair.’ It is said, ‘Where ignorance is bliss, ’tis folly to be wise.’ Perhaps, if the lady in question could have seen the crow during its lifetime perched upon and feeding on the decay- ing carcass of a horse, she might have objected to the asso- ciation. “ Respecting the traffic abroad, there were sold in one auc- tion-store in London, during the four months ending April, 1885, 404,464 West Indian and Brazilian bird-skins, and 356,389 Hast Indian, besides thousands of Impeyan pheas- ants and birds-of-paradise. On the other hand, London Truth publishes an item showing the humanity of England’s Queen: ‘I am glad to hear that the Queen contemplates issuing a ukase censuring the barbarous fashion which so many women have lately adopted, of wearing the bodies of birds, or parts of their bodies, in bonnets and hats and on dresses. Her Majesty strongly disapproves of this practice, which of late has greatly increased, which is daily increas- ing, and which most assuredly ought to be abolished.’ As 12 170 Canadian Record of Science. long as the ladies continue to demand bird-skins for orna- mental purposes, so long will the gunners and taxidermists undertake to supply the market, therefore the initiative in the movement for the protection of birds must be with the ‘wives, sweethearts, and mothers,’ and not alone with the laws and lawmakers.” Time will not permit of my bringing before you for con- sideration more fully the questions of the destruction of the eggs of birds for food; the relation of birds to agriculture, (a most important consideration to Canadians) or the sub- ject of bird laws, or laws for the protection of birds, or to make a more earnest appeal to the ladies in behalf of the birds, but before concluding I should like to call your atten- tion to a society which has been formed in order to give an opportunity for definite and systematic effort by all those who believe that our birds ought to be protected. Itis called “The Audubon Society” and is for the protection of Ameri- can birds not used for food. To accomplish this purpose it will— 1. Secure and publish information to show the extent of the present enormous destruction of birds for millinery, decorative and other purposes. 2, Expose the outrageous and indefensible cruelty of such wanton taking of feathered life. 3. Point out the injury to the agricultural interests of the land which must certainly follow the decimation of the insectivores. 4, By thus presenting the subject in its ethical, humane and economic aspects enlist the sympathy and active personal co-operation of a large member- ship in the effort to check the evil. : Three forms of pledges have been adopted, viz. :— 1. To discourage the killing of any bird not used for food. 2. To discourage the robbing of any bird’s nest or the destruction” of its eggs. 3. To refrain from the use of any wild birds’ plumage as an article of dress or ornament. Certificates of membership are issued to those who sub- scribe to one or two or all of the pledges. There are no membership fees of any kind, the society being supported entirely by voluntary contributions. In conclusion, I would re-echo the appeal of the American Ornithologists’ Union, and say that so long as demand con- tinues, supply will come. Law of itself can be of little, perhaps of no ultimate avail. It may give check, but this Protection of North American Birds. aiyal tide of destruction it is powerless to stay. The demand will be met; the offenders will find it worth while to dare the law. One thing only will stop this cruelty—the disapproba- tion of fashion. ‘ It is our women who hold this power. Let them say the word, and hundreds of thousands of birds’ lives every year will be preserved, and, until they do use their influence, it is vain to hope that this nameless sacrifice will cease before it has worked out its own end, and the birds are gone. Those who wear them and give countenance to the fashion, doubtless do it thoughtlessly and without one moment’s reflection as to the results. It is earnestly hoped that the ladies of Montreal may be led to see this matter in its true light, and to take some pronounced stand in behalf of the birds, and against the fashion of wearing them. On MontTREAL DRINKING WATER. By ARTHUR Were, B.A.Sc. During the session of 1885-86, while a student at McGill University, I made a series of determinations of hardness, chlorine, solids and free albuminoid ammonia in the drinking water furnished to this city, with the view of ascertaining how and to what extent these fluctuated from month to month. The determinations were made from November 1885 to March 1886, inclusive, and comprised in all fifty-one determinations of hardness, forty-eight of chlorine, forty-six of solids, ten of free ammonia and eleven of albuminoid ammonia. The following were the results obtained :— CHLORINE. : The average quantity of chlorine during the period in question was 0.26 grains per gallon, the maximum being 0.40 on November 4th and 5th, and the minimum being 0.175 on the 23rd of the same month. Calculated as sodium chloride, this gives, NIGSabimbbinh. WAcodoe6e BoBGon Sodees 25c48 0.659 grain. Mean for the period .......--.... ..... 0.428: ~ 2) “ MET TUTTINULTV Vs Sn cite overeleink co pee cles elotete es 0.288 172 ; Canadian Record of Science. RESIDUE. Both suspended and dissolved matter are included under this heading; for the water was not filtered or allowed to settle previous to evaporation. Yet, notwithstanding this, the results show the water to have been fairly free from solid impurities. The average residue, calculated from the daily determinations, was 6.55 grains per gallon, the maximum being 9.3 on March 11th and the minimum | 4.06 on January 11th. Wanklyn gives 40 grains of solids per gallon as the extreme quantity permissible for a drink- ing water,’ and ours is evidently well within this limit. It is not necessary to dwell upon the effect on the pro- portion of solid matter in running water of the country through which it runs and the gases it holds in solution. The river Loka, in the north of Sweden, flows over granite and other hard rocks, and contains but 0.0566 grains of solid matter per gallon.” The other extreme is seen in brine wells or other mineral springs. The water furnished to Montreal is partly St. Lawrence, partly Ottawa water and partakes of the nature of both. ‘The Ottawa drains a region of crystalline rocks, and receives from these by far the greater part of its waters.” ‘The St. Lawrence * * % flows through lakes whose basins are composed of paleozoic strata which abound in limestone rich in gypsum and salt.” * The influence of the rock upon the water brought into contact with it is well shown in the case of the spring at the back of McGill College, which, deriving its water from the reservoir, has a hardness of 12.5, or about double that of the water before its percolation through the walls of - limestone. HARDNESS. The hardness of a water depends, as is well known, upon the proportion of calcium and magnesium salts it contains, 'The Jordan, however, is used for drinking, although it contains 73 grains of solids per gallon.—Chem. Com. Life. ? Johnston, Chem. Common Life. * Hunt, Geol. Survey Report 1853, Montreal Drinking Water. 173 carbonates giving temporary and sulphates permanent hardness. Where the hardness of a water is considerable, it is often important to distinguish between that which is” permanent and that which is only temporary ; but where the hardness is low, as in Montreal water, such a distinc- tion is, from an economical or hygienic point of view un- necessary. Like the chlorine and solids and usually with them, the hardness fluctuated, but, as necessitated by the small pro- portion of solids, it was never large. The average for the period covered by my determinations was 4.63, a low result and one showing our water to compare favorably with that of other towns. The maximum was 6.7 on Feb 11th and the minimum 3.2 on January 12th. NITROGEN. The average quantity of nitrogen, estimated as ammonia, during January, February and March 1886 was 0.0031° parts free and 0.0194 parts albuminoid ammonia per million, the maximum and minimum for free ammonia being res- pectively 0.004 on several occasions and 0.0009 on March 4th, and the corresponding figures for albuminoid ammonia 0.03 on January 18th and 0.01 on February 25th. FLUCTUATIONS. The analyses showed from day to day and week to week, as was to be expected, certain variations in hardness, chlorine, residue &c., dependent chiefly upon the dilution of the water by rain and snow and the relative heights of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence. These fluctuations were noteworthy in that the maximum Was in every case more than double the minimum. Maximum. Minimum. __ Ratios. Chlorine.... 0.40 0.175 2,28 tol Hardness... 6.70 3.20 2.09 tol Residue.... 9.30 4.06 2.29 tol 1Or 0.0035 if the doubtfully high result for Feb. 18th (0.0074) be considered in striking the average. 174 Canadian Record of Science. FLUCTUATIONS IN HARDNESS. The average hardness for November was 4.70 degrees Wanklyn, a little higher (5.12) in December, but lowest in January, the average for that month being only 3.77 degrees. In February the hardness was about the same as in November, namely 4.72, while in March the maximum was attained, the average for that month being 6.07 degrees. FLUCTUATIONS IN CHLORINE AND SOLIDS. As regards chlorine, the average was 0.264 grains to the gallon in November, but instead of rising in December like the Hardness, it fell to 0.243, became 0.235 in January and rose in February and March to 0.28 and 0.325 respec- tively. The solid residue varied in a similar manner, sinking from an average of 6.83 grains per gallon in November through 6.70 in December to 5.23 in January, and then rising as regularly through 7.12 in February to 8.82 in March. Thus we see that the average results for the opening and closing months of the period were high, while those for January, the central month, were the lowest. SUMMARY. To sum up the results, the following was the average proportion of foreign matters in Montreal water during the time covered by the analyses :— Hardness....-- Mean of 51 Determinations 4.63° Wanklyn Chlorine. ...... se AS es 0.26 grs. per. gal. Salbikscdoog sac eT GAG. a 6.55 part per gal. HreeyeAmImoniaiinc tino as 0.0031 parts per mill. Albuminoid Ammonia... “ “ II zt 0.0194 « SS is These results are calculated from the actual analyses and differ somewhat from those given by computation from the monthly averages, for the reason that the same number of analyses was not made each month. ‘The average obtained in the latter way is, perhaps, the more accurate, as it tends Montreal Drinking Water. 175 to neutralize the accidental advantage of the earlier over By this method alone can the four weekly determinations of March be made equal to the fifteen daily ones of November, as they should. The grand average corrected in accordance with this idea is given in the Table of Monthly Averages, which, with a Table of Daily Results, is hereto appended. the later months. TasLE or Montuity AVHRAGES. Monrus. ee gore, 7 Total Solids. Aung: Anon | Wanklyn. | rs. per gal Grs. per gal-| Per million. | Per million. November | 4.70 0.264 6.83 Not det. | Not det. December. 5.12 0.248 6.70 4 i January .. Boll, 0.2385 5.23 0.0028 0.0250 February.) 4.72 | 0.277 male 0.0040 | 0.0172 Marchese O00). hu Os o25 8.82 0.00288 | 0.0155 eras 4.876 | 0.269 | 6.94 0.00322 | 0.0192 TABLE OF ANALYSES OF MONTREAL WATER MADE BETWEEN NOV. Ist, 1885, AND APRIL Ist, 1886. Free HN. | Alb. H3N. Per mullion:/Per mill’n. N ot deter | mined. | | Hardness. Chlorine. | Residue. Day. Dare Wanklyn. |Grs. per gal. Grs. per gal. | | [eee Re ee Teal FATT Monday ...| Nov. 2 4.66 = | = Miresdayesai| eS 5.5 40 = Wedn’sday.| “ 4 4.8 1255 Fal Thursday 's:|) 9 “oo 4.8 40 Ted | Monday ...| Nov. 9| 4.8 25 7.1 Tuesday .. Os “AIG) TD nO Ta Wedn’ sday.| [papas sD 4.63 | 25 Tl Monday .. | Nov. 16 4.7 2D 6.5 Tuesday - isan ivia| 4.8 .20 6.6 Wedn’ | Sere IB 4.55 .30 6.1 Thursday.:| ‘ 19 | 4.5 30 mile Monday ...| Nov. 28 | 4.5 alls) 6.9 Wedn’sday.| “. 25 4.5 20 6.9 Thursday..| “ 26 4.5 BOS 6.3 Monday ..., Nev. 30 4.5 220) 6.4 Tuesday -..| Dec. 1 4.5 .20 6.3 Wedn’sday.| “S 2 4.5 -20 6.4 Monday . .| Dec. 7 5.8 20 6.4 Tuesday...) 8 5.7 | sys) 7.0 Wedn’sday.|| “ 9 6.1 20 6.9 Thursday...) ‘* 10 AG wet Bs 6.9 176 Canadian Record of Science. TABLE OF ANALYSES OF MONTREAL WATER.—(Continued.) lHiaxdness: Chlorine. Residue. Free H3N. |Alb. H;N. Day. Darr. | Wanklyn. Grs. per gal. Grs.per gal. Per million.) Permill’n. | Monday .... Dec. 14 5.0 Not det. | 6.9 Not deter mined. ridayieeccleae els 4.8 25 Not det. * a Tuesday | Dec. 22 5.1 .20 Not det. | eS | io Tuesday ...| Jan. 5’86 BiOnee 25 5.9 a |Frectes Wedn’sday.| ‘“‘ 6 4.7 225 Falk ce | We Thursday..| ‘“ 7 4.7 -25 B57 ah | = Monday ...| Jan. 11 3.5 Not det. 4.06 | Notdet. | .028 uesdayiere)|| pe t2 3.2 .20 4.76 5 | Not det. Wedn’sday. ‘* 13 3.4 2D 6.3 re ft ene Thursday.-| “ 14 3.4 -20 6.3 | .00266 .022 Monday ... Jan. 18 3.6 25 5.3 00372 .030 Tuesday .. CCIE TO) 3.5 tD5 4.4 Not deter | mined. Wedn’sday.| “ 20} 3.6 .20 4.5 -00200 -020 hursdayies! yer 2d 3.6 25 4.9 | Not deter | mined. Monday ...| Jan. 20 3.5 -20 Set it we Wedn’sday.| ‘* 27 | 3.5 5 4.7 f ‘ Thursday..| “ 28 | 3.6 25 Sah ss eH Monday .- | Feb. 1' 3.6 20 if (Sequaecn és Wedn’sday.| ‘' 3] 3.9 30 6.7 es & Thursday ..| *‘ 4} 3.9 25 6.7 | .00400 020 Monday ...| Feb. 8 | 4.5 25 Med Not deter | mined. Wedn’sday.| ‘* 10} 5.0 a3 7.9 | a e urs ayant a eel 6.7 85 7.8 tf f Monday ...) Feb. 15 5.0 O03} tel | s se Mhursday, 2:|\9% 4 18; )5s0 807) orr2) 18 0074e al aeo2le Thursday..|Feb. 5| 49 | 2 | 7.9 | 00400 | 010 Thursday..| Mar. 4 5.5 | .30 7.8 | 00092 .016 Thursday..|Mar.11| 6.0 | .8 | . 9.3 | .00400 | .020 Thursday ... Mar. 18 6.4 BY 1 9.0 .00260 .012 Thursday... Mar. 25 Grd eah R35 | 9.2 | 00400 | -014 Norr.—On May 5th and 15th two determinations were made with the follow- ing results :— FPhursday .. —_—_——___. Thursday .. | | May a 3.0 | 0.25 6.90 | 00-0035 | 0.015 | 5.90 camelo 0.0040 0.018 Polyembryony. aly! POLYEMBRYONY. By D. P. Payaatiow, B.So. According to Strasburger,’ polyembryony, as it occurs in Funkia, Allium, Nothoscordum, oranges, &c., arises from adven- titious outgrowths, which, originating in the nucleus exter- nal to the embryo-sac, ultimately penetrate the latter and then form true embryos, although independently of fecunda- tion. They therefore represent, according to Gray, instances of true parthenogenesis. More recently, Guignard? has shown that polyembryony is not uncommon in the Mimosee ; while B. Jénossn’ points out a similar case in Trifolium pratense, which he ascribes to the development of several ovum cells in the same embryo-sac. Although the common occurrence of polyembryony in oranges is well known, a very interesting instance of its frequency in certain varieties was recently brought to notice. Among several hundred seeds planted, it was observed that in the Florida oranges of the more common sorts, and the ordinary Spanish oranges, polyembryony was comparatively of little frequency, but in the Tangierine, its occurrence was most marked. In transplanting some young trees on the 26th of April, then about three weeks old, opportunity was taken to note the number of plants to each seed. Of all those examined, only six were found to have produced asingle plant, while all the others had produced from three to four plants each. The following is a summary of the results obtained :— Wiholesnuimiberofi Seeds! sesecs ce niicicicieisecieceineen aos Seeds producing one plant .........ee.seeseee - 6 = 15.8 p.c. ¢ é (AKO) {UENUoooponScoooconcooaso | It) = bi)) 14 a ss (doiasts YP Geno bcoocccccoboonce., OS ZR & ss four ee 00220 000088 00000000 08 4 = 10.5 $ ' Am. Jour. of Science, 1879. xvii, 334. * Bull. Soc. Bot., 1881. xxviii. 177. > Bot. Notiser, 1883. 135. 178 Canadian Record of Science. PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATURAL History Soctrery. The Fifth Monthly Meeting of the session took place on Monday evening, March 29th, 1886. Sir William Dawson, the President, occupied the chair. The minutes of the previous meeting and also those of the last council meeting were read and approved. Donations to the Library were announced: from Dr. Wolfred Nelson, of Panama, of a book containing over a hundred photographs taken by him in Guatemala; from Thomas Macfarlane, Esq., of Ottawa, of a bound copy of his papers “On the primitive formations in Norway and Ca- nada” and other subjects; and from H. T. Chambers, Hsq., of a copy of “ Lettres sur Les Roches du Jura,” by Jules Marcou. For these donations votes of thanks were passed. The President called attention to the rather unfavorable tenor of the Hon. J. G. Robertson’s letter in response to the petition for a renewal of the Government grant. The first paper of the evening was then read by A. T. Drummond, Ksq., on “ Our North-west Prairies, their Origin and their Forests,” which elicited remarks from Sir William Dawson, Charles Gibb, Alex. McGibbon and others. Professor Penhallow followed with Dr. Robert Bell’s article on the Forests of Canada, when further criticism of both papers took place. The thanks of the Society were tendered to both authors for their valuable communications. The Sixth Monthly Meeting was held on Monday evening, ee 3rd, 1886, Dr. Harrington occupying the - chair. The minutes the meetings of 29th March and 26th April were read and pone med The minutes of council Regarding the grant, Mr. J. A. U. pevite reported the receipt of a private communication from the Premier of the Province, intimating that the petition of the Society would have his personal attention and hoping to secure at least a portion of the sum asked for. Proceedings of Natural History Society. 179 Alfred Henry Mason, Esq., was elected a delegate to re- present the Society at the annual meeting of the “ Royal Society of Canada” at Ottawa on May 25th, 1886. John 8. Shearer and Wm. T. Costigan were re-elected auditors. It was resolved that the annual Field Day excursion should take place to Belceil Mountain, St. Hilaire, on the 5th or 12th of June, whichever day was considered the more suitable by the excursion committee. A valuable donation of pottery from Dr. Wolfred Nelson, of Panama, was exhibited on the table, and on motion it was resolved that a hearty vote of thanks be conveyed to Dr. Nelson and that the corresponding Secretary should request him to favor the Society with a copy of his field notes on the collection. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt presented a copy of each of his works entitled ‘‘Chemical and Geological Essays” and ‘“ Azoic Rocks of South Eastern Pennsylvania,” the receipt of which were highly appreciated. Mr. Charles Robb also presented a geological chart and several pamphlets to complete missing parts of serials belong- ing to the Society, for which a vote of thanks was passed. Mr. Alfred Henry Mason then read a paper on the “Protection of North American Birds,” at the close of which a vote of thanks was given to him. The following resolution, prepared by Mr. Mason, was then unanimously adopted: “That the members of the Natural History Society of Montreal endorse the work of the ‘American Ornithologists Union’ for the protection of North American birds, and sympathize with their endeavy- ours to prevent the destruction of birds for millinery and decorative purposes, and will use their best efforts to call public attention to the evil, and to bring about its sup- pression.” The chairman then read Mr. C. N. Bell’s paper on the “Aboriginal Trade of the Canadian North-west” and a short communication from Prof. Penhallow on “ Polyembry- ony.” 180 Canadian Record of Science. The Annual Meeting of the Society took place on Monday evening, May 31st, 1886, the President, Sir J. William Daw- son, in the chair. The minutes of the last annual meeting and of the previ- ous monthly meeting were read and approved. The min- utes of the last council meeting were also read. Rev. John Nichols was proposed as an ordinary member and Bertie Nichols as a junior member. Dr. J. A. Beaudry was elected a member of the Society. The President’s annual address was next delivered. ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT, SIR J. WILLIAM DAWSON, C.M.G., F.R.S. We close, this evening, what may be regarded as a suc- cessful session of the Natural History Society of Montreal, which has now been pursuing its useful work for fifty-four years. In the past session our museum has been cared for and augmented. Our library has been arranged and cata-: logued. Our monthly meetings have been well sustained, with larger attendance than in some previous years, and with valuable and instructive papers. The Recorp oF ScrENCE has been regularly issued and circulated, and, as usual, has been truly a record of scientific progress and dis- covery. The Society has contributed to popular education by its course of free lectures, and financially we are in a solvent condition. Most of these matters will be brought under your notice in detail in the various reports to be pre- sented this evening. The only one which it falls to me to discuss in this address is the scientific work of the Society. Before entering on this, however, I would pause to make two suggestions. One is to wealthy citizens disposed to aid in the diffusion of popular science. The Sommerville endow- ment has hitherto been the only one in Montreal intended to promote absolutely free popular scientific lectures. In this it has borne good fruit, since we have had on this en- dowment every year, for nearly half a century, a course of lectures of a high scientific character, many of them equal to those of any scientific course in the world, to which all of our citizens have had free access. It is not easy to esti- Proceedings of Natural History Society. 181 mate the amount of good which has thus been done. At the same time it is certain that an endowment of equai or greater amount added now would increase the number of lectures, improve the means of illustration and enable the Society to secure the services of eminent lecturers from ‘abroad. There is here a good field for the exercise of en- lightened liberality. My second suggestion has reference to our journal, the Recorp oF Science. This is conducted under some difficulties. Even in older and richer countries such journals are rarely paying enterprises. Here they must necessarily be conducted at some loss, even though the work of writing and editing is done gratuitously; and but for the aid which we have received from the Provincial Government, in consideiation of our circulating copies abroad, the publication must have been abandoned. I trust that some measure of public assistance will be continued to this useful work, and I would put it to the members of the Society and to all our citizens that they should at least be subscribers to this oldest and most important Record of Canadian Science. I have reason to know that this perio- dical has been the chief book of reference to naturalists abroad in relation to the natural history and geology of Canada. Its nineteen volumes are a mine of information on these subjects, and it is by no means inferior now to what it was in former times. But it is not sufficiently large to accommodate all the matter which deserves publication. Tt cannot afford sufficient illustrations, and its expense has to be curtailed in several undesirable ways. A larger sub- scription list would greatly tend to remedy these evils. Turning now to the scientific work of the Society, I find that of thirteen papers contributed last session, five were on geological subjects, three ethnological, one chemical and the remainder biological. Of our geological papers, three related to the more recent periods. Two of them directed our attention to the glacial phenomena and fossils of the Pleistocene beds of the Lower St. Lawrence and of Anticosti. We have, in the terraces and varied beaches of these districts, the evidences of a deep submergence, an extensive drift of boulders over the coun- 182 Canadian Record of Science. try at a time so recent that the existing shells, fishes and cetaceans were already living in our waters, and under a climate so severe that our hills were mantled with snow and ice. Such facts present to usa truly wonderful record of geological and climatic change. The communication of Col. Grant on Anticosti was of especial interest, both on account of the position of that island and of the comparative want of information respecting it. As might be expected, the appearances were altogether those of marine glacial deposits. Along with these papers I would place that of Mr. Drummond on the origin of prairies, at a time when the glacial subsidence and cold had passed away, and when swamps and forests were taking the place of ice-laden seas, and were themselves passing into the dry prairie condition of the present time. Under the same geological head we may also place Dr. Harrington’s paper on new discoveries respecting Canadian minerals, which directed our attention to the fact that there are new chemical and crystallographic points to be ascertained by careful and accurate observation even with reference to well known mineral species, and which lead to interesting comparisons with the minerals of other countries. Curiously enough, two of our ethnological papers were not on Canadian ethnology, but on the origin and physical. characters of the Ainos of Japan, whom Prof. Penhallow had an opportunity to study during his residence in that remarkable country. The Ainos are a primitive race; allied apparently more nearly to the older European peoples than to the Turanians of eastern Asia, and suggesting that in Japan the order of succession of races seems to have been the reverse of that in Europe and western Asia, a fact which, if conclusively established, would have important bearings on our views of ethnology. We had also, however, . a communication from a correspondent in the West, Mr. C. N. Bell, on the mounds of our North-western territory, which seem to show that these industrious races of primi- tive Indians who cultivated the valleys of the Mississippi and Ohio, and worked the copper mines of Lake Superior, were early colonists of the plains of the North-west. These Proceedings of Natural History Society. 183 mounds will furnish worthy objects of exploration to the archeologists of the western Provinces of Canada, whose special property they are, and on whom devolves the duty of their scientific study. We are indebted to Dr. Edwards for a very full account of the various and insidious ways in which arsenic is intro- duced in injurious quantity into the human system, and to Prof. Penhallow for two important papers on new points of vegetable physiology. Dr. R. Bell gave us the results com- piled from various sources as to the distribution of Canadian forest trees, so important to this country, in many prac- tical ways, as well as the chief ornament of our hills and valleys. Mr. A. W. MacKay, of Pictou, Nova Scotia, has recently studied with much success the fresh-water sponges of that Province and other parts of Canada, some of which were described in our journal several years ago by Dr. Bower- bank and by Dr. G. M. Dawson, and Mr. MacKay has very properly favoured us with the very valuable and large addi- tions which he has made to previous knowledge. — The subject of the destruction of small birds for purposes of ornament is one that has recently attracted much atten- tion in the United States. Naturalists there seem indeed to be alarmed lest our feathered songsters should be altogether sacrificed to the exigencies of ladies’ bonnets. The quantity of birds destroyed for such purposes seems to be enormous, though perhaps the fears which have been entertained may be somewhat exaggerated. The powers of multiplication of these creatures are great, but there can be little doubt that in some localities their numbers have been seriously thinned, and while we lose the pleasure derived from their beauty and their songs, we lose also the advantage of their services in the destruction of injurious insects. Our laws in the Province of Quebec provide for the protection of small birds, and in many places at least are fairly well enforced; but we are deeply interested in the question as it affects the United States. Our birds are migratory. They spend their winters in the South, and if they are not protected in the districts through which they pass in spring and autumn and in which they winter, our summer fields and woods will be 184 Canadian Record of Science. slenderly peopled. It was well therefore that Mr. Mason directed our attention to this subject, and especially to the circular issued by the American Ornithologist’s Union, with whose action in the matter we can cordially sympathize. It is proper to add that much important matter has been published in the Record which has not been read, except by title, at our monthly meetings; but the subjects I have already treated of are sufficient to show that we have not been altogether idle. There is, however, still vast scope for our exertions, and a great many fields to be cultivated in which our younger members more particularly might bene- fit our country and distinguish themselves. In relation to this they should bear in mind that we do not exact lengthy and profound papers. Any notes, however short, relating to new facts in natural history or useful application of those already known, will be acceptable to the Society, since it often happens that important discoveries are overlooked and irretrievably lost to science, because no attention has been paid to the matter of bringing them under the notice of those who can appreciate their value. Our monthly meet- ings also are of much greater interest than one would infer from the moderate number of members usually present. We have in most of these meetings several subjects under dis- cussion, some of them illustrated by specimens, and it not unfrequently happens that lively and interesting discussions follow the reading of our papers. Nor is the benefit of our vegular meetings confined to members, since our rules allow members to introduce their friends, whether ladies or gentle- men, and we shall welcome any who think it proper to favour us with their presence at these meetings. It has been suggested, and I hope this suggestion will receive the attention of the council, that next winter we should resume the practice of inviting our fellow-citizens to a conversazione in our rooms. These meetings have in former years been very attractive, and may, I think, be renewed with advantage to the Society and to the interests of science. They constitute a legitimate means of attract- ing to scientific pursuits, and more especially of imbuing the young with a taste for the study of nature, while they Proceedings of Natural History Society. 185 cultivate friendly relations between those who already take an interest in scientific subjects. The report of the chairman of the council was next read by Mr. J. S. Shearer, as follows :-— REPORT OF CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL. The Council of the Natural History Society desires to submit the following report concerning the work done since the last annual meeting. There have been six meetings of the Society and twelve meetings of the Council held during the year just closed. The Council is pleased to report satisfactory progress. Since the last annual meeting there have been elected one honorary, one corresponding, and sixteen ordinary members. The Society has recognized the valuable services of Dr. Asa Gray, the celebrated botanist, by electing him an hon- orary member, and the Hon. Thos. White has been elected a corresponding member on the occasion of his departnre from Montreal. The Council, however, whilst acknowledg- ing the support that the Society has received in the past, believes that if its claims were more forcibly urged upon the citizens during the session of 1886-7, there would be a large increase in the membership. Such action, in fact, has be- come absolutely imperative, as it is upon increased mem- ship that the welfare of the Society largely depends in the future. The museum has been well patronized, having been visited by over 1,500 persons. The proposal to improve the interior arrangements of the building has engaged attention during the year. A new light has been placed in the Hall, and other alterations made at considerable expense. The ventilation of the hall demands attention, and certain improvements in this connection will require to be made during the month of June. The necessity of a complete re-arrangement and classifica- tion of the books in the library has long been felt, and with a view to having this accomplished, the Council took action in September last, and Mr. Chas. Robb was engaged to pre- pare a classified catalogue of all the books, periodicals and 13 186 Canadian Record of Science. pamphlets in the library. This work is now completed, and it is the intention of the Council to publish the catalogue as the funds will permit. The Council would recommend, in the meantime, that works printed or purchased should be added to the list as soon as received, in order that when the catalogue is printed it will not be necessary to make a new classification. : The revision of the by-laws has also taken practical shape during the past session, and the Council at its last meeting appointed Sir William Dawson and Messrs. Geo. Sumner and P. S. Ross, a committee for this purpose. The committee at once entered upon its work with the utmost zeal, and in February a draft of the revised by-laws was submitted to the Society, and immediately adopted and ordered to be printed. The printed copies can now be obtained by subscribers. The Editing Committee is to be congratulated on the effi- cient, prompt and admirable manner in which they have issued the Recorp, and the thanks of the Society are due to them for their arduous labours in the face of many difficulties. The Council petitioned the Local Government again this year for a renewal of the grant to the Society, and is not without hope that the Government will soon see its way clear to a favorable consideration of the petition, so that the Editing Committee may be enabled to do its work efficiently. The Field Day has always been one of the most enjoyable features of the Society, and this year proved no exception. Owing to the kind invitation of Mr. Chas. Gibb, of Abbotts- ford, Yamaska Mountain was this time selected, and on the fourth of June last, a party, numbering 120 persons, left the city by the South-eastern Railway to enjoy the day’s outing. . On their arrival, Mr. Gibb, who, with his characteristic hos- pitality, had invited the entire party to be his guests for the day, personally received and conducted them to his resi- dence where ample refreshments were provided and partaken of. The party then divided into three portions and started for their respective pursuits. At half-past four they all re- assembled to partake of refreshments again, after which the prizes were awarded. There were eight entries in the botani- cal department, which was divided into two sections, one Proceedings of Natural History. Society. 187 for ‘‘named” and one for “un-named” plants. The first prize in the “un-named ” was awarded to Miss A. Van Horne, who succeeded in securing forty-six varieties of plants. Miss Ritchie took second prize with forty-three varieties. In the named section, Mr. EK. H. P. Blackadder, who had collected forty-eight specimens, carried off the first prize, and Miss F. M. Girdwood took second prize with forty-five specimens. In the Entomological department Mr. R. C. Holden obtained first prize, and Miss Rose Edwards took second honours. The proceedings were brought to a close by addresses from from Sir J. W. Dawson, and Dr. Hunt. The party departed from Abbottsford at six o’clock, and arrived in the city at nine, after having passed one of the most enjoyable and in- structive exploring days in the annals of the Natural History Society. The success of the event was largely due to Mr. Chas. Gibb, who was untiring in his exertions, and whose services were deservedly recognized by the Council in a special resolution of thanks at its meeting in June. The Society has decided to hold its next Field Day at St. Hilaire, on the 5th of June, and it is hoped that it will be as successful as the last. The Sommerville lectures—seven in number—were deli- vered in the following order:—Feb. 4th, ‘ Antiseptics and Disinfectants,” by Alfred H. Mason, Esq , F.C.S., F.S.Se.; Feb. 11th, “ The Chalk Formation,” by Rev. W. J. Smyth, M.A., Ph. D.; Feb. 18th, “The Source of Igneous Rocks,” by Thos. Macfarlane, Esq., F.R.S.C.; Feb. 25th,“ The Chemistry of Bread and other Farinaceous Foods,” by Casey A. Wood, C.M., M.D.,; March 4th, “ Cotton and Cotton Manufactures,” by William Hobbs, Esq.; March 11th, “ Breathing and Ventilation,” by J. B. McConnell, M.D.; March 18th, “The History of a Modern Volcano,” by Sir William Dawson, TD. ERS. The attendance at the lectures was large, and the thanks of the Society are due to the gentlemen who favoured the public with such an interesting series. The Council takes great pride in being able to record the election of our worthy President, Sir J. William Dawson, to 188 Canadian Record of Science. the Presidency of the British Association for the Advance- ment of Science, which meets in Birmingham this year, and whose session will therefore be watched with the greatest interest by Canadians. The Council in conclusion ventures to express the earnest hope that the Society in the near future will receive the abundant support of the public. The Report of the Honorary Curator, Mr. A. H. Mason, was then read. REPORT OF HONORARY CURATOR. The following donations have been made to the Museum during the session of 1885-86 :— Presented by { Teeth of Carcharodon, ee“ Oxyrhina, and Vertebre of Fishes, found in the John H. R. Molson, Esq. Phosphate (Eocene) Beds near | Charleston, South Carclina. Egg of an Alligator, from Jack- | sonville, Florida. Specimen of Walking-stick, Spec- trum femoranthum (Say). A dipterous Insect, (Pyrgota un- data) (Weidman). [ T. D. Watson, Esq., J | L f A. curiosity of vegetation in the 1 ] L ( through Dr. T. Sterry Hunt. form of a natural budding or grafting by the interlacing of Beech-root branches. Wm. G. Oswald, Esq. A series of Photographs made in | the Republic of Guatemala, in Central America. | A Collection of Central American |. Pottery. Dr. Wolfred Nelson. The work of re-arranging and classifying the American ’ birds is nearly completed, the specimens being arranged, and only labelling requiring completion. The work has been done according to Ridgeway’s American Classification, which is that adopted by the Smithsonian Institution, It is proposed during the recess to complete a catalogue of the objects in the Museum, and to label the different de- partments in a more conspicuous manner. By this means it is hoped that greater interest will be taken in the museum by the general public and visitors to the city, it being a Proceedings of the Natural History Society. 189 matter of regret to your Committee that so few avail them- selves of the privilege offered. If some arrangement could be arrived at by which the Janitor may present an appearance more in accordance with the idea that he is the person to show visitors over the museum, during the hours which it is open to them, than is now provided, it might add to the credit of the Society, or if a telephone was added to the building by which means the Hony. Curator could be communicated with in case any visitor of importance called, it might be one remedy. Such an addition would facilitate also the convenience of other officers, enabling them to spend more time on the premises, if they knew they were within call elsewhere. I would also suggest that a visitor’s book be provided, and every person visiting the Museum be required to sign it. The report of the Library Committee was next read by Mr. J. A. U. Beaudry, being as follows :— ANNUAL REPORT OF THE LIBRARY COMMITTEE. Your committee have to report that although the meet- ings held during the session have not been very numerous, considerable progress has been made in improving the condition of the library. The meetings have been char- acterized by the utmost unanimity, mutual good-will and devotion to the interests of the Society, and although the work of arrangement is not yet complete, the results, so far, can scarcely fail to prove satisfactory. Agreeably to instructions, and with the funds placed at our disposal for the purpose by the Council, a classified Catalogue of the books and pamphlets has been prepared by Mr. Charles Robb, who has been assiduously occupied during the last three or four months with this work, and is still engaged in the arrangement of the books on the shelves of the library. Unfortunately, owing to the great number of missing parts and of volumes not yet bound, this work has been greatly retarded; but steps have been taken to complete, as far as possible, and at the least ex- pense, the sets of the more important scientific periodicals ; and a contract was given out, at the last meeting of the 190 Canadian Record of Sciénce. committee, for binding such as can be completed, as well as some other volumes urgently requiring it. The stipulated amount for preparing the catalogue has been paid; but that for arranging the books on the shelves &e., replacing the missing parts and superintending the binding has not yet been settled, as the work is still in progress. The committee have also called for tenders for printing the catalogue, and the proposals have been sub- mitted to the Council. Mr. Robb reports that the number of books in the library, including those about to be bound, is upwards of 3,000, and of pamphlets which it is not at present intended to bind, about half that number in addition. It is proposed to classify and deposit the unbound pamphlets in cases which have been ordered for the purpose. Apart from the current scientific periodicals, which are very fairly represented, there is in the library a very con- siderable number of rare books, chiefly valuable for their antiquity, which have hitherto been, for the most part, buried in the lower cases, but are now transferred to the shelves and may prove an attractive feature. A list of duplicates in the library, consisting of 43 volumes, bound or in boards, and 284 pamphlets and parts of periodicals has been printed; and a list of deficiencies has been prepared, so as to enable the Society to dispose of the duplicates and to fill up the deficiencies by purchase or exchange as the case may be. Mr. Robb is now engaged in distributing these lists. Your committee have not yet prepared the regulations for the use of the books in the library, as their arrange- ment in the shelves is not yet complete ; and it has been thought advisable to defer the matter until the new com- mittee shall have assumed office, when they could probably be printed in their appropriate connection with the cat- alogue. The following is a list of donations to the library during the session now coming to a close, not including, however, the parts or numbers of scientific periodicals, transactions &c., usually received in exchange for the “ Record, ” Proceedings of Natural History Soctety. 