Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. > & | ; f = Lu it9) Mr w 3 aa in See ees ea = ff o es ee es ee 9 5 ns @ es 3 Sfp Cc) : 2 Y z ‘. Lid - CW 3s) fe =e cn ra | x 3 Oo ne) ' : a > i Pa = aa raat fy fo) Lu aa w WwW © ‘A OW ws < ee eS ees ra WM «Oo =) QD) 2 py nee eA at pee < ear oes ra 7 RE Og eae Cy A. =z Q ud OX oO aw w S2 : e c= Z Ml a) : Ear) = W) O oe iC) Li 5 ™) af XR 8 na = a ~, Pee eee ee VoL. 16 Nos. 1 AND 2 JANUARY - JUNE 1955 ine Caribbean Forester Goimrenas ‘Shan Clic le HimteenvaeannUalecepOntie se 2. 8 es Pe 1 Tropical Forest Research Center, Puerto Rico A report on the tropical forestry short course held in UeCTLOPtuicomVarchel ton May=295 1955 292252 = 12 Frank H. Wadsworth, B. J. Huckenpahler, and Carl F. Ehelebe, Puerto Rico Informe sobre el curso corto de dasonomia tropical celebrado en Puerto Rico; Marzo tro a; Mayo 29; 1955 2. _=_ 24 (Traduccion del articulo anterior) icesmoie Vonam clang eee oe Bos ee 36 Elbert L. Little Jr., U.S. Forest Service, Washington D.C. Tropical Forest Research Center Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico On July 5, 1955 the activities of the Tropical Region, U. S. Forest Service in Puer- to Rico were consolidated under the Tropical Forest Research Center. Dr. Frank H. Wadsworth, formerly Chief, Division of Forest Management Research, is the Research Center Leader. The mission of the research center is three-fold; continuation of research in silvi- culture, forest management, and wood utilization; demostration on a pilot scale of pro- per management and utilization practices in tropical forests; and technical training. Centro de Investigaciones Forestales Tropicales Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Efectivo en julio 5 de 1955 se consolidé la Oficina de la Region Tropical del Servi- cio Forestal Federal como el Centro de Investigaciones Forestales Tropicales, bajo la di- reccion del Dr. Frank H. Wadsworth, anteriormente Jefe de la Division de Investiga- cion en manejo forestal. Los objetivos del Centro de Investigaciones pueden dividirse en tres campos prin- cipales, a saber: 1. Investigacién en silvicultura, manejo forestal y utilizacion de madera. bo Demostracion, en escala de planta piloto, de las mejores practicas de manejo y utilizacion de bosques tropicales. 3. Programa de entrenamiento técnico. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Fifteenth Annual Report Tropical Forest Research Center U. S. Forest Service Puerto Rico The program oi the Research Center dur- ing 1954 was characterized by a summing up of past forest management research in Puer- to Rico, preparation for expanded research in the American Virgin Islands, and the inaugu- ration of forest utilization studies in both areas. In the field of forest management, obser- vations were made as needed to maintain the 474 studies established prior to this year. Of these, 131 studies were terminated, and 13 new studies were begun. The relatively small number of new tests reflects concentration upon the preparation for publication of the results of past studies. The major publica- tions in process of preparation during the year were a bulletin on forest planting in Puerto Rico, a book on the trees of Puerto Rico (in preparation jointly with Dr. Albert L. Little Jr. of the Division of Forest Management Re- search in the Washington office of the Forest Service), and a paper for the World Forestry Congress summarizing silvicultural experi- ence in rain forest in Puerto Rico. Six brief trips by staff members were made to the American Virgin Islands to exa- mine preliminary regeneration tests in pro- gress there and to make plans for an expanded research program to serve the new public for- estry program of the Virgin Islands Corpora- tion which is to begin in 1955. The staff of the Center was increased by a full-time professional man in the field of forest utilization research who came late in February after 6 weeks of training in the For- est Products Laboratory at Madison, Wiscon- sin. The utilization research program is di- rected toward the discovery of new uses for the trees of Puerto Rico’s forest for three ma- jor purposes: 1. To make available to Puerto Rico the full benefits of her remaining forest products, including the labor value in- volved in their preparation. 2. To provide a stronger economic basis for attracting private landowners to reforestation and forest management. 3. To serve as a guide for investigations in silviculture and regeneration. Utilization research during the year has consisted largely of a survey of wood utiliza- tion in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, the collection of additional data basic to a forest utilization problem analysis, and preparation for the development of new uses for Puerto Rican woods by local investigation of their properties. Studies of the forest lands of Puerto Ri- co made jointly with a number of other agen- cies of both the Federal and Commonwealth governments have progressed a step further than was reported last year. Additional in- formation as to the character and area of the different major soil groups became available in part as a result of the participation of the Center in an agricultural planning committee of the Puerto Rico Planning Board. A sum- mary of the findings, presented in Table 1, shows that one-third of the land surface of Puerto Rico is suited primarily to tree cover; a larger area than had previously been esti- mated. Table 1 also suggests the relative priority of forest research on the different sites. Future tasks in this project are the map- ping of these forest lands and the description of the physical, social, and economic condi- tions which characterize them. 2 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 1—Forest Problem Areas of Puerto Rico | Erosi Apparent Priority Site | Slope Area pone forestry for hazard ‘ : | potential research A. The Mountains % M acres 1. Humid tuffaceous loams 60+ 170 High High I 2. Deep lateritic clays 60+ 190 Moderate High qT 3. Granitic loams 60+ 59 High Moderate I 4. Laterites 5+ 22 Moderate Low Ill B. The Coastal Plain and Foothills 1. Humid limestone 45+ 150 Low Moderate II 2. Dry tuffaceous loams 60+ 42 Moderate Moderate II 3. Dry limestone 15+ 69 Low Low III 4. Tidal swamps 5— 16 None Moderate Ill Total 718 A reconnaissance of the Luquillo Forest was made with members of the administrative staff of the Forest Service to lay out major research and demonstration areas for future development. Two working circles have been reserved for intensive management of native forest and in two other working circles the na- tive forest is to be converted gradually to broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King). Underpianting of this species is al- ready being carried out in accordance with the plan. ‘Two distinguished visitors during the past year made helpful suggestions regarding the research program. Mr. Floyd M. Cossitt, in charge of planting for Region 8 of the Forest Service, made a thorough study of the pro- blems of the nurseries of Puerto Rico and sug- gested a number of promising new techniques which might be tested locally. Mr. S. von der Recke, Chief, Latin-American Forestry Office otf FAO, offered suggestions for site maintenance in eucalyptus plantations. A brief survey of the forest problems of the island of Tortola was made at the request of the Commissioner of the British Virgin Is- lands. Most of the recommendations in the report were adapted from the findings of for- est management research by the Center in Puerto Rico and the American Virgin Islands. The Center was represented at a confe- rence of a research committee of the Latin American Forestry Commission of FAO in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to consider a Latin Ameri- can Forest Research and Training Institute. The Center in Puerto Rico was there consider- ed to be one of the several national forest re- search institutions recommended for Latin America. The training of foreign forestry students, in Puerto Rico, with emphasis on research, has continued. -Thirteen students spent an aver- age of 1.month each in training at the Cen- ter during 1954. A study of the forestry train- ing potentialities of Puerto Rico made during a visit by Mr. Albert C. Cline, Foreign For- estry Specialist of the Forest Service in Wash- ington, has led to preparations for an interna- tional tropical forestry training course spon- sored by the Foreign Operations Administra- tion to be held at the Center in 1955. The Center has received substantia! assist- ance and cooperation during the year from Fe- deral and Commonwealth agencies in its pro- gram of research and related activities. The administrative branch of the Tropical Region of the Forest Service has assisted in the con- duct and maintenance of field experiments in the Caribbean National Forest and in the pre- paration of the wood utilization laboratory. The Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wild- life of the Commonwealth, as a result of joint plans made at the beginning of the year, has assisted in the conduct and maintenance of -experiments in the forests under its adminis- tration, particularly in the Cambalache Expe- rimental Forest. The Forest Products Labora- tory generously trained the utilization special- JANUARY - JUNE 1955 ist at Madison, Wisconsin and since has through correspondence offered much helpful advice concerning this field of research in Puerto Rico. The Virgin Islands Corporation financed the travel of research personnel and the field experiments in the Virgin Islands during the year. The Virgin Islands Experi- ment Station has provided both professional and subprofessional assistance in the conduct of experiments in St. Croix. The Soil and Water Conservation Branch of the Agricultu- ral Research Service of the Department of Agriculture provided technical information used in the classification of forest lands and in a joint reconnaissance of the coffee region pre- liminary to research on tree shade. FOREST MANAGEMENT RESEARCH The more important results of investiga- tions carried on during the year are here pre- sented.. Most of these are partial results from long-range studies not yet terminated. The findings are classified by the problem areas of priority I and II, as shown in Table I. An exception is the area of dry tuifaceous loams, for which no new important results were ob- tained during the year. Humid Tuffaceous Loams The objective of research in the humid tuf- faceous loam area is the discovery of short- rotation economic forest crops preferably ca- pable of establishment on bare lands. The results reported here concern the develop- ment of plantations in two experimental areas, the St. Just Experimental Forest, and the western extreme of the Luquillo Forest. St. Just is at an elevation of 300 feet and recei- ves about 70 inches of precipitation annually. The Luquillo site is at an elevation of 1,300 feet and receives about 90 inches of precipita- tion annually. Plantation Growth Teak (Tectona grandis L.) is one of the best timber species capable of surviving field planting on this site. A 16-year-old planta- tion in the Luquillo Forest on an exposed slope has attained a basal area of more than 100 square feet per acre. The average crop tree is 5.9 inches in diameter, about 35 feet 9 oO tall, and is now growing at the rate of 0.20 inch in diameter per year. The form of the trees is not as good as on deeper soils, but the stand will yield better timber for farm uses than any other tested on this site to date. Broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macro- phylla King), one of the most promising spe- cies for underplanting on this site, has conti- nued to develop well during the year. Under- plantings have been made beneath a nurse crop of casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia orst) and also under secondary forest. The planting beneath casuarina is particularly sig- nificant because it is near the top of a stony ridge and yet the trees are exceptionally vigo- rous, averaging 10 feet in height after 5 years. The thriftiness is at least in part due to the capacity of the casuarina to enrich the soil. The organic matter content of this soil has been increased in 8 years from 7.1 percent to 12.2 percent as a result of the establishment of the casuarina. In a nearby protected cove beneath secondary forest 10-year-old mahoga- nies now average 5 inches in diameter and ran- ge irom 35 to 45 feet in height. Mago (Hernandia sonora L.), a species utilized elsewhere for boxes and similar pur- poses, has proven well adapted to field plan- ting on a lower slope at St. Just. Trees 9 years old average 3 to 5 inches in diameter and range up to 50 feet in height. Form is excellent. On a nearby upper slope the trees are less vigorous and only 25 feet tall, but even there the trees have grown better than most other species. Two of the more insect-resistant species of bamboo (Bambusa tuldoides Munro and B. longispiculata Gamble ex Brandis) have pro- ven adapted to this site at St. Just, although their growth is inferior to that on deeper soils. After 5 years there are 18 mature culms in the average clump. These are less than 20 feet in height and only sligthly more than 1 inch in diameter. Summary of Status These studies point to four prospects for forestry in this problem area. Teak is hardy and suited to field planting except possibly on the worst sites. It produces farm timbers in 4 a brief period. Mahogany is apparently also adapted but requires a nurse crop. It is less valuable at an early age than is teak. The ma- go and bamboo, while also adapted, require further research to develop a local market for their products. The bamboo, because of its extremely short period to harvest, might eventually prove the most attractive to pri- vate landowners. More extensive plantings of teak and mahogany in this area are warranted, and tests should be made with additional har- dy but valuable species from elsewhere. Deep Lateritic Clays Research in this area is concerned with re- forestation of bare lands and the improvement of fairly extensive existing forests. Both short rotation crops for private forestry and longer rotation crops for public forestry are needed. The results reported here come from research in the Luquillo, Toro Negro, Carite, and Gui- larte Forests. At Luquillo the elevation of the experiments ranges from 700 to 1,500 feet and annual precipitation from 90 to 150 inches. At Toro Negro elevation ranges from 3,000 to 3,500 feet and precipitation from 110 to 120 inches. At Carite the elevation of the expe- riment is 2,400 feet and the rainfall is about 90 inches annually. At Guilarte the elevation is 3,000 feet and the rainfall is about 100 inches annually. New Species The interest recently developed elsewhere in Latin America in the prospect of using ya- grumo hembra (Cecropia peltata L.) for paper pulp and the presence of rapid growing trees of this species in many parts of this area sug- gested that its propagation should be studied as a prerequisite to the possible need for uni- form plantations. Two 50-gram samples of fruits produced an average of 10 grams of seeds, an extraction factor of 20. Two 44-gram seed samples had an average of 2,500 seeds, or the equivalent of about 2,200,000 per pound. Sowing in a nursery at sea level (be- low the natural range of the species) produced — no germination in the sunlight. In half shade two samples germinated 2 and 9 percent. The seedlings were 10 inches tall after 6 months and transplanted bare-rooted without loss. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Plantation Establishment The direct-seeded broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) at 700 feet ele- vation in the Luquillo Forest has continued satisfactory development, although it has pro- ved necessary to give early attention to libera- tion. The sowing, made under secondary for- est, germinated nearly 100 percent and growth during the first 6 months was rapid. At the end of that period, however, growth decreased and further opening of the canopy was neces- sary. Now, after 18 months, the trees average 2 feet in height. The relative costs of direct seeding and planting have not yet been esta- blished. Each method has its advantages under special conditions. Plantation Growth Eucalyptus robusta Smith, a rapid grow- ing species well adapted to elevations above 1,000 feet, has continued its rapid develop- ment in the older plantations into diameters approaching sawtimber size. In the Toro Ne- gro forest a 13-year-old plantation has an ave- rage diameter for dominant and codominant trees (88 per acre) of 9.7 inches and a basal area of 129 square feet per acre. At Carite a 15-year-old plantation has an average dia- meter for dominant and codominant trees (36 per acre) of 12.7 inches and has reached a basal area of 157 square feet. Current annual diameter growth of the dominant and codomi- nant trees is about 14 inch. In spite of the high basal area in these stands thinning does not appear to be needed because they have been invaded by grass and intolerant pioneer tree species. Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica Mill), now 5 years old at 3,500 feet elevation in the Toro Negro forest has made phenome- nal growth. The average diameter of the trees is 5 inches and the average height 20 feet. The taper of open-grown trees is large but may de- crease as the crowns meet. A few of these open- grown trees were used as attractive Christmas trees. Similar rapid development has taken place in a planting in the Guilarte forest. At low elevation (700 feet) in the Luquillo for- est, on the other hand, trees are branchy, of JANUARY - JUNE 1955 poorer color, and much less vigorous. A sour- ce of concern with this species is its very limit- ed root system. A few trees have been wind- thrown as a result. Primavera (Tabebuia donell smithii Rose) has continued its rapid growth at 700 feet elevation in the Luquillo forest. Seven-year- old trees growing with nearly full sunlight average 6 inches in diameter and 50 feet in height. Form is good despite the lack of side shade. Plantation Management Broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophyl- la King) plantations at 800 feet in the Luqui- llo Forest are producing a satisfactory num- ber of rapid growing crop trees after light thin- nings. Two 1937 plantations, thinned in 1949 and 1951, to 80 square feet of basal area, now contain between 96 and 124 dominant and co- dominant trees per acre. These trees, now 18 years old, average 8.8 inches in diameter with the range from 6 to 12 inches. Their average annual diameter growth ranges from 0.32 to 0.68 inch. Additional precommercial thin- nings may not be needed although the basal area in the past 3 years increased from 80 to 96 square feet per acre. Another broadleaf mahogany plantation, now 26 years old, bears out the conclusion that rapid growing crop trees of this species D maintain their dominance even as stand den- sity increases. This plantation increased in basal area from 105 to 124 square feet per acre in the period 1952-1954 and the dominant and codominant trees (84 per acre), mostly of good form, grew in diameter at rates ranging trom 0.48 to 0.75 inch per year, compared to 0.32 inch for the intermediate trees. These crop trees range from 8 to 16 inches in diame- ter, the average, 12.2 inches. The very light thinning made 2 years ago induced the first seed crop, and natural regeneration has ap- peared beneath the stand. Growth of Natural Forest The completion of a composite board-foot volume table for tabonuco type forest in the Luquillo Mountains during the past year made it possible for the first time to compute board- foot volumes and increment in the growth plots. Heretofore volume increment has always been expressed in cubic feet, even though saw- timber, the object of timber management in the Luquillo mountains, is measured in board feet, because most of the volume of natural forests is in trees too small or unsuitable for saw-timber. Board-foot volumes and increment were determined for three well-balanced cutover stands on comparable sites at elevations be- tween 1,000 and 1,500 feet. The results are as seen in Table 2. Table 2.—Increment per acre in Tabonuco Type Forest | Initial stand* 2 | Subsequent Plot net annual No | Basal increment* * Volume trees area } Sq. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft El Verde No. 3 54 64 4,700 212 T-Cu-1 30 34 2,700 148 T-Cu-2 6 14 1,500 Al * Trees 10 inches dbh and over 8 years ago in El Verde No. 3 and 5 years ago in other plots. * Includes ingrowth, mortality has been negligible during the period. Table 2 shows clearly the need for subs- tantial residual volumes in sawtimber sizes as a base for increment. Plot No. 3 has been con- sidered dense throughout the period, yet has not been thinned. Its initial total basal area (2 inches plus) was 107 square feet per acre. For plot T-Cu-1 the corresponding figures are 91 and 120 square feet and for plot T-Cu-2, 67 and 102 square feet. The final basal area ior trees 10 inches dbh and over in plot No. 3 had reached 83 square feet. Improvement of Natural Forest The natural forests of Puerto Rico are made up largely by trees of little or no com- mercial value. The silvicultural improvement of such forests is concerned with the elimina- tion of inferior species from present stands but also with provision for regeneration of the better species for the future. Past experiments in the Luquillo Forest have shown that rain forest can be opened up to a basal area of 80 square feet per acre without causing invasion by vines and that such cutting can go a long way toward accomplishing the first objective, the elimination of the worthless trees. Preli- minary observations during the past year in three plots in mixed secondary forest at an elevation between 1,200 and 1,800 feet have led to the conclusion that in most parts of this forest there is little prospect of inducing satisfactory composition in the regeneration solely by such improvement cuttings. The stands studied were cut over 2 years ago, and at that time 15 to 20 percent of their trees were of the better sawtimber species. Re-examination after 2 years showed that the cutting produced an immediate growth response in the understory, but almost entirely in shrubs and sprouts of the less va- luable tree species. The densely shaded forest floor now appears to be no better as an en- vironment for seedling development than it was before the cut. There is no evidence of new seedlings of the desired species, and the advance reproduction of these species is being rapidly outgrown by sprouts. Thus, whereas the cutting has tended to eliminate a few in- ferior species, no marked improvement in the | representation of the better species in the fu- ture appears likely. CARIBBEAN FORESTER The significance of these preliminary ob- servations seems to be that partial cuttings in secondary rain forest of the tabonuco type may be justifiable if the trees eliminated can be harvested at a profit, or ii a high quality stand remains which can accelerate in growth. On the other hand, such cuttings should not be expected generally to give rise to greatly improved composition in the next rotation. Artificial regeneration apparently is called for to assure this under these conditions. The con- clusions from this study served as a partial basis for a paper submitted to the World For- estry Congress. Summary of Status Broadleaf mahogany is at this time the outstanding tree for this problem area, al- though it does not fulfill all requirements. Ap- parently for the best results it must be plant- ed beneath existing forest or a nurse crop. It is growing well only on lower slopes and in coves below 2,000 feet elevation. It might eventually find a place in mixed coffee shade. Teak is also fairly well adapted to these lower slopes. Primavera is promising but its adapta- bility is still incompletely known. Casuarina grows rapidly below 1,500 feet elevation in this area, as does eucalyptus above this level, but neither species is yet of much commercial value here. Mexican cypress, on the other hand, is new but may prove an economically attractive crop for private landowners because of its adaptability for field planting and early utility. The future of the natural forests in this area depends largely upon the development of new uses for the species common in them. Unless this can be done the trend will inevita- bly be toward gradual conversion to simpler and probably artificially regenerated stands. The lack of a forest crop attractive to the owners of most of the land of this area calls for continued search not only for new tree crops but also for new utilities for those now known to grow well here. Granitic Loams The major objective of forest research in the granitic loam area is the discovery of trees adapted to field planting and producing a crop JANUARY - JUNE 1955 attractive to private landowners. Research in the area this year has consisted of the perio- dic examination and measurement of planta- tions established in the past within the Luqui- llo and Carite forests, and more recently, tests of reforestation with new species in the Caoni- llas Valley. The study here reported is in pro- gress in the Luquillo mountains at an eleva- tion of 650 feet with about 110 inches of rain- fall annually, near the wet extreme for this problem area. Plantation Growth Most of the forest plantations within this area are too small in area to provide an ade- quate basis for measuring their development. A tree of outstanding growth raised by tobac- co farmers on this soil is casuarina (C. equise- tifolia Forst.) It produces in a few years their requirements for the construction of tobacco. barns. A tree of greater utility is needed, how- ever, to cover large areas now idle and not needed for casuarina. One possibility may be broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) as is indicated by a 16-year-old planta- tion in the Luquillo Forest. This plantation has attained a basal area of 107 square feet per acre, and the average diameter of the do- minant and codominant trees is 8.7 inches. This rate of development compares favorably with that on deep clay soils and suggests that the underplanting of this mahogany beneath the casuarina plantations on this site might well be as succesful as it is proving on the hu- mid tuffaceous loams. Summary of Status General observations in this area indicate that the loose soil is favorable for tree growth. Soil protection and economic returns might be obtained by planting coffee with tree shade but there is little evidence of a trend in this direction. Casuarina grows well but the pre- sent market will absorb the production from only a small area. Eucalyptus robusta Smith apparently will also grow well but again is of little demand at present. Mahogany is handi- capped by its comparatively long sawtimber rotation. The best prospect appears to lie in ff further testing of new species with short ro- tation prospects, such as Mexican cypress and bamboo. Concurrent with these tests must go the exploration of markets for the products. Humid Limestone The humid limestone region, extending al- most the length of the north coast of Puerto Rico, is an area of shallow rocky clay soils, mostly hilly and already covered with secon- dary forests. The lower, more protected slo- pes apparently are potentially a good forest site, but because of their accessibility few trees of good species remain. Reforestation is less a problem than the introduction of supe- rior species into existing stands. The studies here reported are located in the Cambalache Experimental Forest at sea level with about 60 inches of rainfall annually, in the Rio Aba- jo Forest, at 1,100 feet elevation with 80 inches of precipitation, and in the Guajataca Forest at 500 feet elevation with 70 inches of rain- fall annually. Plantation Establishment Primavera (Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose) one of the most valuable timbers of Central America, was reported 2 years ago as slow growing in a recent underplanting in the Cambalache Forest. Trees set out beneath a secondary stand on a protected lower slope became chlorotic and made almost no growth despite openings in the canopy immediately above them. During the second year half the remaining shade was removed with almost no effect. In 1954 all shade was removed, and growth response was seen within 2 months. The trees have lost their former chlorotic ap- pearance and are now shooting upward in the spectacular way they have grown in the open on the deep clays. The tallest trees are now 8 feet in height and the plantation appears well established. This species apparently is suited better for reforestation than for under- planting on this site. Cedro macho (Hieronyma clusioides (Tul.) Griseb.), underplanted in the Guajataca For- est, unlike primavera at Cambalache, has 8 made slow but continuous growth beneath light shade. After 2 years the trees range between 30 and 48 inches in height, and no need for early liberation is apparent. Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica Mill), described elsewhere in this report as very promising at high elevation, has general- ly appeared much less adapted to low eleva- tions. Trees at sea level usually become poorly formed, weaken, and frequently fall over. In 1952 underplanting in the Rio Abajo forest the trees appeared so week until the past year as to be destined for failure. However, as a result of recent complete liberation from shade the trees now appear to be growing as well as at higher elevations. Now, after 4 years, the trees range between 10 and 15 feet in height and are beginning to dominate the site. This species will apparently not withstand much shade under these conditions and therefore should not be underplanted. Plantation Growth Small-leafed mahogany (Swietenia maha- goni Jacq.) one of the timber trees best adapt- ed to the drier hills in this problem area, con- tinues to make fairly satisfactory diameter growth in the older plantations, but in some areas height growth has declined and the de- velopment of well formed dominants is not taking place as it has with broadleaf mahogany elsewhere. An 18-year-old plantation on a lower rocky slope in the Guajataca forest has attained a basal area of 73 square feet per acre and the dominant and codominant trees average 6.1 inches in diameter. The average annual diameter growth of the dominant and codominant trees during the past 5 years has been 0.20 inch. Despite the present density of this plantation most of the trees are limby and few will produce a straight log of 12 feet in length. Cedro macho (Hieronyma clusioides (Tul.) Griseb.) in the Rio Abajo forest has proven to be a tree of excellent form but of moderate growth rate. Growing on a formerly farmed sinkhole bottom, 15-year-old trees range from 3 to 6 inches in diameter and to 45 feet in height. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Bamboo (Bambusa tulda Roxb.) under- planted on a lower slope in the Cambalache forest 7 years ago has continued rapid growth in the areas of deeper soil. Clumps in these protected areas now are 30 to 35 feet tall and have from 5 to 14 mature culms of large dia- meter. On exposed slopes survival has been high and the culms are 25 to 30 feet tall but only one or two mature culms of large size have been produced per clump. There is a good prospect that this bamboo wil! eventually do- minate the natural vegetation in this planta- tion. Teak (Yectona grandis L.) has proven adapted to the sinkholes between the lime- stone hills in this area. The growth of some of the better stands has been measured perio- dically. One such plantation, established in 1938, had by 1951 attained a basal area of 90 square feet per acre and an average tree dia- meter for the dominants and codominants of 6.3 inches. This stand was then thinned to 80 square feet of basal area and now, 3 years later the basal area had increased to 103 square feet. It was again thinned to 79 square feet removing nearly all remaining trees of inferior form. The average diameter of the remaining dominants and codominants, now 16 years old, is 7.2 inches. Plantation Management The value of light shade over small-leafed mahogany in inducing good tree form is evi- dent in a 10-year-old plantation in the Cam- balache forest. The trees in this plantation, established by direct seeding, are nearly all of good form and with only small lateral bran- ches. They range from 8-10 feet in height at the top of the slope to 12-20 feet at the bot- tom. Growth has been inhibited by the reten- tion of shade for the first 8 years but the bet- ter tree form should be good compensation. Ucar (Bucida buceras L.) a construction timber species native to this area, also requi- res light shade to develop well formed trees. A 10-year-old underplanting on a lower slope ‘in the Cambalache forest contains trees 8 to 15 feet tall with erect form and few side bran- ches. A nearby open grown plantation of the JANUARY - JUNE 1955 same age has trees from 30 to 45 feet tall but these are excessively branchy, none with a straight bole 12 feet long. It is clear that some compromise is desirable here. The underplant- ed trees were completely freed of overhead shade after 8 years in the hope that rapid growth will now take place on the well formed stems. A heavy thinning in a rapid growing broad- leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) plantation in the Rio Abajo forest showed that such stands can close the openings created be- fore vines become a problem. In 1951 a 12- year-old plantation was thinned from 90 to 42 square feet of basal area. In the residual stand there were 116 dominant and codomi- nant trees per acre with an average diameter of 6.4 inches. In 3 years the basal area in- creased to 57 square feet per acre and the do- minant and codominant trees now average 7.8 inches in diameter. The most outstanding do- minant trees (8 per acre) averaged 0.8 inch in diameter growth annually during the past 3 years. The thinning, which removed nearly all malformed trees, should not have to be re- peated until the stand reaches merchantable size. Summary of Status The best adapted valuable tree species for this area is broadleaf mahogany. It is adapted only to the more humid lower slopes but can be inexpensively established in the extensive secondary forests by underplanting, and its growth to date has been rapid. On the upper slopes and drier sites small-leaf mahogany and maria (Calophyllum antillanum Britton) have proven adapted but data on their growth rates and prospects for yields are not yet sui- ficiently favorable to be attractive to land owners. Intensive private forestry on these up- per slopes seems a dim prospect unless some culture such as bamboo can prove successful and attractive. Tests of bamboo to date are generally favorable but more time is required for conclusive results, and markets would then have to be developed. Primavera, and mahoe (Hibiscus elatus Sw.) can grow on the lower slopes but establishment there requires defore- station and costly weeding. Teak has so far 9 been found adapted only in the sinkhole bot- toms, a very small proportion of the area. Ce- dro macho and ucar produce wood considera- bly inferior to mahogany but might prove of value if the mahogany plantations should ever fall victim to root rot as in Trinidad. The American Virgin Islands The objective of research in the Virgin Is- lands is to develop cheap methods to increase the representation of small-leaved mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) and broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) in extensive existing secondary stands. The expe- riments here described were conducted on St. Croix on shallow tuffaceous soil with rainiall ranging from 45 to 60 inches annually. Plantation Establishment The appearance of natural regeneration of broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) at Davis Beach in northwestern St. Croix suggested the possibility of direct sowing or broadcasting the seed of this species to avoid problems of artificial propagation. A broadcastirg of 5 pounds of seed beneath an opening in the forest at Annaly Estate produ- ced germination of 38 percent of the viable seeds. Examination at the end of 1 year showed that two-thirds of the original seed- lings had survived and were growing. Direct sowing oi seeds at a depth oi 144 inch was a complete failure. Seed tests made during the experiment showed viability to be very low, so the tests are to be repeated. However, the results indicate that breadcasting of this spe- cies may well have a place in these islands where labor is relatively scarce. Growth of Natural Forest Stands of nearly pure small-leaf mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) have become es- tablished naturally in the hills west of Chris- tiansted, St. Croix. These stands are on typi- cal forest soils and have been sampled to de- termine the growth rate which can be expect- ed under these conditions. Two-year remeasurement in three small growth plots point to the desirability of keep- ing the stands fairly open. In an old stand near the top of a ridge in Bellevue Estate with 10 an average diameter of 7.5 inches and a basal area of 102 square feet per acre the average annual diameter growth of the dominant and codominant trees is only 0.07 inch. This slow growth probably reflects extreme competition for moisture and might be accelerated by thinning. Near the bottom of a nearby slope two ad- ditional plots show growth to be more rapid in younger stands. In one plot, with an average diameter of 3.9 inches and a basal area of 80 square feet per acre the average diameter growth of the dominant and codominant trees is 0.17 inch annually. In the second with an average diameter of 4.4 inches and a basal area of 68 square feet per acre the corres- ponding average diameter growth is 0.30 inch annually, almost twice as rapid. Whereas it has not been established that the site at the top of the hill is comparable to that at the bottom, the relationship of diame- ter growth to basal area at the bottom of the hill suggests that the density of the stand on the ridge is probably excessive. Summary of Status The spreading of the two mahoganies through the forests of the Virgin Islands is still the major objective. Although the growth rate of the mahoganies is not as rapid in the Virgin Islands as in the more humid parts of Puerto Rico it is apparently at least as good as the other comparatively worthless tree species there. The mahoganies are apparently adapted to nearly all sites, as is indicated by abundant natural regeneration beneath old trees. The problems of establishment are related directly to the character and severity of the winter and spring dry season. The lack of surface water makes nursery propagation costly. The most promising approach to the problem seems to be the search for techniques for seeding direct- ly in the field. More extensive tests of broad- casting and direct sowing are planned for 1955. FOREST UTILIZATION RESEARCH Brief reports were prepared at the request of the Commonwealth and private concerns on the possibilities of manufacturing hardboard in Puerto Rico, the manufacture of wooden CARIBBEAN FORESTER containers, use of bamboo for novelties and baskets, the availability of certain species for export, the possibilities of manufacturing wooden pallets, and other problems. Numerous other requests have been handled by letter or conference. A laboratory was set up and a plan prepa- red during the year for determining the ma- chinability and certain related physical and mechanical properties of 100 native woods. An unused building was remodeled and new woodworking machines were purchased and installed. Assistance was also given to the Di- vision of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife of the Commonwealth in planning of their research in forest utilization. Some time was used as- sisting an FAO representative and the Gover- nor’s committee in the Virgin Islands in a con- ference on the possibilities of local paper ma- nufacture. Survey of Wood Use in Puerto Rico More than 600 industrial and agricultural contacts were made to determine the pattern of wood use in Puerto Rico. The survey show- ed the present use of native lumber to be less than 850 M board feet annually. This volume was used almost exclusively for furniture (316 M bd. ft.), farm buildings (estimated at 200 M bd. ft.) and hewn railroad ties (320 M bd. ft.). Sizable quantities of poles, posts, and fuelwood or charcoal are also used on the farms. Between 80 and 90 million board feet of lumber and lumber products are imported annually. All uses of native lumber and other for- est products are diminishing yearly due to the antiquated and inefficient logging me- thods ($50.00 to $100.00 per M), the lack of knowledge concerning the characteristics and proper use of native woods, very poorly manufactured lumber resulting from pitsawing and poor milling facilities, and the total lack of dry kilns or treating plants. The furniture industry (206 plants) uses _ annually about 8 million board feet of import- ed lumber, mostly mahogany from Mexico, and nearly 314 million square feet of plywood, lar- gely baboon from Surinam. A large volume of JANUARY - JUNE 1955 well manufactured native lumber could be used in this industry. Millwork manufacture (38 plants) use 14 million board feet of lum- ber, mostly southern yellow pine, and 1/3 mil- lion board feet of plywood annually. Some 650,000 wooden containers are imported year- ly for exporting fruit and vegetables, 24% mil- lion board feet of railroad ties are imported from the United States and Dominican Repu- blic, and more than $400,000 worth of utility poles, brackets, and crossarms are imported annually from the United States. Most all bu- rial boxes are made of imported wood, using nearly 14 million board feet of lumber and nearly 1/3 million square feet of plywood an- nually. Urban construction is almost entirely of concrete with interior trim and doors of ma- hogany. Rural housing and farm buildings are usually of concrete or southern yellow pine. Low grade pine and fir plywood are used al- most exclusively for form lumber in concrete construction. The several hundred manufacturing con- cerns ship almost all products locally and over- seas in paper boxes despite heavy damage in transit, as all box shook must be imported il from the United States. Imported box shook is so expensive that a local box plant is need- ed. This plant could also supply the 650,000 fruit and vegetable containers required an- nually. These potential markets are increas- ing rapidly with the mounting industrial and agricultural production. All of these industries and many others would use native lumber if it were available in quantity and quality comparable to the im- ported woods. This provides a huge future market for the present and future forest volu- me whenever it becomes available. A complete report on this survey is being prepared for publication. PUBLICATIONS Marrero, José Especies del género Inga usadas como som- bra de café en Puerto Rico. Carib. Fores- ter 15:54-71. Wadsworth, Frank H. Tropical Rain Forest. General Papers of World Forestry Congress: 65-72. Dehra Dun. 12 CARIBBEAN FORESTER A Report on the Tropical Forestry Short Course Held in Puerto Rico, March i to May 29, 1955 Frank H. Wadsworth, B. J. Huckenpahler and Carl F. Ehelebe ! The rapid expansion of bilateral and multi- lateral program of international forestry training has brought to Puerto Rico an ever- increasing number of trainees. Trainees who come to the United States from countries with tropical forests, and particularly those from Latin America, generally are scheduled to spend a considerable part of their train- ing period in Puerto Rico, the only tropical outpost of United States forestry. The training of individuals is less efficient than group training. Individual training re- quires a large amount of instructor time per trainee and seldom permits adequate cover- age of a broad field in the brief period usual- ly allotted. In an effort to eliminate these problems, an organized short course was pro- posed for early 1955. Added advantag>s recognized for group training were the pros- pects for justifying the use of outside special- ists as instructors and for holding round tabies in which mutual problems of national policies and programs could be described and discussed by the students themselves to the advantage of all present. DESCRIPTION OF COURSE The Foreign Operations Administration undertook to sponsor the course, recruiting most of the trainees and financing a Train- ine Officer, a Group Leader, most of the instruction, and the travel and subsistence of trainees. Closely cooperating was the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations which also sent part-time instructors, trainees, and teaching materials. The Caribbean Commission was instrument- al in the recruitment of three trainees. 1/Respectively —Research Center Leader and Training Officer, Tropical Forest Research Center and Group Leader, Foreign Ope- rations Administration. The direction of the course was a respon- sibility of the Tropical Forest Research Center of the U. S. Forest Service, in Puer- to Rico. In this work the Forest Service was assisted by several agencies of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, particularly the Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wild- life of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, the Office of Technical Cooper- ation of the Department of State, and the Agricultural Extension Service of the Uni- versity of Puerto Rico. Other federal agen- cies in Puerto Rico were also of assistance, particularly the Soil Conservation Service of the Department of Agriculture. Subject Matter The training course was intended to meet two needs, (1) that of technical men in junior positions in forest services for in- formation concerning practices and techni- ques, and (2) that of chiefs and other senior men for information relating to broad poli- cies, organization, administration, and legis- lation. A period of 2 months was allotted to cover the first phase and 1 month for the second. In the belief that the second phase would tie together the information presented in the first phase by showing its place in a national program, the second phase was scheduled to follow immediately after the first, with the junior men remaining for the entire 3 months. The subject matter fields presented, in the order scheduled, are outlined in the follow- ing tabulation: JANUARY - JUNE 1955 15 Subject Days allotted Lecture Field or Lab. Session on Practices, March 1 - April 29 Orientation on Puerto Rico, forests and forestry 3 = Dendrology 2-Yo 1-14 Ecology ie) 1 Regeneration 2-14 6 Silviculture Le 5-1 2 Mensuration 1-1 2 6-1 2 Utilization 1-% 3- be Research af 3-Iy Ohex related forestry subjects 4 — Subtotal 17-14 27-14 Session on Programs, May 2 - May 27 Forest resources — 3 Forest economics 1 = Public forestry 2-14 1 Private forestry 1 if Forest legislation 1 — Forest research 1 1 Problems and policy in countries represented 3 — Other related forestry subjects 1-14 — Allied governmental programs = 4 Subtotal ila 10 Total 28-14 37-14 Se ee er BAe Se Oe The orientation at the beginning of the course was broad and was offered by local leaders in the fields of political science, in- dustry, education, and agriculture. Related forestry subjects, 12 of which were added at the request of the students, included speciai discussions on forest industries, forest in- ventory, aerial photography, regeneration with taungya, introduction of exotics, re- generation of dry regions, plotless cruising, silviculture of mahogany, pasture manage- ment, conversion of unmanaged stands, and logging. Allied governmental programs in- cluded those of the Agricultural Extension Service, the Soil Conservation Service, the Agricultural Experiment Stations, and the College of Agriculture. Other points of in- terest visited were a sugar mill, a pineapple cannery, and a hydroponics farm. A day-to- cay schedule appears in Appendix A. Instructors The central core of the instruction was carried out by personnel of the Forest Service stationed in Puerto Rico, including both the administrative and research branches of the Tropical Region. Such personnel led the instruction in the fields of regeneration, sil- vicuiture, mensuration, utilization, research, and public forest administration. However, the scope of the course was so broad that it was considered necessary to recruit a num- ber of additional instructors from other agencies both from within and outside of Puerto Rico. The types of contributions made by these agencies are listed in Appen- dix B. 14 Trainees The announcement of the course stated that candidates for the full 3 months should be ‘“‘junior government officers from tropical countries who occupy positions hav- ing to do with forest resources administra- tion, management, or utilization, or with closely allied fields. They preferably should be graduate foresters or agronomists en- gaged in forestry services, or have equivalent training.” Trainees for the final month were to have equivalent training and to hold senior positions in their forest departments. Because of physical limitations a maximum of 20 trainees in each category was set. It was assumed that a country would profit most from the course by sending both a junior and a senior man. A total of 14 trainees attended the first 2 months of the course and an additional 12 trainees the last month. Of this last group seven were sponsored by FOA (three of these recruited by the Caribbean Commission) and the others by FAO. The name of each trainee, his home country, and his period of training are presented in the following tabulation. Three Months of Training Boman S. Bhathena — India Roberto Chavez — Mexico Jorge A. Gallegos Teran — Ecuador Julio Garcia — Colombia Alapatt I. Lyppu — India T. Jeyadev — India Thi Nghia Ly — Viet-Nam Arnoldo Madriz — Costa Rica C. M. Mathur — India Luis A. Palma N. — Nicaragua Claude C. Pierre-Louis — Haiti C. V. K. Reddy — India Martin R, Reyes — Philipp#ne James Sanchez — Colombia CARIBBEAN FORESTER One Month of Training Virgilio H. Alvarado — Guatemala Jairo Alviar — Colombia Rene L. Ambroise — Haiti Flavio P. Bazan — Pert Albert A. M. Berenos — Surinam Kenneth K. Cheong — British Guiana Armando Cuevas Lopez — Mexico Roberto C. Garduno — Mexico Luis A. Macias — Mexico Eduard S. Molgo — Surinam Alfredo Pinillos — Guatemala R, A. de Rosayro — Ceylon Facilities The lectures were conducted in the