Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. VOLUME 15 NOS 1 AND 2 ) waxes i] , Te TTT \ ‘U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO JANUARY-APRIL, 1954 VoL. 15 Nos. 1 AND 2 JANUARY - APRIL 1954 iMnerGarimiocan Forester Gomrenits Sree el eas © Mourteentheannvelereport, 22. 8a ee 1 Tropical Forest Experiment Station, Puerto Rico Un estudio de la silvicultura de algunas especies ORES ED eSe nen OM ghia. weeruN = ae ee 14 José A. Burgos, Pert Especies del género Inga usadas como sombra de café Cilla EECOM Lu COs = eee Bene ee 54 José Marrero, Puerto Rice JANUARY - APRIL 1954 FOURTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION TROPICAL REGION FOREST SERVICE The outstanding feature of the work of the Station in 1953 was increased emphasis epon tne demonstration of the results of researen to technicians from other tropical areas. A total of 52 foreign foresters and forestry students spent 56 man-months in Puerto Rico during the year. A highlight of this activity was the forestry short course offered throughout November and sponsored by the Interamerican Institute of Agricul- tural Sciences. Twenty-six forestry students from 13 Central and South American coun- iyies attended. Research work was shown in the field and its planning, organization, and execution were discussed with the group. Mr. Marrero visited Jamaica for ten days ir May to learn of recent progress in nursery end planting work there. Jamaica’s plant- ing program is almost entirely limited to the forest reserves, where about 300 acres are being planted each year. Survival is high and plantation development is generally very satisfactory. The outstanding tree species ‘eine planted, mahoe (Hiscus elatus Sw.) grows well in both the limestone region and in the central mountains. Plantations of this species are not affected materially by the seale insect which has damaged them in Puerto Rico, nor are they attacked by mistletoe. Damage from the 1952 hurricane was negligible despite early reports to the contrary. Tree species seen in Jamaica worthy of trial in Puerto Rico ar2 Pinus patula Schiede & Deppe, Tristcnia confcrta R. B. (Br.), and Terminalia latifolia Sw, Dr. Wadsworth participated in a con- ference on Caribbean timbers and_ their utilization and trade sponsored by the Caribbean Commission in Trinidad in April. In response to a resolution of that confer- ence the Station is undertaking a compilation of available data on important Caribbean timbers. The major local project not described m detail later in this report was the completion of the field work of the survey of past tree plantings on private land. Of several thousand recorded plantations about 350 proved worth studying in detail to determine site adaptability and growth rates. An important incidental finding was the large magnitude of the losses that have attended past tree distribution to farmers. Another incidental finding in the field was the evailability of farmer-cooperators for re- search in farm forestry. Although no spe- cial search was made for these in the survey, enough farmers interested and willling to establish and care for tests of different tree species were found to indicate that the establishment of such experiments could be arranged on any site without difficulty. The findings as to tree adaptability and growth rates are being analyzed for use in a bulletin on forest planting in Puerto Rico. A re-analysis of the forest problems of Puerto Rico has been begun to focus research effort where most needed, taking into con- sideration new information brought forth in the studies of land use reported a year ago. One result, the recognition of eight distinct forest problem areas is apparent in the classification of the research results present- ed later in this report. Of the 2,200,000 acres in Puerto Rico forests are the best crop on 600,000 acres. Within this forest area, however, three sites, comprising 440,000 acres are the most promising for forestry. It is on this area that forest re- search effort should be concentrated. Research was extended formally to the Virgin Islands during 1953. A study of the forest problems of the island had been under way for 3 years previously in cooperation with the Soil Conservation Service. This year, with the collection of a large amount of mahogany seed by the SCS, an allotment of $5,000 for forestry purposes by the Virgin Island Corporation, and the reservation by the Corporation of the 146-acre Thomas Estate for a forestry demonstration area, several trips" were made to those islands. Preliminary tests included airplane sowing, hand broadcasting, and direct seeding of both Most of these tests failed because of poor seed. One broadcasting species of mahogany. of breadleaf mahogany in the more humid The stand of the Thomas Estate has been cleaned to part of St. Croix was successful. rree scattered natural mahogany regener- ation. Fresh seed is now being collected by the Corporation for new tests. The Station’s progress has continued to be a result of the close cooperation of a number of other agencies, both Federal and Commonwealth. The administrative person- nel of the Caribbean National Forest have assisted in the establishment, maintenance, and protection of all experiments within that area. The Federal Agricultural Experiment Station at Mayagiiez provided propagating material and advisecd on bamboo regener- ation. The soil Research Unit of the Bureau of Plant Industry has made soil tests for experiments in forestry and assisted in set- ting up a soil study technique for the plan- tation survey. Cooperation from the Commonwealth has come primarily from the Department of Agriculture and Commerce and the Universi- ty of Puerto Rico. The Department, through its Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wild- life, provided protected forest lands for re- search throughout the island and assisted in the field in the establishment and mainte- nance of experiments. In addition a tech- nician was assigned to forest utilization research throughout the year and worked CARIBBEAN FORESTER virtually as thouzh attached to the Station. the Division also provided a librarian for the Station and contribut:d personnel and transportation facilities toward the planta- tion survey on a 50-50 basis. The University of Puerto Rico, through its Agricultural Experiment Station, offered technical in the pathology, entomology, and statistical analy- sis. The University Agricultural Extension Service cooperated in research field work Girected toward better farm forestry. advice fields of soils, RESEARCH RESULTS in 1952 of some 600,000 acres within Puerto Rico as in need The classification of permanent tree cover’ led to reconsider- ation of forest management research ori- entation. This area is-all absolute forest land: land which either must be kept cover- ed to protect the soil or is incapable of producing other than forest crops. It is more than one-fourth of the land surface of the island and includes such a wide variety indic- The forest management research program is be- of sites that research results can be ative for most of the rest of the island. ing concentrated on these forest lands. Puerto Rico’s forest lands vary consider- ably in their priority for investigation. Some warrant first attention fecause they are such good timber sites that especially high productivity can be expected or because their reforestation will maze possible the control of critical erosion and reservoir sedimenta- tion. Other sites are less important because of low fertility, excessive wetness or dryness, These forest problem or because they are small in area. factors distinguish major areas, which are listed in Table 1. 1/ Described in the 1952 Annual Report and published in “A comprehensive agricultural program for Puerto Rico’ by Nathan Koenig. U. S. Dept. of Agric. in coop. Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. 1952 290pp. JANUARY - APRIL 1954 Table 1—Major forest problem areas of Puerto Rico Approximate Percent of Research Problem area area cf ithe island's re forest land surface ay Acres % The Coastai Flain The limestone region Humid 200,000 7 i Dry 45,000 2 il The mangroves 18,000 Hf II The Mountains Steep slopes The shallow loams 200.000 3 1 The deep clays 50.000 2 Wy Lhe deep sandy loams 40,000 2 I Soils of low crop productivity The laterite soils 25,000 1 iil The excessively wet soils 20,000 1 Ill Totals 598,000 PAU | The segregation of the humid and dry coastal areas and the mountains reflects basic climatic differences. Within these regions soil is generally the factor most sig- nificant to reforestation possibilities, produc- tion potentailities, and to the need for pro- tective forests. These problem areas are not homogeneous, varying locally with to- pography, soil depth, precipitation and as- nect. As the relative importance of these differences becomes better known, the segre- gation of minor problem areas will probably oe desirable. The nature and condition of each problem area and the results of past research. within _ for additional research, and define what should be dcne Therefore, each problem area is first briefly described as a background for an appraisal of the past year’s work. it determine the _ priority THE COASTAL PLAIN The forest lands of the coastal plain comprise about 263,000 acres and lie mostly below 500 feet elevation. They are of two types, limestone hills, and tidal swamps. The limestone hills are generally too rocky, steep or inaccessible for any form of agriculture other than forestry. Past research has shown potential productivity of the humid limestone region of the north coast to be sufficiently greater than that of the dry limestone region of the south coast to make desirable their segregation into two problem areas. The tidal swamps bordering protected bays, lagoons, and estuaries are unsuited for agriculture other than forestry because of the salinity of the soil and the high water table. The environment and the resulting character of the stands are significantly distinct from other coastal forests. The Humid Limestone Problem Area The potential forest productivity of the humid limestone problem area on the north coast is high. The area is large, and gener- ally covered by young secondary forest or brush. Precipitation ranges from 50 to 80 inches annually. The land is nearly all privately owned. The lower slopes of the hills and the enclosed sinkholes are capable of producing such valuable trees as broad- leaf mahogany and teak. The large size of this problem area and its apparent poten- tialities make it worthy of high priority in a forest management research program. Research in this problem area is direct- ed toward the discovery of technique of forest production that will be economically attractive to the owners of the land. Two approaches to stand improvement are under investigation: the cutting of inferior trees and underplanting with superior species. Studies of improvement cuttings are aimed at determination of the best tree already present, optimum densities, and costs and returns. Studies of underplanting are con- cerned with the site adaptability of new species, techniques of underplanting, care of underplanted trees, and costs and returns. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Stand Improvement A series of growth plots aggregating 30 acres on a typical unimproved hill within the Cambalache Experimental Forest was estab- lished in 1947 as a preliminary to other studies. By 1950 the diameter growth rate at the base of the slope had been found near- ly double that near the top. Remeasurement of the plots in 1953 confirmed this finding. Two-hundred codominant trees of less than 8 inches d.b.h., selected at random as to species, were remeasured at the bottom and at the top of the hill. annual diameter growth was 0.12 inch at the bottom of the slope and 0.06 inch at the top. The 6-year average Segregation of the data for a few of the best represented species is summarized in Table 2. These species all grew at about the same rate at the base of the hill, but at the top of the hill the growth rates differ materi- ally. This that the average growth rate on the upper slopes, comprising nearly half of this problem area, might be materially accelerated by improve- ment cuttings favoring the more rapid grow- difference indicates ing species. Table 2.—Six-year diameter growth on a limestone hill Species | | Number of | codominant | trees on | each site Average arnual diamater growth Lower slope Upper slope Bursera simaruba Dipholis salicifolia Coccolobis laurifolia Tetrazvgia eleagnoides Inch Inch No 119 0.091 ~—-0.037 47 0.111 0.046 91 0.082 ~—0.069 24. O10 102108 JANUARY - APRIL 1954 Under planting Two superior species well adapted for undcrplanting the lower slopes of the lime- stone forest are broadleaf mahogany (Swiete- nia macrophylla King) and West Indian maho- gany (S. mahagoni Jacq.), the former in the more humid areas and the latter where it is drier. Other species being tested in the Cam- balache, Rio Abajo, and Guajataca forest are: toon, (Cedrela toona Roxb.), the native cedro macho (Hieronyma clusioides (Tul.) Griseb.), and bamboo (Bambusa tulda Roxb). All of these appear well adapted to the lower slopes. Two-year-old underplantings of bamboo have clums from 20 to 30 feet tall and are now above the main canopy. Cedro macho is growing slowly and apparently will not prove as productive as mahogany. The toon re- quired complete release after 7 years and has subsequently begun to develop undesirable spreading crowns at a height of 15 feet. The successful results from direct sow- ing of broadleaf mahogany secd beneath stands on lower slopes in the Cambalache Experimental Forest were reported last year. Further observation of the resulting trees, now 2 years old, shows a satisfactory growth averaging 5 feet in height. Previous reports have recorded unsuc- cessful attempts to eradicate an infection of mistletoe (PAthirusa) in plantations of maga, (Montezuma speciosissima (Sessé & Moc.) Dubard) in the Guajataca Forest. Cutting and pruning proved impractical because a large proportion of the infection escapes notice. Subsequent observations on 20 infect- ed trees showed an almost complete disap- On 17 of these trees no live mistletoe plants are pearance of the parasite during 1953. now evident. The disappearance of this infec- tion is not solely a question of the death of infected branches but seems to be primarily one of suppression. As the canopy progres- ses upward and becomes more dense the mistletoe dies, even on branches which are vigorous. The potential forest productivity is defi- nitely limited in the dry limestone problem area on the southwest coast. The srea is much smaller than the humid limestone protlem area, precipitation is only 30 to 50 inches annually, and the soils are shallow and excessively drained. Nearly all of the land is covered by brush or short forest, but pest studies have shown that tree growth in such stands is too slow to make management conomically attractive. of tne land is in private own:rship. West Indian mahogany has generally proven adaptable to this site but growth is siow except on a limited area of the deepest soils. The low rainfall and corresponding slow tree growth relegates this problem area to a low priority for forest management research. L Ss a © About 90 percent Research in this area has in the past been concerned chiefly with the growth rate of the native forest, the testing of new species, development of better techniques for tree establishment, and following the pro- gress of a few established plantations of mahogany. The discovery of a very slow growth rate in the native forest seriously limited prospects for improvement cuttings. Although no other species is as promising as mahogany, direct seeding of that species has failed, as has pot planting in all but unusual- ly favorable weather conditions. The only studies proposed concern the progress of existing mahogany plantations and _ the adaptability of any new species which may appear promising. There is nothing to report for 1953. The Mangrove Problem Area The potential forest productivity of the mangrove problem area is, per acre, one of the highest on the island. ly all readily accessible and stand increment The area is near- is generally very rapid. Management appears to be relatively simple, since the land is al- ready forest covered, the stands are even- aged and pure, and natural regeneration is dependable. About half of the area is publicly owned. Notwithstanding the favor- able environment, this problem area is con- sidered of second priority for forest manage- ment research because of its relatively small area, the absence of the erosion problems found elsewhere, and the fact that a safe basis for management is already known. Research in this problem area has con- centrated on the most common _ species, white mangrove (Langucularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn, and has bcen airectel] toward the determination of desirable thinning practices and the prevention of excessive density and stagnation in recently regenerated areas. Thinning Even-aged white mangrove stands which develop after clearcutting may attain basal areas as high as 170 square feet per acre before the average tree diameter reaches 2 inches. In the belief that growth stagnation takes place in such stands, early thinning tests have been carried out during the past CARIBBEAN FORESTER 15 years in the Pinones Forest. Previous annual reports describe the results through 1951. Progressive stand data for three quarter- acre plots appear in Table 3. Plot A was thinned from below in 1949 and 1951 to about 80 square feet of basal area per acre. Plot C was similarly thinned to 60 square feet. Plot E was left unthinned. The 1949 data presented are prior to the thinning. It is seen that the stand were comparable in 1938 and that ali increased rapidly in density but slowly in average diameter during the sub- sequent 11 years. The thinning then mate- rially reduced the subordinate stand in Plots AandC. The 1952 data show, however, that these thinnings, which removed about half of the basal area, did little more than an- ticipate the natural mortality as found in Plot E. The death of nearly 6,000 trees per acre in this plot was accompanied by diameter increment in the surviving stand which was as great as in the thinned plots. Table 3.—Mangreve stand development Number of trees per acre Ds BH, ~ - ” pee ae, = 7 oo) 1 ae Thinned Plot A Thinned Plot C UnthinnedePlotar 1938 1949 | 1953 . | 1938 1949 1953 1938 1949 1953 = = | = Inches 1 5,563 5,254 712 4,848 7,121 294 6,714 5,412 A583 2 916 3,383 1,054 629 3.100 762 1,257 5,412 1,625 3 316 554 629 45 354 504 45 704 725 4 96 175 4 121 125 112 167 5 4 92 Dil 87 58 ab 6 25 8 50 Ti i 12 Totals 6,795 9,291 2,662 5,526 10,717 1,797 8.016 8,869 3,108 Basal Area 86 148 89 66 147 73 82 148 115 Av. d.b.h. 1.5 1.7 2.5 1.5 1.6 Day 1.4 1 26 inches JANUARY - APRIL 1954 More striking than these data is the present appearance of Plot E in the field. Amid an abundance of termite—and borer— infested dead and down subordinat2 stems is a vigorous, rapidly growing stand of tall, well formed dominant trees which have won the race for height. These dominants, selected by nature, are, in size, form, and quality, the equals of tne crop trees favored in the thinned plots. The significance of the good developmen: in unthinned Plot E is best understood when the economics of early thinnings are con- sidered. The material yielded by these thin- nings was sold for stakes and charcoal. How- ever, the stumpage receipts were less than the cost of marking, cutting and preparing this material. Moreover, this disparity is increasing with the present decline in charcoal demand. If, in addition, as is strongly indicated by this experiment, no material growth acceleration takes place in the residual stand, it is obviously ketter to leave stands unthinned until the trees are large enough for posts or other products which will yield a sufficient income to pay the costs of treatment. Control of Regeneration The prompt natural regeneration of clear- ings by white mangrove has suggested clear- cutting as the proper system for its manage- ment. However, the high water table in the mangrove has led to the assumption that care must be taken to avoid windthrow on the edge of cutting areas. The assumption led to two studies in pole stands (average d.b.h. 5-6 inches) in the Aguirre Forest. Earlier phases of these experiments are des- cribed in past annual reports One study was to determine whether shelterwood or all-aged management would result in less windthrow than clearcutting. In 1952 two quarter-acre plots were opened up from an average basal area of 112 square feet to 60 and 80 square feet per acre. Ex- nosed tall trees were eliminated as well as the subordinates in the belief that a uniform canopy would be safest from the wind. if Preliminary examinations made without a numerical tally of results, indicate that this practice will not prove satisfactory. Seed- lings which appeared beneath the thinned stands, as taken place each year under all white mangrove stands, show no tendency to develop beyond the first leaves. It appears that more light is needed. On the other hand, windthrow has been serious. Many of the best trees left have been uprooted or bent over, often damaging other trees. The second study, in the same stand, concerns clearcutting in strips one chain wide p ONb (q K D) OJsaIQNISap yw OUdLAa, UOI opunigroutd DAINU DAQUOS ADJUDAI] DADG Sput _DBSI4d AS OUDJOZIUAA DULDNS Py—' “Sty SOANING| 22 VAILN eae 4d VAT VIDWOS (Vv) OLAAIGNISIG WW ONJdd4l SOANIND Sl OU 1. Sombra semibaja que es mas facil de podar que las /ngas nativas. 2. Buena supervivencia al sembrarse y crecimiento rapido. En terrenos a la intemperie sujeta a la competencia de malezas ha sobrevivido mejor que ninguna otra especie de /nga incluyen- do la guaba nativa. 