191 LIST OF DONATIONS. From the U.S. Department of the Interior—Geological Survey, Monographs Vols. III. V. VIII. Two Atlases. Third, Fourth and Fifth Annual Reports. Mineral Resources for 1883-84. Older Mesozoic Flora of Virginia. International Polar Expedition to Alaska. Smithsonian Institution—Report for 1883. Bulletin of U.S. Fish Commission 1885. British Association.—Report of Montreal Meeting, 1884. Montreal Committee.—Canadian Economics. H. Carvell Lewis Esq.— “On Marginal Kames. ” “On the discovery of a Mastodon’s Remains.” “On the Progress of Mineralogy. ” “On a great Trap Dyke in §. E. Pennsylvania. ” Brookville Society of Nat. His.—Bulletin. Dr. Perisfor Fraser. —“ Archaean-Paleozoic contact near Phila- delphia. ” Dr. G. M. Dawson.— “Superficial Deposits in vicinity of Bow and Belly Rivers. ” J. A. U. Beaudry Esq.— Cassil’s Natural History and 3 vols. Engineering News. 28 Blue books, Reports of Goverment Deparment Ke. Dr. 'T. S. Hunt.— “Chemical and Geological Essays. ” ‘¢ Azoic Rocks and Trap Dykes of 8. E. Pennsylvania.” Thos. Macfarlane Esq.—A collection of Essays and Reports in bound volume. E. T. Chambers Esq.—Marcou on the Rocks of the Jura. 2 vols. J. H. Bartlett Esq.—* Manufacture and Statistics of Iron and Coal in Canada.” Charles Robb Esq.--Explorations and Surveys, Railroad Mississipp1 to Pacific. Vol. XI. Figures and Descriptions, (Decades) Hall’s Graptolites. 3 vols. Transactions American Inst. Mining Engineers. 3 vols. Mr. Walter Shanly’s Report on Ottawa and French River Navigation. Sir W. Logan’s Esquisse Geologique du Canada. Full bound. Chart of Geological Formations. Mounted on cloth. Hind’s Report on the Waverley Gold district, Nova Scotia. Desor on the retrocession of Niagara Falls, with plates. Newfoundland Geological Survey Reports. Sir Wm. Dawson’s Air-breathers of the Coal period and 4 other pamphlets. 192 Canadian Record of Science. Index and Maps to Pallisser’s Report on the North West. Cox’s Report and Atlas of Geological Survey of Indiana. David Dale Owen’s do do Wisconsin. Foster and Whitney’s do Lake Superior. Thomas Macfarlane “To the Andes.” Richard Brown “ Coal Fields and Coal Trade of Cape Breton,” Walter Johnson on American and B. N. A. Coals. 2 vols. Sandford Fleming’s Intercolonial Railway Report. T. C. Keefer’s Miscellaneous Reports, Lectures &e. 2 vols. Atlas to ‘‘ Geology of Canada 1863.” Proceedings of Nova Scotia Institute. 6 parts. Dr. Hingston.—On the Climate of Canada. John Macoun Esq.—Catalogue of Canadian Plants. Geological Survey.—Report of Progress for 1882-83-84, with maps of Canada. Label List of Insects of the Dominion of Canada. “Osteology of Alma Calvia.” The following Report of the Editing Committee was then submitted :— REPORT OF THE EDITING COMMITTEE. During the past year, the work of the Editing Committee has presented somewhat more than the uusal duties. Upon assuming office in May, 1885, the editors found the Recorp OF SCIENCE in a somewhat neglected condition, and showing a serious arrearage of regular issues. During the summer, however, all the numbers of the first volume were brought up to date, and with the October num- ber, the Journal began to appear at the proper time. Owing to the many changes required in the first four numbers, it was deemed wise to make the first volume contain four numbers only, and commence the second volume with the January issue of the present year. Several changes have been made in style and general appearance, all of which, it is hoped, will commend themselves to the Society and to subscribers. Under arrangements with a new publisher, the work has been much more promptly and satisfactorily performed, and so long as equal satisfaction is given, the Committee would Proceedings of Natural History Society. 193 urge no further change in this direction. It was also found desirable to relieve the regular Committee of the burden of editorial work, for which purpose a paid editor has been employed. In most respects, this plan has proved satisfac- tory, though it will doubtless be well to further modify and improve the working of the Committee in this direction, particularly if additional funds become available. An effort has been made to offset a certain portion of expense of publication, by the insertion of advertisements. Very little encouragement has been met with, or is to be hoped for in this direction, the three advertisements so far obtained, not returning very large profits. One of the most important works of the Committee has been in extending the list of exchanges. Many former exchanges were found to have dropped off entirely. Most of these have once more been placed on our list and are re- gularly received, while a large number of new ones have been added, so that the list now embraces 178 regular exchanges in all parts of the world including some of the most important scientific journals published. _ The work of the Society was chiefly represented in the publication of the RecorpD oF SciENcz, and the Committee trust every effort will be made to continue its publication under competent management. It has been our endeavour to make it a representative Journal of Canadian Science, but the very many difficulties encountered, have often rendered it impossible to properly approach this ideal. One of the great difficulties is found in securing papers of a proper character. This might be overcome, to a large extent, were the incoming editorial committee to be composed of a paid editor, who should be primarily and chiefly responsible, and and four associate editors representing different branches of Science. The work of necessity falls upon one or two at most, before the printer is reached, and it is most desirable that every editor, or associate editor, should be capable of passing judgment upon articles in his particular department, as well as able to contribute original articles. The Treasurer, Mr. P. 8. Ross, then read the following Report :— ap 194 Canadian Record of Science. Report or TREASURER. Annexed I beg to present a detailed statement of the financial affairs of the Society during the past year. The year commenced with a balance on hand of $267.41 and ends with cash in hand amounting to $232.44, but there are outstanding accounts which will absorb this balance. The subscriptions from members show a list of one hun- dred and thirty paying members. The excursion of 1885 yielded a surplus of $35.50, besides a sum of $20 specially donated, to be distributed in prizes among the excursionists. The rent from the rooms has been largely in excess of that obtained in previous years. A special subscription list for binding books for library purposes has been opened, and so far about $55 have been subscribed, which, it is hoped, will be materially increased. It will be observed that the publication of the Record of Science makes a considerable draft on our funds, and in addition to the amount shown in the statement, there are outstanding claims against it of about $200. ANNUAL STATEMENT oF TREASURER (Mr. P. 8. Ross) For 1885-6. RECEIPTS. Balan cesromuelastsye ailyererrcisdaleeie eter iotelels $ 267 41 ROTA ieiererste one leva ie ietee se RE oe elles om daolatotarevolars $ 919 00 Subscriptions <-....5..0. «--+0 eevee. verese 515 00 Excursions $160.50; less paid out $125.00.... 35 50 Donations—Excursions, Joseph $5, Dawson S5aMColsonvslOnseee seca. wees $20.00 Less paid for prizes ........-- $20.00 Do. I8yiNObbNed shogbn voo0 440 5 es0K07 10 00 Do. Plumbing per Costigan.......- 6 40 Life membership, G. Summer...-...seeeeee- 50 00 $ 1,535 90 ——— $ 1,803 31 Proceedings of Natural History Soctety. 195 DISBURSEMENTS. Prititing and advertising............+-+65 $ 181 98 ABS SS) Lb Bc SN An RSa ae Eee ie dee les Aa Gar een ae 137 30 Repairs $170.81; less allowed by church 330 140 81 MOOS ceosed aa dseu edenud victicto. ariortnLa cOdonG 23 45 FEST Peis ler oce shall scieee sista mors opiate Sais Miubckeb at aiee 110 40 Tit oc eR NAR acm San aie ae 72 60 ALTA SUT ATN CO tereterctcrereh fetal sie lal ioeelelere / MontH. )2BF| 3. | Bas Se" sae) ses oS PaaS ChlivetyallN oe Meteo fe | = —| za January ..)5 | 4 itch | 1) |) GE | 22 February - - 70 6 1.8 1) Thy asia a 20 March ...-30 5 26.5 13 3.48} 2 16 April ...... 47 S De} 4 0.76 0 13 May ....... 72 18 0.0 | 0 OD, 0 18 Janeen rere. 5) 15 0.0 0 2.92 | 0 15 July ....--- dete 13 0.0 0 Sa7AeliennO 13 August ....49} 16 | 0.0 0 4.71 0 16 September 35 | 14 0.0 0 3.85 0 14 October ...79} 10 | 0.5 2 1.84 2 10 |October.......... November.29} 9 | 36.1 18 5.82 5 22 |November..... 2 December -j6| 3 | 22.4 17 3.05 3 17 |December. ...... Meansforlé |... |... HEN sens ee) -... |Means for 1886... sums for 18{g | 192 116.0 90 | 3825} 16 196 |Sums for 1886 ... Means” for fr ive me aus |( Means for 12 years en | 133 | 121.6| 8 | 39.45| 16 202 |) years ending Dee. 31, 1§ | | Dec. 31, 1886. “ec * Bargerature has been higher; ‘““—” that it has been lower than the average for 12 years;emometer and wind vane are on the summit of Mount Royal. To pote o pete esea level. The old position was 30 feet above the ground, and since ugust, The && of the thermometer in one day was 43-8 on Jan. 25th; least range was 3.4 on Nov.)arometer reading was 30-780 on Jan. 14th, the lowest 28.901 on Jan. 9th, giving 4 Tat on Dec. 25th, and the greatest velocity in gusts was at the rate of 20 m. p. h. on jq during the last six months 71,032, equal to an average hourly velocity of 16.1m. ‘velocity, due to the change in exposure, noted above, is — on the sup- position thamjleage — is S. 68°W., and the resultant mileage 56,300. Auroras were observed onhis, Lunar coronas on 4 nights. Solar halos on 2 days and Solar par- helia on 2 Gyinter was on Nov. 7th. ALTE ETE OBS OBEK ONS ANS ANI ABSTRACT FOR THE YHAR 18se6. Observations made at McGill College Observatory, Montreal, Canada. — Height above sea level 187 ft. Latitude N. 45° 30'17’. Longitude 4" 54™ 18'55 W. C. H. McLEOD, Superintendent. 2, |e a 2 2 E | BE Be |) gis THERMOMETER. * BAROMETER. Bt] be Winn. By JI we S ae 5 Ss os : a. | a. 3 a q) | Se El Se! lene | BE. | elo on | 22) —E ras | Sus a 5 ne Sa ons) gan | Fax om | 5) Dera] | 5 | ee | | eel te/3., Mean | 22) 28] 3 [See] © | se | Se8 | ees | sce MONTH: 8 |tion from) 5 | gaol | x . | g28) S28) 2a | S2 [Resultant | velocity] S2| Sol 3 | 2° 8 |2e./38e|sse]cee | Monmm. S | lyeor| S| £ | Saay s a E | SS] Sa | 55 | SS | direction. |in miles] BS) HS] = | as 3. |8a5| 8g) soe | ose = | means. - = | = ASF a a a Atal a alla perhour.) m7 | a= pe re ris} os E Bea | Are | | i - — =| | January | 46.8 |—23.6| 15.5 | 30.0635 | 30 eu 28.901 | .355, 84.1) 8.1 ye Tae We 12.35 68.7 4 19 3. 1 22 Februnry | 44.1 |—21.0) 18.0 #30 0350 |) -36: 81.0] 7.3958. 6: 62.1 6 17 117 3 20 March | 53.0 |—15.3] 138.1 | 29.9018 76.5 | 16.6 70.7 | 5 13 8. 2 16 April ) 74.6) 1 1 80 0794 | 68.0 | 83.5 53.2 | 8 4 0. 0 13 May 742) 97.3) 1 29 Bold | 69.7 44.0 66.1 jes 0) | 2. 0 18 June. 80:1) )) 4 1 29.8816 | 72.2 | 53.5 63.4) 45 |) 35 0 2. 0 15 July |87.8| 48. 6 29 8740 | 73.2 | 58.2 f3.1 | 56 13 0 8 0 13 August -.. | 46.3 | 4 il 29.8043 | § 73.1 | 57.2 58.4) 61 16 0 4 0 16 September . | 82:7 | 5 30.0690 | : 75.9 | 49.3 46.8 | 55 i 0 3 0 M4 |September October .. | 72:7 | 30.1 42 | 3 757 | 0 51.5) 66 10 2 1 2 10 |October.... . November | 63.3 | 29.9188 | 4 789 | 27.3 71.5 | 25 | 9 18 | 5. 5 22 |November.. +: December | 41.0 i= 80.0645 | 81.6 4 65.6) 3: 3 Ww |) % 3 17 |December. ...... Means for 1886 . | 41.31 | —0.49 | -... see 29.9804 |... . +226 8 OOS) 4 pcap Means for 1886... Sums for 1886... |. mei alien ance 3 | oo - ane 4 eae 26.88 122 116.0 90 | 38 25 16 196 |Sums for 1886 . Means¥.for, 12) | call | | j Means for 12 years ending | 41.80 Bang noel | se. 20.9784 Gora |) apne ecko -2510 | 74.4 | -... - “ 60.9 | $46.5 9 27.36 133 121.6 85 89.45, 16 202 Ue st 8 ending Dec. 31, 1886 | i | | | | Bee eee ec. $1, 1856. _ * Barometer readings Pervean to 82° Fah., and to sea level. + Inches of mercury. {Saturation 100. § For 5 years only. 1‘ +” indicates that the temperature has been higher; “—" that it has been lower than the average for 12 yours, inclusive of 1886. The monthly means are derived from readings taken every 4th hour, beginning with 3h. 0m, astern Standard time. The anemometer and wind y are on the summit of Mount Royal. ‘To obtain better exposure, their position was changed on June 30th. The new position is 29 feet N. E. of the old one; 57 feet above the yrouud and $10 feet aboye sen level. The old position was 30 feet above the ground, and since August, 1882, it has been somewhat sheltered from N 1. winds. ‘Tho greatest heat wns 87.3 on July 5th; greatest cold 23 6 below zero on Jan. 12th; extreme range of temperature was therefore 110.9. Greatest range of the thermometer in one day was 43.8 on Jan. 25th; least range was 3.4 0n Noy. 13th. The warmest day was July 6th, mean temperature 77 ¥. ‘The coldest day was s Jan. 12th, mean temperature 17.6 below zero. The highest barometer reading was 30-780 on Jan. 14th, the lowest 23.901 on Jan. 9th giving a range of 1.879 for the month and r, ‘The lowest relative humidity was 25, on May Ist. The greatest mileage of wind recorded in one hour was 54 on Dec. 25th, and the greatest yelocity in gusts was at the rate of & in. p. h. on Noy. 18th. ‘The totnl mileage nd during the first six months of the year was re which is equal to an ayerage hourly velocity of 11.81; and during the last six months 71,032, equal to an ayerage hourly velocity of | The average hourly velocity during the past 10 year half of the year, was 11 din the last balf 9.95. ‘The increase in the wind’s yelocity, due to the change in exposure, noted above, is — on the sup- ion that the average wind for the past six months bh — therefore 62 per cent. he resultant directior of the wind for the year — for mileage — . 68° W., and the resultant mileage 56,500. Auroras were observed on 42 nights. Fogs on 19 days. Hoarfrost on 8 da; storms on 15 days and A aa without thunderon one day. Lunar halos on J5 nights. Lunar coronas on4 nights. Solar halos on 2 days and Solar par- holin on 2days, Whe sleighing of the winter closed on Ap ‘The first appreciable snowfall of the autumn was on Oct. 17th. The first sleighing of the winter was on Noy. 7th. Sth. THE CANADIAN, RECORD OH, SCImN CE. VOL. II. JULY, 1887. NO. 7. CANADIAN ORTHOPTERA. EUR a By F. B. Cau.Fie.p. : \ i =, ( Concluded.) “wy UF St Mita ge Nemobius vittatus, Harris, is our most abundant species. Its colour is greyish-brown, marked with lines of black. It is of social habits, being found in swarms in the fields during the summer months. I have not heard them shrilling ear- lier than the beginning of August. Should the season be fine, individuals may be heard as late as the beginning of November. Quebec, common.—Provancher. Montreal, common.—Caulfield. Toronto, common.—Brodie. Nemobius fasciatus, De Geer. May be distinguished from our other Nemobii by the length of its wings. Montreal, not common: also given in the Quebec and Toronto lists. Nemobius (Anexipha) septentrionalis, Scudd. Is also on our list. Provancher records one specimen from Quebec, and it is recorded from Rat Portage by Brodie. All the foregoing species live on the ground, but we have another kind of cricket which spends its life among the leaves and branches of tall weeds and shrubs. It is the 394 Canadian Record of Science. ivory climbing cricket, Acanthus niveus, Sew. The male is ivory white, with very broad, transparent wing-covers, crossed by from three to five oblique raised lines. In the female the wing-covers are longer and narrower, and of a pale green color. The antenne and legs are long and slen- der, the hind thighs not being so stout as in the ground crickets. The shrilling of the species is more sustained than that of Gryllus, the notes running together like the roll of a drum, swelling and decreasing alternately. They commence shrilling about the first of August, and continue until the frosts of October put an end to their existence. The eggs are deposited in the stems of plants. The in- sect is sometimes very injurious to raspberry canes and grape vines, on account of its piercing them with its ovi- positor, causing them to wither and die. GRASSHOPPERS (LocuUSTARI#). These insects may, with few exceptions, be recognised by their long and slender legs, and by their extremely long bristle-formed antenne. In the winged species, the wing- covers slope downwards at the sides of the body and over- lap a little on the back near the thorax. The ovipositor is generally long, flattened at the sides, and curved like a cimiter. The shrilling of some of the southern species is quite powerful, and where the insects are very abundant the noise is sometimes unpleasantly loud; but in these northern regions the notes of our grasshoppers are weak, nor are the insects sufficiently numerous to attract much attention. At the head of the family, systematists place a group of -wingless forms represented in Canada by two species, one restricted to the North-West, the other apparently common in Ontario and Quebec. Centhophilus maculatus, Harris. This curious insect is rather strongly built, with stout hind thighs; the back is arched and has a smooth, shiny appearance, as if varnished. Its general color is brown, thickly covered with spots of a lighter color. Wings entirely absent, ovipositor rather Canadian Orthoptera. 395 long and nearly straight. Lives in communities under stones in damp woods, and beneath the loose bark of dead trees. It appears to be carnivorous, as I have taken it in cans baited with meat. Anticosti, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Verrill.; Quebec, com- mon, Provancher; Montreal, common, Caulfield; Ontario, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. Udeopsylla nigra, Scudd. Resembles in form the preced- ing species, but is shining black, and is heavier and stouter. The ovipositor is rather short and thick at the base. Common in Manitoba, Brodie and Scudder. ‘The next group contains the typical insects of the family, the green grasshoppers or Katydids. Most of these possess ample wings and can fly well. Some spend their lives on trees and shrubs, while others inhabit meadows and pas- tures. They are pretty and inoffensive creatures, not being numerous enough to be injurious, and owing to their retir- ing habits, and the similarity of their color to the leaves and grasses amidst which they live, are but seldom seen, even in the localities where they are most abundant. The narrow-winged Katydid, Phaneroptera curvicauda, De Geer, is not uncommon in Canada, and during the latter part of summer, may often be observed resting on shrubs and young trees, occasionally taking a short flight from tree to tree. It may be recognised by its narrow and straight wing- covers, and by the male having a cylindrical style curving from below upwards, and resting in the forks of a furcate appendage which projects from the end of the abdomen. The ovipositor of the female is rather short and curved abruptly upward, the extremity toothed on both sides. The female deposits her eggs in the edges of leaves of trees. I have never seen this species shrilling, although I believe that I have often heard it. Prof. Riley describes its note as asoft zeep-zeep, sometimes uttered singly, but generally thrice in succession. The call is occasionally responded to bya faint chirrup from the females, produced by stretching out their wings as if for fiight, and is as often heard in the day as at night. While passing through its earlier stages, this species wears 396 Canadian Record of Science. a more varied dress than the simple green of the adult insect. In the larva, the colors are purplish, black and white, arranged in minute squares on the head and body, the anten- nee and legs being marked with rings of the same colors. The pupa is green, varied with purple on the sides, and adorned with a double row of crimson spots on the dorsal surface. The mature insect is wholly green. It may be found during August and September. My earliest date for it is, August 1885. Province of Quebec, common in August and Septem- ber, Provancher. Montreal, common, Caulfield. Toronto, common in Ontario generally to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. Red River Settlements, Scudder. A. 6 Rosseare River, August 30th, and a ° the vicinity of Souris River, G. M. Dawson. The oblong-winged Katydid, Phylloptera (Amblyconypha) oblongifolia, De Geer, is green like the preceding species, but may be distinguished from it by its larger size, and by the oval form of its wing covers. It appears to be rare in east- ern Canada, and is not on Provancher list. The only speci- mens that I have seen are amale and female, given to me by the late Mr. W. D. Shaw (taken, I believe, at Montreal), and three males taken by myself at Montreal, September, 1883. I found them amongst some willow bushes, and in each instance, my attention was attracted by seeing them fly from one bush to another. Dr. Harris states that, when flying. they make a whizzing noise, somewhat like a weaver’s shuttle. I was not close enough to hear any sound, nor did I hear them shrilling. According to Harris, the note of the male, although grat- ing, is feeble. I have not seen any account of the earlier stages of this insect, but in the latter end of June, 1885, I found two larvee which I think must belong to this species, as they were entirely pale green, and on August Ist, 1885, I found two pup, also green (curicauda is varied with pur- ple and white, when in nature, and we have no other arboreal species in eastern Canada). Montreal: rare, Caulfield.— Toronto: common, and Ontario generally to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. « The genus Conocephalus may be recognized by the head Canadian Orthoptera. 397 being conical and extending to a point between the eyes, and by the long, straight ovipositor of the female. Cono- cephalus ensiger, Harris, is the only species recorded from Canada. It is of a pale, green color, the head whitish, and the legs and abdomen brownish green; it measures from an inch and three-quarters to two inches in length. The female has been observed, by Prof. 8. 1. Smith, with its ovipositor forced down between the root leaves and the stalk of a species of Andropogon, where the eggs are proba- bly deposited. Toronto, common, and Ontario, general, Brodie. Not recorded from the Province of Quebec. During the latter part of summer, numbers of small fra- gile-looking grasshoppers may be found in damp fields. They belong to the genus Xiphidium, of which we have three species in Canada. AXiphidium fasciatum, Sew. The general color of this species is green, with a brown stripe on top of the head, and its thorax bordered on each side with darker brown. The dorsal surface is brown, with a yellow stripe on each side, and below this again is a narrow brown strip. The ovipositor bends abruptly down at the base and is then straight to the tip. Length, three-quarters of an inch from head to tip of the wings, which ore alittle longer than the wing-covers. Recorded by Provancher as very com- mon in August and September in Province of Quebec; Montreal, common, Caulfield; Toronto, common, and Onta- rio, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. Aiphidium brevipennis, Scudder, is now generally believed to be only a variety of fasciatum. Common in same locali- ties as preceding species. I have not heard either of these species shrilling. According to Mr. Scudder, ‘‘ XYiphidium makes a note very similar to Orchelimum, but so faint as to be barely percepti- ble even close at hand.” Prof. Riley states that . fasciatum oviposits in the cone like willow gall (Salicis strobiloides.) Aiphidium saltans, Scudder, is our rarest species, and appears to be confined to the North-West. Souris River. G. M. Dawson. 398 Canadian Record of Science. The species of Orchelimum are almost identical with Aiphidium in general appearance and color, but are larger, measuring about an inch and one-tenth in length from head to tip of wing-covers. O. Vulgare, Harris. The note of this species is described by Mr. Scudder as a trill, followed by a series of very short staccato notes sounding like jip! Toronto, common; Onta- rio, everywhere, Brodie. Orchelimum agile, De Geer. This species is common in the neighborhood of Montreal, and may be found in almost every damp field where there are tufts of rank grass or clumps of tall weeds. Concealed in one of these, the male takes, his stand and trills his simple love song, which is merely a weak wheezy trill, only audible for the distance of afew feet. When shrilling, the insect slightly raises its wing-covers, and shufiles them together with a shivering motion. It sings in the bright sucshine, and it was by observing the play of light on the wings while in motion that I discovered the insect, as when sitting still it is almost impossible to detect it, so effectively does its green dress conceal it. Montreal, common, end of July to end of Sep- tember, Caulfield ; Toronto, common ; Ontario, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. Anabrus purpurascens, Uhl., is a large, thick-bodied insect, of a dark purplish-brown color, mottled with yellow. The wings are very small and quite useless for the purpose of flight. A western species. West Butte, July 29th. In the vicinity of Woody Mountain, between June 15 and July 7th, and in the neighborhood of the Souris River. G. M. Dawson. We are now come to the typical family of the order, the locusts. Acripip#. In these insects the antenne are much shorter and thicker than in the preceding families. The wing-covers are generally long and narrow, and slope downwards on the sides like a roof. The under wings are broadly triangular, and when at rest are folded in plaits like afan. The hind legs are formed for leaping, being stout and muscular. Instead of a long exserted ovipositor like the crickets and grasshoppers, the female is provided Canadian Orthoptera. 399 with four wedge-like pieces, placed in pairs above and below, and opening and shutting opposite to each other. When about to deposit her eggs, the female forces these wedges into the earth, these being opened and withdrawn enlarge the opening; the operation being repeated until a hole is formed large and deep enough to admit nearly the whole of the body. The eggs of locusts are generally de- posited in the ground; those of the Rocky Mountain locust Caloptenus spretus, according to Prof. Riley, are voided in a glistening and glutinous fluid which holds them together and binds them into a cylindrical pod. Prof. Thomas states that he has obtained the eggs of Caloptenus femur-rubrum in rotten wood, in which they were placed without any apparent regularity, and without any connection by any glutinous secretion. The sounds made by locusts are produced in two ways. First, by rubbing the hind thighs up and down on the wing- covers; and second, by snapping together the edges of the wings and wing-covers during flight. Our Canadian locusts fall into two sub-families, Acridine and Tetigine. To the first belong all the species in which the pronotum (upper surface of thorax) extends only to the base of the wing-covers. This group contains the greater number of our species. To the second belong a small group of species in which the wing-covers are aborted, appearing as small pads, while the pronotum extends as far as, or past, the extremity of the abdomen. As regards the time of appearance of our locusts, there is a constant succession of species from early spring until late in the fall. A few species (Tetix) hibernate as imago or perfect insects, a few others as larve, and some as pupe, but the greater number pass the winter in the egg, not attaining the perfect condition until August or September. The first to appear are the species of Tetix, which having hibernated in the adult form, may be found as soon as the snow has melted. About the same time, specimens of Tragocephala infuscata, and its variety viridifasciata in the larval condition, make their appearance, attaining the per- fect form by the middle or end of May; and with them 400 Canadian Record of Science. may be found Hippiscus phenicoptera, a large species, with red underwings. By the middle of July these have passed away, their places being filled by swarms of Camenula pel- lucida, associated with Trimerotropis verriculata, and one or two others. During August and September the fields fairly swarm with locusts, prominent amongst them being JZelono- plus femur-rubrum, Stenobothrus curtipennis, Encoptolophus sor- dida, while on dry bank and roadsides, Dissosteira carolina may be found in equal abundance. By the middle of Octo- ber nearly all have disappeared, but a few specimens of Melanoplus and Stenobothrus linger until the autumnal frosts put an end to their existence. The following are all the locusts known to me as occur- ring in Canada :— a Chrysocraon conspersum, Harris. Rat Portage, Man., Brodie; Eastern shore of Lake Winnipeg, five specimens, Scudder. Chlealtis (Amblytropidia) subhyalina, Scudder. Province of Que- bec, Provancher. Stenobothrus curtipennis, Harris. Abundant and generally dis- tributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ottawa, Harrington ; Ontario, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. > Stenobothrus propinquans, Scudder. Cap Rouge, Quebec, Pro- vancher. Arcyptera lineata, Scudder. Province of Quebec, Provancher. Tragocephala infuscata, Harris, and var. viridifasciata. Common and widely distributed. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ontario, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. Gomphocerus clepsydra, Scudder. Souris River, G. M. Dawson. Aidipoda (Arphia) sulphurea, Burm. Quebec, very rare, Pro- vancher; Toronto, common, and Ontario, generally, in sand hills, Brodie. . Asdipoda (Arphia) terrebrosa, Scudder. Souris, G. M. Dawson. Aidipoda (Arphia) frigida, Scudder. Taken near Wood End in June, G. M. Dawson. ‘ Adipoda ( Hippiscus) phenicoptera, Germ. Quebec, common, Pro- vancher; Montreal, rare, Caulfield; Toronto, rare, Brodie; Duf- ferin, June 13 and 14, G. M. Dawson. ; Aidipoda (Dissosteira) carolina, Linn. Common and generally distributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ontario, generally, to Lake Superior, Brodie; Vancouver’s Island, Packard. Canadian Orthoptera. 401 Aidipoda (Primerotropis) verriculata, Scudder. Quebec, common, Provancher; Montreal, common, Caulfield; Ontario, generally, to Lake Superior, Brodie; Dufferin, G. M. Dawson. dipoda (Encoptolopha) sordida, Burm. Quebec, very common Montreal, common, Caulfield. Aidipoda (Camnula) pellucida, Scudder. Province of Quebec, Pro- vancher; Montreal, common, Caulfield. Variety atrox, Scudder; Victoria, Vancouver’s Island, Packard. Aidipoda xqualis, Say. Red River Settlement, Scudder. Adipoda trifasciata, Say. Wood End in June, G. M. Dawson. Pezzotetiz borealis, Scudder. A single pair, vicinity of Lake of the Woods, G. M. Dawson. Pezzotetix Dawsonii, Scudder. Souris River, G. M. Dawson. Pezzotetix septentrionalis, Saus. Labrador, Saussure. Caloptenus (Melanoplus) scriptus, Walk. Vancouver’s Island, Walker. Caloptenus (Melanoplus) bilituratus, Walk. Souris River, G. M. Dawson; Vancouver's Island, Walker. Caloptenus (Melanoplus) . repletus, Walk. Vancouyer’s Island, Walker. Caloptenus (Melanoplus) femur-rubrum, Burn. Common and widely distributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield; Ottawa, Harrington; Ontario, generally, to north of Lake Superior, Brodie. ‘ Caloptenus (Melanoplus) parvus, Provan. Cap Rouge, Quebec; Provancher. Caloptenus (Melanoplus) femoratus, Burn. Common and widely distributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ontario, everywhere, Brodie ; Lake of the Woods, G. M. Dawson. Caloptenus spretus, Uhler. Dufferin, Souris River, vicinity of the Lake of the Woods, and the east fork of Milk River, G. M. Dawson. Caloptenus atlanis, Riley. (uebec, Provancher; Victoria, Van- couver’s Island, Packard. Caloptenus fasciatus, Walk. St. Martin’s Falls, Albany River, Hudson’s Bay, Walker. Caloptenus extremus, Walk. Arctic America, Walker. Caloptenus arcticus, Walk. Arctic America, Walker. Caloptenus borealis, Feiber. Labrador, Feiber. Acridium appendiculatum, Uhler. Quebec, Provancher. Tetix granulata, Kirby. Common, and widely distributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ottawa, Har- rington ; Ontario, generally, to Lake Superior, Brodie; Vancouver’s Island, Packard; Arctic America, Kirby. Tetix ornata, Say. Quebec, common, Provancher; Ontario, generally, rare, Brodie. 402 Canadian Record of Science. Tetix cuculata, Scudder. Toronto, common; Ontario, generally, rare, Brodie. Tetix triangularis, Scudder. Quebec, rare, Provancher; Montreal, rare, Caulfield; Ottawa, Harrington; Ontario, generally, to Lake Superior, Brodie. Tetigidea lateralis, Say. Common and widely distributed in Canada. Quebec, Provancher; Montreal, Caulfield ; Ottawa, Har- rington ; Ontario, generally, to Lake Superior, Brodie. Tetigidea polymorpha, Burm. Common in same localities as pre- ceding species. Tetigidea acadica, Scudder. Lake of the Woods, G. M. Dawson. Batrachidea cristata, Harris. Toronto, rare, Brodie. The PHASMID# or spectres are represented in Canada by only one species, the well known Walking-stick insect, Diapheromera femorata Say, but in tropical countries are numerous and assume strange forms, resembling leaves, thorny branches, &. Our species is entirely wingless, and looks very much like a small twig. The body is long and cylindrical, and the antenne and legs are very long and slender. It lives altogether on trees, being generally found on oak and basswood. According to Packard, the egg-sac is flattened elliptical, with a lid in front which ean be pushed open by the embryo when about to hatch, and is deposited in the autumn. Montreal, Caulfield: Ottawa, Harrington: Kingston, Rogers: Ontario, generally, Brodie: Red River Settle- ments, Scudder, The CockroacHEs. BLATARI# are flattened ovate insects, generally of a dingy brown color, and have an oily and dis- agreeable smell. The egg capsules are dropped at random, the females not depositing or concealing them in any par- ticular place or manner. Cockroaches are nocturnal insects, hiding during the day in holes and crevices. They are omnivorous creatures, feeding on almost any substance, animal or vegetable. We have on our lists five genera with seven species. Two of these are European, but have been carried by commerce to various parts of the world. The large, black species, common in houses, and familiar to housewives under the name of “ Black Beetle,” is the Stylophyga orientalis, Lin- Canadian Orthoptera. 403 neus. It is an imported species, infesting houses and ship- ping. Quebec, Provancher: Montreal, common, Caulfield : Toronto, Brodie. The other imported species is the small, reddish-brown Cockroach, Hetobia germanica, Stephens, commonly known in the New England States as the “Croton Bug.” It infests houses, and is even more troublesome than the large species, taking up its quarters in wooden partitions and cracks in furniture, soon becoming unpleasantly numerous. Chaudiere Curve, Quebec, Fyles: Montreal, Caulfield : Toronto, Brodie. Our native species are found under stones and beneath the bark of stumps, and appear to be rare. Zctobia litho- phila, Harr. Welland and westward, Brodie. Periplaneta americana, Linn. EHKssex County, Ont., Brodie. Ischnop- tera pennsylvanica, De Geer. This species is light brown, has the wings much longer than the body, and is extremely active. I found a specimen under the bark of an old stump, June 1876, and on the Natural History Society’s Field Day to Abbotsford, on June 4th, 1885, I took three specimens, also under bark of a stump. Toronto, not common, Brodie. Temnopteryx marginata is a smaller insect, with much shorter wings. I found two specimens under bark of a fallen tree, on Montreal Mountain, June 1876. It has not been taken elsewhere in Canada, so far as known to me. The Earwics. Forricutipa may be distinguished from all other orthoptera, by their narrow, flattened body, short wing-covers, and by the extremity of the abdomen being provided with a forceps, which, in some species, equals the body in length. During the day earwigs generally conceal themselves in holes and crevices, flying actively at night. A few of the smaller species fly during the day. They feed on vegetable matter, and in Hurope, where they are numerous, often do much damage by eating the blossoms of Carnations, Dahlias, &c. In this country they are gener- ally rare insects, only one species being recorded from Canada, the Labia minor of Linnzeus, common to both Europe and America. Cap Rouge and Portneuf, 3 speci- mens, Provancher: Ottawa, Harrington. 404 Canadian Record of Science. Besides the foregoing species of Orthoptera, there are others on our lists. Some of these are, however, synonyms, while the occurrence of others within our limits is still doubtful. Additional species will undoubtedly be discovered when more attention has been given to the order, and the remoter districts thoroughly worked up. ON THE CORRELATION OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCT- URE OF THE MARITIME PROVINCES OF CANADA WITH THAT OF WESTERN EUROPE. By Str Wm. Dawson, F.RS., Ere. ( Abstract.) As early as 1855, in the first edition of Acadian Geology, the author had indicated the close resemblance in structure and mineral productions of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick with the British Islands, and in subsequent editions of the same work, further illustrations were given of this fact. Recent researches by Bailey, Matthew, Fletcher, Ells and others, had still more distinctively indicated this re- semblance, as well as the distinctness of the Maritime Geo- logy from that of the great interior plateau of Canada and the United States. In short, as argued by the author in his recent address before the British Association, the geology of the Atlantic margins of America and Europe is substan- tially the same, and distinct from that found west of the Apalachians in America and in Central and Hastern Europe. In this fact has originated much of the difficulty experienced in correlating the geological formations of Hastern Canada with those of Ontario, of New York and Ohio, as well as similar difficulties in Europe which have led to much con- troversy and difference of classification and nomenclature. One object of the present communication was to show that the system of classification of Paleozic sediments, employed for the interior plateau of the American continent, required very important modifications when applied to the Atlantic The Correlation of Geological Structure. 405 coast, and that neglect of this had led to serious miscon- ceptions. The rugged islands of Laurentian and Huronian rocks correspond on both sides of the Atlantic, and show an identity of succession in deposits as well as a sychronism of the great folds and jateral pressures which have disturbed these old formations. The Cambrian sediments and fossils as originally described by Hartt, and more recently and in so great detail by Matthew, are in close correspondence with those of Wales and not identical with those of internal America. The recent paper of Lapworth on the Grapto- lites affords evidence of the same kind, and shows that these were Atlantic animals in their time. It also throws much additional light on the Quebec group of Logan considered as an Atlantic marginal formation, representing a great lapse of time in the Cambrian and Ordovician periods. The anthor had long ago shown that the Siluro-Cambrian or Ordovician of Nova Scotia conformed more nearly to that of Cumberland and Wales than to the great limestone for- mations of Quebec, Ontario and New York. The Upper Silurian also is of the type of that of England and Wales, a fact very marked in its fossil remains as well as in its sediments. The parallelism in the Erian or Devonian in both coun- tries is most marked, both in rocks and fossils, and while this is apparent in the fishes, as worked up by Mr. White- eaves, it is no less manifest in the fossil plants as described by the author. The Carboniferous, in its limited troughs, the character of its beds, and its fossil animals and plants, also points to a closer relationship in that period between the two shores of the Atlantic than between the Atlantic coast and the inland area. This was evidenced by comparative lists of species. The Trias of Nova Scotia and of Prince Edward Island, as the author had shown in 1868,’ resembles that of Eng- land very closely, in its aqueous deposits and in its asso- ciated trappean rocks. 