library of the Forest Service headquarters build- ing; the wood laboratory, nursery, and herbarium at the headquarters were also used. The group included both English and Spanish speaking trainees so translation was necessary. Translation of lectures was done by members of the staff. The translation was generally briefer than the original pre- sentation and was frequently unnecessary in the field. The more important informa- tion was mimeographed in both languages. A list of the material distributed to the trainees appears in Appendix C and the edu- cational films shown are listed in Appendix Dp: Most of the field work was carried out on the public lands within two Federal and seven Commonwealth Forests. Field work was done also on farm areas and in the two forest nurseries of the Commonwealth. Field quarters were used temporarily to house the students in the Luquillo, Toro Ne- gro, Rio Abajo, and Maricao forests. A total of 12 nights were spent in the field. Travel was in sedans and station wagons, some of which were rented by the day. A total distance of 2,700 miles, nearly all on hard surfaced roads, was covered during the JANUARY - JUNE 1955 3 months. About 30 percent of the field time (16 percent of the total time) was spent in travel. Accommodations The desire to assure satisfactory quarters at reasonable rates and to locate the trainees close to the Forest Service headquarters and to each other led to the proposal to set up a cooperative which was agreed to and fi- nanced by the trainees. This cooperative, administered by the Group Leader, rented adjacent apartments in a large apartment building. The visiting instructors and all but three of the trainees participated in this arrangement. An average of five men shared each apartment. Meals were also provided through the co- operative. An extra apartment was rent- ed for a kithen and dining room, a cook and helper were hired, and food was purchased. When required, the cook, cooking equipment, food and bed linen were transported to the field with the trainees. On weekends the cook was off duty and many of the men cook- ed their own meals in each apartment, others eating in restaurants nearby. The coopera- tive fund was also used to finance other projects jointly agreed upon, such as special meals, banquets, and a few trips. Outside Activities A number of outside nonforestry activities were arranged for the trainees. These in- cluded six dinners, of which three were in private homes; four cocktail parties, two receptions, two dances, two tours of historic sites, two trips to the beach, one concert, one trip to an outdoor recreation area, a trip to the phosphorescent bay, and attendance at the opening of the West Indian Confer- ence, religious activities, and the dedication of the International Airport. Several of these activities were arranged by the Office of Technical Cooperation of the Common- wealth Department of State. In addition, the cooperative dining room facilities made it possible for the group to invite friends to meals. In all about 50 per- sons, including several prominent officials, 15 ate with the group as guests. Outsiders were also invited in to see the films shown in the dining room during the evenings. A conscious attempt was made in plan- ning the program of the course to integrate cultural, aesthetic, and recreational features at appropriate opportunities, and above all, to show wherever possible how these features were related to the forestry programs of Puerto Rico to provide vivid experiences for the participants. Whenever possible lunch stops or evening's in the field were scheduled for places which offered excellent examples of typical features of Puerto Rico. MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS The major accomplishments of the course appear to lie within three general categories: (1) the dissemination of information on tro- pical forestry, (2) the unification of the trainees regarding professional matters, and (3) the broadening of general understand- ing. The instructors showed forestry to the trainees, supervised their actual participa- tion in certain types of forestry work, and in addition described for them other practices, techniques, and aspects not locally demons- trable. They were shown all of the im- portant results of 30 years of forestry and allied activities in Puerto Rico. They saw the more important tree species, the dif- ferent forest types, the results of reforest- ation of bare land, underplanting with maho- gany, improvement cuttings in natural forest, and the effects of orderly forest management and administration. They were also shown how to prepare samples for wood testing, a furniture factory, paper mill, and paper-board box factory, and the methods and practices used in local programs of soil conservation, agricultural extension, re- search, and education. In addition to being shown, the trainees themselves carried out a number of forestry projects calling for direct participation. They marked a plantation of teak for thin- ning and saw it thinned, they marked trees for an improvement cutting in mixed rain 16 forest, they made a simple volume table for eucalyptus, they carried out a 10-percent in- ventory of 335 acres of rain forest and com- puted the volumes of trees suited for furni- ture wood, construction wood, poles, posts, and fuelwood, determining also the volume which shouid be removed to improve the stand. They also determined for 50 species of trees in rain forest the growth rate during the past 12 years. In the study of woods they dipped lumber for protection against stain and stacked it for air Seasoning. They determined the specific gravity, shrinkage, and moisture content of wood and _ used woodworking machines in making small ob- jects. The instructors described many additional aspects of forestry which could not be easily demonstrated. Included were the testing of seeds, nursery practices, inventory methods without plots, the planning and layout of experiments, the parcelero system of forest farming, organization of the United States Forest Service, and policies and practices of forest administration in the United States. All of the training did not emanate from the instructors. In roundtable and outside discussions the students themselves contri- buted much information of common interest. During a period of 3 days each trainee had an opportunity to describe individually the forest conditions and problems of his country. These were discussed by the entire group. In addition, the trainees gave lec- tures and led discussions on subjects of special interest to them, such as regeneration with taungya, the regeneration of dry sites, the introduction of exotics, and grazing pro- blems. The training had a pronounced effect in unifying the men. They lived together and with many of their instructors. Differences in rank among the trainees created no pro- blem. Through the course they became in- creasingly aware of the nature of their respective problems, many of which are com- mon for Latin America. It was thus logical that at the close of the course they expressed _ a desire to maintain contacts and to meet again periodically to discuss frankly their problems. CARIBBEAN FORESTER The general understanding of the trainees, particularly those from the Eastern Hemi- sphere, was broadened by the course. The orientation clarified the status of Puerto Ri- co with respect to the United States, and described the government and its progress in education, agriculture and industrializa- tion. Moreover, the trainees traveled to ali parts of the island. They met local leaders and jearned of life in the island through the numerous special contacts. In addition, they learned how people live in the 13 other coun- tries represented by their fellow trainees with whom they were so closely associated. An additional measure of performance is the safety and health record of the trainees and instructors. The course involved about 1,750- man-days, including trainee time, and more than 12,000 car-miles, yet there were no lost-time accidents and only 1 man-day of sickness. APPENDIX A Program for March Date Activity 1 Physical Arrangements, Housing, ete. 2 Welcoming Address w Talk on Course Administration Talk on Education in Puerto Rico Talk on Economic Development in Puerto Rico Talk on General Orientation Talk on Agriculture in Puerto Rico 4 Lectures on Forest Problems of Puerto Rico Land Watershed Protection Timber Supply Utilization Wildlife Recreation Lectures on Development of Fores- try. ine: Before 1900 U.S. Forest Service Commonwealth Div. of Forests, JANUARY - JUNE 1955 OU I 10 11 14 16 18 19 Fisheries and Wildlife Extension Service Soil Conservation Service Reception for Trainees Dendrology Lecture on Nomenclature and Classification of Trees Laboratory Work on Botanicai Terms Dendrology Tree Identification - Use of Keys Lecture on Ecology Dendrology and Ecology Field Trip to Cambalache Forest Dendrology Lecture on Important Families of Forest Trees Coliection of Botanical Speci- mens-Herbarium Dendrology and Ecology Field trip to Luquillo Mts. and E] Yunque Dendrology Lecture and Examination Regeneration Lecture on seed collection and testing Seed Tests at Rio Piedras Nur- sery Regeneration Lecture on Nursery Practices Orientation and Political Develop- ment of P. R. Regeneration - Visit Toa Nursery Regeneration Lecture on Nursery Practices Visit Catalina Nursery Regeneration Lectures on Tree Planting Regeneration Field Study of Forest Plantations Toro Negro Return to Rio Piedras Regeneration bo bo dl Date = 17 Field Study of Forest Plantations Guajataca Regeneration Field Study of Forest Plantations Luquillo Regeneration Field Study of Forest Plantations at Carite Regeneration Summary Silviculture Lecture on Silvics and Silvicul- ture Lecture on Tropical Silviculture Silviculture Mark Teak Plantation for thin- ning at Rio Abajo See Thinnings of Teak and Maho- gany Study Marked Teak Plantations after Thinning Return to Rio Piedras Silviculture See Thinnings in Mangrove at Aguirre Silviculture Observe Effects of Timber Cut- ting at Luquillo Silviculture Practice Timber Marking at Lu- quillo Program for April Activity Silviculture Timber Marking Test at Luquillo Return to Rio Piedras Forest Mensuration Lecture on Forest Mensuration Mensuration Practices and Equipment Lecture on Timber Cruising Forest Mensuration Practice Cruising at Luquillo 18 ~ 13 14 15 18 19 iw) i) Forest Mensuration Practice Cruising at Luquillo Forest Mensuration Practice Cruising at Luquillo Return to Rio Piedras Holiday - Good Friday Forest Mensuration Tree Measurements for Volume Determination at Carite Return to Rio Piedras Forest Mensuration Computation of Tree Volumes Construction of Volume Tables Forest Mensuration Compilation of Cruise Data Forest Mensuration Compilation of Cruise Data Afternoon Open - Pan American Day Forest Mensuration Summarize Cruise Data Wood Utilization Lecture on Wood Utilization Mechanical and Physical Proper- ties of wood Wood Utilization Visit Small Sawmill in Carolina Machining Tests Training Films Wood Utilization Air Seasoning of Lumber Visit Furniture Plant Visit Paper Mill Wood Utilization Lecture on Woodworking Machines Lecture on Wood Preservation Machining Tests Wood Utilization Complete Tests Begun April 18 Make Personal Memento Resumé on Wood Utilization Training Films Forest Research 26 27 28 29 Date (eX) CARIBBEAN FORESTER Lecture on Forest Research Tree Growth Measurements at Luquillo Forest Research Analysis of Tree Growth Measurements at Luquillo Forest Research Study Growth Factors at Lu- quillo Research Procedures Forest Research Study of Regeneration Tests at Cambalache Training Films Resumé of Previous Two Months Work Review Forestry Practices Afternoon Open Program for May Activity Forest Resources Field Trip See Fish Hatchery at Maricao See Municipal Water System at Maricao Continue Forest Resources Field Pep See Maricao Forest and Re- creation Area See Guanica Forest and Wildlife Refuge See Guayabal Irrigation Reser. voir Continue Forest Resources Field Trip See Forest Farming Demonstra- tion at Toro Negro Description of Caonillas Water- shed Conservation Program See Dos Bocas Hydroelectric plant Policy and Organization of the U:S.E:S; Programs and Policies Administrative Management Formal Welcome Ceremony JANUARY - JUNE 1955 6 10 11 Program Revision Economic Planning and Evaluation of Forestry Discussion of Forest Economics Forest Policy in Central America Industrial Potentialities of Central American Forests Tropical Raw Pulp and Paper Ma- terials Public Forestry Timber Management Range Management Watershed Management Fire Control Public Forestry Information and Education Forest Recreation Safety Forest Engineering Forest Inventories and Aerial Photography Regeneration with Taungya Training Films Public Forest Administration See Administration of Public Forests at Luquillo Private Forestry - Panel Discus- sion on. Public Aids to Private Fc- restry State and Private Extension Service Technical Assistance Flood Prevention Program Agricultural Conservation Pro- gram Private Forestry Trip to San Lo- renzo i) Or i) “| 19 Introduction of Exotics Mahogany Regeneration of Dry Regions Forestry Legislation Lecture on Forest Laws 17, 18 and Round Table Discussion of Fores- try Problems Individual Presentation by Countries Represented New Group - Forest Research Old Group - Research Planning Conversion of Unman- aged Stands Plotless Cruising Old Group - Logging New Group - Plotless Cruising Intermediate Cuttings Allied Agricultural Programs Visit Soil Conservation District at Corozal Allied Agricultural Programs Visit Agricultural Extension District at Arecibo Allied Agricultural Programs Visit Federal Agric. Experi- ment Station at Mayaguez Visit College of Agriculture at Mayaguez Allied Agricultural Programs Visit Lajas Sub-Station Return to Rio Piedras Termination of Course Resumé Banquet CARIBBEAN FORESTER Field of Instruction 20 APPENDIX B Instruction Offered by Agencies other than the Tropical Forest Research Center of the Forest Service Agency International Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Caribbean Commission United States Government Foreign Operations Administration Forest Service (Washington Office) Soil Conservation Service Virgin Islands Corporation Federal Agricultural Experiment Station Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Department of State Industrial Development Company Department of Instruction Department of Agriculture and Commerce Div. of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife Agricultural Extension Service Water Resources Authority Aqueduct and Sewer Service Agricultural Experiment Station College of Agriculture Forest policy Forest utilization Forest mensuration Forest management Forest utilization Forest legislation Forest policy Forest economics Dendrology Ecology Public forestry Private forestry Soil conservation Public forestry Private forestry Silviculture Agricultural research Private forestry Orientation Orientation Orientation Forest regeneration Forest utilization Public forestry Forest resources - wildlife Private forestry Private forestry Agricultural extension Forest resources - water Forest resources - water Agricultural research Agricultural education JANUARY - JUNE 1955 APPENDIX C List of Printed and Mimeographed Material Distributed to Trainees Converting Factors and Tables of Equiva- lents used in Forestry. Shortcuts for Cruisers and Scalers. Text and Charts Organization of the U. S. Forest Service. Rules for Cutting Steps in the Development of a research Frogram with Outlines for Analyses, Study Plans, Reports, etc. Timber Species of the Tropical Lowland Formations of Northern Tropical America. Abstract Journal of Forestry Article on Hardwood Control Timber Management on U. S. National Forests. Sample Study Plan (Research). The Silviculture and Management of Tro- pical Rain Forest with Special Refe- rence to Ceylon. Forestry in Guatemala. Preparation of a Volume Table Using the Least Squares-Logarithmic Formula Method. A Classification of Puerto Rican Farm Lands for Forest Planting. Instructions for Forest Service Plant Col- lections. Ornamental Trees of Puerto Rico. An Underplanting Policy for Puerto Rico. Notes on Tropical Dendrology. Summary of Data Collected During Tim- ber Cruising. Summary of Results of Timber Marking in Field. 21 List of Outstanding Forestry Periodicals for Reference. Partial List of Forestry Texts and Refe- rence Books. Partial List of U. S. Department of Agri- culture Films Dealing with Forestry and Conservation Subjects, with des- cription, etc. Most Important Timber Species of Puerto Rico. Forest Seed Policy of the U.S.D.A. Certificados de Calidad y Origen y Hoja de envio de las Semillas. Methods of Drawing Samples for Germi- nation Tests. Origen y Desarrollo del Servicio Forestal Federal. Eucalipte en Plantaciones. Los Bosques Exoticos. Air Drying of Lumber. Types of Lumber Dry Kilns. Furnace-type Lumber Dry Kiln. List of Dry Kiln Companies and Engineers and consultants in the United States. Air Seasoning of Lumber at Small Mills. List of Publications on the Seasoning of Wood. Coating for the Prevention of End Checks in Logs and Lumber. Cause and Prevention of Blue Stain in Wood. Methods of Determining the Moisture Content of Wood. Exploratory Tests on Machining and Re- lated Properties of Fifteen Tropical American Hardwoods. Woodworking Machines. Machining and Related Characteristics of Southern Hardwoods. List of Publications on Logging, Milling, and Utilization of Timber Products. bo bo The Air Seasoning of Wood. Protection Against Wood-destroying Orga- nisms. Methods of Determining the Specific Gra- vity of Wood. Properties of Some Bamboos Cultivated in the Western Hemisphere. Mechanical Properties of Brazilian Parana pine. Use of Bleached Cold Soda Pulps from Certain Mixtures of Latin-American Hardwoods in Newsprint. Control of Stain, Mold, and Decay in Green Lumber and Other Wood Products. Average Strength and Related Properties of Five Foreign Woods Tested at the Forest Products Laboratory. Marketing of Caribbean Timbers. Forest Policies, Law, Administration. Research in Forestry and Forest Products. Raw Materials for More Paper. Grazing and Forest Economy. Forest Abstracts Coverage List. Tropical Woods and Agricultural Residues as Sources of Pulp. 1954 Forest Seed Directory. Planning a National Forest Inventory. Elements of Fire Control. Forest Plantation Protection Against Diseases and Insect Pests. World Festival of Trees. A Small Lumber-drying Unit Employing a Portable Crop Drier for Heat and Air Circulation. Sapstain Control Treatmente Before or After Dressing. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Simplified Procedure for Determining Oven-dry Specific Gravity of flitches and Bolts. Pulping of Latin American woods. The Caribbean Forester, Vol. 12, Nos. 3 &4 13; Nos. 1, 2:& 4 14, Nos. 1 to 4 15, Nos 1 & 2 APPENDIX D LIST OF TRAINING FILMS SHOWN The River Conservation of Fertile Soils This Our Land Raindrops and Soil Erosion Erosion Agua Forest Treasures Trees to Tame the Wind Smokey the Bear Your American Tragedy E] Guardia Forestal The Small Sawmill Mountain Water Rainbow Valley Realm of the Wild Everyman’s Empire Forest Fire Fighting in the South Grass and Cattle Lifeblood of the Land Operation of a Forest Nursery Waters of Coweet JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Participants and Instructors — Tropical Forestry Short Course Held in Puerte Rico March 1 to May 29, 1955 Standing, left to right L. J. Cummings —— ik @eAemraname F. H. Wadsworth — U.S.F.S. Puerto Rico A. A. M. Berenos — Surinam A. Cuevas Lénez — Mexico L. Macias A. — Mexico A. Pinillos — Guatemala R. A. de Rosayro — Ceylon E. S. Molgo — Surinam R. F. Haussman — U.S.F.S. Virgin Islands I. P. Murray — U.S.F.S. United States J. Garcia — Colombia J. Sanchez — Cclombia J. Alviar — Cclombia R. Garduno G. — Mevico C. F. Ehelebe — IC.A. Guatemala L. A. Palma N. — Nicaragua R. Chavez — Mexico B. J. Huckenpahler C. C. Pierre-Louis Cc. M. Mathur A. I. lyppu — U.S.F.S. Puerto Rico — Haiti — India — India Seated, Left to Right T. Jeyadev B. S. Bhathena V. H. Alvarado J. A. Gallegos Teran F, P. Bazan A. Madriz i. K. Cheong M. R. Reyes Cc. V. K. Reddy TIN in Livy: R. L. Ambroise — India — India — Guatemala — Ecuador — Pert — Costa Rica — British Guiana — Philivpines India — Vietnam — Haiti CARIBBEAN FORESTER Informe Sobre el Curso Corto de Dasonomia Tropical Celebrado en Puerto Rico, Marzo lro. a Mayo 29, 1955 Frank H. Wadsworth, B. J. Huckenpahler y Carl F. Ehelebe! La rapida expansion de programas bilate- rales y multilaterales en el entrenamiento in- ternacional de dasonomia ha atraido a Puer- to Rico un numero siempre en aumento de estudiantes. Aquellos estudiantes que lle- gan a Hstados Unidos de paises que tienen bosques tropicales y particularmente los de la América Latina, generalmente pasan una parte considerable de su entrenamiento en Puerto Rico, el unico puesto de avanzada de la dasonomia tropical en los Estados Unidos de Norte América. La experiencia demuestra que el entrena- miento individual de técnicos es menos ef!- ciente que el entrenamiento en grupo. Hi en- trenamiento individual requiere una inver- sion considerable del tiempo de los instructo- res por estudiante y generalmente no permi- te cubrir un campo amplio en el corto perio- do generalmente designado. Como un medio para eliminar dichos problemas se organiz6 un curso corto temprano en 1955. Otras de las ventajas reconocidas del entrenamient»s en grupo eran las posibilidades de justificar el uso de especialistas de fuera de la isla co- mo instructores y las discusiones de mesa redonda, en las cuales los estudiantes pueden describir y discutir problemas y programas de politica nacional para beneficio mutuo. DESCRIPCION DEL CURSO La Administracion de Operaciones Extra- jeras aSumio el respaldo del curso reclutan- do la mayor parte de los estudiantes y pa- . 