Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE TROPICAL FOREST RESEARCH CENTER RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO VCLUME i8 NOS. 1 AND 2 JANUARY - JiUNE, 1957 a . - a t Few oa ™ m" cane Pen Se r — ah nf rie io rae CY *? AY, ; pel Lay? Ps ive “A é i ‘4 f ; ‘ & ‘ - : El “Caribbean Tape ee eae que ee bo of not more than 20 types cio’ Forestal “del. Departamento de Agri- written pages in length are solicited. They : ra de los Estados SO nN pu- _ should: be submitted in the author’s native se en julio de 1938 se distribuye semes- tongue, and should include the author’s title — ages Bey ne dedicada 3 or position and a short summary. Papers — stales de la 1 2 ae trechar ue existen ey pcre ie Ja Ciencia | Opinions expressed in this journal are at stal y ciencias afines encardndoles con _ necessarily those of the Forest Service. ns) problemas confrontados, las politicas fo- stales vigentes y el trabajo que se mene uu propé- Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. ya | yee erie Toe ee ; ‘ eae Chil 3 ie Wey Brae | i i ake i Tag oy ee eS oe “1 Asi eI ei a Oe i i boty > aa ‘t : Hg ‘ P. ve 7} rhe Saath 2 b MET TG0h thn bieceeenne k | , be sent to the Leader, Tropical Forest — Any — article published may be reproduced provided et | At Sire aaa ie tone nea : oc atherpntidiger Lo ‘ BY RANE SS 5 eae hgh! "Se solicita aportaciones de no més de 20 efy: | Pe aa iG titulo o posicién que este ocupa. Es impres- Département de l’Agriculture des Etats-Unis, tees incluir un resumen conciso del estu- est une revue semestriele gratuite, dediée a ries Los articulos deben ser dirigi-_ encourager Yaménagement rationnel des fo- al Lider, Centro de Investigaciones Fo- yéts de la region caraibe. Son but est d’entre- A eee que aparecen en esta revista - problemés et ses méthodes les plus récentes, = Se permite la ie de Ec objectif amelioration technique. os siempre ue se indique su proce- _ aks nci. i a an veGha anane voluntiers des contribution ne_ AM iy 2 hs "Elles doivent atre écrites dans la langue ma- | The: ees Forester”, published since “temelle de Yauteur qui voudra bien préciser Ps. sc) Aaa ee S. Pee son titre ou sa position professionnelle et en al devoted to the encouragement of im- Ma Pet Say ah as pea 1e Cai ‘regi - keeping nate: Ath ct 5 Ric est aye ale nes erate eae ain ced, the policies in — - Lalita ate artaatathe ata eecae nas mecanografiadas. Deben cer someti- a Le BE aN ea 7 Forester”, ee a Ee en el Jenguaje verndculo del autor, con el_ depuis Juliet 1938 par le Service Forestier du Tropicales, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. -tenir des relations scientifiques entre ceux : _ Las opiniones expresadas por los autores qui s'interéssent aux Sciences Forestiéres, ses no coinciden necesariamente con las del Ser- ainsi qu’aux travaux effectués pour ame 1 Speen Os VF cata pas 20 pages dactilographiées. — - doivent etre canbe VC au Leader, — e work pea he toward this lité de leurs articles. La reproduction est ‘Ou; rho ? ‘ «™ : . can si Yon présice Vorigin e: 7 y x La %s Ay, : \ » f\. 4? BNE vis - i. Sai x i me ee * ‘ A ( : Ne S i ‘ at} ‘ 4 \ - y er \ 4 ‘" ‘ . \ \ te: Ae nt 5) ur i t is C> s publication ha eo sr oe the Paes of the Budget Gus any ¢ . ex y in , is \ J ae My ae ; is > % 5+ % se WA St wes hy RN Cem t) i HN AS SS » 14's , oy) \ ia} - y VoL. 18 Nos. 1 AND 2 JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Minet@ariopean Forester CO in te aes S Ul mal Cle ©) Seventeenth annual report _______-_ 2 ee ash 2 Epi) eae | Tropical Forest Research Center, Puerto Rico. Iniorme sobre un levantamiento ecoldgico de Panama _______._______ 12 L. R. Holdridge y Gerardo Budowski, Costa Rica. Report on the fourth Tropical Forestry Short Course __ aeons 30 B. J. Huckenpahler, Puerto Rico. Forest conditions and problems in participants’ countries ___________ 40 A. H. Stein, Costa Rica. Forest conditions, problems, and programmes in British Guiana ______ 44 V. Vieira and H. Richardson, British Guiana. i. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 “Seventeenth Annual Report TROPICAL FOREST RESEARCH CENTER Puerto Rico The year 1956 saw progress in each oi the two main lines of research at the Center: forest management and forest products utili- zation. The major project in forest manage- ment research concerned the inauguration oi pilot demonstration management in the Luquillo Experimental Forest. In the field of forest products utilization the machiniag tests of 62 local woods were completed and plans were drawn up for a formal program of research on wood preservation. Other research projects which were contin- ued from previous years include the studies of artificial forest regeneration in both Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, and investiga- tions of tree growth as affected by environ- mental factors and silvicultural treatment. Some 160 studies of this character were in- spected or measured during the year. Of these, 38 were terminated and 27 new studies were begun during the year. The collection of soil trafficability data for the Waterways Experiment Station was completed except for a few remaining weather and soil moisture records. Directly related to the research work wozc a number of other accomplishments during the year. The cooperative forestry program was strengthened both in Puerto Rico and in the Virgin Islands. A new cooperative program with the Commonwealth government was inaugurated which provides for a Service Forester to offer direct technical assistance for reforestation of private lands within a concentrated area of critical watershed lands. The Center not only assisted in the training of the Service Forester but shared under the Clarke-McNary Act with the Commonwealth the costs of planting stock production for this purpose and made 15 demonstration woodlot and roadside plantings outside of the area of concentration. Another outgrowth of the Center’s research work, the program of training foreign stu- dents in tropical forestry, was continued dur- ing the year. In all, 20 such students from 11 countries spent an aggregate total o: 36 man-months at the Center. The main activ- ity of this nature was the spring training course held for 14 students from March 7 to May 18. This course was broad, covering all aspects of forestry. The entire staff par- ticipated in the instruction, and cooperative assistance was obtained from the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions and from many local governmental agencies concerned with related problems. In the Virgin Islands the forestry program carried out in cooperation with the Virgin Islands Corporation succeeded in establishing four forest plantations, three on private lands and one on the Thomas Estate Demonstration Forest. These plantations, including both teak and mahogany, covered about 20 acres. The proclamation of the 26,000-acre Luqui- llo Division of the Caribbean National Forest as the Luquillo Experimental Forest led to a study of the resources of this area and the most desirable policies for administering their use. Protection was improved by fencing of critical boundaries and systematized patrol. Numerous tracts adjacent to the forest were located as a part of a land exchange with the Commonwealth which would enlarge the Lu- quillo Forest in trade for the Toro Negro Forest. This transaction is now primarily a matter for the Commonwealth to complete, purchasing the tracts offered and transferring title to the Federal Government. Progress was made in the betterment and surfacing of 2 11.2 miles of roads within the Forest under a contract with the Commonwealth govern- ment. Advice was offered to the Common- wealth Parks and Recreation Administration for the betterment of the La Mina Recrea- tional Area within the Forest. The adminis- tration of more than 100 permitted special land uses within the forest has continued. Included are some 27 subsistence agricultural parcels where the Center has advised the per- mittees as regards land use and cropping practices. ‘ne training of the personnel of the Center received more attention in 1956 than in pre- vious years. The Center Leader spent 4 months of the year in the United States be- coming better acquainted with research ad- ministration at Washington and at _ the Southern Forest Experiment Station. The Forest Products Utilization Project Leader attended the annual planning conference of the Forest Products Laboratory at Madison. Staff members attended the spring training course sessions led by outside specialists which were of especial value to them. Particu- larly important here were the sessions on forest nurseries and planting, interpretation of aerial photographs, and forest policy and administration. The progress of the Center in 1956 has to a considerable measure been a result of co- operative assistance by other agencies. Assis- tance received from the Office of the Chief, from the Southern Station, and from the For- est Products Laboratory has made _ possible a more effective program at the Center both through better administration and through better planned technical work. The Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wildlife of the Com- monwealth continued to make available pro- tected public forest areas and nursery assis- tance for forest management investigations. The Virgin Islands Corporation financed more than half of the cost of the research in progress on St. Croix. The Virgin Islands Experiment Station, through provision for of- fice and nursery facilities, was also of mate- rial assistance to the work at that location. CARIBBEAN FORESTER FOREST MANAGEMENT RESEARCH The chief field of investigation at the Cen- ter has always been forest management. The Center was handicapped in 1956 because of the vacancy throughout the year of the for- est management project leader position and because of the absence of the Center Leader during half of the year. Progress reported here, to a large measure, reflects mainte- nance work on studies begun previously. Ex- ceptions are the studies of hurricane damage and of regeneration in the Virgin Islands. The most important results of the research are described in detail at the time of publi- cation. Only a few of the highlights are pre- sented here. Hurricane Damage The hurricane of August 12, the first to pass directly over the island since 1932, pro- vided also the first opportunity to study ex- treme wind effects upon improved forest stands and plantations. This hurricane pas- sed over the island, from southeast to north- west, and affected the entire island, but as a hurricane it was not large. Wind records at two locations were 92 and 115 miles per hour. Rainfall was unusually light for a hurricane, generally less than 6 inches for the period of the storm. A survey of the effects on experiments in progress and on forests in general was under- taken during the weeks immediately following the storm. A report on this survey is in pre- paration for publication. The general con- clusions are the following: 1. Severe hurricane damage to forests, that is, complete or nearly complete blow- down, was limited almost entirely to areas within 5 miles of the path of the storm center. As distance from the path increased the severity of the damage de- clined sharply. 2. The severity of the hurricane damage to the forests was inconsistent within short distances. Severely damaged stands JANUARY - JUNE 1957 were found adjacent to unaffected stands oi similar composition and struc- ture and in supposedly similar topogra- phic locations. 3. Mixed, all-aged natural stands suffered generally less hurricane damage than plantations. . Damage was more severe in thinned than in unthinned stands. 5. Broadleaf mahogany, Swietenia macro- pkylla King, showed again its susceptibil- ity to windthrow on heavy clay soils, this characteristic having been observed as a result of a storm 2 years ago. Ho 6. Twenty-year-old eucalyptus (Eucalyp- tus robusta J. E. Smith) suffered top breakage mostly, while 18-year-old teak (Tectona grandis L.) was uprooted and broken off to almost an equal degree. Both species of ages shown suffered 95 percent or more damage in the direc? path of the hurricane. Only a few of the regeneration and growth experiments of the Center were affect- ed by the hurricane. These were located in the Aguirre, Carite, and Rio Abajo Forests. Regeneration The results of the regeneration studies reported here concern primarily the adapta- tion of tree species to different sites. For this reason they are presented according to these sites, each of which makes up an important area of forest land. Shallow Loam Soils Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica Mill) continues to be one of the most spec- tacular planted trees on rocky shallow loam soils at high elevation. Observations made in a 6-year-old plantation at 3,500 feet elevation (precipitation 120 inches annually) in the Toro Negro Forest show this species superior even to eucalyptus in growth. Its rapid growth rate plus the potential utility of its 9 vo wood make this species one of the most prom- ising introductions yet made in Puerto Rico. The trees in this planting average 5 inches d.b.h. and 25 feet in height, with a maximum oi 11 inches and 35 feet. Their form is excel- lent and theiy dense crowns have shaded out competing vegetation. Naturally established seedlings have begun to appear beneath the plantation. This plantation was not hit by the 1956 hurricane, but the lack of wind- firmess characteristic at low elevation and on deep wet clays is not evident on this rocky site. Additional plantings are proposed for 1957. Deep Lateritic Clay Soils Maga (Montezuma spéciosissima Sessé & Moc.), an endemic tree species which pro- duces a termite-resistant cabinet wood, has finally been Cropped from the research pro- grams, after more than 20 years of efforts to produce it. The tree is not difficult to regen- erate, although the seed is very perishable, but other superior species have proven equal- ly adaptable to its sites. Below 1,000 feet ele- vation, where maga occurs naturally, it is in- ferior to broadleaf mahogany, Swietenia ma- crophylla King, both in growth rate and in form. Under these conditions maga typically declines in diameter growth rate efter the trees reach 3 or 4 inches d. b. h. At that stage the trees also put forth a large number of sprouts from the stem, and thus lose their initial good form. Maga on deep lateritic clay soil at 2,500 feet elevation in the Toro Negro forest (pre- cipitation 98 inches annually) has retained its good form. Its diameter growth, while slower than at lower elevation, has been ac- cepted as satisfactory, since no superior spe- cies has been known. Now, however, after 20 years, the trees, with an average diameter of 5 inches, and a height of 30 feet, have virtually stopped growing, the crowns have become thin, and many have died from what appears to be a root rot. At the same time 4 adjacent tests of mahoe (Hibiscus tiliaceis L.) have shown this species, which produces a timber of at least equal value, to grow much more rapidly, trees attaining a diameter of 6 inches and a height of 65 feet in 10 years. The prospects for hamboo production on deep lateric clays in the mountainous interi- or of the island have become further clarified by reexamination of a 10-year-old test plant- ing at 3,200 feet elevation (precipitation 110 taches annually) in the Toro Negro Forest. Three species: Bambusa tulda Roxb., B. longispiculata Gamble ex Brandis, and B. tex- tilis McClure were used. The first two are suited for furniture and are outstanding in resistance to powderpost beetles. B. textilis, relatively thin-walled, is useful for baskets and similar articles. Four planting spacings were used, 10 x 10, 15 x 15, 20 x 20, and 20 x Zo feet. Width of spacing has been significant to date only as regards rapidity of domination of the site by the bamboo. On the more de- graded slopes a spacing of 10 to 15 feet is in- dicated, particularly with the smallest species, B. textiles. With wider spacings weeding was necessary into the third year. On the lower slopes and other more protected sites 25-foot spacing seems adequate for early control of vegetation. Nothing can be concluded yet as to the relative productivity of these dif- ferent spacings, since intense competition among the plants is only beginning. At the end of 10 years the B. tulda clumps range from 30 to 45 feet in height and have about 40 culms per clump. B. longispicu- lata has developed more slowly, averaging 20 to 25 feet in height. On the slopes the plants are chlorotic and still do not dominate com- peting vegetation. They average about 40 culms per clump. B. textilis ranges from 30 to 35 feet in height and has produced more than 100 culms per clump. Future observa- tions will provide a conclusive comparison between species and spacings in terms of lineal feet of culm per unit of land area. Additional bamboo tests are proposed CARIBBEAN FORESTER for shallow loam soils for possible production of cellulose. Deep Granitic Loam Soils Almendron (Prunus occidentalis Sw.), previously reported as promising as an under- planted tree on deep granitic loam soil at 1,800 feet elevation (precipitation 150 inches annually) in the Luquillo Montains, has con- tinued to develop very satisfactorily. A 19- year-old underplanting which has_ been pericdically released has produced trees of 2 to 4 inches in diameter and from 20 to 65 feet in height. This species, a native to Puerto Rico, produces a_ termite-resistant timber prized for cabinetwork. Its development on this site is better than that of other species tested. Laterite Soils Mexican cypress (Cupressus lusitanica Miil) shows promise for the reforestation of the laterite soils at an elevation of about 1,500 feet (annual precipitation 110 inches). A 4-year-old test planting in the Maricao forest on a site where many species of eucalyp- tus have failed has produced vigorous trees 5 to 8 feet tall. The growth rate of these trees is not as rapid as elsewhere in the island, but one favorable result is that the limbs are more rigid and make the trees well suited for Christmas trees. Additional plantings have been recommended for this purpose. Mycorrhiza inoculation of pines on later- ite soil, reported without conclusive results last year, has continued under observation. The species treated was slash pine (P. elliot- tii Engelm.). The seedlings had already been outplanted and had become chlorotic. Pre- vious application of calcium superphosphate as a result of soil tests proved unfruitful. The inoculating material was humus and A-hori- zon soil from shortleaf and longleaf forests in the United States. About 330 cc. of material was worked into the soil around the stem of 23 trees, with 24 alternate trees as checks. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 After 9 months the treated seedlings had re- covered in color of foliage and mycorrhiza were apparent on the roots. The checks were unchanged in appearance, and no mycorrhiza were found. After 2 years the treated seedlings averaged 2.5 feet in height and continued to show a deep green color, com- pared with chlorotic check trees, still chloro- tic and 1.5 feet in height, about the same size as when planted. It now seems conclu- sive that the mycorrhiza are a prerequisite to the introduction of slash pine on this area. Additional tests will be made to determine whether the inoculated soil can now serve to inoculate nursery beds and other planted trees. Rocky Slopes on St. Croix Experiments directed toward the simplifi- cation of regeneration of West Indian mahog- any (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) and broad- leaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) on the island of St. Croix, begun on a formal basis in 1955, were replicated and expanded in 1956 to include 5 sites, 2 species, 3 seasons, 9 types of planting material, and a total of nearly 12,000 trees or seed spots. The need to repeat tests for several years has become epparent in the inconsistencies in the results of experiments to date. This is largely due to the variability of the climate, with brief but severe droughts possible any time during the first half of the normally rainy part of the year, from May to Sep- tember. In favorable years this is the best time to plant because it is followed by three rainy months: October, November, and De- cember, before the normal dry period begins. Planting in these three rainy months is haz- ardous because the trees may have insufficient time to develop adequately to withstand the subsequent drought. The most reliable method to regenerate mahogany under these conditions has proven to be the planting of vigorous stock about 15 inches tall with a ball of earth (tar-paper pots). This is as true in the rainy mountains a (45 to 60 inches of precipitation) with broad- leaf mahogany as it is in the drier coastal hills (25 to 45 inches precipitation) with West Indian mahogany. Accordingly this is the practice generally being followed in the plant- ing program directed by the Research Center for the Virgin Islands Corporation. Never- theless, costs of planting stock and planting with this method are high, so studies of direct sowing and the planting of bare-rooted stock have been undertaken. In the humid zone tests have concentrated on broadleaf mahogany, the most rapid grow- ing species. Plantings of bare-rooted stock made in the early fall of 1955 showed that with vigorous planting stock survival can be satisfactory on the best sites. Accordingly, this practice will be used in the forestry program in 1957. Direct seeding of this species on this site is also promising as regards survival. Sowings made during July, August, and Sep- tember 1956 showed a survival of 80 to 100 percent of the spots (sown 10 seeds to the spot) at the end of the year. The seedlings were vigorous and about 6 inches tall. This method of regeneration, although far cheaper than planting, entails a longer period of plan- tation care and should not be used generally until its relative economy has been determin- ed. In the meantime the survival of the seed- lings through the coming dry season must be cetermined. In the drier zone both species have been tested. Well developed, potted stock of both species survives planting well in favorable years. Bare-rooted stock has survived well only in especially favorable years and on the more humid sites. Direct seeding in this zone has been generally unsuccessful except where both the site and the weather are specially favorable. The seedlings, particularly those of West Indian mahogany, remain small and del- icate for about a year, requiring special pro- tection. Tests are continuing but present practice in this zone is limited to the use of potted stock, and with broadleaf mahogany only on the more favorable sites. Silviculture Naturai Forest Growth measurements made during 1956 in the virgin forest of the Luquillo Mountains have produced additional basic information on tree growth under these conditions. Two extensive forest types were studied, the tabo- nuco type or rain forest, and the colorado type or montane thicket. The tabonuco type is found between 600 and 2,000 feet elevation and is subject to 90 to 150 inches of precipitation annually. The forest studied had at the beginning of the period 732 trees of two or more inches d.b.b., an average basal area of 204 square feet and a volume of 4,490 cubic feet (including branch- wood) per acre. The colorado type is found between 2,000 and 3,000 feet elevation in this region, in a rainfall zone of 150 to 180 inches annually. The forest studied had an average of 713 trees, 210 square feet of basal area, and 3,503 cubic feet of volume per acre. A summary of individual tree growth of selected species in the two forests appears in Table 1. The species included in the table pro- duce some of the largest trees of the forest and they are of present or potential value for sawtimber. It is seen that the growth rates, even for dominant trees, are generally very slow, particularly in the colorado type. This is in part a reflection on the heavily stocked condition of these virgin forests. The more rapid growth rate of trees in cutover stands in the tabonuco type has already been ‘re- ported. In the colorado type, on the other hand, partial cuttings have not materially accelerated the diameter growth of the re- maining trees, so this forest is considered chiefly of protective rather than productive value. These data are weak for some species and crown classes because all of these were not well represented in the stands sampled. CARIBBEAN FORESTER However, one general relationship which is ap- parent is the lack of a marked increase in growth rate with the change from the sup- pressed to the dominant classes. Between the intermediate and dominant classes, a lesser but still very considerable difference in ap- parent environment, the growth rates for most species show no increase. This relationship, which is not characteristic of cutover stands, is believed to reflect a decline in vigor in the trees because of their extremely advanced age when they reach codominance or dominance in the virgin forest. An exception is Buche- navia, an emergent species, which apparently is capable of rapid growth to a large size. The data for Cecropia and Didymopanax are of interest because these species, while little used here at -present, have recently at- tracted attention as a source of light wood suitable for a variety of uses. It is also com- mon knowledge that they are rapid growing components of secondary forests. Their in- tolerance is borne out by these data whicn show them to be of slow growth under un- disturbed conditions. Regeneration of these species takes place only under openings. It is suggested further here that their rapid growth requires maintenance of low density. A complete analysis of the 10 years of growth records in these virgin stands is being made for publication. Plantation Management Broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophyl- la King) has produced some of the most spec- tacular plantations on the island in the sink- holes of the humid limestone forest area. Plantations established in the late 1930’s at- tained by 1950 densities of 80 to 110 square feet of basal area per acre and appeared to be in need of thinnings. Some of the results of experimental thinnings made in quarter- -acre plots at that time in a 13-year-old plan- ‘tation, leaving stands of 70 to 80 square feet of basal area, appear in Table 2. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Table 1.—Ten-year diameter growth in the Luquillo Forest Number of trees and annual diameter growth 1946-56 by 1946 crown classes Calycogonium Species Dominant Codominant Intermediate | Suppressed No. Growth | No. | Growth | No. | Growth | No. | Growth inch Inch Inch Inch Tabonuco Type Forest Dacryodes excelsa Vahl 36 0.07 45 0.08 41 0.10 3D 0.08 Buchenavia capitata (Vahl) Eichl. 2, 0.32 2 0.29 4 0.10 2 0.01 Cecropia peltata L. 4 0.12 4 0.09 19 Orr2 if 0.06 Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dec. & Planch. 2 0.18 4 0.09 19 0.12 7 0.06 Colorado Type Forest Micropholis chryso- phylloides Pierre 11 0.09 30 0.08 44 0.09 21 0.03 squamulosum Cogn. 34 0.04 49 0.03 58 0.03 47 0.03 Magnolia splendens Urban 12 0.04 8 0.04 11 0.04 6 0.03 Micropholis garciniae- folia Pierre 79 0.07 74 0.05 79 0.03 39 0.04 Ocotea spathulata Mez. 17 0.02 14 0.04 ley 0.01 7 0.004 Table 2.—Mahogany crop tree growth in thinning experiment 1950 Stand Periodic annual DEH Plot | Crop trees Total basal area/acre growth of crop trees Before After (aes ae Av. DBH thinning thinning 1937-1950 1950-1955 No/ Acre Inches Sq. Ft. Sq. Ft Inch Inch 1 112 6.8 110 76 0.52 0.56 Ye 1 Us) 84 0.56 0.44 3 76 6.3 84 70 0.48 0.54 4 76 5.9 80 0.45 0.52 CO At the time the thinning was made the stands were regarded as relatively uniform in size and probably beginning to stagnate. The thinning, made largely from below, was in- tended to eliminate trees of poor form and to make spacing more uniform, as well as to re- duce density slightly. The thinning accom- plished these objectives. It was not recognized at the time of the thinning that many of the dominant and codominant trees, subsequently designated as crop trees, were about to put forth excep- tional height growth and soon dominate most of their neighbors. Unfortunately height mea- surements were not taken but these crop trees now stand from 10 to 20 feet above the gen- eral canopy level. They are sufficient trees of this character to constitute a full stand in the very near future, and their progress 1s now the best index of the productivity of the plantations. Since individual tree growth was not measured in the period immediately preceding 1950 the only measure of prior diameter growth is the mean for the life of the planta- tion to that time. This mean is probably somewhat higher than the growth just before 1950 because of increasing density to that time. The tabulation shows, however, that diameter growth following 1950 is, for these crop trees, very satisfactory even where the thinning was not done. ‘This conclusion is valid even though a decline in growth was evident in Plot 2. Furthermore, the increase in diameter growth in the thinned plots is minor. These plots proved to lack complete com- parability, so no mathematical analysis of the results has seemed warranted. However, it is apparent that a light thinning from below in such plantations neither prevents stagna- tion nor materially accelerates the growth of crop trees. It is chiefly of value in anticipat- ing mortality, as is evident from the fact that 24 trees per acre died in the thinned plots subsequent to thinning (1950-55) as com- pared with 200 trees per acre in the un- CARIBBEAN FORESTER thinned plots. Thinnings from below under these conditions can be justified only where products can be disposed of at a profit. Thin- nings of dominant and codominant trees of poor form, however, may still be desirable in order that future growth may be put on high quality trees. Pilot Management Some 8,000 acres within the Luquillo Ex- perimental Forest were set aside during the year as a pilot demonstration management area. Within this area, which is in addition to that needed for smali-scale plot tests, the best known management practices for rain forest, based upon past research, are being applied on a scale adequate to provide a source of raw materials which can be sustain- ed at a level which will attract forest utiliza- tion industries and thus strengthen the eco- nomic basis for forestry on the island. Two approaches toward this objective were under way during the year. One, and that of most immediate potentialities, was an at- tempt to develop economic outlets for trees heretofore considered of little or no value. The machining tests, now completed, have shown the basic suitability of an increased number of local woods for cabinetwork. The beginnings in wood preservation reseach, with prospect of help from the Common- wealth for equipment to test pressure treat- ment, may well lead to closer utilization of roundwood, most of which now has no mark- et. Numerous promising contacts with the Puerto Rico Industrial Development Com- pany suggest the early possibility of manufac- turing new products locally from both large and small trees. The other approach to economic forestry in the Luquillo Forest is through improve- ment of thé timber stand itself. The forest was divided into six working circles and each of these further into compartments. These ‘compartments are being subjected to system- atic silvicultural treatment which eliminates JANUARY - JUNE 1957 trees of no potential value, provides those remaining with adequate growing space, re- serves large trees for which a market is likely to be found in the near future, and yet makes available the material cut for to- day’s timber market. During 1956 some 1,076 acres were treated in this manner. At the outset, since the forest has been exces- sively cut in the past, most of the trees cut are not merchantable, but with the elimina- tion of the worst trees and with the antici- pated improvement of industrial utilization of local wood it is believed that in the second cycle a substantial timber sale business will develop. FOREST UTILIZATION RESEARCH Research in forest utilization was limited primarily to the determination of wood properties and to wood preservation. In ad- dition efforts were made to apply the results of research to improve local utilization of forest products. Wood Properties Tests of machining properties, air season- ing characteristics, and certain related physi- cal properties of 62 local timbers were com- pleted. All material tested locally was graded, and additional material was shipped to the Forest Products Laboratory for tests of turn- ing. The analysis of these tests is now com- pleted and the report is in manuscript form. The preliminary conclusions from this work, described in last year’s report still hold. Many of the woods tested compare favorably with hardwoods which are widely used elsewhere. A preliminary listing of the species into five utility classes was made for immediate use in revising the instructions for pilot-demonstration stand improvement work in the Luquilio Experimental Forest. Those instructions now reflect both the silvicultural and utilization characteristics of the tree species of the forest. 