1 Journal of Geol. Society of London, Vol. VI. 406 Canadian Record of Science. Beyond this the Geology of the Maritime Provinces pre- sents no materials for comparison till we arrive at the boulder drift and other pleistocene deposits. In regard to these, without entering into disputed questions any farther than to say that the observations of the author, as well as those more recently made by Mr. Chalmers, conclusively prove that submergence and local ice-drift were dominant as causes of distribution of boulders and other material, there was evidence of great similarity. The marine beds described by Mr. Matthew at St. John were precise equiva- lents of the Clyde beds of Scotland, as were the upper shell- bearing beds of Prince Edward Island and Bay de Chaleurs of those in Aberdeenshire and other parts of Scotland, and the Uddevalla beds of Sweden. The boulders drifted from Labrador to Nova Scotia were the representatives of those in Europe scattered southward from Scandinavia, and the local drift in various directions from the hills was the counterpart of that observed in Great Britain. The sur- vival of Mastodon giganteus in Cape Breton, to the close of the Pleistocene, is a decided American feature, and so is the absence of any evidence of Pleistocene man. The conelusion of the author was that, in so far as pale- ontology and the subdivisions of systems of formations is concerned, the geology of the Maritime Provinces is Euro- pean, or perhaps more properly Atlantic, rather than American, and is to be correlated rather with the British Islands and Scandinavia than with interior Canada and the United States. The latter country, even on its eastern coast, possesses a much less perfect representation of these Atlantic deposits than that in the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland, though the recent studies of Crosby, Dale and others, are developing new points of this kind in the geology of New England, and Hitchcock and others have shown that the New Brunswick Geology extends in Maine. The paper further discusses the bearing of these facts on the successive stages of the physical geography of Hastern America in the Cambrian, Silurian, Hrian, Carboniferous and Triassic periods. Retention and Loss of Hair. 407 TH: RETENTION AND THE Loss oF THE HAIR FROM A PHYSIOLOGICAL STANDPOINT. By T. Wesipy Mitts, M.A., M.D. Professor of Physiology, McGill University. In the Popular Science Monthly for October last, Mr. Eaton, in a paper entitled “ A Bald and Toothless Future,” states that as a result of years of obseryation of public assemblages of people, he is forced to conclude that there is, among men, relatively to women, avery disproportionate amount of baldness; that there may be deficiency of the hair of the head in the male sex to the extent of forty-six per cent.; and that it is more marked the higher the aver- age culture of the assembly examined. This writer attrib- utes the growing tendency to loss of hair prematurely to wearing tightly-fitting hair coverings, liviag within doors, and keeping the hair closely cropped. The condition is exaggerated by the influence of heredity. Mr. Eaton says :— “There is no reason why bald heads should not yield to the laws of heredity as much as curly heads or red heads.” He further thinks that the early failure of the teeth has an analogous explanation with the loss of hair, viz.: decay from lack of use. The changes of conditions affected by modern civilization have rendered both comparatively use- less to man. Mr. Gouinlock, in the same magazine for May of the cur- rent year, under the title, ‘‘ Hats as a Cause for Baldness,” while agreeing that we are drifting towards that future indicated by Mr. Eaton, takes much narrower ground, and even combats several of the latter’s conclusions. He be- lieves that the common form of baldness is due entirely to the high hat and the hard felt hat that constrict the blood-vessels which nourish the hair bulbs. He also refers to the peculiar circumstances under which the blood-vessels of the head are distributed, so that they are especially ex- posed to pressure; and to a certain extent he reasons cor- rectly, and, it may be added, zealously, to establish his thesis ; but as I shall have occasion to show, his reasoning 408 Canadian Record of Science. is partial and his explanation inadequate. Both these wri- ters have indicated the direction in which the truth lies, but neither gets at it wholly, as I shall now endeavour to show. That Mr. Eaton is correct in believing that exposure of the bedy to the sun and air has something to do with hair production, any man may prove to his own satisfaction by leaving his arms or other portions of his body uncovered much more than usual, during a holiday season at the sea- side or in the country. But Mr. Haton states the case-alto- gether too strongly for the influence of heredity. The degree to which such peculiarities as baldness are inherit- ed is one of the most disputed matters; though unques- tionably something must be allowed to such tendency, perhaps a good deal. There can be no doubt that the loss of hair and of teeth prematurely are related in fact. | Have such losses a com- mon cause? Mr. Katon’s explanation is disuse. Professor Cope would explain the fact stated by dentists, that the last molar (wisdom) tooth and the lateral incisor of the upper jaw frequently do not appear, by what he calls “retardation” of the growth of the jaws, and to succes- sively prolonged delay in the appearance of the teeth, while these again are related to an enlargement of the upper part of the head and of the brain. Is it not possible that all of these causes and perhaps others may combine to effect this result ? Taking up the case against the stiff hat, Mr. Gouinlock explains how readily the arteries can be compressed, especi- ally when the hair is cropped close; he thinks the fact that below the line of pressure the hair remains, while it disappears above it, is quite clear upon his theory; and to -account for the presence of hair over the temporal region when absent on the crown, he insists that here the temporal muscle acts as a cushion, preventing pressure. But this writer seems to forget that there are superficial and middle temporal arterial branches as well as deep ones, and that it is just these superficial ones (liable to pressure) that have most to do with supplying blood to the hair bulbs. He also takes no account of other methods besides pressure by Retention and Loss of Hair. gan 209) which blood can be cut off from a certain region. The familiar phenomena of blushing and pallor show that the nervous system has a controlling influence over the size of small arteries; and the fact that the hair may become grey in a few hours under violent emotion, carries with it the lesson that in some way the nutrition of the hair is regu- lated by this same nervous system. To understand the physiological bearings of this subject, the somewhat complex relations of the blood-vessels of the brain, the face, the bones and muscles of the head, and of the scalp must be borne in mind. The arteries of the brain find an outlet for their blood, when it has passed through the capillaries and done its work, in those peculiar venous channels lying on the inner tables of the skull known as ‘“‘sinuses” ; these communicate with the veins of the softer osseous tissue (diploe) lying between the main tables of the cranial bones, which again have connections with the veins on the outside of the head. Now it is plain from this series of connections, that pressure on the scalp must influence the whole vascular system of the head back to the arteries of the brain, unless in some way counteracted. Pressure generally affects veins, from their superficial position, much more than arteries. The bad effects of venous dilation are seen in the slow-healing ulcers on the limbs of those with dilated (varicose) veins. Throughout his paper Mr. Gouin- lock has directed his attention almost wholly to arteries rather than to veins. He has nowhere mentioned, what is commonly enough seen by the physician, that anastomotic arterial connections are especially opened up under the exigencies of disease, as from the pressure of tumours, &c. Would nature refuse to combat the hard hat ? Could she not adapt to it in a greater degree than Mr. Gouinlock’s theory supposes? In looking at a plate portraying the course of the arteries of the head, it will be noticed that the terminal branches mount to the vertex of the skull and anastomose with their fellows of the opposite side by very small off- shoots. As it is the smaller branches of arteries that are the most susceptibie to changes in calibre,—can in fact be most readily influenced by the nervous mechanism, it is easy 410 Canadian Record of Science. to understand why that part of the scalp, with its hair bulbs supplied by them should, either from pressure or from les- sening of calibre in response to nervous influence, be the area most to suffer. Hence the explanation of the fact that baldness of the vertex is the most marked. This must be so, however we account for the mal-nutrition, from the anatomical relations of the various blood-vessels. The anthropological bearings of the hair are not without interest and importance. We find all varicties of hair, all degrees of hairiness, and great dissimilarity as to distribution over the body in different races of men. The North American Indians have an abundance of hair on the head, with but little on the face or the rest of the body, while the hairiness of the Ainos has been remarked upon by many observers. Mr. Dickins writing in Nature for April 7th of the current year, states that the hair is most abundant in this latter race just where it would be most useful, as over the sternal, inter-scapular and gluteal regions, where, it may be remarked, the related epidermis itself is also thick. Professor Penhallow,' who has published several papers in this journal on the Ainos, states, in answer to specific enquiry, that the variety found among the Ainos in respect to relative hairiness, is probably explicable by associated climatic differences. If any large civilized com- munity of the present day be examined, the race differ- ences of men will all be found illustrated in this respect. Thus it is to be noticed that individuals and whole families have, like the Indian, abundance of hair on the head with but little elsewhere, while others are generally hairy like the Ainos. As one might expect from their both being dermal structures, an early development of hair &c., from sexual maturity is associated, | am told by a member of the dental profession of this city, with a correspondingly pre- mature appearance of the wisdom teeth. Perhaps, however, such instances ought to be regarded as illustrations of gen- eral acceleration of maturity of the whole organization. It still remains to explain the early baldness of men and the exemption of women. Even if we accede to all that the 1Can. Rec. of Se. II, 119. Retention and Loss of Hair. 411 writers in Popular Science claim, it does not suffice to explain the subject at all adequately. The great increase in the prevalence of all forms of nervous disease, and the modifications wrought in old forms of disease by the greater prominence of the nervous type of human being, points to the fact that our civilization makes calls upon the organiza- tion which tell especially on the nervous system. The strain of life falls in general, it will be conceded, most upon men. Man is the bread-winner; his anxieties, struggles, and dis- appointments, are both many and severe; and man is often prematurely bald for the same reason that he is prematurely old in other respects. Woman is less so because brain stress less frequently falls to her lot. But in connection with this must be taken, to complete the explanation, the fact that as with some races and some males of our own race, the vitality and persistence of the hair of the head in womanis special- ly marked. That overwork of the brain may influence the cephalic circulation (and so the hair) unfavorably, is evi- dent enough from the dark circles beneath the eyes, owing to venous congestion, on the morning after unduly severe mental exercise, not to mention the headache from a similar cause ; and it is not surprising that the vertex of the head, with its relatively variable and feeble blood supply, should suffer most—in a word, that the overworked or overworried man should be bald—unless, as in most women, there is unusual vitality of his hair bulbs. Baldness is one more of the many warnings of our day—one of Nature’s protests against the irregular and excessive activity maintained in this restless age. The Royal Society of Canada is actively forwarding the movement suggested by Sir William Dawson, for an Im- perial Union of Geological Surveys and Societies. This is an effort which promises large benefits, and should be heartily supported. AD ere Canadian Record of Science. THE DISTRIBUTION AND PHYSICAL AND PAst-GEO- LOGICAL RELATIONS OF British NortTH AMERICAN PLANTS. By A. T. Drummonp. Some years since I had occasion to refer, in some detail, in this journal, te the leading features in the distribution of plants in Ontario and Quebec. Since that time, not only has a federal union of the whole country, from the Atlantic: to the Pacific, been consummated, but our knowledge of its flora has been greatly extended, and it is now possible with some reasonable degree of accuracy, to trace the range of most of the phenogamous or flowering plants, and of the horsetails and ferns. The carices and grasses will still need considerable attention from botanical explorers before it will be possible to speak with confidence of their range. The great breadth here of the continent, extending from Nova Scotia to British Columbia, and its varied physical features and the climatic effects resulting from these, have developed remarkable differences in the flora. There are vast mountain ranges with numerous peaks of great height, enormous stretches of wooded country, extending north- ward to the extreme limit of trees, great areas of prairie lana and of park-like country, extensive inland seas of fresh water, and a coast line of some thousands of miles, not only within the northern temperate zone, but extending even more largely within the Arctic circle. Such marked physical conditions have necessarily given rise to differ- ences in circumstances and climate, and have developed distinctive floras, whilst the present connection of the Dominion, along its southern boundary, with the northern United States, and the past geological history of the northern parts of the continent, have led to marked rela- tions with the floras of foreign countries. It will be the object of this paper to trace the connection of the general flora of the Dominion with the floras of some foreign coun- tries, to illustrate the distinctive floras of the different parts of the Dominion, and to indicate the relations of these dis- British North American Plants. 413 tinctive floras to associated physical and past geological conditions. The considerable resemblance between the floras of Japan and the River Amur on the one hand and the Northern United States and Canada on the other, has before now attracted attention. A large number of species are identical, whilst some others in America are represented in Japan and the Amur country by varieties which, no doubt, all have more or less their origin in the changed conditions under which the plants in their new homes exist. The more complete knowledge we now have of the range of these species in Canada, has thrown some new light on the interesting problems which avise in tracing the origin of this identity, and the relations of our flora to that of Europe. Messrs. A. Franchet and Lud. Savatier have in their “ Enumeratio Plantarum in Japonia,”’ (Paris, 1879), considerably extended our knowledge of the Japanese flora, and I have taken them as the authority for the occurrence of plants in Japan, whilst Maximowicz is my authority for the plants of the Amur. Ina list which I have compiled from Franchet and Savatier’s volumes, and which excludes all naturalized plants and garden escapes, there are 221 species common to Japan and Canada. The list will be increased, no doubt, as Japan becomes botanically better known. Of this number of identical species, 150 are found in Europe and 85 are also in Alaska. The range of these 221 identical species in Canada, however, suggests some interesting questions. The occurrence of very many European plants in Arctic and temperate America had long ago attracted attention, and had given rise to various hypotheses, that generally accepted being that in some comparatively recent epoch there had been a connection between Ambrica and Europe which had resulted in an in- termingling of the plants of the two continents. In recent years Prof. Asa Gray has suggested the probability of the migration of EKuropean plants to America having been across the continent of Asia, and this suggestion he was led to make by finding in Japan many European and American species. After a careful analysis of the range in Canada of 414 Canadian Record of Science. these identical species, I have not been able to fully follow out the conclusions of others. The analysis may be sum- marized thus :-— = 28| 23/88 DisTRIBUTION IN CANADA. a6 Si se | ses LS ~=s sre Sal 39 | 35 1. Generally distributed from Atlantic to (PACITIC chats ora:ie'ojs sale seraisiale anode ek wetaetoter 75 44 2. Somewhat general from Atlantic west to lees at}3} loo00Gn os0000G0000 aoo000 As000c 42 31 3 3. Not west of Province of Ontario. ....-..++. 38 il 1 4, Northernand Arctic in range........-+e0 32 23 23 5. British Columbia exclusively, but almost entirely northern ...... eecesesceeesere 11 2 10 6. British Columbia and north-eastward..... 4 1 3 7. British Columbia, but eastern in United States though not so in Canada........ 3 il 1 8. Rocky Mountains only ...... 2.2... s-ceee 1 0 0 There is sufficient interest attached to this table to war- rant the enumeration of those plants which do not rangé west of the Province of Ontario, and of those which are exclusively British Columbian. The letter E affixed to the name of a plant in the accom- panying lists indicates that it is also European, the letter A _ that it is also Alaskan. J.—PLANtTs NoT WEST OF THE PROVINCE OF ONTARIO. Hepatica triloba, Chaix. [E.] [A.] Caulophyllum thalictroides, Mx. Brasenia peltata, Psh. Viola rostrata, Psh. VY. Canadensis, L. Geranium Robertianum, L. [E.] Vicia Cracca, L. [E.] British North American Plants. 415 Waldstenia fragrarioides, Trat. Penthorum sedoides, L. Myriophyllum verticellatum, L. [E.] Lythrum salicaria, L. [E.] Viburnum lantanoides, Mx. Cryptotzenia Canadensis, D. C. Galium asprellum, Mx. Monotropa uniflora, L. M. Hypopitys, L. [E.] Polygonum maritimum, L. [E.] Pilea pumila, Gray. Betula alba, L. var. LE. | B. lenta, L. Symplocarpus foetidus, Salisb. Zostera marina, L. [E.] Potamogeton hybridus, Mx. P. crispus, L. [E.] Pogonia ophioglossoides, Nutt. Lipparis liliifolia, Rich. Trillium erectum, L. Carex filiformis, L.- [E.] C. vulgaris, Fries. [E.] C. rostrata, Mx. Agrostis perennans, Tuck. Millium effusum, L. [E.] Scolopendrium vulgare, Smith. [E.] Athyrium thelypterioides, Mx. Dryopteris thelypteris, Swartz. [E.] Polystichum filixmas, Swartz. [E.] Osmunda cinnamomea, L. Ophioglossum vulgatum, L. [E.] IJ.—Puants Onty Founp 1n British CoLUMBIA IN CANADA. Geranium erianthum, D C. [A.] Rubus spectabilis, Psh. [A.] Geum calthifolium, Menz. [A.] Ribes laxiflorum, Psh. [A.] Cassiope lycopodioides, Don. [A.] Rhododendron Kamtschaticum, Pall. [A.] Trientalis Europea, L. A. [E.] Swertia perennis, L. A. [E.] Menyanthes crista-galli, Menz. [A.] Fritillaria Kamtschatcensis, L. [A.] Calystegia soldanella, R. Br. 416 Canadian Record of Science. Erythronium grandiflorum, Psh., and Hpipactis gigantea, Hook., occur in Oregon and Washington Territory and Japan, and may yet be found in British Columbia. Geum calthifolium, Menzies, Geranium erianthum, D.C., and Swertia perennis, L., are recorded from the “ north-west coast” and are not yet distinctly localized as from British Columbia. Menzesia ferruginea, Smith, Trautvetterea palmata, F. & M., and Spirea Aruncus, L., in Canada, belong to the west coast flora, but are also eastern in the United States, and have therefore not been added to the list. On the Amur there are 78 species not included in Japa- nese lists, but which also occur in Canada, making in all 299 pheenogamous plants, ferns and equisetums common to Canada, and Japan or the Amur. Of these 78 Amur plants, 57 are European and 30 are also Alaskan. Carrying the analysis still further there are seven species not in Japan but common to the Amur and Canada, and which in Canada do not extend, so far as yet known, west of Ontario, and of these seven all are European. Again, of these 78 Amur and Canadian plants, there are four species exclusively in British Columbia in Canada, but all northern in that province and occurring in Alaska, whilst none of them are European. Considerable interest centres in these brief lists, the one carrying us back to prehistoric times, the other illustrating the influence, among other forces, of currents operating in past ages as well as at the present day. The first list indi- cates thirty-eight species found to be identical in Japan and Canada, but which in Canada do not range west of the Pro- vince of Ontario, and are chiefly not west of Lake Superior, leaving thus an immense gap where they are absent. Two other species, Phyllodice taxifolia, Salisb., snd Diapensia Lapponica, L., which in Canada are northern in range, are not, as yet, known west of Hudson Bay, and may be added to the list of eastern species, making with the Amur species the number forty-seven. Of these, thus common to the eastern side of this continent and Japan and the Amur, only one, Hepatica triloba, Chaix, occurs in Alaska, and even there it is not known north of Sitcha. Now, if the migration of European plants was eastward across Asia British North American Plants. 417 and thence to America, can this immense gap be accounted for? Or, are we to draw the conclusion that the migration was not eastward across Asia, but westward to America by connecting stretches of land and by currents, existing in post-pliocene and earlier times, but which subsequent geo- logical changes-have effaced ? Or, which I think is a more reasonable hypothesis, were there not, to some extent, facilities for migration in both ways, with, it may even be, Canada as the country of origin of many species which afterwards distributed themselves in both Asia and Europe. I shall discuss these three considerations separately. With regard to the first consideration that, if it is con- ceded that the migration of plants from Europe took place across Asia, can it be explained why there is such an im- mense gap in the range of numbers of these Huropean plants, it is to be observed that they are absent from Alaska, from British Columbia, and from the prairies and the vast wooded country to the north of them. The near proximity of Alaska to Siberia, the shallow seas immedia- tely surrounding the Aleutian Islands, the Kurile Islands and the Kamtschatcan coast, and the peculiar lie of these islands, all tend to convey the idea of a probable connection between Asia and America in tertiary times. This con- nection, a more moderate climate than now exists would have made an effective highway by means of which Siberian, Japanese, and American plants would have intermingled, and such milder climate did exist in early tertiary times there. The Japanese current—the larger branch of which crosses the Pacific Ocean from Japan and skirts the Alaskan and British Columbian coasts—would have also lent its aid during the great lapse of time since, in carrying seeds from the Asiatic to the American coast. It is, however, a singu- lar fact that there are (see list already given) only eleven species which in Canada are exclusively British Columbian, and which at the same time are found in Japan, and that, of these, nine are not only exclusively northern in British Columbia, but are likewise Alaskan, whilst the other two are coast forms. Two only of these eleven species, T’rientalis Europea and Swertia perennis, are European. This would 418 Canadian Record of Science. at first appear to indicate that the immigration had an eastward flow from Asia rather than a mingling of both American and Asiatic floras. It might, however, be sup- posed to prove that the migration was only from Japan and the Siberian coast, and was entirely by the Japan current, the direction of which is towards Alaska and then down the Alaskan and British Columbian coasts, any exceptions to the course of this migration being due to exceptional causes. Or, when the fact is considered that out of towards four hundred species, which in Canada do not range east of the Rockies, and most of which do not extend north into Alaska, the two coast forms already referred to, Calystegia soldanella R. Br., and Rubus spectabilis, Psh., and a rare few, which like Hrythronium grandiflorum, Psh., and Kpipactis gigantea, Hook, will no doubt be found in British Columbia, alone likewise occur in Japan, it may rather indicate that the British Columbian flora is of more recent age than the general and northern floras. of the Dominion, or, at any © rate, that its occurrence in British Columbia is of more recent date than the period when the intermingling of American and Asiatic plants took place. British Columbia is, geologically speaking, recent. The Rocky Mountain region has, at least in the United States, considerable thick- nesses of both Miocene and Pliocene strata, and it is there- fore certain that the great disturbances which resulted in the final elevation to their present height of these huge mountain ridges which parallel the western coast of North America, took place about or after the close of the Tertiary period. We can even conceive it possible that some of the same great convulsions which produced these mountain chains—one of which extends to the extremity of the Alaskan peninsula—may also have resulted in the severing of the connection between Asia and America, and the crea- tion of the Aleutian and neighbouring islands, where for- merly mainland existed. That the present flora of the northern part of this continent was in existence at the close of the Tertiary period, there is little doubt. It was well established at the deposition of the Leda clays of Quebec, and at that time there were many representatives there British North American Plants. 419 of the present European flora. As far back as even the Lignite Tertiary of Eocene age, there were in the New England States and Manitoba, representatives of the modern genera Populus, Cinnamomum, Fagus, Quercus, Platanus, Sassafras, Nyssa, Carpinus, Aristolochia, Onoclea, LIllicium and Sapindus, indicating a somewhat more southern climate than now exists, and some of the species were apparently specifically identical with plants in Canada at the present day. Ifthe view can then be entertained that the inter- mingling of Asiatic and American species took place prior to the elevation of the Rocky Mountains to their present height, and prior, therefore, to the appearance of British Columbia at that period, it will fully explain the more recent establishment in that province of its present flora and the absence of representatives of that flora in Japan. The Rocky Mountains, as well as the prairies, would be effective barriers to the spread’ of many species across the continent. The mountains would present high elevations, special climatic conditions, and a rugged character, whilst the prairies with their vast, open, level, generally treeless stretches of country, would afford constant exposure to dry- ing winds and the sun’s rays, and in certain sections, to the not infrequent recurrence of drought. Each of these condi- tions would, in its turn, prove fatal to the progress of cer- tain trees and plants, and thus, collectively, large numbers would have barriers raised to their range. The prairies have been formed since the elevation of the Rocky Moun- tains, and are, in some places, still in process of formation, Plants and trees which had not, prior to the formation of these prairies, spread themselves across the continent, would not now be able to extend their range, if the physical and climatic conditions presented by these prairies were un- favourable to progress. With regard to the second consideration that the migra- tion has been westward from Kurope, there is some argu- ment to support it, difficult as it may be from the present relative condition of land and water, to trace any connect- ing lines of communication. In a paper in this Journal (Canadian Naturalist, vol. 7, p. 221,) when discussing the 420 Canadian Record of Science. marine origin of the Erie clays, so widely distributed in Ontario, I showed that there was some ground for the con- clusion that the Alpine flora of the White Mountains of New England, the boreal colonies of plants on the headlands of Lake Superior, the sea-shore species now spread around the Great Lakes, and the fossil plants of the Leda clays near Ottawa had, probably, all—with regard to their present localities—a contemporaneous origin, and were likewise contemporaneous with the formation of the Erie clays. Now, when it is observed that a very large majority of these species, including all recognized in the Leda clays excepting Potentilla Canadensis and Populus balsamifera, are also found in Kurope, the conclusion is inevitable that this interming- ling of the floras of the two continents of America and Europe, must have taken place at or prior to the formation of the Leda clays, unless Hastern Canada is to be regarded as the centre of dispersion, and that the general flora of the two continents can date back its origin to or anterior to that time. The identity in species in Kurope and America is not, however, confined to certain of the plants hitherto referred to, and to certain of the Arctic plants. There are numerous others of temperate range not found in Japan, which are common to the two continents of America and Europe. Many of them have a general range from the Atlantic to the Pacific, others again do not cross the Rocky Mountains, whilst some, among them the following, do not extend westward beyond Ontario and Quebec :— Drosera longifolia, L., (in Manitoba also.) Sagina procumbens, L. Spergularia rubra, Pres}. Potentilla argentea, L. Circzea Lutetiana L. Myriophyllum verticillatum, L. Scrophularia nodosa, L. Veronica officinalis, L. Stachys palustris, L. Salsola Kali, L. Typha angustifolia, L. Naias flexilis, Rostk. Potamogeton gramineus, L. British North American Plants. 421 Microstylis monophyllos, Lindl. Juncus articulatus, L. J. Stygius, L. These facts clearly prove that if Europe is to be regarded as the point of origin of these various species, their course of distribution must have been westward to Hastern America over some connecting links of communication. If this distribution had been eastward across Asia to this con- tinent, there would have been found full traces of its course not only in Asia but in the vast area of country lying be- tween Ontario and Quebec and the Pacific coast. And yet there are about sixty Kuropean species which are not found in Canada west of the Province of Ontario, and a consider- able number of these are not in Japan. The large proportion of these identical species which are arctic, antarctic, alpine, or high northern, would imply means of communication between the two continents in high latitudes or at high elevations, and the full representa- tion of aquatic plants, especially among the Typhacec, Lemnacee, Naidacee, and Juncacee, would indicate ample facilities for the natural distribution of fresh water plants, as well as a coast line for the maritime plants. Currents, no doubt, frequently account for eccentricities in range, but in this case, the present gulf stream flows in the reverse direction to the hitherto received notion of the course of the migration. The third consideration that there were facilities for migration, both eastward across Asia and westward to America, and that Canada may even have been the point of origin of many species now apparently native in both Europe and America, is the most reasonable view to take. It has been already shown that there are numerous Huro- pean species at present thoroughly established throughout the eastern half of Canada, though unknown in the western, which have no representatives in Asia, whilst, on the other hand, there are many European plants limited to the same side of the American continent, which are fcund native in Japan as well. The conclusion seems inevitable that there must have been facilities for range in both directions. 422 Canadian Record of Science. Another circumstance would seem to show that the migration may have been across America into Asia. The tendency to variation in plants, will result from or be facilitated by the application of new conditions, and once a variation is permanently established, the plant is unlikely to return to its original form under the influence of a still newer set of conditions. The tendency would rather be to further variation. Now, if a species originating in Kurope, migrated to America by way of Asia, and variation should take place in Asia, under the influence of the new set of circumstances which its progress across that continent would present, we would hardly expect to find the plant when it, in the long lapse of time, reached America, return- ing to the original form which it still possesses in Europe. It is much more probable that the American plant, as we now find it, must have come direct from Europe, and that the Asiatic variety was the result of the further migration of the American immigrant into Asia under new conditions which assisted variation, or that the European plant migrated both eastward and westward, undergoing change in the one route and preserving its originality in the other. A third hypothesis is that America was the centre of dis- persion. To illustrate these ideas, I give two lists of plants occurring, some on the Amur River, and all in Japan, the one list of species found in both Europe and America, the other of species exclusively American, but each species showing a variation in Japan. My authority for the Japanese varieties ure Messrs. Franchet and Savatier. AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN. Species in America. Represented in Japan by Calfhaspalustriss place ceteelisciseten emer C. palustris y. Sibirica, Reg. Cerastium yulgatum, L. .....--.«+...... ©. vulgatum vy. glandulosa, Koch. - Honckenya peploides, Ehrh............. H. peploides v. oblongifolia, Gray. Witgncrengthi, Wiosooncdds00dosdO0 sen G00r V.cracca v- canescens, Max., and vy. Japonica, Mig. ATITEIMBPESTETIN Gs Me epeyeeletelelelsialeticis ot akee ete L. perenne Vv. Sibirica, Mig. ihn G irk ey boododd.s saaeasocdoond H. Lupulus v. cordifolia, Max. ANS Tai TEL DNC gst o, edo snosude oon A. viridis v. Sibirica, Reg. Jxe stops WWallG los cocpHpdodabaenreoseoo A. incana v. glauca, Ait. Betula alba, L., in Europe, and v. popu- lifolia, Spach, in Canada-..-.+.++e0- B. alba v. vulgaris, Reg. British North American Plants. 423 Veratrum album, in Europe, and vy. Eschscholtzia, Gray, in‘Canada------ V. album v. grandiflorum, Max. Chrysoplenium alternifolium, L......... C. alternifolium y. Japonicum, Max. AMERICAN. Species in America. Represented in Japan by Viola pubescens, Ait.....-...... SEAS Hi VY. pubescens v. brevyistipulata, Fran. Potentilla Pennsylvanica, L....... olafetele P. Pennsylvanica v- hypoleuca, Eeg. Thuja gigantea, Nutt......----..-....068. T. gigantea _v. Japonica, Max. Under cultivation only. Scirpus eriophorum, Max......-.-...... S. eriophorum y. Nipponica, Fr. Acer spicatum, Lam ....--+: -...e..e.ee A. spicatum vy. Ukurunduense, Midd. These examples would appear to establish that taking the plants in Europe in the one case and those in Canada in the other, as the types of the species, the variation has taken place with the progress of the plant westward. Variation has taken place even in the migration of species to British Columbia. Thus, Actwa spicata, L., of Kurope, has become Actea spicata v. rubra, Ait, in Ontario and Que- bec, and A. spicata v. arguta, Torr, in British Columbia and Alaska. Potentilla anserina, Li., in Europe and Eastern Canada has become P. anserina v. grandis, Lehm., in British Columbia, and Sambucus pubens, Mx., of our eastern pro- vinces has become S. pubens v. arborescens, T. G., in British Columbia and Alaska. That there has also been an eastward migration of plants from Asia into America is illustrated by the following plants among others, which occur in both Japan and Alaska, but do not range beyond Alaska eastward or south- ward into Canada. Anemone narcissiflora, L. Potentilla fragiformis, Willd. Saxifraga Dahurica, Pallas. Epilobium affine, Bong. Cnicus Kamtschaticus, Maxion. Cassiope stelleriana, D. C. Phyllodice Pallasiana, Don. Primula cuneifolia, Ledeb. Gentiana frigida, Hoenke. (To be continued.) 424 Canadian Record of Science. THE Royan Soctrety or CANADA. The Sixth Annual Meeting of the Royal Society of Can- ada was held at Ottawa on the 20th of May. The attend- ance was fairly large, Section IV. being most strongly represented both by papers presented and by members attending. Among the general measures introduced, it is gratifying to note that initial steps were taken, looking to the establishment of a Society Library. The address of the President, Rev. T. EH. Hamel, which was delivered at the opening of the Wednesday evening meeting, dealt chiefly with the present condition of scien- tific education and the choice of suitable vocations by young men. Referring to the opportunities for scientific education in Canada, he urged the necessity of giving this important question much more attention than has been bestowed upon it in the past. The officers elected for the following year were :— President—Dr. G. Lawson, of Halifax. Vice-President—Sandford Fleming, C.H., of Ottawa. Secretary—Dr. J. G. Bourinot, of Ottawa. Treasurer—Dr. J. A. Grant. Of the Sections, the presidents elected were :— T, M. Faucher de St. Maurice, of Quebec; IJ, Rev. Dr. G. M. Grant, of Kingston; III, Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, of Mon- treal; IV, Dr. Robert Bell, of Ottawa. In opening Section ITI, the President, Mr. Thos. Macfar- lane, read an address on “The Utilization of Waste.” He referred particularly to improvements made during the last twenty-five years at the Friburg Iron Works, where all arsenical, sulphurous and other fumes are now condensed and converted into merchantable articles, which yield a fair return on the cost of production. The lands surround- ing these works are now cropped profitably, whereas in former years the iron masters were obliged to pay heavy sums for damage done by the wasted and noxious vapors. The separation of phosphorus from iron and the direct application of the phosphated slag as a fertilizer, as now being done at Middleburgh, was mentioned as an instance The Royal Society of Canada. 425 both of improved manipulation and the profitable applica- tion of an inferior element. The sulphur residues of soda works, and the manganese and calcium chloride waste of the bleach manufacture, were also considered. Several papers of value were read. Among them we may note the following :— In dealing with milk analysis, Dr. Ellis, of Toronto, gave a resumé of the various processes employed, and exhibited a table showing comparative results obtained by each method. Mr. Thos. Macfarlane, of Ottawa, pointed out the advan- tages of the asbestos method of milk analysis, which seems to possess special merits over the older processes. A known quantity of milk is poured upon the asbestos, dried, weighed and percolated with petroleum ether, the opera- tion being conducted in tubes specially made for the pur- pose. Expedition and accuracy are advantages gained by this method—a dozen samples being operated upon at once. Mr. A. McGill, of Ottawa, presented “ Notes on the Anal- ysis of Coffee,” and among other things showed that. the extent of adulteration with chicory, can be readily deter- mined by exhausting with boiling water and taking the specific gravity of the solution at 60° F. Dr. B. J. Harrington, of Montreal, dealt with “The Sap of the Ash-leaved Maple (egundo aceroides). This paper gave the details of an examination of the sap of the agh- leaved maple, carried out in the month of April last. Two trees, thirteen years old, and grown at Montreal from the seed, were tapped early in April. The sap was examined daily until the 20th of the month, after which the flow ceased entirely. Tables were given, showing the daily variations in the flow and density of the sap, as well as the percentage of sugar,&c. From the results stated, it appears that the average proportion of sugar in the sap of one tree was 2.33 per cent., and in that of the other 2.42 per cent. The mineral constituents of the sap were found to consist chiefly of calcium salts, including a considerable proportion of calcium phosphate. The interest of these determina- tions is increased from the fact that the sugar obtained was of a very fine flavor and quality, while the ease and rapid- 28 426 Canadian Record of Science. ity with which the trees can be grown, renders this a somewhat important source of sugar. The paper also con- tained determinations of sugar in the sap of the true sugar maple (Acer saccharinum), the red maple (Acer rubrum) and the butternut (Juglans cinerea). The most important paper of the section related to “The Digestibility of Certain Varieties of Bread,” by Dr. R. F. Ruttan, of Montreal. The results stated were derived from a series of experiments on bread made with yeast, baking powder, &c., and included statements relative to the retard- ing influence of several mineral salts upon digestion. Other papers of this section were as follows :— “On a Specimen of Canadian Native Platinum from Bri- tish Columbia,” by Dr. G. C. Hoffmann ; “ Stelliform Snow Crystals, in Relation to Stellate Crystallizations Generally,” by Prof. E. J. Chapman; ‘“‘ The Indirect Analysis of Phos- phate Samples, as a Check on Commercial Analyses,” by Prof. E. J. Chapman; ‘‘ Extension of the Use of Oblique Co-ordinates in Geometry of Three Dimensions,” by Dr. Johnson, and “Investigation as to Maximum Bending Movements at Points of Support of Continuous Girders of n Equal Bends,” by Prof. H. T. Bovey. In Section IV. papers of very great interest and value, and embracing more than the usual range of subjects, were presented. Those by Sir Wm. Dawson “ On the Correlation of the Geological Structure of the Maritime Provinces of Canada with that of Western Europe,” and ‘“ Notes on Fossil Woods from the Western Territories of Canada,” are printed elsewhere in abstract. The address by the President of the Section, the Abbé Laflamme, specially related to Dr. Sarrasin as one of the most eminent of the earlier scientists of Canada. Dr. Sar- rasin was Royal Physician at Quebec in the early part of the 18th century. He was deeply interested in the study of natural history, but although he discovered our common pitcher plant, which was named in his honor by Tournefort Sarracenia, and made several collections of plants, his interest was chiefly in Zoology. In this department of science he did some very valuable work, which was The Royal Society of Canada. 