3. Se reproduce espontaneamente y en gran cantidad atin en situaciones ad- versas. Hemos hecho poca referencia a su resis- tencia a las plagas y enfermedades. Las plantaciones jovenes se ven libres de hormi- guilla. Wolcott es de opinion que cuando los Arboles tengan suficiente altura y edad seran atacados por la hormiguilla, sin embargo fal- ta por conocer su relativa resistencia, com- parada con las especies nativas. Es un he- cho comprobado que contrae el malo una con- dicién algo parecida aunque en menor grado que la guaba nativa. Algunos agricultores opinan que resiste mejor el ataque del mal y que muchos Arboles afectados recuperan al cortarse. Correa (3) la considera poco re- sistente a los vientos. Atn asi es logico su- poner que debido a su tamano pequeno en caso de huracaén causara menos dano al café al caer 0 arrancarse que las especies mas cor- pulentas. Por lo tanto no nos sorprenderia si después de un huracan la opinion de los agricultores se tornara muy favorable. Cree- mos que su mayor limitacion es la forma de la copa que no es muy extendida y tiende a proyectar una sombra densa Debido a que es tan facil de podar esto puede remediarse en parte. A pesar de haber sido introducida hace mas de 20 anos ahora estamos principiando a probar esta especie en grande escala y no sabemos lo que pueda suceder en el futuro. La impresion que tenemos es que es mas atil como Arbol joven. Hemos visto planta- ciones de 20 afios sin podar y la forma de la copa es decididamente inferior a la de la gua- ba nativa. Parece tener mayor preferencia por la luz y sitios expuestos que las especies nativas. Este punto, sumado a su habilidad de medrar en suelos empobrecidos, la hacen CARIBBEAN FORESTER mas propia para sembrarse en sitios abiertos, como por ejemplo, donde se establecen planta- ciones por primera vez o donde la somora que hubiere esté en un estado que requiera ser reemplazada por completo. En las lomas de pastos conjuntamente con guineos a los 5 anos esta dando buena sombra a siembras de café de 162 anos. En otras palabras las cualidades ya mencionadas le permiten ser- vir de especie invasora o sea la especie que puede levantar sombra en poco tiempo en si- tios deforestados y dificiles para otras espe- cles mas exigentes como son la guaba nativa y el guama. Igual a otras especies que en la naturaleza les corresponde el papel de espe- cie invasora 0 pionera parece tener una gran habilidad de mejorar el suelo Nuestras ob- servaciones indican que tiene un sistema ae raices muy fibroso y abundante lo que algu- nos agricultores llaman “esterilla’” que a su vez quiere decir ‘‘tejido de paja’”’. Un siste- ma de raices como éste ayuda grandemente a conservar el suelo y ademas contribuye con materia organica cuando las raices se des- componen. La produccidn de hojarasca y frutas secas es considerable y sin duda algu- na le anade grandes cantidades de materia organica al suelo. Ademas tiene la virtud de producir nodulos grandes y abundantes en sus raices lo cual como es sabido ayuda a fijar nitrogeno. Como es mas pequena que otras especies y parece que no se da bien a la sombra es logico suponer que su mejor contribucion no sera como resiembra bajo sombra ya estable- cida. Este punto se ilustra en la Fig. 5. Sembrada en cafetales y establecidos a menos que no se hagan entresaques radicales no de- sarrolla bien y a la larga tendra que ser eli- minada. Guamo, Guabo o guaba Peluda (Inga fastuosa Willd.) Sobresale entre las especies introducidas y junta con el guama venezolano fueron las dos especies que mas persistieron de la in- troduccion descrita. Sin embargo no se ha popularizado y al presente las siembras ori- ginales van desapareciendo en vez de aumen- tar. JANUARY - APRIL 1954 sta especie y otras del grupo de la guaba peiuda como la Inga villosissuma Benth son populares en Venezuela como sombra de eafé. Proveen gran cantidad de materia or- ganica al suelo por la caida de su follaje es- peso y abundante. Es arbol grande y vigoro- so lo cual no gusta a muchos agricultores que prefieren un arbol de crecimiento moderado y follaje mas abierto. La sombra muy den- sa es una de las objeciones mas serias. Sin embargo como existe muy poca experiencia sobre su uso podria ser que resultara en algu- nos sitios donde la guaba nativa no se presta. Correa (3) informa que debido a su follaje abundante es apropiada para los suelos suel- tos, pedregosos y secos. Aparentemente es por lo menos iguai a las especies nativas en su resistencia a plagas y enfermedades. Se reproduce poco. Es ciertamente una especie que deberia probarse en sitios que se requie- ra un arbol vigoroso y de follaje tupido. Guamo Arroyero, Vainillo, Inga x (Inga spuria H. & B.) El material botanico usado para la iden- tificacion de esta especie la obtuvimos de un grupo de arboles existentes en el vivero fo- restai de Toa Baja originalmente obtenidos de la antigua granja de Utuado. Segun los datos la plantacion de Utuado era de Inga edu- lis Mart. La /. edulis y la I. spuria son muy pa- recidas diferenciandose solamente por carac- teres botanicos de menor importancia. Am- bas especies son de forma aparasolada por lo cual un arbol sombrea un gran espacio y la sombra es menos densa que la de nuestra gua- oa nativa. La /nga spuria ha sido poco usada para sombra de café y en su estado natural se encuentra en los margenes de los rios y arroyos. Es muy comun y ocurre desde Méjico hasta el norte de Sur América y junto con la I. edulis y la I. laurina tienen gran distribucion en el continente americano (/2). En la litera- tura hay discrepancia en cuanto a su valor co- mo arbol de sombra. Pittier (12) dice que no debe usarse por su corta vida y susceptibi- lidad al ataque de insectos mientras que Uri- be (16) la considera de excelentra usando arbolitos silvestres fracas6 cuando otras especies sobrevivieron bien lo cual podria indicar que su superviven- cia no es buena. En otros paises se conside- ra, al igual que nvestro euama nativo, mas cutiremos solamente los que por su seriedad constituyen factores limitantes en el cultivo cel café. Estos son en nuestra opinion (1) ia hormiguilla y (2) el mal de guaba. La hormiguilla ha sido estudiada por Wolcott (/8, 19, 20, 21) y sus asociados pero todavia no existe un método eficaz de dominio JANUARY - APRIL 1954 de esta plaga. La descripcion de el dano y de los métodos de dominio han sido tomados de las publicaciones que bajo la firma del Dr. G. N. Wolcott ha publicado la Estacion Experimental Agricola de Rio Piedras. La hormiguilla, conocida técnicamente co- mo Myrmelachista ambigua ramulorum Wheeler hace tuneles irregulares a lo largo del tronco y las ramas vivas. Raras veces vive en colo- nias en la madera muerta. En algunos com- partimentos de sus ttneles desarrolla sus crias mientras que en otros cuida las chinches harinosas (Pseudococcus citri Risso) o las que- rezas carnosas color rosado llamadas técnica- mente Cryptostigma inquilina Newstead las cua- les chupan la savia de los arboles segreganao una substancia dulce muy atractiva a las hor- migas. Parte de las ramas infestadas no pre- sentan dano alguno mientras que en otras los tuneles ocupan tanto espacio que debilitan los arboles de manera que se parten facilmente con los vientos y al tiempo de la cosecha del café. Wolcott considera la hormiguilla, la cual es endémica de Puerto Rico y no ocurre en ningun otro pais productor de café, como una de las principales causas de nuestra baja pro- duccién. Las querezas y chinches harinosas que son cuidadas por las hormigas obtienen su alimento de la savia de los arboles de ma- nera que aun un ataque ligero de la hormi- guilla reduce la vitalidad de los Arboles de café. Los arboles viejos de guaba y guama son los centros de los cuales la hormiguilla establece nuevas colonias en los Arboles de café y por lo tanto si se cortan los Arboles vie- jos de sombra substituyéndolos por Arboles jovenes se elimina la hormiguilla por varios anos. El] humo de las carboneras segtin Wolcott, no tiene efecto en la hormiguilla ex- cepto naturalmente aqueilas que perecen ai hacerse el carbon. En el verano de 1953 observamos una mortalidad de arboles de guabas que estima- mos en mas de 150 por ciento en el barrio Tibes en la municipalidad de Ponce. La mor- talidad asumio tales proporciones que el som- brio de las plantaciones de café fué muy afec- tado. Mientras los arboles de otras especies 65 como la moca y el guaraguao se velan com- pletamente lozanos la guaba parece destina- da al fracaso en esta area, que por ser un poco mas seca parece no se presta a esta es- pecie. Los insecticidas standard usados ante- riormente para eliminar la hormiguilla fraca- saron incluyendo talio y cianuro en varias formas. Una solucién de DDT al 5 por cien- to en kerosina mata las hormigas y evita la re-infeccion de las ramas tratadas durante los proximos 6 meses. El] kerosina sin embargo quema el follaje del café vy siempre hay peli- gro aunen aplicaciones hechas cuando no hay hojas nuevas. Una aplicacion de aldrin al 0,125 por ciento en emulsién de agua ha re- ducido la cantidad de hormigas pero atin con- centraciones hasta de 1 por ciento de aldrin en plantaciones fuertemente infestadas no han evitado la reinfeccién al cabo de 1 6 2 meses. Debido a nuestra topografia acci- dentada las plantaciones de café no se adap- tan a aspersiones corrientes también como otras cosechas sembradas en terrenos mas anos. Wolcott (19) sugiere aplicaciones de los insecticidas mas efectivos desde aviones y helicopteros, segtin se acostumbra en otros paises .como el medio mas rapido de eliminar por completo esta plaga. Sin embargo este método aun no ha sido probado bajo nuestras condiciones y tenemos entendido que debido a lo accidentada de nuestra topografia es de esperarse dificultades en aplicaciones desde el aire ya que los aviones tendrian que volar muy bajo para que la aplicacion del insecti- cida fuera efectivo. Ademas debido a la alta densidad problacional de nuestras montanas existen obstaculos a la aplicacion en grande escala de materias venenosas. Algunos agri- cultores asperjan usando bombas portatiles inmediatamente después de podar la sombra usando insecticidas tales como clordano, al- drin y dialdrin con buenos resultados apa- rentes.? Otras plagas de menor importancia se- gun Martorell (J0) son como sigue: Psylla mi- nuticona Crawford y Psylla martorelli Caldwell a 5/ Informacién suministrada por e! especicbista d2 café de Servicio de Extension Agricola, senor Santiago A. Viva'd:. - > 66 que atacan las ramas tiernas al igual que es- pecies de los géneros Diaprepes y Lachnopus que comen las hojas. Los llamados ‘“nidos de mariposas” que causan una defoliacion muy comun son producidos por mariposas nocturnas entre ellas la Tetralopha acabridella Raganot. El Eulopidotis addens (Walker) es otra mariposa cuya larva ataca las hojas. La plumilla comtn es la larva de Megalopyge Krugii (Dewitz) ; ataca las hojas de la guaba a través de la zona cafetalera. Kl comcjcn (Nasusitermes (N) costalis (Homgren) se en- cuentra comunmente en los troncos de arbo- les de guaba y guama. Mal de Guaba Esta enfermedad de origen desconocido ataca particularmente a la guaba del pais (Inga vera, Willd.) Ataca menos comunmente al guama (Jnga laurina Willd). Ya en julio de 1924 se hacia referencia a esta enferme- dad (9). Ei Dr. Melville T. Cook (2) decia en 1939 “En Puerto Rico es comtn una enfermedad de las raices de la guaba pero su naturaleza no la conocemos todavia suficientemente. Es bastante severa y es la causa de la muerte de gran numero de arboles’”. Tenemos in- formacion al respecto que se ha tratado de aislar un organismo causante del mal sin re- sultado alguno hasta la fecha. Los arboles afectados a menudo sufren una perdida profusa de savia a lo largo del tronco, la que se fermenta transformandose en una substancia blancuzca con un olor pro- nunciado debido a la fermentacion producida por microorganismos. En muchos casos sin embargo no se nota la exudacion de savia. El arbol pierde vigor, el follaje se amarilla y se cae y el arbol generalmente muere al poco tiempo. Casi simultaneamente con la pérdi- da de savia el tronco de arboles enfermos es perforado por pequenos escarabajos conoci- dos como X weborus affinis Kichhoff (10) que perforan la corteza. A primera vista parece- ria como que el insecto es causante de la en- fermedad pero aparentemente los arboles que han sido muy debilitados por la enfermedad son atacados de manera que el insecto parece CARIBBEAN FORESTER ser solamente un agente secundario. Al exa- minar algunos arboles afectados, el Dr. G. Hepting, patdlogo ,encontré descoloramiento vascular de la albura parecido a enfermeda- des ya conocidas en arboles en Estados Uni- dos. Esta observacion indicaria que posible- mente la enfermedad es causada por el ataque de hongos o bacterias aunque de momento se desconoce la causa. La enfermedad no ataca uniformemente en una fincao en unazona. El ataque se con- centra en “manchas” o sea por secciones. No existe un censo que indique con exactitud la severidad del mal pero algunos afos y en zo- nas donde las condiciones parecen favorecer esta condicion muere un nimero considera- ble de arboles. En una de las fincas visita- das por el Dr. Hepting en Adjuntas en 1953 se habian eliminado arboles enfermos en una extension de 20 cuerdas. Durante los tltimos dos o tres anos nuestras observaciones indi- can que la mortalidad es muy alta. El agente Agricola de Ponce, senor Pur- cell, nos informo recientemente que en la mu- nicipalidad de Ponce miles de cuerdas han su- frido una alta mortalidad debido aparente- mente a que el mal asume una condicion epi- démica cuando los arboles se debilitan por alguna causa, una de las cuales parece ser la sequia prolongada. Es conveniente cortar y quemar los ar- koles enfermos como una medida de sanidad, por lo tanto el convertir en carbon los arbo- les cortados es por si una medida beneficio- Sa. Como una medida de precaucion en el caso de que la severidad del mal pueda au- mentar, parece aconsejable tener la sombra eonstituida por varias especies de manera que otras especies resistentes puedan suplir somopra al area afectada. Status Actual de las Especies Usadas como Sombra de Café en la Isla Segun hemos podido apreciar la tenden- cia actual de las arboledas de arboles de som- bra es como sigue: JANUARY - APRIL 1954 1._Preponderancia de la guaba nativa. 2. Decreciente importancia del guaméa, guaraguao, pollo, bucayo, laurel, capa prieto, etc. como arboles de sombra. 3. Ataques severos de hormiguilla y ge- neralizados aunque menos severos del mal de guaba, dependiendo en gran parte de la condicion de la finca. 4. Poco uso de nuevas especies excepcion del cuama venezolano que se esta ge- neralizando mucho. Las bondades de la moca (Andira jamaicensis, Urban) son apreciadas por los agricultores y es posible que la proporcion de arbo- les de esta especie ausente en las fin- cas para compensar la pérdida ocasio- nada por insectos y enfermedades en la guaba y el guama. La moca parece ser la especie mas resis- tente al ataque de insectos y enfermedades. Esta especie aunque es una leguminosa, per- tenece a un género y a una familia distinta y por lo tanto esta fuera del tema de este ar- ticulo que son las especies del género Inga. La usaremos para efectos de comparacion ya que es uno de nuestros mejores arboles de sombra en los cafetales. Resumiendo pues la situacion arriba des- crita podriamos decir que la tendencia es ha- cia el uso de menos especies dandose prepon- 67 derancia a la guaba nativa. Esta especie igual que el guama nativo y quizas el guama venezolano sufren del ataque de insectos y enfermedades que por su seriedad son un fac- tor de peso. La tendencia hacia el uso de pocas espe- cies en preferencia a una mezcla de varias en el cafetal parece no ser aconsejable segun nuestra experiencia y la de otros paises. En algunas zonas de Colombia (17) han tenido serias dificultades al substituir la sombra mixta de especies del bosque natural por ar- boledas homogéneas de guamo macheto (/iga spectabilis (Vahl) Willd.). Es un principio bien establecido que en el tropico las asocia- ciones vegetales mixtas, tal como es el bosque natural, son mas saludables, mas estables y menos expuestas a catastrofes como son el ataque de insectos y enfermedades. Desde luego que si el cultivo del café progresara hacia la practica de métodos avanzados po- driamos hasta cierto punto violar este prin- cipio. Por ejemplo si pudiéramos eliminar por completo la hormiguilla de nuestros cafe- vales, podriamos correr mas riesgos sembran- do solo /ngas si en otro sentido ésto fuera mas conveniente. Sin embargo todavia la siem- bra de una mezcla de especies parece ser lo mas aconsejable. A continuacion hemos preparado una ta- bla comparando las tres principales especies de Ingas en uso y la moca. Table 1—Comparacion de nuestras principales especies de sombra Guaba del Guama del Guama Moca pais pais venezciano Adaptabilidad a variabilidad de condiciones XXX x xX XXX Buena disposicion del ramaje x XXX — xX Compatibilidad con el café XXX XXX XXX XXX Reproduccion natural abundante y precocidad en el desarrollo — XX x Xxx Resistencia al ataque de insectos y enfermedades PXEXEXG ».€ x XX Tamano aceptable y resistencia a vientos XXX XX XXX XxX Habito deciduo (pérdida de hojas durante XXX = as = la época de sequia) XXX = excellente = regular — = inferior Analizando las distintas propiedades que en nuestra opinion debe reunir un arbol de sombra encontramos que la moca y el gua- ma venezolano sobresalen en el punto No. 1. La moca es la sombra predominante en las zo- nas mas secas y expuestas al sur de la cordi- llera y se encuentra también en menor grado en el resto de la zona de café. Su adaptabili- dad a condiciones adversas parece ser extra- ordinaria. Hemos visto arboles ‘saludables desde las dunas y en los margenes de los man- glares en la costa hasta lugares muy hume- CARIBBEAN FORESTER En el tercer punto o sea compatibilidad con el café las consideramos iguales ya que no sabemos que exista diferencia probada al respecto. En el cuarto punto o sea la reproduccion natural abundante y precocidad en el desa- rrollo la moca parece ser la mas pobre por su crecimiento sumamente lento. La reproduc- cion natural es pobre en la zona himeda aun- que aparentemente es muy buena en la zona seca. Debido a su tremenda habilidad de fig. 7. Arbol de guaba nativa (Inga vera Willd.) mostrando una copa am- plia que produce una buena proporcion de luz yv sombra al cafe. dos en las cumbres de las montanas. No co- nocemos bien la adaptabilidad del guama ve- nezolano pero los indicios son que tiene un margen mas amplio de adaptabilidad que las especies nativas. En relacion al segundo punto o sea la dis- posicion del ramaje no hay duda que la guaba del pais es superior. (Vease Fig. 7) Las otras tres especies, particularmente el guama del pais, tienen una copa redonda y tupida que ro es la mas propia de un arbol de sombra. repreducirse y a su precocidad en desarrollo le dimos la mas alta cualificacion en este pun- to al guama venezolano. En cuanto a resistencia al ataque de in- sectos y enfermedades parece que hasta la fe- cha la moca es superior. Sabemos que el ra- ton destruye los arbolitos tiernos y las ramas tiernas de la moca y ésto puede ser una de las razones porque su reproduccion natural no sea mas abundante. Parece que no hay duda que el arbol adulto hasta hoy, ha sido menos JANUARY - APRIL 1954 susceptible al ataque de insectos y enferme- dades que afecten seriamente su desarrollo. Hemos clasificado el guama venezolano me- jor que las Jngas nativas porque hasta la fecha parece que es menos afectado. Sin embargo por ser especie nueva no podemos dar un dic- tamen final y podria ser que a la larga no de- mostrara ninguna superioridad sobre las es- pecies nativas. En cuanto al tamano y resistencia a vien- tos estamos penalizando las especies corpu- lentas por varias razones: 1. Posibilidad que un Arbol de gran ta- mano requiere mayor cantidad de nu- trientes y por lo tanto compite mas con el café. 2. Un arbol vigoroso requiere mas deta- lles y podas y el trabajo es mas difi- cil que en arboles mas pequenos. Con la escasez de trabajadores y tenden- cia hacia la subida de jornales, el ar- bol pequeno que necesita poca poda o que se pueda podar facilmente pro- veera sombra mas econédmicamente. 3. En caso de huracanes es logico supo- ner que la caida de arboles grandes sea mas destructiva al café due la de los arboles pequenos. En cuanto al ultimo punto o sea pérdida de las hojas en el periodo de la florecida del café, dentro de nuestras condiciones parece que las especies que no tienen esta propiedad estan en desventaja. En paises de sequia mas prolongada como en la América Central esta propiedad se considera una desventaja porque expone los 4rcoles de café en la época que mas proteccion necesitan. En nu-stro clima lluvioso y htimedo aparentemente es necesario que durante nuestro corto periodo de sequia, que coincide con la florecida, el café, reciba luz mds directamente. De las especies analizadas la unica que tiene esta propiedad es la moca. En resumen esta comparacion le da la mas alta puntuacién a la moca, que para la isla en general parece que reune las mayores ventajas y las menores desventajas. En se- gundo término estan el guama venezolano y 69 la guaba del pais. FE] guama del pais cae en ultimo término. Naturalmenite que ésto no tiene que aplicar en ninguna zona en particu- lar y mucho menos en una finca en particu- lar. Debe entenderse que es una compara- cion en términos de la isla en general. Investigaciones sobre Arboles de Sombra Como se conoce poco sobre el efecto de los arboles de sombra en el cafetal es necesa- rlo investigar ciertos aspectos de las relacio- nes de los arboles con el café y con otros fac- tores del cafetal. En la reunion habida en la Carmelita hace par de anos se enumeraron problemas de los arboles de sombra que es necesario conocer einvestigar. Son éstos los siguientes: Determinar: 1. La distancia o distancias 6ptimas para sembrar los arboles de sombra y el café. bo Las mejores especies para sombra de café. 3. Métodos practicos para convertir ca- fetales en terrenos poco productivos a otras cosechas mas propias incluyen- do bosque. 4, Mejores métodos de manejo de som- bra y uso y utilizacién de estos Ar- boles. La contribucion real de los Arboles de sombra a la fertilidad del suelo. Ol 6. El uso proporcicnal de la fertilidad dei suelo por el café y por los arboles de sombra. 7. El valor, si lo tiene, de los rompevien- tos en los cafetales, su manejo y me- jores especies para este fin. Una mayor informacién sobre los puntos numeros 5 y 6 demostraria hasta que punto la sombra de leguminosas es preferible. Si se demostrara que las leguminosas no contribu- ven substancialmente a la fertilidad del sue- lo mas que especies no leguminosas, se abri- via la posibilidad de usar especies que prove- verar ademas otros productos tales como 70 madera, frutas, resinas, etc. Actualmente la mayor parte de la producciOn total! por unidad de terreno es para producir arboles de sombra cuya madera no se presta sino para proveer humus porque ya no la utiliza como combustible. La cosecha de café en si uti- liza solo una pequena parte de los nutrientes a disposicion del cafetal. Siguiendo esta orientacion en Costa Roca se estan realizando pruebas con arboles de caucho como sombra de café y cacao. Investigadores y agrono- mos en paises cafeteros han pensado en la posibilidad de conseguir especies que a la vez que den sombra puedan producir maderas u otras materias valiosas. Nota de Reconocimiento Ademas de las obras a que se refiere la bibliografia fueron consultadas personalmen- te o por correspondencia las siguientes per- sonas: Dr. L. A. Alvarez, patologo, Estacion Experimental Agricola, Rio Piedras; Dr. George A. Hepting del Negociado de Indus- tria Vegetal, Departamento de Agricultura, Suelos e Ingenieria Agricola, Ashville, Caro- CARIBBEAN FORESTER lina del Norte, USA; Dr. W. A. Dayton y Dr. E. L. Little, botanicos del Servicio Forestal en Washington DC; senores Vicente Medina y Alberto Correa, ex-especialistas de Café del Servicio de Extension Agricola de la Univ. de Puerto Rico; Sr. José I. Otero, autor de va- rios trabajos sobre Botanica. Agradecemos muy especialmente la co- operacion del senor Santiago A. Vivaldi, es- pecialista en café del Servicio de Extension Agricola y de los agentes Rubén Roura de Yauco y Carlos A. Purcell de Ponce, quienes ofrecieron facilidades y amablemente nos acompanaron a visitar fincas que demues- tran alguna fase especial de este problema. Los siguientes agricultores entre otros nos dieron detalles sobre su experiencia en general sobre la materia: Sr. Pelegrin Pabon Salazar de San German, Sr. Angel Nigaglioni de Yauco, Sr. Juan Adrover de Yauco, Sr. Jo- sé Bianchi de Adjuntas, Sr. Luis Pérez de Adjuntas, Sr. Guillermo Latimer de Jayuya, Sr. Lilo Becerra de Jayuya, Sr. Joaquin Mat- tei de Adjuntas, Sr. Rafael Piracci de Ponce, Sr. Carlos Marrero de Utuado. BIBLIOGRAFIA 1. BRITTON, N. L., y E. P. KILLIP. — 1936. Mimosaceae and Caesalviniaceae of Colombia. N. Y. Acad. Se. 35:110-124. 2. COOK, M. T. — 1939. plantas econodmicas de las Antillas. Monogra- fia de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, Ciencias Fisicas y Biologicas. Serie B, No. 4. pp. 449. 3. CORREA, A. — 1945. El cultivo de los cafetos en Puerto Rico. Serv. Ext. Agr., Univ. de P. R. 21:54. CRANE, J. C. y LAURENZ GREENE. — 1948. Abstracts of some of the literature vertaining to coffee. p. 438-46. USDA, OFAR, Wash., D.C 5. DUQUE. J. P. — 1938. Informe sobre viaje de estudio del Jefe del Departamento Técnico a al- gunos paises cafeteros de América Central. Re- vista Cafetera de Colombia 7:2295-2460. 6. STANDLEY, P. C. — 1937. Flora of Costa Rica. Field Museum of Natural History. Bo- tanical Series 18(2):495-501. 7. GUTIERREZ, G. — 1947. Estudio del género Inga y de les barbascos Colombianos. Facultad Nacional de Agronomia, Medellin, Colombia. 7:25-76. 8. HERMANO LEON. — Flora de Cuba. Contri- buciones ocasionales del Museo de Historia Na- tural del Colegio de la Salle. Habana, Cuba. 2;226. Enfermedades de las Dom 9. KERN, F. y WHETZEL, H. H. — 1924, Ob- servaciones en las enfermedades del cafeto y de los arboles de combra. Revista de Agricultura (Puerto Rico.) 13:7-11. 10. MARTORELL, L. F. — 1945. A survey of the forest insects of Puerto Rico. Journal of Agric. of the Univ. of P. R. 29(3) :217-226. 11. PITTIER, H. — 1926. Manual de las plantas usuales de Venezuela. Caracas, Venezuela. 12, 1929. The middle Ameri- can species of the Genus Inga. Dept. Agrc. Puerto Rico, 138(4):117-177. 13 1916. Preliminary revi- sion of the Genus Inga. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium 18(5) :216-218. 14. STAHL, A. — Flora de Puerto Rico. Tomo I. Fed. Emergency Relief Adm. Puerto Rico. 15. TORO, R. A. — 1940. Nueva sombra para los cafetales. Revista de Agricultura (Puerto Ri- co). 32:489-492. 16. URIBE URIBE. L. — 1945. Arboles de som- bra en los cafetales en Colombia. Carib. Fo- rester 6(2) :82-83. 17. VARGAS BERNAL. S. — 1942. Practicas de cultivo en los cafetales de Colombia — Arboles de sombrio. Rey. Cafetera de Colombia 8;2904- 2907. JANUARY - APRIL 1954 18. WOLCOTT, G. N. — 1933. An economic en- tomology of the West Indies. Agric. Expt. Sta. Pa R- pp: 316-317: 19 1951. The present status of economic entomology in Puerto Rico. Bull. 99. University of P. R. Agric. Exp. Sta. Rio Piedras. pp. 16. = 71 20. WCLCOTT, G. N. — 1933. Recent experiments in the control of two Puerto Rican ants. Jour. Dept. Agri. (Puerto Rico) 17(13) :223-239. 