3 Compilation oi the known information concerning the properties and uses of 75 timb- ers of the Caribbean region has also continued and the manuscript is now ready for review. This project is in response to a request from the Timber Trade Conference of the Carib- bean Commission. Wood Preservation With almost no use of wood preserva- tives in Puerto Rico at present and with wood producis locally in disrepute because of susceptibility to insect attack and decay one of the most promising lines of forest utiliza- tion research is the development of practical methods for local wood preservation. Wood preservation should materially improve the market for the less used timbers and at the same time reduce the demand for fence posts, most of which come from promising young trees in forests already overcut. Furniture must be protected against dry-wood termites and power-post beetles, and posts and con- struction timbers must be protected against a host of boring insects, including wet-wood termites and also against decay where ex- posed to the soil or the weather. The some 50,000 farms of Puerto Rico use an unknown but tremendous number of fence posts each year. With the average service life of untreated posts not more than 24 months, the replacement of fence posts constitutes not only a continuous heavy draia cn scattered privately-owned forests but a growing cost to landowners in terms of the labor required. The Center has made a few preliminary ests to determine the order of magnitude ol treatability of local woods and their service life after treatment. Methods used have been crude but the results have been followed for indications of what might be expected. Exa- minations of three of these tests were made during the year. The earliest local tests of post preserva- tion, made in 1944 ,concerns Casuarina equi- setifolia Forst posts treated with creosote by 10 the hot-and-cold bath method. The hot bath, at 90°C or higher, was maintained for 7 to S hours. Penetration ranged from 2.0 to 2.7 gallons per cubic foot. The treated posts were set in a humid shady area within the rain forest at an elevation of 1,200 feet. The untreated controls all decayed within 4 years, whereas the treated posts are still sound, after 12 years, and with no sign of appreciable de- terioration. Posts only butt-treated became unserviceable as rapidly as the untreated posts. A second test included 33 post species and used the cold- soaking method with a 5 percent pentachlorophenol solution in diesel oil. The length of treatment was 5 days and absorption ranged from 2 to 19 pounds of solution per cubic foot, varying with the species. After 4 years the posts are still sound, although there is some signs of leach- ing of the preservative on the outer surface of the posts. A work plan is in preparation for testing hot-and-cold bath treatment using creosote and pentachlorophenol and for the double dif- fusion method. A pilot plant is being procured for these tests. In addition the Common- wealth government is procuring a_ pressure treatment pilot plant for the use of the Cen- ter in testing this process. The construction of the first commercial pressure treating plant in Puerto Rico during the year, a $100,000 facility with a cylinder length of 42 feet and a daily capacity of 16,000 board feet of lumber, promises to provide another oppor- tunity for research in this field. The plant is 2row using Wolman salts exclusively, and the owner has offered his cooperation in setting up local tests. Technical Assistance The forest utilization research staff, because Puerte Rico has heretofore had little technical assistance in this field, is subject to a large number of requests for advice from importers of wood, sawmillers, retailers, manu- CARIBBEAN FORESTER facturers of millwork and furniture, indus- trialists interested in setting up wood using plants in Puerto Rico, and public agencies such as the Puerto Rico Industrial Develop- ment Company. Attention to these requests, while not project work in research, is a healthy counterpart of our program. Efforts along these lines are what may be termed as putting research into practice as well as keeping abreast of the local situation. As a result of these contacts we obtain first-hand information on needed research and on new opportunities for complete utilization of our forest products. At the request of the Development Company the Center arranged for Dr. James Bethel of the University of North Carolina to make a study of the feasibility of a Feder- al-Commonwealth cooperative proposal to set up a utilization plant based upon the resources of the Luquillo Experimental For- est. Dr. Bethel’s report recommended an ex- perimental plant to include sawmill, dry kiln, post treating facilities, and a charcoal briquet- ting plant. The Development Company has since been trying to interest outside indus- trialists to undertake at least part of the pro- posal for immediate profit rather than for research purposes, using the entire island as a source of raw materials, rather than just the Experimental Forest. Under either approach the research program, as well as forest util- ization on the island, is certain to gain ma- terially. A large importer of tropical woods re- quested advice from the Center en _ tech- niques for seasoning. Methods of piling were suggested, a moisture meter was procured and calibrated, and a brief study was made of the drying of cedro macho, Carapa procera DC. Use of proper piling made possible reduction of moisture content from 45 to 20 percent in 56 days and without drying defects except limited end checking of wide boards. A number of requests for information concerning the prospects for local charcoal and briquet manufacture have reached the JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Center through the Development Company. information has been provided as to the eneral location and volume of raw materials nd samples have been provided for testing. The prospects for a local charcoal industry seem bright because oi low labor costs and accessibility to the market of the eastern United States. Charcoal manufacture could also go far to improve the utilization of local rorests. Special interest on developing new uses for local forest products has recently centered around yagrumo hembra, Cecropia_ peltata L., one of the most common trees of mountain forests, which grow rapidly and yet is almost unused at present. The wood oi this species is too weak for the conventional uses of forest products such as construction and furniture and possibly too light for good charcoal. However, for specialty uses such as airplane models, excelsior, chipboard, and pulp products it appears to have considerable promise. Freshly cut wood is not as suscepti- ble to staining or insect attack as most other woods. It seasons relatively rapidly with few defects. A reanalysis of past forest in- ventories has begun to isolate better informa- ez 5) a iba tion as to the location and volume of this timber availabie in Puerto Rico. Several in- dustrialists have shown great interest in its possibilities. Furthermore, its adaptability to adverse sites and rapid growth suggest that if a market is developed it may become a popular farm crop for the reforestation of steep lands in private ownership. Reforesta- tion tests will be undertaken next year. A variety cf inquiries have been received concerning other wood products which might be produced locally, such as arrows, particle board, prefabricated houses, boats, pallets, boxes, handles, brushes, and kites. The De- velopment Company has come to use the Center as an important source of basic infor- mation for all wood industry inquires. In most cases Center personnel have an oppor- tunity to talk directly to the industrialists concerned. A beginning has been made in bringing together a collection of the important wood- destroying fungi of Puerto Rico. Specimens collected are being sent to the appropriate authorities for identification. This informa- tion is basic to future attempts to inhibit de- cay with preservative treatment. 12 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Informe Sobre un Levantamiento Ecoldégico de la Republica de Panama ~« ~ L, R.,HOLDRIDGE, Dasénomo y Ecélogo GERARDO BUDOWSKI, Dasénomo Instituto Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas - Costa Rica INTRODUCCION Accediendo a una solicitud que el gobierno de la Republica de Panama dirigiera al Pro- grama de Cooperacién Técnica de la Organi- zacion de los Estados Americano:, se efectud un reconocimiento ecologico de Panama du- rante parte de los meses de abril y mayo de 1955. Al considerar el tamano de Panama y el hecho de que los dos técnicos solamenie disponian de un mes para este trabajo, la parte cartografica se limit6 a las delineaciones de las zonas de vida o formaciones forestales del pais. Sin embargo, éste era el objetivo del proyecto y el informe adjunto describe estas areas y su relaciOn para usos agricolas y fo- restales. Un estudio ecologico de esta naturaleza se considera como uno de los pasos bAsicos para planificar el uso racional de los recursos de una nacioOn. Al mismo tiempo se hizo un in- tento para celinear aproximadamente las areas mas prometedoras para concentrar las labores de extensi6dn agricola, los levanta- mientos futuros y el desarrollo forestal. Las experiencias, tanto ventajosas como desfavo- rables de los otros paises de la regién en cuanto a la utilizaci6n de los recursos renova- bles dentro de las diferentes zonas de vida, se han tomado muy en cuenta como una guia para Panama, donde la poblacién todavia alcanza poca densidad. A fin de desarrollar y mantener un nivel satisfactorio de vida, el hombre debe mante- ner un equilibrio ecol6gico en relaci6n con su medio ambiente. Si trabaja en armonia con las condiciones naturales, puede desarrollar un uso eficiente y permanente de los recursos re- novables, los que le proveerdn con todos los 1/ Traduccién del articulo “Report of an Ecological Survey of Panama” que apaveco en e] C. F. Vol. 17 (3 &4) pags. 92-110. Julio - Dec., 1956. beneficios necesarios de una vida holgada. Si trabaja contra la naturaleza, los resultados re- dundaradn en el despilfarro de los recursos, originando la pobreza y numerosos problemas economicos y sociales. Afortunadamente, Pa- nama todavia se encuentra en una pos:icion favorable para poder guiar su propio des- arrollo y, si tal es su deseo, puede desarrollar una economia fuerte y sana y una nacidn vigorosa. Antes de entrar en la discusiédn, que- remos dejar constancia de nuestra sincera gratitud a las muchas organizaciones y perso- nas que cooperaron en distinta forma y con tanta buena voluntad a fin de facilitar nues- tras labores. La organizacién del SICAP, bajo la direccién del Sr. Benjamin Birdsall, hizo los arreglos para todos los viajes dentro del pais y facilit6 transporte y otros gastos en relacion con el levantamiento ecolégico. HE} Dr. Menalco Solis y el Sr. Laurence Cum- mings, del SICAP, se encargaron de organi- zar los viajes especificos y el Ultimo nos acom- panoé en la mayoria de los recorridos. El Sr. Louis Guzman y otros de la oficina centra! cooperaron en la recoleccién de datos y los agentes del SICAP resultaron ser de mucha ayuda en el campo, especialmente para los arreglos locales. La Chiriqui Land Co. facilit6 amablemente el transporte motorizado dentro de la _ pro- vincia de Chiriqui. También el Sr. Mac Aro- semena y su organizacion, el Instituto de Fo- mento Economico, fueron muy Utiles al arre- glar algunos viajes cercanos de la ciudad de Panama, hacia el este. El Honorable Dipu- tado M. Oton, de la provincia del Darién, nos ayudo considerablemente en la regidn de JANUARY - JUNE 1957 A icdos ellos y muchos otros, de- para mencionarios aqui, queremos expresar nuestro agradecimiento por su valiosa asistencia que hizo dicho le- 2 Algunos Datos Geograticos de Panama La Republica de Panama comprende el sureste de lo que se considera generalmente la América Central, colindando con Colom- bia hacia el este, Costa Rica al oeste y con loz ecéanos Atlantico y Pacifico, respectivamen- te, en sus costas del norte y del sur. E! area del territorio es de 75.422 kil6metros cuadra- dos o 29.128 millas cuadradas incluyendo los 1.432 kilémetros cuadrados o 553 millas cuadradas de la Zona del Canal. La poblacion del pais se calcul6 en 851.900 en el ano 1952, lo que representa una densidad de solamente 11,3 habitantes por kil6metro cuadrado o 29 habitantes por milla cuadrada. En tamatio Panama esencialmente se parece a un arco estrecho o irregular con una direcciédn gene- ra! de este a oeste y variando en ancho apro- ximadamente unos 50 hasta 200 kilémetros, o sea de unas 30 a unas 120 millas. La mis- ma orientaciOn es la que presentan las cordi- lleras montafiosas principales que forman la espina dorsal del pais con solamente una in- terrupcidn apreciable en el centro alrededor del Canal de Panama. Dicha cordillera al- canza una altura de algo mas de 3.300 metros u 11.000 pies en el Volcén Chiriqui o Bart en el extremo oeste pero las elevaciones son mucho menores hacia el este del Canal. Otras cordilleras montafiosas de menor eleva- cidn se encuentran en la peninsula de Azuero hacia el sur, otra a lo largo de la frontera colombiana y otra bordeando la costa del Pa- cifico al este de la provincia del Darién. En vista de las numerosas estribaciones so- bre una faja tan estrecha del territorio, que- da poco espacio para las llanuras. Las mayo- res de éstas se encuentran en el lado del Pa- cifico tanto en la provincia del Darién, don- de se encuentran los rios mas grandes, como en las provincias de Chiriqui, Veraguas, Co- clé y Los Santos, hacia el lado oeste del pais. fomeed (ON) Factores Climatolégicos mH iemperatura La Republica de Panama se encuentra en- terammente dentro de la zona tropical por lc que todas sus partes bajas tienen temperatu- ras medias anuales de mds de 24°C. Las tem- peraturas mds altas se registran en las Areas Al aumentar la elevacidn, se producen temperaturas mas bajas que dan lugar a cua- tro fajas altitudinales de vegetacién entre ellas bien definidas. La mds baja de éstas es la faja basal tropical que va desde el ni- vel del mar hasta unos 600 metros en las vertientes del Caribe y sube aproximadamen- te a 700 metros en las vertientes de! Pacifico. La faja subtropical se extiende desde estas ultimas elevaciones hasta una altura de apro- ximadamente 1.500 metros sobre el nivel dei mar. La faja montano-bajo se eleva desde el limite superior de la faja subtropical hasta aproximadamente 2.600 metros sobre el nivel del mar. La mayor parte de esta faja se en- cuentra restringida a una porcion al oeste de Panama, en la cordillera de Talamanca y en la Serrania de Tabasara, pero algunas 4reas mas reducidas se encuentran en el este de Pa- nama, a lo largo de la frontera con Colombia. La faja montano esta restringida a unas 4reas aisladas en los picos mas altos de la cordi- llera de Talamanca. Aunque pueden encon- trarse unas pocas plantas subalpinas sobre el pico del Volcan Chiriqui, no se alcanza la fa- ja subalpina en Panama. Las superficies totales y aproximadas de las diferentes fajas altitudinales y sus respec- tivos porcentajes del area total del pais, se dan en la siguiente tabla: Total Porciento Total Area en Km2 del area Faja Basal tropical 56.430 76,3 Faja Subtropical 13.800 18,6 Faja Montano-bajo 3.530 4,8 Faja Montano 250 0,3 Total 74.010 100.0 14 Precipitacion Pluvial Dentro de las fajas altitudinales, las dife- rencias en las precipitaciones anuales de llu- via dan lugar a cambios significativos en la vegetacién natural y en forma _ correspon- diente en la agricultura. Estas divisiones na- turales que se denominan zonas de vida o formaciones vegetales, estan delimitadas en el Mapa de Panama que se adjunta. Usualmente, las zonas de transicién donde dos formaciones se encuentran no son muy extensas y una sola linea delimita el cam- bio desde una zona de vida a la otra. Sin em- bargo, en la zona del Darién encontramos que sobre una extension considerable, la pre- cipitacion total anual era muy cercana de los 2.000 milimetros u 80 pulgadas y el cambio en precipitacién es tan gradual, que las zonas de transicién son lo suficientemente extendi- das como para merecer una delimitacion se- parada. La precipitacion pluvial en la costa y las vertientes del Caribe concuerdan con las nov- mas generales que rigen para el area del Ca- ribe. Los vientos alisios del noreste y del este traen aire fuertemente cargado de humedad hacia la tierra y la precipitaci6n resulta esen- cialmente orografica. La mayor precipitacién anual ocurre probablemente en la parte infe- rior de la faja montano-bajo o en la parte superior de la faja subtropical, cerca de los 1.500 metros de elevacién. Sin embargo, no existen en la actualidad las estaciones me- teorel6gicas que permitirian comprobar tales precipitaciones en estos puntos de la vertiente del Caribe. Durante la estacién de lluvias, el movimien- to de aire atraviesa la divisi6n continental hasta cierta distancia en tal forma que las partes superiores de los declives al sur y al suroeste estan definitivamente influenciadas por el régimen climatologico del Caribe. So- lamente en la vecindad de la Zona del Ca- nal, donde la regién es generalmente baja, se extiende esta influencia del Caribe durante la estaci6n Iluviosa, a través de todo el Istmo llegando hasta el Pacifico. Esto se nota exactamente al oeste del Canal y puede ob- CARIBBEAN FORESTER servarse en la vegetacion a lo largo de la ca- rretera desde un poco antes de La Chorrera hasta después de Capira. En el lado del Pacifico, la precipitaci6n es en su mayor parte, conveccional y ocurre durante la estaci6n lluviosa cuando la zona de calmas ecuatoriales (doldrum belt), se ha desplazado hacia el norte desde la América del Sur, hasta cubrir Panama. Sin embargo, parece que aqui se produce una fuerte influ- encia de los vientos del sureste en aquellas partes del Istmo que estan expuestas al sur- este, lo que se aprecia en una indicacion de mayor precipitacion y una vegetacién similar a la del lado del Caribe. En general pues, todo el lado del Caribe varia de hamedo a muy htmedo mientras que el lado del Pacifico esta dividido en sub- regiones humedas o secas. La estacién seca es larga y fuerte en las formaciones secas cel Pacifico. También en la formacion “bosque htimedo” de este lado la estacién seca es mas marcada que en la misma zona de vida al! lado del Caribe. El Area mas seca de Panama se observo ha- cia el este de la Peninsula de Azuero. Cerca de la frontera colombiana, hay in- dicaciones de que se entra en una region cli- matolégicamente diferente que es generalmen- te mas lluviosa, de tal manera que, las direc- ciones de los vientos y las barreras montano- sas no aparecen aqui tan importantes como al oeste del pais, para influenciar la preci- pitacion. Vientos Los vientos son significativos en el clima panamefo, mayormente por producir lluvias orograficas y acentuar la sequia sobre la ver- tiente del Pacifico cuando los fuertes vientos alisios cruzan el Istmo durante la estacién seca. Afortunadamente, Panama esta fuera de los itinerarios de los huracanes que cruzan el drea del Caribe hacia el norte. Sin embar- go, en relacién con los vendavales, las corrien- tes locales pueden alcanzar tal intensidad que llegan a causar derribos y afectar ciertos cultivos como el banano. 15 JANUARY - VIGWO109 eueurg 9p voyqndosy vl Ip So[eVzJI93A SOUOLOLULAIO SLT IP SvUOZ, ea 41S3HO4d L3M JNVLINOW 1S34O4 L3M 3NVLNOW Y3M01 oo 1S3Y¥O4 LIM WOIdOYLEBNS ee 1S3Y4O4d LSIOW WWOIdOHLENS QON39391 ert cS) RK XS ROR TN VWYNvd 40 9I18Nd ay OHO RSH RRO j ORK FRR LLRX RY URS TBR RD TOOK XOXO XM BAYS FOO OOOOOOO NX QOS g RR RRR bY ly FRO, nO Rn ¥, QOD DORON PIT er AOD RN RAID REGAN ANIK See usin DENN ad) MAO H NY iW nh ne % DNA WY X ne 9, on ih ia G PX XN Cy KR BR i HH HN N cerarnerctceicoaroctornierbelcicatahetety atiaieiianiidiadit nit tone ( ernnnnnnnaenraeanninnidi Wo) = RRR RNR RRR RRA NN SBIR ROR IO YN | — Le nin iinnnnnnnenantd ’ : 8 SARERKXAAR RAR AR XKY Gur ERRAND i TAR KARR j (NOILISNVHL) LS3HO4 LSIOW TIVOIdONL — ROO A ys a 1S3YOd LSIOW 1V9OIdOUL (NOILISNVYL) LSFIHO4 AMO TWOIdOUL 1S3YOs ANDO WWOIdCONL ON3931 VOlY VISOD Factores Edaficos Mientras los factores climatolégicos de temperatura y precipitacién determinan las diferentes zonas de vida o formaciones, den- tro de cada formacioén, las asociaciones vege- tales, la fisonomia o apariencia de la vegeta- ciédn y el mejor uso que el hombre puede ha- cer de estas areas, dependen de los factores edaficos, o sea, del suelo. Estos factores in- cluyen la topografia, los niveles freaticos y las condiciones fisicas y la composicién qui- mica del suelo. Topografia Panama es un pais de elevaciones mayor- mente bajas o medianas. Solamente al oes- te del pais pueden encontrarse extensiones apreciables dentro de las fajas montano bajo y montano. Como una continuacion de la elevada serrania montanhosa de Costa Rica, la cordillera de Talamanca y la serrania de Tabasara se presentan en forma de una cor- dillera alta pero con interrupciones, que al- canzan su mayor elevacién a 3.478 metros en cl Volean Chiriqui. La mayor parte de la faja subtropical com- prende una topografia accidentada con so!a- mente muy pocas extensiones de_ terrenos llanos o ligeramente inclinados, localizados en los valles o en las cumbres de las lomas mas anchas. También la iaja tropical que esta mas baja y que cubre la mayor parte de Pa- nama, es predominantemente onduiada y quebrada. Dentro de la formacién bosque huimedo sobre la vertiente del Caribe, hay numerosas fajas aluviales a lo largo de los rios pero solamente en la provincia de Bocas del Toro y, al oeste cerca del Canal, tal como entre la Chorrera y el Lago Gatitin, se encuen- tran algunas dreas extensas de terrenos lla- nos o ligeramente inclinados. Del lado del Pacifico, se encuentran cuatro zonas de terrenos llanos y ligeramente inclina- dos que tienen importancia significativa: la seccidn David-Armuelles, el area de la for- maciOn bosque seco de _ Coclé-Veraguas- Herrera, una franja que se extiende al este CARIBBEAN FORESTER de la ciudad de Panama y que remonta, es- trechandose, el valle del rio Bayano y final- mente, el conjunto de los valles formados por los rios de la provincia del Darién. Altos Niveles Freaticos y Drenaje Excesivo Dendequiera que el nivel de las capas frea- ticas es alto durante parte o durante todo el ano, la vegetacién de estas areas es bien dis- tinta de los terrenos boscosos adyacentes con drenaje normal. Las mas extensas de tales Areas se encuentran en los valles inferiores en la provincia del Darién y adjunto a las la- gunas en la provincia de Bocas del Toro. Aso- claciones similares pero de extensidn reduci- da se encuentran también a lo largo de 103 rios de la costa en muchas partes del pais. Con una extensi6n mucho menor, estan la; areas de suelos arenosos o colinas calcareas donde el drenaje es excesivo, como se refleja en una vegetacién menos exuberante y mas xerofitica. Algunos ejemplos de tales area; pueden observarse alrededor de Patifo en el Darién, en las colinas al sur de Conchita so- bre el rio Bayano y en algunas dreas de sedi- mentos gruesos volcdanicos de la provincia de Chiriqui. Existe todavia otra combinacién donde una capa dura impermeable (hard pan) produce el estancamiento de agua durante la estaci6n de lluvias y un desecamiento excesivo durante la estaci6n seca y puede apreciarse en las Ila- nuras sabanosas de la regidn de Coclé. Sin embargo, los suelos de estas zonas de sabanas también adolecen de pobreza quimica lo que podria atribuirse por una parte a su compo- sicién original y por otra a los repetidos y extensos incendios anuales. Condiciones Quimicas y Fisicas Aun cuando es generalmente reconocido que las condiciones fisicas y quimicas de un suelo debajo de la selva virgen, puedan ser satisfactorias o excelentes, lo que realmente reviste importancia especial para el hombre en relacién con su agricultura, son aquellas JANUARY - JUNE 1957 tierras capaces de mantener tales condiciones durante largo tiempo después de cortarse el bosque. Las areas que mas se aproximan para llenar dichos requisitos en Panaméa, son los terrenos llanos aluviales y las areas de suelos volcanicos geol6gicamente recientes. Tales suelos volcanicos recientes solamente pueden encontrarse al extremo oeste de Pa- nama.. Alli, donde los terrenos Ilanos aluvia- les han sido enriquecidos con suelo volcanico reciente, se encuentran localizados los mejo- res suelos agricolas del pais. Sin embargo, existen ciertas zonas extensas de suelos alu- viales en otras secciones de Panama, las que pueden abastecer en forma satisfactoria las necesidades agricolas del pais durante cierto tiempo en el futuro. Los suelos pedregosos son comunes en el Area seca de la provincia de Chiriqui y den- tro de la formacién bosque seco, hay exten- sas zonas de baja fertilidad que pueden en- contrarse en la vecindad de David, en Co- clé, Veraguas y al este del Canal. En la for- macion bosque htimedo, entre la Chorrera y la costa puede observarse una zona mas re- ducida de suelos muy pobres que da lugar a una vegetacién de sabana. Factores Bidticos Aun cuando bajo este titulo, los ecé- logos consideran el afecto de todas las formas de vida sobre la vegetaciOn, consideraremos solamente las principales influencias provoca- das por el hombre con sus animales domés- ticos y el fuego, causado casi exclusivamentz por el hombre. La aparente concentracidén de nombres de lugares en la zona de vida tropical seca, puede apreciarse con una rapida ojeada al mapa. Estos fueron los principales centros de poblacién durante los siglos que siguieron a la primera colonizacién europea de Panama y muy probablemente constituyeron anterior- mente los principales centros de poblacion indigena basados en el cultivo del maiz. Esto se debe primordialmente al esfuerzo me- nor que se requeria para controlar la ve- 1% getacion lenosa que competia con los cultivos o, después de la colonizacién de los espafio- les, con los pastos para su ganado. Las pro- longadas quemas periddicas en estas regiones secas han alterado enormemente la vegeta- cidn forestal original y han conducido al em- pobrecimiento de los suelos, especialmente en las lecerzaz. En el siglo pasado, se han desarrollado tres concentraciones de poblaciones, una dentro y cerca de la zona del Canal atravesando el Isi- mo y las otras dos en conexidn con el cultivo del banano en la provincia de Bocas del Toro y la comarca del Bart. Desde los varios centros de concentracién humana de ambas zonas de vida, la poblacién creciente esta actualmente desplazandose cn las dreas adyacentes. La influencia del hom- bre en el resto de la Republica es mucho me- nos intensa y tiende hasta la fecha a confi- narse a unas franjes angostas a lo largo de la costa, de los rios y de las carreteras que han sido abiertas en recientes anos. En general, la influencia total del hombre sobre la vegetacién de Panama, todavia es bastante rceducida y se restringe a ciertas zo- nas de concentracioén. Dentro de estas ulti- mas, las Areas afectadas por el cultivo agri- cola son mucho menores que aquéllas donde la vegetacion ha sido removida por el hombre o el fuego para fines de pastoreo. Sin embargo, la poblacién ha alcanzado ac- tualmente una cifra tal que los aumentos geométricos subsiguientes estan destinados a producir cambios profundos en la vegeta- cidn y paisajes naturales de Panama con solo unas cuantas generaciones venideras. En este informe se discutiran subsecuentemente la ne cesidad de planificar y los posibles resultados del impacto futuro del hombre sobre los re- cursos naturales de Panama. La Vegetacién Natural de Panama La vegetacién natural de cualquier area depende de los factores climatoldgicos y edaficos que prevalecen en este sitio. Den- tro de una provincia biogeografica, muchas 18 especies de plantas pueden ser usadas como indicadoras de variaciones en el clima o los suelos. Esto resulta especialmente importan- te en Panama donde los datos meteorolégicos son escasos y los suelos han sido poco estu- diados. En el presente estudio, las obzervacio- nes se han limitado mayormente a las es- pecies arboreas, las que debido a su tamano y su mayor exposicion a los elementos clima- toldgicos, se han considerado como los mejo- res indicadores. Sin embargo, en aquellos si- tios donde el hombre habia realizado grandes desmontes, se encontr6 que era necesario uti- lizar igualmente algunos elementos menores de la vegetacién, ademas de los arboles ais- lados remanentes. Puesto que este levantamiento era un re- conocimiento ecolégico y el tiempo fué su- mamente limitado, se hicieron pocas recolec- ciones y no se intento identificar a todos los elementos arbéreos de determinadas asocia- ciones. En muchas areas se compilaron listas de arboles con el propdsito primordial de lo- calizar los arboles indicadores que resulta- sen ser de importancia especial para clasificar el Area. De esta manera se pueden interpretar no solamente los factores climatol6gicos y edaficos, sino también el uso agricola presen- te y potencial. i] Bosque Tropical Seco Kn Panama se caracteriza por los siguien- tes arboles: Acrocomia sclerocarpa Mart. Palma pa- cora o Corozo. Albizzia caribaea Apeiba tibourbou Aub] Cortezo Bombacopsis quinatum (Jacq.) gand Cedro espino Bumelia sp. Pino alegre (?) Calycophyllum candidissimum (Vahl.) Du- D.C. Madrofo Chlorophora tinctoria (L.) Gaud. Mora Cochlospermum _ vitifolium (Willd.) Spreng Poroporo Diphysa robinioides Benth Macano Enterolobium cyclocarpum ( Jacq.) Gris. Corott CARIBBEAN FORESTER Luehea candida (?) (DC.) Mart. Pithecolobium saman Benth. Platymiscium pinnatum (Jacq.) Du gand Quira Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. Pseudosamanea guachapele (H.B K.) Harms Sciadodendron excelsum Gris. lagarto Simarouba glauca DC. Sterculia apetala { Jacq.) Panama Sweetia panamensis Benth. Tabebuia chrysantha Guayacan Xylopia frutescens Aubl. Malagusto macho. Hay aproximadamente unas 100 especies de arboles de todos los tamafios en esta aso- ciacidn, sobre buenos suelos. 'Tampoco enu- meramos aqui algunos arboles espectaculares tales como Ceiba pentandra Gaertn. - ceiba; Bursera simarouba (1.) Sarg. - carate; y Di- dymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) D. & P. por- gue tales especies se encuentran también en el bosque tropical himedo. Sobre suelos m4s pobres, tales como los terrenos de sabana de la vertiente de! Pacifico, el nimero de espe- cies es mas reducido, el bosque original esta- ba compuesto de arboles de menor estatura hay mas leguminosos espinosos tales como Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC y Acacia farnesia- na Willd. y encontramos en algunos sitios altos porcentajes de especies resistentes al fuego y que toleran los suelos pobres, tales como Curatella americana L. y Xvlopia fru- tescens Aubl. Karst. Las dos asociaciones de suelos pobres ocu- pan extensas areas dentro de esta zona de vi- da, como por ejemplo en las sabanas y al pie de las colinas de la provincia de Cocl4 y al- rededor de David, en la provincia de Chiriqui. A lo largo de las corrientes de agua o sobre las llanuras aluviales cercanas a los rios, don- de el nivel fredtico es alto, pueden encon- trarse arboles de la formacidn tropical hume- da tales como Anacardium excelsum (Bert. & Balb.) Skeels - espavé, pero éstas no son aptas para resistir las sequias largas sobre las vertientes. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Las cuatro asociaciones de zonas secas mencionadas, constituyen los pricipales gru- pos de plantas que abarcan 4reas aprecia- les. Hay otras asociaciones vegetales mas reducidas y de interés cientifico pero no se consideraron importantes para este estudio. En cuanto a los bosques de pantano, se tra- tardn en una parte posterior de este informe. El Bosque Tropical Himedo Incluyendo la zona de transiciOn hacia el bosque seco, cubre aproximadamente la mitad G2 la superficie de Panama. No pudimos se- parar la formacién “bosque muy htmedo” cunque hay indicaciones a lo largo de la cos- ta de San Blas y mas hacia el oeste, de que posiblemente haya extensiones considerables que pudieran tener una precipitacién de mas de 2.000 milimetres (160 pulgadas), perte- reciendo por lo tanto a otra formacién. Sin embargo, el recorrido dentro de la faja fores- tada de la costa del Caribe es penoso y el tiempo no nos permitié efectuar extensos via- jes al pie de estas colinas. Las especies arbo- reas caracteristicas del bosque tropical hime- do se enumeran a continuacion: Anacardium excelsum (Bert. & Balb). Skeels Espavé. Brosimum spp. Carapa guianensis Aubl. Cecropia obtusifolia Centrolobium patinense Pittier Coccoloba tuerckheimii D. Sm. Couroupita panamensis Dipteryx panamensis Gustavia Sp. Membrillo Triartea exorrhiza Mart. Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D. Don Lecythis sp. Coco Luehea seemanni Tr. & Pl. Gudcima Pentaclethra macroloba (Willd.) Kuntze. Theobroma purpureum Pittier Cimarron. Cacao Virola spp. Warcewieczia coccinea 19 Bosques de Transicion Generalmente las areas de transicién entre dos zonas de vida son estrechas y no se cla- sifican aparte, pero en la provincia del Da- rién encontramos que estas zonas de transi- cidn resultaron ser tan extensas que las deli- mitamos separadamente. En tales Areas de transici6n, ocurre una mezcla de especies ar- boreas de cada una de las formaciones, mds ciertas especies que son tipicamente especies de transicién. El cuipo, Cavanillesia platanifolia H.B.K., arbol muy interesante, es uno de éstos. Cuando se atraviesa el istmo de Panama cer- ca de la zona, este Arbol enorme se encuentra bastante bien restringido a las orillas de Jos bosques htimedos y secos, formando fajas an- gostas. Sin embargo, en el Darién, esta es- pecie se encuentra distribuida sobre una am- plia seccién indicando claramente que todo el drea es de transicion. =, Aquella porcidn del bosque humedo que se describe como bosque de transici6n, con- tiene un porcentaje mucho mas alto de espe- cies maderables valiosas que el que corriente- mente se encuentra en el bosque himedo; las condiciones climatologicas también son exce- lentes para el uso agricola. Bosques de Pantano Los bosques de pantano de Panama son ex- tensos y especialmente interesantes para las industrias forestales potenciales debido a su composicion de solamente una 0 muy pocas especies. Tales rodales puros son raros en los trépicos excepto cuando se encuentran ciertas condiciones edaficas especiales. Entre las di- versas asociaciones, las cuatro mas extensas son respectivamente los manglares, los bos- ques de alcornoque, los bosques de cativo y los bosques de orey. Aun cuando existan bosques de pantano de diferentes tamafios, esparcidos a lo largo de ias costas de la Republica, nuestras observa- ciones mas detenidas se realizaron en las pro- vineias de Bocas de Toro y el Darién, donde 20 dichas asociaciones se presentan sobre miles de hectareas. Aunque la precipitaci6n es con- siderablemente mayor en Bocas del Toro, la mayor diferencia entre ambas zonas se veri- fica en la fluctuacién de los niveles de las mareas. En el lado del Caribe, solamente hay una diferencia de algo mas de 50 centimetros o 20 pulgadas entre los niveles promedios de marea alta y marea baja, mientras que en el Darién esta diferencia alcanza cerca de 6 me- tros o 20 ples. Con una diferencia tan grande entre las mareas altas y bajas, en el Darién, los efectos de las mareas se hacen sentir rio arriba hasta considerable distancia, aun cuando la eleva- ci6n del agua se deba al efecto de represa producida por la entrada de la marea. EH! punto aproximado hasta donde alcanza el agua salobre al subir un rio, parece que esta marcado por la desaparicion del mangle rojo, Rhizophora mangle L. y la aparici6n de Mon- trichardia arborescens, (L.) Scholt. un eleva- do aroide que crece sobre el pantano blando de los bancos riberefos. Las inundaciones mas fuertes se presentan cuando las mareas mas altas coinciden con periodos de fuerte precipitacién pluvial y con los rios con mu- cho caudal. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Fig. \.—En Panama los rodales densos de mangle rojo (Rhizophora mangle) alcanzan tamanos de 24-27 metros de promedio y didmetros a menudo superiores a 40 centi- metros. Fig. 2.—Los bosques de cativo (Prioria copaifera) forman den- sos y valiosos rodales a lo largo de los rios del Darién. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Manglares En la provincia del Darién, hay miles de hectareas de pantanos ocupados por forma- clones puras de mangle rojo que se aniegan periddicamente con las mareas. Con las ma- reas altas, el agua salada atraviesa facilmente el bosque de mangle rojo, lo que posible- mente explica la gran extensién de éstos. En Becas del Toro, el mangle rojo solamente se encuentra en la orilla del pantano con el man- gle negro, Avicennia marina (Forsk.) Vierhap- per y el mangle blanco, Laguncularia racemo- sa Gaertn. ocupando el area contigua hacia la tierra firme. En el Darién, estas ultimas especies aparecen primero sobre los bancos riberenos donde el agua ‘“‘dulce”’ de los rios reduce la salinidad. Los rodales del mangle rojo alcanzan un promedio de aproximadamente 24 a 27 me- tros de altura, o sea, cerca de 80 a 90 pies, con buenos fustes rectos y altos voltiimenes por unidad de superficie. Actualmente se ex- clotan pero solamente utilizan la corteza del Arbol y aun dichos cortes no han sido muy extensos. Bosques Pantanosos de Alcornoque (aparentemente Mora excelsa Benth). También en la provincia del Darién dicha asociacién cubre extensas zonas, ocupando aparentemente el area de los manglares cuan- do el nivel de la tierra es mas alto. Aqui hay mas tierra firme Que parece encontrarse en- cima del nivel normal de las mareas pero la que al ser inundada es cubierta por el agua salobre. Los arboles aleanzan diametros mayores que el mangle rojo y no son tan altos o tan rectos. Sin embargo, la cantidad total de madera ce este rodal de una sola especie, es muy alta. Bosques Pantanosos de Pterocarpus officinalis Jacq. Este Arbol leguminoso con delgadas raices 21 tablares, forma ocasionalmente rodales pu- ros al lado de los manglares, pero sobre terre- nos posiblemente mas blandos y mas afecta- dos por la presencia de agua salobre que en los bosques de alcornoque. De todas maneras, no son extensos en ninguna parte de Panama y no son importantes como bosques comer- ciales. Bosques Pantanosos de Orey En la provincia de Bocas del Toro se en- cuentran extensos rodales casi puros de orey, Campnosperma panamensis Standl. sobre las tierras bajas, casi al nivel del mar de las is- fas, peninsulas y playas de tierra firme. Al parecer, estas regiones no estan realmente inundadas por las mareas pero existe un alto nivel freatico de aguas salobres. La asociacién contiene algunos Arboles pe- quefios de otras especies en el soto bajo y de vez en cuando un a4rbol grande de Symphonia globul:fera L. dentro o encima de! dosel ge- neral. El rodal no contiene un volumen muy alto, puesto que los Arboles varian mayormente de 25 a 45 centimetros de dia- metro, o sea, de 10 a 18 pulgadas y su al- tura no parece excederse mucho de los 18 metros o 60 pies. Bosques de Cativo Sobre las llanuras bajas del Darién se en- cuertran extensos terrenos cubierto3 por ro- dales practicamente puros de cativo, Prioria copaifera Gris. Este arbol parece crezer en las llanuras, sobre el nivel corriente de las ma- reas semejantes a los bosques de alcornoque, pero los que al anegarse, solamente se cubren de agua “dulce”. Algunas otras especies, ta- les como el tangaré, Carapa guianensis Aubl. y Quararibaea estan mezcladas con el cativo aun en aquellos sitios donde las inundaciones son mas altas, pero cuando el terreno se va elevando graduaimente, sigue aumentando la proporcion de las especies pertenecientes al bosque tropical himedo. Tales rodales, segin fueron descritos por Lamb, contienen altos volimenes por unidad 22 de superficie, ya que el cativo es un Arbol alto de fuste recto, de gran didmetro y se en- cuentra en rodales densos. Bosques Pantanosos de Pachira aquatica Aubl. Mas arriba de los bosques de alcornoque del rio Sambu, cbservamos pequefias areas de Fig. 4.—Vista dentro de un rodal de Pterocarpus officinalis, a menudo ane- gado. Los arboles son mds bien delgados pero tienen grandes y delgadas raices tablares. CARIBBEAN FORESTER rodales puros de este arbol. La asociacién parece que se restringe a los suelos blandes, inestables que son anegados por agua dulce solamente. Esta asociacién probablemente, llena el papel de estabilizador de tales suelos para luego ser reemplazada por el catival. En este rodal los arboles alcanzan menos de 30 pies de alto con didmetros menores de 20 cen- timetros u 8 pulgadas. La asociaci6n no tie- ne importancia para la produccién de madera. Fig. 3.—Interior de un bosque de_ alcornoque (probablemente Mora ex- celsa) en las orillas infe- riores de los rios del Da- rién. Aunque de alto vo- lumen por unidad de su- perficie, los adrboles pocas veces tienen buena forma. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Pantanos de Manicaria En la provincia de Bocas del Toro, obser- vamos pantanos de palmas de agua dulce que también se encuentran mas hacia el oeste de de la costa del Caribe. La Manicaria es una palma de hojas grandes y de tronco corto. No se hicieron observaciones dentro de estos pantanos, pero se not6 que en aigunos sitios la repreducciOn de tangaré o cedre macho, Carapa guianensis Aubl. estaba empezando a desarrollarse, sobrepasando a las palmas. Bosques Subtropicales Se dedic6 poco tiempo a las observaciones de la vegetacién de esta faja localizada a ma- yor elevacién que la de los trdpicos bajos mayormente porque tienen mucho menos im- portancia econdémica que los bosques de las bajuras. Cuando ia precipitacién pluvial es alta, revisten sin embargo una importancia ex- traordinaria debido a la regulacién de las aguas. Cuando estan localizados cercanos a los centros de poblacién, aleanzan una impor- tancia especial como areas para parques, re- creacién, casas de verano y hoteles. Ei Bosque Subtropical Himedo Contiene una flora tipica especialmente di- versas especies de las Myrtaceae de los géne- ros Eugenia y Myrcia. En general, la asocia- cidn esta compuesta por especies de hojas pe- quefias y el bosque natural tiene poca impor- tancia para la produccién de madera. Den- tro de esta zona de vida, la mayor parte del bosque original ha sido cortado para esta- blecer plantaciones de café y otros cultivos. El Bosque Subtropical muy Himedo Es mas alto, mas denso, que en la forma- cién precedente con muchos representantes de las familias Rubiaceae, Melastomaceae y Lau- raceae, y los géneros Laplacea, Brunellia, In- ga spp., Calophyllum, Taonabo, Ouratea, etc. En la zona de Cerro Azul nos adentramos hacia mds allAé de Loma Pelado, donde la vegetacién se acerca a la ue la formacién bosque subtropical pluvial. Aqui encontvra- mos Podocarpus, Alfaroa y Quercus. 25 Como indicado por las cumbres de las co- linas, donde la vegetacién es baja y poco den- sa, la pérdida del suelo debido a las lluvias excesivas, es muy pronunciada. Una vez que el bosque natural original de gran tamafio s= corta de las vertientes, ocurrird el mismo proceso de deterioracion de los suelos. De es- ta manera la vegetaciOn natural indica muy claramente que estas zonas no son apropia- das para la agricultura. El Bosque Montano Bajo En la provincia de Chiriqui, se caracteriza por Persea schiedeana Nees, Quercus cope- yensis, Weinmania pinnata L. y Cedrela ton- duzu. Hay diversas especies maderablies y los Arboles alcanzan grandes dimensiones con altos volimenes por unidad de superficie. Ex la regién, se pueden hacer pastos excelenics con la yerba kikuyu, Pennisetum clandesti- num Choiv. pero la mayor parte del terreno de esta formacién es realmente demasiado in- clinado para ja agricultura. Tanto este bos- que como la formacidn montano que se en- cuentra mas arriba y la que solamente se vi- sit6 por muy corto tiempo, son de suma im- portancia para la regulacidn de las corrientes de aguas que bajan de las montafas. Uso Futuro de los Recursos Como se ha mencionado previamente, la po- blacién actual de cerca de un millon de habi- tantes, solamente ha realizado ligeras incur- siones en los recursos naturales de la Repa- blica hasta la fecha. Esto resulta todavia mas evidente por cuanto un ntmero conside- rable de personas que viven cerca de la Zo- na del Canal, derivan sus ingresos de servicios y operaciones comerciales que no afectan los recursos de la Republica. Sin embargo el aumento, duplicacion, tri- plicacion, etc., de la poblacién que ha de pro- ducirse durante el préximo siglo, esta desti- nado a producir tremendos cambios y signifi- caria un impacto terrible sobre los recursos naturales de Panama. Para los dirigentes gu- bernamentales debe ser deprimente constatar que a pesar de todo el despliegue de recursos 24 naturales, a saber, terrenos fértiles, exceso de maderas valiosas, agua y vida silvestre abun- dantes, tantas familias actualmente viven so- lamente, a un nivel muy bajo de subsisten- cia. Este tipo de agricultura primitivo de subsistencia destruye las riquezas potencia- les sin beneficio alguno para el pais y sola- mente parece conducir a un nimero, rapida- mente creciente, de unidades familiares adi- cionales, responsables de posteriores destruc- ciones, en escala ain mas rapida y mas ex- tendida. No existe duda de que el uso de los recursos naturales disponibles constituye un reto para la poblacién de Panama y sus diri- gentes. Las normas que se siguen en el uso de los recursos dentro de las proximas déca- das determinan si los panamefios han de dis- frutar de una vida rica y feliz, en armonia con su medio ambiente o si han de desperdi- ciar sus riquezas naturales u originar otro de esos “paises pobres” del trépico, solamente de un bajo nivel de subsistencia. Asi, Panama esta frente a dos problemas distintos pero relacionados: debe elevar los actuales niveles de vida de la poblaci6n exis- tente y debe planificar el uso futuro para no solamente mantener sino también mejorar cualesquieras beneficios logrados calculando con un aumento continuo de la poblacién. A fin de poder realizar ésto, los habitantes de Panama deben comprender cabalmente la na- turaleza de sus recursos renovables y saber como usarlos propiamente a fin de mantener oO mejorar su productividad. De los recursos basicos, el suelo que en for- ma directa o indirecta permite la vida arimal! o vegetal, es el mas importante. Psnama po- see suficientes extensiones de terrenos planos o ligeramente inclinados, con textura fisica y composicién quimica apropiadas, para abas- tecer sus necesidades agricolas atin con un excedente apreciable para la exportacién. Es- to puede lograrse sobre la base de una pyo- ducci6n continua y para una poblacién va- rias veces duplicada. Todos los esfuerzos agricolas presentes deben concentrarse sobre estos terrenos, puesto que es perfectamente factible mejorar las cosechs} y las técnicas CARIBBEAN FORESTER agricolas y elevar la producci6n a un nivel riucho mayor, como ya se ha demostrado en escala pequena en determinadas zonas. Por otra parte, no debe permitirse que nue- vos desmontes con fines agricolas progresen en aquellos terrenos de topografia accidentada o de baja fertilidad, ya que estos suelos son incapaces de mantener una agricultura esta- ble y de alto nivel. Esto solamente puede conducir a futuros problemas sociales y ecu- ndmicos indeseables y ademas, debido a la al- teraciOn producida en el régimen de las aguas y la erosiOn, constituye una grave y perma- nente amenaza para los terrenos agricolas permanentes y de alta calidad, situados mas abajo, debido a la amenaza de posibles inun- daciones o la escacez de agua para la irriga- cidn. Ademas, estos terrenos, antes de su devastacion, hubieran pondido tener un valor potencial mucho mayor para otros usos, ta- les como, para la produccién de maderas o para esparcimiento de las poblaciones, sin me- noscabo de los valores y efectos benéficos que siguen obteniéndose en relacion con la re- gulaci6n de las aguas y la proteccidn de la vida silvestre. Unos ejemplos especificos de lo que debe estimularse y lo que debe evitarse, pueden encontrarse facilmente en Panama. Algunas de las plantaciones de arroz que se encuen- tran a lo largo del ferrocarril entre David y Concepcion, en la provincia de Chiriqui, de- muestran muy bien con su alta grado de meca- nizacion, que el hombre puede producir efec- tivamente un sobrante en alimentos, al usar los métodos correctos en las zonas apropia- das. Dentro de la misma region, las planta- ciones de bananos cerca de Armuelles de- muestran ampliamente la formidable produc- tividad que es posible alcanzar mediante el buen manejo de la tierra y el empleo de técni- cas adelantadas. Los cultivos de hortaliza de los chinos cerca de la Zona del Canal, de- muestran claramente lo que puede lograrse con el manejo intenso y el trato cuidadoso de los suelos. En el otro lado de la balanza, podrian c:- tarse numerosos casos de esfuerzos mal diri- gidos, criginando perjuicios o representando JANUARY - JUNE 1957 pérdidas econémicas para la nacidn. El des- monte de magnificos rodales de arboles valio- sos sobre las colinas de la provincia del Da- rién para la produccién solamente de una 0 dos cosechas de granos, constituye un buen ejemplo de despilfarro de los recursos natura- les y pérdidas econémicas para la nacion. En la zona de Cerro Azul, a solo unos po- cog kilémetros por carretera de la ciudad de Panama, !as colinas se elevan hasta el aire fresco de la faja subtropical. Aqui crecen bosques pintorescos y se aprecian magnificos panoramas de los terrenos bajos circundantes hasta y mas alla de la ciudad de Panama, asi como de la costa y el Océano Pacifico. To- da esta zona del subtropico, tan cercana a la capital, ya Que se puede llegar alli muy ra- pidamente, posee un valor inestimable para recreacion y descanso, lejos de calor y del ruido de la ciudad. Toda el area deberia de- dicarse para futuras casas de verano y par- ques publicos. Pero al contrario, con la aper- tura de carreteras, existe actualmente un in- tento slempre mayor para desarrollar el area para la agricultura con plantaciones de café y acondicionamiento de pastos para la gana- deria, lo que disminuye enormemente los va- lores recreativos actuales. Esto constituye un caso obvio de falta de una planificacién a largo plazo y de uso irracional de la tierra, puesto que ademas del alto valor recreativo que se pierde, la vegetaci6n indica claramente que la zona no es apropiada para una agri- cultura lucrativa a largo plazo. Recientemente se han hecho esfuerzos con- siderables en levantamientos y estudios de al- gunas dreas con suelos de baja fertilidad en Coclé y las provincias panamefas del sur- oeste, las que ofrecen pocas posibilidades de mejorarse econdmicamente. Nos parece que en vista del numero limitado de técnicos en suelos que se disponen, los esfuerzos debe- rian de concentrarse primero en las areas de suelos de produccién potencialmente alta, ta- les como los que se encuentran al sur y sur- oeste de Concepcion en la provincia de Chi- riqui o en algunos ctros terrenos llanos men- cionados anteriormente. Las llanuras bajas, con su ridueza intrinse- 25 ca y su adaptabilidad a la mecanizacion, no solamente representan una alta productividad en relacidn con el hombre que los trabaja y por lo tanto niveles de vida potencialmente altos para los agricultores, pero también ofre- cen las mejores perspectivas de conseguir bue- nas cosechas y adaptar técnicas agricolas mas productivas. Tales zonas agricolas pueden desarrollar y mantener eficientes redes de ca- rreteras, sistemas de educacién avanzados, buenas facilidades de alojamiento y altos ni- veles de salud. Por su alta productividad por unidad de superficie y por hombre, estos terre- nos agricolas pueden desempefar un papel muy importante para reducir la presidn sobre los terrenos impropios para la agricultura y li- brar asi una proporcion considerable de traba- jadores del pais para que puedan ser aprove- chados en el desarrollo de la industrializa- cién. La expansién del cultivo del arroz de irrigacién, deberia de considerarse en vista del alto rendimiento que se obtiene por unidad de superficie. Al igual que para la producci6n agri- cola, una industria ganadera basada sobre el uso de extensas zonas de terrenos pobres con ganado mediocre y mano de obra barata, pue- de proporcionar buenas ganancias para unas cuantas familias de grandes terratenientes, pero contribuye muy poco a elevar el nivel general de vida o a la prosperidad del pais. Un desarrollo satisfactorio debe basarse en el uso intenso de la tierra dentro de zonas apropiadas, conjuntamente con los esfuerzos tendientes a mejorar el ganado y los pastos. Existen ejemplos de tales ganaderias progre- sistas en Panama, los que demuestran amplia- mente que tales desarrollos son posibles y lu- crativos. Ademas esta intensificacién debe es- timularse a fin de prevenir futuras expansio- nes de la industria ganadera hacia nuevas tierras inaptas para la ganaderia y decidida- ment inapropiadas para el pastoreo. Como ya se menciono anteriormente, atin cuando di- chas tierras puedan producir ganancias para una familia, esto solamente se lograria a ex- pensas de un nivel de vida bajo y poco satis- familias de factorio para muchas otras 26 trabajadores, una condicién poco convincente cuando la prosperidad general y el bienestar de tedo un pais estan en juego. Ei actual destino de los terrenos llanos y fértiles, tanto para cultivos como para la ga- maderia, todavia depende en gran parte de las preferencias personales de sus duenos. Los adelantos técnicos que han de realizarse en estos campos, deberian de conducir a una asignaciOn econoOmicamente mas deseable de las tierras, tendiente a lograr la mejor utili- zacion posible. Parece que actualmente exis- te una corriente muy saludable en este senti- do, como puede observarse por ejemplo al este de la ciudad de Panama hacia Chepo, donde algunas tierras planas facilmente me- canizables y que antes se utilizaban para la ganaderia estan siendo segregadas y converti- cas a la produccion agricola. Aparte de las condiciones sobre economia y mercados, que sin duda tienen su impor- tancia particular en la seleccién de los culti- vos, también la distribucién y la superficie disponible de los suelos de alta calidad, debe- rian de considerarse a la luz de las zonas de vida o formaciones. Como un ejemplo de és- to, la formacién bosdue subtropical hiamedo representa el clima ideal para Coffea arabica L. pero esta planta también se produce satis- factoriamente sobre suelos volcanicos recientes de la formacion bosque subtropical muy ht- medo. En Panama, la superficie disponible para expandir el cultivo del café, es bastan- te limitada. Pero resulta que el café ha si- do extendido fuera de sus limites climatolo- gicos y sobre suelos que no serdn altamente productivos. Las inversiones de capital en un cultivo, que se encuentra fuera de sus condi- clones Optimas, tiende a detener el progreso general. En primer lugar, este mismo capital hubiera podido invertirse en una forma mas productiva y trae por consecuencia la oposi- cién de los terratenientes propietarios a los aumentos en salarios y niveles de vida de los trabajadores agricolas, ya que esto arruinaria automaticamente sus operaciones en terrenos marginales. En vista de que el cacao constituye un cul- tivo excelente para el bosque tropical hume- CARIBBEAN FORESTER do y puesto que grandes extensiones de sue- los aluviales fértiles pueden encontrarse den- tro de esta zona de vida, parece mucho més deseable, en contraste con el café, estimular las inversiones a fin de expandir las planta- ciones de este cultivo en Panama. Como ha sido demostrado por investigaciones recien- tes, el cultivo del cacao también puede me- jorarse técnicamente en numerosos aspectos cuando se considerai las prdcticas actual- mente en uso. Como regla general, y mientras no se reali- cen muchas mas investigaciones sobre el ma- nejo de suelos tropicales y en la técnica agri- cola resulta mas prudente seguir las indicacio- nes de la naturaleza y evitar los intentos de producir cosechas donde es de esperarse mas problemas que los normales. El bosque tro- pical humedo es esencialmente un clima para arboles y los mejores resultados deben espe- rarse con cultivos tales como cacao, bananos, platanos, caucho, palmas de aceite, abaca y otros del mismo grupo. En la formacién bos- que tropical seco, los cultivos de granos y el mantenimiento de pastos resultan mucho mas sencillos. En Panama, dentro de esta forma- cién pueden encontrarse las mejores condicio- nes para producir arroz en secano, maiz, algo- don, cana, ajonjoli, ganado para carne y fru- tas tropicales, tales como, mangos, aguacates, nisperos, caimitos, etc. Cuando las tierras llanas y fértiles pueden irrigarse, las posibili- dales de produccién son sumamente favo- rables. Las formaciones montafosas, con la excep- cidn de los terrenos que se encuentran en los valles planos o de suaves pendientes, debe- rian de reservarse permanentemente para bos- ques. En un futuro muy cercano, Panama deberia vedar tales Areas montafiosas a la expansion agricola y declarar estas reservas como bosques nacionales. Luego, dichas re- servas pueden estudiarse mas en detalle, se- gregarse y clasificarse en bosques productivos, parques nacionales, refugios de vida silvestre, etc. de acuerdo con el uso mas ventajoso. Ac- tualmente la creacién de dichas reservas re- sulta facil desde el punto de vista juridico JANUARY - JUNE 1957 y politico, pero si se pospone y num personas se establecen en ellas como colonos, habra que confrontar toda una serie de pro- blemas adicionales. Como se ha destacado anteriormente, es- tas tierras no permiten el establecim‘ent> una agricultura permanente con un nivel de vida satisfactorio, de manera que su prohibi- cidn para la agricultura a este respecto, res- ponde a los mejores intereses de la nacion. Ademas, su proteccidn constituye una ga- rantia contra inundaciones desastrosas y ase- gura un abastecimiento adecuado de agua para la irrigacién y para desarrollar energia hidroeléctrica, garantizando asi una mayor es- tabilidad para las zonas agricolas muy pro- ductivas que se encuentran mas abajo. Fi- nalmente adquieren con el tiempo una impor- tancia vada vez mayor para el esparcimiento de las poblaciones y la produccién de maderas. Darién La provincia del Darién se considera lo su- ficilentemente distinta y tan poco atectada por el hombre hasta la fecha como para mere- cer un tratamiento separado en este informe. Como puede apreciarse en el mapa, la mayor parte de los terrenos bajos caen dentro de la formacion bosaue tropical himedo, pero co- mo el promedio de precipitacién anual se en- cuentra tan cerca de los 2.000 milimetros u 80 pulgadas, limite aproximado de esta for- macion con el bosque tropical sezo, hemos juzgado necesario delimitar una extensa re- gion por separado como zona de transicién. También en torno de la ensenada de Gara- chiné y en las cuencas superiores de los rios Sabana y Chucunaque, se encuentra un bos- aque seco de tipo transicional, aun cuando en la primera zona, en las areas de suelos are- nosos y afloramientos de corales calcareos, la vegetaciOn parece indicar a primera vista, una precipitacion todavia mas baja. A lo lar- go de la costa del Pacifico hacia el sur y ja frontera colombiana, asi como en San Blas, la lluvia aumenta y da lugar a una tipica formacion de bosque himedo, mientras que al subir de elevacién, se encuentran extensio- nes considerables de la formacién bosque sub- 7a | tropical muy himedo y algunas 4reas de bos- que montano bajo muy htmedo. La poblacién actual del Darién esta repar- tida en unas pocas ciudades o poblaciones a lo largo de la costa, los estuarios o los rios, con algin desarrollo agricola sobre los terre- nos fértiles de aluvidn cercanos al trafico flu- vial. Los bananos y platanos parecen ser los cultivos comercialmente mas importantes, les ultimos siguiendo a menudo los bananos que son mas susceptibles a las enfermedades. La mayor industria de la region es la explotacién maderera cortandose trozas de maderas pre- ciosas para la exportacion hacia el centro de Panama y para el extranjero, aun cuando al- gunos aserraderos elaboran maderas de di- versas especies dentro de la misma provincia. Debido a la relativa poca intervencion del hombre hasta la fecha, el Darién ofrece exce- lentes posibilidades para planificar cuidadosa- mente el uso futuro de sus recursos. Los cinco hechos mas significativos que han de considerarse en la planificacién del Da- rién, son los siguientes: (1) el enorme desni- vel entre las mareas altas y bajas, (2) las tie- rras ricas 0 suavemente inclinadas Que se ex- tienden desde el nivel donde llegan normai- mente las mareas altas hasta las colinas, (3) las areas de bosques pantanosos o afectados por la marea, con rodales homogéneos de una 0 pocas especies, (4) el enorme valor poten- cial de la madera en los bosques de las zonas mas secas, donde hay tanta abundancia de maderas preciosas y (5) el amplio sistema natural de cursos de agua navegables que atraviesan este cumulo de recursos. Las em- barcaciones maritimas pueden entrar en el estuario del rio Sabana y subir el rio Tuira hasta Chepigana. Ademas, las fuertes mareas extienden su influencia hasta muy arriba de los rios para provecho de las embarcaciones mas pequenas. En esta regién, el desarrollo agricola so- bre cualquier escala grande, aparece poten- cialmente a la vez prometedor y precario. Las tierras mds prometedoras hasta el momento, son los terrenos aluviales 0 de pendiente muy suave, que se encuentran algo apartados de las orillas de los cursos de agua, cerca de las 28 colinas, alli donde las aguas de inundaci6n producidas por una combinacién de mareas altas y rios llenos durante la estacién de Ilu- vias, no entran o no afectan significativamente el terreno. Estas areas son poco usadas en la actualidad porque se encuentran demasia- co alejadas del transporte fluvial usual. Entre estas tierras y el nivel de las mareas altas corrientes, se encuentra una zona mu- cho mas extensa y terrenos llanos con suelos aluviales fértiles que resultarian muy prome- tedores para la agricultura si fuera posible e3- tablecer medidas efectivas de control contra tra las inundaciones. Algunas partes de esta zona se utilizan actualmente para la agricultu- ra, pero cuando ocasionalmente el agua sube a niveles anormales, toda la gente, junto con sus puercos y gallinas, deben retirarse a sus casas construidas sobre pilotes, y esperar a aue las aguas vuelvan nuevamente a bajar. Tal sistema de agricultura restringe el nume- ro de cultivos y quizds hasta representa una invitacion al desastre due puede producirse durante algun pericdo excepcionalmente llu- v1ose. Hoy, con la existencia de poderosas maqui- narlas para movimientos de tierras, no hay duda de que los ingenieros puedan proyectar y erigir un sistema de diques y drenaje, ca- paz de convertir cxtensas Areas en tierras agricolas altamente productivas. Una venta- ja adicional de tales terrenos represados so- bre las areas agricolas corrientes, estriba en que las aguas de las inundaciones pueden ser desviadas en cualquier momento oportuno para depositar su capa fertilizante de aluvidn sobre determinadas porciones. (Fig. 5 y 6) Puesto que tal agricultura cientifica para el Darién muy probablemente tendra que e3- perar algun tiempo, hasta tanto la expansién de ja poblacién y Jas necesidades mundiales se hagan mas apremiantes, debe darse énfa- sis a los problemas actualmente existentes, pero en todo caso, al planificar el uso de la tierra, ésto no debe perderse de vista y no debe destruirse el potencial que permitiria di- cha utilizacion planificada para el futuro. Ba- CARIBBEAN FORESTER jo estas consideraciones, las Areas montafio- sas y regiones mas humedas que se encuen- tran en las cuencas superiores de los rios del Darién, deberian de colocarse bajo reserva en un futuro cercano, a fin de evitar su uti- lizacion para la agricultura. Esto es por demas deseable por cuanto solamente una porcio6n muy pequena de los terrenos ofrece alguna promesa para una agricultura de alto nivel y cualesduiera deforestaciones en gran escala, resultarian en una escorrentia mas violenta y niveles mas altos en las inundacione3, destru- yendo asi el valor potencial de las llanuras aluviales que se encuentran mas abajo. Kl area muy quebrada que se encuentra ea la parte superior del rio Tuira y posible- mente diversas otras secciones de la provin- cia del Durién, muy bien podrian apartarse como parques nacionales. Los hermozos pai- sajes que se divisan navegando sobre el Tui- ra, con rocas imponentes a lo largo del rio y el bosqtie natural muy atractivo, sin duda Ile- garan a constituir algin dia una atraccidn po- derosa para los turistas con solamente lograr mantener las condiciones naturales actual- mente imperantes. Por las mismas razones anteriormente enu- meradas, no se considera deseable el desarro- llo de la industria ganadera para el Darién. Aunque alguna finca ganadera existente haya dado buen resultado y tanto el clima como los suelos resulten evidentemente satisfacto- rios, cualquier extensidn considerable de te- rreno para pastoreo, conduciria automatica- mente al uso cada vez mayor del fuego y la destruccién de los bosques de las colinas. Es tan grande el valor potencial de las llanuras aluviales para una agricultura mixta, que no debe permitirse que la agricultura némada en las cabeceras y el postoreo en escala gran- de, puedan constituir una amenaza para tal uso futuro. De todo el territorio de Panama, la pro- vincia del Darién ofrece oportunidades excep- cionalmente favorables para el manejo pro- ductivo de los bosques y la industrializacién de los productos forestales. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Fig. 5:—La deforestacién de los terrenos marginales 2n las orillas de los rios del Darién, es un esnectdculo comin. 20) Fig. 6.—En las cuencas superiores de los rios del Darién se di- visan magnificos panoramas. Algtin dia éstos constituirdn una legitima riqueza panamena para fomento del turismo, la caza y la pesca, asi como otras actividades recreativas sin mencionar todos los valores protectores... si para entonces han logrado conservarse en su estado natural. 30 La extensa red interna de comunicaciones fluviales, los rodales puros de bosques influ- enciados por la marea y la presencia de ma- deras de alta calidad en los bosques mas se- cos, los tres factores se combinan aqui en una forma perfecta que muy raras veces se en- cuentra en las Américas. La explotacién actual de los bosques del Darién es de tipo mas bien destructivo en cuanto a los recursos forestales y poco contri- buye al desarrollo de la provincia. En los manglares, los arboles se tumban para aprove- char su corteza solamente, dejando que los troncos enteros se pudran en el suelo. En los bosques heterogéneos, las operaciones made- reras generalmente solo extraen una o dos es- pecies tales como la caoba y el cedro amargo. Ademas, solo aprovechan los troncos rectos o una parte del arbol. No se piensa en el futu- ro del bosque. Aqui nos encontramos con un caso claro donde la combinacién ventajosa de los recur- sos forestales ofrece la posibilidad de una in- dustrializacién integral para beneficio real- mente permanente, tanto para la provincia como para la Republica de Panama. Muy bien podran combinarse el capital panamefio con capitales y conocimientos industriales técnicos del extranjero, para beneficio mutuo. En el presente, tres tipos de procesos indus- triales parecen ofrecer excelentes oportuni- dades. KE] primero de éstos es una planta para en- chapado o maderas laminadas, a base de las maderas preciosas apropiadas para vistas o caras exteriores, abundantemente representa- das en el Davién, al igual que las maderas me- nos valiosas que han de servir para interiores o rellenos. Una planta para enchapado que se encuentra cerca de la ciudad de Panama, ha estado operando con maderas traidas de! Darién aunque resulta dificil comprender las posibles ventajas —si acaso las hubiese— que existieron para escoger este sitio en relacién con la procedencia de la materia prima. También puede pensarse en otro tipo de industria o muy bien combinarlo con la plan- ta de enchapado y los aserraderos. Es la que CARIBBEAN FORESTER se basa sobra el proceso ‘““Novapan’’? desarro- llado en la Suiza. En este proceso, se elabo- ran artificialmente las tablas con pedacitos de madera sobre la base del mismo principio que la industria del enchapado, en el sentido de que una madera inferior se usa para la mayor parte de la tabla, mientras que ambas caras o vistas se cubren con laminas de ma- deras de grano o color mucho mas atractivo. Puesto que toda la madera en este proceso se reduce a pedacitos 0 virutas, es posible ob- tener buenas cantidades de materia prima para las vistas a base, por lo menos, de lo que normalmente se abandona en el bosque, tales como troncos cortos 0 ramas gruesas o lo que se desperdicia en condiciones normales en el aserradero o la planta de enchapado. La ma- dera procesada o los pedacitos luego se mez- clan con cola y se prensan en forma de tablas o productos similares. Este proceso ofrece la ventaja de que se pueden agregar produc- tos quimicos para evitar tales factores dete- riorantes como los dafios causados por los ter- mitas. Ademas, por el hecho de poder utilizar tanto desperdicio, ha de ser altamente reco- mendado para dicha integracién industrial. Un tercer proceso de fabricaci6n de tablas, consiste en reducir la madera de una o varias especies de maderas duras, hasta sus fibras, al igual que en el proceso de fabricacién de la pulpa. La planta ‘“Fibracel’’ que opera en Ciudad Valles, cerca de Tampico, México, e3 un ejemplo de esta industria. Dicha fabrics tal vez pueda utilizar maderas como mangle o alcornoque que se encuentra en rodales pi- ros sobre extensas zonas, cerca de las vias acuaticas. Cualquier empleo de la madera del mangle rojo que podria combinarse con la ex- traccién de la corteza para tanino, seria alta- mente deseable. Una vez que la industrializacién de los re- cursos madereros del Darién esté encamina- da, los sistemas de transporte desarrollados permitirian la explotaci6n y el embarque de muchas otras maderas especiales. También es muy probable que se encuentren usos para algunas de las especies muy abundantes como el cuipo, y que hoy se consideran sin valor. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 El desarrollo de la produccién econémica de pulpa y celulosa a partir de maderas tropi- cales, la produccién de azucar a partir de la celulosa de madera y la conversion de los azu- cares de la madera en proteina con cultivos de levaduras, son algunos de los tantos pro- cesos proximos en aplicarse y las fabricas no tardardn en establecerse alli donde las otras plantas industriales han mostrado el camino. También se vislumbran otras posibilidades de uso mas directo. Las trozas3 cortas o par- cialmente huecas y las ramas gruesas de cao- ba u otras especies, podrian abastecer una t4brica de piezas para muebles, las que po- drian exportarse desde la provincia como piezas sueltas, desarmadas. Durante nuestro recorrido, nos impresion6 también la cantidad tabulosa de una palma nativa llamada “gua- guara”. Es una palma de caparazo6n muy dura con un tronco alto y muy recto y con un po- sible promedio de 6 a 8 pulgadas de diadm=- tro. Nos parece que valdria la pena llevar a cabo algunos ensayos con esta palma para la exportacion, a fin de utilizarla como poste de minas, en posicién vertical. Parece parti- cularmente apropiado para ello, pues también el aspecto econémico de su extraccidn hasta los puntos de embarque resulta satisfactorio. Resumen Recapitulando brevemente, puede decirse gue Panama dispone de abundantes recursus naturales renovables, los que, cuando utiliza- dos correctamente sobre una base racional, pueden desarrollar una enorme riqueza y un alto nivel general de vida, aun para una po- blacién mucho mas numerosa. Sin embargo, para alcanzar esta utilizaciOn correcta se re- quiere una planificacidn cuidadosa y la edu- cacion de toda la poblacién en el sabio uso de sus recursos. Los dirigentes gubernamen- tales y los financieros locales deben dirigir sus esfuerzos y su capital en aquellos proyectos y regiones que puedan ser desarrollados sobre una base permanente con posibilidades de ga- nancias no solamente para los duefios de la tierra y los capitalistas, pero que ofrezcan 31 también una oportunidad de levantar los ni- veles de vida de todos los que trabajan en estos proyectos. Una de las necesidades mds apremiantes del pais para lograr tal desarrollo planificado, son los técnicos locales dentro de los diferen- tes campos del uso de la tierra, a fin de lle- var a cabo las investigaciones, servir de agen- tes de extensidn o educadores y llenar las ne- cesidades de técnicos 0 administradores en el campo. Todavia queda tiempo para hacer todo ésto, puesto que muchos de los recursos naturales se encuentran mas 0 menos intac- tos pero el aplazamiento en el desarrollo del sabio uso de los recursos, a medida que la po- blacién crece a un ritmo vertiginoso, rendira la tarea mucho mas dificil o atin imposib!e de realizar dentro de unos cuantos afios mAs. En vista de aue los terrenos y recurso: fo- restales son tan vastos y tan prometedores, las posibilidades econémicas para el! desarrollo incustrial forestal, una de las tareas inmedia- tas a realizar por parte del Gobierno de Pa- nama, seria la de adiestrar a técnicos fore3- tales y establecer un servicio efectivo de bos- ques nacionales. Tal servicio deberia empren- der lo mas pronto posible la reservacién de los bosques y parques nacionales sobre exte.- sas regiones en las zonas montafiosas y Gue- bradas y ademas realizar los estudios neceza- rios en aquellos bosques que ofrecen las me- jores perspectivas de desarrollo industrial. Las industrias forestales al necesitar cuantiosas inversiones iniciales para su establecimiento, estan interesadas en operaciones a iargo pla- zo. Son por lo tanto deseables ya que tien- den a mantener los bosques sobre una base de produccién permanente y contribuyen 2 lograr un mejor nivel de vida para los habi- tantes. Bibliografia Braddy, T. W. 1922. Lumber development in Panam, Timberman 24(1): 184. Cooper, G. P. 1928. The forests of Western Panama Tropical Woods 16:1-35. a2 Erlanson, G. O. 1946. The vegetation of San José Island, Republic of Panama. Smithsn__ --- Inst. Misc. Collect. 106(2) 12 p. Garver, R. D. 1947. Informe de la Republica de Pana- ma. Revista de Agricultura, Comer- cio e Industria (Panama) 7(74):9-28. Kluge, H. C. 1926. Trees of the Bayano River Water- shed, Panama. Tropical Woods 5:4-13. Lamb, Bruce F. 1953. The forests of Darién. Forester 14:128-135. Lindsay, Walter R. 1945. Plants resources of the Panama. En: Frans Verdoorn- Plant and Plant Science in Latin America. Walthan, Mass. Chronica Botanica, p. 67-68. Pope, Fred W. 1952. A study of weather conditions in Panama, with special emphasis on the belt of doldrums. Canal Zone, 5700th Reproduction Unit Albrook A.F.B. 20D: Caribbean CARIBBEAN F'ORESTER Rubio, Angel. 1949. Vegetacién y paisajes panamefios. Suelos. Ingenieria y Arquitectura 26:328-344. Schery, Robert W. 1943. A few facts concerning the flora of Panama. En: Frans Verdoorn. Plant and Plant Science in Latin America. Waltham Mass. Chronica. Botanica p. 285-287. Standley, Paul C. 1928. Flora of the Panama Canal Zone. Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb. (Washington) 27:1-416. 1937-38. Flora of Costa Rica. Field Mu- seum Bot. Serv. 18:1-1616. Smith, R. T. and other 1945. Soil survey of the Darien Provin- ce, Repubic of Panama. United Fruit Co., Division of Tropical Research, La Lima, Honduras and Chiriqui Land Co., Puerto Armuelles, Pana- ma. (typewritten). 10 p. Striker, Marion M. 1952. Soil and land investigation in Panama. Washington, D. C.. Office of Foreign Agriculture relations, U.S.D.A. wo ee ~ Report on the Fourth Tropical Foresiry Short Course B. J. HUCKENPAHLER, Training Officer U. S. Forest Service Puerto Rico Introduction The importance of forest resources to the economic and social development of a coun- try becomes more apparent throughout the world day by day. With an increase in popu- lation comes an increase in demand for the products which forests can offer in perpetul- ty— WOOD, WATER, WILDLIFE, RECRE- ATION, and FORAGE. This appreciation of the value of forests has resulted in a desire for additional knowledge on how forests can and should be managed and utilized to derive these multiple-use benefits. The International Cooperation Adminis- tration and the Food and Agriculture Orga- nization of the United Nations have, for several years, been assisting many countries throughout the world gain such knowledge. In order to systematize and give more et- fective training to foreign foresters, the U. S. Forest Service suggested that the ICA spon- sor an organized short course in tropical forestry to be conducted by the Forest Ser- vice at the Tropical Forest Research Center in Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. The first such short course held in 1955 proved so successful that three essentially similar programs have been given since. !/. This brief report on the 1957 short course is written primarily for the information of those persons who are interested in personnel train- ing and could be instrumental in sending men to attend similar courses which may be of- fered in the future. In this connection, the Tropical Forest Research Center would wel- come comments and suggestions concerning RUMOR MG Inte, Mey HL GosSe ack Hh Wademen B. J. Huckenpah'er, and Car! F. Ehelebe, Caribbean Forester 16 (1 & 2): 12-23. the curriculum, particularly from those who have administrative or technical responsibili- ty for forestry programs and practices in trop- ical countries, and from those who have had the opportunity to observe the work of course participants after they returned to their work. The 1957 Trepical Forestry Short Course Sponsorship and Cooperation The International Cooperation Adminis- tration through its Overseas Missions recruit- ed all the trainees and financed their travei and subsistance with one exception. The participant from Liberia was financed com- pletely by his government. Through regular allotments to the Forest Service for foreign training or through specifically allocated funds for the course, ICA financed local costs of instructors, administration, and transpor- tation, including the entire costs of two of the three visiting instructors. In addition, ICA paid for most of the aproximately 300 publi- cations, charts, and other training items fur- nished each student. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations cooperated by sending an instructor for the final two weeks and contributed many publications dealing with various tropical forestry problems throughout the world. The administration and conduct of the course was under the direction of the Tropi- cal Forest Research Center. The Office of Technical Cooperation, P. R. Department of State, assisted in the physical arrangements and orientation. During the course of 34 instruction, the Forest Service was assisted by several other agencies of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico particularly the Division oi Forests, Fisheries, and Wildlife of the Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce, and the Agricultural Extension Service and Agricul- tural Experiment Station of the University of Puerto Rico. Other federal agencies in Puerto Rico assisting were the Soil Conser- vation Service and the Agricultural Stabiliza- tion and Conservation Service, both of the Department of Agriculture. Objectives and Scope The course was planned to offer through a balanced program of lectures, training films, and field work, a comprehensive coverage of most branches of forestry and types of fores- try programs. Its primary purpose was to provide an opportunity for practicing foresters from tropical countries to study basic scien- tific principles, and to observe and learn to apply some of the practices, procedures, and techniques necessary for the proper adminis- tration, management, ,and utilization of for- ests. The training was designed also to touch upon other phases of natural resource man- agement particularly as they affect land use, soil conservation, and watershed pro- tection. Facilities and Student Accomodations The lectures, discussions, and showings of training films were held in the library of the Forest Service headquarters building in Rio Piedras. The experimental nursery, herbarium, and wood laboratory at the head- quarters were also utilized. The group includ- ed both English and Spanish speaking stu- dents so the instruction was given in both languages. The translating was done by mem- bers of the research center staff. Most of the important information not available in pu- blications, and some of the lectures were mi- meographed, wherever possible in both lan- CARIBBEAN FORESTER guages. Most of the printed publications were available only in English though some, es- pecially those published by FAO, were avail- able in English and Spanish. Including the mimeographed material , more than 300 dif- ferent items were supplied to each trainee. Twenty-two training films were shown. Most of the field studies and practical exercises were carried out on public lands within two Federal and five Commonwealth Forests utilizing to their fullest advantage, permanent sample plots where various prac- tices and techniques are being tested and demonstrated. The commonwealth forest tree nursery was also used during the session de- voted to nursery work. Approximately 40 percent of the time was devoted to field and laboratory work. Due to the concentration of university- students in Rio Piedras, satisfactory living accomodations for short-term students are difficult to obtain. In order to assure desira- ble quarters at reasonable rates, and to house the students at one central location conve- nient to the Forest Service headquarters, the Forest Service contracted for three apart- ments in an apartment-hotel located within walking distance from headquarters. Each apartment consisted of a small kitchen, a large living room, a small bedroom and bath. Apartments were furnished except for stove and refrigerator, by the Forest Service. Four students lived in each apartment. One group began to cook their own meals as soon as they moved in; by the time the course ended, only three men were eating out. Instructors The major portion of the instruction, both in the classroom and in the field, was given by personnel of the Research Center stationed in Puerto Rico. Members of the Commonwealth Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wildlife gave considerable assistance par- ‘ticularly when work in regeneration and sil- viculture involved trips to the nursery and JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Commonwealth Forests. A number of in- structors were, however, brought from outside Puerto Rico to give the course participants the benefit of instruction by men who are specialists in their field or have had wide ex- perience in tropical forestry matters. Mr. Floyd M. Cossitt, Division of State and Private Forestry, Southeast Region, U.S. Forest Service, directed a comprehensive pro- gram on nursery work and planting based on our 30-year experience in these subjects. Mr. Earl J. Rogers, Division of Forest Economics Research, Washington Office, U.S. Forest Service with experience in Peru and Formosa, presented the latest developments in the application of aerial photo interpreta- tion to forest resource surveys and other men- surational techniques. Mr. A. Hyndman Stein, Food and Agri- culture Organization, United Nations, led the the sessions on forest policy and legislation and the round table presentation of forest conditions, problems, and programs in par- ticipants countries. He also assisted during the specialization period during the last week. Mr. Stein has had nearly 35-year experience in India, Iran and Chile. He is now at the Inter American Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Turrialba, Costa Rica. Trainees The course announcement stated the fol- lowing qualifications for participation, “This training program will be available to persons recommended by authorized officials of the sponsoring agencies on the basis of educa- tion, training experience, and present posi- tion. All candidates will be expected to have an active professional interest in certain major aspects of tropical forestry, as well as a desire to expand their technical training and thereby be able to more effectively carry out their official responsibilities in their re- spective countries. Preferably the candidates will be graduate engineer-agronomists with some forestry training and experience or or 00 graduates of secondary or technical school with a minimum of 4 years forestry ex- perience. They should be performing duties and have responsibilities comparable to the ranger or supervisor level.” Eleven trainees attended the course. The name, position, and home country of each is as follows: Besnett Chelmsford Halley - British Guiana Forest Ranger, Forest Department Alberto Burela Suarez - Bolivia Agricultural Technician, Agricola Inter-Americano J. Hipdlito Camargo B. - Colombia Forester, Servicio Técnico Agricola Colombiano Americano Amilcar Arturo Lépez M. - Colombia Extension Forester, Servicio Téc- nico Agricola Colombiano Ame- ricano Carlos Luis Lizano P. - Costa Rica Chief, Forest Management Section, Department of Forestry J. Antonio Beteta Martinez - Guatemala Forestry Zone Chief Anthony Tieh Sayeh - Liberia Forestry Aid, Department of Agri- culture and Commerce Servicio Francisco Cornejo - Panama Chief, Forestry Office, Ministry ot Agriculture George Durrant Glasgow - St. Lucia Forest Ranger, Forest Department Dusit Banijbatana - Thailand Chief, Division of Working Plans, Department of Forestry Adelbert Edward Smith - Trinidad Forest Supervisor, Forest Depart- ment Subject Matter and General Program As mentioned previously, the course was designed to cover, although very briefly in some cases, all broad subjects in the field of forestry. The initial questionnaire filled out ult CARIBBEAN FORESTE 36 ~ BdIY BISOD - ‘q OUeZIT SINT sojreg elewmayeny - ZIUIJAIV VJo1ogG OTUOJUY ¢ eureueg ~- ofautog oostouRAy VIAI[OG - ZaIeng vlaing o11eq[y pueleyL - vueyeqitueg ysnd { { = =a i ‘resy eIquiojoD - zedoy oinjiy IeoTWwy VIquIojOD - ‘@ OsIeUIeD OFTOdIH ‘¢ eueInyy Ig - Aal[eH pPAOJswmjeyO Wouseg BlleqrT - yoheg yell, AuoyjUuy DEPIUIIL - UYIWG plvMpy Jlsqiapy SINT IS - MOSSLPTD JUBIING 3931035 JUST 0F 4JoT “QUOI LG6LT ‘esinog yIOYS AI}Se10y [Votdory, YRANOY - spuvdroyaeg SS eo raene oon tetas JANUARY - JUNE 1957 by the students led to the conclusions that this would be the best approach and no changes in the planned program were made. The time, both classroom and field, devoted to each broad subject was as follows: Days Allotted Field or SUBJECT Lecture Laboratory Orientation 2 Dendrology 1 Ecology y Artificial Regeneration y Silvics and Silviculture 1 Forest Mensuration 5 Forest Research 2 Forest Utilization 3 1 2 i ra na NO eR Re | bo oj Forest Protection Public Forestry Programs Private Forestry Agric. Research and Extensicn yy Soil Consefvation Allied Natural Resources Forest Policy and Legislation Forestry in Participant Countries A Specialization po Totals The general training program was as rollows: March 13-15 Physical Arrangements and Orientation. —Preview of the training course, description of forestry, agriculture and education in Puerto Rico. Social, economic, and industrial development cf the island and its people. March 18 Dendrology and Ecology.—Lectures and laboratory work on the classification of trees, nomenclature keys, collection and preserva- J >) | tion of specimens etc. Lectures on plant as- sociations, vegetative formations, and forest types. March 19 Dendrology.—Field trip to Luquillo ex- perimental forest on tree identification and classification. March 20 Ecology.—Field study of plant associa- tions and forest types in the Luquillo expe- rimental forest. March 21-29 Artificial Regeneration.—Lectures, train- ing tilms, laberatory work and field study. Planning a regeneration program; seed col- lection, storage, sampling and testing; nursery planning and construction; nursery soil preparation, sowing, weeding and watering; control of nursery insect and disease pests; litting, grading, packing, potting and trans- planting seedlings; storage and transportation of seedlings; practice seeding; direct seeding in the field; vegetative propagation; planting problems, plans and surveys; planting tools, techniques, and practices; field study of test plantations; ard practice planting. April 1-5 Silvics and Silviculture-—Lectures, fieid study and practical work. Tropical silvicul- tural systems; intermediate cultural cuttings and other cuitural operations; field study of growth plots; practice marking for stand im- provement; and field study of thinned plan- tations. April 8-18 Forest Mensuration.—Lectures, training films, laboratory and field work. Interpreta- tion of aerial photographs in mapping, and 38 planning and conducting forest resource sur- veys; use of the stereoscope in volume deter- mination from photographs; timber cruising methods and procedures; volume table con- struction and use; log and tree grading, log scaling use of technical tools and equip- ment; and analysis of data. April 22-24 Forest Research.—Lecture, training films, and field study. Planning and research pro- gram; program and problem analyses; prepa- ration of study plans and reports; research techniques and _ procedures; discussion of representative experiments; and field study of experimental plots. April 25 - May 1 Forest Utilization—Lectures, training films, laboratory exercises and visits to wood using industries. Uses of wood; moisture content, specific gravity, and density; physi- cal properties and machining of wood; air seasoning and kiln drying practices; growth- structure relationships; relationship between forest management and _ utilization; logging and sawmilling; derived products and utiliza- tion of wood waste; wood preservation prac- tices and techniques; and visits to furniture factory, paper mill, and corrugated box plant. May 2 Forest Protection.—Lectures and _ train- ing films on the protection of forest resources against damage by fire, insects, and diseases. May 3-6 Public _Forestry.—Lectures, training films, and discussions. The application of the principle of multiple use to management of public forests and wild lands; organization, administration, and activities including timber sales, watershed management, recreation and CARIBBEAN FORESTER wildlife, of the U. S. Forest Service; and in- formation and education programs. May 7 Private Forestry.—Lectures, training films, and discussions. State and _ private forestry in the U. S.; industrial forestry and tree farming; and a round table presentation of public aids to private forestry. May 8 Agriculture Extension and Research.-~ Lectures and discussions on programs and methods of the Extension Service and Experi- ment Station of the University of Puerto Rico. May 9 Soil Conservation.—Field trip to observe and study soil conservation problems and practices employed in the action program of the Soil Conservation Service of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. May 13-17 Allied Natural Resources.—Field trip to visit projects and discuss the programs con- cerned with or dependent upon the conserva- tion of forest, soil, and water resources. Watershed management, hydroelectric power generation and irrigation reservoirs; recre- ation and fish and game management; and special uses in public forests. May 20 Forest Policy and Legislation —-Lectures and discussions on the principles governing the formulation of basic forest policy and the elements of good legislation affecting forest, soil, and water resources. May 21-24 Forestry in Participants’ Countries.—- Presentation by the participants and round table discussion of a description of the forest conditions, problems, and programs in the countries represented. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 May 27-31 Specialization.—Time devoted to lec- tures, consultations, library, and/or field work on special elective problems on which participants wanted additional information. Additional instruction of from one-half to ene and one-half day was given in nine subjects. Number of Number of SUBJECT men days Volume Table Construction 4 1% Organization & Administrative Management 5 1% Watershed Management 5 i Variable Plot Radius Cruising ala 1% Forest Management ital il Forest Research 4 1 Use of Technical Equipment 2 al Nursery and Planting 1 1% Fiscal Procedures 2 0) ec 2 2) A highlight of the program was the pre- sentation by each participant, of information concerning the forest conditions, problems, and programs in his country, the discussions and the summary that followed these presen- tations. Fifty—tfour days were actually spent in training; 60 percent in the classroom and the remainder in the field or laboratory. Stu- dents spent 594 mandays and coverea 13,200 man-miles in training without an accident and with only two man-days lost through illness. Professionally and_ sociologically the course was a success. The students gained much new technical information concerning all phases of forestry, learned about the United States and Puerto Rico, and at the same time status of association between the through association with each other, learned something of the life and customs in the varicus countries represented. 40 4 4 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Y Forest Conditions and Problems in Participants’ Countries ' A. H. STEIN, FAO Forester Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences Terriaiba, Costa Rica During the past few days the represen- tative from each country has given a most interesting description of the forest conditions and problems in his respective country. Though there may be wide variations from country to country in those conditions and the methods oi solving those problems, we shall probably all agree on one point, that not one of them, in following the profession ot forestry, need have a life devoid of interest. In making a very general review of the complete detailed material which was pre- scented, perhaps a few remarks on the follow- ing five points may be helpful: (1) area, (2) distribution, (3) policy and ownership, (4) silvicultural treatment, and (5) utilization. Area In comparison with many temperate and a few tropical countries the proportion of for- est to the total area of the countries repre- sented is generally adequate, considering each country as a whole. With the exception of St. Lucia, which has only 13 to 14 percent, the proportion is 40 percent or more, ranging from 40 percent in Bolivia to 83 percent in British Guiana. Most countries, therefore, are fortunate in this respect. No forester can, however, find satisfaction in the mere extent of the forests of his country unless their se- curity is assured by a forest policy which provides either for the reservation under state ownership or the permanency of forests in private ownership, the minimum are? consid- ered desirable for protection and production. 1/ Review of material presented by students attending the Tro- pical Forestry Short Course, March 13, - May 31, 1957, R. Piedras, Puerto Rico. As we have seen, populations are increasiiig fast in some countries, Colombia and Costa Rica being specially notable, both having had a population increase of about 25 percent in the past 6 years. In other countries there have been great development of communications and more will take place in the near future, such as the construction of the Pan American highway in the Darien tract of Panama, and reads across the island of St. Lucia. Such de- velopments may be expected to make a greater demand on the available land for agriculture, to bring about possible changes of land use, and to increase the possibilities of utilization of forest products. It is important that each country should have a forward policy and take action now to be ready to face the:e eventualities with equanimity. Protection of the forest resources of a country against fire, and reservation of the minimum area con- sidered essential for protection of soil and water resources, should be considered as first objectives if these have not been secured already. Distribution Though the extent of forest area, consi- dering the country as a whole, is generally adequate, and the distribution of forest is generally such that populations can satisfy their demands tor forest products without serious difficulty, there are certain areas which are deficient. This appears to be the case in areas such as the “altiplanos” of Bo- livia and Colombia, and the intensely culti- vated rice lands of Thailand. St. Lucia, even with a small population, has to import 500,000 board feet of coniferous timber JANUARY - JUNE 1957 annually. The questions of how these deficient areas can be supplied with forest products, and how imports can be prevented by do- mestic production, are of special interest to foresters of these countries. The solution may be the improvement of communications to render existing forest tracts accessible, the reduction of waste in the exploitation of these, or the formation of plantations of fast grow- ing species, making use-of sites such as patches of uncultivable land, river banks, and road sides in agricultural tracts. There seems to be no reason why any country re- presented should be faced with the necessity to import timber as from the descriptions, the greater part of each country is well suited for forests. Plantations of fast growing species in agricultural tracts should be specially at- tractive to private initiative, since they offer prospects of quick returns. Policy and Ownership The Government of some countries 1s not yet prepared to declare a policy, and the general public of some is not yet fully forest conscious. The descriptions of British Guia- na, Liberia, St. Lucia, and Trinidad indicate that those countries are comparatively for- tunate in these directions. On the other hand, Thailand, with more than half a cen- tury’s experience of national forestry has still to declare its national forest policy. Most countries in Central and South America, in which the need for scientific forestry is only now beginning to become prominent, have much progress to make. In such cases it is essential that the foresters should first make a detailed diagnosis of the reason and then begin a compaign of positive action to over- come those opstacles to forestry development. The foresters may have to undertake a general forestry education program. The re- presentative from Panama emphasized that forestry education and development of a forest conscience should precede forest policy and legislation before these can be effective. An exposition of the direct financial bene- 41 fits to be obtained by a national policy of conservation and management of the forest resources may be the first means of awaking the interest of Government in forest policy. Governments are often hard pressed for funds and are likely to welcome prospects vf this nature. The prospect of replacing imports by national production may appeal both on financial and patriotic reasons. However, no opportunity should be lost of emphasizing the indirect benefits of forests. The development of facilities for recrea- tion in the forests has great potentialities for educating the public and developing a forest conscience, and action to educate the public, being a more personal approach, may be more productive of quick results. Apart from appealing to the national pride, recrea- tion forests may often be self supporting and therefore are not necessarily dependent on general funds. In some countries such as Denmark, even private proprietors have found that the opening of their forests te the public for recreation can be a financial help. The inadequacy of funds appears to be a problem common to all countries described. When there is a national forest service, it is reasonable to expect that a certain portion oi the national budget should be allocated for its expenses. If the funds allocated are Inadequate, the national forest service has to make out a convincing case for more. How- ever, the national budget is not the only source. Forestry developments can be tfi- nanced by loans, forest reserve funds sub- scribed by private interests, or funds may be formed by trade. For example, the Lac Re- search Institute at Namkun, Ranchi in India had been financed by a voluntary cess on lac manufacturers and exporters, research on cacao is finaced by cocoa and chocolate manufacturers. In some countries forest or timber development associations have been formed to promote the interests of producers, commerce, and consumers. The position regarding ownership of forests varies considerably. It is a matter for 42 each government to decide on the form of ownership most appropriate for its social and economic development. While State owner- ship of the minimum area of forest consider- ed essential for protection is undoubtedly desirable ,there is nothing wrong about pri- vate ownership of forests required primarily for production, assuming the existence of a forest conscience and a willingness on the part of the owners to conform with a national forest policy. In the absence of these it may be necessary for the State to own also the minimum area of forests considered neces- sary for production. As was pointed out by the representa- tives of Guatemala and Panama, there are populations whose customary methods of cul- tivation cause destruction of forests. It is however, impracticable and inhuman to pro- hibit such practices abruptly, or to compel the populations accustomed to highlands to migrate to lowlands where there may be more land available but where the people would have to live under completely different cli- matic conditions and follow different methods of cultivation. Such changes can only be in- troduced gradually. The degree of destruction of forests depends to a large extent on the population growth. So long as the population remains fairly stable, the forest destruction may be kept within reasonable limits. In the Guatemalan highlands the fact that the existing methods of agriculture have been practiced continuously for centuries indicates that they cannot be completely destructive. In fact, the rotational cultivation, terracing, and gully plugging to achieve torrent control which may be seen at some places, suggest a considerable knowledge of conservation practices. The true solution in such cases is to show the population how their pre- sent methods can be improved, perhaps by control of fire, control of grazing, and better forest use including the adoption of “taun- gya’” to combine reforestation with cultiva- tion of agricultural! crops. Under such condi- tions forestry extension can perform a most CARIBBEAN FORESTER useful function. In Central India, where vast tracts, populated only by forest tribes who practiced shifting cultivation, were reserved as State forests during the last century, this problem was overcome by allocating certain patches of cultivable land in the reserves for use as forest villages under the control of the Forest Service. The forest tribes were gradu- ally settled on the forest villages within which they were given rights of cultivation. They also received certain concessions of timber, fuel, and grazing, and had first claim on employment on forest works. In some cases their assistance was useful when “taun- gya”’ was adopted for reforestation of the de- pleted forests. Later, as forest operations increased in intensity, these forest villages became the main source of labour and the Forest Service took over welfare activities such as the maintenance of schools. Silvicultural Treatment Apart from some local types as the coniferous forests on the Guatemalan high- lands, and the steppe types on the altiplanos in Bolivia, the forests of the countries des- cribed fall into two broad types — the very humid tropical and the dry tropical. The regeneration of the former is ac- companied by a number of problems — the heterogeneous nature of the forests, the absen- ce of demand for most species, and the small population resulting in a limited local demand and an inadequate labour supply. The me- thods which should be adopted to overcome those problems call for the attention of us all. Some schools of thought recommend wholesale removal of the natural forests and their replacement by man made forests com- posed of fast growing species of greater value. Other schools advocate the natural regener- ation of the existing forests, at least of the most valuable species, by gradually lifting of the overhead canopy. Others consider the _enrichment of the existing stand by the arti- ficial introduction of valuable species. All in- volve considerable sacrifice of material, are JANUARY - JUNE 1957 expensive, and cail for an adequate labour supply. The latter is often a limiting factor. Utilization The descriptions show that there is still a great need fcr better methods of utilization in all countries. There is still waste in the exploitation of species at present considered valuable, and still greater waste in the case of species at present not considered to be of commercial value. The need for improved utilization undoubtedly calls for the closest possible attention of all foresters as a major contribution to the solution of many existing forest problems. The representative of Trinidad suggested that charcoal making would be useful for reduction of waste. Charcoal making in forests covered by a sound policy or under a management plan, can be a most useful tool of silviculture and utilization as was found to be the case in the State forests of Central India which became the main source of sup- ply of charcoal for Bombay City. On the other hand, in the case of forests not so far protected, charcoal making can become an evil causing widespread destruction. This was the case in the valuable broadleaved forests on the northern slcpes of the Elbruz moun- 45 tains in Iran, when these became accessible to Teheran, the capital of the country, situated on the southern treeless side of the range. The representative from Guatemala men- tioned that Forest Industrial Units had been or were to be formed in the Peten tract of ais country. The development of integrated forest industries on a large scale may show the way tc sustained yield management, judg- ing from the progress made in this direction in recent years in the U. S. A., Canada, and Mexico. Cooperation between private owners at least as regards marketing, may be more difficult to achieve in practice, but would also be a most useiul step towards reduction of waste and sustained yield management. The descriptions show that in most countries, particularly in Thailand, minor forest products are extremely valuable. Tropi- cal countries are generally fortunate in having forests which yield a great variety of minor products of economic value. The col- lection of these products either for local con- sumption or for sale may be of very great importance to the local population. The de- velopment of minor forest products in col- laboration with the local population is likely to promote the development of a forest con- science and eventually the appreciation of the need of forests for protection and production. 