427 embodied in memoirs to the Academie des Sciences. Of all those who labored to advance the cause of science in the earlier period of Canadian history, Sarrasin occupies the first place. Of the botanical papers we note the following :— The ‘Marine Alge of New Brunswick,” by Dr. G. U. Hay, referred to the more important species of Marine Algee found on the eastern and southern coasts of New Brunswick, with notes on their distribution and economic uses. ‘The occurrence of rare forms, such as Fucus serratus and Polysiphonia jibrillosa were mentioned, with particular reference to the localities in which they are found. To the paper was appended a list of the Marine Alge of the Mari- time Provinces, enumerating with notes, some eighty-four species. In his paper on the Canadian Species of Picea, Dr. George Lawson pointed out that descriptions of three species of Picea, natives of Canada, have long existed in botanical works. Lumbermen have also commonly recognized as distinct, the white, red and black spruces, and the real or supposed differences that exist in the qualities of their timber. Yet the specific limits of these three important forest trees have not been clearly defined, and some botan- ists of unquestionable authority, doubt whether they are not all forms of one species, passing into each other through intermediate variations. The object of this paper was to define with more precision the specific limits of these trees, and their relations to each other. Attention was called to characters, hitherto overlooked, whereby these species imay be more clearly distinguished. An attempt was also made to refer to their proper species, the several names used by the numerous writers who have described these trees. In a contribution to our knowledge of ‘“‘ Arctic Plants Occurring in New Brunswick, with Notes on Their Distri- bution,” by Rev. James Fowler, the author shows that the laws governing the geographical distribution of plants are not fully understood. Their limits are not determined by parallels of latitude, nor altogether by isothermal lines. 428 Canadian Record of Science. The Lapland flora is very rich, the Siberian excessively poor in the same latitude. Before the glacial period a homogeneous flora covered the Arctic regions. It was driven south by the cold and at the return of a higher tem- perature followed the retreating snows to the north, whence it had originally migrated. During their homeward jour- ney, many forms found congenial retreats in New Bruns- wick, and they linger there still. The causes that have secured this result are considered in the following aspects :— I. Geographical position and surface contour. The Pro- vince is divided into three geographical sections, each of which possesses characteristics fitting it for the abode of Arctic plants. Il. The Arctic current and its fogs cool the temperature along the sea coast, causing cold rains and sea-breezes in spring. The cold water and fogs of the Bay of Fundy are favorable to the growth of Arctic plants. The average temperature of the seasons along the coast, according to the meteorological reports, shows a cold area. III. Division of the Arctic regions into five districts. List of Arctic plants in New Brunswick in tabular form, showing the Arctic district in which each occurs. In “ A Review of Canadian Botany from the First Settle- ment of New France to the year 1800,” by Professor D. P. Penhallow, the author brings together the most important facts relating to the general history of the early Canadian botanists. It is shown that, during the long period from the time of Jacques Cartier to the beginning of the present century, the botanists who took any active part in develop- ing the flora of Canada, were very few, and of these none were native born. A just tribute is paid to the early mis- sionaries, whose work in botany, though limited, was often of a valuable character. It was not until a comparatively late period that explorers manifested. any special interest in such work, so that prior to the advent of Peter Kalm such progress as was made, depended wholly upon the missionaries and a few resident officers or physicians, whose names, like those of Sarrasin and Gaultier, find a permanent place in the history of botanical progress. Several impor- The Royal Society of Canada. 499 tant points receive additional light, and facts of interest in various directions connected with the early flora and his- tory of the country are stated. The paper is the first part of that which, at a later date, will present a complete out- line of Canadian botany. It is, therefore, appropriate that it should embrace a list ofall the botanical writers for the period named, together with brief biographical data, and a list of each author’s publications so far as they relate to the botany of Canada. - In an account of ‘“ The Flora of Hudson Strait, with Re- marks on the General Distribution of Plants on the Northern Shores of America,’ Dr. Lawson states that the northern plants form an element of interest in the Canadian flora, and have received special attention from Sir John Richard- son, Sir Joseph Hooker, and other writers. Collections have been made from time to time and lists published, asin Myer’s “ Labrador Flora” and the reports of the Arctic ex- peditions. But our knowledge of these plants is still neces- sarily imperfect. Recent collections have been made by Dr. Bell and others at stations in Hudson Strait, and lists published from determinations made by Prof. Macoun. These have been supplemented by additional material and - information obtained in the summer of 1886, by Mr. Payne, of the Meteorological Service, and Mr. J. W. Tyrrell, F.L.S. Mr. Payne made careful observations on the nature of the special localities or habitats where the plants were picked, as regards nature of soil, elevation, protection, &c.; also of the periodical phenomena, dates of budding or sprouting, leafing, flowering, seed ripening and autumn withering. These observations are tabulated. One object of this paper is to assist in removing the hindrance to the collection of material and information of this desirable kind, due to the circumstance that many of our northern plants are imper- fectly described under a multiplicity of names through scattered and rare or inaccessible works. The geological papers were numerous and embraced several of importance. ‘The Utica Formation in Canada,” by H. M. Ami, gave a sketch of that division of the ‘ Cam- brian Silurian’ or ‘ Ordovician System,’ in which new facts 430 Canadian Record of Science. in regard to itsstratigraphy and paleontology are recorded. In “Notes on the Physiography and Geology of Aroos- took County, Maine,” Professor L. W. Bailey, gives a paper supplementary to that published in the Transactions of last year, on ‘‘ The Geology of Maine, New Brunswick and Que- bec.” It treats more particularly of that portion of Aroos- took County, Maine, which lies along the frontier of New Brunswick, and is included between the St. John River and its tributaries, the Fish River, and the Aroostook. -The strata exposed along the last named stream, between Ash- land and Presque Isle, are compared with those previously described about Square and Eagle Lakes, on the east branch of Fish River; and additional evidence, derived both from stratigraphy and fossils, is furnished, tending to show that, within the area referred to, the rocks previously regarded as Devonian are really of Silurianage. Indirectly, the facts detailed are of interest as bearing on the geology of Carle- ton, Victoria and Madawaska counties, New Brunswick, and the region of Lake Temiscouata, in Quebec, in each of which similar relations have been observed. “Some Recent Developments in Archean Geology,” by Andrew ©. Lawson, deals with such recent work in Archean geology, particularly in the Lake Superior region, as tends to modify commonly accepted notions of rock metamor- phism. The various kinds of crystalline rocks which, under the old theory, were regarded as typically metamorphic, are considered briefly, and their true origin and history, as re- vealed by microscope methods of investigation, are stated. It is held by the writer that the term metamorphic can at present be applied only to a small portion of the rock formerly so designated, and that even this limited applica- _ tion will probably be still further restricted when the rocks become better known. The stratigraphical and petrographical work of Professor Irving of the U. 8. Geological Survey is next briefly review- ed, the principal results of which are the correlation of the Huronian with the Animike and its equivalents on the south shore of Lake Superior; the establishment of the un- conformity of these formations to the older rocks, and the The Royal Society of Canada. 431 reclaiming of the Huronian in its various geographical groups from the more distinctly crystalline complex rocks which may properly be called Archean. The rocks of the Archean complex thus simplified by the removal of the Huronian, are next considered in the light of observations made by the writer in the Lake of the Woods and Rainy Lake regions, and the origin of the rocks commonly called Laurentian, together with their age relatively to other rocks of the Archean complex, is discussed. In “ Rock Stretching,” by the same author, the writer refers br iefly to the interesting observations and conclusions of Lehmann, Baltnzer, Reusch and other investigators in Kurope on the phenomena of the stretching and squeezing of crystalline rocks under the enormons pressures which have effected the folding of the earth’s crust. Instances of stretching are described in rocks from the Rainy Lake region as observed not only in the field, but also, more par- ticularly, in thin sections, under the microscope. Diabases and quartz-porphyries are dealt with more especially, and examples of the shattering and tearing asunder of their con- stituent minerals are given. An attempt is also made to reduce to measurement the extent to which such stretching may go without the complete obliteration of He original structure of the rock. In a communication ‘On the Classification of the Trilobites,’ Professor. E. J. Chapman, proposes a new grouping of these indistinct crustaceans; one based essen- tially on struc‘ural in place of stratigraphic affinities. Since the very general rejection of Barrande’s classification—the leading subdivisions of which are based on a single special character—stratigraphic considerations have unduly in- fluenced, it is contended, the proposed collocations of these types. Many forced and arbitrary groupings have thus been made; and forms, on the other hand, closely related by general structure, have been widely separated. Lines of evolutionary descent, where traceable, become thus obscured. In the proposed classification, four leading sec- tions, with thirteen groups and twenty-three families, are adopted. 432 Canadian Record of Science. A paper by G. F. Matthew on “ Illustrations of the Fauna of the St. John Group. No. IV. On the Smaller Hyed Trilobites of Division I, with a Few Remarks on the Species of the Higher Divisions of the Group,” deals with trilobites including representaiives of the genera Ellipso- cephalus, Agnostus, Liostracus, Ptychoparia and Soleno- plura. The author proposes to avoid some of the confusion as to descriptions of trilobites, by limiting the characters by which the several genera are defined. The classifications of the English, German, Scandinavian and American pale- ontologists are reviewed. Different genera are compared by tabulating their leading characters. The author points out the difference in the young stages, and traces their development. The necessity of recognizing the changes which take place during growth is pointed out. Compara- tively little is yet known of the origin of the primordial fauna, and it is shown to be unlikely that the variety of types found at the base of the Cambrian system, all had their beginning then. It may be surmised that the ances- tors of the primordial forms had their origin in some hitherto unexplored part of the earth—perhaps the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. The second part of the paper refers to the higher Cam- brian faunas of the Acadian region. The St. John group appears to represent nearly the whole Cambrian age. A collection of fossils from Cape Breton, examined by the wuthor, throws some light on the life of this group of rocks. The fauna of the Potsdam sandstone is considered equiva- lent to that of the shallow-water deposits of the St. John group. A paper of considerable interest was that presented by Mr. Amos Bowman, of the Geological Survey, “On the Gold-bearing Rocks of British Columbia.” The author described the formations represented in the Cariboo dis- trict, with their characteristic localities and subdivisions. The unconsolidated tertiary deposits of Cariboo, better known as its deep-placer mining ground, was also consid- ered, after which followed descriptions of other mining districts in British Columbia, less noted than Cariboo; the The Royal Society of Canada. 433 middle and lower Fraser River districts; the Fraser River gold-bearing slates of paleeozoic age; the mesozoic and ter- tiary rocks yielding gold; the later tertiary auriferous deposits generally ; the post-tertiary auriferous deposits in the districts described ; and finally, an account is given of the discovery of the hidden wealth. It was always a ques- tion of enrichment in gold to a stage for profitable mining. The conditions of practicable placer-mining were eluci- dated, as well as the first gathering of the gold into quartz veins. The paper concludes with a brief description of the orography and the rocks of the Cordilleran system in Canadian territory, their character as compared with the Laurentian-Appallachian system, and the significance of some of the geological features in relation to national development. Some additional facts relative to glacial action are con- tributed by Dr. J. W. Spencer, in “Notes on the Hrosive Power of Glaciers as seen in Norway.” The three principal glaciers of Norway were visited by the author in 1886. It has hitherto been supposed that stones and boulders are always held in the bottom of the glacier with sufficient firmness to cause them to grind or groove the surface of the rock on which the glacier moves, but the author ques- tions this in cases where the temperature is near the melt- ing point, and gives examples of what he saw. Owing to its viscous or plastic nature, the ice then flows around obstacles, instead of abraiding them as a rigid body would do. At low temperatures, ice is capable of holding stones and sand like graver’s tools, and when its mass is much mixed with them, it no doubt planes, scratches and polishes the rock-surface. The action of glacier-ice on meeting with solid obstructions, and in ploughing up loose materials, is described from the author’s own observations. The tend- ency of his notes is to show that the erosive power of for- mer glaciers in excavating lake-basins, etc., has, perhaps, been overrated, and he supplies a plea in favour of the action of ice carried forward with greater velocity by ocean currents. The observations of other writers, who agree with him in this view, are quoted, and the conclusion ig 434 Canadian Record of Science. reached that the action of land ice is not sufficient to account for our so-called glacial phenomena. ‘“Tllustrations of the Fauna of the St. John Group. No. V. On the Great Acadian Trilobite, Paradoxides Regina,” by G. F. Matthew, contains a description of the largest. known animal of the Cambrian age. About 1745-40 Lin- neeus described the Paradoxides Tessini, and in 1759 a second species. Two other large species are found in Northern Europe. A Paradoxides was first found in America in 1834, and others have since been discovered on this continent and in Europe. Some of them are very large. They belong to both the first and the second Fauna of Barrande. Para- doxides Regina is described, and it is supposed to be the largest known trilobite, one complete specimen measuring fifteen inches in length by twelve in width, while fragments of others indicate still greater proportions. It is closely allied to two other species, but is probably distinct from them. In “The Diurnal Motion of the Earth in Its Relation to Geological Phenomena,” by W. A. Ashe, the author points out the possible connection between the lines of fold- ing or upheavel of the crust of the earth, and the effect of the rotation of the planet on the rigid as compared with the fluid portions, and of the necessity of the solid parts accom- modating themselves to the ever-contracting fluid portion. He shows that the area of present active volcanoes ought to be limited by a zone of 45° on either side of the equator, and that the greatest activity ought to be about latitudes 36° 20’ N. and 8. ; also that the highest mountains should be found about these parallels. The probable flow of ocean currents at different geological periods is indicated. The author maintains that the earth is made up of three distinct elements in equilibrium; first, the solid nucleus, in which the polar diameter is to the equatorial, as 299 is to 300; second, the waters, with a greater difference between their diameters; and third, the atmosphere, with a still greater difference. We would, therefore, have less water and much less atmosphere at the poles than at the equator, but their physical properties and other causes modify this apparently The Royal Society of Canada. 435 inevitable result. He then treats of cataclysmal floods, and shows that they are not within the limits of possibility. Dr. A. P. Coleman contributes a valuable paper on the “Microscopic Petrography of the Drift of Central Ontario.” After giving a general description of the drift in Central Ontario, the author enumerates the microscopic characters of the various crystalline rocks (chiefly Laurentian) found in these deposits in the vicinity of Cobourg. He then pro- ceeds to classify them according to -Rosenbusch’s method under the two classes—acid and basic rocks, distinguishing a massive and a schistose series in each. The drift of Cobourg, which is derived from the north-eastward, is shown to contain a large variety of the older archean rocks. Hornblende proved to be present in the greater number of specimens examined. The presence of a considerable group of rocks, characterized by containing seapolite as an essen- tial mineral, is the most interesting point brought out in the investigation. This paper is illustrated by six coloured plates of microscopic sections of rocks. Mr. C. H. Merriam appeared before the Society in behalf of the United States Department of Agriculture, and pre- sented an address relative to economic ornithology. He laid special stress upon the ravages of the rice bird, and indicated the steps that were being taken by the United States authorities to check it. He also dwelt at some length upon the English sparrow in its relation to insects, and its value as agame bird. He also read a paper on the “ Migration of Birds,’ in which he pointed out that their annual increase, which would otherwise reach enormous proportions, was controlled by the conditions attending their passage from one country to another, by reason of which great numbers were killed. Mr. Ernest E. Thompson discussed a question of much interest in his “Notes on the English Sparrow, Passer Domesticus.” Reference was made to the extraordinary rate at which this imported bird is multiplying in North America and spreading over the continent, to the exclusion of some of our native sparrows. Its influence on agricul- ture must be great, and it is very desirable to ascertain as 436 Canadian Record of Science. soon as possible, whether this influence is for good or evil. The experience of the farmers in Britain and other countries is cited, also that of Canadian agriculturists as far as it has gone. The recent invasion of the Muskoka and Nipissing districts by this sparrow, is descrided in connection with its steady progress westward. The author’s personal observa- tions on its encroachment on the domains of the native birds is given. He showed the bird to be essentially a grain- feeder, although the young destroy many grasshoppers. On the other hand, our native birds, as a class, are eminently beneficial to agriculture, and therefore should not be suffered to retreat before the invader. In conclusion, the author gives a table showing the results of his dissection of over 100 gizzards of English sparrows, shot in the vicinity of Toronto. A paper by Mr. Andrew Downs, “On the Birds and Mammals of Nova Scotia,” contains a list of the birds found in Nova Scotia, whether permanent or migratory. Notes are given of their observed distribution in the province, the nature of the localities frequented by them, their food, breeding and habits generally, with the times of arrival and departure of the migratory species. A list is also given of species that have been found, from time to time, in the province, but which are not residents nor regular visitors. Dr. G. M. Dawson continues his ethnological studies in “Notes and Observations of the Kwakiool People of the Northern Part of Vancouver Island.” This paper enumer- ates the tribal subdivisions of the Kwakiool people, stating the places inhabited by each, and giving particulars as to migrations, changes in village sites, etc., in so far as these can be ascertained. Notes on the mode of life and customs of the people are then given, together with foll-lore, reli- gious ideas, superstitions respecting ‘‘ medicine” or “sor- cery ’ and traditions attaching to particular localities. The custom of the “potlatch” or “donation feast,” as practised by these people and other tribes of the coast of British Col- umbia, is explained, and some suggestions offered as to the mode to be adopted in bettering the condition of the Indians Reviews and Book Notices. 437 of the North-West Coast. To the paper is appended a vocabulary of about 700 words of the language of the tribes referred to in its different dialects. The meeting as a whole was a successful one, the attend- ance being fairly large; of the thirty papers in Section TV—not counting those presented by special delegates— one-half were by persons not members of the Society, a number far in excess of former years. This is a tendency which should be promptly discouraged: While it may be desirable to admit the papers of non-members on applica- tion, and under snitable restrictions, their solicitation, or their unlimited admission, is an indication which can be viewed only with apprehension. Only an injurious influ- ence can result, since the admission of such papers not only places the regular members at a disadvantage, by consum- ing time which would otherwise be devoted to discussion, but it reduces the advantage of membership to its lowest terms. The final result must be either an expansion of the Society much beyond its present limits, or asensible decrease in membership. REVIEWS AND Book NOTICEs. THe AINOs. Conspicuous among the exceedingly creditable memoirs issued by the Imperial University of Japan, is a recently issued number—the first from the College of Litera- ture—by Prof. B. H. Chamberlain, on “The Language, Mythology and Geographical Nomenclature of Japan, Viewed in the Light of Aino Studies, including an Ainu Grammar.” Although not dealing with the Ainos exhaustively, this memoir covers the ground indicated by the title, very thoroughly and conscientiously, and it is by far the most important recent contribution to our know- ledge of these people, that has appeared. Prof. Chamberlain has been fortunate in securing the co- operation of Mr. Batchelor. This gentleman was intimately 438 Canadian Record of Science. associated with the present writer, a few years since, in studying the Ainos. His familiarity with their language and also with the Japanese language, as well as frequent and continued residence among the Ainos, enables him to present work of the highest value. His “ Ainu Grammar” is a most welcome and important contribution, and he is able to speak with an authority no one else can claim. The experience of Prof. Chamberlain in gaining trust- worthy testimony, appears to have been that of all his pre- decessors, for ‘‘As a warning to others who might be inclined to accept statements of fact made by the Ainos with regard to their own history, the present writer would remark that, such statements made by an uncultured people are quite untrustworthy, unless supported by extraneous evidence. Tests of Aino inconsistency and unreliableness, crop up whenever proof can be applied.” This will doubt- less apply to all barbarous or semi-barbarous people whose moral sense is not yet raised to that level which enables them to distinguish between the value of truth and false- hood; and in the case of the Ainos, this may apply with greater force, on account of the extent to which, for cen- turies, they have been accustomed to dissimulate in their relations with the Japanese. Our own experience has re- peatedly shown that constant and more than ordinarily frequent verification was needed. The author deals with the physical characteristics of the Ainos very briefly, and only incidentally. He inclines to the view which has so often been expressed, that extreme hairiness is a peculiarity of the people, and refers to ancient Chinese accounts which speak of them as the “ Hairy Men.” In the absence of exact data, however, we hardly feel satis- fied with his explanation that smoothness of skin is the result of crossing with the Japanese. To be sure he notes that such half-breeds are usually smooth, but then he does not attempt to show that the pure type are never otherwise than hairy. While this may be an important factor, our own observations would lead us to believe there are other causes, as already pointed out.! 1Can. Ree. Se. II. 119. Reviews and Book Notices. 439 The Aryan origin of the Ainos has been insisted upon by several ethnologists, and is indeed the view most generally held at the present time. It is therefore a matter of great interest to find that certain affinities of language are now pointed out, offering as they do, additional proof of the probable correctness of this view. Resemblances between the Japanese and Aino languages, are very properly shown to be only apparent. Every one familiar with these people, knows that they use many Japanese words and expressions, and from this the infer- ence has more than once been hastily drawn, that there is an intimate relation between the two people. It would be quite as correct, on similar grounds, to establish an affinity between the European and North American Indian. Prof. Chamberlain, however, shows very clearly, that while these languages are fundamentally distinct, they have become more or less blended as a natural consequence of the inti- mate relations of the two people. Nor could we look for any other result, when such relations have extended over a period of twenty-five centuries. Borrowings from one to the other were frequently made, and thus on the one hand we get the Japanese form in the Aino language, while on the other, Aino names persist wherever these people have once had a habitation. Such names thus become a’ part of the Japanese language, although, usually, in a perverted form; sometimes the modification is carried so far as to render the original form of the word very obscure and hard to determine. These changes, occurring as they are at the present day, afford a most important clue to similar changes in the past, and thus, as we shall see later, serve a most important purpose in tracing the original distribution of the Ainos Of familiar examples we may give the following : Atkesh becomes Akkeshi; Shikot has been changed to Chitose ; Poronai is Horonai, and a most modern example, since the change has been made within fifteen years, is the conversion of Satsuporo into Sapporo. That these changes have, on the whole, been effected rapidly, and, as in the last case often without any special transitional forms, is well shown by the fact that in the province of Aomori— 440 Canadian Record of Science. the last province in northern Honshiu from which the Ainos were displaced, on their retreat into Yezo—only 5 to 10 per cent. of Aino names are now preserved. Yet the displacement from that province, has been effected only within the last hundred years. The well recognized persistence of Aino names, however, is very properly taken advantage of to determine the former dispersion of the peo- ple. This persistence of place names for many centuries, again gives rise to the pertinent query, if certain of them of obscure meaning may not similarly have been derived from the predecessors of the Ainos? for that predecessors there were, is accepted as probable by the best ethnologists, in spite of a few efforts to show that the various kitchen middens with their pottery, originated at the hands of the Ainos. The most important question involved in the present memoir, is the former distribution of the Ainos, and the evidence directed toward its solution is of great value. The view most generally held is,’ that they descended from the north and gradually dispersed over the whole of Japan, being afterward gradually driven back by the Japanese. Historical evidence shows that the Ainos were at least as far south as Tokyo, and within recent periods, they have occupied the north of Honshiu. At present, they are ex- clusively confined to Yezo and the islands to the north, but their range of distribution, like that of the North American Indian, is being continually reduced. But to the solution of this question, Prof. Chamberlain directs the evidence of place names with such success as to leave little room for doubt. Traces of them are thus found to the extreme southern limits of Japan, and on the islands of Iké and 'T'sushima ; so that these people were undoubt- edly the predecessors of the Japanese all over the Archi- pelago. And again, the author directs attention to the probability that, since the surnames of ancient families were often derived from villages and places, the names of many families of the present day, doubtless represent the influence of the Aino upon the Japanese language. 1 Can. Rec. Se. I, 11. Reviews and Book Notices. 441 The distinctive purity of the Aino and Japanese has often been remarked upon as peculiar, in view of the well known inter-marriages occurring all along the lines of contact. This is explained upon the ground that the offspring of the second generation, not only become few in number, but that they are barren or 80 poorly developed as to terminate the cross—an explanation which appears to meet the case very satisfactorily. Pure races thus continue dominant, while the weaker is continually being thrust more and more to- ward the extreme limits of existence. The author concludes his memoir with an extended bibli- ography, embracing 465 titles. These are chiefly derived from native authors, and in several instances include writ- ings by foreigners. VrGcEeTaABLE Morpnotocy.—The Clarendon Press have recently issued a translation of Goebel’s “ Outlines of Clas- sification and Special Morphology,” by H. EH. F. Garnsey. This is one of the most welcome of recent botanical works, and gives the student the results of the most recent researches. The style is admirable—the expressions are direct and clear, A particularly commendable feature is the effort to reduce our discouragingly confused termin- ology to something like uniformity. The result is not as complete as might be desired,—nor is that altogether pos- sible at present—but a vast improvement has been made; homologous structures being designated by the same term throughout. The antiquated distinction of Cryptogam and Phenogam is here done away with, and the intimate relations between the Vascular Cryptogams and _ the Gymnosperms is more clearly developed. The division of all plants into—I. Thallophytes; II. Bryophytes; III. Pteridophytes ; IV. Spermaphytes, is one which commends itself strongly to the modern botanist. The Myxomycetes and Diatomacece are very properly placed in separate groups of uncertain affinity; while the old groups, Alge and Fungi, are here restored. The book should be in possession of every student of botany. Frost Report.—Volume VII. of the Journal of the Royal 29 442 Canadian Record of Science. Horticultural Society is wholly devoted to a report by the Rev. Geo. Henslow on the effects of the severe frost which visited Great Britain in the winters of 1879-80 and 1880-81, The report contains a very large number of facts derived from reports sent in from various parts of Great Britain. In summing up the more important results obtained from these data, Mr. Henslow chiefly points out the fact that age and maturity of structure for any season are most important factors in the ability of plants to resist severe cold. Plants which continue their growth late in the sea- son, are much more susceptible to cold than those which ripen their structure earlier. PROCEEDINGS OF THE SOCIETY. The fifth monthly meeting of the Society was held on Monday, March 28th, the President, Sir Wm. Dawson, in the chair. A letter from Mr. Thos. Macfarlane was read relative to the death of Mr. Charles Robb, C.E., when the following resolution was adopted :— “That this Society has learned with regret, of the decease of Mr. Charles Robb, C.E., who was for a long time one of the most useful members of the Society, and one of its officers, as well as the author of valuable papers contributed to its meetings.” It was further resolved that a notice of Mr. Robb’s life be published in the Recorp or Science. Mr. Joseph Bemrose was elected a delegate to represent . this Society at the annual meeting of the Royal Society of Canada. Mr. Ernest Ingersoll was duly elected a member of the Society. Specimens of Canadian mica, having garnets and other minerals imbedded in it, were exhibited by Mr. J. A. U. Beaudry. The President presented a paper, by Dr. G. M. Dawson, on ‘The Occurrence of Jade in British Columbia,” and ex- Proceeding's of the Society. 443 hibited several interesting specimens of Jade implements from that locality. Prof. J. T. Donald then read a paper on “Chemical Notes,” wherein he referred particularly to the action of organic matter on iron, and touched upon the value of peat for fuel purposes, as prepared under anew process invented by Mr. Aikman. He also submitted several samples of the prepared fuel. Sir Wm. Dawson referred to the popular meetings of the Somerville course of lectures, which had been even more interesting than on former occasions, and it was resolved that the thanks of the Society be specially tendered to each of the gentlemen who had contributed to their success. The sixth monthly meeting was held on Monday, April 25th, Sir Wm. Dawson in the chair. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and con- firmed, when Mr. W. D. Lighthall was nominated to ordi- nary membership. The Librarian announced the receipt of several donations to the Library. Prof. Penhallow submitted a biographical sketch of the late Charles Robb. Dr. J. Baker Edwards, John S. Shearer, Geo. Sumner, A. H. Mason, Prof. Penhallow, A. T. Drummond and W. T. Costigan were appointed a “ Field Day Committee” with power to add to their numbers. John S. Shearer, A. T. Drummond and the Recording Secretary, were appointed auditors for the present session. Prof. Penhallow presented some notes on the Aino which elicited an interesting discussion. Sir Wm. Dawson then presented the outlines of a project, prepared for the Royal Society of Canada, for a union of geological surveys and societies throughout the Empire. This proposition drew forth a number of interesting remarks from several of those present. The Annual Meeting of the Society was held on Monday, May 30th, the President, Sir Wm. Dawson, in the chair. The minutes of the last annual meeting and the previous +44 Canadian Record of Science. monthly meeting of the Society were read and confirmed. Mr. Robert Reford and Dean Carmichael were proposed for membership, and under suspension of the rules, these gentlemen and Mr. W. D. Lighthall were duly elected. In his annual address the President, Sir Wm. Dawson, referred to the good and useful work done by the Society in the past year, in maintaining and increasing its museum ; in providing an interesting and instructive course of free lectures in physiological subjects by eminent specialists, and of a character likely to be most beneficial to the large audiences which had assembled to hear them; in the con- tinued publication of the REcorp or ScrencE, and in the commencement of a series of observations on underground temperatures. He then referred to fourteen original papers which had been read and discussed at the meetings. Of these five had been geological, the others had related to botany, zoology, ethnology and chemistry, and ten subjects of a general character. These papers had been published in the Record or ScreNncE and constituted an important con- tribution to’ scientific progress in this country. They show- ed that the original work of members had been distributed somewhat generally over the field cultivated by the society. He noticed the contents of these papers, and showed that while adding new facts to our knowledge of nature, several of them were of a very practical and useful character. In concluding this part of his remarks, he thanked the Pro- vincial Goreament for the aid given to the publication of the REcoRD oF ScrENCE, which he characterized as one of the most useful and creditable exponents of Canadian scien- tific work. He then referred te the movement for an In- perial geological union, which he had explained in one of the meetings of the Society, which had been sanctioned by many of the most eminent men in Great Britain and its dependencies, and had been adopted by the Royal Society of Canada at its recent meeting. He hoped it would form the beginning of a new era in the geological work of Great Britain and her colonies, and through them would prove a great benefit to the scientific progress of the world. The society proposed to begin its new year with an excursion Proceedings of the Society. 