1948. The insects of Puer- to Rico. Journ. of Agri. Univ. of Puerto Rico 32 (4) :835-839. hy) fed EL CUARTO CONGRESO FORESTAL MUNDIAL El Cuarto Congreso Ferestal Mundial, pa- trocinado por !a FAO, ha sido anunciado por el Gobierno de la India para celebrarse en Dehra Dun desde el 11 al 22 de diciembre de 1954. A continuaciOn un extracto del anuncio de la F.\O: “El Congreso sera precedido por excur- siones en la India y Pakistan, y empeza- ra con una revisiOn de los progresos reali- zados en Silvicultura desde el Tercer Con- greso. El objetivo de esta Reunidn, que es el de ayudar a los diversos paises a pla- nificar y coordinar sus politicas forestales y de allegar las experiencias de todos los paises del mundo en torno a un topico cen- tral de particular importancia para el fu- turo de la Silvicultura, o para la utilizacion de los productos forestales, es llevado a ca- bo a través de esta revisiOn preliminar y de la discusién del tema general indicado al comienzo del programa: “El papel y lugar de las areas boscosas en la economia agra- ria general y en el desenvolvimiento econ6- mico de un pais”. El progreso de la civi- lizacion moderna depende, a causa del co- rrespondiente rapido aumento de la pobla- cion mundial, del desarrollo de la produc- cidn de Jos productos que son indispensables a la existencia y bienestar general del hom- bre. Esto involucra una creciente compe- tencia entre las varias formas de aprovecha- miento de la tierra y una de las cuestiones que se plantean a los forestales es la de de- terminar qué porcion del territorio nacional debe ser mantenida permanentemente cu- bierta con vegetacién arbérea y cémo pue- de ser mas ventajosamente aprovechada pa- ra la economia del pais. “En la determinacion de dicha drea, hay que tener en cuenta dos factores principa- les: las funciones protectoras de los bos- ques y su papel socio-econdmico. Ligados a ellos estan la productividad del bosque y sus efectos en el establecimiento de eficien- tes industrias forestales. Estos tres aspec- tos constituyen el ntcleo del programa del Congreso y el Comité Organizador aprecia- ra recibir todos los trabajos de interés ge- neral que se le envien sobre dichos asuntos, visto que abordaran el problema dese dis- tintos puntos de vista. “En lo que se refiere a la accion protecto- ra como base para la determinacion de las areas que deben ser conservadas embosque- cidas, sera dada naturalmente una impor- tancia especial a los resultados de las. in- vestigaciones sobre la accion de la cubier- ta boscosa natural, como asimismo de las plantaciones, en la conservaci6n del suelo y del agua y en la produccién agraria en las regiones donde la silvicultura y la agri- cultura coexisten en intima armonia, como es el caso de las barreras rompevientos en campos de cultivo. También se dara lugar preferente a la educacién de la opinién pu- blica en los principios de conservacién — que se basa en “la utilizacién nacional para beneficio det mayor numero posible de per- sonas y durante el mayor tiempo posible” — como también en los principios generales de aprovechamiento de las tierras. “Cuando las funciones productivas del bosque sean tomadas en cuenta como base para la determinacién de las areas. las consideraciones de orden cientifico, téc- nico, economico, legal y social estaran atin mas intimamente relacionados entre si en _ cada uno de los tépicos que se aborden, “Las buenas practicas silvicolas ccnstitu- yen el método primario para obtener altos rendimientos en calidad y cantidad, p-ro su aplicacién es a menudo afectada por ciertas condiciones econdmicas o sociales, regime- nes de propiedad o existencia de derechos de uso. Espérase que sean presentados tra- bajos sobre estos aspectos, los cuales servi- ran de base para provechosas discusiones. La ordenacion de tierras boscosas para pas- toreo, vida silvestre v recreo, y la ordena- cién de plantaciones fuera de los cosques. constituyen otros asuntos igualmente com- prendidos kajo el mismo titulo general. Ei “uso multiple’ de zonas forestales se esta tornando cada vez mas importante debide a que el creciente aumento en la demanda de ticrras exige que se saque el mAximo pro- vecho de todos ios recursos, bajo una base de rendimiento continuo, atendiendo debida- mente a sus efectos en la conservacion del agua y del suelo. También se da importan- cla especial al valor econdmico de las plan- taciones hechas fuera de las areas boscosas, principalmente en paises de escasos recur- sos forestales, cuyas necesidades en made- ra pueden ser en gran parte satisfechas por medio de plantaciones, combinadas con la exp'otacion agricola. Se confia que el Con- greso podra aportar una util contribuciOn en este problema de una equilibrada integra- cion del aprovechamiento de la tierra. “Aunque ia integracion de los bosques con las industrias depende de la utilizacion de los productos forestales, el asunto es tan vasto que su extensi¢n ha sido limitada a al- gunos puntos esenciales, y particularmente, al desarrollo de bosques cuyo valor econémi- co ha sido hasta ahora bajo. Las posibilida- des de remediar la situacién de bajo valor economico de estos bosques, residen en la solucion de tres puntos principales: mayor accesibilidad, utilizacién de especies hasta ahora poco aprovechadas y organizacién de industrias y nuevos métodos de utilizacién adaptados a las limitaciones técnicas de los productos. Principalmente en los paises in- suficientemente desarrollados, las nuevas téenicas de utilizacién hacen de los bosques CARIBBEAN FORESTER cuando bien administrados, una fuente de materia prima _ practicamente inagotable. Este tdpico esta directamente relacionado con los actuales proyectos de una mas am- plia distribucion geografica de nuestras in- dustrias de pulpa y papel, y con la utiliza- cidn de la madera como substituto del acero y del hierro en paises donde, actualmente dichos materiales son importados a un alto costo. Finalmente, sera considerado también el desenvolvimiento de industrias basadas en los llamados productos forestales secun- darios que ofrecen buenas posibilidades de valorizar aquellos bosques cuya accesibilidad para explotaciones en gran escala sea difi- cil de mejorar de inmediato. “Una seccion especial del programa ha si- do dedicada a la Silvicultura Tropical. Co- mo ya tuvimos ocasioén de manifestarlo, la Silvicultura es el instrumento mas impor- tante en el desenvolvimiento de los bosques y, pese a los muchos progresos alcanzados, el rcndimiento economico de los bosques tro- picales es pequefo en comparacion con el de los bosques de zonas templadas. Es dificil para los silvicultores justificar en las actua- les circunstancias esta forma de uso de la tierra, pero en un futuro cercano, los bos- ques tropicales deberan desempenar en la vida econdémica de los respectivos paises el mismo papel que tienen los bosques de zo- nas templadas. El] programa solo incluye los problemas mas importantes y las espe- cies consideradas actualmente como princi- pales y destaca la importancia de discutir los problemas relacionados con el control del desierto y la agricultura nomade.” Este Congreso ofrece una oportunidad sin precedente a los dasdnomos en los tro- picos del Hemisferio Occidental para estu- diar los resultados de la mas vasta expe- riencia en dasonomia tropical en el Este. Es- peramos que una buena representacioén de los dasénomos de la América tropical asis- ta a este Congreso. Caribbean Forester El “Caribbean Forester”, revista que el) Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agri- cultura de los Estados Unidos ccmenzo a Pp 1- Llicarse en julio de 1938 se distribuye semes- tralmente sin costo alguno y esta dedicada a encauzar la mejor ordenacién de los recursos forestales de la regién del Caribe. Su propo- sito es estrechar las relaciones que existen entre los cientificos interesados en la Ciencia Forestal y ciencias afines encarandoles con los problemas confrontados, las politicas fo- restales vigentes y el trabajo que se viene haciendo para lograr ese objetivo técnico. Se solicita aportaciones de no mas de 20 paginas mecanografiadas. Deben ser someti- das en el lenguaje vernaculo del autor, con el titulo o posicién que este ocupa. Es impres- cindible incluir un resumen conciso del estu- dio efectuado. Los articulos deben ser dirigi- dos al “Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.” Las opiniones expresadas por los autores de los articulos que aparecen en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Ser- vicio Forestal. Se permite la reproduccién de los articulos siempre que se indique su proce- dencia. e The “Caribbean Forester’’, published since July 1938 by the Forest Service, U. 8S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, is a free semiannual journal devoted to the encouragement of im- proved management of the forest resources of the Caribbean region by keeping students of forestry and allied sciences in touch with the specific problems faced, the policies in effect, and the work being done toward this end throughout the region. Contributions of not more than 20 type- written pages in length are solicited. They should be submitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include the author’s title or position and a short summary. Papers should be sent to the Director, Tropical Fo- rest Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Any article published may be reproduced provided that reference is made to the original source. Le “Caribbean Forester”, qui a été publié depuis Julliet 1938 par le Service Forestier du Département de l’Agriculture des Etats-Unis, est une revue semestrielle gratuite, dediée a encourager l’aménagement rationnel des fo- réts de la region caraibe. Son but est d’entre- tenir des relations scientifiques entre ceux qui s’interéssent aux Sciences Forestiéres, ses problémes et ses méthodes les plus récentes, ainsi qu’aux travaux effectués pour réaliser cet objectif d’amelioration technique. On accept voluntiers des contributions ne dépassant pas 20 pages dactilographiées. Elles doivent étre écrites dans la langue ma- ternelle de l’auteur qui voudra bien préciser son titre ou sa position professionnelle et en les accompagnant d’un résumé de |’étude. Les articles doivent étre addressés au Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station, Rio Pie- dras, Puerto Rico. La revue laisse aux auteurs la responsibi- lité de leurs articles. La reproduction est permise si l’on présice l’origine. “The printing of this publication has been approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget (August 26, 1953) My? ah” fa F2 i i +. AD, ~ ie ele ae ne ee VOLUME 15 NOS 3 AND 4 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO JULY -OCT., 1954 VoL. 15 Nos. 3 AND 4 JULY - OCTOBER 1954 ieee sOattowean Forester Gomes Sb i0e) Clie ne HOLCSraby PCS Ofebritishy Gland 22s. 252 ee b. S 13 D. B. Fanshawe, British Guiana Tropical hardwoods for veneer production in Mexico _____ 112 Edgar V. Saks, Mexico Forest utilization in Saint Lucia, British West Indies ____ _ 120 W. G. Lang, St. Lucia, B.W.I. o Lares ’ ~) ¢€ he of eet Be ese Hey! baw e = + bie tee Soh S ge JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Forest Types of British Guiana D. B. FANSHAWE Formerly Assistant Conservator of Forests British Guiana The only detailed description published of forest types in British Guiana have been those of Davis & Richards!’. The five types covered three formation-series: rain forest with three types, and swamp and dry evergreen forest with one type apiece. The types de- scribed are the most important for that area from the forestry point of view, as wallaba, greenheart and mora are the three primary hardwoods of the country. Mora forest in the swamp forest series and wallaba forest in the dry evergreen forest series are so close to the optimum rain forest within their own series that it was hardly surprising that they should be described as variants of rain iorest. Since 1937 the writer as the silviculturist- ecologist of the Forest Department has had an opportunity to study the forests in other parts of the colony. It has been found that the country is not covered by a blanket of rain forest, that climatic as well as edaphic factors have influenced the vegetation result- ing in seasonal forest types appearing in the drier northeastern or southern parts of the colony. Thus of the eight vegetation types here described only two represent rain forest, the other six divided among seasonal, dry evergreen, swamp and marsh, or hog forest. Most of the major forest types of the near interior now have been studied in detail, especially the faciations of the rain forest. A great deal of study remains to be done on the minor forest types throughout the colony and most of the major forest types of the far interior, as a glance at the “Vegetation of A. W. and Richards, P. W.— The vegetation of 1/ Davis, T. Part |): 350-384, Moraballi Creek, B. G. Journa! of Ecology, 21 1933 and 22 (Part Il): 106-155, 1534. British Guiana, a preliminary review” will show. In this connection it is interesting to note that Mr. N. L. Guppy of the Forest Depart- ment has completed studies of the forest vege- tation in the far interior around the head- waters of the New River and Essequibo River in what is almost certainly Amazonian rain forest, or at least the transition between the Amazonian and the Guiana rain forest. THE ESCHEILERA-LICANIA ASSOCIATION ALEXA IMPERATRICIS FACIATION3/ The Alexa imperatricis (Haiariballi) facia- tion of the typical lowland rain forest of British Guiana - the Eschweilera-Licania as- sociation is wide-spread on lateritic red and yellow earths in the hilly country and on the low hills which lie dotted about the coastal swamp in the North West district. Under Beard’s concept of climax vegetation*’, the faciation would fall into the rain forest group but with a tendency to evergreen seasonal forest. This is almost certainly due to the fact that the forest is in a late stage of the succession back to the climatic climax - rain forest- The association is named from the dominant and characteristic species Eschwei- lera sagotiana and Licania venosa. The faci- ation is named from the dominant Alexa imperatricis. It is locally called Haiariballi bush and is classed as miscellaneous forest. 2/ Fenshawe, D. B. — The vegetation of British Guiana, a pre- liminary review. Institute Paper No. 29, Imperial Forestry Institute, University of Okford. 1952. 3/ De-cription prepared jointly with C. Swabey, former Con- servator of Forests. 4/ Beard, J. S. — Ciimax vegetation in Tropical America. Eco'ogy 25 (2) 1944. 2 ae FS 74 The sample studied was a low island of 5.2 acres at 4,000 feet on Cross Line 8 of the forest valuation of the Moruca Indian Reser- vation. Canopy and understory species were enumerated on the whole plot; undergrowth species, shrubs, and herbs, on a one-acre sample. The island is oval, the long axis eastwest-, about 10 feet above the marsh for- est level at its highest point with gentle slopes on all sides. Structure, Physiognomy and Floristic Composition A profile of this forest appears in figure 1. The canopy is more or less closed except CARIBBEAN FORESTER where canopy trees recently uprooted have left a gap. One large gap due to such a cause was filled with secondary species forming a more or less closed canopy at a lower level. The trees of the canopy and understory are irregularly spaced; they may be 5 to 50 feet apart, on the average 15 to 20 feet. Larger trees 16 inches at diameter breast height and upwards may be 10 to 70 feet apart, on the average 40 feet. The largest diameter recorded on the plot Only 4 percent of the trees were over 20 inches and The was 30 inches, for an Aspidosperma. 10 percent over 16 inches diameter. ) Fig. 1.—Profile of Alexa imperatricis fasciation A = Pouteria guianensis Ka= Eschweilera alata O = Quiina indigofera — B= Mabea piriri Ke= Eschweilera corrugata P = Pouteria venosa ; FCA 2 ae D = Diplotropis purpurea Kd= Eschweilera decolorans S = Piratinera guianensis ae ieee T = Pentaclethra macroloba — H = Alexa imperatricis L = Licania micrantha : : W = Minquartia guianensis K = Eschweilera sagotiana M = Heisteria surinamensis Y = Trichilia schomburgku JULY - OCTOBER 1954 dominants Eschweilera and Alexa accounted for 2/3 of the trees over 16 inches diameter. Besides the dominants and Aspidosperma, the following species over 20 inches diameter breast height were recorded: Parinari excelsa, Parinari campestris, Goupia, Pithecellobium jupumba, Dipterix, Pouteria guianensis, Diplotropis, Didymopanax, Jacaranda, and Ocotea canaliculata. Three tree strata can be recognized al- though not very well-marked: (1) the canopy trom 70-100 feet, (2) the understory from 40- 70 feet. and (3) the undergrowth from 10-30 teet. Shrubs and herbs are so sparse that they do not form well marked strata. An occasional tall tree emerges from the canopy. Societies are most marked in the under- growth, to a certain extent in the understory. For instance nearly all the individuals of Anaxagorea, Quiina, and Paypayrola, in the undergrowth were concentrated on small por- tions of the plot. Lianes are frequent but not common, oc- curring in groups rather than equally distri- buted. A very small proportion are non- canopy species. Epiphytes are occasional, confined to the upper branches of the dominants. Even the strangling Clusia are only occasional. The commonest epiphytic plants are Bromeliads oe Buttresses occur on 40 percent of the ca- nopy species, but well marked plank buttresses occur on only 25 percent. The dominants Eschweilera and Alexa are not normally but- tressed. Only Tovomita has stilt roots. Pneumatophores and spines are absent except in the Bactris palms. The lesser dominant Alexa is cauliflorous. There are no special bark peculiarities, nor succulent leaves nor stems. Special life forms are present in the form of palms, rare Jessenia, and Maximiliana, in the understory, and more frequent Bactris (2 spp.)and Geonoma in the shrub layer. The tree species are largely evergreen. No species are deciduous but 28 percent of canopy species and 14 percent of understory species are semideciduous with an annual flush within a matter of 2-3 days. Undergrowth species are evergreen. The time of leaf fall and folia- tion of the semideciduous species is irregular, but most reflush during the dry season pre- ceding the heavy mid-year rains. Leaves of canopy species are chiefly simple (64 percent) and mesophyll (70 percent), the leaflets of compound leaved species mostly (84 percent) mesophyll. Leaves of true un- derstory species are half simple half com- pound, the simple leaves 75 percent mesophy!l! and the compound leaflets 75 percent micro- and orchids. Hemiepiphytes (Carludovica phyll. The type and size of leaf of the major spp.) are absent. species is shown in Table 1. Table 1. — Leaf characteristics of major species Alexa imperatricis faciation. Species Leaf type Number of leaflets | Leaf size Pouteria Simple Mesophyll Jacaranda Bipinnate Numerous Microphyll Alexa Pinnate 5) Mesophyli Eschweilera Simple Mesophyll Pentaclethra Bipinnate Numerous Leptophyll Hebepetalum Simple Mesophyll Inga Pinnate 4-8 Mesophyll Unéderstery Mabea Simple Mesophyli Quiina Simple Mesophyll Trichilia Pinnate 2-9 Microphyll 76 Both the shrub and herb layers are very poorly represented in species and individuals. The commonest species are two small palms and a woody herb. With few exceptions, these and the other shrubs and tall herbs fall into the low herb stratum by occurring in seedling form. The true low herb layer con- sists of a very rare fern, a grass, and a terres- trial orchid. Selaginellas and mosses are absent. No annual plants we noted. It is possible that there is a dying down of the shrub and tall herb layers during very dry seasons, which may account for much of these strata occurring as seedlings. Eschweilera species usually produce good seed crops annually. The pyxidia lids fall off either on the tree or when the fruits reach the ground to release the seeds. Dis- persal is mechanical and by animals, chiefly rodents. Seedlings are abundant. Alexa fruits only every 3-4 years but usual- ly produces a very heavy crop. The dehiscent pods contain 8-10 large seeds. Dispersal large- ly by its own dehiscing mechanism. Seelings are abundant. Pentacletra fruits annually, abundantly every second year. The pods dehisce on the tree to scatter the large flat beans far and wide. The germination percentage of the seeds is exceptionally high. Seedlings are oc- casional to frequent. Pouteria produces a fair crop of fruit an- nually but much of it gets eaten and a certain amount dispersed by animals. Seedlings are occasional only. Quiina and Trichilia fruit heavily annually and have fruits covered with a fleshy pulp attractive to birds. Seedlings are abundant. The flora is rich, with 52 canopy, 22 under- story, and 12 true, undergrowth species, a total of 86 woody species over 15 feet high. The total woody flora of the faciation probably contains 150-200 species. The major canopy species with their fre- quency per acre appear in Table 2. The ma- jor understory species, besides poles of canopy species, with their frequency per acre appear CARIBBEAN FORESTER in Table 3. The commonest species of the true undergrowth with their frequency per acre appear in Table 4. The tall herb layer contains only 5 spe- cies. With their approximate frequency per acre they are: Cephaelis violacea 100 Calathea sp. 10 Ischnosiphon foliosus 10 Piper ‘sp. 5 Fern 2 Total ey. The low herb layer contains two fern species (Adiantum and Dryopteris), a forest grass (Olyra sp.), and a terrestrial. orchid (Habenaria sp.). The commonest lianes are Clusia grandi- folia, Davilla and Doliocarpus sp., Arrabidaea, Paullinia rufescens, and Moutabea sp. Other lianes noted belong to Connarus, Odontade- nia, Machaerium, Banisteriopsis, Strychnos, Dichapetalum, and various genera of the Hip- pocrateaceae. Habitat A meteorological station with a rain gauge exists at Acquero, 6-8 miles southeast of the sample plot and within the same meteorologi- cal zone. Data on temperature are taken from the records at Hosororo, about 60 miles northwest of the plot and in a slightly rainier zone. (114 inches per annum as against 107). No meteorological data were obtained for the forest itself. The mean shade temperature of the hot- test month, October, is 79.8 degrees F., of the coldest month, January, 76.8 degrees F. The absolute maximum recorded is 99.5 degrees F. ‘and the absolute minimum, 53.0 degrees F. The mean annual rainfall and the mean number of days without rain or with negligi- ble rain at Acquero are as shown in Table 5. -~] ~] JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Table 2, — Canopy species of Alexa imperatricis faciation | Number of trees in 5.2-acre sample by | diameter classes Total Number Sipremcimess | =) per acre 4-12 in. | 12-20 in. 20eine sa: Eschweilera sagotiana 170 83 6 50 Alexa imperatricis 68 36 9 Dp Pentaclethra macroloba 3 9 - 9 Pouteria guianensis 27 ith, it 8 Eschweilera alata 28 5 - 6 Eschweilera grata 30 3 - 6 Inga spp. : dis, 3 - 4 Hebepetalum humiriifoliu 15 2 - 3 Eschweilera corrugata 14 i - 3 Jacaranda copaia i. 10 2 1 2, Eschweilera decolorans ii 1 - 2 Pouteria venosa 6 4 - 2 Trattinickia demerarae 8 2 - 2 Diplotropis purpurea 5 3 if 2 Sterculia rugosa Bites 3 - y) Sloanea guianensis 8 - - 2, Pouteria minutiflora 8 -_ - 2 Goupia glabra 4 ahve 2, 2 Minquartia guianensis 5 1 - 1 Maytenus myrsinoides 5 al - 1 Clathrotropis brachipetals 6 - - 1 Chrysophyllum sanguinolentum 3 2 - il Parinari campestris 3 - 1 1 Pithecellobium jupumba - 2 1 1 Himatanthus bracteatus 4 - 1 Sterculia pruriens 4 - - if Protium decandrum 4 - - 1 Terminalia dichotoma 3 - - 1 Aspidosperma oblongum 2 - 1 i 24 other species'/ 26 5 4 7 Totals 536 181 mad Per acre 105 36 5 146 Percentage of total iz, 24 4 1/ Other species include: Brosimum paraense, Catostemma commune, Cordia me!anoneura, Didymopanax morototoni, Dipteryx odo- rata, Eperua falcata, Ficus, lyanthera lancifolia Laefia Procera, Licania heteromorpha, Licania micrantha, Licania stipata, Micropholis meliononiana, Ocotea ocutangu'a, Ocotea canalicu'ata, Ocotea wachenheimii, Ormosia coccinea. Oxythece dura, Parinari excelsa, Pa- rinari montana, Peltogyne venosa var., Sclerolobium guianense, Simaruba ameara, Sloanea schomburgkii. 78 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 3.