44 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Forest Conditions, Problems, a nd Programmes in British Guiana ., V. VIEIRA and H. Bristish THE COUNTRY Area and Population The area of British Guiana is 83,000 square miles or 53,120,000 acres. The popu- lation is about 450,000; an average of only five and a fraction persons per square mile. Land Use Agriculture - About 1,500 square miles located along the entire coastal strip where the original swamp and marsh vegetation was destroyed through proper drainage and along the river banks for some miles inland. In savannah country, cultivation is restricted to the fertile valleys and hill slopes far from the settlements. The principal crops are sugar, rice, vegetables, coffee, and cocoa. Forest. - About 70,000 square miles cov- ering most of the land area and located in the immediate interior except for a portion in the northwest along the coast where there is mangrove (Rhizophora mangle) forest. The forest at present is mainly for commercial use and no attempt has yet been made to build recreation areas or parks. Portions of the area are naturally scenic and suitable for such where persons travel to from the noisy towns. Other Lands. - Total 11,500 square miles. These consist primarily of mining and graz- ing lands in the deeper interior and savan- 1/ Respectively Forest Inspector and Forester, Forestry Depart- ment, British Guiana. A paper presented while the authors par- ticipated in the third tropical forestry short course, March 7 to May 17, 1956, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. RICHARDSON 1, Guiana nahs respectively. Mining operations have done little damage to this forest and the to- tal area affected is a very small proportion of the total forest area. Some of the princi- pal mining products are bauxite, gold, dia- monds, tantalite, columbite and other pre- cious stones. Physical Environment Climate The climate of British Guiana is tropi- cal but pleasant. There are two wet and two dry seasons. The relative humidity is always high; the mean shade temperature remains remarkably constant. The northeast trade winds blow steadily for 9 months of the year. Topography British Guiana is situated in the north coast of South America and is shaped like an hour glass. It has a coast line of 270 miles and a maximum north-south depth of 540 miles. Four main topographical regions can be recognized: Coastal Belt. - A region of low lying allu- vium which still carries a complex series of swamp and marsh. Lowlands. - An area of undulating land generally below 500 feet in elevation. Pakaraima Mountain Region. - An ele- vated tableland rising to an altitude of 9,000 feet at Mt. Roraima. Southern Uplands. - A region of undu- lating land generally above 500 feet in elevation. JANUARY - JUNE 1957 Soil The soil types tend to follow the main geological patern. Fertile clays from the coastal alluvium saturated with sea salts; in- fertile sands and loams from the white sand series and kaieturian sediments; loams, clays, and red earths from the Basement Rocks and later basic intrusives. Peat, locally termed “pegasse’, is accumulated to a depth of 12 teet on the clay where a fresh water swamp is formed in the rear of a sand bank. Peat is found to a great extent in the Northwest District. The normal gradation of soil from the watershed to valley bottom is white sand — light brown sand — brown sand — sandy loam — silty clay. Forests Area The forest area of 70,000 square miles or 44,800,000 acres (17,920,000 .hectares) represents 83 percent of the land area of British Guiana. Ownership Forests are both state owned and pri- vately owned and are divided as follows: Exploitable State Permanent ____-_ 13,000 sq. mi. Others = = 500 sq. mi. Privates 223-2 s. 500 sq. mi. Total 14,000 sq. mi. Potentially Exploitable State Permanent _____ 16,296 sq. mi. Others aaa sen 23,704 sq. mi. Total ~ 40,000 sq. mi. Other Forest Lands _ 16,000 sq. mi Lands declared Crown Forests in 1953 may be divided as follows: 45 Exploitable Permanent ______ 13,000 sq. mi. Other) e222. 25 oe 500 sq. mi. PotentiallyExploitable 16,296 sq. mi Total 295796 O:G2825 2 Costo de limpias (de 1950 a 1954) 0.0684 ” Costo Total por planta __________ S$ 0.1886 En esta plantacién, después del desmonte, la vegetaciOn secundaria (renuevo de tocones y plantas trepadoras) es muy abundante, siendo por tanto muy costosas las atenciones culturales, como puede apreciarse en las ci- fras anteriores. Hn la segunda plantacién de las tierras rojas de la finca “Cabezas de Horacio”, el costo ha sido en 1953 el siguiente por planta: Costo de plantaciOn __________=_ S$ 0.0488 dolar Costo de preparacion de terrenc 0.0170 Costo de materiales ____________ 0.0212 Costo Total por planta __________ $ 0.0870 Al comparar ej costo de ambas plantacio- nes veremos aque resulta una rebaja de $0.1016 ddélar por planta en la plantacién — de ‘“‘Ca- bezas de Horacio’. Los factores determinan- tes son los siguientes: 1. En “Cabezas de Horacio” se trabajé en suelo preparado con arado y dezprovis- to de malezas, puesto que fué4 posible mecanizar la roturacion del mismo y el transporte de material de siembra del vivero al campo. Se cambio el papel de techar usado an- teriormente para las macetas por otro mas econdémico y mas facil de manipu- lar, aumentando el rendimiento prome- Gio de cada obrero. 3. No es necesario inversiones en operacio- nes de limpias, pues la vegetacién de este lugar esta constituida por grami- neas que no estorban el libre desarrollo del eucalipto. rho 56 CARIBBEAN FORESTER The Lumber Industry of the Lower Amazon Valley EUGENE F. HORN /1 Brazil Despite an excellent river system, exten- sive forest resources, and many other factors which are basically favorable to the develop- ment of forest industries, very little develop- ment work has taken place in the lower Amazon Valley. The production of logs, lum- ber, crossties, and other forest products is small and the cost of production is high. Sawmilling is practically the only existing form of industrial processing. Heretofore, de- velopment has been retarded by the lack of capital as well as technical knowledge and skill. Recently certain steps have been taken with a view to developing the forest resources of this region on an extensive scale. An Amer- ican company is installing a modern veneer and plywood plant and sawmill at Portel, sit- uated in the upper estuary region, and has acquired extensive bedies of timberland on which they plan to initiate modern logging methods. A mixed company of French and Brazilian capital is being organized to install a pulp and paper mill in the estuary region which will utilize the broadleaved timbers of this region. Other forest enterprises are being studied by American, West German, and Jap- anese capitalists. The area and forests which the writer considers most promising for development in- cludes the islands of the Amazon estuary as well as the mainland from the Rio Guama westward to the valley of the Rio Xingu. The best map of this region is the Aeronautical Chart, Ilha de Marajé 946 printed by the Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. At Belém the average annual rainfall is 97 inches while the temperature varies from a mean maximum of 87°F. to a mean minimum of 72°F., with a mean annual temperature of 78°F. Although the climate of this region is 1/ Mr. Horn is a consulting forester and wood technologist in Brazil. tropical, it is very healthful. Malaria and hookworm are the principal diseases among the native population but both can be very easily controlled by proper sanitary measures. By use of the modern drugs and insecticides, these diseases can be eliminated from any tropical region at a very moderate cost as American and Brazilian doctors and sanitary engineers of the SESP have demonstrated. TRANSPORTATION FACILITIES Vessels drawing up to 24 feet of water can load at low tide at most of the island estuary ports while some of the rivers are navigable for a distance of 25 miles from the estuary for vessels of 16-foot draught. All rivers are navigable for launches and tugs of 9-foot draught almost to the first waterfalls or rap- ids. The difference between high and low tide varies from about 5 feet in the estuary to about 6 inches below the first falls or rap- ids. Therefore, log rafts can only be floated downstream at ebb tide. Marine-borers are not a problem as most of the water in the es- tuary is fresh. The greater part of the land in the islands of the Amazon estuary is swampy or periodi- cally inundated, although there is some high land on some of the larger islands. There are also certain areas of inundated land on the mainland where the rivers flow into the estuary. The land between the rivers and their tributaries is almost flat although it is well drained. These flat benches are situat- ed 5 to 300 feet above the rivers and their tributaries. The islands of the Amazon estuary are Quarternary deposits of alluvial sediments, while the underlaying geological formation on the mainland consists of unconsolidated sed- iments which are chiefly clays. No rock is exposed on the mainland below the first wa- JULY - DECEMBER 1957 terfalls where outcrops of sandstone or crys- talline rocks do occur. The first waterfalls or rapids are situated 75 to 150 miles up- stream from the Amazon estuary. The soils of the upland forests vary from heavy plastic clays to light sandy loams. As far as topo- graphy and bottom are concerned, track-type tractors can operate the entire year and light trucks from July 1 to December 1. FOREST TYPES AND KINDS OF TIViBER The evergreen tropical rain forests of the lower Amazon Valley can be divided into three broad types: (1) the “igapo’’ (swamp) forests of the islands of the estuary as well as limited areas on the mainland; (2) the “varzea’’ (lowland) forests of the flood plain of the lower Amazon Valley and the islands of the Amazon estuary, which are periodical- ly inundated; and (3) the upland terests or “matas da terra firme” which are situated on high well-drained land. Each type possesses its characteristic species, although certain species, such as the Hevea rubber tree, are encountered in all three forest types. These forests, like all tropical rain forests, are char- acterized by the large number of species en- countered on limited areas. However, cer- tain species, e.g. andiroba (Carapa guianensis Aubl.) and ipeuba (Eperua bijuja Benth) in the lowland forests, sucupira do igapo (Diplo- tropis martiusi Benth) in the swamp forests, and another sucupira da mata (Bowdichia ni- tida Spruce) in the upland forests may com- prise as much as 80 percent of the stand on limited areas. On an area of about 150,000 acres recently examined by the writer in the upper estuary region, 140 arborescent species were encountered and identified besides about 25 species which neither the writer nor the native woodsmen accompanying him were able to identify. Of those identified, 81 species were encountered in the upland forests, 31 species in the lowland forests, and 28 species in the swamp forests. With notably few exceptions, the trees in all three types are of good timber form pos- 57 sessing straight clear cylindrical boles with moderate taper above the first 16-foot log. In general, the swamp or lowland species are buttressed or have swollen bases and have more taper than the upland species. Macar- anduba (Manilkara huberi Ducke), which is an upland species is also buttressed to a height of 4 to 5 feet. Unlike most hardwoods of the temperate zone, the bark of tropical broad- leaved trees is remarkably thin, varying from 1/4 to 1-1/4 inch in thickness. The trees in the upland and lowland forests are larger and taller than those in the swamp forests. Ma- ture timber in the former is commonly 100 to 150 feet tall yielding 3 to 5 16-foot logs with a diameter range of 16 to 72 averaging 18 to 28 inches. As in most tropical forests, the timber in the lower Amazon Valley is very unevenly distributed. The number of trees oi merchan- table size in the swamp forests is irequently very low. On the other hand, in the upland and lowland forests the number of trees of merchantable size, as well as the density of the stands, is remarkably uniform as to spe- cies and volume per acre over limited areas. Therefore, it is exceedingly difficult to make an accurate evaluation of the stands of timber per acre by the sample plot method of cruis- ing where the areas of the difierent types are unknown. ‘The strip survey method of cruis- ing on parallel lines perpendicular to the rivers or their tributaries is indicated. A strip 20 meters in width at kilometer intervals will give a 2 percent cruise of the area. Sample plots selected by the writer in the swamp forests tallied from 1,500 to 4,500 board feet (Doyle-Scribner) per acre while sample plots in the upland and lowland forests tallied trom 4,500 to 27,000 bd. ft. (Doyle-Scribner) per acre. No trees were tallied which did not contain one 16-foot log inches or more in dia- meter. By tallying all timber of pulpwood size (6 inches or more in diameter) blocks of timberland several thousand acres in area could be selected in the lowland and upland forests which would average 15,000 board feet or 30 cords per acre. 58 AMAZON TIMBERS OF VARIED UTILITY The wood of the 140 species encountered by the writer varied in weight from 11 to 83 Ibs. per cubic foot in an air-dry condition. As the weight of a wood is a fair indication of its strength, these woods have a very wide range in physical and mechanical properties and therefore have a wide range in utility. Some species, such as Marupa (Simaruba amara Aubl.), morototo Didymopanax moro- totoni Aubl.) (D. and P.), the quarubas (Vo- chysia sp. and Qualea sp.), and parapara (Jacaranda copaia (Aubl.) D. Don), are light- weight perishable woods suitable only for ceiling, boxes, concrete forms, corestock and interior construction. Others, such as jutai- acu (Hymenaea courbaril L.) Cumart (Cou- marouna odorata Aubl.), pracuuba (Mora paraensis Ducke) are exceedingly hard, heavy, strong, and durable and are used for all pur- poses requiring strength, toughness, resilience, and resistance to wear, insects, and decay. Some woods, such as itatiba preta (Mezilaurus itauba (Meissn.) Taub.) mata-mata (Esch- weilera odorata (poepp.) Miers), parinari (Parinari rodolphi and anuera) (Licania ma- crophylla Benth.), resist the attacks of ma- rine-borers and are therefore used for keels and bottom planking in boatbuilding as well as marine piling, sheet piling, and dock tim- bers. Piquia (Caryocar villosum (Aubl.) Pers.) is exceedingly difficult to split on ac- count of its interlocking grain and is greatly esteemed for knees, ribs, rudders, hatch cov- ers, and decking in boat-building. Some species, such as acapt. (Vouwacapoua america- na Aubl.), sucupira (Bowdichia sp. and Di- plotropis sp.) and pau amarelo (Euxylophora paraensis Hub), are highly suitable for plain and parquet fiooring, while macacauba(Platy- miscium ulet Harms), freij6 (Cordia goeldia- na Huber), pau roxo (Peltogyne Le Cointei Duke), ipeuba, and muirapiranga (Brosimum paraense Hub), are high class cabinet woods and are highly suitable for face veneers and decorative plywood. Andiroba, louro vermel- ho (Ocotea rubra Mez), and jacareuba (Calo- CARIBBEAN FORESTER phyllum brasiliense ‘Camb.), are promising substitutes for mahogany. Sucupira, maca- randuba, pracuuba, margoncalo (Hieronyma alchorneoides Fr. Allem.), mata-mata_ preta, araracanga (Aspidosperma desmanthum Mull Arg.), sapucaia (Lecythis paraensis Hub), cumaru, and many other woods are highly suitable for crossties. The fragrant cedro vermelho (Cedrela odorata L.) is used for cigar boxes while pau roxo, carapantba (As- pidosperma nitidum) Benth) pitica (Swartzia platygyne), and some of the enviras (Xvylo- pia sp. and Dugetia sp.) are used for tool handles. AMAZONIAN TIMBERS POSSESS EXCEPTIONAL PROPERTIES From 1947 to 1955 the School of Forestry of Yale University, in cooperation with the Office of Naval Research of the U. S. Navy Department, tested a number of Amazonian hardwoods along with other tropical Ameri- can hardwoods to determine their mechanical, physical, seasoning, moisture absorption, ma- chining, glueing, and steam-bending proper- ties. The test revealed that these hardwoods shrink less from a green to an air-dry condi- tion than hardwoods of the temperate zone and, consequently, they posses greater dimen- sional stability after seasoning. Even the extremely dense tropical woods show appreci- ably less shrinkage than is commonly dis- played by American hardwoods only three- fourths as heavy. These woods tested in a green condition displayed a greater superiori- ty in bending strength, stiffness, crushing strength, and a number of other properties over American woods of comparable density. However, this superiority is less evident after seasoning. The test also revealed that the air-dry strength of tropical woods in cleavage and tension across the grain is commonly less than in the green condition. The value of certain Amazonian hardwoods for exacting uses can be readily appreciated from these tests which revealed that cumaru is 150 per- cent harder, 70 percent stronger as a beam; and 75 percent stronger as a column than JULY - DECEMBER 1957 American white oak, while macaranduba is 108 percent harder, 114 percent stronger as a beam, and 110 percent stronger a3 a column than white oak. The volumetric shrinkage of limorana (Chlorophora tinctoria (L.) Gaud.) was only 7.6 percent as compared to 9.8 per- cent for American black locust while the mois- ture absorption of louro vermelho was only 5.5 percent as compared to 8 percent for Burma teak indicating a very high dimen- sional stability for these woods. PRIMITIVE LOGGING METHODS In the Amazon estuary region sawmill operators rarely own standing timber and do not generally engage in combined logging and sawmill operations but purchase their logs from landowner, store-keeper, or small logging operators. Although logs of some of the lighter woods are occasionally rafted to the sawmills by native loggers, most of the sawmills transport their logs from the river landings or other assemblying points to their mills in lighters or barges conveyed by tug- boats. In this region all logs are measured in ac- cord with the so-called Francon rule, which is the Hoppus quarter-girth system of meas- urement used in Burma, India, and some parts ot Africa. The circumference is taken inside the bark in the middle of the log and divided by four. Tre result is squared and multiplied by the length in accordance with the follow- ing formula: Ve (0/4) 22x 1 Approximately 7.25m?® of logs by this sys- tem of measurement will give 1,000 board feet by the Doyle-Scribner system of meas- urement. Approximately 1.8 m? of logs by the Francon measure are required to yield 1 m’® of lumber or 424 board feet. Sawmills are now paying from Cr. $120,00 for andi- roba to Cr. $700,00 for freij6 per m? Francon, for logs having a minimum circumference of 1.40 m and a minimum length of 4 m at the river landings or other assemblying points in the estuary region. Converting the above 59 values into dollars worth Cr. $64.00 in the free market, sawlogs are therefore worth from US $13.60 for andiroba to US $56.64 for frei- jO per thounsand hd. ft. (Doyle-Scribner). Sawmill operators in the estuary state that it costs from Cr. $100,00 to Cr. $150,00 per m* Francon or US $4.51 to US $6.80 per thousand bd. ft. (Doyle-Scribner) io itrans- port logs by barges and tugs from the river landings to their sawmills situated on deep- water ports in the estuary. The logging methods employed in this region are very primitive, in fact, timber is extracted in the same manner as it was 400 years ago by the Portuguese traders. Manual logging methcds are employed exclusively. The trees are felled and cut into log lengths with an axe, after which the logs are rolled to the river banks by hand labor. Extensive roads or skidways are opened through the forests and stringers and rolls are used to facilitate the removal of logs to the river banks. Quite frequently only one or two species are logged at one time which increases the cost of logging. In general, timber situated only a few hundred meters from the banks of the rivers or tributary streams is logged by this primitive method. However, in some sections the more valuable species, such as cedro, pau amarelo, and freij6 have been logged for a maximum distance of 6 kilometers (3.7 miles). It is hardly necessary to add that this sys- tem of logging is very laborious and expen- sive and cannot compete in cost with modern logging methods. ANTIQUATED SAWMILL METHGDS The sawmills in the Amazon estuary re- gion cannot be considered as modern either in equipment or methods. At present there are nine sawmills situated on the islands of the estuary and in Belém. The head saw in most of the mills is of the American circular type although some mills are equipped with a heavy gang saw (engenho) of European manufacture or design. A few posses3 anti- quated band saws also of European manu- 60 facture or design. All are powered by steam but only one is equipped with the Dutch oven type of firebox and even this one does not burn sawdust or planing mill shavings. Many of the sawmills are underpowered which greatly reduces production. Edgers are rarely employed and the trimming is done with swinging cut-off saws. Most mills are equip- ped with table saws and planers. In most of the mills the machinery is not set up in proper sequence for economical operation. The lumber is transferred from one machine to another by hand labor. The use of such modern labor-saving devices as live rolls, transfer tables, lumber stackers, sawdust con- veyors, or even lumber buggies and dead rolls is unknown. None of the mills possesses dry kilns and the lumber is milled green or only partially seasoned. Owing to the antiquated equipment and the obsolete methods employ- ed, production is very low. The larger mills manufacture from 2,000 m? (848,000 bd. ft.) to 6,000 m? (2,544,000 bd. ft.) anually. The total lumber production of the State of Para is about 30,000 m3? (12,720,000 bd. ft.) annually. TIMBERLANDS DIRT CHEAP In this region standing timber has a stumpage value of 10 percent of the value of the legs delivered at the river landings. Stumpage can therefore be obtained at Cr. 312,00 for andiroba to Cr. $70,00 for treijé per m? Francon or US $1.36 for andiroba to US $5.66 for freij6 per thousand bd. it. (Doyle-Scribner). Timber removed from State land is supposed to pay an Imposto Patrimonial of 5 percent of the official value (pauta) of Cr. $20,00 to Cr. $600,00 per m? Francon for logs depending on the species. Perhaps not over 30 percent of the land in the valleys of the rivers flowing into the estuary is privately owned, the balance being State land. However, considerable State land is occupied by temporary squatters, especial- ly lands possessing rubber or Brazil nut trees. Privately owned lands, some possessing prim- CARIBBEAN FORESTER itive improvements, can be purchased at Cr. $10,009 to Cr. $20,00 per hectare or from 6 to 12 cents (US) per acre. An additional 20 percent should be added for the State land transier tax (8.25 percent), examination of titles, register of deed, etc. State lands are now sold at the following prices: 1 to 1,000 hectares Cr. $1,10 per hectare; 1,001 to 2,000 hectares Cr. $1,20 per hectare; 2,001 to 3,000: Cr. $1,30 per hectare: 3,001 to 4,000 hectares Cr. $1,40 per hectare; over 4,000 hectares at Cr. $1,50 per hectare. The maximum area which can be purchased by an individual or company is 10,000 hectares or 24,710 acres. The latest law requires that the area selected must have a depth 2 or 3 times its frontage on a river or creek. The land must be surveyed by a registered surveyor or engineer who charges Cr. $1.300,00 to Cr. $1.500,00 per kilometer, assuming that an area having a river front- age of 7,000 meters and a depth ot 14,000 meters, as required by law, was selected, such an area would have a perimeter of 42 kilometers and contain 9,800 hectares (24,215 acres). The land would cost the purchaser Cr. $14.700,60 plus Cr. $54.600,00 for the survey or a total of Cr. $69.300,00 or Cr. $7,07 per hectare or 4.4 cents (US) per acre. Neither foreigners or foreign companies can acquire State land, however, companies or- ganized under Brazilian laws, whose capital is wholly or partially foreign can acquire State land provided the Director is a Bra- zilian. LOGGING METHODS RECOMMENDED Owing to the large number of species as well as the erratic nature of their occurrence, the removal of one or two species presents serious logging problems. Indeed, it may cost more to log a few scattered trees than they are worth. Selective logging is there- fore impractical. Logging costs can only be reduced by logging all merchantable species on a given area. The writer is of the opinion that a D-6 Caterpillar tractor equipped with JULY - DECEMBER 1957 a bulldozer blade for opening roads, a Hys- ter D-6-N towing winch, and a D-6 logging arch would prove to be the best adapted to the timber and ground conditions of this re- gion. Tree-length or half tree-length logs can be skidded with the above equipment to the river landings where they can be bucked into proper log lengths with cross-cut or chain saws. For distances greater than 1,500 meters it is more economical to use trucks or log wagons pulled by tractors. Tree-length or half-tree-length logs can be skidded with the above equipment to a deposit, bucked into convenient log lengths, and then loaded on light trucks or wagons and hauled to the river landings. Light trucks equipped with trailers can haul average loads of 4.5 m’. Trucks with a four-wheel drive could proba- bly operate successfully for 2 months longer each year than ordinary trucks. The native woodsmen use round-headed 2-1/2 to 3-1/2 pound axes for felling timber and log making. However, the writer recommends that this wasteful practice be abolished by the gradual introduction of 3% to 4 pound double bitted axes and cross-cut saws especially adapted for felling and bucking hardwood timber. The introduction of spring boards for felling the buttressed species will eliminate the time consuming practice of erecting temporary scaffolds. Using the above equipment the writer estimates the cost of logging as follows per m? Francon: Felling, bucking, and opening roads Skidding, loading, and hauling DELO Ae KING. eee ee Cr. $ 74,44 Total logging cost Delem: thrancon=—- === Cr. $124,44 Total logging cost pen am? 7ot tumber ==" = Cr. $224,00 Total logging cost per thousand patti. 2ot lumber, — === US $ 8.26 Twenty percent depreciation was allowed for the tractor, winch, and arch; 50 percent for the truck and trailer; and 100 percent for the tools. 