445 to the Laurentian hills of St. Jerome, and he hoped that this and all its other operations for the ensuing session would be eminently successful, and would be characterized by the same harmony and earnest spirit which had pre- vailed in the past year. Mr. John S. Shearer next submitted his report as Chair- ‘man of the Council. Report oF CHAIRMAN OF COUNCIL. The Council of the Natural History Society, in submitting for the consideration of the members of this institution, the Annual Report of the work transacted since the last annual meeting, are pleased to be able to state, that the session just closed has been one of the most successful and instruc- tive in the annals of the Society. Not only has it been one of much valuable research and study, but several features introduced into the proceedings during the course of the year, have tended to give it a popular character that can- not fail in commending it more generally to the public and resulting ultimately in benefit to the Society. The usual amount of routine business has been regularly performed during the year. The Council has held its monthly meetings to the number of eleven, and there have been six regular meetings of the Society, at which valuable and instructive papers were read. The progress of the Society, as far as membership is con- cerned, has been on the whole satisfactory, seventeen new members having been elected during the year. The Museum has been well patronized, having been visit- ed by a total of eighteen hundred persons. During carnival week, it was thrown open free to visitors, when five hun- dred and eighty-two availed themselves of the privilege. The Library has received considerable attention during the year and is in a satisfactory condition. The society suffered the loss of an earnest worker in this connection by the death of Mr. Chas. Robb, who devoted much time to arranging the books with Mr. Beaudry, the chairman. The Council is pleased to be able to acknowledge a donation of 446 Canadian Record of Science. valuable books from the Smithsonian Institute of Wash- ington, D.C. The building of the Society is in good order—further im- provements having been made during the year to the ven- tilation of the hall by the House Committee. The hall has been again leased to Mr. Baynes’s congregation for another year, on the same terms as last. The Council regrets to state that the Provincial ener n- ment saw fit last year to reduce the grant from $600 to $400, thus greatly retarding the efforts of the Editing Com- mittee, who, however, are deserving of praise for the man- ner in which they have issued the Record, notwithstanding much difficulty. In the early part of the pr esent year, the Council appoint- ed a committee to urge upon the Quebec Government the renewal of the original grant of $1000. A petition was drawn up on behalf of the Society, and forwarded to the Hon. James McShane, Minister of Agriculture and Public Works. In answer to the petition, a telegram has been received from the Hon. Minister, stating that $800 would be given to the Society. The effort made by the Corresponding Secretary to ob- tain a grant from the Elizabeth Thompson Science Fund, for the purpose of investigating underground tempera- tures, has been successful, and the sum of $200 placed in the hands of the Society for that purpose. The Council has appointed a committee to carry out the work. The Annual Field Day, which has always been looked forward to with great interest by the members and friends of the Society, was held at St. Hilaire, on the 5th June last, and the occasion was one of the utmost success and enjoyment. About 140 ladies and gentlemen, under the direction of the Field Day Committee, visited this beau- tiful spot. Upon their arrival at the hotel (as is customary on these occasions) the excursionists dispersed in parties, some for botanical and entomological research, others to enjoy the beauties of the lake and the surrounding woods, and a number, among whom where Dean Carmichael, Dr. Harrington and Dr. J. Baker Edwards, ascended to the Proceedings of the Society. 447 summit of the mountain. Addresses were delivered on the mountain top, by Dean Carmichael and Dr. Edwards, after which they all returned to the hotel for lunch. About 3 o’clock, the whole party assembled on the veranda, when Dr. Hunt gave an instructive address on the geological his- tory of the mountain and surrounding country, at the close of which Prof. Penhallow awarded the botanical and ento- mological prizes as follows :— Named Plants, 1st, Miss Van Horne. Unnamed “ Ist, Miss O. G. Ritchie. cs «2nd, Miss Burland. “ Tnsects, Ist, Mr. Albert Holden. f «2nd, Miss Maud Brewster. The following received honorable mention for their col- lections : Miss McLea, Miss Reid, Master Hric Harrington and Master Herbert W. Shearer. The Somerville lectures were more than usually interest- ing this year, and the attendance was very large and much interest manifested. The lectures, six in number, were delivered in the following order :— . Feb. 17—The Bony System, by Francis J. Shepherd, M.D. « 24—The Muscular System, by Geo. E. Armstrong, M.D. Mar. 3—The Nervous System, by James Stewart, M.D. “ 10—The Circulatory System, by T. W. Mills, M.A., M.D. “ 17—The Special Senses, by Frank Butler, M.D. “ _25—The Digestive System, by W. H. Hingston, M.D., D.C.L. The thanks of the Society have been deservedly tendered to the distinguished lecturers who generously gave their valuable time for the advancement of its interests. A novel and most pleasing event in the proceedings of the year just closed, was the Conversazione given by the members in their hall and museum on the 20th January last. The suggestion when once made, was taken hold of with great earnestness by some of the more active members, and the result was a most enjoyable reunion which was attended, not only by members, but by a number of promi- nent citizens, and the evening passed off most successfully. The success of the event was largely owing to the excel- lence of the arrangements, and special praise is due to the 448 Canadian Record of Science. Microscopical Society, Dr. Harrington, Prof. Penhallow, Dr. Johnson, Dr. Barnes, Dr. Edwards, Prof. McLeod, Mr. J. Stevenson Brown, J. A. U. Beaudry, Dr. Wanless and the Electric Light Company, for the great assistance they rendered in making the entertainment a success. The Council is proud to be able to acknowledge the honor conferred by the British Association for the Advancement of Science, on our esteemed President, Sir J. Wm. Dawson, in electing him to preside over their annual meeting, which took place at Birmingham, and was attended with marked success. The valuable address of the President has been published in the Record of the Society, and well repays perusal. The Council appointed Mr. J. Bemrose as the representa- tive of the Society, to the annual meeting of the Royal Society of Canada, which took place at Ottawa, on the 25th instant. The Field Day of the Society will be held this year at St. Jerome, P.Q., on Saturday, the 4th day of June, when it is hoped the members will unite in making it a success. The Council, in conclusion, ventures to express the hope that the coming year may be marked by increased pros- perity and even greater usefulness, and that the members will endeavour to secure for the Society the hearty support to which it is entitled. Mr. Joseph Bemrose, as special delegate to the Royal Society of Canada, then presented his report. The report of the Editorial Committee, submitted by Prof. Penhallow, showed a gratifying progress, during the past year, in making the RecorD or ScrENCE an exponent of original scientific work in Canada, and in extending the list of exchanges, which now embrace a large number of great value. The Curator, Mr. A. H. Mason, submitted his report on the Museum, as follows :— CURATOR’S REPORT, The work of the Museum has continued steadily during the Session, and there is evidence of marked improvement ; Proceedings of the Society. 449 the re-arrangement of specimens, lettering of cases, etc., has helped to make it more attractive to visitors, and Mr. Caulfield has rendered valuable service in accomplishing this. The collection of birds’ eggs, which has become scattered and disarranged, it is proposed to collect and arrange for exhibition. Much remains to be done, and it is hoped the Council will make a grant to meet the necessary incidental expenses. The general catalogue of objects in the Museum isin course of compilation, and proofs will be submitted that it may be completed by next session. The donations during the Session comprise a young harp seal, Phoca (Tagophilas) Greenlandicus, Fat, presented by the Rev. D. V. Lucas; nest and eggs of the American robin, Turdus migratorius, Linn. (taken at Cote St. An- toine), presented by Dr. Wanless; specimen Strophanthus hispidus, presented by Alfred H. Mason; several specimens from the Bahama Islands, comprising one Millepore and several Madrepore corals; several Alcynoid corals; two peculiar crabs; a large, dried rock-lobster; a Strombus gigas, and several other shells of that family, presented by Prof. T. Wesley Mills. Upwards of 600 visitors to the Carnival availed them- selves of the invitation of the Council to visit the Museum. The general public who attended the Somerville Lectures availed themselves of the opportunity to visit the Museum. It is estimated that upwards of 1800 visitors and students have availed themselves of the advantages afforded by the “Museum during the past session. Of these, only 100 paid the admission fee of 10c., and 34 parties of three paid 25c., so that the use of the Museum is practically offered free to the majority of visitors. Hence, we appeal to our mem- bers and the general public for assistance, by donating specimens and funds to assist in its further development and improvement. s Our collection of British birds and animals could be con- siderably improved and enlarged, and we would solicit donations of this nature, suggesting the importation of such 450 Canadian Record of Science. specimens in the skin, that they may be mounted by our own taxidermist. The Librarian, Mr. J. A. U. Beaudry, presented a grati- fying report of progress made in additions to the library, and in changes which would greatly aid the members in gaining more ready access to the books. The Treasurer, Mr. P. S. Ross, submitted a financial statement setting forth the liabilities and assets of the Society to date, as shown on the following page. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President—Sir William Dawson. Vice-Presidents—Dr. T. Sterry Hunt, Sir Donald A. Smith, J. H. R. Molson, J. H. Joseph, Edward Murphy, Dr. B. J. darrington, Dr. W. H. Hingston, Dr. J. B. Edwards, Major L. A. H. Latour. Members of Council—John 8. Shearer (Chairman), W. T. Costigan, Joseph Bemrose, Dr. T. W. Mills, Samuel Finlay, - A. T. Drummond, J. T. Donald, A. Holden, Rev. Robert Campbell. Honorary Curator—A. H. Mason. Honorary Treasurer—P. 8. Ross. Corresponding Secretary—D. P. Penhallow. Recording Secretary—J. 8S. Brown. Library Committee—J. A. U. Beaudry, H. R. Ives, H. P. Chambers, F. B. Caulfield, M. H. Brissette. Lecture Committee—Dr. B. J. Harrington, P. 8S. Ross, A. H. Mason, Rev. Robert Campbell, Dr. J. B. Edwards. Editing Committee—D. P. Penhallow, Dr. Harrington, J. Bemrose, Dr. T. W. Mills, A. T. Drummond, H. Ingersoll. House Committee—J. 8. Shearer, J. A. U. Beaudry, J. H. Joseph. ‘Membership Committee—J. S. Shearer, 8. Finlay, W. T. _ Costigan, J. S. Brown, P. S. Ross, A. H. Mason, Dr. T. W. Mills. AnnuaL Fietp Day, 1887. The Annual Field Day of the Society was held on Satur- day, the fourth of June, the thriving village of St. Jerome having been selected as the place to be visited. This town 451 *s10JIPNY £6 ZSE8TF OL Z86S 00° GP 00° 006 OL 480 ee 00° 00T 00° OSFT it CO 000F een Zg'901 a Raines Go" Bt me 00°¢e 00°09 00°0009 000926 00°02 ae 2826000 laeatemet 00° 0008 PO SUCKS Proceeding's of the Society. 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In the early morning, the weather was dull and threatening, and no doubt kept back many who would otherwise have attended, but one hundred and ten, all told, assembled on the platform at Quebec Gate depot, having either faith in the coming of brighter weather or sufficient courage to face the wet, if rain should come. Among those present were Sir William Dawson, president; Mr. J. S. Shearer, Prof. Penhallow, Dr. J. Baker Edwards, Messrs. Alf. H. Masson, A. Holden, Hollis Shorey, W. T. Costigan, J. H. R. Molson, James Slessor, J. A. Robertson, J. Beattie, J. Gowdie, Chas. Gibb, Messrs. Rolland, De Bellefuille, Dunlop, Archambault, 8. C. Dawson, Walter Drake, Rev. J. H. Evans, T. B. Caulfield, R. White, and others. Under the able management of Conductor Dickson, the excursionists were all on board punctually to time, and the train steamed steadily and rapidly away. Drawing up at the platform of St. Jerome depot, the naturalists were met by Mr. LeClaire (mayor), Mr. Rolland (fils), Mr. T. Davis and Mr. Scott, who welcomed them to the town, and informed them that the various works and mills of the neighborhood would be freely open to the inspection of the party. The beautiful park belonging to the manor, known as the ‘‘ Domain,” was also placed at the disposal of the excursionists. Sir William Dawson then sketched out a programme for the day, as follows:— Geologists, under the direction of Sir William, to walk to the river and study the geology of the district. Botan- ists, under command of Prof. Penhallow, assisted in the - geological department by Mr. Evans, to ride to the Cascades and there search for specimens. Entomologists to hunt up the Domain. As soon as the above programme was mapped out, the different parties proceeded at once to their assigned hunting grounds. Those for the Cascades (including three- fourths of the party) were provided with buggies, carts, omnibuses, hacks, etc., and, in fact, no two vehicles were Proceedings of the Society. 453 alike, and everything that runs on wheels was pressed into the service. The clouds of the morning had by this time rolled by and the heat of the mid-day sun was tem- pered by a deliciously cool breeze, making a perfect day. The road to the Cascades runs through the main, in fact, the street of the town, and the keen eyes of the visitors were quick to notice every point of interest, and they were many, that passed under their view. At the first turn, the Riviére du Nord was seen running’close alongside the street, but at a depth of many yards below. At this point, the broad, shallow, rapid-running stream was literally cov- ered, almost choked, with logs in most admirable disorder— crosse :, re-crossed and interlaced—as if piled there by the irresistible force of a terrible cyclone. At this point are situated the woollen mills of Mr. Scott, whose motive power is derived from the stream. The street itself is of fair width, and the sidewalks are clean and in good order. The buildings are more picturesque than imposing. few of the houses being more than two stories in height. The leafy verdure of the shade trees, with which the street is liberally supplied, was as grateful to the eye as the refresh- ing breeze was pleasant to the cheeks of the delighted vis- itors. Passing the quaint parish church, the bells, ten in number, which are ranged in a row on the street, attracted much notice. These bells are destined for churches in par- ishes settled along the North River under the enterprising guidance of the Curé Labelle. The wooden sidewalk extends for about two miles outside the town proper, and the road is lined with comfortable and picturesque looking wooden cottages, which are mostly as bright and clean as paint and the persistent use of the scrubbing-brush could make them. The Cascades are about four miles from the railway depot, and on arrival at this delightful spot the party commenced to scatter, some going to inspect the paper and wood pulp mills situated at the foot of the fall, some seeking out shel- tered spots for a mid-day lunch, and some, with all the ardor of enthusiasts, tapping at stones with the heavy geological _ hammer or digging up strange ferns or roots, or chasing 454 Canadian Record of Science. moths or butterflies. The Cascades themselves defy alike description and criticism. Imagine if you can a steep hill of water, seemingly a mile in length, rushing towards you all the time. The whole river is churned into white foam with violent dashing on the picturesque boulders which are strewn with such profusion in the bed. ‘The white horses of the sea” charging down in one solid body. Word-painting and color-painting equally fail in giving an idea of a scene where the chief impression is that of measureless velocity and irresistible power. Go spend an hour there yourself and acknowledge that spots of picturesque beauty are to be found without travel to foreign lands, or even to great dis- tances in your own. Looking up the stream, the whole scene is as wild and untouched by the hand of man as it was in the days of Jacques Cartier. The whole party greatly appreciated from differe ent points of view, the eligibility of the ground chosen, and enjoyed themselves to their heart’s content in their several ways. In the afternoon, the procession of carriages re-conveyed the botanists to the depot, with baskets lightened of provi- sions and cold tea, but weighty with samples of minerals, stones and plants intended for competition. It had been decided to offer prizes for certain subjects, and a few minutes spent in canvassing on the outward journey had realized twenty-seven dollars for this purpose. At the depdt, the specimens were turned over to the Committee to be judged, and after careful inspection the prizes were awarded as follows :— Ist, Plants; named specimens; Miss Van Horne. Ist, unnamed specimens; Miss H. Y. Reid. 2nd, do, Master Pearcie Penhallow. 3rd, do, Master Eric Harrington. Ist, Insects; unnamed specimens; Miss Edwards. 2nd, J. F. Hausen. 3rd, Master Walter Adams. Ath, Master Bertie Holden. Best collection minerals, unnamed: Miss B. B. Evans. The work of inspection over, Curé Labelle drove his car- riage to the edge of the platform and received quite an Proceedings of the Society. . 455 enthusiatic greeting. Atthe request of Dr. Baker Edwards, ~ he rose in his carriage and commenced an address in French. “Speak in English, father,” said Mr. Scott. “ Why, you know very well that I can hardly speak in French,” replied the curé, laughingly. ‘‘No, you must excuse me that I continue in French.” He then proceeded to express how much St. Jerome felt honored by the presence of the dis- tinguished party before him. “The name of Sir William Dawson,” he said, “was not only known and honored in Montreal, but in all Canada; farther than that, in the great United States, and farther still, in England and all Kurope. They could not but feel gratified at the presence of sucha man in their town, and his name as President gave a scien- tific standing to the society. At college he (the speaker) had not been much grounded in geology, but he had found time to study since, and though his knowledge was limited, it had been practical, and the results might be now seen in various industries established in their thriving and busy little town. Now that communication was being made easier and more rapidly between Montreal and St. Jerome, he hoped more frequently to see their scientific men explor- ing that district, and felt sure they would there find plenty to repay their research. Speaking for himself and his fel- low townsmen, he welcomed Sir William Dawson and his friends with all his heart.” Sir Wm. Dawson made a brief reply, and, alluding to the various works now established at St. Jerome, said he hoped yet to live to see that neighborhood a second Birmingham, and trusted that when Montreal would be a comparatively small place, though useful as a shipping port for the pro- ducts of the St. Jerome district, in the neighborhood of which were great deposits of iron ores, that they, the inhabitants of St. Jerome, would remember old friendships and not look down too much on Montrealers. Mr. Burgess, with an able staff of assistants, had fitted up a baggage car as an impromptu dining-room. The car was tastefully decorated, and the long table laid out very prettily ; a very plentiful cold collation was served, and the excursionists were invited to partake of the hospitality of d 456 Canadian Record of Science. the Canadian Pacific Company. Although the quarters were somewhat close, the dexterity of Mr. Burgess’s well trained staff enabled every one to obtain a plentiful supply of the good things placed before them, and well earned the encomiums of the pleased guests. The run back to Montreal was acccmplished in remark- ably good time, and on arriving, Sir William Dawson/re- quested the excursionists to stay for a few minutes on the platform, while Prof. Penhallow read a short resolution to the following effect :— “The Natural History Society of Montreal desire to ex- tend their most cordial thanks to Mr. Tuttle and other officers of the Canadian Pacific Railway for the courteous and hospitable treatment received at their hands, all of which has contributed to make this one of the most enjoy- able and profitable excursions ever held.” The resolution was seconded by Mr. Shearer and carried by acclamation. Three hearty cheers were given for the C. P. R. and one for Mr. Burgess, and the meeting pede every one delighted with the day’s outing. At a meeting of the Council held on June 9th, the fallen ing resolution was unanimously adopted :— W. C. Van Horne, Esq, Vice-President and General Manager of the C. P. Railway. Dear SIR :— The Natural History Society of Montreal beg to extend to you, and to Mr. L. Tuttle and other officers of your Com- pany, their most cordial thanks for the courtesies extended on the occasion of their recent annual excursion to St. Jerome. In doing so, they are pleased to state that the promptness and efficiency which marked all the arrange- ments on your part, the considerate and courteous atten- - tions of the various employes, and the most hospitable pro- vision of a bountiful and judiciously selected repast which won the special approbation of the ladies, were all features of the occasion which contributed, in a very large measure, to make the Annual Field Day of this year one of the most profitable and enjoyable in the history of this Society. THE VOL. II. OCTOBER, 1887. NO. 8. THE DISTRIBUTION AND PHYSICAL AND PAst-GEo- LOGICAL RELATIONS oF British NortTH AMERIGAN PLANTS. By A. T. Drummonp. (Continued from page 423.) It is difficult to resist the thought, that many of the plants thus common to Kurope and America have had their point of origin and centre of dispersion on the eastern side of this continent. Many interesting geological questions arise in this connection. America has an older look about it than Kurope. Hastern Canada has afforded the earliest traces of the dawn of life on the earth. To come down to later times, the floras of the continent in the later Creta- ceous and in the Hocene ages afford the first traces of resemblance to the flora of to-day. Some genera then appeared which have representatives at the present time, though, with rare exceptions, specifically different. The American Hocene flora is found to have a resemblance, not so much to the Hocene of Hurope, as to the later Miocene 30 458 Canadian Record of Science. there, as if America were the starting-point of that phase of the vegetation, which, in its later developments, became the flora of to-day on both continents. Again, the first undoubted evidences of the flora of to-day, on any consider- able scale, are found in the Leda clays of the Ottawa valley. The geological structure of Ontario, Quebec and Labra- dor indicates that much of the areas included within their boundaries has been dry land for vast periods of time prior to the glacial epoch, and that within these areas are the oldest portions of the continent. We can then readily con- ceive that in tertiary times, this portion of the continent, being even somewhat warmer than now, was the home of vast numbers of the plants of the period. The American species, now represented in Kurope, we cannot in Canada trace backward beyond the period of the Leda clays ; but it is also clear that none of these identical species have as yet been met with in the tertiary deposits of Hurope, nor have any, found in the Leda clays, been as yet observed in the European post-tertiary deposits. Seeing, then, that North- Kastern America, having been for so long a time dry land, has always been an available home for vegetation, that the Upper Cretaceous and the Kocene of America, in the resem- blance of their flora to that of northern temperate America of to-day, are older than the Huropean Cretaceous and Kocene, that it is only in later epochs in Europe that the generic identity with North American plants became so very distinctly marked, and that in Hurope many of the genera of the Pliocene, identical with those of to-day, have since become extinct, there seems a possible presumption, quite apart from that derivable from their present range, that some of these identical Huropean and American plants may be older in America, and, being chiefly northern tem- _ perate in range, may have originated in northern temperate America. There are other interesting questions in this connection. The rounded or smoothed, often striated, character of the rocks, and the presence of the boulder clay and its accom- panying boulders, would, if we admit the action of glaciers in the work, appear to prove the higher altitude of, per- British North American Plants. 459 haps all of the Laurentian area in Canada, as well as of con- siderable portions of adjoining areas. I think it the most reasonable conclusion that the whole of this part of the country was of a similar character to what, speaking gene- rally, British Columbia is at the present day, but on a greater scale,—mountainous and rugged, with everywhere high peaks and deep valleys, with frequent plateaus, and with lines of summits so continuous and so connected as to form extended ranges of mountains,—and that, with a somewhat colder climate, individual glaciers occurred everywhere on these mountains, and in their descent car- ried with them débris and boulders to the valleys beneath. Some of these glaciers would, as in the Rocky Mountains now, be of comparatively short length, and their action on the rocks beneath them and on the fragments displaced would be correspondingly light ; others would, as in Green- land at the present day, be on an immense scale, extending for very many miles, and be often of great thickness. A universal ice cap over the whole country seems to me an untenable hypothesis, whilst a general mountainous char- acter, with high peaks and ranges, down which glaciers would flow, would explain the phenomena met with at the present day, which are properly ascribed to glacial action. Even at this later day, the whole Laurentian country to the north and south of the St. Lawrence is of, this rugged, mountainous character, with indications, as at the Thousand Islands at the outlet of Lake Ontario, that at one time there was a.much greater elevation than now. In fact, the whole inner country lying between the estuary of the St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay is described by explorers as being of an extremely mountainous character—broken, rugged and impassable, as if the subject of some exceptional convulsion in former ages. There are some of the phenomena of glacial action in Canada which go far to show that there also have been, subsequent to, but perhaps before the close of, the glacial epoch, extensive areas of depression, more particularly along and south of the Middle and Lower St. Lawrence and up the* Ottawa River, and, perhaps contemporaneously, in the lake 460 Canadian Record of Science. region, and again, towards probably the close of the glacial epoch, and subsequently, over the vast country east of the Rocky Mountains, now occupied by the prairies, and extending as far as the shores of Lake Winnipeg. The eastern side of this lake, as I have shown in a previous number of this journal, probably formed the eastern coast of avast inland fresh water sea. There are ample evidences on the prairies of more than one elevation and depression and of the existence of vegetation, during the former. Boulders, some of great size, have been transported immense distances, and this can only be explained by the action of icebergs floating, as at the present day, under the influence of winds and currents. We can even now trace the direction of the currents and of the prevailing winds in those far distant times, as well.as of the force which gra- dually raised the land to its present level. In the great prairie country occupying the southern central portion of Canada, the greatest depression was at the base of the Rocky Mountains, whilst the existence of great boulders there of eastern origin, brought undoubtedly by icebergs, the great areas of sand at and south of the sources of the River Qu’Appelle, and the stretches of sand and the gravel ridges southwest and west of Lake Manitoba, all prove that the winds most prevalent, and probably the currents, were in a direction somewhat south of west. The elevation of the land to its present level was greatest at the Rocky Moun- tains and least towards Lake Winnipeg, and this has resulted in the flow of great rivers lke the Saskatchewan and Qu’Appelle being at the present day in a general east- erly direction. The great depth of soil over such a vast area as the north-west prairies, indicates either an im- ‘mensely longer period during which the mountains and valleys to the northward were the subjects of erosion, or that the process of erosion was of a more severe character than in Ontario and Quebec, or that, in the latter pro- vinces, subsequent depression under the ocean and inland seas has resulted in the carrying away of much of the soil. That there were inter-periods when the land was raised to some extent from beneath the sea, and vegetation appeared British North American Plants. 461 upon it, is evidenced by the rings of black vegetable loam which appear in excavations made at Winnipeg for tanks and wells. It does not, however, appear to me necessary to assume that these were milder inter-periods. A north- ern temperate vegetation was already in Canada, I cannot avoid concluding. There is also some evidence of more than one depression during or after the glacial epoch in the Lower St. Lawrence valley, or of the renewed action of glaciers on the rising of the land there. The hypothesis of a universal ice cap throughout Canada almost dispels the notion of any phznogamous flora in northern temperate America, or, at least, of any vegetation short of an extremely Arctic type. It assumes the gradual extermination of all northern and middle temperate plants in their native habitats, and the crowding of the species into a very circumscribed area to the southward, presently occupied by the south-temperate vegetation of the continent, of which crowding we have no evidence left, and which is hardly in accordance with existing possibilities. It also assumes the migration of the Arctic flora southward to at least northern temperate countries. Does not, however, the comparatively limited flora of the summits of the White Mountains and other considerable heights in New England and New York, comprising chiefly four or five really arctic. and a few sub-arctic and boreal plants, nearly all also found on the coast of the Lower St. Lawrence, of | the Gulf of St. Lawrence or of Labrador, show that the true Arctic flora had hardly reached as far south as these points ? If, however, as I believe, there were only individual gla- ciers everywhere over the Laurentian and immediately surrounding country, on the high peaks and mountain ranges of that period, perhaps all of which are at much lower elevations now, it by no means follows that vegeta- tion was entirely driven southward at this time. There could be a cold sufficient to produce glaciers on the moun- tain sides, and their resultant icebergs where, farther north, these glaciers met the sea, and these icebergs might be found even as far south as the New England States, for the cold Labrador current now existing would, without doubt, 462 Canadian Record of Science. have been diverted inward over the then or subsequently depressed New England area; but this cold, and even the added presence of this current, would not preclude the idea of vegetation. Judging from the analogies of to-day in Switzerland, in the Rocky Mountains, and along the Lower St. Lawrence, it would be quite within the range of likelihood that northern temperate and sub-arctic and arctic plants would be found in Canada at this early time, in those places most suited to them, and just as they at this later day occur even alongside of glaciers. Though glaciers may have been near at hand, it does not behoove us to too readily draw conclusions from them as to the climate and surrounding vegetation. There are glaciers in the Rocky Mountains in British Columbia, but they are not associated there with a general arctic climate, nor has the general flora of the mountains an arctic or even sub-arctic aspect. During the deposition of the Leda clays, which took place before, or on, the close of the glacial epoch—for their relative position seems still uncertain—and contem- poraneously with the encroachments of the sea far up the St. Lawrence and Ottawa valleys, the vegetation had a northern temperate aspect. The marine fauna around Montreal, near Ottawa, and elsewhere, had, it is true, a northern, almost boreal, look, implying cold sea currents ; and the presence of boulders in these great river valleys would indicate that glaciers flowed through or into them at this or. an earlier period, or that icebergs had then found _ their way as far inland as these points. The presence of cold sea currents, or of even icebergs, was not, however, associated with arctic or even sub-arctic plants. In the Leda clays we have such species as Drosera rotundifolia, Potentilla Norvegica, P. tridentata, P. Canadensis, Arctosta- phylos wva-ursi, Populus balsamifera, Thuja occidentalis, Potamogeton perfoliatus and P. natans—all species occurring now in the latitude of Montreal, and all but one in the latitude of Lake Ontario. It does not, then, seem to me difficult to imagine the vast Laurentian country in Canada,—broken and rugged everywhere as it now is, and rising often to very consider- British North American Plants. 463 able heights—elevated in these distant aud spymewhat colder times to far greater heights, forming extensive and numer- ous lofty mountain ranges everywhere, with successions of invividual peaks, on perhaps all of which ranges and peaks were glaciers. Nothing short of this will explain the results of glacier action, whilst, at the same time, it admits of there being a northern temperate flora in the valleys and on the plateaus, just as we now find occurs, though on u smaller scale and under somewhat different circum- stances, in central and southern British Columbia and in Switzerland to-day. The sub-arctic and arctic plants would be on the higher summits and on suitable situations farther north, where the temperature was lower and the summers shorter, or on the lake and sea shores in lower latitudes, where the more equable temperature and cold sea levels would lead them. The phenogamous plants common to Europe and Canada number 419, and adding to these the horsetails and ferns, the number is increased to 450. Prof. Asa Gray gives 320) species as the flowering plants common to the Northern United States and Europe. This number, however, pre- sently includes Lythrum hyssopifolia, L., Salicornia fruticosa, L., Narthecium ossifragum, Huds., nine carices and grasses, and Asplenium ruta-muraria, none of which have been decected thus far in Canada. This indicates that there are about 112 species, chiefly arctic and sub-arctic, confined, in their American range, to Canada. An analysis of the Canadian species indicates how the following leading orders are represented :— Species. Species. Ranunculacez....- ay fe} Scrophulariaceze...... 14 Grucileraeie sects ler 24 INEMGEKGspa Bac SoG o555ca 15 Caryophyllaceer..... 23 JUN Caceres ve eceieeis 16 ROsacer ici bone-tsems IES sf OngesnGKeere 5456 he bose 56 Compositze.......-- 21 Gramine ............ 40 Ericaces. ....+.-0+. 22 TMU IEA AA Ge Ciena 23 The representation of species is very disproportionate to the importance, at this later day, of the orders. The great order Composite, which now embraces about 390 species 464 Canadian Record of Science. in Canada, has only 21 of these represented in Europe, but this is in partial keeping with the fact that in the preceding Tertiary period, this order does not appear to have been even known. Leguminose—also an order of apparently no antiquity—which has 147 species in Canada, includes in these only 6 common to Hurope. On the other hand, Cary- ophyllacex, out of 72 species in Canada, has 23 identical with Huropean species, Naidacee out of 27 has 15, and Juncaceze ont of 35 has 16 identical. . These species thus identical in Hurope and America are, on the evidence we have, the oldest flora still existing in America. They undoubtedly existed in post-pliocene times, but to account for the migration of the species from one continent to another, it is necessary to have connecting links of land, and, at the same time there, a suitable cli- mate for the distribution of northern-temperate as well as arctic and sub-arctic forms, ‘To find a union of these two conditions, it is requisite to go back to pre-glacial times when a climate warmer than now existed in northern- temperate and arctic America and Europe, and when the relations of land and water in northern-temperate Kurope, and possibly arctic America, presented more favourable facilities for migration. GENERAL CAUSES OF DISTRIBUTION. The general causes, still in force, which have affected dis- tribution are well known. River, lake, and ocean currents, play their part in every section of the globe, not only in dispersing the seeds of aquatic plants, but also those of land species, which constantly come into connection with the water. Particularly would this be the case in Canada where the water communications are on such an extraordi- nary scale, both on the coast line and in the interior of the country. Birds form a constant source of distribution, going on for ages past. That seeds and fruits are the especial fogd of birds, that birds not only traverse great distances in search of food, but large numbers of them have semi-annual migrations, that the peculiar habits of birds British North American Plants. 465 lead them into situations where seeds may adhere to their feathers or in mud to their legs and feet, and that great numbers of seeds are for the purpose of diffusion supplied by natare with means of adhesion to objects, whether birds or quadrupeds, with which they are brought into contact —are all of them circumstances, in progress for long centuries past, the one fitting into the other, which have been instru- mental in the gradual and wide dispersion of many plants. The popular view of the economic purposes of fruits is that they are provided by nature as food for man and the lower animals. Perhaps an even more immediate purpose in their colour and flavour, is that they may attract birds and quadrupeds—as the colours of flowers do insects—and that the seeds, by being carried great distances in the crops and stomachs of these creatures, should thus have an important means of diffusion. Wind is, however, the most important factor in distribu- tion. Many plants have their seeds furnished with appen- dages to be utilized in connection with the wind, and such plants have a generally wider distribution than those not so furnished. The different species of maple, ash and pine, have what might be termed wings attached to their seeds, and these are undoubtedly thus provided that in falling at maturity, the seeds may be carried by the wind beyond the parent tree. The seeds of most of the Composite are sup- plied with plumes or awns which form an important means by which they are distributed, and thus this, in America, most extensive of the phenogamous orders is, though geo- logically recent, of wide diffusion. Whilst, however, the ordinary winds have their local effects in scattering seeds, it is to hurricanes and tornadoes, and even ordinary high winds, that we must look for the carrying of them to great distances. It is not difficult to suppose that most seeds can be so carried. Where the fruit is heavy, as in the case of the oaks, hickories, walnut, butternut, chestnut, plum and cherries, the range of the species is relatively circumscribed. The seeds of herbaceous plants generally are, however, light, almost feathery, in weight—a circumstance which like the awns and wings provided as appendages to many of them, 466 Canadian Record of Science. has been without doubt so arranged by nature that they may be readily distributed at maturity by the wind. The power of the wind as a distributor of the lighter class of seeds has been underrated. The rapidity with which new railroad tracks, extending into newly settled as well as old settled country, have become tenanted, not by plants from the neighborhood but by roving introduced plants, is a striking evidence of the action of winds. Most of these in- troduced plants, so common in cultivated fields, on road- sides and on compost heaps, as well as on railroad tracks, have seeds relatively light in weight, and provided in many instances with appendages to facilitate their dissemination. In districts where the forests have been burned over, the native plants with which the burned area is soon peopled, are generally of two classes—berry-bearing shrubs, the - seeds of which have been deposited by passing birds, and plants like the Epilobium, birch trees and willows, whose seeds have wings or awn attachments, which not only pre- vent them from too quickly reaching the ground when they fall at maturity, but also afford a better opportunity to the wind to carry them to great distances. And these distances are not to be measured necessarily by an acre lot or by even the breadth of a township. Recent investigation has shown that volcanic dust, forced from a volcano during eruption, may float through the atmosphere for many hun- dreds of miles before descending. What may not be pos- sible with light seeds when a gale of wind prevails! I can conceive it probable that the seeds of even arctic and sub- arctic, as well as other plants, may have found themselves occasionally by this means carried over great distances to high peaks, mountain ranges and plains, to the southward, where, on finding once more a favorable climate, soil and physical surroundings, they would, each in its appropriate place, germinate and develop. To the same cause would probably be attributable the occurrence, on the White Mountains, of plants like Geum radiatum and Paronychia argyrocoma, which belong properly to the alpine flora of the mountain ranges far to the southward. The great range of so many sub-arctic and boreal lichens, also found British North American Plants. 