—Understory species of Alexa imperatricis faciation No. of trees in 5.2 acres by diameter oe Approximate sses Sip ences Number 4-8 inches | 8-12 inches per acre Mabea piriri PATE 3 6 Trichilia guianensis ; 99 5 5 Trichilia schomburgku \ Quiina indigofera 19 — 4 Guateria atra 5 i 1 Piratinera guianensis 5 if 1 Unonopsis glaucopetala 4 — 1 Marlierea schomburgkiana 3 — 1 14 other species'/ 14 2 3 Totals 99 12 Per acre 1g 2 Percentage of total 89 del Heisteria surinamensis, Jessenia bataua, 1/ Other species include: Aniba kapplerii, Cupania acrobicu!ata, Guatteria schomburgkiara, 3 Swartzia arborescens, Swartzia Matayba oligandra, Matayba opaca, Maximiliana regia, Ocotea schomburgkicna, Posoqueria latifolia, sprucei, Thyrsodium dasytrichum, Tovomita cephalostigma. Table 4. — True undergrowth species of Alexa imperatricis faciation Frequency per Species acre Paypayrola longifolia 36 Quiina guianensis 29 Hirtella racemosa 16 Casearia javitensis all Anaxagorea dolichocarpa 10 Duguetia neglecta 3 Amaioua guianensis 2 Casearia combaymensis 2 Ambelania acida 1 Rinorea flavescens 1 Cassipourea lasiocalyx 1 Lacistema aggregatum 1 Total onl SS The shrub layer comprises the following palms and shrubs with their approximate fre- quency per acre: Geonoma paniculigera 90 Bactris oligoclada 80 Duguetia inconspicua 15 Jessenia bataua 10 Bonafousia undulata 10 Cordia nodosa 10 Bactris exscapa 2, Total 217 Annuai averace for pericd 1922-1941. 2/ Annual average for period 1936-1941. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Table 5.- Rainfall at Acquero Mean | Number of days Month precipitation!/ | without rain2 Inches January 8.44 18 February 4.20 UG) March 599 22 April 5.05 18 May 15.05 14 June AG27 11 July 12-3 13 August 8.69 18 September eel Za October 6.06 22 November 6.88 19 December 14.49 16 Totals 108.71 Pah 79 There are two well marked dry seasons of 2 to 3 months each, February to mid April and mia August to mid November. There is a tendency for the intensity of the dry weather at these seasons to conform to a 14-year cy- cle culminating in the failure of the Decem- ber-January rains and resultant drought. The Grought leads to forest fires on a large scale which are known to have occurred in 1898, 1912. 1926, and 1940. There ere no seasonable winds of any sig- niticance. The prevailing wind is the north- east trade. It blows nearly all the year round, but with lessened intensity and duration during the midyear rainy season. The underlying rock is granite-gneiss. The soil is a lateritic red earth, highly acidic, not very cohesive, loamy in the upper layers, the proportion of clay increasing with depth. Surface litter is very scanty, the mineral soil being exposed in many places. No humus layer is present. Profiles taken on top of the island and half way down the southern slope are as follows: Lower Pit 0- 3 inches; dry brown loam with- cut humic staining. 3-12 inches; slightly damp brown loam without humic staining. 12-24 inches; damp reddish clay loam with fragments of charcoal. 24-36 inches; damp reddish clay loam with traces oi charcoal to 27 inches. Upper Pit 0- 6 inches; dry reddish brown joam withcut humic staining 6-24 inches; dry reddish brown loam but with lateritic ironstone gravel. 24-28 inches; reddish clay loam, some- what damp. Chemical and mechanical analysis of sam- ples taken from each pit are presented in Table 6. 30 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 6. — Analysis of soil samples from Alexa imperatricis faciation Index of 2 Normal Organic Total C/N Depth texture Sand pH matter Nitrogen Ratio Inches Percent Percent Percent Upper Pit 0-1 33 36 4.6 8.6 32 11.7 1-3 31 38 Anil 6.7 WAS 11.6 3-6 30 40 4.7 4.5 19 10.3 6-12 28 47 4.8 3.0 18 Ua} 12-24 25 43 5.0 1.5 .09 Heo 24-36 36 28 5.4 0.9 .05 ee 36-48 39 31 5.1 0.3 .03 ANT, Lower Pit 0-1 30 44 4.7 5.9 .26 9.8 1-3 Dali 48 4.6 4.1 yall 8.6 3-6 25 47 4.8 3.0 .16 8.1 6-12 25 42 5.1 1.6 11 6.4 12-24 29 37 5.1 1.4 .08 eo 24-36 36 30 5.3 1.0 .07 6.0 Nothing is known of the soil-water rela- tionship. Erosion is negligible. The water table in the surrounding marsh forest is 12 to 24 inches below ground level in the dry seasons and above ground level in the wet seasons. It is probable that shifting cultivation has been practiced on the island within the last few hundred years, as the district at one time carried a very much larger Amerindian popu- lation than it does today. With the scarcity of suitable ground for cultivation in the more swampy areas between Baiara and Barabara creeks, it is unlikely that any island of heavy bush escaped being cultivated at some period. Islands in the vicinity are being cultivated to- day. Traces of charcoal in the soil would sug- gest fire having passed through, fire which would almost certainly be related to cultiva- tion. There is no evidence of tree felling, tram- pling by wild animals, or grazing. Wood ter- mites are present but have no effect on the vegetation other than hastening the downfall of rooting or hollow trees. Shifting cultiva- tion and burning has been discussed above. Succession With the evidence of a once numerous Amerindian population and consequent wide- spread shifting cultivation, it is extremely dif- ficult not to be suspicious of the primaeval state of any forest type encountered. With- out any known areas of true primary bush for comparison, the most advanced type can he labelled either primary or late secondary. The fact that Alexa is common and Eschweilera occasional in early stages of the succession, may just be the difference between a fast and a slow growing species. It is suggested on present knowledge that the association be regarded as a very late stage in the succession, more or less indistinguishable from primary forest. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 THE ESCHWEILERA-LICANIA ASSOCIATION, DICYMBE ALTSONII FACIATION The Dicymbe altsonii faciation of what is usually regarded as the typical lowland rain forest of British Guiana - the Eschweilera- Licania association - is probably widespread in the southeastern part of the Pakaraima plateau and its periphery east to the Essequi- bo River and north to the Potaro River. At the moment it is only definitely known from the periphery between the Potaro and Kona- waruk Rivers. It occurs on lateritic earths, brown sands, and loams, under a rainfall re- gime of 150 inches per annum well distributed throughout the year. The association is named aiter the charac- teristic dominants Eschweilera sagotiana and Licania venosa. The faciation is named from the characteristic local dominant Dicymbz altonii. It is known locally as miscellaneous bush. The sample studied lies about 1 mile east of Mile 107 on the Bartica-Potaro Road. It was a plot of 400 x 400 feet on a slightly cam- bered ridge of lateritic red earth. One side of the plot had an eastern, the other a western, aspect. The canopy and understory species were recorded for the whole plot; the under- growth and field layers on a sample 400 x 100 feet. Structure, Physiognomy and Floristic Composition The canopy is uniformly discontinuous but the gaps are small. The larger trees are spaced about 15 to 20 feet apart, the smaller trees 5 to 10 feet apart. A maximum diame- ter of 44 inches was recorded for a Dicymbe. They are quite the largest trees of the as- sociation. Eschweilera attains 36 inches dia- meter, Manilkara, Ocotea rodiazi, and Swart- zla eriocarpa, were recorded to 28 inches, E pe- rua falcata to 24 inches, and a number of others to 20 inches. Many of these latter trees attain larger sizes elsewhere. The forest is indistinctly 3-storied. The undergrowth, understory, and canopy, tend 81 to merge one into the other, at least to the eye. A profile of the forest (Fig. 2) shows a slight distinction between the canopy at 8&6 to 110 feet and the understory from 45 to 75 feet. There is an undergrowth layer from 20 to 40 feet of saplings and true undergrowth species. Predominant trees are absent. There are no trees with their crowns completely [ree of the canopy. Crown form is very regular, ovoid, or el- hiptical, occasionally rounded. Bole form is good. Deeply fluted, twisted or flattened trees are scarce. The shrub layer is composed largely of saplings and seedlings of canopy species. Oi the half dozen true shrubs, only a small palm is at all abundant. Herbs are poorly represent- ed. The density of stocking is on the low side for rain forest. There are 750 to 800 stems per acre under 4 inches diameter, 150-200 over 4 inches, and 25 over 16 inches diameter. Table 8 shows the density gradient in stems per acre per size class. The light intensity at ground level is approximately equivalent to that in Eschweilera-Licania forest, about 1/150 of full sunlight. Lianes are moderately frequent, epiphytes uncommon. Neither were studied in detail. Buttresess are not a marked feature of the forest. Only 12 percent of the trees over 4 inches diameter are strongly buttressed, chief- ly Eschweilera sp nov. which has buttresses, often one-sided, sometimes up to 25 feet high. The remainder (88 percent) are moderately buttressed to basally swollen with a few excep- tions. Tovomita (2 species) have low stilt roots, Catostemma is cylindrical to the base and Swartzia eriocarpa is deeply fluted all the way up the stem. Dicymbe corymbosa is heavily clumped and the dominant Dicymbe altsonil is occasionally raised on a low clump or with adventitious shoots. There are three palms in the undergrowth, two small Bactrid palms and immature spe- cimens of the tall Jessenia palm. The small undergrowth palm Bactris oligoclada is spiny. Duguetia yeshidan is cauliflorous. 32 The majority of trees are evergreen but 14 percent of those over 4 inches diameter are semi-deciduous, chiefly Eperua falcata, Diospyros, Catostemma, and Simaba are also serai-deciduous. Most (63 percent) leaves are simple and larger and more leathery than in typical low- land rain forest. Thirty-seven percent are pinnately compound, especially the dominants Dicymbe altsoni, Eperua, and Protium. One CARIBBEAN FORESTER species (Hevea) has palmate leaves, one (Pen- taclethra) finely divided leaves, and one (Pel- togyne) paired leaflets. Most leaves and leaflets are mesophyllous; 3 percent are microphyllous, especially Dios- pyros and Simaba. One species, Aniba ex- celsa, has macrophyllous leaves, and one, Pen- taclzthra, has leptophyllous leaflets. The leat size and type of the dominant species are list- ed in Table 7. Table 7.—Leaf characteristics of major species of the Dicymbe altsoni faciation Species Leaf type Leaflets Leaf size Leaflet size | Dieymbe a!tsonii Pinnate 1 Macrophyll Mesophyll Eperua falcata Pinnate 4-8 Macrophyll Mesophyll Eschweilera sagotiana Simple Mesophyll Eschweilera sp. nov Simple Mesophyll Legumes comprise 33 percent of trees over 15 zeet high as the canopy dominants: Dicym- be and Epzrua and one undergrowth dominant Heiterostemon are all leguminous. The sparse ground layer consists mostly of a grass, Pariana, with its leaves and its flo- wers on different stems. Dicymbe altsonii produces a heavy annual! crop of long, flat pods, with 4-8 large, flat, round beans. Dehiscence of the pods on the tree disperses the seeds somewhat and animals help. Seedlings are frequent. Eperua falcata produces a heavy annual crop of falcate shaped pods with 2 to 5 flat oblong beans. Dehiscence of the pods dis- perses the seeds and the germination percen- tage is very high. The seedlings are abun- dant. Eschweilera sagotiana and Eschweilzra sp. nov. produce fairly heavy crops of shiny ' brown oval seeds annually. These are dispersed by dehiscence of the pyxidium and by animals. Seedlings of both are occasional to frequent. Besides the dominants, seedlings of Lica- nia heieromorpha and Duguetia decurrens are occasional to frequent. Regeneration on the whole is patchy, irregular in its distribu- tion, plentiful here, absent there. No single species is markedly dominant. The canopy is dominated by the following in order of frequency: Dicymbe altsonii, Eperua jaleata, Eschweilera sagotiana, and Eschwei- lera sp. nov. The understory is dominated by Parinari barbatum, Anisophyllea sp., Licania heteromorpha, and Duguetia decurrens, in that order of frequency. In the undergrowth the commonest species are Cusparia fanshawei and Heterostemon otophorus, both true under- growth trees. Eperua falcata, Dicymbe aliso- ni and Licania heteromorpha, are also com- mon in the undergrowth. Only about 75 woody species are recorded on the sample but the total woody flora is known to be in the region of 180 species, excluding lianes and woody spiphytes. Floristic composition in morc detail is presented in Tables 8 and 9. 83 JULY - OCTOBER 1954 DUDILOSHS DAIpPaNYIS 41434 OOl Od Ov 09 [o) o OOo! 1334 NI LHOISH O¢l NY I@GSD DLPUDXEY ‘Aaou ‘ds buapenyos iy udliagsuos DLO = 12D1pO0l D2J0IQ) = vi 08 LI DIDJUaplg DADYLUDE = ZI OT ‘Aou ‘ds depyjAydosiuy = TT] AUASOIIOY DABPIANYISY = (CT gt DUDIWDYIUAG DIZIADNG = 6 VT piafosipur nu1n?y = 8g eT WNIDGIDG MDUMDG = L uoynlon{ Nuos}]y aquUcnd jo optjord W—Z “SI 10) Od ‘aou ‘ds nayjAydosiup = NUOS}]D AQUuArIGgY = pyAYydosspuU pz_WOAOT, = DSOQUALOD AQUATIGD = SuaLindap DIWaNsNn(T = Dynan { onsady = T O02 09 08 oe} OZ! 34 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 8.-Trees of more than 4 inches diameter in Dicymbe altsoni faciation Number of trees in 400 x 400 ft sample, by diameter classes Total No. Species 4-12 in. | 12-20 in. | 20 in. 4 aa Dicymbe altsoniu 61 99 15 27 Eperua falcata 45 15 4 17 Parinari barbatum 61 — noes 17 Eschweilera sagotiana 45 10 2 15 Anisophyllea 55 1 pal 15 Eschweilera 13 16 16 12 Licania heteromorpha var. 33 — ee 9 perplexans Duguetia decurrens 26 == oe; 7 Dicymbe corymbosa 10 12 1 6 Tovomita macrophylla 18 — = 5 Ocotea rodiaei 7 5) 3 4 Protium decandrum 10 4 — 4 Anisophyllea 11 es oe 3 Mora gonggrijpu 5 y) 9 ) Swartzia benthamiana 7 9 i 2 Sloanea 8 1 a 2 Sloanea 5 2 il 2 Sweetia praeclara 4 2 1 2 Diospyros dichroa 6 a a 2 Catostemma fragrams i on = 2 Manilkara bidentata 4 — 2 D) Sinaba 6 Hs Soe 2 Quiina indigofera 6 = sed 2 Cassipourea lasiocalyx 6 — = 2 Couepia exflexa 5 — _— ‘i Lissocarpa guianensis 4 as ae 1 Hevea kuntiana 2 il om it Oxandra asbecku 3 aa = 1 Protium 3 — aa 1 Tovomita obscura 3 a = il 27 other species'/ 30 il 2. 9 Totals 509 97 49 Per acre 138 Path 13 178 Percentage of total eh 15 ° 7 1/ Ocher species include: Apeiba echinata, Aspidosse:ma sandwithianum, Aulomyrcia speciosa, Chaetocarpus schomburgkianus, Couepia pauciflora, Eperua grandiflora, Eugenia, Inga, Licania mollis, Ormosa coccinea, Oxythece ambe'eniifolia, Pe'togyne venosa var. densiflora Pentaclethra macro!oba, Piratinera guianensis, Pouteria, Pouteria cladantha, Pouteria jenmanii, Protium, Quiinacene, Sandwithia guianen- sis, Sloanea, Sterculia guianensis, Swartzia eriocarpa, Swartzia oblanceo!ata, Ta‘isic, Tapura guianensis. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Table 9. — Trees of less than 4 inches diameter in Dicymbe altsoni faciation ! 85 No. of Trees No. of trees per acre Species per acre | Sipre:ctine s Cusparia fanshawei 266 Clathrotropis macrocarpa Heterostemon otophorus 103 Ryana speciosa var. subiflora Eperua falcata 52 Anaxagorea acuminata Dicymbe altsonit 35 Tovomita obscura Licania heteromorpha var. perplexans 33 Pouteria Escheilera sagotiana 22 Protium Duguetia decurrens 22 Aniba kapplerii Anisophyllea all Swartzia grandiflora Parinari barbatum 20 Ocotea rodiaei Mora gonggrijpii 19 Manilkara bidentata Tapura guianensis 17 Coepia exflexa Sloanea 14 Hevea kunthiana Oxandra asbecki 13 Pentaclethra macroloba Protium decandrum ial Duguetia neglecta Swartzia benthamiana 11 Eugenia Quiinaceae 11 Sandwithia guianensis Talisia 10 Pouteria cladantha Anisophyllea 9 Marlierea schomburgkiana Diospyros dichroa 6 Unonopsis Catostemma fragrans 6 Mabea caudata Lissocarpa guianensis 6 Eschweilera holcogyne Protium 6 Pouteria filipes Rudgea graciliflora 6 Micropholis melinoniana Eschweilera 5 Cupania hirsuta Dicymbe corymbosa 5 Matayba oligandra Tovomita macrophylla 5 Peltogyne venosa var. densiflora Simaba 5 Ocotea canalicutala Couepia pauciflora 5 16 other species” / Sweetia praeclara Aulomyrcia speciosa Totals CoO Go LS en ee OO OO NO DOR DO OU Cen ow) 1/ Species found near but not within the plot include: Apeiba echinstc, Aspizosperma candwithianum, Cassipourea lasiocoiyx, Chae- tocarpus schomburgkianus, Eperua grandiflora, Inga, Licania mollis, Ormosia coccinea, Piratinera guianensis, Pouteria jenmanii, Quiina in- digofera, S!oanea, Sterculia guianensis, Swartzia oblanceolata. 2/ Other species include: Achrouteria pomifera, Goupia glabra, Haematostemon cuianensis, Hieronyma lexiflora, Lacmellea utilis, Lecythis davisii, Licania microphylla, Licania venosa, Minquartia guianensis, Parinari parvifolia, Pausandra martinii, Paypayrola grandifolia, Pithecellobium jupunbs, Swartzia !eiocalycina, Swartzia polyphylla, Vouacapoua macrosepala. 86 The shrub layer is represented by the oc- casional shrubs, Duguetia yeshidan and Cor- dia nodosa, the abundant palm Bactris oligo- clada, the occasional palms Yuybe sp. and Jessenia bataua, the scrambler Ischnosiphon sp., and the perennial herb Ischnosiphon fo- liosus. Of the low herbs, Rapatea paludosa, Cephaelis sp., and Leandra divaricata, are rare, Pariana grass is frequent, Ichnanthus grass rare, and the sedge Mapanea sp. rare. Ropes and epiphytes were not studied in detail. Habitat The nearest meteorological station at 108 miles on the Bartica-Potaro Road keeps only rainfall records. The mean annual rainfall there for the 15 year period (1920-1929, 1935- 1939) is 151 inches, distributed as shown in Table 10. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 10.-Rainfall for Mile 108 on Bartica-Potaro Road Month | Rainfall | Month | Rainfall Inches Inches January 13.5 July LET February 9.3 August 10.5 March 19.0 September 5.6 April 13.5 October 155) May 19.9 November Ted, June 23.5 December 14.5 In an average year there is a long dry season from September to November with a short, not so dry season form February to March. The soil hes on acid volcanic rocks. It is lateritic and consists of an ochreous loam mer- ging at depth into a reddish orange clay loam. Lateritic irenstone gravel is well distributed throughout all horizons and forms the major part of the A, layer. Humus is absent in the Ay layer. Roots penetrate to the B: horizon but they are mostly concentrated in the B, horizon. The typical profile is described in Table 11. Table 11. — A typical soil profile in the Dycymbe altsonii faciation Description Horizon Depth Centimeters Ao O-2 Ay 2-10 B, 10-40 B: 40 plus Well rotted leaf mould. Ironstone gravel and quartz grains, humus stained a deep black-brown. Ochreous loam, fairly sticky with much lateri- tic gravel of 4% inch mesh size. Reddish orange clay-loam. stickier than B, with larger (14% to 2 inch mesh) and fewer lateritic fragments. Analysis of the lower horizons gave the re- « sults shown in Table 12. Below 40 centimeters depth, there seems to be scarcely any ozganic matter. The soil becomes very sticky and practically neutral. The sudden drop in the organic matter percent from the B, to the B: horizon is a direct result of the feeding roots being concentrated in the B, horizon. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 87 Table 12. — Analysis of lower soil horizons in the Dycymbe altsonii faciation Horizon Normal Combers Organic | Gravel | Sand | Index of | pH | reaction | matter texture By 5.5 Pink 3.44 93.5 38.9 23.8 (loam) Bz 6.08 Colorless 0.55 40.6 12.4 32.5 (fine silt) Succession and understory species were enumerated on The sample lies in an alluvial gold mining area. Dredging has been done in the vicinity, mostly in the creek beds. Trails have been cut and a certain amount of timber felled. The ridges do not seem to have been touched and certainly the sample ridge appeared to be unaffected by biotic influences. The faciation appears to be stable. THE GOUPIA-SWARTZIA- ASPIDOSPERMA ASSEMBLAGE GOUPIA GLABRA FACIES Evergreen seasonal forest dominated by Goupia glabra is widespread on the brown sand peneplain in the Courantyne-Canje River area and probably extends both east and west oi this region. It is a distinctive facies of the Goupia - Swartzia - Aspidosperma assemblage which is known from the Demerara River east to the Courantyne River and south to the Kanuku Mountains. The assemblage is named from the canopy dominants Goupia glabra, Swartzia lziocaly- cina, and Aspidosperma excelsum. The facies is named from the canopy dominant Goupia glabra. Locally it is called Kabukalli bush. The sample studied was a 209 x 400 foot plot on level ground in a reef of Parahancor- nia amapa on the northwest side of the Ma- penna savanna, about 20 miles up Mapenna Creek left bank Courantyne River. Canopy the whole plot, undergrowth on a half-acre sample. Structure, Physiognomy, and Floristic Composition The canopy is more or less open, as the canopy dominants branch low down on the crowns oi individual trees are open. Spacing of trees is irregular. Large trees occur sing- ly, perhaps 50 feet apart with the intervening spaces filled with lesser trees. The largest diameter recorded on the plot was 28 inches for a Goupia but in the surrounding forest diameters of 36 inches were noted. Only 12 percent of the species on the plot were over 16 inches diameter breast height. There are 105 trees per acre over 4 inch diameter but only 14 trees per acre over 16 inch diameter. Typical structure is shown in Fig. 3. The forest is 3-storied with an open cano- py between 90 and 180 feet, an irregular, dis- continuous lower story from 60 to 75 feet and a fairly dense undergrowth between 20 and 50 feet. er than in Wallaba forest, which has been Illumination at ground level is high- recorded as 1.8 percent of illumination in the open. There are fairly well marked shrub and tall herb strata. tall herb occurs. A distinct society of a The details of the floristic composition of the woody species over 15 feet appears in Tables 13 and 14. 88 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 13. — Trees of more than 4 inches diameter in Goupia glabra facies '/ Yo. of trees in 2 54 oot sample Species ae by ates ioe : Se | 4-12 in. | 12-20 in. | 20 + in. per acre Catostemma fragrans 21 3 — 13 Protium heptaphyllum 12 5 — et Couepia versicolor 9 4 — 9 Lirosma 14 — — 8 Duroia eriopila ie — — 6 Matayba opaca 10 os — 5 Casearia javitensis 9 — oe 5 Aparisthmium cordatum 9 — — 5 Licania kunthiana 9 — — 5 Hebepetalum humiriifolium 9 a — 5 Goupia glabra — 5 3 4 Ocotea schomburgkiana 8 — — 4 Mouriria sideroxylon 6 1 il 4 Parahancornia amapa — 2 4 3 Emmotum fagifolium 3 2 1 3 Himatanthus articulatus 4 2 — 3 Inga alba 5 1 — 3 Hirtella davisii 6 — — 3 Sacoglottis guianensis 4 il — 3 Inga heterophylla 5 — — 3 Parinari campestris — 2 2 2, Helicostylis poeppigiana 3 il — 2, Ocotea guianensis 3 1 — 2, Trattinickia demerarae 3 1 — 2 Ocotea sp. nov. 4 — — 2 Sclerolobium guianensis il 1 i 2 Manilkara bidentata 5 — — Z Oenocarpus bacaba var. 3 — — 2 Piratinera guianensis 3 — a 2 Tapura guianensis 3 — — 2 Ocotea wachenheimu il 1 — i! T'apirira marchandi 2 — — 1 Jacaranda copaia 2 — — il Macoubea guianensis 2 — — 1 Aniba ovalifolia 2 — — 1 27 other species” / 9 6 1 8 Totals 201 42 14 Per acre 109 23 6 138 Percentage of total Tah ‘Ls, 5) 1/ Additional species found near but not within the plot include: Anacardium giganteum, Aspidosperma excelsum, Aulomyrcia obtusa var. schomburgkiana, Chaunochiton kapplerii, Didymopanax morototoni, Diospyros ierensis, Dipteryx odorata, Eschweilera corrugata, Esch- weilera holcogyne, Fagara apicu’ata, Humiria balsamifera, Hymenaza courbaril, Hymeno'obium, Loxopterygium sagotti, Ocotea, Parkia pendula, Pithecellobium racemosum, Pouteria minutiflora, Pouteria speciosa, Simaruba amara, Sloanea sp. nov., Terminalia amazonia, Vo- chysia surinamensis. 2/ Other species include: Aspidosperma ulei, Couepia exflexa, Diplotropis purpurea, Discophora guianensis, Henriettea, muitiflora, Inga capitata, Jessenia batua, Laetia procera, Licania deltroidea, Licania caone!'a, Maprounea guianensis, Maximiliana regia, Maytenus, Minqguartia guianensis, Mouriria sagotiana, Ocotea oblonga, Ormosia coccinea, Parkia ulei, Pe‘togyne pubescens, Pithecellobium jupunba, Pouteria, Sloanea amp!ifrons, Swartzia arborescens, Swartzia bania, Swartzia sprucei, Trichilia roraima, Virola sebifera. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 89 Table 14.