61 The timber in the swamp and varzea forests can be logged more economically with the pull-boat high lead system of logging. LUMBER MANUFACTURING PROBLEMS The logging of all species on a given area presents difficult manufacturing problems. Lumber manufacturing costs are increased by the difficulty and inconvenience of sawing and handling so many different kinds of tim- ber and so are the costs of seasoning, classi- fying, storing, and distributing the finished lumber also increased. Moyototo is similar to basswood in weight and hardness while macaranduba is 55 percent heavier and 108 percent harder than American white oak. A headsaw which has been fitted and adjusted for sawing dense refractory hardwoods is 2b- solutely unsuited for sawing soft light-weight woods without adjustment. The combination of a veneer and plywood plant with a sawmill will greatly aid in solving this problem. The soft light-weight woods can be peeled for utility plywood and the highly figured woods peeled or sliced for face veneers. The smaller and defective logs of the above species as well as the species not suitable for core stock or face veneers can be sawed into lumber. An- other possible solution of this baffling prob- lem is to combine a pulp mill with a sawmill and/or a veneer plant. Species which are not of special interest for lumber or veneer could be pulped by a chemical process recent- ly perfected in West Africa for pulping het- erogeneous mixtures of tropical hardwoods. Many lumber manufacturers in the United States have found it more profitable to com- bine sawmill operations with veneer and ply- wood plants and/or pulp mills. The separation and classification of the species should commence at the river land- ings. In order to avoid damage by insects, the light-weight species which will float should be dumped into the water immediately and made into rafts for towing to the sawmill, veneer plant, or pulp mill. It may be found advisable to remove the bark from certain 62 species in the woods or at the river landings in order to avoid insect damage. A rough classification can be made of the heavier species when they are loaded on barges at the river landings. At some sawmills the logs of the heavier species are beached or stowed in shallow water by species at high tide until they are needed. Other sawmills maintain extensive log storage yards where the logs are piled by species with locomotive goose- neck cranes or overhead traveling cranes un- til needed. The logs of some species, such as maru- pa, mata-mata preta, macaranduba, andiro- ba, and anani (Symphonia _ globulifera L.), show a marked tendency to split. Other species, such as pracuuba, achua, and cedro- rana (Cedrelinga catenaeformis Ducke) pos- sessing interlocking grain, show a marked tendency to warp. This tendency to split or warp is due to internal stresses produced by the high ratio between radial and tangen- tial shrinkage as well as the difference in the rate of shrinkage between the sapwood and heartwood. This difficulty can be largely overcome by sawing the logs into cants on the head saw and then sawing the cants into boards of dimension lumber in a gang saw or gang edger. Owing to the dense refrac- tory nature of some of these hardwoods, the writer recommends the use of a large gang saw, for the head saw, which will saw only cants, and smaller gang saws to saw the cants into boards or dimension lumber. This system of sawing will largely eliminate the use of an edger, although a trimmer will be necessary. The use of a gang saw as a head saw will not permit the sawing of defective logs so as to secure a maximum amount of lumber of the highest grade. As there are many small and defective logs, the employment of a band saw might be more desirable, and in this case an edger as well as small gang saws to handle cants would be necessary. Using this type of machinery and equip- ment, the writer estimates the lumber manu- facturing cost would be Cr. $508,47 per m? or US $18.75 per thousand board feet. The CARIBBEAN FORESTER above figures include labor, supervision, fuel, lubricating oil, grease, and the maintenance and depreciaton of the sawmill machinery at 10 percent. In some localities the writer believes that it will be more economical to mill the timber where it grows and lighter the lumber to a deep-water port than to transport logs long distances in barges to sawmills situated on a deep-water port. Portable mills can be set up on the banks of rivers near suitable bodies of timber and moved up or downstream as the occasion demands. The lumber yards, dry kilns, planing mill, and veneer and ply- wood plant should be located, of course, at a deep-water port. An LCT or an LCN will no doubt be found very convenient for mov- ing the tractor and sawmill to a new location and for transporting lumber to the shipping port. A river launch powered with a 100 HP Diesel engine will be necessary for trans- porting supplies to the mill and can be used for towing lighters of lumber. With the proper equipment the writer believes that lumber can be transported to a deep-water port for Cr. $60,00 per m? as compared with a transportation cost of Cr. $100,00 to Cr. $150,00 per m® Francon for transporting logs from the river landings to the mills. Since logs measured by the Francon measure will yield only 55 percent of their volume in lum- ber, the saving effected by transporting lum- ber instead of logs is therefore quite obvious. If logging and sawmill operations were com- bined with a pulp mill, these combined opera- tions should be located near one of the water- falls where hydro-electric power is available. In tropical regions, and particularly dur- ing the rainy season, the rate of sapwood de- terioration from stain, decay, and insects is extraordinarily high. Water storage is only a partial solution since the exposed part of the logs of some species will stain, decay, or be attacked by insects. Certain chemicals used as sprays or dusts will control the insects and reduce stain and decay. The best solution would seem to be utilization soon after cutting. JULY - DECEMBER 1957 LABOR The minimum wage of Cr. $2.300,00 per month established by presidential decree went into effect on September 16, 1956. All common labor is therefore hired on the basis of Cr. $77,00 per 8-hour day except agricul- tural laborers. Sawmill mechanics and ma- chine operators are paid Cr. $80,09 to Cr. $150.00 per day in the estuary region. The wage scale of ICOMI S. A., a subsidiary of the Bethlehem Steel Corporation operating in the Territory of Amapa, is as follows: car- penters and bricklayers: Cr. $22,00 to Cr. $32,00 per hour; tractor operators: Cr. $18,00 to $28,00 per hour; and tractor mechanics: Cr. $22,00 to Cr. $38,00 per hour. These workers have been trained by, and are accus- tomed to work under American mechanics and engineers and are the elite of skilled workers in northern Brazil. The apparent labor shortage in some re- gions is due to the higher earnings obtained by them in extracting rubber or macarandu- ba gum or gathering Brazil nuts or jutacicia resin. These extractive industries are less laborious than felling and bucking timber, hewing crossties, or manual logging. The eificiency of the present labor force leaves much to be desired. All logging operations should be conducted on a piece-work basis as this is the most satisfactory method of han- dling Brazilian labor. If additional unskilled laborers are required, they can be recruited in almost unlimited numbers in the interior of the State of Ceara. TAXES The tax problem is a very important item to be considered by any firm planning to en- gage in business in Brazil. In the State of Para ail logs, lumber, and crossties pro- duced must pay a Municipal Tax (Industria e Profissao) of 6.25 percent of their of- ficial value (pauta) which is usually less than their actual sales value. The State Govern- ment levies a sales tax of 3.25 percent ad 65 valorem on all sales made within the State as wall as all products exported outside the State. The State also levies an inspection tax of Rs $2,00 per m’, an export tax of 5 percent ad valorem, and an agricultural de- fense tax of Cr. $7,20 per m? on all logs, lum- ber, and crossties exported from the State. The Federal Government, through the Insti- tuto Nacional de Pinho, levies an export tax of Cr. $5,00 per m*, a rural economy tax of 2 percent ad valorem, and a plant defense tax based on 0.2 percent of the weight of the product exported at 10 centavos per kilo. At present the local taxes per m? Francon ior logs amounts to Cr. $23,10 for andiroba, to Cr. $55,138 for sucupira, and if exported to other Brazilian States, these taxes amount to Cr. $89,67 for andiroba to Cr. $140,90 for sucupira logs. If they are exported to foreign countries, these taxes increase to Cr. $104,35 and Cr. $116,70 respectively. Andiroba and sucupira lumber exported to foreign countries pay the equivalent of US $6.50 and US $8.88 respectively per M bd. ft. in taxes. Since no veneers, plywood, or paper pulp are produced in the State of Para, no official value or rates of taxation have been estab- lished for these products. In order to en- courage the development of new industries, the State of Para will grant an exemption of all taxes for a five-year period. A graduated income tax is levied on in- dividuals and corporations doing business in the country and varies from 3 percent on net incomes of Cr. $60.000,00 per year to 50 per- cent on net incomes of Cr. 3.000.000,00 or more per year. The following exemptions are allowed: Head of family: Cr. $50.000,00; Wife: Cr. $30.000,00; and each minor child; Cr. $15.000,00. MARKETS AND PRICES The market for logs, lumber, crossties, veneers, plywood, and pulp produced in the Amazon estuary region is world-wide owing to its geographical position. The maritime tariffs for shipments made overseas from 64 Amazon estuary poris are the same as ‘or Belém itseli. The local demand for acapa, p2u amarelo, cedro, macacauba, and sucupira lumber is greater than the supply available. Of the 9 sawmills situated in the estuary re- gion, 8 sell a large proportion, and in some cases, practically the whole of their produc- tion outside the State. The following prices are now prevailing for Amazon estuary ports: Andiroba boards: Cr. $1.829,00 per m? or US $67.70 per thousand bd. ft.; acapad and pau amarelo boards: Cr. $5.160,00 per m? or US $190.26 per M bd. ft.; dimension lumber of macaranduba, achua, or maparajuba: Cr. $3.000,00 per m? or US $110.62 per M bd. ft.; and parquet flooring of acapu, pau amarelo, and sucupira (0.02 x 0.08 x 0.24 m or 13/16” x 2-2/16” x 9-15/16”): Cr. $200,00 per m? or US $0.29 per sq. {t. The above items are largely exported to Fortaleza, Natal, and Receife. Sucupira, macaranduba, and _ andiroba logs are exported to Portugal and some sucu- pira veneer logs are shipped to Rio de Janei- ro and Sao Paulo. Rio de Janeiro also im- ports dimension lumber chiefly 3 x 9 inches of macaranduba, maparajuba and _ jutai-act. (under the trade name of Jatoba) as well as crossties. There is a fairly large local de- mand for boxes for packing aguardente, soft drinks, beer, petroleum products, soap, food products, and general merchandise. There is a potential market in South Africa for veneer logs, lumber, crossties, utility and dec- orative veneers and plywood, and box shooks. The only lumber exported to the United States at present is hardwood squares 1-5/8 inch x 21 inches for turning billard cue butts. The following woods are specified and the price is about US $422.00 per M bd. ft. for Amazon estuary ports; acapu, sucupira, pau roxo, macacauba, macaranduba, pau d’arco, muirapiranga, and pau santo. The British Timber Control Board have approved the fol- lowing species for importation: freij6, jaca- rveuba, araracanga, andiroba, pau marfim, cu- piuba, mandicqueira, louro vermelho, quaru- ba vermelho, and sucupira. However, ster- CARIBBEAN FORESTER ling exchange has not been available for their importation in recent years. There is a po- tential market in West Germany for veneer logs, lumber, utility and decorative veneer and plywood but the prices quoted by Brz- zilian exporters are too high. The exportation of crosstides irom the Amazon estuary region was initiated about 30 years ago. Crossties have been exported to Spain, Egypt, Cuba, Argentina, and Hol- land as well as to central and south central Brazil. At present, crossties (0.17 x 0.24 x 2.70 m or 6-1/8” x 9-1/3” x 8’10”’) are being exported to Spain for US $2.00 each at a special exchange rate of Cr. $52,77 per dollar or Cr. $105,54 each. Crossties of the same dimensions and price are now exported to West Germany at a special exchange rate of Cr. $56,00 per dollar or Cr. $112,00 each. The Instituto Nacional de Pinho has es- tablished minimum prices for the exportation of logs, lumber, hewn timbers, and bolts to foreign countries at a special exchange rate of Cr. $52,77 per dollar. Minimum prices for the same items to be exported to Portu- gal are fixed in dollars which the Banco do Brasil will also purchase at Cr. $52,77 per dollar. Therefore, quaruba logs cannot be exported to foreign countries other than Por- tugal ior less than Cr. $600,00 per m? Fran- con or US $68.00 per M bd. ft. (Doyle-Scrib- ner) and Spanish cedar cr mahogany !ogs ‘or less than Cr. $1.800,00 per m? Francon or US $203.90 per M bd. ft. (Doyle-Scribner). As- sacu lumber cannot be exported for less than Cr. $900,00 per m? or US $33.18 per M bd. ft. fob Amazon estuary ports. Some andi- roba lumber is exported to Portugal at the minimum price of US $42.00 per m*® or US $99.12 per M bd. ft. and sucupira planks at US $56.00 per m3 or US $132.06 por M bd. ft. fob Amazon estuary ports. REFORESTATION OF CUTOVER LANDS Reforestation offers interesting possibili- ties, although in the tropics the climatic con- ditions are entirely different from those coun- JULY - DECEMBER 1957 tries where reforestation has been succesf{ul- ly carried on. In the tropics there are no checks such as frost to plant diseases and in- sect attacks; once started they can build up to epidemic proportions which will wipe out attempted plantations. Tropical forests are ex- extremely complex mixed stands and epide- mic conditions, either of diseases or insect at- tacking a single species, would be aimost im- possible because of the scattered distribution of the species attacked. Plantations of Span- ish cedar, and Honduras mahogany in Puer- to Rico, Trinidad, and Honduras have been subject to attacks by the twig borer (Hypsi- phyla grandelia Zell.) and certain beetles. Plantations of cedro, andiroba, and Hondu- ras mahogany at the Instituto Agrondémico do Norte at Belém, Para were heavily dam- aged by the same insect pest. The experi- mental plantations of Marupa at the same agricultural experiment station are now being attacked by the larva of another moth which girdles the leading shoot causing it to pyro- duce a bushy tree instead of a tree witha straight clear bole. The following species have given excellent results In experimental plantations at the Instituto Agrondmico do Norte at Belém: parapara, morototo, angelim commum (Hy- menolobium excelsum Ducke) orelna de ne- gro (Enierolabium schomburgkii Benth), quaruba brancha (Vochysia guianensis), and jurema (Mimosa schomburgkii Benth). These species apparently have no insect ene- mies or fungus diseases and will probably pro- duce timber of pulwood size in 8 or 10 years or sawlog in 15 or 18 years. Parapara shows exceptional growth on the sandy soil at the Instituto Agronomico do Norte which is, without doubt, the poorest soil of the upland forest type in the State. Morototo is espe- ciallv nromising since it coppices very ireely. Dr. Pedro Murca, head of the Botanical De- partment of the Instituto Agronémico, in- formed the writer that a plantantion of (Eu- calyptus alba Reinw.) has been sucessfully es- tablished at Marituba Station which is situ- ated 18 kilometers from Belém on the Bra- 65 ganca Railroad. The only other exotic spe- cies which have shown promise ior planting in tropical America are Burma teak (Tecto- na grandis L.) and Burma rosewood (Ptero- carpus indicus Willd.). At the Experimental Staiton of the United Fruit Co. at Lan- cetilla, Honduras, teak attained a_height of 64 feet and a diameter of 18 inches breast- high in 16 years. Plantations of this species have been equally successful in Trinidad. Burma rosewood is also a tree of very rapid growth and attains a height up to 85 {feet and diameters of 20 to 26 inches in 15 years at Lancetilla, Honduras. Neither species ap- pears to have any insect enemies or is sub- ject to plant diseases. The latter species is known in the international timber trade as Narra when exported from the Philippines and as amboyna-wood burls irom the Ma- layan Archipelago. The reforestation of cutover lands with Brazil nut (Castanha do Para), Paradise cream nuts (Castanha sapucaia), or cumara trees also offers interesting possibilities. Budded stock of Brazil nut trees commerce to bear 8 or 10 years after planting and paradise cream nuts in 4 years. The cumarié tree pro- duces the fragrantly scented seeds knov. tonka beans. These beans contain a white crystalline, vanilla-flavored substance called coumarin which is used to add fragrance te io- baccoes, soaps, liqueurs, confectionary and bakery products, and as a ingerdient in per- fumes, sachet powders and cosmetics. In Trinidad tonka bean trees commence to bear during the fourth year and aitain full duction the sixth year after planting. The Instituto Agrondmico do Norte has developed a hybrid cumartii which commences io bear the second year after planting. Cumaiti beans are now quoted at Cr. $55,00 per kilo (2.2 Ibs.). Besides yielding nuts or beans, cas- tanha do Para, castanha sapucaia, and cu- maru are valuable timber trees. The only species recommended for plan- ting in the swamp forests is ucuuba branca (Virola surinamensis (Rol.) Warb.). The ker- nels of the fruit contain a light yellow vege- 66 table tallow of the consistency of beeswax. The seeds are exported and the tallow is used in the manufacture of fine toilet and shaving soaps under the trade name of ucuuba butter. The late Paulo Le Cointe informed the writer several years ago that ucuuba branca is a tree of very rapid growth and commences to produce fruit the sixth year after planting. He further stated that a plantation of 144 ucuuba trees per hectare would yield about 3,600 kilos of vegetable tallow per hectare or 3,207 Ibs. per acre. Ucuuba seeds are now worth Cr. $5,00 per kilo. The harvesting of the seeds presents no serious labor problem as they will float and the plantation can be enclosed with a light boom and the seeds dipped out at the upper end on a rising tide and at the lower end on a falling tide. The wood of ucuuba branca is suitable for utility lumber and plywood. PROMISING FIELD FOR INVESTMENT AND DEVELOPMENT The upland, and in some sections the low- land, forests of the Amazon estuary region offer the most promising field for investment and development the writer has encountered in his 37 years experience in South America, which includes south central Brazil, northern Paraguay, eastern Bolivia, and western Ecua- dor. It is true that the sawmill operations of the Cia. Ford Industrial do Brasil on the Tapajos River about 28 years ago were not financially successful although highly skilled personnel were brought from the United States. The argument is therefore advanced that the tropical hardwood forests of the lower Amazon Valley are not adapted to American logging and sawmill methods. How- ever, economic conditions are not the same today as they were 28 years ago. At that time there was no world-wide demand for crossties for which a number of Amazonian timbers are admirably suited. The techni- cal properties of these timbers were then un- known, and an attempt was made to intro- duce them into the United States as general CARIBBEAN FORESTER utility woods for which many of them were unsuited. Furthermore, the mill installed was too large and it was very difficult to keep it supplied with logs although a logging railroad was built and track-type tractors were used for skidding logs to the railroad. However, the stands of timber were not heavy enough to warrant the construction of a logging railroad. Owing to the diminishing supplies of hardwood timber, American consumers of hardwoods will soon be obliged to employ tropical hardwoods to a greater extent than formerly. The enormous demand for certain domestic hardwoods has created a scarcity of material of high quality and large sizes. Fur- thermore, tests conducted by the Yale School of Forestry in cooperation with the U. S. Navy Department have revealed that many Amazonian hardwoods are greatly superior in physical and mechanical properties to most U. S. species. Finally the relatively limited number of U. S. hardwoods do not possess the physical and mechanical properties which render them suitable for all uses where wood is the logical material to be employed. The exchange situation is extremely fa- vorable for investment in Brazil. 'The dol- lar in the free market is worth 64 cruzeiros as compared with the official exchange rate of Cr. $18,82 per dollars. Any foreigner cntering the country can bring in machinery, trucks, tractors, tools, etc. at the free exchange rate. Foreign companies established in Brazil are permitted to remit 8 percent of their annual profits abroad at the official exchange rate. Sawmill, veneer plant, and pulpwood machi- nery can only be imported as additional cap- ital under an import license at a very high exchange rate. Finally, in order to stimulate export of logs, lumber, and crossties, the Federal Government permits the banks to buy the foreign bills of exchange at special rates of Cr. $52,77 to Cr. $56,00 per dollar. As everywhere, any business enterprise to be successful in Brazil requires proper or- JULY - DECEMBER 1957 ganization and equipment, efficient manage- ment, and adequate capital. The writer be- lieves that a sawmill in the Amazon estuary region combined with a veneer and plywood plant and/or a pulp mill will be able to meet competition from all quarters owing to the 67 cheapness of timberlands, the abundance of timber of high quality, and to its geographi- cal position — water transportation being available from the forests to the world’s markets. 68 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Forest Policy and Legislation A. H. STEIN, FAO Forester Inter-American Institute of Agricultural Sciences Turriaiba, Costa Rica PRINCIPLES REGARDING THE FORMULATION OF A BASIC FOREST POLICY INERODBTECT:ON The English term “forest policy” is gener- ally translated as “politica forestal’” in Span- ish. It is suggested that a translation which would convey the true meaning would be “péliza forestal’’. “Politica forestal” suggests something which is hable to change with the polities of a country. We all know how the political outlook of a country may change from time to time, trom Right to Left, Republican to Democratic, Conservative or Labovrist and vice-versa, depending on the political party which has received the mandate of the people to form the government; of how quickly one politician may follow another in a ministe- rial post, even under the same political re- > (a le Non-lability to frequent change, in other words, continuity, is a cardinal principle of a sound national forest policy. This should be considered therefore, as a subject on a plane above that of forestry politics. it is true that a national forest policy, in the first instance has to be made, and conse- quently if necessary, has to be reviewed by whichever government is in force, but the policy which it makes or revises, will be sound and have a chance of permanency only if the makers are sufficiently disinterested to rise above selfish motives and party politics. This may not be easy in a country where the pop- ulation is not forest conscious and fears that the introduction of a forest policy may res- trict privileges, or in a country where the forests are mainly owned by private individ- uals who hoid great influence and who fear that the introduction of a forest policy may reduce the profits which they obtain from their forests. In such cases, forestry is not a popular subject, that is, carries no votes, and the minority who are forest or conserva- tion conscious, will have an uphill battle be- fore a forest policy becomes a realitv. How- ever, policy makers can be inspired, as illus- trated by the Magna Carta signed in Eng- land on 15th June 1215, the Constitution of the United States dating from the summer of 1787, and much more recently the Charter of the United Nations, all of which affirm that the individual is entitled to certain rights and liberties in society. These char- ters are so clear in the first principles which they enunciate that they remain virtually unchanged from the form in which they were drafted, and most people will agree that they are valuable safeguards to human rights and liberties. A national forest policy, if sound, should have the same properties of clarity and permanency and be a safeguard. Once made it should never be subject to change only on political reasons, and it should not require change except at rare and long inter- vals when its revision may be necessary owing to changed social and economic conditions. DEFINIT'ON OF A FOREST POLICY A forest policy may, therefore, be defined as a declaration of first principles which should control the relationship between: 1. The forests existing or projected JULY - DECEMBER 1957 2. The physical conditions of the site, occupied or to be occupied by the for- ests, in particular from the aspects of soil and water conservation 3. The population dependent upon these forests and the physical conditions ot their sites If a forest policy achieves and maintains a harmonious relationship between these and thereby safeguards them, it may be consider- ed as sound. A well balanced relationship can be created and maintained only if the forest policy aims at the greatest good to the maximum number, which is, therefore, an- other cardinal principle of a sound national forest policy. This may mean restriction on the owner, whether the state or a private in- dividual, in the management oi the forest, or on the population who live in or near the forests as regards the produce which they ob- tain from them. Forest produce being bulky, the population who live in or near forests are in a more favorable position to profit direct- ly from the produce. If this population can utilize all the produce profitably, so much the better from the economic point of view. Other things being equal, it is always more economic to site industries based on forest products as near as possible to the forests, but often there are larger, but more distant populations who are equally dependent on the same forests for produce, consequently the forest have to cater to both. In such cases a forests policy has to decide the principles which should apply to the distribution of the produce between these populations. Or take the case oi a river which has its source in cne country or state, but on its way to the sea passes through one or more other coun- tries or states, where the waters of the rivers are essential for irrigation. Examples are the Mississippi river of the U.S.A., the Nile river in Africa, and some of the larger rivers of India such as the Godavari and the Maha- nadi. Obviously the forest policy applied at the upper end of the river system is of vital importance to the welfare of the popu- lations at the lower end of the river system, 69 perhaps hundreds of miles away. Such cases call for integration in the respective national or state forest policies. KINDS OF FOREST POLICY When foresters talk of forest policy they usually mean national forest policy. The conservation and rational exploitation of the forest resources of a country in order that they may fulfil their various protective and productive functions in the best possible way, are obviously in accordance with the cardinal principle of greatest good to the maximum number of inhabitants of the coun- try. It is desirable that a national forest policy should be written and published for general information and appreciation of its objects. Individual forests of a country may be privately owned. Such owners generally have a policy of their own, a private forest policy, seldom written but only carried in their owner’s head, unless the owner has had @ management plan prepared in which case the policy is recorded in the plan. Manage- ment has been described as the practical ap- plication ot policy to an individual forest. A private forest policy naturally considers the interest 9 the owner and is not concern- ed with the interests of others, unless it is coordinated with the national forest policy. When a private owner manages his forest ac- cording to the policy of producing a maximum sustained yield of its products, in most cases this could come within the framework of the national forest policy, and the state would not be justified in interfering. When, how- ever, a private owner adopts a policy, for example, selective felling of all stems of a particularly valuable species leading to the extinction of this species, or wholesale liqui- dation of his forest for immediate gain, re- gardless of the effect this would have on the general welfare, the State would be fully jus- tified in intervening and taking action to in- sure that the owner adopted a policy in ac- cordance with the national policy. In a country with a highly developed forest con- 70 science, forest owners will naturally adopt a policy acceptable to the State, but in other countries an inducement offered by the State to private owners to manage their forest on sound lines, might be, exemption from tax- ation on forest land occupied by managed forests, or loans at low rate oi interest for protection and cultural operations. These may be more effective than regulations pro- hibiting certain acts in private forests. Then, as just mentioned, there are cases when integration of national forest policies is desirable. In this modern age there are few countries which can afford to be completely independent of the products or completely in- sensitive to the needs of other countries. Some countries are deficient in forests per- haps because the soil is valuable for agricul- tural purposes and the natural forests have been cleared or perhaps because they are naturally deficient. El Salvador and Uru- guay are countries of this nature. Other countries have forest resources to produce certain processed articles. The modern eco- nomic tendency is in the direction of regimen- tal trade agreements and integration of na- tional forest policies. Such integration leads to regional forest policies or even world poli- cies. Such policies may cover only certain aspects such as production, that is, problem of supply and demand of timber and other produce; protection of soil, water and wild life; control of pests which have no respect for international boundaries; and the coordi- nation of forest training and research. Re- gional forest policies and world forest policy can come into existence only through mutual desire and agreement, but international or- ganizations, such as the C.A.S. in this hemis- phere and the F.A.O. of the U.N. on the world plane, are in the best position to help its member countries should they desire to integrate their national forest policies. Sir John Bold-Orr, the forest Director General of the F.A.C., in the introduction to the F.A.O. Forestry Division Report on the world situation 1937-46 regarding forestry and for- est products said in 1946: CARIBBEAN FORESTER To state the world’s problem in broad terms is not difficult. There is a short- age of wood, despite the fact that the world has more than enough forest soil to provide for the earth’s peoples even under an expanding economy. The rem- edy, too, is clear. The forest must be managed as perpetually renewable crops. Waste must be reduced. Legislation must be invoked and the forces of educa- tion mobilized to protect the forests from fire and destructive exploitation. Afforestation must be undertaken on a scale never before dreamed of to create forest values in areas now barren, and to restore millions of hectares lost to agri- culture. The two thousand million hectares of forest that still remain un- touched must be converted into econo- mic and social assets. The number of trained foresters must be increased many times. A comprehensive world forest policy must be directed towards a dual goal: first, sufficient forest areas to ensure the ben- efit of their protective influences, and second, a permanent and abundant sup- ply of forest products. It is significant that the protective aspect of forests is mentioned before production. Forests are essential for the preservation of basic soil and water resources to prevent soil erosion, and to regulate the flow of water in streams. Without this protection, agricul- ture, food preduction and human habitation cannot thrive. WHEN SHOULD A NATIONAL FOREST POLICY BE FORMULATED AND WHY To the question when should a country formulate a national forest policy there can only be one answer: with the least possible delay. In the past, unfortunately, few courtries have felt the need for a national forest po- licy until an advanced stage in their history and then only as a result of dire necessity, when the population has increased, the origi- nal virgin forests have been exploited to the JULY - DECEMBER 1957 extent that they are no longer able to satisfy the requirements of the inhabitants, and the balance of nature has been upset by man’s in- creased demands on the soil and water re- sources. Prior to this stage, there may have been attempts by private owners to preserve their forests ior specific objects, for example, the reservation of forest tracts by rulers for hunting purposes. These attempts cannoi be described as national forest policy as they neither considered the physical conditions oi the locality nor the social and economic weliare of the people dependent on these forests, but unintentionally they may have served these purposes. In effect, they were an expression of the will of the ruler to pre- serve the forests and were first attempts at forest management without the guidance of a declared forest policy. There are still countries with small popu- lations and surplus forest resources which reiuse to profit by the experience of other countries by formulating forest policies be- fore necessity forces them to do so, and such countries can only be considered as immature in their forestry development. The earlier a public policy forest conscience develops in such countries and demands the formulation of a national forest policy the better will it be tor them and the smaller the amount of lost ground will they have to regain. It is par- ticularly desirable in such countries, judging from the experiences of the past, that a natio- nal forest policy be formulated before the re- maining tracts of original forest are opened up by improved communications, which otherwise are followed by unrestricted ex- ploration. It may be said that the most prosperous countries with the highest standard of living today are those countries which have an ade- quate area of forest per capita, where forests are considered a great national asset and which have national forest policies such as Switzerland, countries around the Baltic Sea, Denmark, Sweden and Finland, Canada and the United States. Why should a country have a national ral forest policy? Cne might as well ask, why has a ship setting out on a voyage a compass and sailing instructions, why has a religion a creed, a country a constitution, an interna- tional organization such as the United Na- tions a charter? A national forest policy is essentiai to give purpose and direction to the forestry affairs of a country. The fundamental aims of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions, expressed by its motto “Fiat Pannis” are: 1. To increase the production of food materials . To improve their distribution 3. To reduce preventable waste of such materials and thereby bring about higher standards of living for the people of the world, particularly in countries where they are low in com- parison with those of other countries. These aims can only be achieved by a national utilization of the natural resources through which food materials can be _ pro- duced, namely soil and water, which should always be considered as the basic nat- ural resources of a country, since they are essential for life. Both agriculture and forestry are the principal users of these basic resources This explains why the Forestry Division ic one of the divisions of the Food and Agricu!'