467 on most high summits in middle and even southern tem- perate countries, seem to me, likewise, an evidence of the power of the winds in carrying spores to enormous distances. Many of the special causes which have operated in Canada to influence distribution have been of a physical character— as, ocean currents, the enormous coast line with its peculiar configuration and its effects on climate, the lie of the moun- tain ranges, the vast stretches of prairie country quite divested of trees, and over a-considerable extent of which the annual rain-fall is limited, the breadth and the cooling effects of the immense bodies of fresh water embraced in the inland lakes, and the general prevalence of fogs on the eastern coasts. All of these causes and others will be referred to in detail in their special places. DIVISIONS OF THE FLORA. Taking a general view of the whole flora of the Dominion, we can readily distinguish the following groups :— CANADIAN GRoup.—Hmbracing numerous species very generally distributed over the whole country from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and northward more or less to the limit of growth of trees. They also occur in the Northern United States, but probably the great mass of the individ- uals of each species is rather in Canada than the United States. Forest Grovup.—Comprising numerous species which range more or less from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick to the Rocky Mountains or towards there, but which appear to affect the forest country and to avoid the prairie, unless in those sections where there are extensive bluffs of trees, or in the river valleys. The species of this group do not cross the Rocky Mountains. MARITIME GRouP.—Species confined to the immediate sea shore, though several of them are also found along the Great Lakes and in the neighbourhood of saline ground farther inland. EAsteRN Coast GRoup.—Comprising plants confined in 468 Canadian Record of Science. range to the eastern portions of the Province of Quebec and to the Maritime Provinces of Nova Scotia and New Bruns- wick, though this large area is more conspicuous by the absence of numerous species common in Ontario and West- ern Quebec than by the presence of a distinctive fiora. Erre Grovup.—Including the large number of middle temperate plants found in the south-western peninsula of Ontario, and common to that area and to south-western New York, and to Ohio, Pennsylvania and other Middle States of the Union. St. LawkEencE Group.—Embracing numerous species dis- tributed generally throughout the St. Lawrence valley and lake region, but not ranging west of the wooded country immediately beyond Lake Superior and Lake of the Woods. BoreaL Grovup.—tIncluding in this those northern species which occur near the shores of the Lower St. Lawrence, around the coasts of Northern Michigan and Lake Superior and north-westward, and in many cases also found on the coasts and among the mountains, of British Columbia. Though intermingling sometimes with them, they are not sub-arctic plants, but generally occur where the deep waters of the sea or lakes or sufficient altitude supply a moderately low temperature. Ontario Group.—Representing a considerable class hav- ing its maximum development in Canada in the Province of Ontario, but also occurring in the eastern and middle sections of the Province of Quebec, and southward in the New England and Middle States. Prairiz Group.—HEmbracing species familiar more or less over the whole of the prairies of Manitoba and north- westward, but probably limited in range over the dry prairies of the western and south-western sections of Assini- — boia. WESTERN Prairie Group.—tincluding species belonging to the dry prairies to the west of Manitoba where the rain- fall is limited, and extending thence westward almost to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. WESTERN CENTRAL Group.—lIncluding a very consider- é Invaporation. : 469 able number of species which range from Middle and Southern British Columbia to, more or less, the eastern con- fines of Manitoba. : Rocky Mountain Grovup.—Embracing the numerous plants, not alpine, which in our present knowledge of their range are confined to the valleys and foothills of the Rocky Mountains. British CoLtumBia GRoup.— Comprehending all those species which are distributed somewhat generally over, and are confined to, the Province of British Columbia OREGONIAN Grovup.—Including under this the more southern plants found in British Columbia, and whose range northward, from Oregon and Washington Territory, has been facilitated by the general direction of the valleys in the Rocky, Selkirk, and other mountain ranges there. Western Coast Grovur.—Including in this, not the shore plants, but those species which probably the rain-fall and other causes have confined to the neighbourhood of the coast and the adjoining islands, in British Columbia. Sus-arctic GRoup.—Comprising species found on the higher hills and mountains in Hastern Canada and British Columbia, on Anticosti and the northerly coasts of the St. Lawrence estuary, on the more exposed points of Lake Superior and northward, and often intermingling far to the northward with the true arctic species. Arctic Group.—Comprising a few rare representatives in the Alpine districts of New England, and on the Mingan Islands and Island of Anticosti and neighbouring coasts, but as a rule confined to the high northern coasts of Labra- dor and Hudson Bay, and to Greenland, the shores of Baffin’s Bay, the Arctic islands and Lower Mackenzie River country. (To be continued.) INVAPORATION. By W. L. Goopwin, D.Sc. Professor of Chemistry and Mineralogy, Queen’s University, Kingston. The experiments noticed in the Rrcorp or Scizncez, Vol. II., No. 4, Oct. 1885 (p. 259), have been continued since that 470 Canadian Record of Science. date, and new experiments of the same sort are in progress. As explained in the previous notice, the object of these experiments is to determine the relative force with which different soluble substances attract water. The process is the reverse of that of evaporation, water vapour being very slowly condensed from a nearly saturated atmosphere by substances soluble in water. Of course, condensation goes on more and more slowly as the solutions become dilute, so that at length, in some Cases, years are required for the completion of the experiment. At present we are working with three salts, viz.: sodium, potassium, and lithium chlor- ides. In Series A, sodium and potassium chlorides are put in molecular proportions into small glass tubes, which are enclosed in a stoppered bottle along with a third small tube containing a weighed quantity of water. The propor- tion of water is varied for different experiments. The salts soon deliquesce, the sodium chloride more rapidly than the potassium chloride, and when the proportion of water is small, the water-tube soon becomes dry. It will be interest- ing to trace the progress of a few experiments of this series. Experiment [., sodium chloride, 1.1672 grm.; potassium chloride, 1.4882 grm.; water, 1.44 erm. After 56 days, the sodium chloride has gained 0.8058 grm. of water, the potas- sium chloride 0.6292 grm. and the water-tube is dry. After 159 days the sodium chloride is found to have increased its quantity of water at the expense of the potassium chloride, and this process continues, until at the end of 314 days the potassium chloride is very nearly dry. A glance at the following statement will show the progress of invaporation in this case :— mM Water. Water. Days. Water. ay Water. Water. Days. Days. | Days. Sodium Chloride. ..1.1672¢| 56/0.8058] 159)1.1978] 172/1.2392} 314/1.4207| 410)1.4183 Potassium “ .,.1.4882¢ 0.6292 0.2332 0.1900 0.0072 0.0076 This experiment illustrates the decrease in the rate of in- vaporation as the solution becomes diluter. Invaporation. 471 In Experiment 2 of this series the proportion of water is doubled. Series A., Experiment 2. Water. Days Water. a o + aS rs = mn > Cs} (=) Days Water. | Days. Water. | Days. | | 331 290'1.3386| 431/1.2528 Sodium Chloride... .0.5836 | 111/0.9516) 155/1.1160} 276|1.3 0991 0.0976 0.0844 1 Potassium “ ....0.7441 0.4866 0.3166} — |0. The potassium chloride still holds an appreciable quantity of water, and in all probability will continue to do so. Experiment 3, in which the proportion of water is again doubled, is still in progress. After 286 days the water is divided in the ratio of about 5 to 1. In Experiment 4, after 404 days, the salts have divided the water (again doubled) into approximately equal parts. We are watching this and Experiment 5 with considerable interest, and we expect that the latter will show a reversal in the invaporating power of the saline solutions, since very dilute sodium chloride solutions may have less invaporating power than corresponding potassium chloride solutions. During the past year, we tried a series of invaporation experiments with the so-called “gem” and °‘ crown” jars, hoping that they would be found to be air-tight. Two interesting results followed from experiments with these jars. They were carefully selected from a large stock, but only a small percentage of those selected were found to be air-tight. Of course the slightest leakage alters the con- ditions of the experiment. In the second place, it was found that the large space enclosed by these jars (large as com- pared with that enclosed by the narrow tubes and_ bottles before used) made invaporation exceedingly slow. Series B is for the purpose of showing the effect of in- creasing the ratio of sodium chloride. The effect, as seen by comparing Experiment 1 with Experiment 2 of Series A, is twofold, (1) to increase slightly the rate of invaporation by the sodium chloride, and (2) to dry the potassium chloride more completely. 472, Canadian Record of Science. Series C will show the effect of increasing the ratio of potassium chloride. There are indications that potassium chloride cannot be completely dried by means of sodium chloride, but these experiments are still in their first stages. A single experiment, made for the purpose of bringing to light any causes of variation not taken into account, has proved interesting. Equal quantities of sodium chloride were put into two small tubes and enclosed with water as usual. The invaporation was noted from time to time. Of course, under the same conditions the two quantities of salt, should invaporate at the same rate. As a matter of fact, the two quantities gained water at very nearly the same rate, but, while at first the weight of one tube increased slightly faster, after some time the second tube began to gain weight a little more rapidly than the first. In seeking an explanation of this variation, we noticed that the inside of the first tube was covered with small drops of liquid, while that of the second was dry. This evidently arose from the presence on the former of fine particles of salt exposing a large invaporating surface. Rapid dilution of the salt solution, thus formed, soon destroyed this tempo- rary advantage, and then came into play a second but less © marked cause of variation. Tube No. 2 was slightly wider than No. 1, and thus gave a somewhat larger invaporating surface. “Taz PLaGuE or Mick” In Nova ScoriA AND P. E. ISLAND. By rae Rey. Georcre Patrmrson, D.D., New Guascow, N.S. In the early settlement of Nova Scotia and P. H. Island, mention is not infrequently made of mice appearing in such swarms as to become a real plague, entirely des- troying the crops of the new settlers over considerable areas. Diereville, a French writer, in a work published in 1699, says: “The Island of St. John (Prince Edward Island) is stated to be visited every seven years by swarms of locusts or field mice alternately—never together. After Vs ‘The Plague of Mice” in Nova Scotia. 473 they ravage the land, they precipitate themselves into the sea.” There is no evidence of any such regularity in the visitation of mice, but later writers speak of it as occurring on Prince Edward island at longer or shorter intervals, and on the main land it has not been unknown. We have, however, authentic information of two instances of the kind, one in Prince Edward Island, in the year 1775, and the other in Nova Scotia, in the year 1815. I do not know that in either case the facts were noted by any scientific observer. It may therefore be of interest, and also render some service to science, to gather up what information we can obtain regarding these rather remarkable events, from men of ordinary intelligence, who were witnesses of them. The former of these visitations is now only a matter of tradition, but some years ago I conversed with aged per- sons, who in early years had passed through the troubles of that period, and from them gleaned the following particu- lars. In the year 1774 a number of families emigrated from Dumfries or its neighbourhood, in the south of Scot- land, and commenced a settlement at Georgetown, or Three Rivers, as it was called. They raised some crop that season, and, if my memory serves me right, in autumn they found the mice a little troublesome. But at all events, the next season they swarmed in such numbers as to become a real plague. They consumed all the crop, even the potatoes in the ground. They boldly entered the dwellings of the settlers, and, when they could get no other food, they even gnawed the leather in the binding of books. The consequence of this was that the settlers were brought to the verge of starvation, and would undoubtedly have perished but for a French settlement at some distance, from which they received supplies of potatoes. What that settlement was, and its distance from the place where they were located, I have not ascertained. But from their being able to save their crop of potatoes at least, I would be dis- posed to conciude that the mice had not reached them, and that the plague was, therefore, of very limited area. But the French settlement was much older, and had much more land under cultivation, and thus might have saved a part of 31 474 Canadian Record of Science. its crop. Still I believe that the mice could not have been as destructive as where the new-comers were.* Of the visitation in Eastern Nova Scotia, in 1815, com- monly known there as “the year of the mice,’ we possess fuller information. The Rev. Hugh Graham, then minister- ing in Stewiacke, thus writes to a friend in Scotland, under date 21st July of that year: “This last winter was the coldest that ever I saw. The spring was also very cold and late. Appearances are now promising, only the field mice have become so numerous as to threaten the destruction of a great part of the crop. We have not had such a visitation for more than forty years past. They began to multiply last year, and did some damage.” The next year he writes under date, August 1: “The plague of the mice is so far removed, that there is scarcely a mouse to be seen in house or field, or the woods, where they swarmed. But we feel the effects of it still. The grass, as well as grain, being greatly cut off, the farm- ers had to sell off a great part of their stock at low prices before winter, to bring their stock to their provender. But the winter was severe, and the spring uncommonly cold and late, which occasioned a great mortality in the remainder of their stock. And now breadstuffs have to be brought from afar, and at a high price, and many are very straitened as to the means.” This is the only contemporary record I possess of this visitation, but some years ago I made enquiries on the sub- ject of persons who remembered it, and recently I have con- versed with persons still alive, who though advanced in years are still, from recollection, able to give an intelligent account of it. These all agree in their testimony as to the “main facts, and if they vary slightly in the details, these variations represent the differences which existed at differ- ent places. From these sources I am able to furnish the following particulars :— : 1. The area of their ravages.—This included, we may say, * It is probable that it was from some visitation of this kind that they gave the name Souris to a harbour about twenty-five miles to the North-Hast. “The Plague of Mice” in Nova Scotia. 475 the whole of the Counties of Antigonish, Pictou and Col- chester, and part of the County of Cumberland along the north shore to the north-west, and some small portions of the Counties of Guysborough and Halifax to the south ; being a district about 80 miles in length by about an aver- age of 50 miles in breadth, with a superficies of about 4,000 square miles. We may observe that, at this time, settlers had generally occupied the land both along the shores of | the Straits of Northumberland on the north, and of the Basin of Minas on the south, and also along the principal rivers for some distance into the interior. But the central portions were still covered with the primeval forest, con- sisting largely of deciduous trees; and even where settle- ment was most advanced, the major part of the land was still under wood. 2. The species—All the persons with whom [| have con- versed in the County of Pictou, agree that the creature by which the mischief was done was what iscommonly known as the large, burrowing or short-tailed, field mouse, some- times called the meadow mouse (Arvicola riparia, Ord), but others say that other species were more abundant than usual. -Mr. Roderick McKay, of St. Mary’s, says that hav- ing set a large pot, partially filled with water, and a trap by which they fell into it, he found it in the morning filled with all the species known in the country. Mr. Samuel Waugh, of Tatamagouche, then over 19 years of age, says that there the jumping mouse was also numerous, and manifested its powers of destruction, but not nearly to the same extent as the other. And Dr. J. N. McDonald, who writes the history of Antigonish County, describes it as the meadow mouse, which he ealls Arvicola agrestis, a term now applied by naturalists to a different species, but he adds 1 Tn a paper by Sir Wm. Dawson on the “Species of Arvicola and Meriones, found in Nova Scotia,” (Ed. Phil. Journal, 1856), he indi- cates the species as A. Pennsylvanica, Ord. This is, however, re- garded by Baird as probably asynomym for A. riparia. A smaller Arvicole, A. (Hypudaeus) Tupperi, has been found by Downs, in Nova Seotia, and there are two varieties of Jaculus Hudsonius, the jumping mouse. One of them is the variety Acadicus of Dawson.—Ep. 476 Canadian Record of Science. 50g that about a month after its appearance a smaller kind appeared, and that then a deadly feud arose in which many of the larger kind were killed. But none of my informants in the County of Pictou know anything of this second species. 3. Rise and progress of the plaqgue-—Mr. Graham says that they began to multiply the previous year and did some damage. But in the County of Pictou, my informants generally state that they did not appear in such numbers as to excite notice. Probably in particular places, such as Stewiacke, which was situated, it might be said, in the midst of a large hardwood forest, they appeared sooner than in others. But toward the end of winter they began to arrest atten- tion. Those engaged in making maple sugar were troubled | by their fouling their troughs for gathering sap. At this time, Dr. McDonald says that they were so numerous that a fall of two or three inches of snow was literally packed down by their feet in a short time; and before planting was over, the woods and fields alike swarmed with them. Gen- erally their appearance in the clearings was sudden. One day they might not appear in a field, and the next they might be found in dozens or in hundreds. The seed grain, sown early, generally escaped them, but the later sown and the seed potatoes suffered from them. A story is told of a man who had made a clearing in the woods and carried out a quantity of oats to sow upon it. But on commencing his work they came in such swarms around him, eating the grain as he sowed it, that after continuing a while he threw the whole to them and returned home in disgust. 4. Their numbers and ravages—By midsummer they ‘swarmed everywhere. Every observer speaks of them as being in prodigious numbers—“in millions” was the com- mon expression. In mowing, acut of the scythe would not be made without killing some. They were bold too, and actually fierce. If pursued, when hard pressed, they would stand at bay, sitting upon their haunches, setting their teeth and squealing viciously. The males fought like little terriers. On passing a field one might hear them squealing “ The Plague of Mice” in Nova Scotia. ATT fo) in these contests, and when killed, their skins might be found torn as the result. Boys sometimes caught them and for their amusement set them fighting. They seemed almost amphibious, readily taking to the water, and swim- ming small streams. An intelligent man on the Hast River of Pictou, told me that one of the places where they were most abundant was an island in the river, though whether this great increase was the result of migration or of the rapid multiplication of those formerly on the island I am unable to say. Cats, dogs, martens and foxes, gorged themselves upon them to repletion, but with little apparent diminution of their numbers. An old man, then a boy, told me that, where he lived, a cat had kittens in an out- house, and used to hunt for them at night. In the morning he used to amuse himself counting the number of mice she would bring in, and on one occasion found it over 60. It was noticed that the wild animals became very plenty, but rather | should say were attracted from the woods by the abundance of prey. One man told me that he has seen as many as a dozen foxes on an intervale at one time. On the other hand, the Hon. Samuel Creelman, of Stewiacke, mentioned to me that in that settlement the domestic cats assumed a ferile condition and multiplied so that the next year they became a nuisance. They were so wild that they were a terror to children, and were hunted and killed in great numbers. The hay crop was much damaged. The mice cut so much of it that lay withered, that the scythe catching upon it, would sometimes slide over the rest without cutting. But it was when the grain began to ripen that their destruc- tiveness became especially manifest. They then attacked it in such numbers that all means were unavailing to arrest their progress. They have been known to cut down an acre in three days, so that whole fields were destroyed in a a short time. The jumping mice would spring at the ear and thus bring it to the ground, but the others were in the habit, as the country people expressed it, of junking it. They would nip a stalk off a little above the ground, and if instead of falling over, the end sank to the ground, leaving 478 Canadian Record of Science. it still upright, they would bite it off further up, until it fell over, or the end came within their reach, when they would either devour the grain or draw it to their nests, which were commonly under the roots of stumps. Over acres on acres they left not a stalk standing nor a grain of wheat, to reward the labours of the farmer. Trenches were dug,: and when it could be done, filled with water, but they formed only a slight barrier to their ravages. When the grain was consumed, they so far burrowed in the ground as to attack the potatoes. The result was that while in the older settlements, where the clearings were large, people by great effort managed to save a small part of their crops, in the back settlements and in clearings near the woods, all their crops were destroyed, with the exception of the hay, and that was much damaged. 5. Their departure—As described to me by residents in the county of Pictou, they passed away as rapidly as they came. In the autumn, as the weather became colder, they became languid, scarcely able to crawl. One could trample them under his feet, and finally they died in hundreds, so that they could be gathered in heaps, and their putrefying carcases might be found in some places in such numbers as to taint the air. The reason assigned for this by the com- mon people, was that they had eaten all the grain or other suitable food, and that they had nothing to subsist on but raw potatoes, which proved unwholesome. But Dr. McDonald says that, after haying, millions of fleas (?) could be seen upon them, and that, to rid them- selves of these tormentors, they rushed to the nearest river or pond and were drowned in great numbers. None of my informants in the county of Pictou speak of anything of this kind, but it is commonly reported that at Cape George they took to the salt water and died, their bodies forming u ridge like seaweed along the edge of the sea, and codfish being caught off the coast with carcases in their maws. At the northwestern part of the district, another cause was assigned as a means of their destruction. Mr. Samuel Waugh, of Tatamagouche, mentioned to me that winter set in early, with one of the most remarkable sleet-storms ever “The Plague of Mice” in Nova Scotia. 479 known here. The ground was covered with a sheet of ice perhaps an inch thick. It came so early that the wild geese had not left the north shore. At that time they were in the habit of stopping there for some time. They then passed over to the shores of the Bay of Fundy, where they lingered a few days, and then passed to the southern shore, where they again stopped before taking their final flight to the South. But, on this cccasion, they were caught in the sleet-storm when crossing the Cobequid mountains. Their wings became so encrusted with ice that they were unable to fly. Their cries were heard, and settlers, attracted to the place, killed numbers of them. This, or the difficulty of obtaining food in consequence, was regarded by my informant as the cause of the disappear- ance of the mice. The next year, it was supposed from the same cause, the wild animals were found to be very scarce. However, I have not found any person in the eastern or southern portion of the district who recollects this storm, and perhaps it did not extend that far. At all events, over nearly the whole district, which one season was ravaged by these creatures, in the next, as Mr. Graham says, scarce a mouse was to be seen. The only exception to this of which I have heard was at the East River of St. Mary’s. Here Mr. Roderick McKay informs me that, for several years, they were numerous enough to be troublesome. But it may be observed that there were not more than five families there, who only arrived in the year of the mice, and made the first breach in the magnifi- cent hardwood forests of that region. 6. Causes.—I do not intend fully to discuss the causes of . these phenomena. All I design is to supply such informa- tion as I have obtained which may throw some light on the subject. The Rev. Thomas Trotter, late of Antigonish, arrived in the province in 1818. He had heard the con- tents of Mr. Graham’s letter before leaving Scotland, and was interested in the question. When he arrived, the whole matter was fresh in the minds of the people, and by enquiring into the facts he thought he had arrived at an explanation of the case. He gave me his views, but it is 480 Canadian Record of Sctence. so long ago that I can only recollect their general purport. According to his report, one season before, I think that of 1813, and perhaps also the one previous, had been extremely favourable for the production of mast. Wild fruit and nuts were in unusual abundance. ‘Then winter set in with a fall of snow which covered the ground before it was frozen, and it remained so covered the whole season. In the woods, therefore, in such circumstances and with such abundance of food, the mice would multiply rapidly. During the summer of 1814, as Mr. Graham says, they began to show themselves, but still they had sufficient food in the forest. That summer, however, did not prove so favourable, so that, with their increased numbers and decreased supply of food, by the spring of 1815 the woods no longer afforded them the means of subsistence, and they were driven to seek it in the clearings. The same cause, namely, ‘‘a failure of their ordinary food in the woods,” is assigned by Sir W. Dawson, in the paper referred to above. I cannot but think, however, that if, on the one hand, there were such circumstances favourable to their multiplication, on the other, the destruction which had been going on among the fur-bearing animals for some time, must have been re- moving one of the natural barriers to their increase, and thus helped to produce the result. _ Atall events, when we consider the fecundity of these creatures, that they produce from five to eight young at a birth, and this at intervals of from one to two months, so that it has been calculated that a single pair might in one year produce 20,000, we need not be surprised that under circumstances favourable for their increase, and with the removal, in any measure, of the checks which Nature has set up against it, they should on occasions appear in such overwhelming numbers. Other bearings of the subject I must leave to skilled naturalists to consider. The Ainos of Japan. 481 THE REARING OF BEARS AND THE WORSHIP OF YOSHITSUNE BY THE AINOS OF JAPAN. By D. P. Pennattow, B.Sc., F.R.S.C. Professor of Botany, McGill University, Montreal. Griffis! in speaking of the Aino worship says :—“They worship the spirit of Yoshitsune, a Japanese hero, who is supposed to have lived among them in the twelfth century, and who taught them some of the arts of Japanese civiliza- tion.” This isa statement which one frequently meets with in the modern literature of Japan; and it is also so often met with by those who are resident in northern Japan, that there appears to be some reason for its general currency, more substantial than that of mere fable. Yoshit- sune, the son of Yoshituno, was born in 1159, and while yet a babe in his mother’s arms, was saved by her from the vengeance of his father’s assassins. He lived to become the ideal of chivalrous and knightly valor, to all future generations of those who aspired to military fame. Becom- ing the leading general in the army of his elder brother Yoritomo, his success in gaining a victory over the Tiara so aroused the jealousy of the latter, that his execution was ordered upon very slender grounds. According to some accounts, after escaping toward the north of Honshiu, Yoshitsune found further escape impossible, and committed hara-kiri. Another account relates that he escaped to the Island of Yeso, where he ruled undisturbed for a _ time. While yet another version, derived from the Chinese, ident. ifies him with Genghis Khan. It is in connection with the second version that the account of his reign over the - Ainos, and the worship of his spirit by them is associated. That there is, therefore, considerable uncertainty as to the actual manner and time of his death is evident, and to those who have studied the Ainos, his worship by them has also always been surrounded by very grave doubts. It is, there- fore, a pleasure to produce testimony obtained by Mr. John Batchelor, which seems to throw a great deal of light upon the true nature of the relations existing between this *Mikados Empire, 34. 482 Canadian Record of Science. renowned warrior and the savages of the north. His account, which he has sent to us, is as follows :— THe WorsHrIp oF YOsHITSUNE BY THE AINU. “Tt appears to be a generally received opinion among those persons, whether Japanese or foreign, who have writ- ten or made any special inquiries respecting the subject, that the Ainu people are in the habit of worshiping the image or spirit of Kurchonguwan Minamoto no Yoshitsune: who, it will be remembered, was driven to Yezo by his elder brother in the twelfth century of our era. And, indeed, when we call to mind that there is a little shrine upon a cliff at the village of Piratori, containing an idol representing that great personage ; that some Ainu residing at and immediately round Piratori itself actually tell inquirers that some few of their number do at times, though not often, worship at the said shrine; and when we note the fact that most, if not all, of the Ainu men recog- nize the name Yoshitsune, then we see that this generally received and constantly asserted opinion has, apparently, a good degree of foundation in fact. The writer of these lines formerly shared, in common with many others, the generally received views on this subject, but after long residence with the people themselves, having spent many months in the village of Piratori (at, so to speak, the very doors of the shrine in question), he has been obliged to change his opinion, or at least very considerably to modify it, in regard to this as well as many other subjects con- nected with the Ainu. The following remarks contain a few facts bearing upon this question, and the writer’s rea- sons for believing that the Ainu do not, in the commonly received meaning of the term, actually worship either the spirit or image of Kurdhonguwan Minamoto no Yoshitsune. “In the first place, it must be clearly understood that when persons say the Ainu worship Yoshitsune, they mean that people not as a nation, but merely a few individuais resi- dent in the Saru district. Again, the facts are still more narrowed when we make strict inquiries; for it is not even pretended that all the Saru Ainu worship him, but only The Ainos of Japan. 483 those of Piratori. Now, there are two Piratoris, viz.: Piratori the upper and Piratori the lower. These two vil- lages were once united, but are now situated from about a quarter to half a mile apart. The shrine of Yoshitsune (and there is but one shrine in Yezo) is at the upper Pira- tori, and the inhabitants of the lower village will tell an inquirer that it is the people of the upper Piratori who worship the person in question. Now, the upper village contains only about thirty-two huts, and we find that not even ten persons out of these families really worship Yosh- itsune. It is clear then that the Ainu, considered as a race or nation, do not at the present-day deify that hero. “Then again, it should be noted that the present shrine is decidedly of Japanese make and pattern: in all respects it is like the general wayside shrines one may see anywhere in Japan. It was built about ten years ago by a Japanese carpenter resident at a place called Sarabuto (Ainu, San-o- butu). Previous to this there was also a Japanese-made shrine on the same spot, but a much smaller one. The idol in the shrine is both small and ugly; it is a representation not so much of a god as of a warrior, for it is dressed in armour and is furnished with a pair of fierce-looking, staring eyes and a horribly broad grin ; itis just such an idol as one might expect in this case, seeing that Yoshitsune was a war- rior. Besides this, the Ainu have treated the image to an inao or two. There is nothing more, and the shrine is too small for a person to enter. “Now, it is a fact not generally known, I believe, that, according to Ainu ideas and usages, it is absolutely neces- sary to turn to the east in worshipping God (the goddess of fire excepted). Hence, the custom of building all huts with the principal end facing the east. The chief window is placed in the east end of the hut, so that the head of a family may look towards the east when at prayer. It is considered the height of impoliteness and disrespect to look into a hut through the east window. But the shrine of Yoshitsune is placed in such a position that the worship- pers would have to sit or stand with their backs to the east. In every other matter (and why not in this also), 484 Canadian Record of Science. assuming such a position in prayer would be a great disrespect to the object worshipped. “The image of Yoshitsune is looked upon from the east, hence, speaking from analogy, it would appear that it is not the Ainu worshipping Yoshitsune, but either Yoshitsune worshipping the Ainu, or the Ainu insulting Yoshitsune; such a conclusion may appear to be somewhat far fetched, but is, when compared with other things, at any rate a logical one. The writer does not intend to say that the Ainu, in the present case (for with them religion is a serious thing), place such a construction upon the form of the shrine, though they dearly like to play upon a person some- times. All he wishes to remark is, that the position of the shrine of Yoshitsune does not come up to the acknowledged requirements of the Ainu ideas of Deity worship. ‘“‘ Again, it is said by the people that they would not wor- ship an idol, because it would be directly against the expressed command of Azoina Kamui, their reputed ances- tor. The Ainu are, in many things, a very conservative people, and in the matter of religion, particularly so. Note the following incident. In the days of the Tokugawa regume—so runs the tale —the Ainu were ordered by the Government, or rather by the authorities of Matsumai, to cut their hair Japanese fashion. The result was a great meeting of the Yezo chiefs, which ended in sending off a deputation to beg that the order be countermanded, or at least suffered to lapse. For, say the Ainu, we could not go contrary to the customs of our ancestors without it bringing down upon us the wrath of the gods. And, though a few Ainu, particularly those at Mori, did cut their hair as ordered, the people as a whole were let off. If then a mere change in-the fashion of cutting the hair should be such a weighty matter, what would the institution of idol-worship involve? . “ But notwithstanding all this, there is still not only the fact of the shrine being at Piratori to be accounted for, but also the fact that some Ainu do tell us tnat Yoshitsune is worshipped by a few of their number, though very seldom. What is the explanation? The Ainos of Japan. ~ 485 “An Ainu himself shall answer the first question. ‘You know,” says he, “‘ we have for a long time been subject to the Japanese Tono Sama and Yakunin; and it has been to our interest that we should try to please them as much as possible so as not to bring down trouble upon ourselves. As we know that Yoshitsune did come among our ancestors, it was thought that nothing would please the ofticials more than for them to think that we reaily worship Yoshitsune, who was himself a Japanese. And so it came to pass that the shrine was asked for and obtained.” This statement was made to the writer quite spontaneously and confiden- tially, along with many other matters. Taken by itself, this statement might not be worth much, but viewed with other things of the sort, it speaks volumes. The spirit here unwittingly shown is happily fast dying out, for the Ainu begin to see that there is now but one law for both peoples, and that there is justice obtainable even by them. Nevertheless, the spirit above exemplified has been a real factor in the life and actions of the Ainu people. “The whole secret of the second question turns upon the meaning of the word worship. ‘The word used by the Ainu is ongami, and the meaning is “to bow to,” “to salute.” The Ainu are delightfully sharp in some things, and this is oneof them. An Ainu told me one day, with a most be- nign grin, reaching almost from ear to ear, that he did ongami (salute) Yoshitsune’s shrine or idol; but as for (otta inonno-itak) praying to that person, neither he nor any one that he knew, did so; and, as regdrds (nomi) the . ceremony of offering inao or libations of wine to him, both he and many others were always ready to do so providing someone else would find the sake / Here, then, is the point; the Ainu do not worship Yoshitsune in the sense of paying him divine honour any more than the people of England worship Lord Beaconsfield; but some Ainu do worship him in the sense of honouring him, in the same sense as Lord Beaconsfield is honoured by the members of the Primrose League, only not in anything like the same degree. Some London cabman would be just as pleased to worship Mr. Gladstone by drinking his health, and in the same sense, 486 Canadian Record of Science. - too, as an Ainu would be to hold libations in honour of Yoshitsune; for afterall, the said libations are neither more nor less than a drinking of sake. The real god worshipped is the person’s own stomach. “Such then are my reasons for dissenting from the gener- ally received opinion on this subject. On the contrary, I believe that Yoshitsune is merely honoured by the people. And this opinion rests, not upon the argument of question and answer, but upon that together with actual observation and spontaneously given information. It is, indeed, a won- der that the Ainu do not worship him as a god, and perhaps a few of the rising generation may yet doso; but I hope not.” A second point of interest, isthat relative to the bringing up of young bears by the Ainos. The bear, which in Yezo closely resembles the cinnamon bear of the Western States, if, indeed, he is not the same species, is an object of worship among these people. Whenever the young can be captured, they are kept in close cages until of a certain age, when they are sacrificed with great ceremony. Hvery Aino vil- lage and hamlet has at least one such cage, and a traveller usually finds them occupied. The belief is common among the Japanese—and it has also been freely accepted by foreigners—that when these bears are captured very young they are nursed by the Aino women as they would their own babes. That such could be the case, has always appeared to the writer as highly improbable, but in view of the difficulty of gaining trustworthy testimony, it has heretofore been impossible to satisfactorily deny the truth of the common assertion., Mr. Batchelor has now brought forward the result of evidence obtained during his residence among these people, and his statements are sufficiently. conclusive to justify us in asserting our original opinion. His communication to me is as follows :— Tar Reartne or BEARS BY THE AINU. “Tt appears to be thought by many people, both English and American, that the Ainu women are in the habit of bringing up bear cubs at the breast as they do their own children, This opinion has received so much credence be- The Ainos of Japan. 