1/ Respectivamente — Lid2-, Centro de Investigaciones y Oficial de Entrenamiento, Centro d2 Investigaciones Forestales Tropicales y Lider de Grupo, Administracién de Operaciones Extranjeras. gando un oficial de entranamiento, un lider de grupo, la mayor parte de la instruccién y los costos de viajes y dietas de los estu- diantes. La Organizacién de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimenta- cion cooperé estrechamente y contribuy6 con instructores durante parte del periodo, con estudiantes y material educativo. La Comi- sion del Caribe ayudo en el reclutamiento de tres estudiantes. El Centro de Investigaciones Forestales Tropicales del Servicio Forestal Federal en Puerto Rico asumio la direccién del curso. Kin ese sentido el Centro de Investigaciones recibié la cooperacion de varias agencias del Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, par- ticularmente de la Division de Bosques, Pes- ca y Vida Silvestre del Departamento de Agricultura y Comercio, de la Oficina de Cooperacion Técnica del Departamento de Estado y del Servicio de Extension Agricola de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. Otras agencias federales en la isla ofrecieron su cooperacion, en particular el Servicio de Con- servacion de Suelos del Departamento de Agricultura. Materias Tratadas El entrenamiento estaba orientado a satis- facer dos necesidades: (1) ofrecer informa- cidn en cuanto a practicas y técnicas a los técnicos en puestos subalternos en los Ser- vicios Forestales y (2) suplir informacion sobre politica, organizacién, administracion JANUARY - JUNE 1955 y legislacion a los jefes y otros oficiales su- periores. Para cubrir la primer fase se desig- no un periodo de dos meses y un mes para ia segunda fase. Esta ultima siguid inmedia- tamente a la primer fase, de manera que su informacion sirviera de enlaze y como una proyeccion de la informacion ofrecida en la 2a fase demostrando su sitio en un ‘ograma nacional. Por lo tanto el grupo subalterno asistio al curso completo de tres meses. Las materias tratadas en el orden del pro- grama se presentan en forma de bosquejo en la siguiente tabulacion. primera Dias Materias Confe- | Campo o rencias | laboratorio Sesion en Practicas - Marzo 1 - Abril 29 Orientacion sobre Puerto Rico, sus bosques y dasonomia 5 a Dendrologia 214 1% Ecologia ly 1 Reforestacion Died) ) Silvicultura ii 5_14 Mensuracion 1_1%4 6_lo Utilizacion 1_1% dls Investigaciones 1 316 Otras materias forestales relacionadas 4 = Subtotal 17_14 27_Wy Sesién en Programas - Mayo Z - Mayo 27 Recursos forestales a 3 Economia forestal aL = Dasonomia publica PALS) if Dasonomia particular ik 1 Legislacién forestal 1 ya Investigacion forestai 1 1 Problemas y politica forestal de los paises 5) zs representados Otras materias forestales relacionadas 114 = Programas gubernamentales afines = 4 Subtotal 10 Total 28_1 2 Slee 2 La orientacién ofrecida al principio del curso fué amplia y estuvo a cargo de lideres locales en los campos de ciencias politicas, industrias, educacion y agricultura. A peti- cion de jos estudiantes se incluyeron 12 ma- terias adicionales relacionadas con la dasono- mia, las que incluyeron discusiones especia- es e industrias foresta!les, inventario fores- tal, fotografia aérea, repoblacion bajo el sis- tema de ‘‘taungya’’, introduccioén de especies exoticas, repoblacién de regiones 4aridas, mensuracion sin el uso de parcelas de ensa- yos, slivicultura de caoba, utilizacion de pas- tos, manejo de rodales naturales y explota- cion de bosques. Otros programas guberna- mentales afines incluian los del Servicio de Extension Agricola, el Servicio de Conserva- cién de Suelos, la Estacién Experimenta! wy) 6 Agricoia y el Colegio de Agricultura. Otros puntos de interés visitados incluyeron una factoria de azuicar, un enlatado de pinas y una finca donde no Se utiliza la tierra (hydro- ponics). En el Apéndice A se presenta un itinerario dia por dia. Instructores La parte principal de la instruccion estu- vo a cargo cel personal del Servicio Forestal en Puerto Rico incluyendo ambas ramas de Administracion e Investigacion en el Servi- cio Forestal Federal. Dicho personal condu- jo la instruccion en tales materias como re- poblacion, silvicultura, mensuracion, utiliza- cion, investigacion y administracion forestal publica, Sin embargo el alcance del curso fué tan amplio, que se hizo necesario reclutar instructores adicionales de otras agencias de centro y fuera de Puerto Rico. El Apéndice B incluve una lista de las contribuciones de dichas agencias. Hstudiantes El aviso del curso estipulaba que los can- didaces para el curso completo de tres me- ses Cebian ser ‘oficiales subalternos en el bierno en paises tropicales, que ocupen puestos relacionados con la administracion, 2erejo o utilizacion de recursos forestales o en campos muy relacionados. Se le dara pre- ferencia a dasénomos, graduados o agroéno- mos que ocupen puestos en los Servicios Fo- restales 0 que posean un entrenamiento equi- valente’”. Para cualificar para el entrena- miento durante el ultimo mes los candidatos deberian tener una preparacion equivalente y oeupar puestos de responsabilidad en los Servicios Forestales correspondientes., Debi- do a las limitaciones fisicas se limito el nu- mero de participantes a 20 en cada categoria. Asumimos que cada pais obtendria mayor provecho del curso enviando un oficial su- balterno y un oficial superior. Zs rO Ot — ie} En total 14 estudiantes asistieron duran- te los primeros dos meses y un grupo adi- cional de 12 estudiantes durante el ultimo mes. De este ultimo grupo siete estudiantes CARIBBEAN FORESTER estaban bajo los auspicios ce la Administra- cidn de Operaciones Extranjeras, FOA (tres de los cuales fueren reclutados por la Comi- sidn del Caribe) y el resto por la Organiza- cidn de las Naciones Unidas para la Agricul- tura y la Alimentacion, FAO. En la siguien- te tabulacion ofrecemos el nombre de cada estudiante, su pais de origen y el periodc de entrenamiento. Entrenamiento de Tres Meses Boman S. Bhathena india Roberto Chavez México Jorge A. Gallegos Teran Ecuador Julio Garcia Colombia Alapatt I. Iyppu India T. Jeyadev India Thi Nghia Ly Arnoldo Madriz Cesta Rica C. M. Mathur India Luis A. Palma N. Nicaragua Claude C. Pierre-Louis Haiti C. V. K. Reddy india Martin R. Reyes ftames Sanchez Islas Filipinas Colombia Enirenamiento de un Mes Virgilio H. Alvarado__ Guatemala Jairo Alviar Colombia Rene L. Ambroise Haiti Flavio P. Bazan Peru Albert A. M. Berenos Surinam (Guaya- na Holandesa) Kenneth K. Cheong Guayana Britani- ca Armando Cuevas Lopez México Roberto C. Garduno Mexico Luis A. Macias México Eduard S. Molgo Surinam Alfredo Pinillos Guatemala R. A. de Rosayro Ceilan Facilidades Las conferencias se condujeron en la bi- blioteca de la oficina central del Servicio Fo- restal. El laboratorio de maderas, el vivero JANUARY - JUNE 1955 y el herbario de la oficina central también se utilizaron. El grupo incluia estudiantes ce habla inglesa y espanoia lo cual hizo ne- cesario las traducciones. La traduccion de las conferencias estuvo a cargo de miembros del Servicio Forestal. La traduccion fué ge- neralmente mas breve que la presentacion originalmente y no fué necesaria en el tra- bajo de campo. La informaci6n mas impor- tante se preparo en forma de mimeografo en ambos idiomas. El Apéndice C incluye una lista del material distribuido a los estudian- tes y en el Apéndice D se enumeran las peli- -culas educativas. La mayor parte del trabajo de campo se llevo a cabo en terrenos publicos dentro de dos bosques federales y siete bosques del Estado Libre Asociado. Los estudiantes se alojaron temporalmente en edificios locali- zados en los bosques de Luquillo, Toro Ne- gro, Rio Abajo y Maricao. En total los es- tudiantes pasaron 12 noches en el campo. La transportaciOn se hizo en carros estilo turismo y en camionetas, algunos de los cua- les se arrendaron por dia. Durante los tres meses se cubrié una distancia total de 2,700 milias casi toda sobre carreteras empedra- das. Como un 30 por ciento del tiempo trans- currido en el campo equivalente a un 16 por ciento del tiempo total se utiliz6 en las tra- vesias. Facilidades de Alojamiento El deseo de asegurar alojamiento a un precio razonable y localizar los estudiantes cerca de la oficina central del Servicio Fo- restal y en contacto entre si, lleg6 a organi- zar una cooperativa de acuerdo con y finan- ciada por los estudiantes. Dicha cooperati- va, administrada por el lider del grupo arren- do apartamientos adyacentes en un gran edi- ficio de apartamientos. Los profesores y to- dos menos tres de los estudiantes participa- ron en este arreglo. Cada apartamiento al- bergaba un promedio de cinco hombres. La cooperativa también proveia las comi- das y se alquilé un apartamiento extra para una cocina comedor. Se adquirieron los ser- vicios de un cocinero y su ayudante, com- prandose los comestibles. Cuando se hacia a necesario se transportaba al campo el coci- nero, equipo de cocina, comestibles y ropa de cama junto con los estudiantes. En los fines de semana el cocinero estaba libre y muchos de los estudiantes preparaban sus comidas en sus apartamientos mientras que otros comian en los restauranes cercanos. Por acuerdo mutuo el fondo cooperativo tam- bién se utilizO para financiar otros proyec- tos tales como comidas especiales, banque- tes y algunos Viajes. Actividades Extracurriculares Fara beneficio de los estudiantes se orga- nizO un numero de actividades fuera del cur- so. Esto incluyo seis comidas de las cuales se ofrecieron tres en casas privadas; cuatro fiestas coctel, dos recepciones, dos bailes, dos excursiones a sitios historicos, dos viajes a la playa, un concierto, una visita a un area recreativa, un viaje a la bahia fosforescente, asistencia a la inauguracion de la Conferen- cia de las Indias Occidentales y del Aeropuer- to Internacional, y actividades religiosas. Varias de esas actividades fueron organiza- das por la Oficina de Cooperacién Técnica del Departamento de Estado del Estado Li- bre Asociado. Las facilidades de un comedor coopera- tivo hizo posible que el grupo pudiera invi- tar sus amigos a comer. Por todo unas 50 personas inciluyendo varios oficiales promi- nentes, fueron invitados. Personas particu- lares también fueron invitadas a ver las pe- liculas exhibidas en el comedor por la noche. Al planear el programa del curso se hizo un esfuerzo para integrar actividades cultu- rales, estéticas y recreativas en oportunida- des apropiadas y sobre todo para mostrar donde fuera posible cémo estas actividades estaban relacionadas a los programas fores- tales de Puerto Rico proveyéndole experien- cias inolvidables a los participantes. Cuantas veces fué posible se hicieron arreglos para almorzar y pernoctar en sitios que ofrecian excelentes ejemplos caracteristicos de Puer- to Rico. 28 LOGROS PRINCIPALES Los logros principales del curso parecen poderse clasificar dentro de tres categorias generales: (1) la diSeminacion de infor- macion en dasonomia tropical, (2) los con- tactos profesionales de los estudiantes y (3) comprensién mas amplia de los conoci- mientos generales. Los instructores dieron demostraciones y supervisaron la participacion de los estu- diantes en ciertos tipos de trabajos foresta- les y ademas le describieron otras practi- cas, técnicas y angulos que no eran faciles ce demostrar localmente. Sobre todo se les mostro todos los resultados mas importan- tes de 30 anos de actividades forestales y de otras actividades andlogas en Puerto Ri- co. Conocieron las especies forestales mas importantes, los distintos tipos forestales y los resultados de repotlacion de tierras des- nudas, siembras de caoka bajo un dosel, me- joramiento del bosque natural, y los efectos ce un manejo y administracion forestal or- denado. También se les ensend como pre- parar muestras para pruebas de madera y visitaron una fabrica de muebles, una fa- brica de papel y una fabrica de carton pa- va envases e hicieron observaciones de los métodos y practicas usadas localmente en los programas de conservacion de suelos y extension, investigacion y educacion agri- colas. Ademas de observar las demostracionas, los estudiantes participaron en un numero de proyectos forestaless, Marcaron arboles para entresaque en una plantacion de teca y observaron como se realizaba el traba- jo, marcaron arboles para una corta de mejo- ra en un bosque pluvia! mixto, prepararon una tabla de vclumen sencillo para euca- lipto, Hevaron a cabo un inventario de un 10 por ciento en unas 335 acres de bosque pluvial y caleularon el volumen de madera propia para muebles, construcciones, pos- tes, y combustible determinando a la vez el volumen que deberia cortarse para mejorar el rodal. Ademas determinaron la rapidez de crecimiento durante los ultimos 12 afios CARIBBEAN FORESTER para 50 especies de arboles en el bosque plu- vial. En los estudios de maderas le dieron tratamiento preservativo en contra de hon- gos y apilaron la madera para secamiento al aire. Determinaron el peso especifico, la merma o disminucién de volumen y ei contenido de humedad de la madera y usa- ron maquinaria para fabricar pequenos ob- jetos. Los instructores ofrecieron demostracio- nes en muchos aspectos adicionales de daso- nomia que no eran faciles de mostrar en e! saién de clases. Entre éstos incluian las prucbas de semillas, pricticas de viveros, métodos de inventarios sin el uso de parce- las de ensayos, el planeamiento y disefio de experimentos, el sistema de parceleros, la organizacion del Servicio Forestal de Esta- dos Unidos y la politica y las practicas de v la administracion forestal de ese pais. No todo el entrenamiento provino de los instructores. Los estudiantes contribuye- ron con mucha informacicén de interés co- mun en las discusiones de inesa redonda y en discusiones fuera del salon de clases. En una sesion de tres dias se le did una opor- tunidad a cada estudiante para describdir la situacion forestal y los problemas de su pais. EKsos puntos de vista fueron luego discu- tidos por el grupo entero. Ademas los es- tudiantes ofrecieron conferencias y dirigie- ron la instrucci6n en materias de interés es- pecial como por ejemplo: la repoblacién por medio del sistema de taungya, la revobla- cién de areas secas, la introduccién de espe- cies exoticas y los problemas de pastoreo. Hl entrenamiento fué muy efectivo en unir los estudiantes. Al vivir juntos, inclu- yendo muchos de los instructores, las dife- rencias de rango no crearon friccién alguna. Segun avanzaba el curso se daban mejor cuenta de la naturaleza de sus respectivos problemas, muchos de los cuales son comu- nes para la América Latina. Como conse- cuencia al terminarse el curso expresaron sus deseos de mantener los contactos y de re- unirse periddicamente en el futuro para dis- cutir francamente sus problemas. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 El curso también contribuy6 a ampliar los conocimientos generales de los estudiantes, particularmente de aquellos del Viejo Mundo. La orientaciOn ofrecida le clarifico el status de Puerto Rico en sus relaciones politicas con Estados Unidos y describio el gobierno y el progreso de la isla en educacion, agricultura e industrializacion. Ademas los estudiantes viajaron a distintas partes de la isla y cono- cieron lideres locales y se enteraron de nues- tro sistema de vida a través de numerosos contactos sociales. Ademas se enteraron de como viven los habitantes de los otros trece paises representados por sus companeros con los cuales estuvieron intimamente relaciona- dos. Una medida adicional cel éxito del curse la constituy6 la seguridad y el record de sa- led de los estudiantes e instructores. El] cur- so incluyo unos 1,750 kombres-dias, incluyen- co el tiempo de estudiantes y se viajO mas ce 12,000 millas en automovil, sin embargo no ocurrid ningun accidente. Solamente se perdié un hombre-dia por enfermedad. APENDICE A Pregrama para el mes de Marzo Fecha Actividad 1 Arreglos de alojamiento, etc. 2 Discurso de bienvenida w Charla sobre la administracion dei curso Charla sobre la educaciOn en Puer- to Rico Charla sobre el desarrollo econ6- mico en P. R. Charla sobre Orientacion general Charla sobre la agricultura en Puerto Rico 4 Conferencias sobre problemas fo- restales en P. R. Tierras Proteccion de cuencas Abastecimiento de maderas Utilizacion ol | 10 jaa feed 15 Vida silvestre Recreo Conferencias sobre el desarrollo de la dasonomia en Puerto Rico Antes de 1900 Historia del Servicio Forestal Federal en P. R. Division de Bosques, Pesca y Vida Silvestre Servicio de Extension Servicio de Conservacion de Suelos Recepcion para estudiantes Dendrologia Conferencia sobre nomenclatura y clasificacion de arboles Sesion de laboratorio en termi- nologia botanica Dendrologia Identificacién de arboles - uso de claves Conferencias sobre ecologia Dendrologia y ecologia Excursion al bosque Ge Cambala- che Dendrologia Conferencia sobre las familias importantes de esencias fores- tales Herborizacion y preparacion del herbario Dencrologia y ecologia Excursién a las montanas de Lu- quillo y El Yunque Dendrologia Examen y conferencia Reproduccion Conferencia Prueba con semillas en el vivero de Rio Piedras Reforestacion Conferencia sobre practicas de vivero Orientacion y desarrollo politico de Puerto Rico Reforestacion i) bo oO 29 Conferencia sobre practica de vivero Visita al vivero de Catalina Reforestacion Conferencia sobre siembras fo restales Rerorestacion Examen de plantaciones foresta- les en Toro Negro Reereso a Rio Piedras Reforestacion Examen de plantaciones foresta- les en Guajataca Reforestacion Examen de plantaciones foresta- les en Luquillo Reforestacion Examen de plantaciones foresta- les en Carite Reforestacion Resumen Sifvicultura Conferencia sobre elementos de la silvicultura y silvicultura Contferencia sobre silvicultura tro- pical Silvicultura Marcar plantacion de teca para entresaque en Rio Abajo Bstudiar aclareos de teca y caova Estudiar plantacion de teca des- pues de aclararse Regreso a Rio Piedras Silvicultura Estuciar aclareos en manglares en Aguirre Siivicultura Observar efectos de cortas de madera en e! bosque de Luquillo *y Silvicultura Practicar mareadura de madera en el bosque de Luquillo or er) “] pes | a) is 14 15 18 1 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Programa para Abril Actividad Silvicuitura Prueba de marcadura de made- ra en el bosque de Luquillo Regreso a Rio Piedras Mensuracion Conferencia sobre mensuracion Practicas y equipo de mensura- cion Conferencia sobre inventario d2 maderas Mensuracion Practica de trabajo en inventario en Luquillo Mensuracion Practica de trabajo en inventario en Luquillo Mensuracion Practica de trabajo en inventario en Luquillo Regreso a Rio Piedras Dia feriado - Viernes Santo Mensuracion Medicion de arvoles para deter- minar el volumen en el bosque de Carite Feoreso a Rio Piedras Mensuracion Calculo de volumen Calcuto de tablas de volumen Iviensuracion Recopilar datos del inventario Mensuracion Recopilar datos del inventario Tarde lisre - Dia Panamericano Mensuracion Resumen de datos del inventaric Utilizacion de maderas Conferencia sobre utilizacion de maderas Propiedad fisica y mecanica de la madera Utilizacion de maderas Visita al aserradero pequeno en Carolina JANUARY - JUNE 1955 iw) to bo Or 27 28 29 Fecha 2 Pruebas de maquinas Peliculas de entrenamiento Utilizacion de maderas Secado de maderas al aire Visita a la fabrica de muebles Visita a la fabrica de papel Utilizacion de maderas Conferencia sobre maquinas pa- ra trabajo en maderas Conferencia sobre preservacion de maderas Pruebas de maquinas Utilizacion de maderas Pruebas completas principiadas Fabricar objeto como recuerdo Resumen en utilizacion de ma- deras Peliculas de entrenamiento Investigacion forestal Conferencia sobre investigaci6n forestal Medicion de crecimiento en ar- boles en el bosque de Luquillo Investigacion forestai Analisis de medidas de crecimien- to tomadas en Ludauillo Analisis de los factores de cre- cimiento. Investigacion forestal Factores de crecimiento en ei bosque de Luquillo Procedimientos usados en inves- tigacion Investigacion forestal Estudios de pruebas de repo- poblaci6n en Cambalache Peliculas de entrenamiento Resumen del trabajo de los dos me- ses anteriores Repaso de practicas forestales Tarde libre Programa para el Mes de Mayo Actividad Viaje al campo (Recursos Fores- tales) (Sp) as 10 31 Visita al vivero de peces de Maricao Visita al Acueducto Municipal Viaje al bosque de Maricao Viaje al campo (recursos fores- tales) Visita al bosque de Maricao y Su area de recreo Visita al bosque y refugio de pa- jaros de Guanica Visita a la presa de riego de Guayabal Viaje al campo (recurses fores- tales} Demostracion de cultivos agrico- las en el area forestal Descripcién del programa de conservacion de la cuenca de Caonillas Visita a la planta hidroeléctrica de Dos Bocas Folitica y organizacion del Servicio Forestal de Estados Unidos Programas y politicas Administracion Bienvenida Revision del programa Planificaci-n econdmica y evalua- cion de la dasonomia Discusi6n sobre economia foresta! Politica forestal en Centro- América Potencialidades industriales de los bosques de Centro-América Materia prima tropical para la fabricacion de papel Dasonomia publica Manejo de arboles maderables Manejo de pastos Manejo de cuencas hidrograficas Control de incendios Dasonomia publica Informacion y educacion Recreacion forestal Seguridad Ingenieria forestal Inventarios forestales y fotogra- fia aérea Regeneracion con “Taungya”’ — te 14 L718, 19 Administracion de bosques publicos Ver administracion de bosques publicos en Luquillo Dasonomia particular - Discusion sobre la contribucion a la Dasono- mia en terrenos particulares Estatal y particular Servicio de Extension Asistencia tecnica Programa de prevencion de inundaciones Programa de conservacion agri- cola Viaje a fincas particulares Grupo A - Introduccion de espe- cies exoticas Grupo B - Caoba Grupos A y B - Regeneracion de regiones secas Legislacion forestal Conferencia sobre leyes fores- tales Discusion de mesa redonda sobre problemas forestales Presentacion individual de los pai- ses representados 20 26 27 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Grupo nuevo - Investigacion forestal Primer grupo - Planificacion de in- vestigacion Problemas especiales de pastoreo Conversion de rodales que no han sido manejados Inventario sin cuarteles de ensayo Cortas de mejora Corte y transporte de trozas (primer grupo) Crecimiento de arboles Grupo nuevo - Inventario sin cuar- teles de ensayo Cortas de mejora Visita al Distrito de Conservacion de Suelos Visita al Distrito de Extension Agricola Programas agricolas relacionados Visita a la Estacion Experimen- tal Agricola Federal en Maya- guez Visita al Colegio de Agricultura, Mayagiiez Programas agricolas relacionados Visita a la Subestacion de Lajas Visita al laboratorio marino Regreso a Rio Piedras Resumen y fin del curso JANUARY - JUNE 1955 33 APENDICE B Instruccién Contribuida por Agencias Fuera del Centro de Investigaciones Forestales Tropicales dei Servicio Forestal Agencia Campo de Instruccion Internacional Organizacion de ias Naciones Unidas para la Agricultura y la Alimentacion Comisién del Caribe Gobierno de Estados Unidos Administracion de Operaciones Extranjeras Servicio Forestal (Oficina de Wash.) Servicio de Conservacion de Suelos Corporacion de Islas Virgenes Estacion Experimental Agricola Federal Conservacion y Estabilizaci6n Agricola Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico Departamento de Estado Compania de Fomento Industrial Departamento de Instruccion Departamento de Agricultura y Comercio Div. de Bosques, Pesca y Vida Silvestre Servicio de Extension Agricola Autoridad de Fuentes Fluviales Servicio de Acueductos y Alcantarillados Estacion Experimental Agricola Colegio de Agricultura Politica forestal Utilizacion Mensuracion Manejo Forestal Utilizacion Legislacion forestal Politica forestal Economia forestal Dendrologia Ecologia Dasonomia publica Dasonomia particular Conservacion de suelos Dasonomia publica Dasonomia particular Silvicultura Investigacion forestal Dasonomia particular Orientacion Orientacion Orientacion Orientacion Repoblacion forestal Utilizacion Dasonomia publica Recursos forestales - Vida Silvestre Dasonomia particular Dasonomia particular Extension agricola Recursos forestales Recursos forestales Investigacion agricola Educacion agricola 34 APENDICE C Lista de Material Impreso 0 Mimeografiado Distribuido a los Estudiantes Factores de Conversion y Tablas de Medidas Equivalentes usadas en la Dasonomia. Métodos breves para el Uso de Mensura- dores y Cubicadores. Textos y Cartas de Organizacion del Servi- cio Forestal de Estados Unidos de N. A. Reglas para la corta. Desarrollo de un Programa de _ Investi- gacion Incluyendo Bosquejos de andalisis, planes de estudio, informes, etc. Especies Madereras de las Formaciones Tropicales de Tierras Bajas en el Norte de Sur América. Compendio del Articulo Sobre Eliminacion de Especies Indeseables de Hojas An- chas Publicado en el “Journal of Fores- Lry. Manejo Forestal en los Bosques Naciona- les de Estados Unidos de N. A. Plan de Estudio de Muestreo (Investiga- clon). La Silvicultura y Manejo del Bosque Pluvial Tropical con Referencia Especial! a Ceilan. La Dasonomia en Guatemala. Preparacion de una Tabla de Volumen Uti- lizando el Método de la Formula Logarit- mica de los Minimos Cuadrados. Clasificacion de los Terrenos Propios par. Reforestacion en las Fincas de Puerto Rico. Instrueciones del Servicio Forestal Sobre Herborizacion. Arboles Ornamentales de Puerto Rico. Politica Sobre Siembras Bajo Rodales en Puerto Rico. Notas Sobre Dendrologia Tropical. Sumario de los Resultados de Marcacion de Maderas en el Monte. Sumario de los Datos Obtenidos en la Mensuracion de Bosques. Lista para Referencias de Revistas Sobre- salientes Sobre Dasonomia. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Lista Parcial de Textos de Dasonomia y Libros de Referencias. Lista Parcial de Peliculas del Departamen- to de Agricultura Federal Sobre Asun- tos de Dasonomia y Conservacion. Hspecies Madereras mas Importantes de de Puerto Rico. Politica del Departamento de Agricultura de Estados Unidos de N. A. Sobre Se- millas Forestales. Certificado de Calidad y de Origen y Hoja de Envio de las Semillas. Métodos para Obtener Muestras para Pruebas de Germinacion. Origen y Desarrollo del Servicio Forestal Federal. Eucalipto en Plantaciones. Los Bosques Exoticos. Secado de Madera al Aire. Tipo de Estufa para Secar Madera. Estufa para Secar Madera por el Sistema de Horno. Lista de Companias, Ingenieros y Consul- tores Reiacionados con el secado de la Madera en los Estados Unidos de N. A. Secado de la Madera al Aire en los Aserra- dores Pequenos. Lista de Publicaciones Sobre el Secado de la Madera. Revestimiento para Evitar las Rajaduras en los Extremos de las Trozas de la Madera. Causas y Medidas para Evitar la Descolo- racion Azul de la Madera. Métodos para Determinar el Contenido de Humedad de la Madera. . Pruebas Exploratorias de la Adaptabilidad de Trabajos de Maquina y otras Propie- dades Relacionadas de 15 Maderas Tro- picales de Hojas Anchas. Maquinas para Trabajo en Madera. Adaptabilidad a Trabajos de Maquina y Otras Caracteristicas Relacionadas de Especies de Hojas Anchas Meridionales. Lista de Publicaciones Sobre Explotacion, Aserrado y Utilizacion de Productos Ma- dereros. Secamiento al Aire de la Madera. Proteccion en Contra de los Organismos Destructores de la Madera. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Propiedades de Algunas Especies de Bam- bu Cultivadas en el Hemisferio Occiden- tal. Propiedades Mecanicas del Pino Brasilero Parana. Uso de Ciertas Mezclas de Pulpa Deriva- das de Especies de Hojas Anchas de La- tinoAmérica y Blanqueadas por el Pro- cedimiento de Soda Fria en la Fabrica- cién de Papel de Periddico. Dominio de Descoloracion, Moho y Podre- dumbre en Madera Verde y Otros Pro- ductos Maderables. Resistencia Promedio y Propiedades Rela- cionadas de 5 Maderas Extranjeras Pro- badas en el Laboratorio de Productos Fo- restales. Mercadeo de Maderas del Caribe. Politica, Ley y Administracién Forestal. Investigaciones en Dasonomia y Productos Forestales. Materia Prima para Fabricar mas Papei. Pastoreo y Economia Forestal. Lista de Compendios de Publicaciones Forestales. Maderas Tropicales y Residuos Agricolas como una Fuente de Pulpa. Directorio de Semillas Forestales para 1954. Cémo Planear el Inventario Forestal Nacional. Eementos de Dominio de Incendios, Proteccion de las Plantaciones Forestales en Contra de Enfermedades y Plagas de Insectos. Festival Mundial del Arbol. Una Pequena Unidad de Secar Madera Utilizando un Secador Portatil y Circu- lacion de Aire. Dominio de la Descoloracién de la Albura Antes y Después de la Cura. 35 Procedimientos Simplificados para Deter- minar el Peso Especifico de la Madera de Piezas Gruesas y Trozas Cortas Se- cadas al Horno. Fabricacion de Pulpa Utilizando Maderas Latino-Americanas. El Caribbean Forester, Vol. 12, Nos. 3 y 4 Vol. 13, Nos. 1, 2, y 4 Viole t45sNos. dey Vols la: Nose 1s y.22 APENDICE D Lista de Peliculas Educativas Mostradas El Rio Conservacion de Suelos Feértiles Hsta Nuestra Tierra Gotas de Lluvia y Erosion de Suelos Erosion Agua an esoros Forestales Avvcoles para Dominar el Viento El Oso, Smokey Su Tragedia Americana E! Guardia Forestal Kl Pequeno Aserradero Agua de la Montana El] Valle del Arco Iris ©! Reino de lo Salvaje El Imperio de Cada Hombre Dominio de Incendios Forestales en el Sur Pastos y Ganado Sangre Vital de la Tierra Funcionamiento de un Vivero Forestal \guas de Coweeta CARIBBEAN FORESTER Trees of Mona Island Elbert L, Little Jr. U. S. Forest Service Washington, D. C. Mona Island, belonging to Puerto Rico, has been visited by various biologists who search for the peculiar, local plants and ani- mals often present on such isolated small is- lands. In 1915 N. L. Brittin (2) published a list of the plants of Mona Island. Botanists visiting this locality subsequently have not recorded additional species. As collections by the author in 1954 and 1955 contain some additions, it may be appropriate to prepare a new list of the trees and large shrubs of the island, totaling 74 native species, of which 12 were not in Britton’s list, and 26 introduced species, mostly cultivated and among them 22 additions. Also, a new analysis of the relation- ships of the flora can be made from the detail- ed information on distribution now available. DESCRIPTIVE BACKGROUND General information about Mona Island has been published by Wadsworth (8) and by Wadsworth and Gilormini (9). This semi- arid and almost uninhabited island is located in Longitude 67°55’ West and Latitute 18°05’ North, in Mona Passage, about midway be- tween Puerto Rico and Hispaniola, both of which are visible (from high places on the island) on a clear day. Mona Island is about 42 miles directly west from the town of Cabo Rojo, Puerto Rico and 47 miles slightly south of west from Mayagiiez. It is less than 40 miles east-southeast of Point Espada, Domini- can Republic. The name, of Indian origin, is from the old name of the island, Amona. In Mona Passage, which has a depth vary- ing between 1,200 and 3,800 feet, are two smaller uninhabited Puerto Rican islands. Three miles north-northwest of Mona Island is Monito, which has an area of about 100 acres, and 30 miles northeast is Desecheo, The latter, a rounded island less than 1 square mile 1/ Numbers in parenthesis refer to references. in area with a peak 600 feet high, is only 13 mi- les west of Punta Jigiiero, the westernmost point of Puerto Rice. About 40 miles west of Mona Island, adjacent to Hispaniola,’ is Sao- na, a larger island with similar topography. Geology A summary oi the geological history will serve as a background for the study of the relationships of the flora. Brief references to the geology of Mona Island have been made by Meyerhoff (6), Schubert (7), and others. The volcanic Antillean Mountains occupying Puerto Rico in the Cretaceous extended into IMona Passage, as shown by the deformed strata on Desecheo, but may have been broad- er and lower toward Mona. Then following submergence, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Is- lands have been land continuously since Eoce- ne and have been joined to at least the north- eastern part of Hispaniola until Pleistocene. There have also been connections with Cuba and Jamaica and in lower Eocene, lower Oli- gocene, and lower Pliocene with Honduras and Nicaragua in Central America. Shallow seas occupied the present northern and southern lowland plains of Puerto Rico in the Eocene and form middle Oligocene to middle Miocene. With uplift in the Oligocene epoch, Hispa- niola, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands to- gether formed a single island, including Mona, almost as long and narrow as Cuba now is. In the Miocene there was some inundation, though Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Virgin Islands remained connected by slender ton- gues of land. At that time limestone strata equivalent to the Ponce limestone of south- western Puerto Rico were deposited where Mo- na now rises. The present geography was form- ed with uplifts in late Miocene and Pliocene, when there emerged the outcrop of which JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Mona Island is a part, and with erosion, irac- turing, and block-faulting in upper Pliocene and Pleistocene. As faulted blocks subsided to the sea bottom, the present islands became separate and were uplifted more. The blocks now forming Mona and Desecheo remained emergent as remmants while adjacent blocks sank to depths, developing Mona Passage as a cross channel. In recent time since the end of the last ice sheet of the Pleistocene glacial periods, there has been a rise in ocean levels of the world as much as 200 feet caused by melting of the ice. Kulp. Feely, and Tryon (5), using the carbon- 14 method, dated as about 11,500 years old juniper wood from forests in Bermuda now submerged at depths of 20-50 feet. From this and other lines of evidence, they placed the beginning of the retreat of the last ice sheet as only about 11,000 years ago. At that rela- tively recent date, islands now surrounded by shallow seas were connected, for example, Cu- ba and Isle of Pines, and Key West with the other Florida Keys and the Florida mainland. The shore line of Mona Island in a deeper channel probably was not greatly affected. However, Mona Island has decreased in area perhaps as much as half of the original faulted block, owing to rapid wave erosion on the nor- thern and eastern sides- It is important in the study of plant dis- tribution to note the geological evidence of past land connections between the Greater ay Antilles and the continent. Besides the land bridge through Jamaica and Cayman Islands to Honduras and Nicaragua already mention- ed, western Cuba has been joined also with the Yucatan peninsula. However, the Greater Antilles apparently never were connected with southern Florida, which instead has been an island also during much of its history. Like- wise, the Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles (except the southernmost) have not been con- nected with South America. However, the South American continent probably has ex- tended northward about 100 miles nearer than now, continuous with present islands on the continental shelf, such as Curacao, Margarita, and Trinidad. Physiography As to shape, Mona Island is roughly like a bean, almost 7 miles long from east to west and more than 4 miles in greatest width, with a slightly concave northern shoreline. Its area is about 21 square miles or 13,658 acres. The island is a nearly flat block of massive bluish limestone of Miocene age, at least in part. Its surface is a nearly level plateau of more than 13,000 acres mostly 125-200 feet elevation, and 272 feet at the highest point. On three sides precipitous cliffs rise from the sea with undercut bases and caves (See Fig. 1). Near the eastern end of the plateau is Mona Island lighthouse, maintained by the U. S. Coast Guard. 38 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Fig. 1—The precipitous east coast of Mona Island showing xerophytic vegetation on shallow soil exposed to the winds. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Coastal plains of sandy shores and sands up to 25 feet above sea level comprise 6 percent (900 acres) of the island’s area. They are separated from the plateau by cliffs with rocky slopes and talus blocks below. Nearly all the coastal plain is on the southwest and protected shore, where the greatest width is more than 14 mile. Former settlements were located at Sardinera, at the northwest point of the coastal plain, and at Uvero on the south- east end. On the southeast coast is a narrow beach known as Playa de los Paiaros {Beach of the Birds), where a whart to serve the light- house has been constructed. Valleys and permanent surface water are ab- sent. On the plateau are shallow limestone sinks or “bajuras”, where runoff water collects aiter rains. Among the largest are Baiura de los Cerezos (Sink of the Cherry trees), slightly west of the center of the island, and in the eastern part, Cuevas del Centro (Caves of the Center) and El Corral (the Corra!), which is bordered by cliffs. Water percolates downward to great depths in the porous lime- stone and has formed numerous caves. Climate The climate of Mona is hot and semi-arid, similar to that of southwestern Puerto Rico though the rainfall is less seasonal. Many small islands of low elevation in the West In- dies, such as the Bahamas, probably have a comparable, somewhat dry tropical climate. Weather records have been kept since 1919 at Mona Island lighthouse (173 feet above sea level), which is a cooperative station of the U.S. Weather Bureau. Average annual pre- cipitation at the lighthouse is about 38 inches, lowest from January to March. Temperatures are high, averaging about 80°F with daily maxima above 90°F much of the year. Strong prevailing east-northeast winds have a desic- cating effect on the vegetation in the eastern part of the plateau. Soil Much of the plateau is covered with bare jagged (‘“‘dogtooth’’) limestone outcrops, but 39 in places there is a stony clay soil up to 2 feet deep, commonly gray but also red or brown. In the depressions or limestone sinks is a red- dish loam soil. On the coastal plain the deeper soil varies from sand and low shore dunes to sandy loam. Fauna The animal life of Mona Island is probably similar to that of dry areas in southwestern Puerto Rico. One noteworthy difference is the presence of large lizards, or iguanas (Cy- clura stegnegeri) 3 to 4 feet in length, which are now absent in Puerto Rico but very closely related to a species of Hispaniola. Terres- trial mammals were absent originally though numerous bats inhabit the caves. Now, the island is overrun with several thousand wild goats which have destroyed the move palata- ble vegetation in some parts and in a few areas have made browse lines on the trees: There are also small numbers of domesticated hogs which have become wild. In the past, farmers introduced cattle, but agriculture and grazing have been abandoned, and cattle are gone. Feral cats and rats remain. History The interesting history of Mona Island has been told at length by Wadsworth (8). In- dians settled here less than a thousand years ago and developed a primitive agriculture. Co- lumbus anchored at Mona on September 24, 1494. Then for centuries the island was a haven for pirates who raided passing ships. From 1874 to 1924 a mining industry develop- ed, and as many as 200 men were employed removing phosphate deposits and bat guano from the island’s caves for shipment as ferti- lizer to Europe and the United States. During that period some agriculture was practiced to supply food for the miners; trees were cut for fuel and charcoal. One family remained on the island until 1943. Previous to 1898, Mona Island was admi- nistered by the Spanish Crown. Then it was placed under the Puerto Rican Department of Interior. In 1903 the Mona Island light- house was erected by the U. S. Coast Guard AO and a reserve of 237 acres established for it. The island became a public forest under the Puerto Rican Government in 1919. From 1937 to 1941 a camp of the Civilian Conserva- tion Corps was stationed at Sardinera. Besides making extensive forest plantations of Casucrina equisetifolia and Swietenia maha- goni on 420 acres of the coastal plain, the men built a truck trail across the island and various foot trails and made a forest survey: Botanical Studies Britton (2) in 1915 published a list of 292 species of plants of Mona Island and notes on the vegetation. Besides seed plants this total included 63 species of lower plants, or cryp- togams, mostly lichens and iungi, but omitted many parasitic fungi not yet determined. This list was based mainly upon collections made February 20-26, 1914, by N. L. Britton, John F. Cowell, and W. E. Hess. These men made the trip in a sloop chartered at Mayagiiez, stopping first February 18-19 at the smaller island of Desecheo, where about 90 species of seed plants were found. Also, in May 1913, F. L. Stevens and W. E. Hess collected seed plants and fungi on the two islands. From these first botanical collections on Mona Is- land, Britton estimated the land flora of Mona, half cryptogams, to be as high as 500 species. Several other botanists and various zoolo- gists have visited Mona Island though without publishing additions to Britton’s list. A few tree specimens were collected here in 1940 by Forest Service men. In 1944 Wadsworth and Gilormini (9) prepared a report on the fores- try possibilities on the island. They con- cluded that the natural forests of Mona Island are very low in productivity, that the plateau will produce little wood and no sawtimber, that the coastal plain is largely suitable for higher land uses, such as farming, and that fishing and recreation might be developed. On August 26-28, 1954, and F. H. Wadsworth, collected speci- mens of trees and large shrubs on Mona Is- land. The southwestern coastal plain from the author. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Sardinera to Uvero was examined, and the dis- tance across most of the island from Bajura de los Cerezos to the lighthouse was covered on foot. Several tree additions to Britton’s list were found. On March 14-15, 1955, the author and Captain Merle L. Kuns, of the U. S. Air Force, made additional collections of trees and shrubs at El Corral and other pla- ces on the plateau as well as on the southwes- tern coastal plain and at Playa de los Pajaros on the southeast. Collections of more than 80 numbers of trees and large shrubs were made on these two trips. Specimens were not collected of tree species listed by Britton but not seen in flower or fruit nor of several planted species. Deter- minations were made by the author at the United States National Herbarium of the U.S. National Museum, where a set of specimens was deposited and where some of the speci- mens of Britton, Cowell, and Hess were exa- mined. Other sets are at the Tropical Forest Research Center, U. S. Forest Service, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, and at Mona Island. Duplicates of most specimens are at the her- baria of the New York Botanical Garden and the Chicago Natural History Museum. THE VEGETATION The vegetation of Mona Island, including information from the forest survey of 1938, has been summarized by Wadsworth and Gi- lormini (9). To that description some notes on the common species may be added. That survey in which 118 acres (588 plots) were tallied distinguished six vegetation types with the following areas: Acres Cactus brush YA DAS YT Brush 940 Upland forest 9,228 Central lowland forest 348 Coastal lowland forest 788 Other coastal lowlands TAL 13,658 JANUARY - JUNE 1955 The first four types cover the plateau, and the last two the coastal plain. The cactus brush, or shrub thicket, forms a zone about a mile wide in the eastern part of the island. including the lighthouse reservation, and nar- row strips on the northern and southeastern coasts. This most xeric type is found where exposure to the wind is greatest- The dominant plants are cacti and other xerophytic shrubs mostly less than 6 feet high though sometimes becoming small trees. Characteristic species include Opuntia dillenii (Ker.) Haw., O. ru- bescens, Cereus hystrix, Cephalocereus roye- nil, Plumeria obtusa, Lantana involucrata, and two or three species of Croton. This type has been overgrazed and heavily browsed by goats until its composition probably has changed somewhat. Scattered grass clumps have bezo- me scarce, though present in an exclosure, and unpalatable shrubs, especiallly Croton and Lantana involucrata, probably have become more abundant than in the original vegetation. A narrow strip up to 14 mile wide forming a transition between the cactus brush and the upland forest was listed separately as brush, though not a distinct type. The upland forest, a dry evezgreen type, oc- cupies about two-thirds of the island. It is an open woodland of many species of small trees only 12 to 20 feet tall and 4 to 12 inches in diameter at breast height, mostly small-leaf evergreens. Characteristic tree species include: Tabebuia heterophylla, Metopium toxiferum, Bursera simaruba, Pisonia albida, Bourreria succulenta, Guettarda elliptica, Coccoloba ob- tusifolia, Krugiodendron ferreum, and Amyris elemifera. In the western part of the plateau one of the commonest and largest trees is Pi- sonia albida, a deciduous species with stout whitish gray trunk and enlarged base and with soft wood. 41 The central lowland forest, found in six limestone sinks or ““bajuras” on the plateau, is a taller, denser forest of trees 20 to 30 feet in height and to 12 inches in diameter, some- times larger. Tree species are the same as in the upland except that the less shade-tolerant trees are absent. Eugenia fragrams and Krugiodendron ferreum are among the domi- nant species. Cordia glabra and Psychotris nutans are known on this island only from Ba- jura de los Cerezos, and Jatropha multifida from there and El Corral. The coastal lowland forest, nearly all in the southwestern part of the island, originally covered the coastal plain except for shore ve- getation. Now, 15 percent of the area has been cleared and farmed and is classed along with the beach vegetation as other coastal low- lands. Plantations of Casuarina equiseti- folia and Swietenia mahagoni were made on 420 acres or nearly half of the coastal plain (See Fig. 2). This forest, by far the best de- veloped on the island, once was composed of trees to 60 feet tall and 20 inches in diameter. These included the more shade-tolerant trees of the plateau with several additions, among them Chlorophora tinctoria and Bucida buce- ras. Among the characteristic species are: Fi- cus laevigata, F. stahlii, Coccoloba diversifolia, Gymnanthes lucida, Hippomane mancinella, Bourreria succulenta, and Tabebuia hetero- phylla. Near the shore are zones of Coccolo- ba uvifera and coastal thickets of Pithecello- bium unguis-cati. In the southwestern coas- tal plain are three species of mangroves, of which Laguncularia racemosa is commonest. Others are Conocarpus erectus and Rhizopho- ra mangle, the latter in a small inland swamp. The fourth common mangrove species of the West Indies, Avicennia nitida Jacq., apparent- ly is absent. 42 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Fig._2.—Twelve-year-old plantation of Swietenia mahagoni on the coastal plain. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 At least four tree species of Mona Island are poisonous. Metopium toxiferum and Co- mocladia dodonaea, both related to poison-ivy of the United States, have oily sap that pro- duces inflammation of the skin of many per- sons upon contact. The fruits of Hippomane mancinella have caused death when eaten. The white latex of that species and of Euphorbia petiolaris is irritating and toxic if taken inter- nally. GEOGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIPS OF THE TREES An analysis of the geographical distribution, or natura! ranges, of the plant and animal species of an island will summarize the rela- tionships and indicate the probable origins of the flora and fauna. The higher plants of the West Indies and their distribution, island by island, now are sufficiently well known for these compilations. For example, Beard (1) Table 1.-The native species of trees and large shrubs of Mona Island in grouns according to ranges Number Range : of species Restricted range, 11 species Hndemic to Mona 0 Bahamas and Mona! i Cuba to Mona? 2 Hispaniola to Puerto Rico® 3 Mona and Puerto Rico* 2 Mona to Lesser Antilles* 3 Broad range in West Indies, 13 species Greater Antilles® 2 Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles 11 On continent in Florida or souhtward, 50 species Florida to Puerto Rico 2 Florida to Lesser Antilles 14 Florida through West Indies to continent Dil Greater Antilles through Lesser Antilles to continent 7 Total 74 1/ Sarcomphalus taylorii. 2/ Cereus hystric, Psychotria nutans. 3/ Coccoloba obtusifolia, Pisonia alba, Jatropha multifida. 4/ Ficus stahlii, Cereus portoricensis. 5/ Cephalocereus royenii, Opuntia rubescens (?), Antirrhea acutata. oy Celtis trinervia, Plumeria obtusa. Thrinax microcarpa, Chrysophyllum oliviforme. 43 has tabulated the ranges of the trees of the Lesser Antilles, and zoologists have made si- milar studies of certain animal groups. Britton indicated the occurrence on near- by islands of the plant species of Mona Island. Of the 221 species, excluding thallophytes, un- determined, introduced, and four endemic spe- cies, 211 were in common with Puerto Rico, 185 with Hispaniola, 155 with Bahamas, and 87 with Curacao- The ranges of the 74 native species of trees and large shrubs of Mona Island in the anno- tated list have been compiled largely from recent floras and lists. In Table 1 these species have been placed in 12 convenient groups ac- cording to their ranges. The same species can also be grouped according to their presence on other particular islands, as did Britton. Thus, the native species of trees and large shrubs of Mona isiand common to other is- lands and to the continent may be summarized as in Table 2. Table 2.-Summary of distribution of Mona trees and shrubs. aes | Number * ‘of species Native to Mona Island 74 Mona and Puerto Rico 69 Mona and Hispaniola 68 Mona, Puerto Rico, and Hispaniola 64 Mona and Lesser Antilles 62 Mona and Bahamas 49 Mona and continent (Florida or southward) 50 Mona and Florida 43 Mona and continent south of Florida 34 Mona and Curacao 22 Mona and Bermuda 9 44 Endemic Species In 1915 Britton (2) listed four endemic plant species of Mona Island, exclusive of thal- lophytes, publishing descriptions of three of these. Tabebuia lucida Britton, the only one that was a tree, is here reduced to synonymy. Of the two liverworts, or hepatics, Riccia vio- lacea M. A. Howe was found later in Mexico, Bahamas, Cuba, and Puerto Rico, while R. brittonu M. A. Howe was reduced to a syno- aym of R. elliottii Stephani, of Yucatan, Cuba Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands, and Lesser Antil- les to Trinidad. The fourth, Euphorbia mo- nensis (Millsp.) Urban (Chamaesyce monen- sis (Miullsp.), is a very small prostrate peren- nial herb with stems less than 3 inches long and with large tap root. Thus, only one spe- cies of higher plants may now be listed as en- demic to Mona, but it apparently has not been collected since 1914 or studied further. The percentage of endemic species of animals pro- bably is larger. Species not Native Also in Puerto Rico Only five species of the native trees and large shrubs of Mona Island listed here have not been recorded in Puerto Rico. Sar- comphalus taylorii Britton is known only from Bahamas and Mona, while Cereus hysiric Haw. is recorded from Cuba, Jamaica, Hispa- niola, Mona, Desecheo, and Muertos (off the southern coast of Puerto Rico). The range of Psychotria nutans Sw. is here extended to Mo- na from Cuba and Hispaniola. Calyptranthes pallens Griseb. ranges from Florida to Mona, St. Croix, St. Thomas, and Guadeloupe, omit- ting Puerto Rico. Forestiera rhamnifolia Gri- seb., a rare species occurring from Cuba to Grenada, has been found at one locality on St. Croix and now in Mona but not on Puerto Rico. One variety, Dodonaea viscosa var. arbo- rescens (Hook. f.) Sherff (listed by Britton as a species, FE. ehrenbergii Schlecht.), recorded from Florida to Mona, Anegada, and Désirade, also misses Puerto Rico. The range of Plu- meria obtusa L., Bahamas to Mona, was broadened to Puerto Rico by the reduction of P. krugu Urban to synonymy. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Species not Native also in Hispaniola Six of the species of Mona are absent from Hispaniola. Sarcomphalus taylorii Brit- ton, of Bahamas and Mona, has been recorded neither from Hispaniola nor Puerto Rico. Five others, two from Puerto Rico and three from Puerto Rico and Lesser Antilles have their known western limit in Mona but may be sought in Hispaniola. Species Aiso on Continent Most of the 50 species of Mona Island that are native also on the continent (Florida or southward) have a wide distribution in the West Indies also or in tropical continental America. The 43 species common to Florida reached that former island from the West In- dies, perhaps from Bahamas, which were larger and nearer before the Grand Banks were sub- merged, or from Cuba. Twenty-seven of these and seven others are found also southward on the continent in Central America (or Yu- catan) or also southward to northern South America. Nearly all these species of Mona Is- land that are present in northern South Ame- rica are also in Central America and apparent- ly migrated along the continent. A detailed study of the species common to Mona Island and the continent would involve a large num- ber of species and comparison of the floras of the Greater Antilles and Central America. These floras obviously are related, and a large element of the West Indian flora apparently migrated from Central America when the areas were connected by land bridges. Conclusions Thus, the arborescent flora of Mona Island is not distinctive or specialized, containing no endemic species, but is almost identical with that of both Puerto Rico and Hispaniola ex- cept for the smaller number of species. Most of these species of trees and large shrubs have a broad distribution in the West Indies, and two-thirds are native also on the continent. On Mona Island are found tree species charac- teristic of the dry forest of the West Indies as well as those widely distributed on tropical American shores. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Noting the absence oi a specialized flora on this isolated island, Britton concluded that all the native species might readily have arri- ved through natural agencies and that it was unnecessary to assume a former land connec- tion between Mona and either Puerto Rico or Hispaniola. Likewise, Guppy (4) in his de- tailed West Indian studies showed that seeds of many species were readily distributed by ocean currents, winds, and birds. The main direction of ocean currents and the prevailing wind at Mona are from Puerto Rico and the east-northeast. Nevertheless, the geological evidence in- dicates that beth Puerto Rico and Hispaniola were joined as a larger island similar to Cuba in the not far distant past and that Mona Island after its formation was much less iso- lated than now. Thus, the absence of endemic species in a seemingly isolated island is easily explained by the short period of separation rather than young age since uplift or ample migration from both sides. The recent rise in ocean levels up to 200 feet since melting of the last ice sheet of the glacial epochs may not have contributed significantly to isolation but may have affected the species of the coastal plain. The restricted or irregular distribution of a few tree species, mentioned above, is to be expected. Those of smali or local range may be relatively new species expanding their area, old declining species, or uncommon species with incompletely known distribution. Species of irregular distribution absent on certain is- lands may heve spread slowly by accidents in migration- The classic illustration of the rapid reve- getation of the volcanic island Krakatoa ma- kes an interesting comparison and shows how fast plant life can travel. That small tropical island of the East Indies has a somewhat si- milar location in the strait between Java and Sumatra being about 25 miles distant from both but also near other volcanic islands. The vegetation was destroyed by violent eruption in 1883, which also removed most of the is- land. Yet, within 50 years later, luxuriant forest vegetation was again present, and 45 Doctors van Leeuwen (3a) listed 271 species of seed plants and ferns in 1934. These had been transported apparently by wind, ocean cur- rents, and animals (including a few by man). Thus, a new island in the location of Mona would be invaded by plant life by natural means though probably somewhat slower than Krakatoa because of the drier climate. Introduced Species Four tree species listed from Mona by Britton in 1915 apparently were introduced: Ricinus communis, Gossypium sp., Carica pa- paya, and Terminalia catappa. Twenty-two additional introduced tree species are listed here. These are mostly common fruit and or- namental trees of the tropics brought in by settlers, miners, and by the Forest Service. Perhaps a tew of these may antedate Brit- ton’s visit of February 20-26, 1914. Two, Ca- suarina equisetifolia and Swietenia mahagoni, are forest trees now growing in extensive plan- tations. Several of these exotics are represented by only a few individuals or even a single tree. However, the list of introduced species may be worthy of record for future studies of the flora of this almost uninhabited island. At present only three, Cocos nucifera, Sabal catu- sarium, and Leucaena glauca, appear to be re- producing naturally and spreading in the ab- sence of cultivation. Whether these or otheis will in time become naturalized on the island remains to be seen. ANNOTATED LIST OF TREES AND LARGE SHRUBS This list of 100 species of trees and large shrubs of Mona Island includes both the au- thors collections and Britton’s list of 1915 and contains notes on size, abundance, habitat, and range beyond Mone. (Curacao, as one of nearest South American islands was mention- ed by Britton and is retained here in the ran- ge.) The 12 native species that are addition: to Britton’s list are indicated by an aste- risk(*). Introduced species totaling 26 are de- signated by ‘“(Introd.)” for range, while the 22 not recorded by Britton are preceded by a dagger (7). 46 Naturally the number of tree species in- cluded will depend on the definition and mi- nimum size limits accepted for a tree Most species listed here probably attain at least 12 feet in height and 3 inches in diameter at breast height on Mona Island, unless other- wise noted, and may be accepted as sometimes becoming trees, even though commonly smal- ler and shrubby. Several species of large shrubs, mostly reaching tree size in Puerto Ri- co or elsewhere, have been inserted. If an apo- logy for their inclusion is in order, it may be noted that the trees on these barren rock out- crops generally are smaller than under a more favorable environment. Common names, seldom employed on this almost uninhabited island, have not been ad- ded here. However, the Spanish names ap- pled to the same species in Puerto Rico are available for use if needed. Palmae + Cocos nucifera L. Four introduced palms not listed by Britton in 1915 are now found on Mona Island and may have been introdu- ced earlier, the coconut probably before 1900. Coconuts have been planted along the sandy shore of Sardinera and a few also at Playa de Pajaros. Some of these palms are now 40 feet tall and reproducing. (Introd.) + Phoenix dactylifera L- A few date palms have been introduced in cultivation at Sardi- nera but are not spreading. (Introd.) + Roystonea borinquena O. F. Cook. A few trees probably of this species have been planted at Sardinera but are not increasing in number. (Introd. Native of Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands.) + Sabal causarium (O. F. Cook) Beccari. A grove of fan palms, known as Palmar de Cogolla, apparently this species, is located on the coastal plain 3/10 mile northwest of Uve- ro, perhaps planted before 1900. The largest are 25 feet tall and are reproducing. (Introd. Native of Puerto Rico.) Thrinax microcarpa Sarg. (T. ponceana OQ. F. Cook) Ashrub to 10 ft. high with trunk becoming 3-7 feet high and 4 inches d-b.h., CARIBBEAN FORESTER collected in fruit. Scattered and uncommon on the coastal plain between Sardinera and Uvero. (Florida to Puerto Rico and Vieques.) Casuarinaceae + Casuarina equisetifolia L. The planta- tions of this species totaling about 200 acres made by the Civilian Conservation Corps be- tween 1937 and 1939 now contain the tallest trees on the island, up to 95 feet in height and 16 inches in diameter. Not spreading from cultivation. (Introd.) Ulmaceae Celtis trinervia Lam. To 25 feet high and 5 inches d.b.h. Base of cliffs at Sardinera. (Greater Antilles including Virgin Islands.) Moraceae + Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg. (A. communis Forst.) Three planted trees were noted at Sardinera. (Introd.) Chlorophora tinctoria (L.) Gaud. Spread- ing tree 30 feet high and 6 inches or more d-b.h. Coastal plain near Sardinera. (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles to continent; Cu- racao. ) Ficus laevigata Vahl. To 30 feet tall. Coast- al plain and plateau. (Florida to Lesser An- tilles). Ficus stahlii Warb. To 40 feet tall and 1 foot d.b.h., frequent at base of cliffs, Sardine- ra. Collected in fruit. (Puerto Rico and Mo- na.) Polygonaceae Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq. (C. laurifolia auth., not Jacq.) Common on plateau and coastal plain. (Florida to Lesser Antilles). Coccoloba obtusifolia Jacq. To 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h- Common on plateau and coastal plain. (Hispaniola to Puerto Rico and Virgin Island.) Cocoloba uvifera (L.) L. To 25 feet tall and 1 foot d.b.h., a shrub or tree of sandy beaches at Playa de Pajaros and southwestern coastal plain. (Florida through West Indies to continent; Curacao.) JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Coccoloba venosa L. (C. nivea Jacq.) To 15 feet high and 1 inch or more d.b.h. Uncom- mon at base of cliffs near Sardinera. (Jamaica and Hispaniola to Trinidad.) Nyctaginaceae Pisonia albida (Heimerl) Britton. Spread- ing deciduous tree 20 to 30 feet high and 10 inches d.b-h., with stout smoothish light brown trunks and enlarged bases suggesting an ele- phant’s foot. Common as one of the dominant trees in western part of the plateau, conspi- cuous from the air. Male flowers collected. Britton in 1915 listed P. subcordata Sw. doubtfully from sterile material, and Britton and Wilson cited P. albida (Heimerl) Britton. (Hispaniola, Mona, Puerto Rico, and Muer- tos.) * Torrubia fragrans (Dum.-Cours. ) Stand- ley. (Pisonia fragrans Dum.-Cours.) To 30 feet high and 5 inches d.b.h. Uncommon at base of cliff, Sardinera. (Greater Antilles and Lesser Antilles to continent; Curacao.) Lauraceae Nectandra coriacea (Sw.) Griseb. Tree re- corded by Britton from base of cliff, Sardine- ra. (Florida to Lesser Antilles and on conti- nent.) Capparidaceae Capparis cynophallophora L. Shrub of coastal plain. (Florida through West Indies to continent; Curacao.) Capparis flexuosa L. Large shrub on coast- al plain and plateau. (Florida through West Indies to continent; Curacao.) Leguminosae + Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf. Four trees to 20 feet high and 8-16 inches d.b.h. planted beside an old house at Uvero, and no seedlings. (Introd. ) 7 Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Gri- seb. A planted tree 70 feet tall and 14 inches d.b.h- at Sardinera. (Introd.) + Haematoxylon camp2zchianum L. A few trees to 20 feet high and 6 inches d.b.h., plant- ed near Sardinera. (Introd.) AT + Leucaena glauca (L.) Benth. A few small trees to 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. near water holes at Las Caobas, on coastal plain 2 miles southeast of Sardinera. Perhaps introdu- ced by liverstock and beginning to spread. (Introd.). Lonchocarpus (?) sp. Sterile and not iden- tified. A tree 25 feet high and 5 inches d.b-h. at base of cliff. Sardinera, possibly introduced. Pithecellobium unguis-cati (L.) Benth. With several stems irom base and mostly shrubby, to 20 feet high and 2 inches or more d.b.h. Common forming thickets in coastal sands and plain at southwestern part of island. (Florida through West Indies to continent; Curacao. ) + Tamarindus indica L. Three planted trees at Uvero to 30 feet high and 1 foot d.b.h., not reproducing. (Introd.) Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum areolatum L. Shrub or small tree to 15 feet high and 5 inches d.b.h., on coastal plain and plateau. At El Corral up to 20 feet tall and nearly 1 foot d.b.h. (Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and on continent.) Zygophyllaceae Guaiacum sanctum L. Shrub or small tree on coastal plain. Quantities of this valuable wood were removed in the past. (Florida to Greater Antilles and on continent; Curacao.) Rutaceae Amyris elemifera L. Shrub or small tree common on plateau and coastal plain. In a few areas goats have stripped bark from the trees, girdling them. (Florida to Lesser Antil- les and on continent.) + Citrus aurantifolia (L.) Swingle. A few lime trees to 15 feet tall and 3 inches d.b.h. have been planted at Sardinera and Uvero. (Introd.) + Citrus sinensis Osbeck. Growth at Sar- dinera, oranges reportedly were introduced by the Spanish more than 400 years ago. (Introd.) + Triphasia trifolia (Burm. f.) P. Wilson. A shrub 10 feet high cultivated at Sardinera. (Introd.) 48 Zanthoxylum punctatum Vahl. Coastal plain between Sardinera and Uvero, listed by Britton. (Hispaniola to Lesser Antilles and Trinidad.) Burseraceae Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Elaphrium simaruba (L.) Rose.) One of the dominant trees of the plateau and also on coastal plain, becoming 30 to 50 feet tall and 1 to 114 feet d.b.h. (Florida through West Indies to conti- nent; Curacao.) Meliaceae + Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. The Civilian Conservation Corps in the years 1937 to 1939 made plantations of about 200 acres on the coastal! plain southeast of Sardinera and smail experimental plots on the plateau. (Introd.) Ma!pighiaceae Byrsonima lucidum DC. (B. (Turcz.) P. Wilson.) Occasional on coastal plain, according to Britton. (Florida to Les- ser Antilles.) cuneatum Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia petiolaris Sims. (Aklema petio- lare (Sims) Millsp. in Britton Mo. Bot. Gard. Ann. 2:48. 1915.) Shrub or small tree to 20 feet tall and 5 inches d.b.h. Common on pla- teau and coastal plain. Apparently not poiso- nous to the touch. The latex caustic and to- xic if taken internally. Though transferred to Aklema in Britton’s list of 1915, this species was not credited to Mona by Britton and Wil- son in their flora. The segregate genus Aklema generally is not now accepted. (Bahamas to Lesser Antilles.) * Cymnanthes lucida Sw. Small tree to 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h., common and dominant locally in coastal plain and also on plateau. Wadsworth and Gilormini (9). Lesser Antilles.) Florida to Recorded from Mona Island by . CARIBBEAN FORESTER Hippomane mancinella L. Spreading tree to 40 feet high and 16 inches d.b.h., common in southwestern coastal plain not far from shore and at Playa de Pajaros. The attractive slightly fragrant fruits are dangerously poiso- nous and .have caused death when eaten The white latex is also irritating and dange- rous. (Florida through West Indies to conti- nent; Curacao.) + Jatropha curcas L. (Curcas curcas (L.) Britton & Muillsp.) Small tree to 15 feet high and 5 inches in diameter, planted at Uvero and not spreading. (Introd.) * Jatropha multifida L. (Adenoropium multifidum (L.) Pohl.) Handsome shrub or small tree to 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h., with scarlet flowers, rare at Bajura de los Ce- rezos and El Corral. A few plants apparently native were found in relatively moist sites in depressions at these two localities in the inte- rior of the plateau, both far from human set- tlements. (Hispaniola, Mona, and Puerto Ri- co.) Ricinus communis L. Large shrub or small tree of coastal plain at Sardinera and Uvero, introduced around buildings. (Introd.) Anacardiaceae Comocladia dodonaea (L.) Urban. Shrub to 12 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h., common on plateau and coastal plain. The oily sap is poi- sonous and causes inflammation of the skin upon contact. (Hispaniola to Lesser Antilles.) + Mangifera indica L. Planted tree at Sar- dinera, rare. (Introd.) Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug & Urban. One of the dominant trees of the plateau, be- coming 20 feet high and 12 inches in trunk diameter, and also on coastal plain. The poi- sonous sap is irritating to the skin upon con- tact. (Florida to Puerto Rico and Aguadilla in Lesser Antilles.) JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Celastraceae Crossopetalum rhacoma Crantz. (Rhaco- ma crossopetalum L.) Shrub to 10 feet high, with broadly elliptic to nearly orbicular leaves, uncommon on plateau and coastal plain. (Flo- rida to Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands and on continent: Curacao.) Gyminda latifolia (Sw.) Urban. Occasio- nal on the coastal plain, according to Britton. (Florida through West Indies and in Mexico.) Schaefferia frutescens Jacq. Shrub to 15 feet high and 2 inches or more d.b.h. Common on coastal plain and at El Corral. (Florida through West Indies to continent.) Sapindaceae Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. var. arbores- cens (Hook. f.) Sherff. (D. ehrenbergii Sch- lecht.; D. viscosa var. spathulata (Smith) Benth-) Shrub to 12 feet high on coastal plain and plateau. (The species distributed world- wide in tropics, including Puerto Rico. This variety from Florida to Hispaniola, Mona, and Anegada and Désirade in Lesser Antilles but not in Puerto Rico.) Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. Base of limestone cliffs at Sardinera, according to Britton. (Florida to Lesser Antilles and in Guatemala.) Hypelate trifoliata Sw. Shrub or small tree to 18 feet high and 8 inches d.b.h. on coastal plain and at El Corral. (Florida to St- Martin and Anguilla in Lesser Antilles.) + Melicoccus bijugatus Jack (Melicocca bijuga L.) A few planted trees to 50 feet tall and 14 inches d.b.h. at Sardinera and Uvero, rot spreading. (Introd.) Rhamnaceae Colubrina arborescens (Mill.) Sarg. (C. co- lubrina (Jacq.) Millsp.) Shrub or small tree to 15 feet high in coastal plain. Small plantations on sands with brackish subsoil were not suc- cessful, though some plants persist. (Florida through West Indies.) 49 Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urban. Tree to 30 feet tall and 12 inches d.b-.h., on coastal plain and at El Corral. (Florida through West Indies; recorded from Curacao by Britton-) © _Reynosia uncinata Urban. Shrub to 12 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h., common on plateau and on coastal plain. (Hispaniola to Anguilla in Lesser Antilles.) Sarcomphalus taylorii Britton. Shrub to 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. Rare at El Co- rral and elsewhere on plateau and recorded by Britton and by Britton and Wilson (Sci. Surv. P. R. 6: 358. 1926) as occasional on coastal plain. (Bahamas and Mona. ) Malvaceae Gossypium sp. a few shrubs of wild cotton to 12 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. are persis- tent near Uvero and at Playa de Pajaros, ap- parently after cultivation. Not collected but listed by Britton as G. barbadense L. (In- trod.) Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (Paritium tiliaceum (L.) St. Hill., Juss., & Camb.) Recorded by Britton from border of a swamp at Sardinera. (Florida through West Indies to continent and in Old World tropics.) * Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland. Tree to 50 feet tall and 12 inches d.b.h. at Sardine- ra. (Florida through West Indies to continent and in Old World tropics.) Sterculiaceae Helicteres jamaicensis Jacq. Shrub beco- ming 12 feet in height and 2 inches d.b.h. On coastal plain and plateau listed from Mona by Britton in 1915 but not by Britton and Wilson. (Bahamas to St. Martin in Lesser Antilles.) Guttiferae Clusia rosea Jacq. Uncommon tree on coas- tal plain and plateau. (Florida through West Indies to continent; (Curacao.) 50 Canellaceae Canella winterana (L.) Gaertn. Small tree 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h., on coastal plain and plateau Florida through West In- dies. ) Caricaceae Carica papaya L. Persisting and slightly spreading after cultivation, becoming more than 20 feet tall and 10 inches d.b.h.. the trunk sometimes with 2 or 3 forks. (Introd.) Cactaceae Cephalocereus royenii (L.) Britton & Rose. Columnar tree cactus becoming 15 feet high and 5 inches d.b.h. Common at east end of plateau. (Mona and Desecheo to Antigua in Lesser Antilles.) * Cereus hystrix Haw. (Lemaireocereus hystrix (Haw.) Britton & Rose.) This colum- nar tree cactus to 15 feet tall is common at east end of plateau though not listed by Brit- ton. (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Mona, De- secheo, and Muertos but not Puerto Rico.) Cereus portoricensis (Britton) Urban. (Harrisia portoricensis) Britton.) This slender cactus becomes 15 feet high with few-branch- ed or unbranched stem to 2 inches d-b.h. Eas- tern part of plateau and Playa de Pajaros. (Mona and southern Puerto Rico.) Opuntia rubescens (Salm-Dyck (?). (O. catacaniha Link & Otto; Consolea rubescens (Salm-Dyck) Lemaire.) Flat-jointed tree cac- tus becoming 12 feet or more in height. Com- mon on plateau and also on coastal plain. Though referred by Britton to this species, the plants at Mona resemble O. moniliformis (L.) Haw. (Consolea moniliformis (L.) Brit- ton), a closely related species of Hispaniola and Desecheo, which has numerous areolae on the joints. Britton’s specimens from Mona and Desecheo are similar. (Mona, Puerto Ri- co, Virgin Islands, and Lesser Antilles.) Lecythidaceae + Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kruz. One tree now 25 feet tall with four forks about 8 inches d-b.h. has been planted near the wharf at Pla- CARIBBEAN FORESTER ya de Pajaros. This East Indian tree has been introduced into Puerto Rico only sparingly for ornament and shade. (Introd.) Rhizophoraceae * Rhizophora mangle L. There is a small inland mangrove swamp about 1% mile south- east of Sardinera. The trees reach 40 feet in height and 6 inches in trunk diameter and have stilt roots to 5 feet high and many seed- lings. No standing water was present in Au- gust 1954. (Florida through West Indies to continent and in tropical Africa; Curacao.) Combretaceae Bucida buceras L. Spreading tree to 30 feet high and i6 inches d.b.h., on coastal plain near Uvero. (Florida through West Indies to continent; Curacao. ) Conocarpus erectus L. Small tree to 15 feet high and 4 inches d.b.h. on coastal plain near shore. (Florida through West Indies to continent and in tropical Africa; Curacao-) Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. f. To 20 feet high and 5 inches d.b.h. In mangrove swamp and marshes of coastal plain. (Florida through West Indies to continent and in tropi- cal Africa.) Terminalia catappa L. Introduced on coas- tal plain. In Britton’s list of 1915 but not cited from Mona by Britton and Wilson. (Introd.) Myrtaceae Calyptranthes pallens Griseb. Shrub 10 feet high and 2 inches d.b.h. perhaps also a small tree. Uncommon on plateau and cited by Britton from base of cliffs at Uvero. (Flo- rida to Mona, Virgin Islands, and Guadeloupe but not Puerto Rico.) Eugenia axillaris (Sw-) Willd. Shrub 8 feet high and perhaps also small tree, on coastal plain at base of cliffs and on plateau. (Florida to Lesser Antilles. ) Eugenia fragrans (Sw.) Willd. (Anamonis _fragrans (Sw.) Griseb.; E. fajardensis (Krug & Urban) Urban.) Tree to 35 feet tall and 8 inches d.b.h., easily recognized by the smooth- ish orange brown bark, mottled with gray.. JANUARY - JUNE 1955 Uncommon on plateau and one of the characte- ristic tree species at El Corral. Also occasional on coastal plain, according to Britton. (Cuba to Lesser Antilles, known in Puerto Rico only from a sterile specimen collected at Fajardo.) Eugenia myrtoides Poir. (E. buxifolia (Sw.) Willd-) Shrub to 10 feet high and per- haps also a small tree. Baze oi cliffs at Sardi- nera, southwestern coastal piain, and E} Corral on plateau. (Florida to Lesser Antilles.) Eugenia rhombea (Berg) Krug & Urban. Shrub 10 feet high and perhaps also a sma!i tree. Base of cliffs at Sardinera, southwestern coastal plain, and at El! Corral on plateau. (Florida to Lesser Antilles). + Psidium guajava L. Small tree 12 feet or more in height. Introduced on coastal plain but not common. (Introd.) Theophrastaceae Jacquinia barbasco (Loefl.) Mez. Shrub 8 feet high and perhaps also small tree, coastal thickets, coastal plain, and plateau. (Cuba to Lesser Antilles and continent; Curacao.) Sapotaceae + Achras zapota L. (Sapota achras Mill.) A tree 30 feet high and 12 inches d-b.h., planted near Sardinera on coastal plain. (Introd.) Bumelia obovata (Lam.) A. DC. Tree to 25 feet tall and 6 inches d.b.h., frequent on coastal plain. Collected with immature fruits but found sterile by Britton. (Hispaniola through Lesser Antilles and on continent; Cu- racao. ) * Chrysophyllum oliviforme L. Tree 39 feet high and 4 inches d.b.h. on coastal plain near Sardinera, possibly introduced. (Florida to Puerto Rico.) * Dipholis salicifolia (L.) A. DC. Tree 20 to 40 feet tall and 5 inches d.b-h., with old trunks to 24 inches d.b.h., collected with flo- wer buds. Uncommon in western part of pla- teau. Britton in 1915 and Britton and Wilson doubtfully referred to this genus a sterile spe- cimen from a tree 39 feet (12 meters) high 51 in the coastal plain at Sardinera. Listed from Mona Island by Wadsworth and Gilormini (9). (Florida to Lesser Antilles and conti- nent.) * Syderoxylon foetidissimum Jacq. Rare tree to 60 feet high and 24 inches in trunk dia- meter, collected with fallen fruits on ground. Coastal plain near Sardinera. (Florida to Les- ser Antilles and on continent.) Oleaceae * Forestiera rhamnifolia Griseb. A rare shrub 10 feet high and 2 inches d.b.h., on pla- teau. Collected in 1896 at blutis of Salt River. St. Croix, but not known from Puerto Rico. (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola, Mona, St. Croix, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Grenada.) Apocynaceae Plumeria obtusa L. (P. krugii Urban.) Shrub and in protected places a tree to 20 feet high and 6 inches d.b.h. Common on pla- teau, especially conspicuous in shrub thickets or cactus brush of eastern part, and on coasial plain. Britton and Wilson referred the plants trom western Puerto Rico to a segregate spe- cies, P. krugit Urban, which has been reduced to synonymy by Woodson. (Bahamas to Mo- na and Puerto Rico.) * Rauwolfia lamarckii A. DC. Shrub at Sardinera. (Cuba (?) and Hispaniola through Lesser Antilles to continent: Aruba but not listed from Curacao.) Rauwoljia tetraphylla L. Shrub 12 feet tall and perhaps a small tree. Coastal plain and plateau. (Bahamas to St. Barts in Lesser An- tilles. ) Boraginaceae Bourreria succulenta Jacq.. Tree to 20 feet tall and 4 inches d-b.h., common on coas- tal plain and plateau. (Cuba through Lesser Antilles to continent; Curacao.) * Cordia glabra L. Several trees to 30 feet tall and 12 inches d.b.h. were found at Baju- ra de los Cerezos. Doubtless these trees gave their common name “cerezo” to the locality. 