- ture Organization and why in many countries forestry is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture. Both national agriculture and forest policies call for close coordination. A country needs a national forest policy to achieve this close coordination with agricul- ture and thereby ensure that the basic soil and water resources are used to the best advantage. GENERAL FEATURES OF A NATIONAL FOREST POLICY Some of the general features of a sound national forest policy have been mentioned already, such as, stability, that it should be a declaration of first principles controlling the relationship between forests, the physical bo 72 conditions of their sites and the populations dependent on them, that it should aim at the greatest benefit to the maximum number of people, which in some cases may render it necessary to integrate the national forest po- licy with a regional or world policy, and, that in coordination with agricultural policy it should ensure the rational utilization of the basic soil and water resources The feature of stability calls for some further explanation. It has to be stable, not liable to change on political grounds, because it refers to forest crops which mature only after long periods, perhaps a century or more, and the results of a forest policy can become fully apparent only after many years. On the other hand, if social and economic condi- tions change, there need be no hesitation to revise the national forest policy to provide for the changed conditions. This point can be illustrated by considering the national forest policy of India. The forest policy declared in 1894 was the first written forest policy issued by a government outside Europe and its principal aims were: 1. To safeguard the forest for the public benefit 2. To preserve a balance between the claims of agriculture and forestry on the available land 3. To satisfy the requirements of the agri- cultural population for forest produce (mainly smali timber, fuel and pasture) to the maximum possible extent with- out causing deterioration or destruction of the forest The general principles were so essentially sound that this policy remained in force for 50 years. By 1944 it was decided to revise this policy for three principal reasons: 1. The great social development which had taken place in India in the mean- time 2. The importance of the forests of In- dia in the 199-45 war had focused attention to their value for industry 3. The development of a better apprecia- tion of the value of land and water CARIBBEAN FORESTIER resources to the country, largely through the lead given by the U.S.A. in conservation Consequently the revised national forest policy of India which was finally issued on May 12, 1952 is based on six permanent needs of the country, namely: 1. The need for evolving a system of balanced and complementary land use, under which each type of land is al- loted to that form of land use under which it would produce most and de- teriorate least 2. The need for checking: a) Denudation in mountainous re- gions on which depends the per- ennial water supply of the river system whose basins constitute the fertile core of the country b) The erosion progressing apace along the treeless banks of the great rivers leading to ravine formation and on vast stretches undulating wastelands, depriving the adjoining fields of their fer- tility c) The invasion of sea sands on coastal tracts, and the shifting of sand dunes, more particularly in the Raiputana desert 3. The need for establishing tree lands, wherever possible, for the ameliora- tion of physical and climatic condi- tions promoting the general well being of the people 4. The need of ensuring progressively increasing supplies of grazing, small wood for agricultural implements and in particular of firewood to release the cattle dung for manure to step up food production 5. The need for sustained supply of tim- ber and other forest produce required for defense, communications and _in- dustry 6. The need for the realization of the maximum annual revenue in_ perpe- tuity consistent with the fulfilment of JULY - DECEMBER 1957 the needs enumerated above The general features already mentioned and the above considerations of the national forest policy of India draw attention to an- other two general features, namely: 1. That a national forest policy must be in consonance with the social and economic development of the country. To take two extremes — the national forest policy desirable for a country with extensive forests in undetermined ownership or in nominal possession of tribes, and not subject to exploitation other than shifting cultivation, would naturally be much simpler than one desirable for a country with a limited area of forests whose ownership by the State or private individuals has been determined by a large population per- haps living mainly in cities and a high degree of industrialization, even though the underlying principles would be the same. The extent and ownership position of forests, the intensity and distribution of population, the social customs and industrial pattern of a country are all liable to change. Consequently, when a national forest policy is laid down fox the first time, or revised, current social and economic conditions must be taken into account. 2. That a national forest policy should provide both for the protective and productive functions of the forest of the country, and that the former should be considered as the more important. As regards the productive functions of the forests, a national forest policy cannot go wrong if it aims at sustained yields of produce from all forests of the country. FUNCTIONS OF A STATE FOREST SERVICE IN A NATIONAL FOREST POLICY It is most desirable that a government should consult the best professional talent available in the country on matters of forest i) policy before these are laid before the legisla- tive body of government for open debate and ratification. It is on such occasions that the chief officers of a State Forest Service have an opportunity of shaping the national forest policy in accordance with the principles of their profession. They are specially to advise government on the subject as apart from their professional training, they represent the ins- trument of government through which a na- tional forest policy will be applied. It would be unwise for a government to fail to place a correspondingly high value on their advice. As well as advising government on mat- ters of forest policy, and being the instru- ment of applying a national forest policy, a State Forest Service has another important duty to perform in connection with forest policy, namely, striving its utmost to develop a forest sense among the non-professional public in order that forest policy may be un- derstood by the general public and have its support. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES GF A FOREST POLICY As a result of the recommendation made in the 2nd World Forestry Congress in 1949 to the effect that the F.A.O. should prepare a statement of forestry principles for the con- sideration of member countries, the following principles governing the formulation of a basic * forest policy were unanimously approved in the 6th Session of the Conference of Food and Agriculture Organization held in Rome in November-December 1951, vide Resolution No. 26 of that Conference. The Conference: Declares its conviction that the forest is a factor of prime importance in the economic, social and physical balance of the world. Subject to wise conservation and utilization it constitutes an indefi- nitely renewable source of products which are indispensable to man. The develop- ment of standards of living and the growth world population creates even greater needs for such products and many countries insufficiently endowed with 74 forest resources must therefore depend upon other countries for supphes. Also because it provides or can provide em- playment for many workers, and is a source of raw material for a wide varie- ty of industries, the forest constitutes an important element in the social stability and progress of the world. The forest also exercise vital protective functions in regard to soil, water and climate and as a result influences the agricultural econo- my, the development of hydro-electric in- dustries, and the general welfare or rural and urban peoples, both in the country itself and in neighboring countries. Both the protective and productive functions may well be visited by destruc- tive and careless practices. In order to enjoy to the full all the benefits which the forest can afford, both to the country itself and the world at large, it is essen- tial that each country should formulate a sound ferest policy. Recognizes that the forest conditions may vary widely country to country. Great differences exist in the forms of forest ownership. Economic exploitation of the forest and efficient utilization oi its products necessitates the application tion procedures suitable to varying con- ditions. Bearing in mind however, that there are certain basic principles which govern for any country both the formu- lation and the implementation of an adequate forest policy. Recommends therefore to governments the adoption of the principles outlined below: 1. Kach country should determine and set aside areas to be dedicated to for- ests, whether at present forested or not. This should be done progressively if necessary, but always in accord with the country’s economic and social pol- icy, and taking into account the close interdependence of all forms of | and use. , . Each country should apply the _ best practicable techniques in seeking to bo CARIBBEAN FORESTER derive in perpetuity for the greatest number of its people, the maximum benefits available from the protective, productive and accessory values of the forest. This implies that: a) protection should be afforded against damage or destruction by man, or by such causes as fire, insects and tree disease. b) production should be organized in quantity and quality, with a view to obtaining at least a sus- tained yield as soon as_practic- able, giving consideration first, to any protective role assigned to the forest and then to any other interests, whether worldwide, re- gional, national or local, that the forest should serve. The country concerned must it- self adjudge priorities taking into account that a forest may be called upon to render multiple services, including offering recre- ational values, protection for wild life and a source of supply of many kinds of produce. c) economic and rational methods of forest cultivation and of con- version, and the utilization of for- est products should be encour- aged, so that the volume and va- riety of commodities obtained from the raw material furnished by the forest shall be increased to the maximum extent possible. 3. Adequate knowledge of all aspects of forest resources, forestry and the con- sumption and utilization of forest prod- ucts, is indispensable. This includes in varying degrees at the different stages of development of for- est policy, a knowledge of the resources available on forested lands; of the na- tional needs for forest products; of the national laws that apply to forests; and of the techniques employed in the JULY - DECEMBER 1957 production of forest crops and the util- ization of their products. To this end, research should be organized to keep pace with all development in the field concerned, and the application of the results obtained should be consistently encouraged. 4. Public consciousness of forest values should be developed by all means pos- sible. Following those recommendations, consid- erable progress has been made in the field of forest policy. The recommendations have been accepted by all governments; some gov- ernments, such as that of India, have revised their national forest policy in accordance with the general principles; other governments with the assistance of advisers made available by the F.A.O. at the government’s request have established a national forest policy fol- lowing these principles; the line which region- al forest policy should take in certain special fields has been indicated, such as conserva- tion in Near East countries where pasture of livestock is a main factor, and timber produc- tion and consumption in Europe where there is a large population and not much margin between available supplies and demand. Re- garding policies, mention must be made of the recommendations made in the 5th Session of the Latin American Forestry Commission held in Caracas, Venezuela in October 1955. These recommendations are as follows: 1. That all the goverments of the mem- ber countries take a special interest in the timely presentation of the Forest Policy Reports. 2. That in the preparation of these reports the countries follow, as closely as pos- sible, the outline established by the Secretariat of the Commission. 3. That the forest legislation of the mem- ber countries endeavor to establish the necessary procedures to clearly define the forest lands and their demarcation. 4. That the governments of the member countries pay preferential attention to the better organization and efficiency 7) of forest services, endowing them with adequate funds and technical person- nel. 5. That the goverments, notwithstanding their attention to forestation and afforestation programs should not ne- glect the utilization and protection of the natural forests. 6. That the importance of forest activities for the effective development of the forest program is recognized. Regarding 2 the outline form oi Forest Policy Reports was sent by the Secretary of the Latin American Forestry Commision to all member governments on July 18, 1956 with the request that the Forest Policy Re- ports for 1955 and 1956 be prepared in this form for consideration in the 6th Session of the Latin American Forestry Commission. The outline form contained the following main heads: 1. Introduction 2. Present position with regard to forest policy measures 3. Statistics 4. Improvement of forest production 5. Forest products utilization 6. Research 7. Forest labour 8. Trade 9. Professional training 0. Publicity and extension 1. Miscellaneous DEDICATION OF CERTAIN AREAS TO FOREST COVER WHETHER PRESENTLY FORESTED OR NOT, FOR WATERSHED PROTECTION, TIMBER PRODUCTION, ETC. The first fundamental principle recom- mended in the 6th Session of the Conference of the F.A.O. held at Rome in November-De- cember 1951 dealt with this subject. The recommendation made it clear that the dedication of certain areas in a country to forest cover is essential, but very properly left it to the member country to determine which areas should be dedicated. Further, it recommends that the dedication should be 76 done progressively, if necessary, but always in accord with the country’s economic and social policy, and taking into account the close interdependence of all forms of land use. The reason the recommendation could not be more specific is that the area to be dedi- cated should depend on local circumstances such as climate, topography and soil, as well as the relationship between the extent and distribution of forests on the one hand and the intensity and distribution of populations on the other hand. To prescribe that a fixed percentage of the country’s total area should be dedicated to forest cover serves as a rough guide to show what is considered desirable for the country as a whole. Most foresters are in general agreement that it is desirable that from 20 to 380 per cent of the total area of a country should be under forest, but the chances that such a percentage can be applied equally to the several parts of a country are very remo- te, as local circumstances vary from portion to portion. This is particularly true in the case of a large country such as India, or a long country with a great range of lattitude as Chile. The existing forest policy of India aims at the following percentages in the full realization that its proportion of land to be kept permanently under forest must vary in different regions: 1. For India as a whole the aim should be to maintain 33 per cent of its total land area under forests. CARIBBEAN FORESTER functions in mountainous tracts such as the Himalayas and the Deccan, liable to erosion, about 60 per cent of the land of each of these tracts. 3. In the plains, where the ground is flat and erosion normaly is not serious, the aim should be to maintain about 20 per cent of the total land area of these tracts under forest. Further in view of the pressure of agriculture in these tracts, this 20 per cent forest area should be situated as far as possible on river banks, roadside, pieces of waste land and other convenient places not suitable for permanent agriculture aiming at distributing this forest area as evenly as possible over the plains in order that they may serve the requi- rements of the populations as conve- niently as possible. In parts of the plains where the forest area is deficient, that is, less than 20 per cent, affore- station should be understaken to make up the deficiency, siting those planta- tions on marginal lands, as well as the sites indicated obove. Arother reason the FAO recommen- dation did not specify a fixed proportion but left it to member countries to determine, is that there are wide variations in the actual extent of forest, the proportion which the forest area bears to the total area, and the area of forest per inhabitant between coun- tries. This point may be illustrated by a 2. As an insurance against denudation few figures from the FAO publication ‘World a much larger percentage should be Forest Resources, March 1955.” See Table kept under forests for their protective + 1. Reeion Total area of forest Percentage of total area of forest per 8 (million hectares) area of the region inhabitant (hectares) Europe 136 28.3 0.3 U.S.S.R. 743 33.9 3.8 North America 656 36.1 4.1 Latin America 890 39.7 5.2 Africa 801 27.0 3.9 Asia 525 19.8 0.4 Pacific Region 86 19.0 6.7 Total 3837 29.1 1.6 JULY - DECEMBER 1957 =~] ~~] (thousand hectares) Percentage of total area of forest per Country Total area of forest area of the country inhabitant (hectares) Canada 341,963 38.1 23.7 U.S.A. 252,230 32.8 1.8 Mexico 25,856 13a 1.0 Guatemala 5,450 51.2 1,9 El Salvador 721 36.8 0.4 Honduras 4,874 43.8 a3 cima saa iss 8 costa Rica : : ; Panama 5,270 69.8 eZ Jamaica 197 ie 0.15 Puerto Rico 129 14.5 0.06 Trindidad and Tobago 261 60.8 0.4 British Guiana 18,100 92.0 40.8 Liberia 8,900 81.7 5.4 Thailand 32,129 77.2 1.6 Argentina 70,000 Zoe 3.9 Bolivia 47,000 44.0 14.5 Brazil 480,195 56.7 8.6 Chile 16,300 22.1 2.8 Colombia 69,000 61.5 5.7 Paraguay 20,906 54.0 14.3 Peru 70,000 62.0 7.9 Uruguay 486 2.8 0.2 Venezuela 4,542 Sal 0.9 India 70 979 21.6 0.2 The dedication of areas to forest is neces- sary tor two purposes — protection and pro- duction: Protective forest areas — The area requi- red for protection such as watershed protec- toin, prevention of erosion in mountainous countries, and fixation of loose sandy soil on inland plains and coastal tracts should depend on the local circumstances of climate, topogra- phy and soil. A forest cover may be required also for other forms of protection, such as shelter for crops and livestock against wind and protection of wild lite. Though the selection of areas for dedi- cation to forest cover for protective purposes must depend on local circumstances, the pro- tection desired may afiect the welfare of po- pulations over wide tracts which may extend into adjoining countries. The selection of areas for dedication to forest cover for protective purposes should be done by a joint commission composed of members representing all connected interests, namely land use and conservation, agricultu- re, forestry, ecology, hydroelectricity and communications, and if the protection will extent to other countries the governments of those countries should be consulted also. Such selection can be effected only tenta- tively unless accurate maps, particularly topo- graphical maps, of the country are available. Consequenly, the preparation of such maps when they do not exist, should be given very high priority on a national plan for develop- ment. if such maps are not available, the selection can only be made, and the bounda- ries of the selected areas marked on the ground pending the preparation of maps, when the final selection may require some revision. The existing forest area of a country may be less than the minimum area considered necessary for protective purposes. In such cases the existing forest area will have to be supplemented by the dedication of additional non-forested areas and the national forest po- licy will have to provide for placing the addi- tional non-forested areas under forest cover at the earliest possible date according to the availability of funds and the manpower needed for afforestation. Productiv2 forest area — The dedication of areas to forest cover for production should depend on a combination of physical and eco- nomic factors, the latter being the more im- fis: portant. For example, certain areas owing to their remoteness or soil condition, may be more appropiate for forestry use than agricul- ture. Conversely the soil of a country may be so useful for agriculture that it is more economic to the country to devote it to agri- culture, cultivation or pasture, and to import timber from another country. El Salvador and Uruguay are countries of this nature. Among the economic factors which will affect the dedication of areas to forest cover for production, are the extent, nature and dis- tribution of the existing forests, the intensity and distribution of population in relation to the existing forest, the quantity and nature of forest produce required for internal con- sumption, both domestic and indusirial, and the prospects of foreign trade both exports and imports. The selection of areas for dedication to forest cover for production will be facilitated greatly if accurate physical and economic maps, and accurate statistics, specially forestry statistics, area available. These are seldom available in a country where scientific forestry has not been practiced, but a preli- minary selection may be made based on such information as is available, so that the areas selected may have their boundaries marked en the ground if necessary, and may be man- aged for production under the provisions of the national forest policy. A case of this nature is illustrated by India in the last quarter of the 19th century. As the forest areas were gradually selected, settled and demarcated for constitution as Reserved Forest, maps became necessary. The Inspector General at the time, late Sir William Schlich, comprehended this need and moved the government of India to set up a separate Forest Map Branch of the Survey Department with the result that excellent maps, mainly on 4 inches — 1 mile scale, be- came available for most of the Reserved Forests by the end of the century. These maps have been the foundation of sound management of the forests of that country. Economic and social conditions of a coun- CARIBBEAN FORESTER try are lable to change. For example, taking the simplest case, a population may increase, exerting more pressure on the land for culti- vation and on the available forests for their produce. Or a predominantly rural popula- tion may become industrialized, at least in part, when its requirements for forests pro- ducts may greatly change in volume and in character. The increased productivity of forests under management, or the opening up of hitherto inaccessible forests by improve- ment of communications may be sufficient to meet these demands, otherwise it may be- come necessary to dedicate additional areas to forest cover for production. The selection of areas for dedication to forest cover for production has to be subject to constant review and revision to remain in alignment with economic and social factors. For this reason, the third of the fundamental principles of forest policy recommended by the FAO is an adequate knowledge of all as- pects of forest resources, forestry and the consumption and utilization of forest pro- ducts. Without up to date knowledge of these it is difficult to estimate the extent of forest area needed for production, even for existing requirements. For future require- ments a national forest policy has to attempt to anticipate these as far as possible by a consideration of the trends of population, consumption and forest productivity, since forest crops may take years to mature. With this knowledge a national forest policy is in a position to justify the estimate of the ex- tent of forest area, by types and qualities, required for production. The FAO annual publication ‘Yearbook of Forest Products Statistics” and the 5-year- ly publication ““World Forest Resources” have proved most useful in providing data for the formulation of regional and world forest pol- icies. As the figures quoted above from “World Resources 1955” show there are great varia- tions between countries in the extent of forest area per inhabitant — to take two extremes Puerto Rico cnly has 0.6 hectare and British JULY - DECEMBER 1957 Guiana has 40.8 hectares per inhabitant. There is almost as great a variation in the annual productive capacity per unit of forest area. For example, quoting from ‘‘Forestry” by Professor Champion: 1. Temperate zone managed forest of aver- age quality may be expected to pro- duce about 3 cubic meters (oak), 5 cubic meters (beech), 8 cubic meters (spruce) and 14 cubic meters (Pseudot- suga taxifolia) of utilizable round wood per hectare per year. 2. Hot dry zone forests may produce 2/3 cubic meters only of utilizabie round wood per hectare per year. 3. Wet tropical forests may yield only about the same quantity of utilizable round wood per hectare per year, be- cause at present a large proportion of the material of these forests is not uti- lized and there is little demand for fuel; however, such forests have a much higher potential. 4. Fast-growing coniferous plantations, such as those of Pinus insignis in Chile may produce as much as 20 cubic me- ters of utilizable round wood per hec- tare per year. The same authority has suggested that 0.5 hectare may be taken as the minimum of forest required per head of population living under average conditions, for production. This figure is based on the average produc- tion aree. However, in view of the great variations mentioned above it is very desir- able that a national forest policy should adopt its own figures of forest productivity and of consumption per inhabitant to estimate the minimum forest area required for production. IMPLEMENTATION OF A SOUND FOREST POLICY Part II of Resolution No. 26 of the 6th Session of the Conference of the Food and Agriculture Organization held at Rome in November-December 1951 made the follow- 79 ing recommendations regarding the principles which should govern the implementation of a forest policy: 5. Forest law to give effect to the forest policy should be enacted in consonance with the juridical forms and customs of the ccuntry. Such legislation should be developed in keeping with the eco- nomic and social progress of the coun- try, and should, in fact, anticipate such progress. 6. A Forest Service should be established and staffed by suitably qualified per- sonnel in all its grades to develop and implement torest policy in collabora- tion with any suitable organizations which may exist and to administer the forest law. Such a service should be formed on a permanent basis; it should be endcwed with adequate authority and financial support, and should work in close association with other gov- ernmental agencies concerned. There should be an effective organization to deal with forest research and the dis- semination of results. . Adequate training should be provided for all concerned with the management of forests, or the utilization and proces- sing of forest products. In particular, foresters and skilled technicians should be trained in sufficient numbers to staff public services and other interests con- cerned with forestry and forest pro- ducts. For the higher grade personnel such training should be provided at schools of university standard, estab- lished, to the extent that this is pos- sible, in the country concerned. Sub- ordinate personnel should receive suit- able basic training to enable them ef- fectively to fulfil their duties. These are undoubtely first principles. Forest policy cannot be put into practice un- less there is a forest law: to administer the provisions of a forest law there must be a forest service; and the forest service cannot perform its functions properly unless its staff ~I 80 is adequately trained and endowed with ade- quate authority under the provisions of the law, and with adequate financial support. We shall consider therefore, the imple- mentation of forest policy under the three heads of legislation, organization and finance. LEGISLATION As stated above, the general aim of forest law is to render it possible to put a forest policy into practice. In some countries a comprehensive na- tional forest law or act has been enacted prior to the public declaration of their national for- est policy, for example, India, where vine he dian Forest Act No. Vil was enacied i 16 years before the national forest pci declared. The preamble or introduction to this act stated that it was an act . consoli- date the daw relating to forests, he transit of forest procedure, and the duty leviable on timber and other jorest produce. In most countries it is usual to tind that laws dealing only with special aspects of for- estry have been enacted before the need for a national forest policy is felt. In such cases it is convenient to bring together all the iso- lated laws within a oe gee sive forest act and to publish a statement of the national forest policy as a preface to this act. . mies poli ae and be forms of law, the 1 islation must be in fests cee ee teneh Mens tion, just as forest policy te if they are again community or the public eas Forest legislation, lke other laws, work successfully in practice only if it is an expression of the will of the people, that is, its necessity must be understood by at least a majority of the people who are prepared to abide by it. opinion will inevitably, sooner or later, be- came dead letters. Special care is necessary will Laws introduced against public CARIBBEAN FORESTER therefore, in framing forest legislation ap- propriate for a country with a large extent of forests and a small population who are ia close contact with the forest and are largely dependent on it. In such countries forest legislation can only be introduced gradually, and at first should confine itself to controlling the activities most obviously against the pub- lic welfare such as the destruction of forest cover in watershed tracts by unrestricted clearing and burning, perhaps by shifting cul- tivation, or by unrestricted grazing, or the wholesale cutting of a valuable species. The forest legislation in this case will not only refer to current activities but will try to pro- vide for the future when the forests will be opened up to improved communications and will be considered as productive sources of material instead of encumbrance; on the land to be eliminated as soon as possible. in framing forest legislation, it has to be remembered that the general form which for- est legislation may take depends on the po- litical organization or constitution of a coun- try. Thus in a country with a Central Fed- eral Government and a number of provincial or state governments the constitutional law defines the respective legislative powers. Fur- ther, forest legislation is only part of the com- mon law, and must not conflict therefore with other parts cf the common law. On the other hand, forests represent a special kind of property with special problems, for ex- ample, the mismanagement of a forest may be the main concern of the owner but it may affect many others also. Thus the framing of forest legislation calls for joint action be- tween lawyers who are in the best position to see that the legislation dees not conflict with the constitutional and common law of a country, and professionally trained forest of- ficers who are in the best position to appre- ciate the special problems and who in any case will have to enforce the legislation. It is important to recognize that it is both impracticable and undesirable for a forest act, especially if it be a national forest act applic- able to a large country, to attempt to be too JULY - DECEMBER 1957 comprehensive, and to become bogged down by details which may require frequent amend- ment. The most suitable arrangement in the case of a country with a dual system of gov- ernment is for the Federal Government to frame a National Forest Act dealing with broad issues only, applicable to ali member states, but providing tor the issue under the Act of orders and regulations by the govern- ments of member states to meet local condi- tions. Naturally, such orders and regulations should always be in conformity with the Na- tional Forest Act. The F.A.O. publication, ‘Forest Policy, Law and Administration” 1950 by Mr. Fran- cois suggests the following as the main sub- jects which should be given place in a Na- tional Forest Act: 1. Deiinition and classification of the for- est lands to which the act applies. 2. Definition of ownership rights and re- sponsibilities. 