-Trees of less than 4 inches diameter in Goupia glabra facies Sepre; cuseys | Number per acre Species | Number per | acre Aparisthmium cordatum 288 Ocotea sp. nov 140 Casearia javitensis 92 Catostemma fragrans 68 Oenocarpus bacaba var. 64 Liriosma 52 Inga heterophylla 52 Ocotea schomburgkiana 40 Durcia eriopila 36 Inga alba 28 Trattinickia demerarae 28 Couepia versicolor 20 Matayba opaca 20 Tapura guianensis 20 Sloanea guianensis 16 Sclerolobium guianense 16 Emmotum fagifolium 16 Swartzia arborescens 12 Couepia exflexa 8 Lianes are occasional, epiphytes rare. Most lianes are canopy species and epiphytes are restricted to the branches of the taller trees despite the high illumination at ground level. Strangling figs and ferns were not noted, but orchids and bromeliads are undoubtedly pre- sent. Thirteen percent of individuals are mode- rately to heavily plank buttressed, chiefly the dominants Goupia and Parinari campestris. Only Catostemma fragrams is completely with- out buttresses, the remainder of the species ar e basally swollen or with low buttresses. Stilt roots and pneumatophores are absent. The rare Fagara has spines on the trunk. Cau- liflory is restricted to one rare species, Pithe- cellobium racemosum, and one liane: Guatte- ria scandens. Inga alba has false cauliflory. Three species, Emmotum, Swartzia bannia, and Aspidosperme excelsum, are deeply fluted, the two latter without a central core. Tree ferns, bamboo, rattans, and Panda- nus are absent. Palms occur occasionally to Sacoglottis guianensis Inga capitata Mouriria sideroxylon Sloanea amplifrons Trichilia roraina Parkia ulei Henriettea multiflora Pithecellobium jupunba Swartzia sprucet Maytenus Maximiliana regia Ocotea guianensis Licaria canella Ocotea oblonga Diplotropis purpurea Piratinera guianensis Discophora guianensis Pm PB BP BB BP B He CO CO CO CO CO OC OO Total _— = = bo >? frequently in the shrub layer. The travellers palm, Ravenala guianensis, occurs locally and gregariously but was not noted on the plot. Forty-four percent of individual trees are semi-deciduous and this includes the majority of the dominants. One species, Hymenolo- bium, is deciduous. Leaves are 25 percent compound, all pin- nate except Didymopanax which is palmate. Five percent of these have microphyllous or leptophyllous leaflets. The compound-leaved species occur mostly in the canopy except Protium heptaphyllum and Inga heretophylla. Practically all simple leaves are mesophyllous; one species has microphylious, and one macro- phylious, le2ves. Mimosaceous leaved species are represented by three occasional to fre- quent and two rare species. Five percent of individuals over 4 inches are leguminous. True undergrowth shrubs are rare, both in species and individuals. The tall herb layer is represented chiefly by societes of brome- liads with the occasional scrambler and rare CARIBBEAN FORESTER 90 ‘I@A DGDIDG sndinI0UaQ = 'T pando ngdnjvy —=ny pjidoila DION —OyY sisuaunins nijdonbulyy =UuM wmnyofnmuuny unjojagedaH = NM puplyjuny DIUudIIT = soloey DUGn]s Didnos) jo a[tjoid W—'eE ‘sIy 1334091 Osi Ort O¢l oy] oll ool 06 08 OL 09 OS sisuajianl pidnasvyQ Ty pignjs nidnoy = yf unjyAydniday wniyjolgd = pdpup niusoounyoniv0g — 40]09181aa Didanoy) = Ov Of 02 oO} ° Ol Od .O€ Om /Ov . OS 09 Ol ‘08 06 001 / Ott Od! L335 }0£! JULY - OCTOBER 1954 sedge. The low herbs are represented by rare clumps of grass and perennial herbs. Goupia produces annually a fair crop of small black berries which are dispersed by birds. Seedlings germinate only in the open and were practically absent irom the plot. Emmotum produces annually heavy crops of flattened, black, circular drupes with a high viability. Seedlings were not frequent on the plot, nor were trees. There is no particular dispersal agent. Parahancornia produces heavy crops of large fleshy fruit annually. Viability of the seeds 15 low. Dispersal is by birds and animals. Seedlings are very rare. Parinari produces a heavy crop of greenish- brown, speckled, oblong, fleshy fruit every 2 years. Viability is low but seedlings are vigo- rous and hardy. The commonest seedlings on the plot were of the dominant lower story spe- cies, Catostemma and Protium and the abun- dant under-growth species Ocotea schomburg- kiana, Ocotea sp. nov., Tapura, Inga hetero- phylla, and Aparisthmium. Palms Oenocarpus bacaba var. Maximiliana regia Bactris exscapa Jessenia bataua Shrubs Bonafousia undulata Cordia nodosa oil The flora is rich, with 80 to 90 woody spe- cies over 15 feet but only 64 of these were re- corded on the plot. Canopy dominants are Goupia glabra, Em- motum fagifolium, Parahancornia amapa, and Parinari campestris on the plot. in the sur- rounding forest the following additional domi- nants were noted - Humiria balsamifera, Ter- minalia amazonia, Loxopterygium sagotti, Vo- chysia_ surinamensis, Hymenaea_ courbaril, Anacardium giganteum, and Eschweilera cor- rugata. Lower story dominants include Catostem- ma fragrans: Protium heptaphyllum, Hebepe- talum humirifolium, and Couepia versicolor. The commonest undergrowth species are Aparisthmium cordatum (possibly a seconda- ry intrusive), Casearia javitensis, Liriosma sp., Inga heterophylla, Ocotea schomburgkia- na, Ocotea sp. nov., and Tapura guianensis. The shrub layer contains the following palms and true shrubs with their frequency: Occasional to frequent Frequent Frequent Rare Occasional Rare The herb layers contain the following plants: Tall Bromelia karatas Ischnosiphon obliquus Diplasia karatifolia Low Psychotria cuspidata Calathea cyclophora Olyra latifolia The commonest lianes noted belong to the following genera - Hippocratea. Moutabea, Locally gregarious Occasional Rare Occasional Rare Rare Doliocarpus, Stigmaphyllon, Forsteronia, Di- chapetalum, and Guatteria. Habitat No data other than rainfall records are available from the area. ‘The mean annual CARIBBEAN FORESTER rainfall at Skeldon, 40 miles north of the sam- ple plot, for the 20-year period 1918-1937 is 73 inches, distributed as shown in Table 15. Table 15.-Mean rainfall at Skeldon Month Rainfall Month Rainfall Inches Inches January DD July Tah February 6.0 August Bee March See September 3.2 April 7.6 October 4.0 May 9.2 November oo June 9.1 December G7, The basement rocks are masked by a great depth of sediments belonging to the white sand series. Litter is very thin, 1 to 2 centi- meters in depth , humus almost negligible. The profile is described in Table 16. Table 16. — A typical soil profile in the Goupia glabra facies Horizon Depth Description Cms. Ay O—25 Loose brown sand, humus stained. Ae 25 Coarser brown sand becoming yellower and more compact with depth; with traces of silt at depth. There appears to be slight podsolisation in the A, layer, to which the roots are more or less confined. The depth of this soil is not known but it may be considerable. The water table, even in the wet season, is far below ground level. Drainage is quite free. Succession Nothing is known of the history of the area. It is probable that fire has touched at least parts of the sample, although there was no evidence of it, as seasonal forest is very susceptible to ground fires during drought. Patches of secondary forest are very common within the seasonal forest and may be due to fire or gaps caused by tree falls. It is unlikely that the area has been cultivated although ' there is an Indian settlement at nearby Orea- lla. No effects of grazing or trampling by ani- mals were noted. Evergreen seasonal forest of this type is apparently stable. THE GOUPIA-SWARTZIA- ASPIDOSPERMA ASSEMBLAGE, MANILKARA BIDENTATA FACIES Evergreen seasonal forest belonging to this assemblage (It is not designated as an asso- ciation because so little is known about it) is widespread in a belt embracing the North Kast, East, and Rupununi districts with a rainfall regime varying from 70 to 90 inches per annum. The facies represents the typical lowland forest of the lower Rupununi and Re- wa River basins extending east at least as far as the Essequibo River and south as far as the northern slopes of the Kanuku Mountains The country is gently undulating with little of the higher ground more than 100 feet above river level. Much of the area is inundated du- ring the rainy season. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 The assemblage is named from the three characteristic dominant species, Goupia glabra, Swartzia leiocalycina, and Aspidosperma ex- celsum. The facies is named for Manilkara bidentata, the most characteristic and evenly distributed dominant of the assemblage in the area. Locally the forest is called mixed forest. The samples studied le on the right and left banks of the Simuni Creek, a right bank tributary of the Rupununi River. The plots aggregate 2-2/3 acres, 2/3 acre on the left bank and 1 mile from Creek, on a gently slope with an eastern aspect: one acre on the right bank about half a mile from the Creek on a moderate slope with south-western aspect; and 1 acre on the right bank within a quarter mile of the creek, on a moderate slope with a northeastern aspect. Only the trees spe- cies over 4 inches diameter were recorded in detail. Structure, Physiognomy and Floristic Composition The canopy is open and irregular between 90 and 120 feet with predominant trees up to 150 feet and more. The understory is discon- tinuous and variable, well developed in places, sparse and irregular in others. Where the understory is sparse, the undergrowth is well developed. Shrubs are few and scattered and do not form a distinct layer. Herbs are poor- ly represented. Mature trees are nc more than medium sized. Thirty-two inches diameter appears to be the maximum size. A dozen of the com- moner species attain this size. The density of stocking is higher than in rain forest by about 20 percent. There are 250 to 300 trees per acre of more than 4 inches diameter and 20 to 30 of more than 16 inches diameter. The representation of trees of different sizes is shown in Table 18. Lianes are moderately abundant, epiphy- tes scarce and mostly sun-epiphytes. But- tresses are not a marked feature of the as- sociation. Only 8 percent of individuals are strongly buttressed, chiefly Goupia and Pro- tium, and the predominants Courctari and Dinizia. The remainder are bassally swollen or moderately buttressed. Tovomita has low 93 stilt roots, Catostemma is cylindrical to the base, and the two species of Aspidosperma are deeply fluted for the length of the stem. Two small palms and Fagara have spines. The spines of the latter have a broad conical base. At least five palms are represented, two small spiny ones, and immature examples of three tall species. Although the majority of species are ever- green, a larger percentage (13 percent) are semi-deciduous than in rain forest. The com- monest semi-deciduous species are Catostema, Goupia, Sterculia, and Parkia. Only one spe- cies, Couratari, is known to be deciduous ,but in that area some of the semi-deciduous spe- cies may be deciduous or at least bare for lon- ger periods than they are in rain {orest. Seventy-five percent of the trees have sim- ple leaves, 25 percent compound, mostly pin- nate, and chiefly the dominant Swartzia. Two species have bipinnate leaves: four species have finely divided leaves, one has paired leaflets and one has palmate leaves. Leaves are predominantly mesophyllous but more species (10) and more individuals (7 percent) have microphyllous leaves than in rain forest. The commonest trees with mi- crophyllous leaves are Geissospermum and Goupia. Mimosaceous leaved species - the leaf- lets are leptophyllous - are also more numerous (4 species). The leaf size and type of the dominant species are listed in Table 17. Twenty-two percent of trees over 4 inches diameter are leguminous, chiefly Swartzia. The ground layers are poorly represented by subshrubs, palms, perennial herbs, and grasses. Selaginella covers the ground in pla- ces. There appears to be no periodicity in any field layer. Sweartzia produces heavy annual crops of small one seeded pods. Parrots and monkeys feed on them and help to disperse them. The seedlings are abundant. Licania produces moderate crops of small obovoid nuts annually but only a small per- centage is viable and rodents feed on them greedily. 94 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 17. — Leaf characteristics of major species of Manilkara bidentata faciation. Species | Leaf type Swartzia Pinnate 4—8 Licania Simple Catostemma Simple Aspidosperma Sinple Geissospermum Simple Manilkara Simple Catostemma produces heavy crops of oran- ge, pear-shaped fruit annually. Little disper- sal takes place but the germination percenta- ge is high. Aspidosperma produces moderate crops of flat, tuberculate follicles with numerous broad- ly winged seeds, dispersed by wind. Much of the crop is destroyed by birds and monkeys while still green. Geissospermum produces a small crop of banana shaped fruit biennially. Birds are probably the dispersal agents. Manilkara produces a heavy crop of suc- culent, black fruit, every other year, chiefly dispersed by birds. Viability of the seed is low. In the canopy layer Swartzia is nearly twice as abundant as any other dominant, yet only represents 17 percent of trees over 4 inches diameter. Other dominants in order of frequency are Licania, Catostemma: Aspidos- perma, Geissospermum, and Manilkara, from 3-10 percent. Predominant trees ave chiefly | Dinizia and Couratari with typical umbrella- shapped crowns. In the understory besides poles of canopy No. of leaflets Leaf size Leaflet size Mesophyll Mesophyll Mesophyll Mesophyll Microphyll Mesophyll species like Swartzia, Licania and Catostem- ma, the commonest species are Rheedia, Pera, Tapura, and various Myrtaceae, in this order of frequency. Altogether, about 100 species were record- ed for the sample, of which 10 to 12 were quite unknown. The detailed floristic composition of the canopy and undestory layers is sum- marized in Table 18. Small shrubby trees are dominant in the undergrowth, especially Tapura guianensis, Cupania sp., Rinorea endotricha and Rinorea riana, Anaxagorea multiflora and Duguetia spp. Besides Rinorea, Tapura, and tall Swartzia seedlings, in the shrub layer, there are two small Baciris or Astrocaryum palms. The tail herb layer is represented by Ru- biaceous and Melastomaceous subshrubs, im- mature examples of Jessenia bataua: Oenocar- pus baccaba, and Maximiliana regia palms and various perennial Marantaceous herbs. In the low herb layer are tree seedlings, a few grasses, some perennial prostrate herbs, and a ground cover of Selaginella in places. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 95 Table 18.- Trees of more than 4 inches diameter in Manilkara bidentata facies Number of trees in 2-2/3 acre sample by | 4: Ieee | diameter classes ieee Ses © Auk reeo s e | Ur gtal number | 4.12 in. | 12-20 in. | 20 + in. per acre ~ Swartzia leiocalycina 101 2 Unknown spp. 87 Licania densiflora 68 Catostemma fragrans 41 Aspidosperma excelsum 16 Tapura guianensis 3 Geissospermum serioceum 26 Rheedia benthamiana 23 Manilkara bidentata 9 Pera schomburgkiana 16 Swartzia 11 Ocotea canaliculata 8 Protium Eschweilera corrugata Goupia glabra Protium sagotianum Inga Pouteria cladantha Ocotea Couratari coriacea Bocageopsis mu!tiflora Duroia eriopila Sterculia pruriens Pouteria Virola Trichilia leucastera Eschweilera subglandulosa Parkia ulei Duguetia elegans Terminalia guianensis Dinizia excelsa Tachigalia rusbyi Cordia exaltata var. melanoneura Fusaea longifolia Licania majuscula Parinari campestris Iryanthera Tetragastris altissima Couepia myrtifolia Tovomita grata Ambelania acida Parinari Pithecellobium jupunba Inga alba Aspidosperma oblongum. mee eS po we ~l > i Se eee eee Pee DONWON NDDNONNNMNNWwWWWWWWWOPRAR AR BR MWAH OH bd Pe RPWWWNrE PP WOR PR WHEE OO OBR ANOD PB OMODMOHRO Ff em | eens (nes eer ee ee [ears or [El oesy as Sec okoon to, ere lac lems | We Us ee i |e aap Pea | at et 96 DI Deere 1-ess Mora exce!sa Eeclinusa guianensis Pouteria Jacaranda copaia Heiicostylis poeppigiana EBombax surinamense Amaioua guianensis Minguartia guianensis 25 other species! / Totals Per acre Percentage of total CARIBBEAN FORESTER Number of trees in 2-2/3 acr esample, by diameter classes Total number 4-12 in. 12-20 in. PAV Sree abate per acre 1 1 — it 1 1 — 1 Ds — a 1 2 —_— — 1 Z — — if 2 — = 1 y — = 1 2 — a al 32 1) 3 20 630 105 37 236 40 14 290 81 14 5 1/ Other species include: Antonia ovata, Apeiba echinata, Aspidosperma sandwithianum, Aspidosperma u'ei, Cordia nodosa, Dip- teryx odorata, Duguetia cauliflora, Duguetia neglecta, Eugenia patrisii, Parkia nitida, Povteria minutiflora, Quiina, Talisia, Kylopia pulchenima. Mayteaus myrsinoides, Micro>holis melinoniana ,Nectandra. Pouteria, Habitat Weather records for rainfall are kept at Annai about 16 miles away, but Annai is on the savannas. Rainfall records are also kept at Kurupukari on the Essequibo River about 70 miles south and in the forest belt. The mean rainfall at Annai is 68 inches, and at Kurupu- kari 82 inches per annum for a 10-year pe- riod. It is likely that the rainfall at Simuni is intermediate, about 75 inches per annum. Most of the rain falls from May to August, although there is a very short wet soason in November and December. The prevailing wind is northeast for 8 months of the year. There is little wind during the long wet season except that which accompanies rain squalls from southwest to west. Intense lightning storms accompanied by heavy winds mark the break up of the long wet season. The soil is a lateritic red earth, a friable loam merging into clay loam at depth, ochreous to brick red on the surface. orange or red at depth. The surface and upper layers contain ironstone gravel and in some place3 there are rocks and small boulders of iron- stone. The leaf litter is remarkably scanty and humus is absent. The mineral soil is ex- posed almost everywhere. Fagara spiculata, Guettarda acreana, Marlierea schomburkiana, Peitogyne pubescens, Piratinera guianensis, Pithece}lobium, Succession Nothing is known of the history of the area. Bleeding of Manilkara trees for the balata gum is carried out in the vicinity but the forest as a whole is not affected by this work. The facies appears to be stable. THE SYMPHONIA-TABEBUIA EUTERPE ASSOCIATION, MANICARIA SACCIFERA FACIATION The Manicaria saccifera faciation of the Symphonia-Tabebuia-Euterpe association is one of the most characteristic types of palm marsh forest on pegasse due to the habit and abundance of the dominant Manicaria palm. It occurs in narrow belts, occasionally broad- ening out where conditions are favourable along the lower courses of the rivers in the North West and Pomeroon districts always within tidal limits. Its upper limit more or less coincides with levee formation on the banks of the main rivers and with the first ground rising out of the coastal swamp away from the rivers. It follows the smaller creeks almost to their sources except where the creeks rise in swamp savanna. For some obscure reason it only occurs in patches along the lo- wer Waini River instead of in a solid belt as it does on the other rivers. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 The association is named from the two most characteristic tree species of the upper tory Sy ere globulifera and Tabebuia in- ent monophylla and the dominant palm, Euterpe edulis, which is present in all faciations of the association. The faciation is named from the characteristic palm, Manica- ria saccifera. Locally Manicaria forest is called truli bush or truli swamp. The sample studied lies on the right bank the Kaituma River about 12 miles from mouth. The depth in from the River of xe Manicaria forest at this point is about ,000 feet. The sample plot was an area of 3-2/3 acres, 490 feet x 400 feet, on level ground fairly close to the river bank. The canopy and un- erstory species were recorded for the whole lot, the undergrowth and field layers on a 00 feet x 100 foot sample. Structure Physicgnomy and Floristic Composition v AO fe) ue Ay {tent qe bells The canopy where it is formed by Mani- caria palms is closed. Here and there Mani- caria palms will be scarce or absent over a small patch and the canopy will be formed by a dense patch of emergent trees and Euierp2 palms, but still a closed canopy. Typical structure can be seem in Fig. 4. Mature trees have a maximum diameter of 2 feet and mature palms 8 inches. ‘The trees are fairly uniformly spaced if a clump of Eu- terpe is reckoned as a unit. The density of stocking is low in the sapling class, high in the pole class and very low in the mature tree class. The large amount of space taken up by each Manicaria palm is responsible for the low sapling density. The number of stems per acre and the stocking for each diameter class are shown in Tables 20 and 21. The forest is two-storied. The emergent story is discontinuous, light, and open, the ca- nopy is continuous and closed. The canopy is formed by Manicaria palms at 25 (15-35) feet. Their crowns are obconical. Emergent trees and Euterpe palms form a loosely knot story at about 50 (40-60) feet. In some places this emergent story is completely absent or the tree species are lacking, in others Ma- nicaria palms are absent and the emergent 97 trees crowded together. Shrub and herb la- yers are almost absent. No societies were observed in any layer. Lianes are poorly represented. They all nd to the emergent story. Two or three species are relatively frequent, the 10 to 12 other species are rare or at the most occasio- nal. asc [Epiphytes on the whele are poorly repre- sented, the seo being hemiepiphytes on the trunks of the truli palms. A few shrubby epiphyt es grow in the crowns of the emergent tress, Buttresses are not a marked feature of the faciation. Twenty percent of individuals are more or less buttressed, especially Virola, Ta- pirira, Pterocarpus, and Tabdzbuia, and the re- mainder, except Symphonia, are at least basal- ly swollen. Symphonia has stilt roots and pneumatophores. A small, spiny Bactris palm occurs occasionally. Five species of palms occur in the faciation, one dominant in the canopy, one dominant in the emergent story, the other three rare to oc- casional. No other special life forms were re- corded. Trees are almost entirely evergreen with mesophyllous leaves. Five of the less common species are semi-deciduous. Eighty eight per- cent of individuals have simple leaves. Mani- caria palms have entire leaves: the other palms pinnate leaves. The type and size of leaf of the dominant species are listed in Table 19. There is no shrub layer but shrubby spe- cies are occasional. The ground layer is spar- se, chiefly in the better lighted, moister hol- lows. There is no seasonal dying down of any plants in these layers. Tabebuia fruits annually, sometimes twice a year and produces an abundance of light winged seeds dispersed by air curzents. Seed- lings are occasional. Tapirira produces a heavy crop at least once a year of black, succulent drupes greed- ily eaten by birds and thus dispersed. Tapi- rira seedlings are the commonest tree seed- lings. Euterpe edulis palm fruits once or twice a year, and produces abundant fruit dispersed 98 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 19. — Leaf characteristics of the dominant species of Manicaria saccifera faciation. S (pe cai e's Type of leaf Tabebuia insignis Simple Tapirira Pinnate Euterpe edulis Pinnate Symphonia Simple Euterpe stenophylla Pinnate Manicaria Simple by birds, animals, fish, and water. Seedlings are plentiful. Symphonia produces large, fleshy fruits beloved of rodents, annually with a heavy crop every other year. Seedlings are occasional. Manicaria produces a heavy crop once, sometimes twice a year of pale brown, tuber- culated, globose or 2-3 lobed nuts. These are dspersed by animals and water. The seed- lings are the most abundant of the faciation. No. of Size cf Size cf leaflets lest leaflet — Mesophyll — vt Macrophyil Mesophyli Numerous — — — Mesophyll — Numerous — — Manicaria palm is strongly dominant and forms, along with Euterpe palm, 72 percent of the canopy. In the emergent story Euter- pe edulis, Tabebuia, Tapirira, and Symphonia, are dominant. Sub-dominants of the canopy layer are Tabebuia, Symphonia, and Cassipou- rea guianensis which is a true understory spe- cies. Palms account for 58 percent of the The details of floristic composition are summarized in Tables 20 and 21. woody vegetation. MG KD oi i WINN TOE WY fi Sp 10. 20. 230) “402 SO M60r “70 100 10 40° .50° 60) -70')60" SO 200IREE Fig. 4.—A profile of Manicaria saccifera faciation B = Dtospyros lMc= Euterpe edulis T = Manicaria C = Tabebuia es Symphonia Tu= Jessenia Kd=— Alchorneopsis R = Euterpe stenophylla W = Inga Kt= Ilex S — Nectandra JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Shrubby Tococa aristata, Ischnosiphon obliquus, and Piper spp. occur in better lighted spots. The tall herb layer is largely composed of the caespitose perennials Rapatea paludosa and Spathiphyllum cuspidatum. There are no low herbs but palm seedlings (especially Manicaria) and to a lesser extent tree seed- lings (especially Tapirira and Cassipourea) are frequent. Epiphytes are represented chiefly by aroid species, Monstera, Philodendron, and Anthu- rium, hemi-epiphytes by Cardulovica spp. The 99 commonest epiphytic shrubs are Havetiopsis flavida and Clusia colorans. Among lianes Combretum laxum, Schlege- lia violacea and Banisteria leptocarpa are the most frequent. Legumes are very poorly represented, by only 7 percent or individuals of more than 4 inches in diameter. Fifty species (45 trees, 5 palms) were re- corded on the plot. An additional 20 to 30 species were noted as occurring in truli bush elsewhere. Table 20.