487 cause many persons who have written anything about the Ainu race have, for some reason or other, either passed the subject over without even venturing a word of denial or explanation, thereby appearing, at all events, to give assent thereto, or else they have stated it to be fact. But no one - —that I am aware of—has ever told us that he has actualiy seen an Ainu woman nursing a bear’s cub, and I for one, shall be very much surprised if ever I hear it has been seen by any foreigner. It is not intended to deny absolutely that bear’s cubs have, in a sense, been brought up at the breast, or that they may again be so brought up. But allow me to remark, in behalf of the Ainu, that during five year’s sojourn amongst, and almost daily intercourse with them—living with them in their own huts—I have never once witnessed anything of the sort, nor can I find a single Ainu man or woman who has seen the cubs of bears reared by women in the same way as a mother rears her child. The facts appear to have been somewhat over-stated, and it is hoped the following remarks may be received in extenu- ation of the charge. ‘““My experience of the rearing of young bears is as fol- lows :—Bears’ cubs are very seldom taken so young that they cannot lap water, and when a dish of millet and fish, boiled into a soft pap, is placed before a cub it soon learns to feed itself. They never care to starve for more than a day or two. With those, therefore, that can lap (which is by far the greater proportion), no difficulty is experienced. The only inconvenience with them arises from the great noise they make in crying for their mother. This nuisance is soon cured, for the owner of the cub takes it to his bosom and allows it to sleep with bim for a few nights, thus dis- pelling its fears and loneliness. ‘When a cub is taken so young that it cannot even lap its food, itis fed from the hand and mouth, not from the human breast. Sometimes small portions of fish or a little millet (often both mixed) are chewed by a person and thrust little by little into the animal’s mouth, and it is thus made to swallow. At other times millet is made into a kind of batter or very thin paste, a mouthful of which is taken 488 Canadian Record of Science. by a man or woman and the cub allowed to suck it from the lips, which it will readily do. In fact, it is at first fed in much the same way as boys at home feed young birds. The next step is to teach the animal to lap from the hand, which is also soon accomplished ; then it learns to take its food from a wooden tray. This is the general way of rear- ing bear cubs, and any one who knows how fond bears are of licking things, will readily understand how easy it would be to teach a cub to lap. A very young cub could almost subsist by licking only. “ However, a woman may occasionally be found who is strong-minded enough to take a very young cub—a cub whose eyes are not yet open—to her breast, once a day, for a day or two, but at the same time she feeds it from the hand and mouth in the manner above stated. Such women are very scarce indeed, as is also the occasion for them, for cubs are seldom taken young enough to admit of being so nursed. I have seen the cubs of bears brought up by hand, but have never seen one nursed as a woman nurses a child. ‘No doubt the Ainu are low enough in the scaie of human- ity and have some barbarous manners and customs, but their barbarity has been exaggerated, as their stupidity has been taken too much for granted. Thus, in the case under discussion, it seems to me that the bringing up of bears’ eubs at the human breast, should not be called an Ainu cus- tom merely because a few strong-minded wemen can be found, after a great deal of search, who will take and nurse a cub for a day or two. They are exceptions to the rule.” The results of the communications as above, are of con- siderable interest as showing that the Ainos are, at least in some respects, of a much higher order than might be in- ferred from the writings of many, and we cannot but feel that these facts are of considerable ethnological interest, ‘concerning as they do, a most interesting remnant of a people of whom we are just beginning to gain a correct knowledge. The Heart of the Snake. 489 On THE PHYSIOLOGY OF THE HEART OF THE SNAKE. By T. Weistny Mitts, M.A., M.D. Professor of Physiology, McGill University, Montreal. “This paper will furnish an account of a study of the heart of the Snake, as a continuation of a series of papers already published on the cardiac physiology of the cold- blooded animals, including thus far also the Water Tortoise, the Sea Turtle, the Fish, the Alligator, and Menobranchus. _ The snakes used belonged to the genus T7opidonatus, and the experiments were made during the midwinter of 1886 and 1887. The animals had been without food since their capture in the autumn, but were not apparently in any degree hibernating, the temperature of the apartment in which they were kept being not far from 17° C. They were left in a tank, with fresh water running constantly from a tap, but they were free either to remain in the water or to betake them elves to the dry shelves of the tank, on which they were, in fact, mostly seen coiled up together. The method of study has been that pursued throughout, viz., direct observation, and as a stimulus, the interrupted current supplied by a Du Bois’ inductorium, fed by one Oe sized Daniell’s cell. THe Vacus NERVE. Comparison of the vagi througout these experiments has established the following conclusions for this animal :— 1. In no case was either vagus without effect on the rhythm of the heart. In every case actual slowing, and with a sufficiently strong current, arrest followed stimula- tion. 2. In the majority of instances the right vagus was more efficient than the left. 3. In a very few cases, both nerves seemed to be almost, if not quite equally, influential over the heart’s rate. In this comparison, then, it appears that the vagi of the snake resemble functionally those of the other cold-blooded animals examined by me. 32 490 Canadian Record of Science. After Effects of Vagus Stimulations.—These were of the following kinds :— 1. Increased rate of beat, more marked the slower the heart at the time of stimulation, - 2. In all cases increased force (working power) of the heart. This was, sometimes, the only effect noticeable. 3. When irregularity of rhythm of either the whole or some part of the heart existed prior to stimulation, this was abolished for a longer or shorter period. In these respects the heart of the Snake follows those of the other animals referred to above; but none of the effects have been so marked as in the case of the Chelonians, though more certain than in the Fish, so far as my own observations on that animal go. Mode of arrest and of re-commencement of the cardiac beat.— When the current is too feeble to arrest the whole heart ; or when the whole heart is not amenable to its action, as is the case when its nutrition is much impaired, the auricles are the first or only parts to stop pulsating. The sinus venosus is always the first part to commence to pulsate after vagus arrest, and for several beats the auricles proper may be quiescent, the wave of contraction passing over what I have called the “Sinus extension,”' to the ventricle which may respond for some seconds prior to the auricles. 1 am inclined io believe that the auricles are not a little dependent for the maintenance of their rhythm on the intracardiac blood pressure, and that this may enter as one factor into the explanation of this phenomenon. At all events, the same takes place in all the poikilothermers I have examined. McWilliam’ pointed it out for the Hel, and as I indicated in my paper on the Sea Turtle,’ Gaskell? is in error when he states that in the Tortoise an excitation wave cannot travel from the sinus to the ventricle and cause a 1“The Rhythm and Innervation of the heart of the Sea Turtle,” Journal of Anat. and Phys., vol. xxi. * Journal of Physiology, Vol. vi., Nos. 4 and 5. “Opcit, p. 7. * Journal of Physiology, Vol. iii., Nos. 5 and 6. The Heart of the Snake. 491 ventricular contraction independently of a wave of contrac- tion over both parts of the auricle. Inexcitability of the Sinus and Auricles under vagus stinvula- tion.—One of most interesting results of the recent cardiac studies has been the unexpected demonstration that certain parts of the heart in some animals (the particular region being variable) are, to a greater or less degree, inexcitable to direct stimulation when the heart is arrested by vagus influence. ‘McWilliam has stated that the excitability of the auricle is temporarily abolished in the Hel’s heart under vagus stimulation. But this investigator is entirely in error when he affirms that such is not observed in the heart of the Snake, though he is correct as regards the other animals he instances. I have established, by experiments, that during vagus stimulation, the sinus and auricles of the heart of the Snake do not respond to direct stimulation. If the heart be at its best, and the stimulating currrent sufficiently strong, the excitability may be wholly abolished; but with a weaker current, or a less vigorous heart, the effect may be only partial. I have shown that in ’Menobranchus the ventricle is the part of the heart most readily and most profoundly affected by stimulation of the vagus, and that during such stimulation the ventricle is inexcitable. According to ° McWilliam, in the Newt, the sinus, auricles and ventricle, are all inexcitable to direct stimulation during strong inhibition. These peculiarities and differences show how dangerous it is to assume the applicability of the same physiological generalization to animals, even closely related morphologi- cally. This conviction on my part had much to do with my beginning these studies and continuing them on ani- mals of related groups; for I felt satisfied that a systematic comparison would establish differences unsuspected by those accustomed to extend conclusions derived from experiments Op. cit., p, 226. * Journal of Physiology, Vol. vii. ° Proceedings of the British Physiological Society, Journal of Physiology, Vol. vi. 492 Canadian Record of Science. on one species or even genus of animals to others. A survey of my own series of investigations alone, will amply demon- strate the desirability of such a course as I have pursued, and still more so if taken in connection with the work of other investigators, like McWilliam, who have followed the comparative method to any degree. A great deal of labor- ious work, without brilliant results, must be done, but I wish to state most emphatically my conviction that it is the only way by which a broad, solid and safe physiology can be produced. CarDIAC RIFLEXES. I have noticed in the Snake, as often in the Chelonians, that while the medulla oblongata is intact, the heart may be very irregular, but that upon the destruction of that part, the rhythm at once changes, becoming always regular and often more frequent. The explanation is probably to be sought in the various influences reaching the medulla and passing down the vagi in an animal in an abnormal condi- tion from the circumstances of the experiment. But when stimuli are applied to various parts, as the skin, the viscera, etc., the results are found to be very variable. Apparently there are great individual differences, and not a little depends on the vigour of the animal at the moment of experiment. Much of what has been established for the Chelonians' might be repeated for the Snake. It only remains to note a few peculiar results of special interest in this connection. It sometimes happens in the Frog, and rarely in the Chelonians that the first effect of vagus stimulation is not slowing but acceleration of the beat of the heart. This I have not witnessed in the Snake; but, on one occasion, when reflex inhibition was unusually _ marked, on placing the electrodes over the lung, the rate was accelerated for 3-4 beats. Im my paper on the Fish,* it has been pointed out that a certain strength of current ' Journal of Phys, Vol. VI.; Journal of Anat. and Phys., Vol. XXI. 2 Op. Cit. p. 89. The Heart of the Snake. 493 may give rise only to acceleration, or acceleration followed by slowing, when a stronger current caused only decided and prompt inhibition. In such cases the result has followed stimulation of various parts of the body. Similar obser- vations have been made in the Sea-Turtle’ on stimulation of the surface of the liver. In these cases the nerve mechanism requisite for reflex inhibition was intact, and the brain beyond the medulla destroyed. As the above has been an almost constant result of excitation by the interrupted cur- rent of the anus, and above all of the tail in the Fish, it is not possible to explain it in this animal by escape of current on either the main stems or terminal branches of the vagi. Nor do I think this explanation holds for either the Sea- Turtle, or the Snake. The subject has been discussed in my paper on the Alligator.” Our knowledge does not seem to be sufficient at present to clear up these cases fully; in the meantime, I add the results in the Snake to those already recorded for other cold-blooded animals. In the explanation of Marshall Hall’s remarkable result’ on crushing the stomach of the Hel, when cardiac inhibition followed, notwithstanding that the brain and spinal cord had been wholly destroyed, McWilliam’ holds that Hall’s explanation of exhibitory action through the sympathetic system is not valid, and that the result is to be explained by vibratory stimulation of the vagi, owing to the concus- sion of the blow of the hammer used in crushing the stomach. With a view of testing the above hypothesis as regards the Snake, in a case in which reflex inhibition was specially well marked, I destroyed the whole brain and then attempted to get cardiac arrest by blows upon the animal with a large forceps, and heavy blows on the table on which the subiect of the experiment rested, but with entirely negative results. ‘That in the sensitive heart of the fish Mc William’s explana- tion might, in certain cases, be valid, it is possible to under- stand; but that they explain either Marshall Hall’s experi- 1 Op. Cit. p. 7. 2 Journal of Anat. and Phys., Vol. XxX., p. 555 et seq. 3 Op. cit., p. 238. 494 Canadian Record of Science. ment or my own results as detailed in my paper on the Alligator and the Fish, I am unable to believe. When Hall stated his belief that the sympathetic was a channel for influences that may lessen the heart’s action, - he reached, I believe, a new truth. In my paper on the Terrapin,’ I called attention, for the first time, to certain peculiar and hitherto unobserved phenomena, that I then felt must lead out to something of importance. If Gaskell’s* conclusions turn out correct as to the physiological character of certain different kinds of nerve fibres, then my previous statement that “the vagus is a sympathetic with inhibitory fibres; the sympathetic a vagus without these fibres, if indeed it be wholly without them (a point I have suggested previously as not yet to be considered settled),’’? may be considered the first announce- ment in distinct form, in a published paper, of a doctrine likely to be soon established on a firm anatomical and phy- siological basis. But yet it must be admitted that the genius of Marshall Hall was the first to penetrate the dark- ness. At the time of writing the above, I was unaware of his suggestion as to the influence of the sympathetic-.over the heart. If it be true that certain fibres running in the sympathetic system have the effect of first increasing meta- bolic action, thus leading to exalted functional activity followed by exhaustion, then certain results of stimulation pointed out by me in my papers on the Terrapin and the Fish, become clearer, though not, perhaps, fully explained, e.g. acceleration followed by slowing on stimula- tion of various parts of the body, even with the whole brain destroyed. Faradization of the Heart.—The results of this method of stimulation may be stated somewhat briefly, as, in the main, they correspond with what I have found in the other animals experimented upon. The results vary much with the strength of the current used, but especially with the functional condition of the heart at the time. When 1 Journal of Physiology, vol. vi., p. 271, 288, ete. * Journal of Physiology, vol. vii., No. 1. 3 Op. Cit., p. 883. The Heart of the Snake. 495 at its best, the heart may be arrested on placing the elec- trodes over either auricle or sinus. When somewhat exhausted, the auricles alone, or but one of them, may be arrested on placing the electrodes over one auricle. Arrest of the sinus is, of course, always followed by stoppage of the rest of the heart. The behaviour of the ventricle, when thus directly stimu- lated, differs from that pointed out in the heart of the Sea Turtle.’ In the Snake, stimulation of the ventricle is never followed by that “intervermiform ” action so common in the Sea Turtle, and less frequently seen in the Terrapin. One of the first effects, if the current be not too strong, may be accelerated action; and I believe the ventricle is only arrested by the escape of current on the rest of the heart, so that the ventricular pause is really due to the arrest of the sinus. As after arrest from vagus stimulation, the sinus and ventricle often beat for some time before the auricles begin. The usual paralysis and light colored points, to which allusion has been made in my other papers, are evident in the Snake, though not so marked as in the Chelonians. I see no reason to change the opinion expressed in former papers as to the meaning of these phenomena, nor to doubt that arrest of the heart on direct faridisa- tion is owing to stimulation of the fine terminals of the vagi nerves within the heart’s substance. Independent Cardiac Rhythm.—As in former instances, ligatures have been used to separate one part of the heart from another. They are unquestionably much more reliable than clamps or other apparatus. When the ven- tricle is ligatured off from the rest of the heart, in no case does an independant rhythm arise in it. Notwith- standing the increase in pressure, the parts above continue to beat well, even more vigorously than before. A ligature between the sinus and auricles drawn tightly enough to prevent any wave of contraction passing down over it completely arrests all parts below; and I have in no case seen an independant rhythm arise in these regions of the heart. In short, my experiments have given negative re- 1 Op. cit. 496 Canadian Record of Science. sults as to a really independant rhythm, and confirm views already expressed in the other papers in which my work has been recorded. SUMMARY. 1. The investigations recorded in this paper were made in midwinter, on fasting but not hibernating animals. 2. Comparison of the vagi showed that in every instance both nerves were efficient; but usually the right was the most so; in some cases the difference, if actual, was minimal. 3. Stimulation of the vagi, leads to after increased force and frequency of beat, or of the former only, and accord- ing to the law' of inverse proportion previously announced by the writer. 4 The mode of arrest of the heart is identical with that noted in the Chelonians, Fish, &c.; the same applies to the mode of re-commencement. 5. During vagus arrest the sinus and auricles are inex- citable. 6. There are certain peculiar cardiac effects not expli- cable by reference to the vagi nerves alone, but which put the sympathetic system of nerves in a new light. 7. Direct, stimulation of the heart confirms results pre- viously noted by the writer for other cold-blooded animals. Arrest is, in all the animals of this class yet examined, owing to stimulation of the terminals of the vagi within the heart’s substance. 8. As regards independent cardiac rhythm, the results have been negative. 9. The heart of the Snake, upon the whole, seems to lie physiologically between that of the Frog and that of the Chelonians. PHYSIOLOGICAL LABORATORY, McGitt Uvrvarsity, Montreal, June, 1887. 1 Journal of Phys., Vol vi., p. 281 et seq. ad i Freshwater Sponges of Newfoundland. 497 THE FRESHWATER SPONGES OF NEWFOUNDLAND. By A. H. MacKay, B.A., BSc. Principal, Pictou Academy, Nova Scotia, Canada. In August of 1885, I spent a few weeks in Newfoundland, investigating its natural history and paying particular atten- tion to the fauna and flora of its freshwater lakes. My work was confined nearly entirely to the Avalon peninsula and adjacent portions of the island. I dipped into the ponds and lakes more easilv accessible from the line of railway extending from St. John’s towards the interior, such, for instance, as Virginia, Quidi Vidi, lakes near Har- bor Grace Junction, Lady, Bannerman, Rocky, Carbonear and other lakes and lakelets upon the rocky highlands and near the sea level as far west as Heart’s Content, on Trinity Bay. This region is generally considered as of Huronian age, and sponge collections were often limited to those growing in the shallow margins of the lakes on the under sides of splinters of hard, slaty quartzites, or more massive more or less water-worn rock fragments. The dredge, although successful in the collection of other material in some of the lakes, brought no satisfactory enue of sponges from any considerable depth. Of the sponges, Spongilla fragilis, Leidy, was the most abundant and universal. Then came S. lacustris var. Daw- soni and Meyenia fluviatilis, Carter. Next, the newly dis- covered Nova Scotian sponges, Spongilla Mackayi, Carter, and Heteromeyenia Pictovensis, Potts. And lastly, Tubella Pennsylvanica, Potts, and the following species: Encrusting stones in lakelets near Heart’s Content, on August 14th, this sponge was found. On a superficial examination, from the presence of small birotules in the flesh, nearly identical with those of Meyenia Everetti, Potts, it was thought to be the latter species. But the character of the statoblast or reproductive gennule, showed it to be quite distinct from any other sponge described. The speci- mens were referred simultaneously to H. J. Carter, Hsq., F.RS., of England, and E. Potts, Esq., of Philadelphia, who 498 Canadian Record of Science. substantially agreed on every point. On account of its birotulate dermal spicules which caused it to approach 1. Everetti, and a tendency of the spinous processes in some of the statoblast spicules to group themselves towards each end of the shaft and assume a partial birotulate aspect, as shown in the accompanying illustration given by Mr. Potts, he was disposed to classify it as a Meyenia. The non-. birotulate character of the great majority of these spicules, and the tangential position of their shafts with respect to the spherical chitinous envelope of the statoblast, seemed, however, more technically to bring it under Spongilla as defined by Carter. But, in Meyenia acuminata, Potts, we have an example of birotulate spicules placed tangentially. We have in Spongilla Terre Nove, at all events, a form closely connect- ing Spongilla and Meyenia. Itis to be regretted that owing to the distance and generally inaccessible nature of the rocky-ridged, lake-cradling highlands around Trinity Bay, that I have found it impossible to obtain more mature specimens of this species as yet, such as would be collected in October, for instance. Mr. Potts has published a deserip- tion, which is substantially that given below, in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1886, pages 227-230. SponGiLLA TERRA Nova, Potts and Carter. “Sponge encrusting; sarcode of the young growth a dense-mass of minute spherical cells, embedding slender, thread-like, curving lines of fasciculated skeletal spicules, developing later into a very loose, open tissue, with few connecting spicules, charged with statoblasts. “Statoblasts, spherical, rather large, averaging about 0.036 inches in diameter; chitinous coat thin, “ crust ” apparently wanting ; aperture, single, circular, about .0015 inches in diameter. “Skeletal spicules relatively few, generally smooth, slen- der and gradually pointed, forming, by overlapping each other linearly, threadlike fascicles; dimensions about 0.0067 by 0.0002. Notes on Fossil Woods. 499 “Dermal or flesh spicules very abundant, minute birotu- lates of unequal size, averaging about 0.0007 inches in length; shafts slender. cylindrical, occasionally spined ; outer surface of rotules dome shaped; rays prolonged, ter- minations acute; irregularities frequent. Mixed with occa- sional linear, spined spicules. ““Spicules upon statoblast fundamentally smooth, robust fusiform, pointed, averaging 0.0015 inches in length, gene- rally having as many as from one to twelve spines unsym- metrically scattered along the shaft, which is placed tan- gential to the chitinous coat of the statcblast.”’ pa a acne Tne << | ae SPICULATION OF SPonGILLA Tarra Nove, Potts. NotTEs oN Fossin Woops FROM THE WESTERN TERRITORIES OF CANADA. By Srr Wiii1am Dawson, F.R.S., &e. (Abstract of a Paper read before the Royal Society of Canada.) Silicified wood occurs in the country west of Manitoba, in the true Cretaceous beds, in the Laramie and in the Miocene of the Cypress Hills. Consequently the numerous specimens in our collections, picked up loose on the plains, are of little paleontological value, as their sources are un- certain. The author had, however, obtained some speci- mens found in situ on the Boundary Commission Survey, which were described in the Report of Dr. G. M. Dawson, 500 Canadian Record of Science. 1875. More recently, Schroeter had described specimens from the Laramie of the Mackenzie River. A considerable number of specimens from ascertained horizons had now been collected by the parties of the Geological Survey, especially by Dr. G. M. Dawson, Mr. J. B. Tyrrell, and Mr. T. C. Weston; and slices, prepared by the latter, had been submitted to the writer. The present note on these might be considered as sup- plementary to previous papers on the fossil plants of the Western Cretaceous. The paper then proceeds to notice the specimens in detail, and to refer them to their probable genera, but as they may have belonged to species already named and described by their leaves and fruits, he thought it unnecessary to give specific names to the new forms, but merely referred to the modern types represented by the several specimens. In this way it appeared that a number of genera of conifers, more especially Sequoia, Taxus, Salis- burya and Thuja, were present, as well as woods allied to Birch, Poplar, Hickory, Elm, and other familiar forms. Appended to the paper were notices of additional species of plants recently collected in the Belly River and Laramie formations, and concluding remarks on the general bearing of the subject, of which the following is a summary: While studying the specimens described in this paper, I received the volume of the Paleontographical Society for 1885, containing the conclusion of Mr. Starkie Gardner’s description of the Hocene Conifers of England. The work which he has been able to do in disentangling the nomen- clature of these plants and fixing their geological age, is of the greatest value, and shows how liable the paleobotanist is to fall into error in determining species from imperfect specimens. Our American species no doubt require some revision in this respect. I have also, while writing out the above notes for publi- cation, received the paper of the same author on the Eocene beds of Ardtun in Mull, and am fully confirmed thereby in the opinion derived from the papers of the Duke of Argyll and the late Prof. EK. Forbes,’ that the Mull beds very ' Journal Geol. Socy. of London, Vol. VII. Notes on Fossil Woods. 501 closely correspond in age with our Laramie. The Filicites hebridica of Forbes is our Onoclea sensibilis. The species of Ginkgo, Taxus, Sequoia and G'lyptostrobus correspond, and we have now probably found a Podocarpus as noted above. ~The Platanites Hebridicus is very near to our great Platanus nobilis. Corylus Macquarrii is common to both formations ; as well as Populus arctica and P. Richardsoni, while many of the other exogens are generically the same and very closely allied. These Ardtun beds are regarded by Mr. Gardner as Lower Hocene or a little older than the Gelinden series of Saporta. and nearly of the same age with the so- called Miocene of Atane-kerdluk in Greenland. I have ever since 1875, maintained the Lower Eocene age of our Laramie and of the Fort Union Group of the Northwestern United States, and the identity of their flora with that of McKenzie River and Greenland; and it is very satisfactory to find that Mr. Gardner has arrived at similar conclusions with respect to the Eocene of Great Britain. An important consequence arising from this is, that the period of warm climate which enabled a temperate flora to exist in Greenland was that of the later Cretaceous and early Hocene, rather than, as usually stated, the Miocene. It is also a question admitting of discussion, whether the Kocene flora of latitudes so different as those of Greenland, Mackenzie River, N. W. Canada and the Western States, were strictly contemporaneous, or successive within a long geological period in which climatal changes were gradually proceeding. The latter statement must apply at least to the beginning and close of the period ; but the plants them- selves have something to say in favour of contemporaneity. The flora of the Laramie is not a tropical but a temperate flora, showing no doubt that a much more equable climate prevailed in the more northern parts of America than at present. But this equability of climate implies the possi- bility of a great geographical range on the part of plants. Thus it is quite possible, and indeed highly probable, that in the Laramie age, asomewhat uniform flora extended from the Arctic seas through the great central plateau of America far to the south, and in like manner along the western coast 502 Canadian Record of Science. of Kurope. It is also to be observed that, as Gardner points out, there are some differences indicating a diversity of - climate between Greenland and England, and even between Scotland and Ireland and the south of England, and we have similar differences, though not strongly marked, be- tween the Laramie of Northern Canada and that of the United States. When all our beds of this age from the Arctic sea to the 49th parallel have been ransacked for plants, and when the paleobotanists of the United States shall have succeeded in unravelling the confusion which now exists between their Laramie and the Middle Tertiary, the geologist of the future will be able to restore with much certainty the distribution of the vast forests which in the early Eocene covered the now bare plains of interior America. Further, since the break which in Western Kurope separates the Flora of the Cretaceous from that of the Hocene does not exist in America, it will then be pos- sible to trace the succession of plants all the way from the Mesozoic Flora of the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Kootanie series described in previous papers in these trans- actions, up to the close of the Hocene, and to determine for America at least, the manner and conditions under which the Angiospermous flora of the later Cretaceous, succeeded to the Pines and Cycads which characterized the beginning of the Cretaceous period. SQUIRRELS: THEIR HABITS AND INTELLIGENCE, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO FEIGNING. By T. Westry Mirus, M.A., M.D., Professor of Physiology, MeGill University. With an Appendix by Rost. Beuu, M.D., LL.D. (Abstract of a Paper read before the Royal Society of Canada.) The writer believes that the comparative method should be applied to the psychology of animals, and in his paper compares the intelligence of the various species of squirrels with each other and with that of other rodents. He thinks the evidence derived from his own studies and the accounts of others, warrants the conclusion that the intelli- The Habits of the Squirrel. 508 gence of the Flying Squirrel (Pteromys volucella) and the Chipmunk (Yamias striatus) are about on a par; that the Red Squirrel or Chickaree (Sciurus hudsonius) ranks nearly if not quite first; and that, as compared with other rodents, squirrel intelligence is of a high order. The supe- riority of the Red Squirrel is to be attributed, in part, to his contact with man ; and is evidenced by his wide geogra- phical distribution (as pointed out in Dr. Bell’s appendix), showing capacity to cope with many and varied conditions. The influence of hibernation on the psychic life of any ani- mal is an interesting enquiry; but, as regards the squirrels, much more information of an accurate kind, in regard to the manner in which these creatures pass the winter, is greatly needed. All species seem to lay up more or less of food for a time of scarcity. It is certainly known that the Chipmunk does hibernate for a portion of the winter, at least; but the real state of the case, as regards the other species of squirrels, has not yet been fully learned. Among the peculiar habits of the squirrels, of special physiological interest, is that of sneezing into the fore-paws when going through the operation of dressing their fur (toilet); it seems to be voluntary, and functionally comparable to clearing the throat in human beings. Concurrent testimony from widely different quarters has established that, among many different venera of rodents, there is musical capacity both of execution (‘song ”) and, as we must infer, of appreciation. This faculty has been most observed in mice. The writer’s investigation into the vocal expression of the Chickaree has revealed a wide range of capacity in expressing the emotions and other psychic states, naturally most marked in excitement. A study of two Chipmunks kept in confinement has enabled the writer to correct some partially erroneous statements of other writers, and has convinced him that while the intelligence of this species, relatively to that of the Red Squirrel, is low, it shows the power to adapt to its sur- roundings in an intelligent manner beyond what has been supposed. A large part of the paper is devoted to a critical exami- 504 Canadian Record of Science. nation of the various theories relating to feigning death and injury by animals, especially in the light of the writer’s own study of the Red Squirrel. He believes that the expression, “feigning death,” is in a large proportion of cases misleading, the behaviour exhibited being explicable by the influence of fear or other powerful emotion ; in other cases, cataleptic influences are to be taken into account. Animals, when in danger, naturally remain quiet from instinct, or a vague perception that it is the best way to escape notice. It is erroneous to assume that an animal forms any abstract idea of death in such cases. The writer relates in minute detail the histories of cases of feigning injury, etc., in the Chickaree, observed by himself, which show that, in addition to the above noted instinctive behaviour, deliberate feigning was practised in a way which led to successful escape from confinement. The circumstances indicated that there was the clear per- ception of relations new to the animals, and adaptation of means to accomplish ends. The Chipmunk does not seem to be capable of this, though it appears to become cataleptic from fear sometimes. Experiments with traps had also shown the great superiority of the intelligence of the Chickaree over that of the Chipmunk. Dr. Bell’s appendix deals especially with the Chickaree : its geographical distribution ; feeding habits, and intelli- gence connected therewith ; its courage and adaptability to its varying surroundings, ete. THE MEETING OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. This, the thirty-sixth meeting, with Professor Langley as President, was held in the buildings of Columbia College, New York, in August. In numbers and in papers pre- sented, the meeting was at least up to the average. While credit is due to the authorities and teachers of Columbia College, to certain local scientific clubs, to the local com- mittee and some others, for their efforts on behalf of the Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. - 505 Association, New York as a city did not meet expectations. The social element was not as strong as at former meetings, and certainly was not in keeping with what the people of New York are capable of, when they are inclined to be hos- pitable. Canada was, as regards numbers, somewhat feebly represented; in papers presented, rather strong. Below we give abstracts of most of the Vice-Presidents’ addresses, and of that of the retiring President. The next meeting is to be held in Cleveland, under the presidency of J. W. Powell, of Washington. Sj THe PREHISTORIC CHRONOLOGY OF AMERICA. In Section H (Anthropology) the address given by Vice- President Brinton was “ A Review of the Data for the Study of the Prehistoric.Chronology of America.” He said: The prehistoric period of America dates back from the discovery of the several parts of the continent; and the problem is to reconstruct the history of the various nations who inhabited both Americas in this period. A review of the means at our command to accomplish this divides them into six Classes: 1. Legendary—This includes the legends or traditions of the native tribes. These often bear a strong resemblance to Semitic or other oriental myths; but the similarity is a coincidence only, and tose writers have been led astray who count it for more. The annals of the Mexicans, of the Mayas of Yucatan and the Quichuas of Peru, carry us scarcely five hundred years before the voyage of Columbus, although the contrary is often stated. The more savage tribes practically remembered nothing more remote than a couple of centuries. 2. Monumental—The most famous monuments are the stone buildings of Mexico, Yucatan and Peru. By many, these are assigned an antiquity of thousands of years, but a calm weighing of the testimony, places them all well within our era, and most of them within a few centuries of the discovery. The celebrated remains of Tiahuanuco in Peru are no exception. Much more ancient are some of the 33 506 Canadian Record of Science. artificial shell heaps along the coast. They contain bones and shells of extinct species in intimate connection with stone implements and pottery. They furnish data to prove that the land was inhabited several thousand years agu. 3. Industrial—The industrial activity of man in America may be traced by the remains of his weapons, ornaments and tools, made of stone, bone and shell. In most of the deposits examined, specimens of polished stone and pottery testify to a reasonably developed skill, but in the Trenton gravels and a few other localities, genuine palceolithic re- mains have been found, putting man in America at a date coeval with the close of the glacial epoch, if not earlier. The vast antiquity of the American race is further proved by the extensive dissemination of maize and tobacco, tropi- cal plants of southern Mexico, which were cultivated in remote ages from the latitude of Canada to’ that of Pata- gonia. 4. Linguistic—It is believed that there are about 200 radically different languages in North and South America. Such a confusion of tongues could only have arisen in hun- dreds of centuries. The study of these languages, and of the gradual growth of their dialects, supply valuable data for the ancient history of the Continent. 5. Physical—The American race is as distinctively a race by itself as is the African or white race. Although varying in many points, it has a marked fixedness of ethnic anatomy and always has had. The oldest American crania collected from the most ancient quaternary deposits are thoroughly American in type. 6. Geologic—As the discovery of implements in glacial deposits located man on this continent, at least at the close of the glacial epoch, this carries his residence here to about 35,000 years ago. But there is no likelihood that he came into being on this continent. He could not have developed from any of the known fossil mammalia which dwelt here. More probably some colonies first migrated along the pre- elacial land-bridge which once connected Northern America with Western Europe. Later others came from Asia. At that time the physical geography of the Northern hemis- Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 507 phere was widely different from the present. These various data have been as yet but imperfectly studied; when they shall have received the attention they merit, we may con- fidently calculate on a large increase in our knowledge of the course of events in ancient America. VEGETABLE PARASITES AND EVOLUTION. Vice President Farlow in Section F.