52 Foliage was collected, and fruits were seen high in the trees. (Cuba through Lesser Antil- les to continent. ) \Verbenaceae Lantana involucrata L. Usually a shrub about 5 feet high but sometimes 10 feet or mo- re in height and 2 inches d.b.h. and treelike. Common on the plateau, especially in the shrub thickets or cactus brush, where it is one of the dominant species. Apparently this spe- cies along with Croton spp. has increased with overgrazing by goats. Also common on coastal plain and forming thickets near beach. (Flo- rida through West Indies to Tobago; Cura- cao.) Bignoniaceae + Crescentia cujete L- One tree 18 feet high and 4 inches d.b.h., perhaps planted, on coas- tal plain at Sardinera. Listed from Desecheo by Britton and Wilson. (Introd.) Tabebuia heterophylla (DC.) Britton, Mo. Bot. Gard. Ann. 2:48. 1915. (T. lucida Brit- ton, Mo. Bot. Gard. Ann. 2: 48. 1915; T. pal- lida (Lindl.) Miers-) Small tree becoming 15 feet or more in height. One of the dominant trees on the plateau and common also on coastal plain and at Playa de Pajaros. Publish- ing this combination in his Mona list of 1915, Britton mentioned the leaves as 1-5-foliolate and recorded the distribution as frequent on the coastal plain and on the plateau. On the same page appeared the new species 7. lucida Britton as a tree to 16 feet (5 meters) high with 3-5-foliolate leaves and shiny leaflets, from limestone cliffs, Sardinera (Briton, Co- well, and Hess 1686). Britton and Wilson cre- dited both species to Mona, citing the latter as endemic on limestone cliffs of Mona. The type specimen of T. lucida Britton has been examined at New York Botanical Gar- den, and topotypes were collected on the lime- stone cliffs at Sardinera in 1954 and 1955. In the original description this species was com- pared with no other, but Britton and Wilson in their key separated this species by leaflets narrowly oblong or oblanceolate, strongly shin- CARIBBEAN FORESTER ing, and loosely reticulate-veined. However, the leaflets are not separable from those of T. heterophylla, and the shiny surface seems inconstant and not significant. Therefore, after field and herbarium study, T. lucida Britton is here reduced to synonymy, as only a single species of this genus is distin- guishable on Mona Island. Also T. patiida (Lindl.) Miers, originally described from the variation in the Lesser Antilles with large sim- ple leaves and recorded also from Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands, apparently cannot be maintained as a separate species. Britton and Wilson stated that 7. heterophylla perhaps was not specifically distinct from T. pallida. When the two are united, the former name, which has priority, should be adopted. The latter has also been treated as a subspecies, T- heterophylla subsp. pallida (Lindl.) Stehle. (Hispaniola to Lesser Antilles.) Rubiaceae _Antirhea acutata (DC.) Urban. (Stenosto- mum acutatum DC.) Shrub or small tree to 12 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. Common on sand dunes, coastal plain and plateau. (Mona, Puerto Rico, Muertos, Vieques, Antigua, Bar- bados, and Guadeloupe, and Bonaire, Cura- cao, and Aruba.) Erithalis fruticosa L. Shrub or small tree to 15 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. Common on coastal sand and on coastal plain and plateau. (Florida through West Indies and on conti- nent; Curacao.) Exostema caribaeum (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult. Small tree to 20 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. Frequent on coastal plain and plateau. (Florida through West Indies and on conti- nent.) Guettarda elliptica Sw. Small tree 12 feet high and 3 inches d.b.h. Uncommon on pia- teau and at Bajura de los Cerezos and listed by Britton as occasional on coastal plain. (Flo- rida through West Indies to continent.) * Psychotria nutans Sw. Small tree to 15 feet in height and 6 inches d.b.h. rare at Ba- jura de los Cerezos. It is easily recognized by JANUARY - JUNE 1955 the very thick bark with light brown ridges and deep furrows. (Cuba, Hispaniola, and Mo- na.) Randia aculeata L. (R. mitis L.) Shrub 8 feet or more in height, common on coastal plain and plateau. (Florida through West In- dies to continent; Curacao-) SUMMARY Mona Island, an area of about 21 square miles, is located in Mona Passage about mid- way between Puerto Rico and Hispaniola and belongs to the former. In 1915 N. L. Britton published a list of the flora of the island. The trees and large shrubs of this island, with additions found by the author in 1954 and 1955, are listed with notes. The 100 spe- cies comprise 74 native, including 12 additions to Britton’s list, and 26 introduced, including 22 additions, mostlv cultivated. The arborescent flora is almost identical with that of both Puerto Rico and Hispaniola except for the smaller number of species, 64 of the 74 native species listed being present on both larger islands. Most of the species of trees and large shrubs of Mona Island are widely distributed in the West Indies, and 50, or two- thirds, occur also on the continent. No tree species is endemic, but 1 herbaceous species is not known elsewhere. Tabebuia lucida Brit- ton, described from Mona Island, is here re- duced to a synonym of T. heterophylla (DC.) Britton. REFERENCES (1) Beard, J. S. 1949. The natural vegetation of the Windward & Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Mem. 21, 192 pp., illus. (2) Britton, N. L- 1915. The vegetation of Mona Islend. Mo. Bot. Gard. Ann. 2:33-56, Illus. (3) and Wilson, Percy 1923-1390. Botany of Porto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Scientific Sur- vey of Porto Rico and the Virgin Island v. 5, 6. (3a) Docters van Leeuwen, W.M. 1936. Krakatau, 1883 to 1933. Bui- tenzorg Ann. Jard. Bot. 46/47, 506 pp, illus. (4) Guppy, H. B. 1917. Plants, seeds, and currents in the West Indies and Azores. 531 pp.. illus, London. (5) Kulp, J. Laurence, Feely, Herbert W., and Tryon, Lansing E. 1951. Lamont natural radiocarbon mea- surements, I. Science 114:565-568. (6). Meyerhoff, Howard A. 1933. Geology of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rico Univ. Monog. Ser. B, 1, 306 pp., illus. (7) Schuchert, Charles 1935. Historical geology of the Antil- lean-Caribbean region. 811 pp., illus. New York. (8) Wadsworth, Frank H. 1954. Nuestra isla del tesoro (Isla de la Mona). 59 pp., illus. (9) and Gilormini, José A. 1945. The potentialities of forestry on Mona Island. Caribbean Forester 6: 219-244. Caribbean Forester El “Caribbean Forester’, revista que e] Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agri- cultura de los Estados Unidos comenzo a p1- Llicarse en julio de 1938 se distribuye semes- tralmente sin costo alguno y esta dedicada a encauzar la mejor ordenacion de los recursos forestales de la region del Caribe. Su prop6- sito es estrechar las relaciones que existen entre los cientificos interesados en la Ciencia Forestal y ciencias afines encarandoles con los problemas confrontados, las politicas fo- restales vigentes y el trabajo que se viene haciendo para lograr ese objetivo técnico. Se solicita aportaciones de no mas de 20 paginas mecanografiadas. Deben ser someti- das en el lenguaje vernaculo del autor, con el titulo o posicién que este ocupa. Es impres- cindible incluir un resumen conciso del estu- dio efectuado. Los articulos deben ser dirigi- dos al Lider, Centro de Investigaciones Fo- restales Tropicales, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Las opiniones expresadas por los autores de los articulos que aparecen en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Ser- vicio Forestal. Se permite la reproduccion de los articulos siempre que se indique su proce- dencia. @ The “Caribbean Forester’, published since July 1938 by the Forest Service, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, is a free semiannual journal devoted to the encouragement of im- proved management of the forest resources of the Caribbean region by keeping students of forestry and allied sciences in touch with the specific problems faced, the policies in effect, and the work being done toward this end throughout the region. Contributions of not more than 20 type- written pages in length are solicited. They should be submitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include the author’s title or position and a short summary. Papers should be sent to the Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Any article published may be reproduced provided that reference is made to the original source. Le “Caribbean Forester’, qui a été publié depuis Julliet 1938 par le Service Forestier du Département de |’Agriculture des Etats-Unis, est une revue semestrielle gratuite, dediée a encourager l’aménagement rationnel des fo- réts de la region caraibe. Son but est d’entre- tenir des relations scientifiques entre ceux qui s’interéssent aux Sciences Forestiéres, ses problémes et ses méthodes les plus récentes, ainsi qu’aux travaux effectués pour réaliser cet objectif d’amelioration technique. On accept voluntiers des contributions ne dépassant pas 20 pages dactilographiées. Elles doivent étre écrites dans la langue ma- ternelle de l’auteur qui voudra bien préciser son titre ou sa position professionnelle et en les accompagnant d’un résumé de |’étude. Les articles doivent étre addressés au Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Pie- dras, Puerto Rico. La revue laisse aux auteurs la responsibi- lité de leurs articles. La reproduction est permise si l’on présice l’origine. “The printing of this publication has been approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget (August 26, 1953) J. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE i te aribbean Forester 4 f U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE =[_ ; ri \ FOREST , SERVICE ft TROPICAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION ¥ RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO _ VOLUME 16, NOS. 3 AND 4 JULY - OCTOBER, 1955 Caribbean Forester El “Caribbean Forester”, revista que el Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agri- cultura de los Estados Unidos comenz6 a pu- blicarse en julio de 1938 se distribuye semes- tralmente sin costo alguno y esta dedicada a encauzar la mejor ordenacién de los recursos forestales de la regiédn del Caribe. Su prop6- sito es estrechar las relaciones que existen entre los cientificos interesados en la Ciencia Forestal y ciencias afines encardndoles con los problemas confrontados, las politicas fo- restales vigentes y el trabajo que se viene haciendo para lograr ese objetivo técnico Se solicita aportaciones de no mas de 20 paginas mecanografiadas. Deben ser someti- das en el lenguaje vernaculo del autor, con el titulo o posicidn que este ocupa. Es impres- cindible incluir un resumen conciso del estu- dio efectuado. Los articulos deben ser dirigi- dos al Lider, Centro de Investigaciones Fo- restales Tropicales, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Las opiniones expresadas por los autores de los articulos que aparecen en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Ser- vicio Forestal. Se permite la reproduccién de los articulos siempre que se indique su proce- dencia. @ The “Caribbean Forester”, published since July 1938 by the Forest Service, U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, is a free semiannual journal devoted to the encouragement of im- proved management of the forest resources of the Caribbean region by keeping students of forestry and allied sciences in touch with the specific problems faced, the policies in effect, and the work being done toward this end throughout the region. Contributions of not more than 20 type- written pages in length are solicited. They should be submitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include the author’s title or position and a short summary. Papers should be sent to the Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Any article published may be reproduced provided that reference is made to the original source. Le “Caribbean Forester’, qui a été publié depuis Juliet 1938 par le Service Forestier du Département de |’Agriculture des Etats-Unis, est une revue semestriele gratuite, dediée a encourager l’aménagement rationnel des fo- réts de la region caraibe. Son but est d’entre- tenir des relations scientifiques entre ceux qui s’‘interéssent aux Sciences Forestiéres, ses problemés et ses méthodes les plus récentes, ainsi qu’aux travaux effectués pour réaliser cet objectif d’amelioration technique. On accept voluntiers des contribution ne dépassant pas 20 pages dactilographiées. Elles doivent étre écrites dans la langue ma- ternelle de l’auteur qui voudra bien préciser son titre ou sa position professionnelle et en les accompagnant d’un résumé de l’étude. Les articles doivent étre addressés au Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Pie- dras, Puerto Rico. La revue laisse aux auteurs la responsibi- lité de leurs articles. La reproduction est permise si l’on présice l’origine. “The printing of this publication has been approved by the Director of the Bureau of the Budget (August 26, 1953) VoL. 16 Nos. 3 AND 4 JULY - OCTOBER 1955 Mine Canriobean Forester @omre mts SEO Clr oO Las plantaciones de eucalipto de la Manaja, Minas de Matahambre, S. A. Pinar del Rio, Cuba _________ 55 Vicente Diaz Serrano, Cuba Marketing of Caribbean timbers _______ ee Se 57 J. EH. Heesterman, Trinidad, B. W. I. Industrial wood use in Puerto Rico __ ee = 64 F. R. Longwood, Puerto Rico The insects of ‘‘almendrén” Prunus occidentalis Sw _____- 58 G. N. Wolcott, Puerto Rico JULY - OCTOBER 1955 or ou LAS PLANTACIONES DE EUCALIPTO DE LA MANAJA, MINAS DE MATAHAMBRE S. A. PINAR DEL RIO. CUBA VICENTE DIAZ SERRANO Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas, Cuba Finalidad de las Plantaciones Con motivo de que los “‘pinares” se estan agotando y con objeto de producir sus nece- sidades en “bocaminas’’, previsoramente, la Compania Minas de Matahambre, S.A. ini- cid en 1949 un amplio programa técnico de plantaciones forestales bajo la direccién de un Selvicultor. Terreno Escogido Se seleccioné un terreno de manigua y de cultivo, en su mayor parte aluvial, por ser en las cercanias de un rio de pendiente va- viable, en la finca de la Manaja y mas tarde otro llano y de sabanas rojas en la finca Ca- pezas de Horacio, ambas al Norte de la Pro- vincia de Pinar del Rio. Técnica de las Plantaciones Se utilizo con éxito el sistema de semille- ros con aplicacién de abono quimico (3-8-2). Las posturas o brinzales se transplantan cuando tienen de 4 a 5 pulgadas de altura a macetas de papel a'quitranado. Debe tener- se cuidado con los semilleros en cuanto a los riegos y la seleccion del suelo. Este debe sex lo mas desprovisto posible en materia orga- nica y los riegos moderados a fin de man- tener en el suelo la humedad necesaria al des- arrollo de pequenas plantitas, pues si ésta es excesiva se tendran frecuentes ataques de “damping off’ u otros hongos muy dafiinos en los semilleros de eucalipto. 1/ Resumen del sem‘nario ofrecido por e!] autor de! dia 9 de septiembre de 1953, en la Escue’c Nacional Forestal en una reunion técnica organizada por Ia Sociedad Dasendémica de la América Tropical Debe ofrecerse protecc!6n contra los agua- ceros fuertes durante los primeros dias de la germinacion. Los mejores semilleros se han logrado en los meses de enero a marzo. Cuando las posturas en las macetas han alcanzacdo una aitura de 40 a 50 centimetros, son llevadas al campo para su plantac_6n de- fniciva (las hemos plantazo hasta de 1 me- tro de altura con buen resu_tado), lo que se realiza durante los meses de lluvia. Los me- jores meses para plantar aqui son junio y julio. Se ha practicado con éxito el siste- ma de hoyos a distancia de 2, 5 y de 3 metros en cuadro. Antes de plantar es necesario destruir to- dcs los bibijazueros o nidos de bibijaguas (Atta insularis) que haya en el campo ya que causan dafios cons‘derables al eucalipto (pudiendo ccnsiderarse el Unico enemigo de importenc‘a) llegando a destruir una plan- tacion joven en poco tiempo. Cuando se planta terreno de monte o man’gua, es necesario chapear las ma'ezas duran‘e los primeros anos, espec almente los bejucos, a fn de permitir el crecimiento li- pre de los arboles. De-pués de los 3 6 4 anos, la sombra natural resuita suficiente. En los suel*s de sabana donde la vegetacion espon- tanea esta constituida en su mayoria por gramineas, o en otro tipo de sue'o despro- visto de maniguas, no es necesario chapear si se les dA una buena preparacion de ara- do, lo que haze que la plantacion resulte mu- cho mas economica. 56 Especies Se ensayaron las siguientes especies, cla- sificadas segun la bondad que demostraron en las plantaciones: Eucalyptus saligna Eucalyptus tereticornis . paniculata maculata . citriodora robusta . rostrata (no dio resultado) mycrocoris (no did resultado) pilularis (este no germino) ba OS by by by by bs De todas las especies Eucalyptus saligna es la més prometedora y forma la mayor par- te de las plantaciones. Se destaca por su ra- pido crecimiento (en 4 anos tiene 6 pulgadas y 15 metros de alto en promedio), forma muy recta del fust2, magnifica poda natu- ral, resistencia a las condiciones del suelo, re- ducido numero de fallas en ei transpiante y tacilidad para manipularlo en el vivero. Aspecto Econdémico En un analisis de los costos de una pos- tura al ano de haber germinado, se estable- cid que los mayores gastos resultan de las chapeas, desmonte o limpieza del terreno, la apertura de hoyos, limpieza y trabajos del vivero y los gastos de plantacion. Estos y otros gastos menores, (sin incluir costo de materiales) suman el costo de un arbolito de un ano en $0,108. Este analisis corresponde a una plantacion de 103.130 eucaliptos reali- CARIBBEAN FORESTER zada en 1950 en la finca La Manaja, en te- rreno de monte y manigua donde hay que hacer chapeas posteriores a la plantacion. En otro analisis de una plantacion de 18.000 eucaliptos realizada en la finca Cabe- zas de Horacio, en un terreno de sabana ro- jas, al que se le cieron dos labores de arado y dos de grada, result6 que el costo de un arbolito ya plantado en el campo incluyendo el importe de materiaies e inciusive la apli- cacion de abono quimico a la plantacion fué de $0,103. Resulta mas economica, por no tener que hacer gastos en chapeas, ya que en este tipo de suelo no se desarrolla vegetacién que per- jud_que el eucalipto, a la vez que se obdtiene un mayor rendimiento del trabajo de cada oprero. Un ejemp!o demostrativo de lo que se acaba de afirmar es el siguiente: En La Manaja un obrero puede plantar como prome- cio 200 eucaliptos ai dia, mientras que en Cabezas de Horacio fué de 400 el promedio. Este hecho se debe a que el terreno laborado se trabaja con mas facilidad. Ademas un suelo laborado cualquiera que sea el tipo, tie- ne la ventaja de que las plantas encuentran condiciones favorables para desarrollar sus raices, resultando un crecimiento mas rapido y desarrollo uniforme de toda la plantacion. Cantidad y Especies Forestales Plantadas Se han plantado hasta la fecha 312.627 Eucalyptus y 45.043 arboles de otras espe- cies forestales mayormente cedro. JULY - OCTOBER 1955 =~ oO MARKETING OF CARIBBEAN TIMBERS J. E. HEESTERMAN Consultant for Industrial Development Caribbean Commission, Trinidad, BWI Introduction This paper discusses the marketing pos- sibilities of timbers produced in the Carib- bean area. Both the Caribbean market as well as the extra-Caribbean market will be considered. Main source of information used im preparing this paper is the documentation prepared for the “Conference on Caribbean ‘Tambers, Their Trade and Utilization With- in the Area”, organized by the Caribbean Commission, held in Port of Spain, Trinidad, April 15-22, 1953, and mentioned hereunder for the sake of brevity as the Timber Trade Conference. This documentation describes conditions tound in the countries served by the Carib- bean Commis3ion. It may be assumed, how- ever, that conclusions which have been for- mulated in view of the conditions in these countries, will also be valid for other Carib- bean countries. Preduction Apart from pine produced in British Hon- duras ard the Bahamas, the countries served by the Caribbean Commission produce practi- cally only hardwoods and no softwood.!/ The terms hardwoods and softwoods are used here in the traditional meaning which they have in wood technology, indicating that softwood; originate from conniferous trees and hardwoods from broad-leaved trees. These terms, however, are not directly related to ithe mechanical hardness of the timber. The hardwood forests of the area, whici produce by far the greater part of the timber of the area, are in general characterized by a great variety of timbers, many of which have 1 had little economic value up to the present. 1/ The Do~‘nican Republic is also an important producer of pine in the Caribbean Area. In many forest areas economic utilization of the timber is difficult because the number cf really valuable species per acre is low. The great variety of timbers is a difficulty in marketing because many of them are hardly known outside the producing country. There is a reasonable production of Caribbean tim- ber but without any doubt this production could be increased considerably if certain obstacles to increased utilization were remov- ed. Lata on production and consumption of timbers (hardwoods and softwoods together) oi the countries served by the Caribbean Commission are given in Table 1. They have been taken from the FAO Yearbook of Forest Products Statistics 1953 except the figures marked *, which have been taken from the i951 Yearbook. The table gives figures for production and consumption (hardwoods and softwoods taken together). The production figures, however, refer practically to hardwoods only, except in the case of British Honduras, where the figure of 78,000 cubic meters represents 44,000 cubic meter hardwoods and 34,000 cubic meter soft- woods. The Caribbean Market In discussing the Caribbean market one of the main subjects is the problem as to how far imported softwoods can be replaced hy locally produced timber. Lumber imports of the countries served by the Caribbean Commission originate main- iy from North America and consist nearly entirely of soitwoods. Pitch pine, Douglas fir. Canadian red cedar, white pine, spruce and hemlock are important imported species. They are used mainly for construction purposes. 58 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Average consumption in cubic meters per 1000 inhabitants per year — ~ Roundwood ; Timber prom Se Estimated duction in | wood ae Industrial Country population on ( 1922) | for char- roundwood : vet oa Roundwood! coal and including Sawn : _ | total distillation | saw logs lumber Barbados 210,000 negligigle — — — 130 Br. Honduras 66,000 78,000 620 200 420 110 Guadeloupe 290,000 — 140 50 90 45 Jamaica 1,400,000 4,000 30 1 29 20 Martinique 273,000 — 90 20 70 25 Puerto Rico 2,210,000* 3,828,000 — 1070* — — Trinidad and 630,000 148,000 330 60 270 70 Tobago Br. Guiana 420,000 346,000 480 340 140 210 Surinam 219,000 323,000 1,320 910 410 340 Fr. Guiana 26,000 — — — — 270 Netherlands Antilles 158,000* — — — 290* The countries served by the Caribbean Commis3ion imported during the year 1959 from outside the area roundwood timber to an amount of $1,160,000 U. S. and sawn lumber to an amount of $11,250,000 U. S. Inter-Caribbean trade in sim.lar (softwoods) timbers was restricted to pine from British Honduras and from the Bahamas. This inter- Caribbean trade amounted to approximately $1,200,000 U. S. during the same year. The main problem for the Caribbean market seems to be how far locally produced hardwoods can replace imported softwoods. The imported softwcods have the advantage of being available in standard grades and sizes and ‘adequately seasoned. Moreover 2/ Summary of the proceedings of the Aided Se!f-He’p Housing Seminar Werkzhoo held in Puerto Rico, October 1953. p. 53. 3/ Report of the Surinam Fore-t Service for the year 1950. p. 30. they are a limited group of which the pro- perties are well known to the consumer. They have, at least in the Caribbean area, the disadvantage of being easily attacked by termites. However, this disadvantage can be reduced considerably by termite proofing with appropriate chemicals. It may be true that the ideal anti-termite treatment has not yet been found, but without any doubt pro- cesses for impregnation exist which can reduce termite damage to a level which is not of great importance. Jamaica reported favourably on the use of tanalith?