—Trees of more than 4 inches diameter in Manicaria saccifera faciation Sipe! cailess Number of trees in 3-2/3-acre sample by | diamcter classes Total number 4-12 ina. | 12-20 in. | 20: = in. Dene Manicaria saccifera 389 — — 106 Tabebuia insignis var. Monophylla 125 26 2 42 Euterpe edulis 124 — = 34 Euterpe stenophylla 67 — — 18 Symphonia globulifera 55 7 — bby Tapirira guianensis 46 1 —— 13 Pterocarpus officinalis 30 4 — 9 Jessenia bataua 34 a — 9 Diospyros guianensis 24 3 — 7 Ilex umbellata var. humirioides 20 1 — 6 Pentaclethra macroloba 16 — — 4 Inga fagifolia 4 — — 4 Alchorneopsis floribunda 9 2 — 3 Pithecellobium jupunba 8 _ oo 2 Tryanthera lancifolia 3 Z af 1 Virola surinamensis 5 == — if Sapium jenmanii 2) at — 1 Macrolobium bifolium 3 1 = 1 Nectandra grandis 4 a — cE Carapa guianensis 4 —- — 1 Parinari campestris 3 = — if Apeiba echinata 3 — — 1 Licania heteromorpha var. 3 = = 1 Sterculia rugosa 3 — — 1 6 other species! / 8 3 0 3 Total 1,003, 51 3 Per acre Die, 14 1 287 Percentage of total 95 5 include: Conceveiba guianensis, Ficus, Maceube= guianensis, Perc bicolor, Pou'eria guianensis, Protium hepta- 1/ Other species phylium. 100 Table 21.—Trees of less than 4 inches diameter in Manicaria saccifera faciation x) al = 4 +) S pec i es | es | acre Manicaria saccifera 98 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 18 Symphonia globulifera 10 Cassipourea gulanensis if Euterp2 edulis Inga fagifolia Diospyros gutanensis Jessenia bataua Pouteria ca:mito Tapirira guianensis Flex umbellata var. humirtoides Weigeltia surinamensis Tovomita schomburgki Pterocarpus officinalis Virola surinamensis Licania heteromorpha var. Pera bicolor Pithecellobium jupunba Bactris leptocarpa Amanoa guianensis Conceveiba guianensis Ocotea acutangula 5 other species! / WRrEHEHHHE NWN NNN OHH AAO oO Total 200 Duroia eriopila, Casearia combaymensis, Protium decan- 1/ Other species: Mariierea schomburkiana, Henriettea multiflora, rum. Habitat The most complete local meteorological data are from the Agricultural Experiment Station at Hosororo on the Aruka River, about 15 miles from the sample plot site. The mean shade temperature of the hottest month-October, is 79.8°F, the coldest month- January, 76.8°F. The absolute maximum is $9.5° and the absolute minimum 53.02. The mean annual rainfall over the 20- year period (1918-1937) is 114 inches and the mean number of days without rain or with negligible rain is 115, distributed as shown in Table 22. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 22. — Twenty-year mean rainfall at Hosorore ] Month Mean Number of days precipitation without rain Inches January 7.9 12 February 4.6 13 March 4.0 17 April Ooh 13 May TeO. 8 June ana per 3 July 13.8 4 August 10.7 7 September 8.3 9 October 8.7 1, November 8.9 9 December 14.6 8 A fairly well marked dry season extends from February to April. The prevailing wind is the northeast trade, which blows regularly nearly all the year round. The basements rocks, mostly honeblende schists and granite-gneis, lie at a depth of 200 to 400 feet. The soil consists of a layer of pegasse (peat) 4-8 (-12) feet thick, overlying sticky, grey, alluvial clay. The ground is slightly hummocky. It is inundated for short periods at the height of the rainy season and at high tides when the river is in flood. Drainage is impeded at depth by the un- derlying clay pan. During prolonged dry weather the upper impeded layers of the pegasse dry out, and in drought. the pegasse dries out right to the clay pan and will burn. Succession Nothing is known of the history of the area. It possibly was cultivated at one time, as much of the pegasse area along the lower rivers has been cultivated, but no signs of cultivation or of any interference by man were visible. The faciation appears to be stable. It represents one phase of the climax veget- ation on lowland areas of peat deposition. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 THE IRYANTHERA-TABEBUIA ASSEMBLAGE, IRYANTHERA LANCIFOLIA FACIES The Iryanthera-Tabebuia assemblage is a type of marsh forest which does not conform to either marsh forest or marsh woodland as delimited by Beard. It appears to be the logical development of palm marsh with the shrubby undergrowth of palm marsh increa- sed in girth and height and the fan palms re- duced in number. All stages between the two extremes can be seen. Marsh forest is suggested as a name for the type, as palms are a negligible factor. At the same time palm marsh forest is suggested as a suitable name for Beard’s marsh forest because of the abundance of palms. Marsh forest widespread on the peat (pegasse) soils of the North West district but varies somewhat from place to place in its floristic composition, its dominants, and in minor details of physiognomy. The com- munity forms continuous belts of variable width broken only by minor river systems between the Manicaria palm marsh forest bordering the lower rivers and palm marsh on the watersheds and creek head swamps. In places the community stretches unbroken from one main river system to the next paral- lel one with only a narrow fringe of Manicaria palm marsh forest on either side. The assemblage is named from the two dominant species Iryanthera lancifolia and Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla. The fa- ciation is named from the characteristic dominant Iryanthera lancifolia. Locally it is called Kirikaua bush and referred to as swamp forest. The ecological difference between swamp and marsh or bog is not ap- preciated - all wet forest is swamp forest. The sample studied lies on the right bank of the Barima River about 35 miles above Morawhanna. The sample plot was 400 x 400 feet. (3-2/3 acres) on flat ground close to the river bank. The canopy and industry species were recorded for the whole plot, the undergrowth and field layers on a 400 x 100 foot sample. 101 Structure. Physicgnomy and Floristic composition The canopy is loosely closed, broken only by the odd emergent tree. The crowns of the canopy trees are rounded or broadly triangular, and wind sway distance apart. The trees 4 inches in diameter at breast height an up are fairly uniformly spaced at 8 to 10 feet apart on the average. The maximum tree diameter is 30 inches but most mature trees fall in the 16 to 24-inch class. Very few species attain these sizes. The forest is two-storied as is shown in Fig 5. Above 50 feet is a highly discon- nuous layer of emergent trees occasionally as high as 80 feet. This layer is very variable. It may comprise just the odd tree here and there, or patches of trees thus raising the canopy over small areas to its own level, or it may be absent altogether Between 30 and 50 feet hes the loosely knit canopy. A low, indistinct understory occurs between 20 end 25 feet mostly saplings of canopy anu emergent species with half a dozen true undergrowth shrubs or small trees. The presence of shrubs depends on the light incidence. In other areas of marsh forest where the canopy was more open, shrubby Miconia andTococa were noted. Tall herbs are very sparse. An almost continu- ous sheet of Rapatea only interrupted by hummock tops covers the ground in clumps of sword-like leaves. No societies were observed in any layer. Lianes are poorly represented, few in numbers and small in size. Most belong to one or two species. Not all reach the cano- py. Epiphytes including hemi-epiphytes are moderately abundant. The majority belong to the society of shade epiphytes on the lower 15 feet trunks. Hemi-epiphytes are the most abundant in this group. A few species like Philodendron are found both low down and high up in the trees. Epiph- ytic shrubs in the canopy are occasional. Ferns, bromeliads, and orchids, are occasional to frequent. 102 Buttressing is not a marked character. Fifteen percent of individuals are more or less strongly buttressed, the remainder with the exception of Symphonia basally swollen No species is entirely cylindrical at the base. Symphonia is stilt rooted and has occasional pneumatophores. A small spiny Bactris palm occurs in the understory. Cauliflory is not present but three species Pradosia, Pera, and Casearia, mimic cauliflory, as their flowers are clustered above leaf scars. Other peculiarities were not noted. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Palms are a negligible factor in the vege- tation. Five species are represented forming 5 percent of individuals both in the canopy and understory. Fan palms (Mauritia) oc- cur at the rate of one per 4-6 acres, contrac- ted with about 12 per acre in palm marsh. Trees are almost entirely evergreen; canopy species are semideciduous. Leaves are mesophyllous, 75 percent simple, 25 percent pinnate. The leaf size and type of the major species are described in Table 23. Table 23. — Leaf characteristics of major species in Jryanthera lancifolia facies S pie ic 1 es Type of Leaf Iryanthera Simple Diospyros Simple Tabebuia Simple Pithecellobium Bipinnate Symphonia Simple Matayba Pinnate Tapirira Pinnate Inga Pinnate The shrub and tall herb layers are sparse to absent. The low herb layer consists of an almost continuous sheet of a_ tufted perennial herb 18 inches tall. Where this plant does not occur on the tops of the hum- mocks, its place is taken by young hemi- epiphytes. There appears to be no periodicity in any field layer. Annual herbs are not present. Tree seedlings as a whole are fairly fre- quent but more or less restricted to the hum- mocks. The relative abundance of the various kinds is more or less in line with the abundance of the Seedbearers. Iryanthera produces a good crop of seed annually. The capsules dehisce partially to release the nutmeg-like fruit. It is dispersed by birds and animals. The seedlings are among the commonest present. Diospyros fruits annually and _ heavily. Th fleshy fruit are dispersed by animals to a certain extent. Seedlings are fairly plen- tiful. Tabebuia fruits annually, sometimes twice No. of Leaflets Leaf size Leaflet size — Mesophyll — — Mesophyll — _- Mesophyll — Numerous Mesophyll — Mesophyll — Macrophyll Mesophyll Macrophyll Mesophyll Macrophyll Mesophyll aed en | a year and produces an abundance of light winged seeds dispersed by wind. Seedlings are fairly plentiful. Pithecellobium produces a fair evop or flat septate pods with numerous seeds once a year. The septa break off and are dispersed by wind and water. The seedlings are fairly plen- tiful. Symphonia fruits every year, heavily every other year. The fruits are large and fleshy and the flesh is beloved of rodents, who thus disperse the seeds. The seedlings are frequent. Nearly all emergent trees are either Iryanthera or Tabebuia. The dominant ca- nopy species are J/ryanthera, Diospyros, Tabebuia, Pithecellobium and Symphonia, in that order. dominant inthe understory, and also Tapirira, The chief canopy species are Matayba, and Inga. The only true under- story species at all common is Marlierea. The details of the floristic composition of the ca- nopy and understory layers appear in Tables 24 and 25. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 103 CANOPY 30°—50" 10 20 30 ‘40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 200FEET Fig. 5—A profile of Iryanthera lancifolia facies As= Pouteria caimito Ki=— Iryanthera lancifolia Mn= Symphonia globulifera B = Diospyros guianensis Kk— Oxythece leptocarpa Mr= Pithecellobium gonggrijpu = Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla Kt= Ilex martiniana U = Trattinickia burserifolia D = Tapirira guianensis Ku= Matayba opaca Ka= Pradosia schomburgkiana Kw= Marlierea montana Table 24.—Trees of more than 4 inches in diameter in the Iryanthera lancifolia facies Number of trees in a 3.67-acre sample by diameter classes Speczes Total number | | per acre | 4.12 in. | >12-20 in. | 20 in. + Iryanthera lancifolia 190 ail Z 68 Diospyros guianensis 165 2 — 46 Tabebuia insignis var. monophylla 135 13 a 40 Pithecellobium gonggrijpii 120 9 —- 35 Symphonia globulifera 103 9 — 31 Tapirira guianensis 46 a — 13 Pradosia schomburgkiana 29 2, — 8 Inga fagifolia ) 31 —_ a 8 Inga thibaudiana Matayba opaca 26 — oo a. Marlierea montana 21 _ — 6 Pouteria caimito 16 os _ 4 Ilex martiniana 14 — — 4 Bombax flaviflorum 9 os — 2 Alchorneopsis floribunda 9 —_ — a Clusia fockeana 6 — — 2 Euterpe stenophylla 5 _ — 1 Macoubea guianensis 4 il - 1 Trattinickia burserifolia 5 — — 1 10 other species! / 12 0 0 3 Total 946 87 2 Total per acre 257 24 1 282 Percent of Total 91 9 1/ Other species include: Conomorpha magnoliifolia, Euterpe edulis, Jessenia bctaua, Mauritia flexuosa, Ocotea acutangula, Oco- tea oblonga, Ormosia coccinea, Pera bicolor, Pterocarpus afficinalis, Talisia squarrosa. 104 Table 25.—Trees below 4 inches diameter in Iryanthera lancifolia facies Specjyes Trees per acre Matayba opaca 50 Tabebuia insignia var. monophylla 48 Diospyros guianensis AQ Iryanthera lancifolia 42 Inga fagifolia \ 41 Inga thibaudiana | Marlierea montana 36 [lex martiniana 34 Symphonia globulifera 30 Weigeltia surinamensis 28 Bombax flaviflorum 20 Bactris leptocarpa 22 Euterpe edulis 18 Cassipourea gulanensis 18 Pithecellobium gonggrijpit 17 Pouteria caimito 14 Pradosia schomburgkiana Ips} Hieronyma obolonga Duroia eriopila Trattinickia burserifolia Pisonia eggersiana Ocotea acutangula Alchorneopsis floribunda Conomorpha magnoliifolia Licania incana Lacistema aggregatum Yalisia squarrosa Oxythece leptocarpa Ormosia coccinea Pterocarpus officinalis Pera bicolor Ocotea oblonga Coceveiba guianensis Clusia fockeana Macoubea guianensis Casearia combaymensis Jessenia bataua See See ee PP WONWWWWWH DAI18H OO Total 590 Miconia disparilis, Miconia pubipetala, and Tococa aristata, have been noted in the shrub layer in other parts of the Kirikaua bush. Palicourea crocea and Ishcnosiphon obliquus occur casually as tall herbs. Rapa- CARIBBEAN FORESTER tea paludosa is overwhelmingly dominant on the ground, particularly in the hollows. Young plants of Carludovica, Philodendron, and Monstera occur on the hummocks but not in quantity. Kpiphytes include Clusia colorans, Clusia venosa, Carludovica spp., Philodendron spp. Monstera pertusa, Monstera sp., Anthurium sp., Tillandsia spp., and orchids. The com- monest hanes are Rourea sp., Maregravia um- bellata, and the climbing palm Desmoncus gulanensis. Habitat The most complete meteorological data are available from Hosororo about 40 miles west of the sample plot. These data, already pre- sented for the previous association, should conform fairly accurately to conditions at the site of the plot. The basement rocks, mostly epidiorites and horneblend eschists, lie at a depth of 200 to 400 feet. The soil is peat, locally termed pegasse, 2-6 feet (12 feet) deep, overlying sticky, grey, alluvial clay. The ground is hum- mocky for the trees have in the course of time raised themselves up on their roots and the raised root mass is in turn covered with a layer of pegasse. The hummocks are not solid as air spaces exist between the roots. There isa 4 - to 5 - foot difference in height between the hollows and the tops of the larger hum- mocks. Drainage is impeded at depth by the underlying clay pan. As a result the pegasse is more or less waterlogged for nine months of the year but the top layers at least and the bummocks dry out completely during the dry season. In drought the peat dries out to the clay pan and will burn. Succession Nothing is known of the history of the area but the habitat precludes its ever having been cultivated. No effects of man’s interference were noted. Felling of Mauritia palms may have oceurred occasionally in earlier times. Termites are absent. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 The association appears relatively stable. It should be regarded, however, as a late pre- climax stage in the succession to palm marsh forest on lowland sites of peat deposition. Areas have been noted where the two com- munities appear mixed together - these pro- bably represent ecotones between the two types. THE EPERUA-EPERUA ASSOCIATION DICYMBE CORYMBOSA FACIATION Dry evergreen forest of Eperua spp. (Wai- laba) is widespread and flovistically remark- ably consistent on the white sand peneplain of the near interior and the sandstone areas of the Pakaraima plateau. Faciations are many and varied both in structure and composition. The Dicymbe corymbosa faciation is particu- larly well marked by the curious pollarding habit of the dominant: although floristically it only differs from the association by the inclu- sion of Dicymbe. It is limited to the white sand peneplain between the Essequibo and Mazaruni Rivers, south of Kaburi River, and north of Potaro River. Dicymbe corymbosa forest is known to cover a large area in the coutheastern part of the Pakaraima plateau on coarse sands derived from the sandstone, but it is uncertain whether they represent the same or another faciation of Wallaba forest or a distinct association. The association is named after the domi- nant EF. faleata and E. grandiflora. The facia- tion is named after the dominant Dicymbe corymbosa. Locally it is called Clump Wallaba bush. The sample studied lies alongside the Bar- tica-Potaro Road at the 90-mile peg. The sam- ple was a 400 x 400-fcot plot on level white sand. The canopy and understory species were recorded for the whole plot, the shrub and field layers on a 200 x 400-foot sample. Structure, Physicognomy and Floristic Composition The canopy is discontinuous and broken by emergent trees. The gaps are filled by smaller trees which do not reach canopy height 105 The canopy varies in height from 70 to 90 feet with emergent trees to 110 feet. There is an interrupted understory between 20 and 40 feet of young dominants and a few undergrowth species. The shrub and herb layers are very sparsely represented and of variable density. Patches under heavy shade are blank, others better lighted have a seedling carpet 18-24 inches high, while the best lighted spots have a fair amount of tall regeneration with a few shrubs and young palms and perhaps a few prostrate herbs. The characteristic structure of Dicymbe forest is due to the pollarding habit of the do- minant. The stool shoots from each clump lean outwards, each trying to obtain crown space. Immediately beneath the shade of a clump, little but seedlings grow, but towards the extremities of the clump and in the gaps between the clumps, the understory species form pockets of tall vegetation and here and there a tall tree emerges above the Dicymbe canopy. The maximum diameter recorded was 28 inches for an Eperua grandiflora. Catostemma, Eperua falcata, and Pouteria, attained 24 in- ches diameter on the plot. Many of the other species attain these sizes or larger elsewhere. The density of stocking is low, with only 400 stems per acre over 15 feet high. There are 215 stems per acre of less than 4 inches in diameter and 195 of more than 4 inches. The stocking is summarized numerically in Tables 26 and 27. On the average each clump of Dicymbe carries 2 stems under 4 inches diameter and 2 stems over 4 inches diameter. The remain- ing Dicymbe is made up of single stems which have not begun to form clumps. Light intensity is high. It is quite pos- sible to see clearly for 150 feet in any direc- tion. 106 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 26.—Trees 4 inches or more in diameter in the Dicymbe corymbosa faciation Number of trees in a 3.67-acre sample by ee diameter classes Total number 4-12 in. | 12-20 in. | 20 ine ah Bir Dicymbe corymbosa 300 86 Z 106 Catostemma altsonu 120 6 — 34 Eperua grandiflora 35 12 10 16 Pouteria sp. 19 8 5 9 Licania sp. Ly — — 5 Eperua falcata 12 2 3 5 Dicymbe altsonu 9 2 1 3 ‘Licania cuprea 10 — — 3 Swartzia benthamiana 3 4 1 2 Licania buxifolia 2 2 if dl Talisia squarrosa 2 3 — i Eschweilera corrugata 2 3 — 1 Manilkara sp. 4 =, oe if 14 other species'/ 18 — — 4 Total 558 130 24 194 Total per acre 15g 35 id Percentage of total 78 18 4 1/ Other species include: Aspidosperma lu‘ei, Conomorsha rigida, Covepia sp., Licaria canella, Licaria cayennensis, Lissocarpa guianensis, Lucheopsis rugosa, Matayba opaca, Ocotea Schommburgkiana, Ormosia coccinea, Rhabdodendron sy!vestre, Simaba sp., Simaba cedron, Swartzia oblanceolata. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Table 27—Trees less than 4 inches in diameter in the Dieymbe corymbosa faciation Species Trees per acre ,Dicymbe corymbosa 90 Catostemma altsonii 55 Capparis leprieurit alt Simaba cedron / Conomorpha rigida Tovomita cephalostigma Ecclinusa psilophylla Amaioua guianensis Ormosia Lissocarpa guianensis Pouteria Licania cuprea Eperua falcata Ryania speciosa var. subuliflora Dipteryx sp. Talisia squarrosa Eperua grandiflora Rheedia kapplerii Couepia sp. Swartzia xanthopetala Oxythece ambelaniifolia Matayba opaca Pisonia glabra Swartzia oblanceolata _ Ocotea schomburgkiana Rhabdodendron sylvestre Licania sp. Bee REPRE eSEP re NnNONONNWWWWR PEP PP OD Total PALL oO Lianes are very scarce and not found on the dominant. Epiphytes are rare, chiefly epi- phytic shrubs. Buttressing is scarcely in evi- dence. Three percent of the more uncommon species, chiefly Talisia, are moderately strong- ly buttressed, the remainder are basally swol- len. Tovomita is stilt rooted and Catostemma is cylindrical to the base. Dicymbe forms large clumps, to 6 feet in height by putting out ad- ventitious shoots near the base from an early age. These shoots grow into trees, the origi- nal tree dies, and clump formation has begun. Spines are found on two small Bactrid palms 107 of the undergrowth. The climbing palm Des- moncus is also present. Thirty percent of the individual trees over 4 inches diameter are semideciduous, chiefly Catostemma, Eperua falcata, and Talisia. Se- venty percent of trees over 4 inches diameter have compound (pinnate) leaves, including Dicymbe spp. and Eperua spp. The leaves or leaflets are predominantly mesophyllous in both stories. Two rare species have microphyl- lous leaves. Seventy percent of trees over 4 in- ches diameter are leguminous, chiefly Eperua spp., Swartzia, and Ormosia. The sparse field and ground layers are re- presented by occasional palm seedlings, a rare herb, a rare sedge, and a rare terrestrial bro- meliad. There appears to be no sign of periodi- city in these layers. Dicymbe corymbosa produces a heavy crop of large, flat, green pods annually. The large, round seeds are dispersed to a certain extent by dehiscence of the pod and by ani- mals. Germination percentage is very high and the seedlings are the commonest on the plot. Catostemma produces a heavy crop of lar- ge pear-shaped orange fruit annually. Animals eat the fruit but little dispersal takes place. Seedlings are frequent. Eperua grandiflora produces good crops of large, flat, angular beans every year. Little dispersal takes place and then only by animals. The seedlings are frequent. Dicymbe corymbosa is strongly dominant with 106 stems per acre over 4 inches diame- ter. Subdominants are Catostemma, Eperua grandiflora, Pouteria, and Eperua falcata, in order of frequency. All of these are eventually emergent from the canopy. The tallest trees of the faciation are of Pouteria. Incidentally, Pouteria is a very local subdominant, only found over a restricted area. Dicymbe corymbosa and Catostemma are strongly dominant in the understory while most other species are rare. Forty species of trees over 15 feet high were recorded on the sample, 28 over 4 inches diameter, 33 under 4 inches diameter. 108 The shrub layer is largely composed of tree saplings but Ecclinusa psilophylla and Ryania speciosa var. subuliflora, two small shrubby trees, are common, a shrub Casearia densiflora is frequent, while two other shrubs Ixora surinamensis and Eugenia sp., and a palm Bactris sp., are rare. Members of the field layer are rare to oc- casional. They comprise two immature palms Bactris acanthocarpa and Jessenia bataua, a terrestrial, bromeliad Bromelia karatas, a clumped sedge, Mapanea macrophylla, and a prostrate herb, Centrosolenia densa. The commonest lianes are Connarus sp. CARIBBEAN FORESTER and Arrabidaea candicans. Others noted are Doliocarpus sp., Odontadenia sp., Schlegelia violacea, and the vine Smilax cumanensis. Eipiphytic shrubs are represented by Clusia spp. Habitat The nearest meteorological station, at 72 miles on the Bartica-Potaro road, keeps only rainfall records. The mean annual rain- fall for the five-year period 1943-1947 was 109 inches, spread over 247 days of the year as shown in Table 28. Table 28.