(Biology) discussed “ Vegetable Parasites and Evolution.”” The following is an abstract of his address : Botanists, as a rule, have contented themselves with con- sidering the ancestral relations of the higher plants only. Hardly any attempt to elaborate a scheme of development for the whole vegetable kingdom has as yet been made. This is due in part to the fact that the older plants, unlike the older animals, have left almost no fossil records. It is my purpose here not to attempt a complete botanical tree of life, but to inquire into the origin of a single group of plants, vegetable parasites. A parasitic plant is one obliged to obtain its organized material from other plants or from animals. Parasites subsisting on dead matter are called saprophytes; those on living substances tiue parasites. The mould on bread is a saprophyte; the potato-rot fungus a true parasite. Hxcept- ing plants like the Indian pine and dodder, most pear asites: belong to the fungi. The parasite is usually destructive to the host on which it lives. As the mould grows, the bread disappears; the decay of the potato is due to the ravages of the potato-rot fungus. There are several cases, however, in which, for the host and parasite, mutual advantages are claimed. Notably among these are lichens, in which the green cells and fungous filaments are said to be reciprocally beneficial. To this mutual relation has been given the name symbiosis. The benefit derived by the fungus is real; that for the alga is at best hypothetical, for the green cells seem to grow more luxuriantly when free from the fungus. A second case of so-called symbiosis is the root-fungus, Mycorhiza, 508 Canadian Record of Science. and the trees on which it grows. Frank, who discovered the Mycorhiza, supposed that the fungus conducted all the food from the soil into the roots. However this may be, Hartig has shown that the fungus is not necessary to the tree, and Kamienski claims that it is really harmful. Both lichens and Mycorhiza must be considered cases of true parasitism, not symbiosis. The animals and unicellular algee offer more promising examples of symbiosis, for here the products of assimilation are such as to render a condi- tion of mutual benefit readily conceivable. Botanists seem to have over-estimated the number of cases of symbiosis, and to have included among them cases of true parasitism. It is highly probable that vegetable parasites originated at an early epoch from non-parasitic forms. There is rea- son for believing that the earliest forms of undoubted plants were unicellular and not unlike Protococcus. These once having established themselves, there is no reason why they should not have been quickly followed by colorless, unicel- lular parasites like Chytridium. The transition from Pro- tococcus to Chytridium is casily effected. As soon as a Protococcus has developed the power of attaching itself to other protococci, lost its chlorophyl and developed means of penetrating the wall of its host, it has assumed all the essentials of a Chytridium. Whether the filamentous and ' higher parasites have been derived from such chytridiaceous forms is not easy to say. It is, however, perfectly possible. It seems not unreasonable to suppose that true parasites may have originated at a very remote period from non- parasitic plants ; but may not saprophytes first have devel- oped from non-parasitic plants, and then parisites from saprophytes? The question is one not to be answered from actual knowledge; the probabilities seem to favor the view _ of parasites originating directly from forms like Protococcus. Still another possibility must be noted. Could not both parasitic and non-parasitic plants have originated simul- taneously from a protoplasmic ancestor, neither animal nor plant? The Myxomycetes favor this view. But the Myx- omycetes may be animals and, if plants, they have remained in adow condition and have no offshoot representing higher Proceedings of the A. A. A. SN. 509 forms. It is:\safe to say, however, that the more highly developed parasites have not had their origin in the Myx- omycetes; and there is very little to lead us to believe that parasitic and non-parasitic plants were simultaneously developed from primitive protoplasmic structures. When one regards fungi as a single class of plants, and attempts to trace a clear connection between the highest and lowest members, he finds numerous gaps which cannot well be filled. A general parallel, however, exists between chlorphyll-bearing algze and fungi, and one is forced to ask whether the order of development has not been from the lowest to the highest algee, and whether the different groups of fungi have not arisen from different groups of alg at different periods in the process of evolution. This view seems more in accordence with existing facts than any other, Kconomy IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE SOIL. The members of Section I (Economie Science and Statis- tics) listened to an address by Vice-President H. H. Alvord on “Economy in the Management of the Soil.” The fol- lowing is a partial synopsis :— The American Association was largely modelled after the British. The section of economic science and statistics was organized at its thirty-first annual meeting. The largest and most important meeting of the section was in Phila- delphia, in 1884. The work of the section in the past has included the subjects of education, foods, food-fishes, forestry, and others not classified. The tendency has been toward the many economic problems connected with the material wants of man. Tracing the visible wealth of the country to its source, we find that it has all, with insignificant ex- ceptions, been produced from the soil. Generation after generation has recklessly drawn on the stored fertility of the land, with no systematic effort at restitution. The value of all the possessions of our people, land excepted, does not equal the sum total of three years production of our industries. For food, clothing, shelter and fuel, we depend almost 510 Canadian Record of Science. entirely, directly or indirectly, on the soil. The rapidly increasing demands of our own country are met, and more than met, so far as mere quantity is concerned, for a great surplus is annually sent abroad. For twenty years, agricul- tural products have constituted three-quarters of all the exports from the United States. And it is manifest that this superabundance of soil products will continue despite all possible increase in population, at least well into the next century. But the wisdom and economy of our present systems of production and disposition is a very different matter. A steady draft continues upon the important ele- ments of fertility, with no adequate system of restitution or recuperation for the soil. Every crop removed from the land diminishes its store of plant food, aid this reduces its productive power. The three most important elements of plant food are nitrogen, potash and phosphoric acid. The effect upon the soil depends upon the disposition of the products embodying these. Fortunately very large parts remain upon or are returned to the land; on the other hand, there are vast losses from waste, besides the portions sent to foreign lands. | With our rapidly increasing population and a constantly increasing fertility of soil, we have presented to us ques- tions of the gravest importance. By the wasteful processes prevailing, we are expending our very substance aud daily adding to a burden under which generations to come will stagger. These considerations should increase our regard for the business of farming and our interest in it. We ‘should all rejoice at the revival of agricultural studies and the increasing number of able men who are making them their life’s work. Let me cordially invite continued econ- tributions to the proceedings of this section—upon foods, fabrics, forestry, industrial education and other topics close- ly related to our material welfare. INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF GEOLOGISTS. Vice-President Gilbert, in Section EK (Geology and Geo- graphy) dealt with ‘‘ The Work of the International Con- gress of Geologists.” His address may be condensed as follows :— Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 511 Eleven years ago the Association met at Buffalo. It was the year of the Centennial Exhibition, and we were honor- ed by the presence of a number of European geologists. This naturally opened the subject of the international rela- tions of geology ; and the proposition to institute a congress of geogolists of the world took form in the appointment by the Association of an International Committee. The pro- ject thus initiated found favor elsewhere, and there resu!ted an international organization which up to the present time has held three meetings. It convened first at Paris in 1878, then at Bologna in 1881, and at Berlin in 1885. Its next meeting will be held in London next year, and an endeavor will be made to secure for the Uuited States the honor of the fifth meeting. The original committee of the associa- tion has been continued with some change of membership, and has sent representatives to each session of the congress. The work of the congress, as originally conceived and as subsequently undertaken, has for its scope geologic nomen- clature and classification, and the conventions of geologic maps. The particular classifications attempted are the establishment of the major divisions used in historic and stratigraphic geology and the subdivision of volcanic rocks. In nomenclature three things are undertaken; first, the determination of the names of historic and stratigraphic divisions; secondly, the formulation of rules for nomen- clature in paleontology and mineralogy; and thirdly, the establishment and definition of the taxonomic terms of chronology (period, epoch, etc.,) and of stratigraphy (sys- tem, series, etc.) The map conventions most discussed are colors, but all signs for the graphic indications of geologic data are considered. The congress has also undertaken the preparation of a large map of Europe, to be printed in forty- nine sheets. The work accomplished is as follows: Agree- ment has been reached as to the rank and equivalence of the taxonomic terms employed in chronology and strati- graphy ; a set of rules for paleontologic nomenclature has been adopted and many sheets of the map of Europe have been prepared for the engraver. A partial classification of stratified rocks has been agreed to and also a partial 512 Canadian Record of Science. scheme of map colors; but the reports of proceedings indi- cate that action in these matters is tentative, uot final. The terms and the order adopted, by the congress are as follows: Of stratigraphic divisions, that with the highest rank is group, then system, series and stage. The corres- ponding chronological divisions are era, period, epoch and age. There are propositions before the congress to distin- guish the names of individual groups, systems, series and stages by means of terminations. Thus it is proposed by one committee that every name of a group shall end in “ary’—Tertiary, Primary, Archeary; that names of sys- tems shall end in “ic ”—Cretacic, Carbonic, Siluric; that names of series shall end in “ian’—Kifelian, Laramian, Trentonian; and that names of stages shall terminate in “in.” Another committee has suggested that “ic” be used for stages instead of systems. The adoption of such a plan would enable a writer to indicate the taxonomic rank of a terrane without adding a word for that purpose. Palon- tological nomenclature was another point considered by the congress. From one point of view, paleontology is a part of geology, but from another, it is a part of biology. In so far as it names genera and species, it is purely biologic, and it would seem proper that the students of fossils unite with the students of living animals and living plants in the adoption of rules of nomenclature. No action has yet been taken as to the nomenclature of mineralogy, and action has also been deferred on the classi- ' fication of eruptive rocks, It is to be hoped that it will be deferred sine die. The congress is attacking its two most important undertakings, the classification of terranes and unification of map colors through the geological map of Kurope which it is preparing. It is the opinion of many that the smallest unit of such classification should be the stratigraphic system. What is this? The congress im- plies a definition in saying that a system includes more than a series and less than a group, and that the Jurassic is a system, but this gives only a meagre conception and we need a full one. As the problem of classification demands a true conception of a system, and as there is reason to Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 518 believe that a false conception is abroad, it is proper that in seeking the true one we begin with the elements. The surface of the land is constantly degraded by erosion, and the material removed is spread on the floor of the ocean forming- a deposit. This process has gone on from the dawn of geologic history, but the positions and boundaries of land and ocean have not remained the same. Crust movements have caused the submergence of land and the emergence of ocean bottom, and these movements have been local and irregular, districts here and there going up while other districts have gone down. The emergence of ocean bottoms exposes the deposits previously made and subjects them to erosions. In transportation from its region of erosion to its place of deposition, detritus is assorted, and so it results that deposits that are simultaneous are not everywhere the same. Many of these variations in deposits are correlate with depth of water and distance from shore, and it results that elevation and subsidence in regions of continuous deposition, produce changes in the nature of the local deposit. If now we direct attention to some limited area, and study its geology, we find that under the opera- tion of these general processes it has acquired a strati- graphical constitution of a complex nature. Its successive terranes are varied in texture. Breaks in the continuity of deposition are marked by unconformities. The fossils at different horizons are different, and when they are examined in order from the lowest to the highest, the rate of change is found to vary, being in places nearly imperceptible and elsewhere abrupt. It is by means of such features as these—that is, by litho- logic changes, by unconformities and by life changes—that the stratigraphic column is classified into groups, systems, series and stages. A system is a great terrane separated from terranes above and below by great unconformities or great life-breaks, or both. Smaller unconformities, smaller life changes and lithologic changes are used for the demar- cation of series and stages ; and, on the other hand, excep- tionally great unconformities and life-breaks are used to mark groups. As the same criteria determine groups, sys- 514 Canadian Record of Science. tems and series, differing only in degree, the precise defini- tion of the term system is impossible, and in many cases the grading of a terrane as a group, a system or a series, 18 largely a matter of convenience. THe CHEMISTRY OF NITROGEN. Vice-President Albert B. Prescott discussed “The Chem- istry of Nitrogen as disclosed in the Constitution of the Alkaloids,” before Section C (Chemistry). He said in substance : The character of nitrogen is a challenge to chemical skill. Mocking us by its abundance in its free state, the compounds of this element are so sparingly obtained that they set the rate of value in supplies for the nourishment of life. The agent chosen and trusted for projectile force in arts of war and of peace, yet the manufacture of its most simple and stable compound has been a vain attempt, and it is one urged anew by the chemical industries. Moreover, nitrogen holds the structure of the aniline dyes, and gov- erns the constitution of the vegetable alkaloids. In research, the nearest approaches to the molecule, as a chemical cen- tre, have been reached through organic chemistry. Carbon was the first and hydrogen has been the second element to give to organic chemistry a definition. At present, carbon is looked upon as the member for fixed position, and hydro- gen as thé member for exchange, in organic families. Nitrogen comes next in turn to receive attention. The study of the carbonaceous compound of nitrogen promises to do for organic chemistry what the latter has done for general science. The speaker then outlined the history and pene state of the structural chemistry of the vegetable alkaloids, as follows : | (1) Mitrogenous bases as derivatives of ammonia. It was maintained by Berzelius that the vegetable alkaloids were unions of entire ammonia with organic radicals. In the third decade, Liebig held that these bases were com- pounds of amidogen, the larger part of ammonia. In 1849, Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 515 the French chemist, Wurtz, produced the first chemical derivatives of ammonia by substitution. The names of “methylamine” and ‘ ethylamine” then given by our own Dr. Sterry Hunt, are the names that remain. A. W. Hof- mann, who still directs the Berlin laboratory, when in England in 1850, devised means of introducing groups of one or two, or all three atoms of hydrogen, held by the one atom of nitrogen in ammonia. This reaction of Hofmann is of constant and still increasing usefulness, both in re- search and manufacture. Simply as derivatives of ammonia, however, the structure of vegetable alkaloids has not been revealed. (2) Mitrogenous bases represented by aniline. These artificial alkaloids, extensively produced as color-stufts from coal-tar materials, are of the so-called “‘aromatic” constitu- tion, first brought to light by Kekule in 1865. The vege- table alkaloids, when broken up, yield “aromatic” products, but they have not been found actually to possess the “aromatic structure’ in any form of it known earlier than 1870. - (8) The pyridine type in the vegetable alkaloids. The constitution of the pyridine and quinoline series was ascer- tained by Koerner and by Baeyer in 1870. These bodies can be obtained from bone-oil and from coal-tar. They are of a remarkable ehemical structure. Like aniline, they have the closed chain of six positions, but, unlike aniline, they have one of these positions held by nitrogen. The in- troduction of the atom of nitrogen into the closed ring so affects the qualities of the molecule that stable addition products are formed. About 1879 it began to appear that the vegetable alkaloids in general are of the pyridine type, of “aromatic” composition. In this type the structure of ammonia is not violated ; and the theories of Liebeg, Wurtz and Hofmann, are not superseded. Within the last three or four years, the veil has been drawn from the structure of the chief alkaloids of plants. Even before that, the alkaloids of black pepper, tobacco and hemlock, of very simple composition, were studied with success. The alkaloids of the belladonna = 516 Canadian Record of Science. — root, the cinchona bark and the cocoa leaf are now subject to an increasing measure of constructive operation in the laboratory. Morphine is convertible into codeine, and the efforts to convert strychnine into brucine and cinchonine into quinine ought to succeed. The necessary studies of position in the pyridine mole- cule are being entered upon. Some good medicinal alka- loids are being made by art. It may come that the identical alkaloids of nature will be made by art. Not by chance efforts, however, nor by premature short-cuts, but, if at all, through the well earned progress of the world’s chemistry will these results be gained. And it speaks enough for the rate of this progress to say that one of the very first of the forward steps here recounted was taken by a man still living as a contributor. Due honor for what his hands have done, and all gratitude for what his eyes have seen. A DrcapDE or EKEvoLutTton. In the evening there was a general session in the library - to listen to the address of Professor Morse, the retiring president of the association. It was undeniably warm, but every seat had been taken, and there were not a few who listened standing. The speaker began by explaining how he had become engaged in the effort to collate the work that had been done by Americans toward the illustration of evolution during the last ten years. He first quoted the testimony among American naturalists to the derivative theory of those who had written about birds, and said that every principle claimed by Darwin had been illustrated by these little things. Dr. Brewer’s work upon nesting was touched upon. O. P. Hay was quoted as authority for the fact that red-headed woodpeckers had taken to hoard- ing—storing up acorns which had worms in them, and fattening, so to speak, their future food. Then the speaker glanced from birds to insects, and claimed that there was remarkable individuality in them. Some were superior, some inferior. EH. G. Peckham estab- lished clearly that wasps could distinguish between colors, Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 517 and had some amount of memory. Another observer was quoted as authority for an instance of remarkable reasoning power on the part of a hornet that had captured a locust under difficult circumstances, but managed by much in- genuity to fly off with its victim in triumph. The general deduction was that insects were not to be considered as automata acting by instinct, but reasoning creatures, having likes and dislikes of their own, and solving problems pre- sented to them by the exercise of intellectual faculties. He continued his defence of Darwinianism by stating that the missing links which the public so hungrily demanded were being found on every hand. He quoted the emphatic words of Professor Cope, uttered in 1874, and said that in his magnificent collection at Philadelphia he had many fossils that were clearly intermediate. Some brachiopods were singularly favorable specimens, and some gasteropods were nearly equally so. Dr. Putnam and Dr. Scudder were brought forward as authorities for the interesting fact that insects in the paleozoic age were intermediate in some _ features, particularly their eyes. Since 1876 Professor Marsh and Professor oped had pub- lished remarkable works upon extinct vertebrate life. Pro- fessor Marsh demonstrated that the brains of early mammals were remarkably small, in spite of the huge size of their owners. It was not strange that they were succeeded after the next geologic age by smaller animals with larger brains. The Dinocerta were typical creatures for their bulk and smallness of brain, and it might well be that they were too sluggish and too stupid to protect their offspring. Professor John Fiske had advanced a similar argument with regard to the disappearance in toto of the early races of mankind. Another observer had pointed out the reptilian character of the Monotremata of Australia, obviously a class of interme- diate creatures that had survived from a prior geologic age, and were anachronisms to-day. The speaker’s next statement was concerning a creature with a rudimentary third eye; and he observed that no sooner had Dr. Thomas Dwight, in his attack upon Dar- winism, limited possible vision in vertebrates to two eyes, 518 Canadian Record of Science. than this trioptic creature was discovered. His next argu- ument was drawn from the modifications of the legs of crustaceans, particularly decapods. Then he considered the work of a writer who had examined into the ill-effects, physically, which had resulted from man’s deserting the posture of his quadrumanous ancestors and assuming an erect attitude. This author advanced a curious series of facts concerning the valves of men’s veins, and specially concerning those veins where there are no valves. In an erect posture this absence of valves is detrimental, but in the ancestral attitude of the mammal man, it was a matter of no moment. Professor Morse’s address was so replete with statements of fact, that the above must be considered a very imperfect and fragmentary account of it; indeed he was obliged to omit in the reading much of what he had written. REVIEWS AND Book Notitcss. Tur GroLocy or ENGLAND AND WALES; second edition, by Horace B. Woodward, F.G.S. This is a new edition of a well-known book, which has for many years been in the hands of all working English geologists, and of those abroad interested in making com- parisons with the geology of England. The present edition is considerably enlarged, and gives a fair account of the recent changes in the nomenclature and classification of English rocks, and which are especially im- portant in the older formations. England is not rich in Eozoic or ‘‘ Archean” rocks, and from the occurrence of these in limited areas and with indifferent exposures, there is still some controversy about their nature and arrange- ment. It is perhaps to be regretted that Dr. Hicks, who has endeavoured to establish these older formations, had not at once boldly called his “ Dimetian” Laurentian, and his “ Pebidian” Huronian. There can be little doubt that they are the equivalents of the rocks so named by Logan, and to have accepted the names already given might have Reviews and Book Notices. 519 tended to avoid controversy. The author accepts Sedg- wick’s term Cambrian for the next rocks in succession, calling the Longmynd and Menebian Lower Cambrian, and leaving us to choose whether we shall call the Lingula Flags and Tremadoc Series Middle or Upper Cambrian. So, in like manner, he seems to leave us to choose as to whether the Ordovician Series of Lapworth shall be called Upper Cam- brian or Lower Silurian, or neither. This is no doubt in- tended to conciliate opposing geological factions; but it tends to obscure the grand general fact that the rocks from the Longmynd to the Lower Tremadoe, inclusive, hold what Barrande has called the Primordial fauna, while the rocks from the Arisaig to the top of the Caradoc, hold the Second Paleozoic fauna. This is the real distinction. Both the Cambrian and the Ordovician vary greatly in mineral character, even within the limits of England, but they differ in their fossil contents just as the latter does from the the proper Silurian above it. This leads to the remark that the book is almost entirely stratigraphical, and gives little information as to fossils. There are, it is true, lists of names, but nothing more, and in this respect the work forms a remarkable con- trast to Murchison’s Siluria or to Phillip’s geology of Oxford. It is in accordance with this neglect of fossils that a little further on we find the term “ New Red Sandstone” retained for the Permian and Trias, and the former asso- ciated with the Mesozoic. It is no doubt sometimes difficult locally to separate them, but the natural arrangement is undoubtedly to place the Permian in the Upper Paleozoic, and the Trias in the Lower Mesozoic. As is natural in the Geology of England, a large propor- tion of the book is devoted to the Mesozoic and older Ter- tiary, and a very clear and connected account of these beds is given. The Pleistocene and its glacial period come in for somewhat extended consideration, and the various com- plexities which they present in England, are freely dis- cussed. He appears to admit the following changes :— 1. A period of elevated land and cold immediately after the Pliocene (earliest boulder clay). 2. A period of submergence (shells—sands of Moel Try phaen, &c). 3- A second period of elevation with glaciers and: variable cli- matal conditions, followed by partial submergence. 4. Modern conditions with early elevation and subsequent slight depression of land. With the exception of a probably exaggerated value attached to No. 1 of the above table, it is not very remote from the general sequence which we obtain on the wider area of North America. 520 Canadian Record of Science. The book is accompanied by a good geological map, and is altogether a most valuable book of reference to the working geologist, whether in England or abroad. A NarourArist’s RAMBLES ABOUT Home; second edition, revised, pp. 485, New York, D. Appleton & Co., 1887. Uptanp AND Merapow, pp. 389, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1886. WASTE-LAND WANDERINGS, pp. 312, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1887. All of the above works are from the pen of Dr. Chas. C. Abbott, of Trenton, N. J., and are so related in style and matter that they may be reviewed together. They recount Dr. Abbott’s experiences in an ordinary tract of country, no bettter provided by nature than thousands of others; and yet, it seems to have furnished to him themes that at once absorbed his own interest, and in the relation of which he charms the reader, who has any love for nature, into a kind of spell. And what is the real secret of the fascination of these works? We think it lies in the fact that the author has taken Nature’s children to his own bosom; he has loved them, and they have, there- fore, not refused to give up their secrets, and in such case they never will. What Dr. Abbott has learned, others can _ learn if they will pursue the same methods. It may be that all may not be able to pour out, in such an artless yet charming manner, what they wish to convey. No better books than these can be put into the hands of young people. The person that cannot see anything to love in natural objects in his own surroundings after perusing such books, is hopeless. They give what ordinary works, on natural history, fail to do: the methods, step by step, by which the author’s knowledge was reached, so that the - reader feels stimulated to pursue the same plan; and thus the indirect value of such works becomes far greater than - the direct. We would emphasize another matter. Dr. Abbott's experi- ments, though apparently simple, and in reality simple, are just the kind that in w opinion, are most reliable. He arranged to see anim. et under conditions perfectly natural. Such constitutes uae very essence of trustworthy experiment. Inferences, under such circumstances, are abso- lutely reliable, which is more than can often be said of methods more complicated. The moral effect of such reading is of the best. It makes one feel that there is more in the world to admire than man and his works; and that man is himself but a part of a harmonious whole, though it is his fortune to be at the top. INDEX. ; PAGH Aboriginal Trade in Canadian Northwest, by C. N. Bell.............-...... 102 Abstract of a Paper on Cambrian Faunas, by G. F. Matthew..... ...... 255 Abstracts of Presidents’ Addresses, by R. W. Boodle......... 12. .seevecees 26 Address eAnnu alot President c.ccsseenoccsesccalsscctscec ai cones ac edenechaoeese ee sen: 180 Addresses;of Presidents; by) R. Wi. Boodles....c:5: cwasce corsetevecescntiesscceces 26 Additional Notes on Tendrils, by D. P. Penhallow...............:0-scscscese 241 Affinities of Tendrils, by A. T. Drummond .....2.......... csceccesccoss toccevece, 208 Anos MmOrieins: @C-VDy, Deb. Pemhialllowiesness.tcocshssccoueccscsesc-secsscsseeees 11 OG Physical Characteristics of, by D. P. Penhallow.................... 119 es Worship of Yoshitsune, &c., rf ss caeoboacuoncaosacco.« | Zhe PAGITONIC ANIPASSOCTALION vencseeneie osc co sn ecosae ie tecacicnc eee Btemed eae ci naiteeieretnoeeeee 504 Ami, H. M., on Occurrence of Scoltnues in Chazy Formation.............. 304 Annual Address of President, by Sir Wm. Dawson...............002 seccccses 180 IAMiticostinveleistocenes HOSssilsHiLOmc-cerecsclensssesccliccscceusiteeees seceneresteecs 44 Bahama Islands, Life in, by T. Wesley Mills ............000 .css00seceee venue 344 Bailey, L. W., on Geology, &c., in New Brunswick ..... ......266 cceeveeeee 93 Bain, F., on a Permian Moraine in P. H. I. (With Cut.) .....000. .s0seees 341 BellsvNobt.. on! Horestsrot Canadas imeccssccctacciscsscatsslcscesccadsesccaiecenences 65 ff on Squirrels, (an appendix) ...........2..n0ec.-seceseeee «noses sacees 502 “ ©. N., on Aboriginal Trade in Canadian Northwest ............... con all Bears, Rearing of, by the Ainos, by D. P. Perghallow....c-....6. cscs seeees 481 Benzene, Diethyl Trimethyl Amido, by,B. Ss) pRutton.............02 seeseeees 301 Birds, Protection of North American, ty A. H. Mason............0:.csse0 153 Boodle, R. W., Abstracts of Presidents’? AUdreSSOS...00+.20000 --eseeseee sao 4 AD Boulder Drift, &c., by Sir: Wm. Dawson......--....-- secocccos coooes seeorererene 36 British American Plants, Distribution of, by A. T. Drummond....... 412, 457 «* Association, Presidential Address, by Sir Wm. Dawson.......201, 265 British Columbia, Occurrence of Jade in, &c., by G. M. Dawson......... 357 Cambrian Faunas, Abstract of Paper on, by G. F. Matthew .............. 255 34 522 Index. PAGE. Canada, Cretaceous Floras of, by Sir Wm. Dawson ......0. .ecsessee coeeeeees 1 es Horests: of by, Robb Bellic... css sense endeles nee soaleasenesteeeaeee ee 9 Discovery of a Pteraspidian Fish in Silurian Rocks, by G. F. Matthew 251 Distribution, &c., of B. N. American Plants, by A. T. Drummond ..412, 457 Donald, J. T., on Chemical Notes on Wheat and Flour............00. 20-0: 334 Drinking Water of Montreal, by G. A. WeiL.............scse0seceeeees sovoncees 171 Drummond, A’... on our Northwest; Prairies -..-+-sen's) -sesee ecteenerelenanen 145 rf on Affinities of the Tendrils of Virginian Creeper... 253 ae on Distribution, &c., of B. N. American Plants, 412, 457 Harth’s Rocks, relations of to meteorites, by A. H. Newton............+. 228 lectricalurnace; by Das. Hunt:.c.0+---\asscesecicsccesscessttereceesiseesoeceean 52 Europe, Western, Correlation of Geology of, by Sir Wm. Dawson....... 404 Faunas, Cambrian, Abstract of Paper on, by G. F. Matthew.............. 255 ce Llustrations) of, by. G. i: Matthews .-coue-clec-seccee re ecessseh seeeetien 359 Features of Discina Acadica, by G. F. Matthew (With Cut.) ....0--...16 9 Feigning in Squirrels, by T. Wesley Mills ....0. ......00esceevcceeconeter seeeee 502 Fish, Discovery of a Pteraspidian, by G. F. Matthew.............ss00+. 251, 323 Floras, Cretaceous of Northwest, by Sir Wm. Dawson....-cssecessseeereeees 1 Index. 525 r PAGHE. Flour and Wheat, Chemical Notes on, by J. T. Donald............... 0.2... 334 HOSSilswEleistocene:from: ANLICOStEcscsessaceccte eece che nase seceab en one scelsnsestecs 44 Fossil Woods of Western Canada, by Sir Wm. DAW SOMees se -chetee sees seen 499 Forests of Canada (With Map), by Robt. Bell ............1.csseseececesoeeeaes 65 Fresh-water Sponges of Newfoundland (J/lustrated), by A. H. Mac- Réciyitos- seas URS DCI BGAOHO ESO ROBO S OE ce coe eee COSCO aR ch ASH SeCS EEE aEIaS ae. 19, 497 Geological, Past, &c., Relations of B. N. American Plants, by A. T. Drummond ................ Bee Deere essere eA OT AOL. Geology, &e., in New Hivaeniek. ie L. W. Bailey Be sOE 6070, 006 COLA Bisa ses 93 Geology of Maritime Provinces of Canada, by Sir Wm. Dawson ........ 404 Goodwin, W. L., on TMV A POTALLON ssas sivacanteceneceee Pescee eae ses eee eeeae 259, 469 Greowhispb-srone LEenistOric*Measures......-+2-c0esdenccesustacies evsacteeseace se 48 Habits and Intelligence of Squirrels, by T. Wesley Mills...... ... ...... 504 Hair, Retention and Loss of, by T. Wesley Mills............... cceeececeeeoes AQT Heart, Physiology of, Comparative, by T. Wesley Mills.................. 97, 137 Ee ‘ce in Sea Turtle, by T. Wesley Mills.............. 306, 329 = sf ANE STA KG eeees is Sees rccasl-aweces co oaesemnes ema tes 489 Height of Clouds, by C. H. McLeod............ 5a0) Ta geecocnoa nécode aatoccradonuacST 383 Hunt, T. Sterry, on Electrical Furnace for Refractory Ores ............... 52 fs fs on a Natural System in Mineralogy ..... .........2...005+ 116 sf sc on Law of Volumes in Chemistry ......... .......25 seeeeeees 261 Illustrations of Fauna of St. John Group, by G. F. Matthew............. 557 Intelligence and Habits of Squirrels, by T. Wesley Mills...........- 502 Invaporation, by G. Le. Good wit........... ...00. escesesee see cceserescserserese D0, 469 Jade, Occurrence in B. Columbia, by G. M. Dawson.........-.-....002-4.002. 364 Hane Con) oun) Dance;of Creesindlansi.cssei ssc ecesee sss cosscsecennseecs 22 Law of Volumes in Chemistry, by T. Sterry Hunt................2....2. 000005 261 Life in the Bahama Islands, by T. Wesley Mills............ 1.2.2... 344 Mackay, A. H., on Fresh-Water Sponges of N. F. and N. &............ 19, 497 Maritime Provinces of Canada, Geology of, by Sir Wm. Dawson......... 404 Mason, A. H., on Protection of N. American Birds......... SCP RCREG CORIO: 153 Matthew, G. F., on Structural Features of Discina Acadica. (With Cut.) 9 a oe “a Pteraspidian Fish in Silurian Rocks. (With (CLO) Vacs 209 OLE AOS? CAPA EE CIRCLE OBO 251, 323 oe s Sethe Cam prian eh aun asec -c-s2-ahesciessnclecseseres evo” 2 fe « Faunas of St. John’s Group «.......-.2..220.seeees seeees 357 Measures, Prehistoric and Ancient, by R. P. Greg ......200 .2-eee0es concen 48 Meeting of American Association for Advancement of eoreue Pe eaesranets 504 Meteorites, Relation of Rocks to, by A. H. Newton........ .... ccs -eeeeeees 228 Meteorological Observations for 1885, by C. H. McLeod..................... 128 ~ McLeod, C. H., Meteorological Observations by---..ccec......----- 128 f SSE ON Hele HtiOl IClOUGS cc-ssccosicceasd:sscecceecsfenccucseone 383 5 Os: 524 Index. PAGH. Mills, T. Wesley, on Comparative Physiology of Heart..... ............97, 137 “s f on Physiology of Heart of Sea-Turtle. (With PUG eS sca) colencdvssaclsscsuceicsa ne enaliieal Modena Mee ae U OMe ae .s on Life in the Bahama Tatende Be ie aces Safi te Naan 344 . es on Retention and Toss of Hair:................s..00000r-6- 407 fe S on Physiology of Heart of Snake........................-- 489 te S on Squirrels, Habits and Intelligence of ............... 502 Mineralogy, A Natural System in, by T. S. Hunt.............c..cc0 seseeeeee 116 Miscellaneous! Notes:::-caccescccuetn se seenlccesssuontcncoece 61, 181, 198, 264, 326, 389 Montreal Drinking Water, by Arthur Weir...............:22:2sseseeees eseeeeees 171 Mound Builders; by) Wis dc SUNy tly tecsssee cee ceccieneteec sce sceer ce ea ee eeeeeat ie Moraine, on a Permian, in P. E. I. (With Cut), by F. Bain............... 341 Mountains, Canadian Rocky, by G. M. Dawson...........--.cseecesseeeeneenes 285 Natural History Society of Montreal, Proceedings of......... 63, 184, 384, 442 Natural System in Mineralogy, by T. S. Hunt......... cc... cece eeceeee eee 116 New Brunswick, Geology and Geologists of, by L. W. Bailey.............. 93 New Fresh-Water Sponges (With Cuts), by A. H. Mackay........ ..... 19, 497 Newton, A. H., on Relation of Rocks to Meteorites...............0-1 ceceseees 228 North American Birds, Protection of, by A. H. Mason........... s2s0-ssseee 155 a AG British, Plants, Distribution of, by A. T. Drum- MONG sncsconscceseiecscasepeesssasecaeenssanencdsesc ost caceneccsalcdnateiadtescencnes 412, 457 Northwest, Cretaceous Floras of, Sir Wm. Dawson.............cececcseaseees 1 & Prairies; by Awd. Drumimondee.csii. ccssccee once ee esecs eee 145 ie Aboriginal Trade an; bye C-NeBelltc.. cscnnces2-s2-5)cecessiereret 102 Nova Scotia, Plague of Mice of, by G. S. Patterson.........ccssccoee covers ees 472 Observations, Meteorological, for 1885, by C. H. McLeod .................. 128 Occurrence of Scolithus in Chazy Formation, by H. M. Ami.............-.. 504 Origin of Ainos, by D. P. Penhallow.. ; BER aerae todcboaeds),. 4°. 1LTt « “American Varieties of Dog, ie we Ss. Pea peace sencceseneere 39 Orthoptera, Canadian, by F. B. Caulfield’ v..0.02.00.. 0.0.2 ..cesescseee-coeeeer 0, O98 Packard, A. §8,, on Origin of American Varieties of Dog.............0...006 39 Patterson, Rev. George, “ Plague of Mice,” &C......... -2.<+. sseccooes veers 472 Penhiallow,-D: Pon Ortein of thevAunuse.. ce... cive-cesoeeeccceccinsesenlesseer 11 S Ke “ Physical Characteristics of Aimos .............+-s6000. 119 se 6 ScMPolyempry.Onyeressenc sass eu das cwessecsee see eeres cee te ame mn “6 Ke «* Tendrils of Cucurbitace® ..............ecesccone secoacsen 241 G es «* Variations of Water in Trees, &c. (With Cus 105 “ ss “ Rearing of Bears, &c., by the AinOS......:........+.- 481 _ Permian Moraine in P. EH. I. (With Cut), by F. Bain..... «0... .ccceeseeeee 341 Physical Characteristics of the Ainos, by D. P. Penhallow................. 119 Physical and Past-Geological Relations of Canadian Plants, by A. T. @Myruriornon des OMe RN Ay aa PEt Bee a 412, 457 Physiology of the Heart, Comparative, by T. Wesley Mills............ 97, 137 Santer engn eS i of Sea-Turtle, “ a SDH SA w. 306, 329 oe ss sf “« Snake, s G REE os crags Cavekors, ue “ Hair, Retention and Loss, ‘ <¢ fC Meade ates reens 407 Index. q 525 « Plague of Mice ” in Nova Scotia and P. E. I., by G. Patterson........ 472 Pleistocene Fossils from Anticosti, by Lieut.-Col. Grant and Sir Wm TD ECT a5co seco cdceceeeeasoc consaue Cannes céasogoas Hondossen 6 Coccnon aasondeesae seats 44 Polyembryony, by D. P. Pemhallow ..............ccccceseseee ceeccsees cesses teens LTT Prairies, Our Northwest, by A. T. Drummond. Gevocee ne accen na caresses Waa 145 Prehistoric Measures, by R. P. Greg .........sscosseee ceseeense sesscseee ceeeeeees 48 President, Annual Address of, by Sir Wm. Dawson .........ce.c06 2 seseeeeee 180 Presidents’ Addresses, Abstracts of, by R. WiB 00d emircsccsacsssesteceasiane 26 Presidential Address before British Association, by Sir Wm. Daw- son .. waeeetees: .. 201, 265 Beicccdines. of the Nae History society of Nooo 63, 134, 384, 442 sé fe American Association for 1887............0.-..02.seeere ee 504 Protection of N. American Birds, by A. H. Mason..................02 sess 153 Pteraspidian Fish, Discovery of (With Cut), by G. F. Matthew...... 251, 323 Rearing of Bears, &c., by the Ainos, by D. P. Penhallow ............... .. 481 Refractory Ores, Electrical Furnace for Reducing..............:00sss00. eee 52 Retention and Loss of Hair, Physiology of, by T. Wesley Mills........... 407 Review,ot Gray?s) Text Book of) Botany, :--.ccss-acssssie sr oceecsivetsoeleaseniceses> 59 pcllaccx x ; ah oi AN i 4 Ay Chi ners ss ash OATEM. ¢ wane