/; Surinam on xylamon C. 203/ On the other hand the Caribbean hard- woods represent quite a heterogeneous collect- ion of timbers of the most varying properties. JULY - OCTOBER 1955 Density ranges from the very light balsa wood with a specific gravity (air dry) below 0.2 to very heavy timbers such as the timber known in British Guiana as Banya (Ebony) which may have specific gravity (air dry) up to 1.35. The heavier of the Caribbean timbers usually are very strong and durable and are excellently resistant to decay and to attacks by termites. However, the high density is also correlated with the property of being dii- ficult to work. It is often necessary to pre- bere before nails can be driven. These object‘ons of course are what the French cail “les defauts de leurs qualités’ (undesirable preperties directly correlated with highly desirable qualities), but nevertheless they result in a certain preference from the view- point cf the carpenters for imported soft- woods. In order to determine whether this pre- ferences for imported softwoods, at least irom the carpenters’ viewpoint, has a sound eco- nomic basis, increase of labour costs as a result of difficulties in working with hard and dur- able Carribbean timbers should be considered, also taking into account timber prices and timber durability. On the other hand it should be kept in rind that the Caribbean area can also produce timbers that have hardness and workability, comparab!e to imported softwoods. Hitherto yelatively little use has been made of these timbers because they are traditionally regard- ed as inferior. However, there is no doubt that if properly seasoned or kiln-dried and duiy treated to make them termite-proof, they might compete with imported softwood tim- bers as an easily workable construction ma- terial. A second objection against the use of Caribbean timbers is their lack of dimension- al stability. This is, however, only a result of the fact that the timber used is not ade- quately seasoned and hardly ever kiln-dried. 59 Sawmillers often say that they are quite willing to supply adequately seasoned sawn lumber, but complain about the consumers who are not willing to pay the extra costs which the sawmiller charges to balance costs incurred in seasoning and the interest of the capital tied up during the period of season- ing. It seems that education of the buying public is necessary to make it realize that the improvement in quality is well worth the in- crease in cost. A third disadvantage of the Caribbean timbers is that many different species exist and most of them are found only in a few producing countries... Many timbers of ex- celient qualit:es are therefore hardiy known outside their country of production and their export to other Caribbean countries is dif- ficult because they are not known there. At the Timber Trade Conference approx- imately 350 timber species were reported as being marketable. Of course, no consumer who is not an expert will be able to say which of these 360 will suit his requirements best. Being embarassed by a choice of too many timbers of which he knows very little, he will often |choose the traditional imported timbers which can be supplied in well defined standard grades and of which he can find figures about allowable working stresses in every handbook. The Timber Trade Conference recognized the danger of having too many timber species entering the trade and accepted among others the following two resolutions: “3. Group Marketing. — Forest Depart- ments, in consultation with Timber Trade should, in each of the major producing territories, compile lists of lesser known timbers to permit marketing. The Trade should then put these groups on the mar- ket. The Governments of producing coun- tries should ensure the identity of the tim- bers shipped and should take the lead in the utilization of these grouped timbers by purchasing them for public purposes.” 60 “8. Timbers.—The Caribbean Commission should approach the Forest Services of the United States in a effort to secure assis- tance from its Tropical Region in Puerto Rico in the compilation for publication of a list of the timbers of present and poten- tial regional importance. This document should cover the entire Caribbean region, including the Independent Republics and should include trade names and all avail- able data on timber properties and known uses. It should also outline research still required to enable the completion of the information. The Commission should offer the data collected by this Conference as a start on this project. Included is the preliminary list of 50 timber species pre- pared by the Conference and a suggested questionnaire also prepared by the Confer- ence for the collection of the descriptive information regarding these important timbers.” The philosophy of resolution 8 apparently is that a limited number of timbers may have 2 chance of becoming well known and accepted in intra and extra—Caribbean trade, but that this will be impossible for some hundreds of types of timber. The list of approximately 590 timbers is still open to amendments, and the publication describing these timbers in a form which pez- mits easy consultation by the consumer is not yet available. But it is awaited with much interest and will certainly be of great assis- tance in developing the Caribbean timber trade. The system of group marketing suggested in Resolution 3 will enable the producers to alleviate difficulties in utilizing the lesser known timber spezies, which are scattered in occurrence and do not individually permit re- gular large shipments. ‘Timbers which have similar properties, particularly those suited for construction, might be grouped under a trade name which would establish a standard acceptable for the consumer, yet flexible for the producer. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Vhe expected publication describing ap- proximately 50 Caribbean timbers will include, of course, the timbers which are already fair- Jy well known such as Demerara greenheart, wallaba, mora, crabwood, purple heart, maho- gany, Central American cedar, Santa Maria, end Caribbean pine. But even for these tim- bers publication of literature which make their properties known to the consumers is very desirable, notwithstanding the fact that some good descriptions are already available, prepared by the forestry services of the pro- cucing countries. The heavier among the Caribbean timbers have an advantage in that they are very strong and this quality might be used to promote their sales, at least for use as constructional timber. This advantage, however, is by no means fully used. In moderate climates oak is regarded as a first class constructional timber. However, Demerara greenheart can take bending stres- ses and compressive stresses (parallel to grain) respectively 1.9 and 2.7 times that of oak. For Surinam greenheart, these relations are respectively 2.4 and 2.9; and for the timber known in Surinam a3 Yzerhart (Iron Heart) aad in British Guiana as Banya, these relative figures are respectively 3.1 and 3.4.4/ The reasons why architects and structural engineers hesitate to use the heavier of the Caribbean timbers according to their excellent strength properties, 1s, to a considerable extent, due to lack of knowledge of allowabie working stresses. Every handbook on structural engineering contains data on strength of the well known ttmbers of the moderate climates, but data ca Caribbean timbers are hard to find. But even if the architect knows about these high strength properties he will be hesitant to use this knowledge fully in the interest of economic construction, because imported 4/ The-e strength ratio relations have been ca'culated from the tab'e of recommended working stresses in Pfeiffer: De Hout- ssorten van Suriname (Surinam Timbers). JULY - OCTOBER 1955 structural timbers are graded according to sirength properties and Caribbean timbers are not. However, even under existing cir- cumstances and without recognized and ac- cepted grading systems design of construc- tions could often be more economical if the excellent mechanical properties of Caribbean timbers were taken into account. The table at the end of this article gives some further details about mechanical and other properties of some selected timbers. This table, however, is only illustrative and is not intended to cover the matter fuliy. Marketing possibilities of Caribbean terri- tcries, however, do uot depend only on in- creased use by substituting Caribbean timbers for imported softwoods. It is also essential tc retain the traditional market. In some Caribbean countries where timber was up to recently the traditional construction material for residential houses, there is a tendency to replace timber by concrete biocks or other stone blocks. Increased timber prices and maintenance costs of timber houses are the main reason. If marketing possibilities for Caribbean timbers are not to be influenced unfavourably it is desirable that timber construction snould yemain competitive in comparison with other construction methods. A remarkable initiative in this respect has heen taken by a Surinam sawmill which is now selling precut timber for complete houses, cut exactly to the actual size needed. Th system has the advantage for the sawmill of opening up possibilities for the sale of smail sizes of lumber and also timber species ior which there is little demand, but which may be quite adequate and useful, if necessary, alter proper chemical treatment. to reports received, the complete amount of precut timber needed for a house of 680 sguare feet floor surface is sold for Sur. fl. 1,850; the total cost of materials will be Sur. fi. 3,650 ($970 U. S. and $1,918 U. S. respec- tively). This house will contain living room, > © According 61 kitchen, shcewers, lavatory rooms. and three bed- The precut timber is ready for im- mediate assembly. The Extra Caribbean Market in the extra-Caribbean market the Carib- bean timbers will not be sold, at least not in the near future, for general use. They will cnly have the possibility of being marketed ior very specialised purposes. One of the traditional uses of Caribbean timbers in the overseas markets is for marine construction, in view of the fact that some of these tim- bers are known to be excellently resistant tc marine borers, ezpecially manbarklak and Demerara greenheart. A relatively new overseas market which apparently has not yet been fully explored is the use for parquet flooring. The extreme hardness of many Caribbean timbers, their beautiful appearance and the possibility of using small sizes seem to make this an at- tractive proposition. The possibility of exporting Caribbean timbers for decorative purposes, more or less as a luxury timber, apparently has not been fully explored. Indeed, it has been tried several times, so far without much success, except for mahogany trom British Honduras. Gne of the reasons why previous attempt: ialled was that it was difficult to guarantee a regular supply. Introduction of high grade Caribbean timbers on overseas markets as a luxury timber therefore requires building up of stocks of well seasoned high grade timber from which orders can be shipped immediate- ly. Obviously, this requires a considerable amount of capital. Any endeavour to explore end increase this market, therefore, should be restricted to selected timber which could be stocked. Cne of the ways in which the export of Caribbean timbers to overseas markets has developed recently is in the form of railway sleepers. Surinam especially developed this export to the Netherlands after the war. Conclusions The following measures offer possibilities for expanding the market of Caribbean tim- bers: A. For the Caribbean Market ie co ~l Improved seasoning and increased introduction of kiln-drying. Encouragement of use of properly seasoned or dried timber instead of green timber. Standardisation of milling sizes and introduction of proper grading sys- tems. Increased use of some relatively unknown but nevertheless useful timbers, especially those which have good possibilities as substi- tutes for imported softwood tim- bers. Where appropriate, group marketing should be introduced, using trade names which comprise different timbers of similar pro- perties. Dissemination of information on Caribbean timbers, especially those of actual and potential regional im- portance. Efforts to increase exports to Caribbean and overseas markets should be restricted to timbe-s of actual and potential importance. Of these timbers adequate stocks of well seasoned material should be kept on hand so that delivery could be made immediately on receipt ot! orders. Dissemination of information on termite proofing treatments and encouragement of such treatment wherever appropriate. Scientific design of timber con- struction. wherever the excellent properties of many Caribbean tim- bers to carry heavy loads may be important. Increased use of electrically power- ed small tools to alleviate difficul- ties in working the heavier of the CARIBBEAN FORESTER Caribbean timbers and to prevent bad workmanship (for instance omission of preboring when this may be necessary to prevent split- ting). 10. Systematic study by sawmillers of possibilities of marketing timbers which are not in frequent demand and of small sized timber. Selling of houses in precut sizes, ready for assembling, is one possible so- lution. B. For the Extra-Caribbean Market— Conclusions 1, 3, 5, 6, 8 and 9, given above for the Caribbean market refer also to the extra- Caribbean Market. For the extra- Caribbean market the following additional conclusions may be for- mulated: 11. Propaganda of the use of appro- priate Caribbean timbers, not yet adequately known in overseas mar- kets, as ornamental luxury timbers or as parquet flooring. 12. Further economic study of the pos- sibilities of using Caribbean timbers as a constructional or utility tim- ber in overseas markets. In stud- ies of this nature the exceptional ability of some Caribbean timbers (as well as of other heavy tropical timbers) to carry heavy loads should be taken into account. Most studies of this nature made in past years will not have paid full atten- tion to this point. Possibilities of export of railway sleepers might be examined further. It might be considered whether or not a further conclusion should be added regard- ing the reduction of cost price by improving the systems of forest utilization and sawmill- ing methods. Reduction in cost, price, of course, would increase marketing possibilities considerably. This angle of the problem, however, is an entirely different story and vill not be discussed in this article. OD (Lo) —-—— JULY - OCTOBER 1955 000°S OLG'P 00831 OOS OOL6I ‘uy ‘bg /"q'T (Aap ary) ULV oY por[waed yydua.ys DATSSOAC W090 VU CULEX Ay OSE OT 0088 OG6°8 OOV' 6G O00'86 OOSEs ‘uy “bg /'q'T (Aap ry) SULpPuUog O1yeys oamngdnat yo SnpnpoT, 8V'0 LL'0-€9°0 GV'0-VE 0 ol 1-960 GT'T-00'T ce t-so.t | (Aap ary) AUARALG atproedg ‘OOUDA PUK POOMATA ‘SoVeIO LOF O[Ge}INS SopBls oy MA «“oangruany IoF sodA} MOT[OA “UOLON.AYSUOD LOLLOJUL LOJ SodA} Joye, ‘Ssorptodord SuLp1OMpoo ry ‘poyeorjyun UsYyM soyrutdtoy AQ poyoeyye ATISVd “JOS ‘s[reu 10} potoqoud oq ysnuw ‘ystfod Yysiry ev soyez ‘Jom soystUry “YtoM OF pavy AJoyeropout ‘oy pue saoloq oUTIeU 07 YURYSISOL A] -ysry ‘soytuttoy pue Avoop OF ouNUUUT JsOUUTe “6UOA}s Aaoa ‘KAvoy pue paey AdoA ‘snotysny ‘poin}xo} oUly UINIpoU ‘YsEpoRTG OF UMOAG OAT[O OF MOT[AA YStTUdaA ty ‘YIOM OF FPNOUFLC ‘ysno} pue yURySISoL ATOA “SUOTS AOA “ATTN Nw “ABOOP OF JUBYSTISOY “YAOM OF FLNOLFILC soysyod “[[oM sur], ‘prey pur suodys AtoA ‘jreu OF oPqisodur to ypMoyyIp “op WOMALIASA) LOQuULy, XIANtldd V DIO fIXD] VINSJOPNS ‘Alp ‘oods sn9dan?y suppidadlo DIN 1IOIPOd DIJOOE) DIO {{ALOS DINGEQD sotoeds DIZ]4DMNG UWOTPBOTFLPUOp! pBolueyod I Sepsnod 10 POOMUNSSO | }LeIYUOIAs BIeIOWOC] BINGO” | (euein®) ystyitg ) vAuog (wieULIng ) JAVYIOZ A | owe LOquaLy, 64 CARIBBEAN FORESTER INDUSTRIAL WOOD USE IN PUERTO RICO F, R. LONGWOOD Tropical Forest Research Center Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Nearly one-fifth of the land area of Puer- +o Rico is or should be in forests, according to a recent study by the Puerto Rico Plan- ning Board. This area of more than 400,000 acres is sufficient to provide a large portion of all forest products required for certain purposes and perhaps under intensive forest management to leave an exportable surplus of high quality hardwoods. However, the man- agement and utilization of the forests is com- plicated by the presence of hundreds of tree species, many of excellent quality and others of no apparent value. Research must provide the knowledge for the management and _ utili- zation of the many species growing in this large potential forest area in an_ otherwise land-deficient, over-crowded island. With the knowledge gained through research a well in- formed, interested government can do much to provide the incentive and, in some places, the facilities for the proper use of these lands. Research in forest management has been underway in Puerto Rico for nearly two decades but only slight attention has been eiven to the study of forest utilization. Much has been learned concerning the management of the very heterogenous forests of Puerto Rico but relatively little is known about the qualities and uses of the one-hundred or more species growing to sawlog size and the many other species reaching post and pole dimen- sions. Consequently, when in 1954 circum- stances allowed the intensification of research in forest utilization the first task was to determine the status of present wood use on the island. This report, based upon the sur- vey, is not intended as a problem analysis for the entire field of forest utilization but is principally a summarization of industrial wood use on the island. The overall purpose of the survey was to determine the pattern of industrial wood use ‘a Puerto Rico. The survey was intended primarily to determine the volume of wood used by species in the different industries, what. the wood was used for, how it was used, what the problems were, and, to some extent, what could be done to relieve them. Specific attention was focused on the present and potential use of native woods and what could be done to encourage more complete use of the available supplies. The survey was not intended to show the total wocd use on the isiand, as this information was already avail- able in census reports. Construction and raaintenance, although the major wood uses on the island, were not covered, as these uses require lumber and specialized products not likely to be produced in the local forests. A brief preliminary survey of wood use on farms was conducted after the completion of the industrial survey. It showed that the forests were becoming progressively of lesser economic importance to the rural population as a result of the conditions described later in this report. However, the results of this survey are of no direct importance to indus- trial wood use and are not discussed further. The information was obtained through an on-the-ground study!/ of more than 600 in- dustrial plants, including those related to agriculture. ‘The industrial card file of the Economic Development Administration of the Commonwealth was used as the initial source of a complete listing of all furniture and mill- work plants and a representative sample ot manufacturers in all other branches of indus- try. 1/ The author was greatly assisted in this work hy Rav) Ybar:a Coronado Forestry Aid, Trcnical Forest Research Center. JULY - OCTOBER 1955 All producers of furniture and millwork were visited during the survey. In addition, five or more concerns in each of the other in- austrial categories, including agricultural products, were investigated. Whenever an in- dustry was found to be using wood as a pari of the product, for parts in machinery such as in textile manufacture, or for shipping con- tainers, the survey was extended to cover ali plants in the industry. This was possible as the island is of such size that it is relatively easy to determine the names and location and to contact all plants in any industrial field. All non-manufacturing wood users were also investigated, including marine terminals, ship- ping companies, railroads, utility services, ana concerns that crate furniture and other goods fer shipment. Known or estimated wood use during the previous 12 months, costs, waste, techniques, problems, requirements, and relative infor- rmiation involving the use of wood were obtained from each concern. Additional ob- servations, some planned and others unfore- seen, were recorded at the time of each inter- view. In most industries, the initial lists oi concerns supplied by the Economic Develop- ment Administration were increased by new concerns discovered during the survey. Table 1 summarizes the wood require- ments of the principal industrial users during 2954. Table 1—Summary of the principa! indus- trial uses of wocd in Puerto Rico during Fiscal Year 1954.1/ | Lumber, Plywood | Number Use M. bd..ft.M. sq. ft.2/ Each Furniture 7,939 3,349 — Millwork 1,657 335 — Cross’‘ies 2,°40 = = Crating & boxing 1,134 — ae Burial boxes & caskets 450 290 — Pallets 285 — = Soft drink cases 850 —— = Utilit7 poles 1,920/3 — — Crossarms — — 16,200 Brackets = — 16,430 65 Use Lumter Plywood Number Fruit & Vegetable _ boxes —— 658,000 Hsusehold items 121 2,500 — Marine repairs 160 5 — Manufacture of stone, cement and clay products 95 — = Textile machine parts — -- POeTOD Twine re-xes = = 16,800 Broom handles — = 880,000 Art tresh nanilcs = a 3,750,000 Knife cushicns — — 9,600 Totals 17,451 6,479 i/ Wood ured in construction and maintenance, the major wood DsOn ieabace etiaeee eines ne ee 3/ Con orea tee as peste, os 220,000 evbic feet on basis THE FURNITURE INDUSTRY Furniture manufacturing is the largest in- dustrial use of both imported and native wood and also involves the largest number of plants and most employees of any primary wood using industry on the island. For these rea sons the survey of furniture manufacturers was somewhat more detailed than that of the other industries. First, it as desired to make an aecurate accounting of the total volume of wood used, including detailed information o: the grades, sources of supply, quality, costs, and comparative utility of the various native and imported woods. This information was required primarily to determine the potential marxet for native woods. Second, to observe the operations of furniture manufacturers re- earding equipment, labor, management, quali- tv of products, seasoning, woodworking and finishings in order to determine whether better techniques could increase native wood utiliza- tion. Third, to determine the magnitude, causes, and character of wood waste. There are 206 manufacturers of wooden furniture in Puerto Rico, ranging in size from one-man shops to one plant employing more than 100 people. More than 2,800 people ere employed full-time in the industry. Some 178, or 82 percent of the furniture concerns employ from 1 to 24 people (see Table 2), for a total of about 1,300, or roughly 42 percent of the total number of employees in the in- dustry. The other 18 percent of the concerns 66 employ about 1,500 people, or approximately 58 percent of the total number. Table 2.—Number of furniture factories by employment size groups Employees Number of Total per factory factories employees 1/ Neere coe _ ae 1 — 2 45 68 o—9 bs a 552 10 — 24 4] 697 25 — 49 18 666 50 — 99 9 675 100 — 200 l 150 Totals 206 2,808 1/ Based on the median number of emp!oyees in each group. Furniture plants are located in the metro- politan area of San Juan and in 40 other towns or cities. San Juan has 60 plants, Ponce 19, Mayaguez 14, Arecibo 13, and Aguadilla 12, with the remaining 88 concerns in smaller cities. Small and medium size plants are lo- cated throughout the island but the larger concerns are usually in or near one of the principal urban areas, where the labor supply, markets, transportation costs, and other fac- tors are usually most favorable. Products of the Furniture Industry Solid wood modern furniture, upholstered furniture and china-reed furniture constitute the major portion of the output of the indus- try. Small quantities of combination metal and wood, rattan, rattan and wood, and native wood and reed furniture are also made, plus a relatively large volume of very low cost beds and springs. With the exception of custom made furniture, the style within each of these categories is uniform throughout the island. Most of the small shops and some of the larger concerns do both custom work and re- pairing in addition to production of standard CARIBBEAN FORESTER items for the trade. A few shops specialize in custom work only but the majority find this phase of the industry insufficient and too ir- regular to keep their employees profitably oc- cupied. The large plants usually accept neither custom work nor repair business. The average employee turns out a job of as high quality as the materials and equipment wiii allow. His inherent reluctance to hurry and his natural pride in his work, along with the relatively simple design of most furniture results in an unusually high quality of prod- uct. Even with poorly conditioned native woods the end product is of high quality. Many concerns produce identical items and any decline in quality of the product from one factory is readily apparent and markets are soon lost. Consequently, particular at- tention is given to the quality of work and the finished products.