—Mean rainfall at Mile 72 on Bartica-Potaro Road Month Rainfall Inches January 8.3 | February 5.6 March 6.2 April 9.9 May 15.7 June 15,2 In an average year there appears to be a well marked dry season from February to March and from September to November. The acid volcanic rocks of the Basement are at least 400 feet below the surface. The soil is white quartz sand, possibly 100 feet deep, covered by a discontinuous layer of humus: about 1/8 inch thick, and a continuous layer of leaf litter about 1/2 inch deep. Drainage is very free. Percolating water is stained brown from humic acid and humic colloids in suspension. Succession Nothing is known of the history of the area, nor was any effect of man’s interference seen. The faciation appears to be relatively stable. It is obviously the result of invasion of the association by Dicymbe corymbosa from the Pakaraima plateau. Elements of the Month Rainfall Inches July 13.9 August 10.9 September Dio October 3.9 November 5.6 December 7.9 invading species have been noted 90 miles fur- ther north or approximately 120 miles north of the Pakaraima escarpment. THE VEGETATION OF ROCKY ISLANDS IN THE RAPIDS OF THE MAIN RIVERS The main rivers of British Guiana are bro- ken by a series of rapids and falls between 60 and 160 miles from their mouths which ren- der navigation difficult and occasionally ha- zardous. The rapids and falls are caused by dykes of volcanic rock, usually dolerite or gab- bro, striking obliquely across the river. In such areas the river tends to spread out from its normal % to 34 mile width to 3 or even 5 miles with innumerable channels and sepa- rated by rocky islands of all shapes and sizes. ‘The lowest ones, only visible at low water, are bare rock, the higher ones are capped by a sandbar on which scrubby vegetation grows, JULY - OCTOBER 1954 while the highest ones or those with the great- est depth of soil carry a type of forest allied to overgreen seasonal forest. Each of the three main rivers in the Cen- tral district, the Cuyuni River, Mazaruni Ri- ver, and Essequibo River, has a slightly dif- ferent rocky island vegetation. The follow- ing observations were made on the Cuyuni Ri- ver between Camaria Falls and Tinamu Falls at the head of Swarima Island. The vegetation of the islands shows a steady progression from the odd, gnarled shrub to almost complete 3-story forest. Three sta- ges in this progression have been designated - Myrtle scrub, Myrtle woodland, and Myrtle forest. Myrtle Scrub Myrtle scrub consists of soutary or clump- ed shrubs growing in crevices in the bare rock where sand and detritus have accumulated. They are usually gnarled and twisted, often leaning in the direction of flow and grow 6 to 15 feet high. No one species in consistently do- minant and almost any combination of the characteristic species may be found on any one island. The characteristic species on the lower Cuyuni River in approximate order ot frecuency are: Myrcia sp. Cozcoloba ovata var. lanceolata, Anisomeris obtusa, Genipa americana (Lana), Psidium acutangulum, Psi- dium aquaticum (Arisa), Couepia comesa (Wild Sapodilla), Dalbergia glauca, Stylogyne surinamensis, and Randia sp. Myrtles are numerically dominant although only three out of the six commonest species belong to this family. At this stage, the myrtle serub is structureless. Distribution of the spe- cies is completely fortuitous and aggregations do not normally occur. Besides the woody species, at least three herbs are characteristic of these low rocky is- lands — Oxalis frutescens, Phyllanthus guia- nensis, and Coutoubea ramosa. They grow to 12 or sometimes 18 inches high. All are pe- rennials and only grow on the highest points of an island so that they are only inundated for short periods during the rainy seasons. A 109 sappy vine — Vitis erosa, and a milky vine — Prestonia annularis, are irequently found trail- ing on individual shrubs. Mirtle Woodland Myrtle woodland is a 2-storied woodland with a closed canopy 12 to 15 feet high and solitary or scattered emergents to 30 feet high which de not ferm a canopy at this stage. It occurs on rocky islands capped by sandbanks where the vegetation is concentrated on the sand cap and varies from dense to very dense. The canopy shrubs form clumps each with numerous thin shoots and spreading out from the clump. Myrtles are strongly dominant and the most characteristic species on the lo- wer Cuyuni River is Myrcia_ vismaefolia. Other abundant species are more or less the same as in xeromorphic scrub with certain ex- ceptions and some additions. Coccoloba, Psi- dium and Couepia do not occur or very rare- ly. The commonest species are Aulomyrcia, Erythroxylum coca, Anisomeris obtusa, Myr- cia, Marlierea montana, Pithecellobium cault- florum: Ouratea schomburghii, various species of Clusia (C colorans, C. grandiflora), and Alibertia latifolia. None of these except Anz- someris are generally found in Myrtle scrub. This shrubby layer is characterised by the presence of epiphytes of all kinds - aroids, bro- meliads, orchids, and mistletoe, from ground level upwards. There are species of Tillandsia, Aechmea, Billbergia (Bromeliads), Anthu- rium, Philodendron (Aroids), Polystachya, Octomeria, Scaphyglottis (Orchids), and Pho- radendron, and Phthirusa (Mistletoes). Climbers entwine themselves about the ca- nopy and usually reach out to the emergents. They belong rather to the riparian element, Allamanda cathartica with its showy yellow trumpets, Souroubea guianensis: Stigmaphyl- lon puberum, and Dalbergia monetaria, but at least one — Prestomia annularis, is essential- ly xeromorphic. The emergent story contains many more species than the canopy but only one or a few are represented on any one island at this stage. Some are flattopped, some pyramidal, but all 110 have a light, open crown. The most characte- ristic species are Homalium guianense, Tripla- ris surinamensis (peculiar to Cuyuni River in this type of vegetation), Jacaranda rhombifo- lia, Byrsonima gymnocalycina, Vitex com- pressa, and Pisonia cuspidaia. Myrtle Fores: Myrtle forest is a 3-storied forest with the lower story forming a canopy between 30 and 35 feet high solitary or scattered emergents to 50 and 60 feet high, and 2 feet diameter, and a fairly dense undergrowth 15 to 20 feet high, largely composed of myrtles. The canopy of the myrtle woodland has here become the un- dergrowth, the emergent layer the canopy of the myrtle forest. The islands carrying myrtle forest are larger, the sand capping more exten- sive and deeper but otherwise conditions are similar. Myrtles are still the most characteris- tic species but more or less restricted to the undergrowth (one species of HKugenia was noted in the canopy). The composition of the undergrowth is essentially the same as the canopy of myrtle woodland with Myrciaria viamaefolia, Aulomyrcia sp. and Erythroxylum coca as the commonest species. The canopy contains a wide range of species including the emergents of myrtle woodland with the ex- ception of Triplaris which never takes second place in the canopy. The emergent layer ap- pears to contain fewer species than the cano- py and most of these belong to the riparian element. Perhaps the most characteristic are Peltogyne venosa, Ormosia coarctata, Eperua falcata: and Terminalia amazonia. CARIBBEAN FORESTER The canopy is not completely closed and even the undergrowth is not as dense as in myrtle woodland. In places a fair amount of light strikes the ground and results is a her- baceous ground cover composed largely of sed- ges (3 or 4 different species were noted), the odd grass, moss and seedlings of woody spe- cies. One of the most abundant of seedlings is Erythroxylum coca whose seeds are highly viable. Perhaps the most interesting feature of the vegetation of these rocky islands is the mixture of the xeromorphic and riparian elements. At one end of the scale there is the typical xero- morphic habitat, severe alternation of drought and flood, very rapid drainage, full exposure and excess of evaporation over precipitation during the dry seasons. At the other end of the scale is a habitat almost simulating ever- green seasonal forest, although there is no marked seasonal distribution in the rainfall (110 inches rainfall with 6 inches per month during the dry seasons) and the components of the vegetation are rather different. The ra- pid drainage and light, deep sand produce the seasonal effect. The vegetation follows a si- milar pattern with xeromorphic species domi- nating the myrtle scrub, becoming fewer in the emergent story of myrtle woodland and reduced to one or two in the emergent story of myrtle forest. The riparian species follow the same pattern in reverse being proportio- nately commonest in the emergent layer of myrtle forest and scarcest in myrtle scrub. In Table 28 the vegetation is divided into these two elements by forest types and the fre- quency of each species noted. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Table 28.—The presence of xeromorphic and riparian elements Xeromorphic elements Myrciaria vismaefolia Coccoloba ovata Erythroxylum coca Myrcia (6952) Aulomyrcia (6958) Anisomeris obtusa Alibertia (6953) Psidium acutangulum Psidium aquaticum Marlierea montana Clusia colorans Clusia grandiflora Ficus Ourateaz schomburgkii Randica sp. Couzpi2 comosa Clusia venosa Ilex jenmanii Tococa desiliens Pisonia cuspidata Jacaranda rhombifolia Eugenia sp. Psychotris chlorantha Amaioua gulanensis Terminalia amazonia Loxopterygium sagotit = on the Rocky Islands Frequency! / | Riparian elements | a Genipa americana c Pithecellobium cauliflorum Cc Mabea schomburghkii c Vasivaea alchorneoides e Stylogyne surinamensis 4-¢ Diospyros lissocarpoides ri Dalbergia glauca o-f Pithecellobium adiantifolium O-i Pithzcellobium latifolium © Bonafousia tetrastachya 0) O O ) O ) 4 ° Lox}! dee} Myrtle Woodland f Homalium guianense o-f Bysornima cymnocalycina ) Vitex compressa I Rudgea hostmanniana r Vochysia tetraphylla Triplaris surinamensis Bombax jenmanit Ceryocar microcarpum Pentaclethra macroloba Tachigalia pubiflora Pithecellobium gonggrijpit Rheedia benthamiana Sazoglottis densiflora Myrtle Forest 1-0 Eperua falcata 1-o Peltogyne venosa Ormosia coarctata Mora excelsa Clathrotropis brachypetala Swartzia spricet Ceiba occidentalis 1/ c, abundant; c, common; f. frequent; 0, occasional; r. rare; and 1, local i io) i OO GO OO ber His he} o) Frequency! , ' eh ' ° FIO ROR Os Olas kits: io) Lei tet f Nex} Lert ) de} ok Ie xe). Iain) CARIBBEAN FORESTER Tropical Hardwoods for Veneer Production in Mexico EDGAR V. SAKS, Preduction Manager Cia. Industrial Maderera de Campeche Mexico The timbers of North America and Europe have been so throughly investigated and tested that there is little reason to expect the discovery of new commercial species from this part of the word. The practical inter- est of timber research has therefore shifted to tropical countries. During the last few years the British standard nomenclature of commercial hadwoods has listed approxi- mately 200 new species suitable for commer- zial timbers. The number of new tropical com- mercial timbers, specially for rare or substi- tute face veneers, is steadily increasing. To meet commercial standards, timbers for veneer and plywood must be reasonably soft when used for core and crossbanding stock, should have good peeling properties when used for general utility veneers, possess attractive figure or color on flat cut or quar- ter surface when used in decorative veneers, tolerate the boiling precess and have accepta- ble gluing properties. In addition to the acceptable technical properties, the relative abundance of the trees in the logging area Average Number Sap sency7) €4s Swiztenia macrophylla_King Cedrela mexicana Roem Brosimum alicastrum Sw. Vitex gaumeri Greenm. Lysiloma bahamensis Benth. Platymiscium pinnatum Jacq. and Dailergia retusa. Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. Cordia dodecandra DC. Coccoloba uvifera_L. Spondias lutea L. Metopium venusum (Gris). Engl. Sebastiania adenophora and the transport possibilities are very im- portant factors. Southern Mexico is rich in the so called secondary woods. Except for mahogany, cedar and zapote most of the other hardwood species have never been systematically log- ged. The steadily diminishing area and vo- lume of virgin mahogany and cedar stands along with the growing veneers and plywood industry in Southern Mexico, will ultimately move the secondary woods to the front in veneer production. The Cia. Industrial Ma- derera de Campeche, the leading mahogany producer in Mexico headed by General Mana- ger Mr. Jorge Vales of Merida, has shown farsighted initiative in the development of new tropical face veneers from the rich tim- ber areas of Yucatan and Campeche. The following timber cruise summary of a 200,000 acre area, near the Quintana Roo (North zone) and a 400,000 acre area along the Guatemalan frontier (South zone) il- lustrates the relative abundance of different species. of Trees per Acre South zone Nertunzene (85 cm. and up (all diameters) PReCiamcron 0.9 0.24 1:3 0.3 Oe 5.1 6.4 1.2 8.9 1.1 5.6 — 13.8 1.6 ZRO — 2.3 OF — 0.8 — 0.9 7.4 — JULY - OCTOBER 1954 A total of 159 species were listed in the survey, including some attractive and promis- ing veneer woods. Yabebuia pentaphylla L and Myroxylon balsamum Cav. were also pre- sent but in too small volume to be of com- mercial importance. The survey shows that true mahogany, the most desired Central American timber, and Spanish cedar are not present in any abundance, but still provide an economical logging chance. Most tropical hardwoods of Mexico have been superficially tested in previous work and classified as too hard to peel and slice. How- ever, recent tests indicate that most of the so called hard tropical woods can be econo- mically sliced after careful tests are made. A number of species are abundant in the trepical jungles which have hard white wood of excellent luster when quarter sawn, but wait improved techniques for slicing in order to be introduced as face veneers. The veneer market recognizes and ap- preciates the light colored woods, represent- ed principally by oak and birch, and the brown woods like the distinguished mahogany and walnut. The introduction of completely new veneer woods to compete with these woods requires large capital investments; therefore, an easier way has been chosen. New woods, intended for wide distribution are made to resemble birch, oak, walnut, or mahogany. In most cases the name of birch, oak, walnut or mahogany, such as Phillipine mahogany, Queensland walnut, Northern silky oak (Australia), is Included in the trade neme even though the species belongs in ano- ther botanical family and has only limited similarity. The same situation is true with woods resembling satine and rosewood. Timber research tests made of new woods in Tropical Mexico have been focalized on those species which have the required size, abundance, peeling or slicing properties for elther core stock or face veneer, and also a certain similarity with the “‘big four’. In ad- dition, some of the new species worthy of being introduced will also enter the veneer market as independents. Mahogany and 113 Spanish cedar are the principal species in Tropical Mexico that have had an economic value as export logs and lumber. During the last few years they have been shipped also as veneer and plywood from three mills in Yucatan and Campeche. True Tropical American mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) True mahogany, with trade name Hon- duras mahogany, is still the most popular cabinet wood despite the great number of false mahoganies that are on the market. This is specially true now that West Indian mahogany (Swieienia mahagani Jacq), the pricipal supply for 300 years, has lost its commercial importance due to the very li- mited supply and export bans. The Mexican government is safeguarding their mahogany Fig. 1.—Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) log from tropical Mexico which will provide highly figured veneer. 114 supply by an export ban on logs, through a restricted license policy for the export of mahogany lumber and by a law requiring a permit for exploitation of privately owned forests. Reforestation of mahogany stands has 1,500 years of tradition in Yucatan and Campeche dating back to the ancient Mayas. The present Mexican forestry program allows the cutting of mahogany trees over 18 inches in diameter and requires the operator to plant six new mahogany trees for every tree cut. True Mexican mahogany produces broken stripe, roe and mottle figures in addition to the common figure and occasionally some other exceptionally rare designs. One of these is the fine curly figure with rain-drop merks in which the curls are 14, inch in length and clearly designed, resembling hair waves. The rarest figure in Mexican mahogany is birds-eye figure, similar to the birds-eye in hard maple. Fiddle-back is comparatively rare but if it occurs gives an excellent lustre. Plum pudding figure is produced by the seashell veined or male mahogany. Quarter sawn mahogany usually shows a delicate stripe without the rigid regularity char- acteristic of the African mahogany. The well-known leaf or shell figure,narrow heart, wide heart and wild heart can be achieved in mahogany by plain slicing. However, the real beauty of the Mexican mahogany is iargerly in quarter sliced veneers. Rotary cut mahogany often completely looses its fine characteristics. Hardness and strength are as variable as the color in mahogany which includes yellowish-white, tea-color, salmon-pink and golden-brown variations. Mahogany changes to reddish-brown color with an overall golden hue after extended exposure to sunlight and air. Felling mahogany trees in Mexico with the axe often results in cracks 4 to 8 feet in length in the butt-end of the log. Logs are normal- ly from 20 to 35 inches in diameter at the small end. In most cases the logs are not true cylinders. The heart of the log is often out of center, té the point that the pith is in many cases so crooked and twisted that the heart appears on the top side at one end . 60-hour boiling process CARIBBEAN FORESTER Fig 2.—Cutting mahogany log into flitches at a sawmill in tropical México. and the bottom side of the other end of the log. Radial and tengential splits and sunracks are other factors which influence the sawing of flitches. Dark colored ma- hogany with hard, twisted and interlocked grain gives the highest quality veneers. Mexican mahogany logs not properly coated by chemicals and end-sealed against sunracks are vulnerable to pinhole borers, usually causing a trown discoloration that reduces the grade of the lumber or veneer. The col- lection of valuable crotches is not often prac- ticed, as the 3 feet long crotches must be deli- vered to the mill attached to the main stems. It is difficult in cutting and felling to drop the tree of the flat side, otherwise the crotch part of the trunk will be damaged. Ma- hogany flitches develop cracks very readily when not properly boiled. The most prac- tical results have been achieved by the that starts with a soaking in cold water followed by the gradual increase of temperature up to 170°F. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Spanish Cedar, Cedro (Cedrela mexicana Roem.) Cedro is the most popular utility lumber tree in Mexico. It is easy to work and there- fore is preferred to mahogany even in the furniture trade by local carpenters. Cedar is very popular in the vaneer and plywood industry as it peels cold, dries practically without shrinkage, and has good gluing pro- perties. The heartwood has a bitter taste and is resistant to insect attacks. The logs are straight but stain comparatively easily and are vulnerable to pinhole borers when fresh. Average log diameters are fairly good, running up to 69 inches at the small end. The supply of good cedar logs is diminishing yearly and is not now sufficient for even local needs. Cedar is a first class raw material for utility plywood but does not possess the requirements of high quality face veneers. Pich, Kelobra, Cuanacaste (Enierolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Gris.) Pich is abundant in sizes up to 60 inches in diameter in Campeche but has not had a high rating as utility wood. The specific Fig. 3.—Quarter sawn mahogany flitches showing ef- gravity of the wood varies between 0.35 to fective broken-figure stripe. 0.60, weighing 22 to 37 lbs. per cu. ft. The Fig. 4—Spanish cedar veneer logs like these are now in short supply. 116 moisture content of the freshly cut timber is very high requiring considerable time to dry the veneers. Pich can be succesfully worked as utility lumber and when quarter sawn shows a nice lustrous broken-stripe figure. The wood is considered fairly durable but has coarse grain and poor peeling pro- perties. Some attemps were made in Mexico to introduce plywood panels with segment sawn pich faces. Quarter sliced pich has a nice lustrous stripe but the veneer sheets develop so many cracks that its use can not be con- sidered economical.. Pich is workable by the flat cut method with the flitches sliced cold. Proper knife angle settings and correct cut- ting pressures produce veneer sheets with expresive heart figure. The veneers are prittle and the scale of color is very variable. Only young trees can be used for flitch pro- duction as old trees do not give satisfactory results. Santa Maria, Bari (Calophyllum brasilense Camb.) Bari is abundant in certain parts of Tro- pical Mexico. The tree has a long straight trunk and fair diameter. The timber is strong and durable but is difficul to saw and warps considerably in drying. However, it is a dependable construction wood. Attempts to use bari in the veneer and plywood ind- ustry has not been entirely successful. Bari requires a 72-hour boiling period to be pe- eled or sliced. It develops cracks very easily during peeling and is not uniform in color or grain, thus when quarter sliced sometimes produces an attractive greenish stripe figure with metallic lustre. The wood is too rough and hard for cores and is dull and unattractive when used for rotary cut faces. Bari does not show the/properties to justify its use as veneer raw material when compared with other tropical hardwoods. Wild Tamarind, Tzalam (Lysiloma bahamensis Benth) Tzalem is considered an abundant species. on the Yucatan peninsula but is usually a poorly formed tree, having a short trunk, (14 to 20 inches in diameter) with 1 inch CARIBBEAN FORESTER wide sapwood. The lustrous greyish-violet wood of tzalam is hard, durable and heavier than water. it usually contains numerous small knots and usually also has numerous small cracks in the heartwood. The timber dees not stain and is not subject to decay and insect attack but does develop deep end cracks when not sealed by end coatings after felling. The timber has not been of only limited commercial importance but has been used to some extent for construction and railway crossties. Several tests of tzalam showed this wood to have nice stripe characteristic when quarter sawn and resembling high grade walnut when flat cut. Flat cut veneer is ofen curly and sometimes has a “‘plumpud- ding” figure. The wood takes a high natural polish when finished and due to its deep egreyish-violet color can be a successful subs- titute or competitor to walnut. However, tzalam must be flat cut due to its small diameter. The hardness of the wood is the main difficulty in slicing operations which can be eliminated by special boiling techni- ques and careful cutting methods. Tzalam plywood panels have entered the market under the trade name “‘Mexican walnut” and provides a new possibility to exploit the rich timber areas of Yucatan. Rosa morada, Amaja, Wiaquiliz, Roble blanco (Tabebuia pentaphylla L.) Hemsl) Maquiliz is not a member of the oak family but is called “white oak” in Spanish speaking Central America and sometimes “colored oak” when logs are figured and curly. It has a nice greenish-grey color and resembles oak in both quarter and flat sawn cuts and possesses the characteristic ray fleck figure. The wood has excellent workability, fair durability, and weighs 39 to 50 pounds per cu. ft. air-dry. Maquiliz has the same toughness as Mexican ma- hogany and requires a careful boiling before- slicing. Quarter cut colored maquiliz gives a striking mottle figure that is superior to all other species producing mottled veneer. However, slicing must be precisely done to avoid torn and rough grain. The veneers of JULY - OCTOBER 1954 maquiliz dry evenly to a smooth flat ap- pearance, are easy to joint in splicers and possess good giuing properties. if should be marketed as face veneer wherever it Is avail- able in sufficient quantities. Log diameters are generally from 16 to 30 inches, requiring flat cut slicing. Béisamo (Myroxylon or Toluifera balsamum L.) Balsamo is a species that has been famous over many centuries for its vanilla-scented resin known as balsam of Peru. The timber is very heavy and straight-grained, but has the tendency to give slightly rough cuttings when sliced. It has a specific gravity air-dry of 0.90 to 1.10, weighing 56 to 68 lbs. per cu. ft. Balsamo is very durable and gives a nice smooth surface when finished. Despite its hardness baélsamo can be sliced after boil- ing. The veneer is uniform, does not curl and give an extremely high yield due to the lack of defects. The hartwood of balsamo is redish brown changing during exposure to deep or purplish color. Balsamo veneers are extremely durable. They have a full deep color, modest strip and light reflecting mot tle figure. Balsamo lumber has been intro- duced into the USA market under the trade name “‘Central-American rosewood’’, Plywood panels are now on the Mexican market but large scale preduction is not possible due to the scarcity of the timber. Balsamo resem- bles Cuban manogany in some respects Two Mexican hardwoods, Metopium venosum Gris. Engl. and Cordia dodecandra D. C. will likely be favorably considered for the novelty furniture marked and for exclu- sive interior panelling. Metopium venosum, or Metopium bronnei locally called chechen, is a small sized poisonous tree. Flat cut veneer of this species has variegated brown, nee and yellow colors with an overall golden uster. Cordia dodecandra DC., called siricote, is a rare species found only in Yucatan. The veneers have black and white irregular streaks, giving extraordinary effects when properly matched. Both woods are very heavy, chechen weighing about 53 pounds per cu. ft. They both require considerable aa hy boiling and are difficult to slice. Further tests are needed before these species are introduced as high quality face veneers. Granadillo (Platymiscium pinnatum Jacq.) Guamecate prieto (Macharium) Uvero (Coccoloba uvijera L..) These species all have hard wood but also have excellent working properties. They all have dark reddish or violet-brown wood which is marketed in the rosewood group as they resemble true rosewood of the Dalbergia family. All are heavy and used in the tur- nery trade. Despite their small size, all of them can be succesfully flat sliced for face veneers. Genuine Dalbergia, (Dalbergia) re- tusa), granadillo, or cocobobo is available in Mexico in limited quantities. In addition to the species producing high grade face veneers the tropical Mexican timber area contains some medium hard whitish timbers which can be cut after short heating period to produce both utility vene- ers and core stock. A brief description of some of these light colored timbers is covered here. Black fiddlewood. Yasnic (Vitex gaumeri Greem) Yasnic is not attractive wood but is abundant and peels well on rotary lathe after heating. The timber is available in diam- eters up to 24 inches, weighing about the same as mahogany (37 to 50 pounds per cu. ft.). Yasnic has a cocojol smell when freshly peeled. The veneers have a whitish color after rotary cutting but soon change to a veliow-green or orange-green color. After further drying the wood turns to a pale pinkish-yellow color. Sycamore, Laceweod, Aiamo blanco (Platanus chianpensis Standl.) Mexican alamo is related to the United States sycamore. It grows in lowlands and along water courses, attainting a breast height diameter of 20 to 36 inches. The wood has a pinkish-white color, irregular grain, and prominent figure on radial sur- faces. It is comporatively soft, weighing 32 pounds per cu. ft. Alamo logs can be peeled on rotary lathes for core stock. Satine, Ramon (Brosimum alicastrum Sw.) Ramon is a widely distributed tree in Yucatan and Campeche where it is protected 118 by the authorities in those areas where it grows together with chicle trees (Achras zapota L.). The green foliage of the tree provides an important local source of fodder for mules and horses, especially during the dry season. Ramon timber is very hard and heavy, having an specific gravity of .98 to 1.05 and weighing 55 to 66 pounds per cu. ft. air dry. It is often used as construction lumber but is subject to decay. The timber is yellowish-white in color with a nice luster and generally has a mottled surface with a silky stripe when quarter sawn. Ramon, also commercially known as capomo, is a very satiny wood. It is hard to slice and regardless of the boiling time, the veneers curl so badly that drying is very difficult. Neverthless it is apparent that when adequate production techniques are develop- ed ramon will become an important source of valuable veneer logs for Southern Mexico. The logs are mostly 16 to 24 inches in dia- meter, requiring the flat cut process technique to be used, although the timber does show its most attractive characteristics on quarter cut surfaces. West Indian Birch, Chaca (Bursera simaruba L.) Chaca is. distributed throughout tropical America but is most abundant in southern Mexico. The timber has a short trunk with commercial diameters of 10 to 18 inches. It is full of moisture even though the weigh of the wood is only 19 to 25 pounds per cu. ft. The moisture content of this tree is so high that even during the hot season the trees are cool to the touch. The lustrous copper-colored bark of chaca peels in papery shreds similar to same of the true birches. When cut into veneers the timber resembles Canadian paper birch (Betuta papapirifera March) in color and design and in plywood has the same appearance as northern birch. The logs are often crooked and very sus- ceptible to discoloration. ration will penetrate approximately 1 foot from both ends during a one-week period. Some stain preventive chemicals are uses Sap stain discolo-. CARIBBEAN FORESTER with good results in eliminating this dis- coloration, but must be applied immediately after felling the trees. Chaca peels well on the rotary lathe without heating or bark removal, although certain trees develop wooly surfaced veneers. The yeild of accent- able face veneers is estimated at 30 to 40 percent. Chaca veneers usually have nume- rous pinknots and a limited amount of mine- ral streaks. The rare birds-eye figure, found mainly in sugar maple, is predominant in some chaca logs. Chaca has been used succe3- fuly for white plywood under the trade name “Mexican white birch” but is especially good as plywood core material. This conclusion has been reached after taking into consider- ation the scarcity of suitable core material in the Mexican plywood industry where Spanish cedar is often used for cores at prohibitively high prices. Hog plum, Hobo (Spondias lutea L.) Hobo is another of Mexico’s so called “oood for nothing” timbers that can be suc- cessfully peeled for both core and cros- sbanding stock in plywood panels. The tim- ber is highly susceptible to discoloration and decay and has to be either quickly transpor- ted to the mill after felling or protected with chemicals to prevent staining. The color of the timber is white but cuts out slighly rougher veneers than chaca. It is obedient on the rotary lathe and peels cold for all thicknesses of corestock. Some hobo logs are 30 inches in diameter but in most cases the diameter of mature trees is from 18 to 24 inches. Occasionally the hobo veneers have nice curly cross stripes, but in general the veneers are not satisfactory for face production. A new German chemical can be combined with the glue in hotpress operations to pre- vent the decay of soft white-wood cores in veneer panels used in tropical temperatures. It would also protect the panels against insect attacks. Lumber core panels can be protec- ted by dipping. The wood impregnated with this chemical is reported to be absolutely fungus and insect proof. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 Amapola (Bombax and Pachira) Amapola is the third of the soft light- wood (10 to 25 pounds per cu. ft.) species in Mexico that can be used as core stock for plywood panels. The wood peels cold on the rotary lathe, is smooth and has a light brown color. Despite its light weight the wood is tougn and tolerates pressure. Bombax is perishable and has to be handled and pro- tected the same as chaca and hobo. Bombax trees often grow up to 50 inches in diameter and are therefore economical to use for rotary operation. Freshly cut bombax veneers are covered with juicy sap but are suitable for the gluing operation after drying, Bombax is abundant, fast growing tree and will surely have a prominent future among the core stock timbers in southern Mexico. Ceiba (Ceiba pentranda L.) Ceiba is one of the largest trees in the Yucatan peninsula. The timber has a very high moisture content, is porous, woolly when peeled and extremely light when dry. Due to the very short fibres the lumber of ceiba is very brash and not even satisfactory for boxing or crating. Attempts to use this timber for plywood core stock have not been successful. Ceiba cores are extremely por- ous and need a heavy coating of glue which often results in blisters and “blown” panels. Ceiba wood has been used as a substitute for balsa wood (Ochroma lagopus Sw.). Ceiba, like other light white woods in Mexi- can tropical forests is very susceptible to discoloration and decay. Other and plywood production in the Yucatan area timbers suitable for veneers are not available in suficient quantities to be commercially important. A considerable number of others require further testing. Several of these are discussed briefly in the following paragraphs. Pucté (Bucida Bureras L.) is listed as being suitable for veneer and plywood but is actual- ly and “axbreaker”. It is a very hard wood ES) without any immediate possibilities for ply- wood production. Gusane (Lonchocarpus hondurensis).-Gu- sano is a hard wood requiring a long period of boiling before peeling. It has characteris- tics required for a general utility veneer. Pasa-ak (Simaruba glauca DC.).-Pasa-ak or bitterwood is a good cold peeling veneer wood but is not available in commercial quan- tities. The veneers are an amber color. Populus.-Locally called chopo is a species from the aspen family which produces after boiling good rotary cut veneer for utility plywood. Luchea speciosa Willd. is a medium-hard wood resembling birch but needs further testing for veneer production. Tabernazmontana amygdalaefolia Jaca., with the local name ulinche, produces a fine texture cream-colored veneer when rotary cut without boiling. Sebastiana standleyana Lundell is an abundant species, averaging approximately 18 inches in diameter which is not highly durable but still promising for utility veneers and core production. Symphonia globulifera L. should be a wood suitable for rotary cutting after thor- ough tests have been completed. Trichilia havenensis Jacq. and Salix taxi- folia H. B. K. also show enough promising properties to justify the opinion that these timbers may be used for veneer production when they become available in commercial quantities. The tests conducted on secondary woods in Tropical Mexico have shown that the local veneer and plywood industry can continue to operate profitably in the virgin secondary woods even after mahogany and Spanish cedar are no longer available in commercial quantities. 120 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Forest Utilization in Saint Lucia. British West Indies W. G. LANG, Forest Supervisor St. Lucia, B. W. I. Just over 8 years ago, the Government of St. Lucia embarked on a forestry program which has given a great boost to building and been of considerable assistance to the housing position in the island. The Government owns about 15,000 acres oi forest land in the mountainous interior of the island. This area, representing about 10 percent of the island, is situated at an eleva- tion which agricultural officers do not con- sider ideally suited for agriculture. This land covered by forest growth acts as the start- ing point for all the main rivers supplying water for the towns. The rainfall is high and the terrain very mountainous. There are three forest reserves: e, g. Castries Water Works Reserve, Dennery Water Works Reserve, and the Central Forest Reserve. Some time ago a survey was made of other lands in the center of the island and plans are afoot to proclaim these lands fo- rest reserves. When this is done the forest reserves will be joined together into one block o: land on the central ridge running through the middle of the island. Only the Dennery Water Works Reserve, containing 365 acres, will be a small separate unit. Total forest reserves will then probably extend over 12,000-15,000 acres. The Government has long had control over ail these lands but had not fixed policy as to management. No cutting was allowed in Government forests, except on rare occasions when the Public Works Department required wood for special jobs. Good timber tree ma- tured, died and rotted and revenue from the forest was almost nil. At the same time hundreds of thousands of feet of timber had to be imported anually for building purposes. A Forest policy was decided upon about 8 years ago on the advice of a qualified for- est officer, Dr. J. S. Beard. A small forest staff was appointed and selective cutting begun over the whole area, Species were divided into four price classes and were sold by girth measurement. Minimum girth limits were set by law to assure that the trees reached maturity before they were sold. A regular system of forest patrols was organiz- ed to protect the forest from thieves and squatters, the latter being the most danger- ous threat to sound forestry. Every year from the commencement of the forestry program there has been upwards of half a million board feet of timber extract- ed annually from St. Lucia’s forests. The yearly Government revenue from the sale of trees and other forest produce, which Dr. Beard estimated may be in the vicinity of a mere 1,000 for the first 10 years, has been at least five times that figure each year. Cutting has been controlled and nowhere has the canopy of the forest been unduly disturb- ed or wide openings created through the sale cf timber. Squatting by “garden-makers”’, however, continues to be a menace and has to be constantly guarded against. Artificial planting of indigenous species and experimen- tal introduction of exotics has been tried to assure a sustained yield. Recent surveys over two 50-acre blocks of natural forest have revealed a satisfactory stocking, indicating an estimated 650 cu. ft. of mature timber can e removed per acre. All the trees cut are pitsawn in the forest and carried out manually to nearest road- way. Extraction in the log to sawmills is not ' practicable because of three reasons: (1) the very steep nature of the forest lands; (2) the mixed nature of the timber stands; and (3) JULY - OCTOBER 1954 the lack of forest roads. These three con- ditions are tied in with one another and it is doubttul it forest roads (No 3) were cons- tructed that extraction in the log would be a very paying concern, because of reasons Nos. 1 and 2 given above. Nevertheless local timber was used on a large scale during the reconstruction work after the fire of 1948 in Castries. Ten months ago the Colonial Development Corporation finished its work on the recons- truction of Government buildings in the town and the Government acquired some wood- Local Names Angelin Balata Balata chien Bois blanc Bois d’amande Rois de masse Bois pain marron Bois tan rouge Dalmare Dedefouden Gommier Laurier mabre L’encens Mahot Merise White cedar These woods are being dressed and finish- ed and stacked for air-seasoning. They are tested for moisture and when air dry they are sold. The machines are also rented for private work and already a considerable quan- tity for dressing and finishing many kinds of local woods have been undertaken. This is 121 working machinery from the Colonial Deve- lopment Corporation including a 36” fixed bench saw, 18” rise and fall bench saw, over and under planer, gulleting machine, and grinding machine. These electrically operated machines are housed in a large shed used by the Colonial Development Corporation as their workshop. A Robinson 4-cutting machine is being leased and operated in conjunction with the above machines. Many different local wocds are being pur- chased from the pit-sawyers. Some are lis- ted below: Botanical Names Andira inermis Manilkara bidentata Oxythece pallida Simaruba amara Hieronyma caribaea Licania ternatensis Talauma dodecapetala Byrsonima martinicensis Pithecellobium jupunba Ormosia monosperma Dacryodes excelsa Sapium Caribaeum Phoebe elongata Ocotea lzucoxylon Protium altenuatum Sterculia caribaea Ternstroemia oligostemon Tebebuia pellida the first occasion on which the local woods have been finished by machinery and proper- ly stacked for air-drying on a large scale. However, considerable amounts have been worked in the past with small furniture- making machines. 122 Every effort is made to keep all the ma- chines working from the time the “shop” is opened to the time it shuts, with a 1-hour break in the middle of the day. Everything moves rather quickly in a program like this, making it difficult afterwards to put down concise notes about the behaviour of the CARIBBEAN FORESTER woods. However, it is interesting work. Following is a list of the timbers, including observations made while working them. Some remarks are also included on a few of the local woods which have been worked on the machines but are not being bought and Timbers Angelin Balata Balata chien Bois blanc Bois d’amande Bois de masse Bois pain marron Bois tan rouge Coubaril sold under the Government program. Remarks Saws and finishes easily. Behaves well during the seasoning pro- cess. (Weight 50 lbs. per cu. ft.) Has an attractive appearance and is popular locally for flooring. Sapwood sometimes attacked by wood-borers when green, otherwise has the reputation of being resistant to insect attack. Fair supplies in the forest. Hard and heavy (70 lbs. per cut ft.) Works easier when green. Suitable for heavy construction work. Termite and fungus resis- tant. Limited supplies. Hard to saw and nail. Saws have to be sharpened often but wood is definitely manageable. Without doubt, most plentiful of all trees in the forest. Most popular wood for interior work. Splits badly when drying. (Weight 28 lbs. per cu. ft. at 15 percent m.c.) Susceptible to ter- mite and fungus attack. Moderate supplies. Saws and finishes easily. Care must be taken in drying as wood has a tendency to warp. (Weight 50 Ibs. per cut. ft.) Used for furniture making, often as a contrast with white cedar. Termite resistant but susceptible to fungus attack; most susceptible when used in contact with the ground, Given a trial on the machines a few times after which it was decided not to use this wood as it was too hard for economical handling on the saws. Probably a good wood for turnery. Very plentiful in the forest. Popular for interior work. Frobably the local wood which turns out easiest and best on the machines. A tough wood, which is used extensively for truck bodies. Susceptible to termite and fungus attack. Plentiful supply. Works well and easily but difficult to get in long straight lengths due to fluted stem. Popular for flooring. Limited supplies. Saws fairly easily and finishes nicely, Is difficult to work with (Hymenaea courbaril) hand tools. The grain is one of the most appealing to the woods Dalmare worked in the shop., Limited supply. Works well and easily. Used extensively for inside partitions. Fair supply. JULY - OCTOBER 1954 123 Dedefouaen Gommier La glu Laurier canelle Laurier mabre L’encens Mahot Merise Red cedar (Cedrela mexicana) Satinwood (Fagara flava) White cedar Works well and easily. Resembles Angelin in appearance and is si- milar in that it is sometimes also attacked by a large wood borer when green. Has a slight tendency to warp. Is used for posts and flooring locally. Fair quantity available. Hard to saw but finishes and nails well. (weight about 34 lbs. per cu. ft. which is similar to Honduras mahogany). Used locally for floor joists, boats and shingles. Moderately durable. Supplies considerable. Works well and easily. A nice white timber used for interior work, crates and coffins. Susceptible to termite and fungus attack. Plen- tiful supply. Works well and easily. Readily recognisable by sweet arora when working. Use successfully for almost every purpose. Wood resis- tant to wood ant and fungus attack. Sometimes is attacked by small wood borer when tree has remained dry in the forest for a long time. Supplies very limited and decreasing. Invariably has a fluffy appearance after dressing. It is hard to get a good finish on this wood. Probably enjoys most of its popu- larity because of its relation to Laurier canelle. Susceptible to ter- mite and fungus attack. Limited supplies. Works well and easily. Nails and polishes well. Used for furniture, interior work and crates. Resembles mahogany. Susceptible to termite and fungus attack. Good supply in the forest. Works easily. Used for cement casings, crates, and cheap coffins. Susceptible to termite and fungus attack. Considerable supplies. A nice wood to saw and dress. Care is needed in drying as wood has a tendency to warp. A popular wood among local carpenters for posts and struts but supplies are decreasing. Susceptible to termite and fungus attack. Works well and easily and is readily recognized by its distinctive aroma when working. A light wood, red in colour which has made its mark internationally for furniture and cigar boxes. Limited supply. Works well and easily on the machines. Has an excellent local re- putation for light “‘golden” furniture, but is not important in view of its scarcity. Works well and easily. Sometimes difficult to get in long straight lengths due to fluted stem. Unsurpassed for light-colored furni- ture. Used also in boat building. Wood resistant to termites but not to fungus. Durable in sea water. Supplies fair but best quality is scarce. NCTE: Average weights per cu. ft. given cbove are taken from Empire Forestry Handbook of 1952. Information supplied on termite and fungal resis‘’ance is from timber durability tests conducted in St. Lucia for the Windward Islands. Caribbean Forester El “Caribbean Forester’, revista que e! Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agri- cultura de los Estados Unidos comenz6 a p4- blicarse en julio de 1938 se distribuye semes- tralmente sin costo alguno y esta dedicada a encauzar la mejor ordenacion de los recursos forestales de la region del Caribe. Su propd- sito es estrechar las relaciones que existen entre los cientificos interesados en la Ciencia Forestal y ciencias afines encarandoles con los problemas confrontados, las politicas fo- restales vigentes y el trabajo que se viene haciendo para lograr ese objetivo técnico. Se solicita aportaciones de no mas de 20 paginas mecanografiadas. Deben ser someti- das en el lenguaje vernaculo del autor, con el titulo o posicién que este ocupa. Es impres- cindible incluir un resumen conciso del estu- dio efectuado. Los articulos deben ser dirigi- dos al “Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.” Las opiniones expresadas por los autores de los articulos que aparecen en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Ser- vicio Forestal. Se permite la reproduccion de los articulos siempre que se indique su proce- dencia. @ The “Caribbean Forester”, published since July 1938 by the Forest Service, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, is a free semiannual journal devoted to the encouragement of im- proved management of the forest resources of the Caribbean region by keeping students of forestry and allied sciences in touch with the specific problems faced, the policies in effect, and the work being done toward this end throughout the region. Contributions of not more than 20 type- written pages in length are solicited. They should be submitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include the author’s title or position and a short summary. Papers should be sent to the Director, Tropical Fo- rest Experiment Station, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Any article published may be reproduced provided that reference is made to the original source. Le “Caribbean Forester”, qui a été publié depuis Julliet 1938 par le Service Forestier du Département de l’Agriculture des Etats-Unis, est une revue semestrielle gratuite, dediée a encourager l’aménagement rationnel des fo- réts de la region caraibe. Son but est d’entre- tenir des relations scientifiques entre ceux qui s’interéssent aux Sciences Forestiéres, ses problémes et ses méthodes les plus récentes, ainsi qu’aux travaux effectués pour réaliser cet objectif d’amelioration technique. On accept voluntiers des contributions ne dépassant pas 20 pages dactilographiées. Elles doivent étre écrites dans la langue ma- ternelle de l’auteur qui voudra bien préciser son titre ou sa position professionnelle et en les accompagnant d’un résumé de l'étude. Les articles doivent étre addressés au Director, Tropical Forest Experiment Station, Rio Pie- dras, Puerto Rico. La revue laisse aux auteurs la responsibi- lité de leurs articles. La reproduction est permise si l’on présice lorigine. “The printing of this publication has been approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget (Augus! 26, 1953)