3. Provision for protection of forests — against abuses by their owners, against third parties and against natural ene- mies and hazards such as fire. 4. Provision for the establishment of a body to administer the law and defini- tion of its powers and responsibilities. Coordination with closely related parts oi the general law, for example, the forest act should be in accordance with all legislation regarding the conserva- tion of basic soil and water resources. on The items covered by each of these main subjects of a National Forest Act will vary with the particular requirements of the coun- try, for example, in one country the preven- tion of forest fires may be the most important objective, in another the control of grazing, in another the control of timber in transit, in another measures to increase production, but it may be stated that the soundness of a Na- tional Forest Act may be judged by the ex- tent to which it provides for the eficient man- agement of all forests of the country, whether they be under state or other form of owner- ship. 81 Regarding forest legislation with refer- ence to the areas dedicated to forest cover, it is considered that all areas dedicated to for- est cover primarily for protection should be in state ownership to ensure their perma- nency and good conservation. It is a proper function of the state to be responsible for such areas, since they are to be maintained for the public benefit, an only the state can aitord to maintain them since any returns that may be obtained from the sale of forest produce will be purely incidental, and their maintenance may be a financial liability. Such forests should have the same legal status as government reserved under the Indian Forest Act, in which there has been a settlement of rights, no further rights may accrue, and in which every action is illegal unless it is spe- citically permitted. If such forests are under state ownership and are subject to a strict regime, the conservation of basic soil and water resources under them may be consider- ed as amply safeguarded by legislation, and this conservation will automatically benetit any agricultural lands in the same drainage basin but at lower altitudes than the forests. in most countries, however, there will be other classes of forests, namely: 1. Areas which are dedicated to forest cover partly for protection and partly for production. 2. Areas which are dedicated to forest cover entirely for production. 3. Forest areas which are not dedicated, that is, not considered essential for pro- tection or preduction, but are still un- der forest, perhaps because the coun- try is not yet fully developed. Any forests falling under classes 1 and 2 and in state ownership should have the same legal status as areas dedicated primarily for protection. Any forests falling under class 3 and in state ownership need a less strict re- gime, but should be given a legal status simi- lar to that possessed by protected forests un- der the Indian Forest Act, as such forests may subsequently be needed for expansion of agriculture. On the other hand, it may be 82 found that when they become more accessible and better known, that portions will have to be dedicated for permanent maintenance un- der forest, perhaps because the soil quality is too poor for agricultural crops. In other words, portions may need to be transferred from the protected class to the reserved class. The main distinction between protected and reserved forest is that in the former every action is legal unless it is specifically prohib- ited, whereas in the latter as mentioned above, every action is illegal unless it is specifically permitted. However, there is no objection to any of the forests falling under classes 1 to 3 being in other form of ownership, commercial or private, provided the National Forest Act legislates for their efficient management, par- ticularly in the case of forests falling under class 1 where protection still is a factor. The existence of a forest cover is always an aid to good soil and water conservation, especially if the forest be managed efficiently but forest areas under private ownership are more exposed to danger from the lack of at- tention to good conservation practices than those in state ownership, at least in countries where a forest conscience is not fully develop- ed. In such countries a National Forest Act should contain safeguards at least for forests falling into classes 1 and 2 and preferably for those in class 3 also, in private ownership. The minimum should be the conferment of powers to make orders under the Act, if nec- essary, to declare certain tracts (which should preferably always coincide with drainage ba- sins) within which private forest owners will have to observe certain precautions in the management of their forests when regulation or prohibition of certain acts appear neces- sary for purposes such as the following: 1. Protection against storms, wind, floods, avalanches Prevention of erosion on slopes, land- slips, formation of ravines. 3. Regulation of stream flow in rivers 4. Protection of roads, railways 5. Preservation of public health bo CARIBBEAN FORESTER If desired, the relevant section of the Na- tional Forest Act conferring the powers to make such orders may go further and _ indi- cate the acts which should be regulated or prohibited by those orders, e.g. shifting cul- tivation, fires and unrestricted grazing, but details should be left to the rules, as condi- tions will differ from tract to tract. The National Forest Act should also pro- vide for the making of rules regarding the grant of concessions, assistance or induce- ment, if necessary, to encourage private own- ers to observe these precautions. The above remarks refer to forest areas presently covered or which may be covered but ordinarily the sum total of these areas only represents a portion of the country, and the National Forest Act cannot apply to non- forest areas, that is, areas under agriculture, cultivation and pastures. Ordinarily areas under agriculture are more exposed to erosion than areas under forests. Conservation of soil and water resources within non-forest areas should be covered by a National Agri- cultural Act or better a National Conserva- tion Act, and so far as these areas are con- cerned the National Forest Act is responsible only to the extent of seeing that its provisions regarding conservation are coordinated with the National Conservation Act. The enforcement of forest legislation at all times calls for firmness combined with tact. Further, the forest officers who are charged with its enforcement have a special responsibility in educating the population in order to gain public understanding and sup- port of forestry. This function of educating the public will be rendered much easier if the state owned forests which the forest officers manage offer recreation and other {facilities which appeal to the public. Public support of forestry can be promoted by action aimed at convincing private forest owners that effi- cient management of their forests can be pro- fitable to themselves. This is particularly helpful. JULY - DECEMBER 1957 ORGANIZATION By the time a National Forest Policy is formulated and a National Forest Act enact- ed, the nucleus of a Forest Service will almost certainly have formed which has been instru- mental in crystallizing public opinion and in- ducing government to formulate the policy and enact the legisiation. Having gained this ground the nucleus will have to begin another task, namely the development of a National Forest Service commensurate with the policy enunciated and the duties indicated by the Forest Act. You will remember that it was stated that there must be a Forest Service to administer the provisions of a Forest Act, also that a Forest Service cannot perform its functions properly unless its personnel is adequately trained, endowed with authority under the provisions of the law and with adequate financial sup- port. The development of a National Forest Service must be in keeping with the social and economic progress of the country and may take years, but it is worth doing well, and the aim should always be quality, not quantity. The successful application of for- estry in a country will depend very largely on the way in which the Forest Service is de- veloped, since, in the exercise of their func- tions, the members of the service are always in very close contact with the people. Selec- tion of suitable personnel for a National For- est Service is of supreme importance. It is not sufficient to insist on a minimum educa- tional qualification for posts of different grades and categories, but the selection should depend also on other qualities, such as phys- ical and mental constitution, background ana character. Forest Service members as well as being practical and resourceful, capable of dealing with situations as they arise, must also be visionaires, looking forward to an ideal of the future which may never be reach- ed in their lifetime (the motto of the I.F.S. is ‘“Mediora speramus’” — we look for better things), must be prepared to put up with 83 hardship, to live in remote places if necessary, and to carry great responsibilities regarding the safety of the forests in their charge. For a National Forest Service therefore, it is desirable that in addition to a minimum educational qualification and a strict phys- ical test, candidates should be approved by a Selection Committee. In India, candidates for the superior forest service were selected by a permanent Public Service Commission consisting of 3 members who might be ad- ministrator, a member of the legal profession and a police officer, all senior men with long experience, and a senior forest officer was deputed temporarily to help the Public Serv- ice Commission by representing the Forest Service’s views and special requirements, and to give the candidate any test considered nec- essary, such as a walking endurance test. To attract men with such qualifications to adopt forestry as a career in the National Forest Service it is necessary to offer basic conditions of service, such as permanency, adequate salary and increments, prospects of promotion, leave, pension on retirement and right to appeai in the event of punishment. In view of the great responsibilities which the ferestry personnel have to assume, inadequate salaries are a poor form of economy. As re- gards permanency, a National Forest Service must be developed as a permanent service, not subject to political change, but staffed with personnel from whom a high standard of efficiency, conduct and “esprit de corps” can be expected, and subject to removal from service only on the grounds of inefficiency or improper conduct. The composition and strength (number of personnel) of a National Forest Service will depend on the duties which it has to per- form. Other things being equal, the larger the country, the more extensive and valuable its forests and the more varied the forms of ownership, the larger and more varied should be the forest service. For example, in a coun- try where the bulk of the forests are in a form of ownership, other than state, such as com- munal or private, the duties of the National 34 Forest Service will consist mainly in the ad- ministration of the forest law, and activities aimed at helping the forest proprietors to manage their forests efficiently, and may only be a small body of professionally traied per- sonnel. On the other hand, a country where the state itself owns forest areas, the deties of the National Forest Service wiil include direct management of those forests, even the harvesting and sale of the products, and the service may be large. Thus in India where the large area of state forests which existed before 1947 has been made very much larger by the almost complete abolition of private ownership of forests in the past decade, we find that the present area of state owned for- ests is 283,000 square miles or 22 per cent oi the total land area, and the total strength of the Indian Forest Service is now about 80,900 men, including permanent labour force, dis- tributed as follows: 1. Superior Staff a) Forest 740 b) Research and other special activities 60 2. Subordinate Forest Staff a) Trained 138,000 b) Untrained 18,000 3. Ministerial (office staff, clerical) 6,000 4. Miscellaneous Staff 11,000 5. Permanent labour force 31,000 79,800 The form of the National Forest Service will depend also on the political organization of the country. In a country with both Fed- eral and State systems of governments there may be both Federal and State Forest Serv- ices, the former attending to subjects of na- tional importance such as the overall policy and legislation regarding conservation, pro- duction, defense, training, forest research, administration of federal forests: the latter in charge of subjects of local importance, in- cluding the management of state forests. However, the secrets of a successful forest organization are territorial responsibility in all branches and ranks of the service, and a CARIBBEAN FORESTER definition of the duties and powers of each rank. The training of forest personnel for the higher ranks of a Forest Service, that is, training at a professional level is effected in some universities in some countries. This has obvious advantages when the fieid of em- ployment for graduates in the National For- est Service is sufficiently large, and is essen- tial for the training of men who aye to un- dertake forest research. When the country is small and only needs a limited number of professionally trained personnel, it will tend to economy if this country in collaboration with other small countries with the same lan- guage, sets up a common forest school. The Central American republics constitute an ex- cellent example of this, and there already exists forestry schools which cater for the re- gion, namely the I[.1.C.A., Turrialba, the Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, and the Latin American Forest Research and Training Institute at Mérida, Venezuela. The graduates of such forestry schools or even other engineering schools may be recruited for service direct to the National Forest Service, or may be selected provision- ally for further specialized training at the expense of the government before final selec- tion and taking up duties in the National Forest Service. In other countries, training at a professional level for the higher ranks of the service is effected by the National Forest Service itself. In such cases, the men se- lected for training are appointed on _ proba- tion and a major part of the cost of the training is paid by the Forest Service, the trainees entering into a bond to serve the government for a certain number of years after completing the course of training. The training of all other ranks, that is, training at a level lower than University, can ordinarily be done most appropriately by the National Forest Service. In India there are three types of schools - (1) the Forest Rang- ers Training College for training of ranger candidates from all states, (2) Foresters Training Schools and Forest Guards Schools, JULY - DECEMBER 1957 operated by the Forest Service of the state government. The men sent to the Forest Rangers Training College are selected, ap- pointed provisionally on probation and sent to the college for training at the expense of the respective state government. The men sent to the Foresters and Forest Guards training schools, on the other hand, are men who are already in the permanent service, and who have done at least two years service. They are specially selected on their merit and promise, and depuited for training at the ex- pense of government. In some countries the National Forest Service has forestry schools and take in men for practical training, who after training may either be recruited for the government service or enter into private service, such as forestry apprentice’s schools in the U.K. The cadre of a National Forest Service should be framed so that it may be possible for a man with ability to rise from a low rank to the highest. FINANCING Adequate financial provision for a Na- tional Forest Service is essential if the service is to function efficiently. As mentioned, the personnel of a National Forest Service must be paid adequate salaries in view of their duties and responsibilities. Poor salaries and consequently a low morale, render it impos- sible to build up a strong efficient service. The quotation from the Scriptures that ‘the labourer is worthy of his hire” is a truism which should not be forgotten. However, provision for salaries is not the only form of funds necessary — there must be funds also for the operations which the National Forest Service has to undertake. The finance of a National Forest Service, as with all business concerns, has a credit and a debit side — the revenue and expenditure of the Service. Revenue represents the income earned by the National Forest Service. There may be many varied sources of revenue, but where 85 there are government owned forests the main source of revenue will be sales of timber and other forest produce. It will be sufficient if the legislature lay down two fundamenial principles: 1. All items of revenue, however small, should be paid into the government account at as early a date as possible. 2. No items of revenue, however smail, should be used directly for making any form of payment. In some countries there is a tendency by non-foresters to judge the results of the work of a National Forest Service by the amount of gross revenue earned. As will be seen un- der certain conditions, there may be no pos- sibility of earning any revenue, and the adop- tion of gross revenue as the criterion of suc- cess is undesirable. Net revenue, that is, the surplus of grcss Income over expenditure is better, but often the amount of expenditure is a much better indication of whether the National Forest Service is making a useful contribution cr not to national development. Expenditure of a Forest Service comes under two main heads: 1. Establishment — salaries and other al- lowances 2. Conservancy and works — which may be subdivided into maintenance opera- tions and capital operations. As has been stated, it is Improper to use any items of revenue earned directly for ex- penditure, consequently funds for the expend- iture of a forest service must come irom an- other source. There are three possible sources: 1. From the national expenditure budget — The amount may vary from year to year according to the circumstances, but it tends to efficiency if the expend- iture budget is framed for longer pe- riods, 3 or 5 years. The forestry legislation may lay down that a fixed proportion of the national budget should be made avaiJable for expenditure by the National Forest 86 Service, or that the amount to be made available should represent a percentage of the income earned by the Service and paid into the government account. The policy or the legislation may indi- cate also the distribution of funds be- tween the Federal and State Forest Services when both exist. However, it is essential that finances from this source are sufficient to cover (a) establishment, (b) conservancy and works maintenance. When the National Forest Service has to main- tain forests primarily for protection, this may involve a deficit budget for these particular forests, that is, they are a financial lability to government, but on the other hand, they are a so- cial and economic asset. On the other hand, when the National Forest Ser- vice has to manage forests for produc- tion, the amount of expenditure in maintenance operations to produce should be justified by the revenue earned by the production. As regards expenditure for capital out- lay, a portion of the total funds made available from this source may be al- loted for capital work such as new buildings and roads, and the purchase of machinery. In some _ countries, funds for such expenditure are provid- ed by loans, for example, made avail- able by the Central Goverment to State governments on easy terms of interest and repayment, but in such cases the loan must be justified by the antici- pated results. . From taxation — This may take the form of a tax on forest products, on exports of forest produce only, or duties on forest products imports. An important principle is that an amount equal to the proceeds .rom this | source should be allocated icr forest CARIBBEAN FORESTER development to benefit the taxpayer, which may be the general public or only a portion of the population. A notable example is the National For- est Fund (Le Fond Forestier Nacional) created in France in 1946 which al- ready has had an important influence on forestry developments in that coun- try. Sixty-four per cent of the forest area of France (20.7 per cent of the total area) is in private ownership. The National Forest Fund was created by law in 1946 to be administered by the National Forest Service (Eeaux et Forets) to be financed by a tax on forest products. Its main object is close collaboration between the government and private proprietors in the following fields: a) Expansion of reforestation to re- pair the damage done by the war and to increase the total forest area. b) Better arrangements to meet the constantly increasing demand for pulp wood. c) Better use of land, at present un- cultivated and improductive, by putting it under forests. To achieve these objects the fund may make loans in the form of: a) Cash advances to private proprie- tors for reforestation as well as for better conservation of man- agement of existing forests. b) Materials such as plants from the nurseries maintained by the Eaux et Forést or the use of heavy equipment. c) Work contracts such as the cons- truction of roads and schemes for protection against fire. In this case the work is carried out by the Eaux et Foréets, and if the work has successful results, the repayment of the loan and inter- est on it to the fund are shared JULY - DECEMBER 1957 between the government and the private proprietor. The close collaboration between the government and private proprietors has brougnt about forest restoration in var- ious regions, notably the Landes. 3. Other funds — not resulting from di- rect taxation but from putting aside annually a portion oi the revenue re- ceipts which may be designed in gen- eral as forest reserve funds. These may take various forms accord- ing to the purpose for which they are intended, such as: a) Management reserve fund — to provide for expenditure which could not be forseen, for example, the construction of new roads and bridges to replace those destroyed by floods. b) Forest improvement or develop- ment fund — to provide for im- provements or development will increase the capacity of the for- ests for sustained yield manage- ment. c) Excess exploitation fund — the exploitation of any one year or period may have to be increased for special reasons — for exam- 87 ple, a great storm causing exten- sive windfalls which have to be utilized at once to prevent dete- rioration, but which will mean reduced yields in some future year or period. The intention of such fund is to ensure that the returns from the excess exploita- tion will not be misused. They represent a temporary conversion of forest capital into money cap- ital. Only the interest earned by the money capital should be restricted to new capital invest- ment such as reforestation to re- place the growing stock which was destroyed. The forest policy and legislation should indicate which reserve funds are considered necessary, and the amount which these funds should represent, say twice the amount of the average annual gross revenue in the case of a Forest Improvement Fund. When a country has declared its Nation- al Forest Policy, has framed sound _legisla- tion, and has an efficient National Forest Service supported by adequate funds for ex- ecution of its functions, it will have progress- ed far on the road of forestry development and conservation of its basic natural resources of soil and water. 88 CARIBBEAN FORESTER La Influencia de los Nudos en la Calidad de la Madera y Metodos para Disminuirlos DR. ERVIN IJJASZ Universidad Austral de Chile INTRODUCCCION Se entiende bajo el nombre de industria todos los trabajos destinados a producir mate- rias primas y alimentos, ademas comprenden la transformacion de estas materias en mate- riales para satisfacer las mUltiples necesidades humanas. Los trabajos industriales se pueden dividir en industrias extractivas e industrias fabriles. Las industrias extractivas extraen los pro- ductos de la tierra sin transformarlos. A este grupo pertenecen la agricultura, la silvicultura, la horicultura, etc. La industria fabril o manufacturera se de- dica a transformar integramente las materias primas en productos para satisfacer las necesi- dades humanas. Segun la clasificaci6n, la silvicultura perte- nece al grupo de industrias extractivas, cuya misiOn es extraer y aprovechar los productos que ofrecen los bosques y los terrenos foresta- les, o sea, los productos de los arboles come son la madera, la corteza, las hojas, los frutos, Jas semillas, el balsamo etc., etc. Las faenas forestales, como las demas in- dustrias se preocupan de aprovechar y exp!otar los productos forestales econdmicamente, es de- cir, producir mas y mejor en menos tiem o. Sin embargo, ésto sGio se puede llevar a cabo cuando los factores de produccién estan a dis- posiciOn sin mayores dificulturales. La accion industrial puede ser libre o sujeta a algtin tac- tor de produccién que puede ser modificado li- bremente. La industria fabril propiamente i- cho es una industria libre. Las industrias que trabajan con tactores sujetos a cualquier ordcn son la industria silvicola, la industria agraria, la ganaderia, etc. Las industrias fabriles tienen gran ventaia sobre las industrias extractivas, pues pueden trabajar libremente con los factores de produc- cién y éstos dentro de cierto limite, lo pueden poner libremente al servicio de la produccién. Las industrias sujetas a algin factor trabajan limitadamente y sdlo pueden aprovechar las posibilidades que les sean permitidas. Mien- tras que en la industria fabril la produccién dirige sus factores, en la industria extractiva los factores de la naturaleza dirigen y limitan la produccion. Ksta gran diferencia que existe entre las industrias fabriles y extractivas da a ambas un caracter particular. Esta es la causa por la cual en la practica la silvicultura no se consi- dera como una industria, pero como hemos visto, lo es. PRODUCCION DE MADERA DE CALIDAD Todas las industrias, como también la sil- vieola, tratan de producir econémicamente. Las industrias fabriles aleanzan este fin Ile- nando las exigencias basicas de la produccion economica, producir mas y mejor en el menor tiempo. Por lo tanto, los gastos de una uni- dad seradn menores y la diferencia entre el pre- cio de venta y de la producci6n sera mayor. Podemos aumentar considerablemente el pre- cio de venta produciendo mejor calidad, pues es l6gico que por un articulo de mejor calidad se obtiene mejor precio. La industria silvicola trabaja con factores sujetos a un orden, lo que significa que éstas prestan solamente cierto grado de servicio a la produccién y generalmente la produccidn de- be adaptarse a estos factores limitados e inse- guros. Analizando lo anteriormente expuesto, se ve que el silvicultor no puede cambiar ni el fac- tor clima ni el factor sitio e igualmente tene- mos que considerar las propiedades heredita- JULY - DECEMBER 1957 rias de las especies. Igualmente es incapaz de regular, a su gusto, el crecimiento de las plan- tas. El silvicultor debe trabajar dentro de es- tos factores constantes y sdlo puede modificar y poner al servicio de la produccién el capital y la mano de obra. Las faenas silvicolas se caracterizan justa- mente por este impedimento que las distingue de las demas industrias. La produccién de las industrias libres es totaimente autdnoma. Si se disponen los fac- tores de produccién libremente bajo una ade- cuada direccion téenica, la produccidn debe ser segura. En la industria forestal sin embargo, la situacién es totalmente diferente, en parie porque el silvicultor no puede cambiar, segtin las necesidades, los factores naturales, y en parte porque son inseguros y fluctian constan- temente. EE]! silvicultor debe estar siempre atento para aprovechar todas las posibilidades que brinda la naturaleza. La producci6dn {o- restal se caracteriza justamente por esta adap- tacién y éste es el motivo por el cual las faenas silvicolas no soportan rigidez sino flexibilidad frente a las posibilidades de la naturaleza. Se comprende que la produccion forestal es una tarea sumamente delicada, que exige mu- chas precauciones, amplios conocimientos y precision. El] trabajo del silvicultor esta di- ficultado por el hecho de que generalmente el fruto de su trabajo es para las generaciones si- guientes, 0 sea, su siembra es cosechada por otros. Esta circunstancia especial obliga al sil- vicultor a trabajar con muchas precauciones y honradez. Para lograr estas exigencias, lo me- jor es producir calidad, pues es seguro que los productos de calidad tendr4n siempre buen precio en cualquier época. Por lo tanto la produccién de calidad debe ser considerada como una necesidad en la em- presa forestal, pues es el Gnico medio seguro de producir econédmicamente y satisfacer de la mejor manera las necesidades de las futuras generaciones. El principal producto de la industria fores- tal es la madera. Los otros productos del bos- que, como tanino, resina, carb6n tenemos que 89 considerarlos como secundarios; en consecuen- cia hay que producir madera de calidad. La madera es de mejor calidad cuando me- jor satisface las exigencias del mercado, es de- cir, cuando mejor cubre las necesidades huma- nas. De esto podemos deducir que la calidad es muy relativa pues todo depende del aprovecha- miento a que se destine la madera. Pues puede ocuirir que para un fin determinado la made- ra sea de primera calidad, mientras que para otro es inaprovechable. Asi por ejemplo, la ma- dera atacada por los hongos no es apta para ti- nes téenicos, mientras que es muy apreciada para fines decorativos. La calidad de la ma- dera puede ser interpretada de diferentes :na- neras, lo que hace posible que un silvicultor, con conocimientos sobre el aprovechamiento de la madera, puede encontrar para sus produc- tos mercado favorable. Sin embargo, generalmente designamos de primera calidad a la madera cuyas caracteris- ticas fisicas y mecanicas satisfacen las exigen- cias técnicas de la madera. Estas caracteristi- cas estan en estrecha relacion con la estructura de sus tejidos. Las propiedades técnicas son exteriores e interiores. Las exteriores son aquellas que pueden ser observadas mediante los sentidos, como el color, el brillo, las vetas, el olor, etc. Las interiores se pueden determi- nar Unicamente mediante ensayos, como el pe- so, la dureza, la elasticidad, la durabilidad, la flexibilidad, el hendimiento, la conductibilidad, etc. Las caractersiticas técnicas de la madera estan ligadas por su contenido de humedad y nudosidad. Desde el punto de vista de utili- zacion de la madera, sin embargo, hay una no- table diferencia. Por una parte el contenido de humedad, durante el crecimiento del Arbol, no puede ser regulado y en el aprovechamiento industrial ésta no es necesaria, pues después del volteo dicho contenido de humedad puede ser moditficado, segtn las necesidades de la in- dustria, mediante secamiento natural o artifi- cial. Pero la nudosidad no puede ser modificada con posterioridad, por lo tanto, el silvicultor se ve obligado a criar arboles con la menor canti- 90 dad posible de nudos, si desea producir made- ra de buena calidad y de alto valor comercial. Veamos pues ahora, que relacion hay entre la nudosidad y la calidad de la madera y des- pués trataremos la técnica con que el silvicul- tor puede disminuir la nudosidad de la made- ra; LA RELACION ENTRE LA NUDOSIDAD Y LA CALIDAD Los nudos son el encuentro y adherencia de los tejidos de las ramas con el tejido del tronco. El crecimiento diametral de la madera se verifica por medio de capas anuales. Estas capas reciben el nombre de anillos de creci- miento. Generalmente los tejidos al comienzo de la vegetaci6n son mas blandos que al térmi- no de la misma. Los primeros son Ilamados tejidos primaverales y los segundos, tejidos de otono. Las propiedades fisicas y mecdnicas de la madera dependen de la relacidn de estas dos clases de tejidos. Si dominan los tejidos de otofio, la madera es m4s densa, y desde el punto de vista de su utilizacién mecdnica tiene excelente propiedades. Los tejidos de las ramas son mucho més densos que los del tronco, pues los anillos de crecimiento debido al didmetro relativamente pequeho, se encuentran mas estrechos y ademas tienen relativamente mas tejidos de otono que de primavera. Por esta razén los tejidos de las ramas, o sea los nudos son siempre mas oscuros, mas duros y completa- mente diferentes a los tejidos de! tronco. Desde el punto de vista de la utilizacién de la madera o sea mecanica y quimicamen- te, los nudos son considerados como defec- tos pues influyen en las propiedades fisicas y mecanicas de la misma. Practicamente no hay propiedad en que no influya la pre- sencia del nudo. Asi se comprendera el por qué en la clasificacién se desvalorizan las maderas nudosas. Hay estrecha relacién entre la edad de los arboles y la nudosidad de la madera. Generalmente cuanto mas joven sea el Arbol mas nudoso es. La mayoria de estos nudos CARIBBEAN FORESTER son nudos vivos. Cuanto mas edad tiene un arbol tanto mas nudos muertos tendra. Escte es el motivo por el cual la mayoria de los Arboles viejos son enfermos y atacados por hongos e insectos, pues los nudos muertos facilitan la penetracién de estos destructores. Desde el punto de vista cualitativo dis- tinguimos dos clases de nudos. Los nudos vivos y los nudos muertos. Los nudos vivos provienen de yemas dur- mientes y ramas vivas y se caracterizan por estar adherido a los haces fibrosos de su con- torno. El tejido adherido es completamente sano y solamente es irregular la formaci6n de los anillos. Las propiedades fisicas y me- canicas tedricamente, son iguales a las de los demas tejidos. Los nudos muertos, al contrario, proceden de ramas muertas y no estan adheridos con los haces fibrosos de la madera y se encuentran dentro del tejido de la misma como un cuerpo de ajeno, como una especie de clavo que no tiene ninguna relacién con su alrededor. Por ésto se Hama nudo muerto o clavo. El color del nudo muerto es diferente al de la madera, lo mismo que sucede con sus propiedades fisi- cas y mecanicas. Por consiguiente modifica las propiedades de la madera y disminuye su valor. A veces la presencia de nudos muertos perjudica serlamente el valor comercial de la madera, pues la hacen initil para Ja elabora- cién. Este es el motivo por el cual el silvicul- tor debe tomar todas las precauciones posibles para evitar la formacién de nudos muertos. Los nudos sean vivos 0 muertos, grandes oO pequefos disminuyen en todo sentido la utilizacién de la madera. Su efecto no depen- de solamente del tipo del nudo, su tamano, su cantidad, sino también de la posicién que ocu- pa dentro de la madera. En otros casos las caracetristicas mecanicas influyen de tal mo- do que enla construccién no se permite su presencia en la zona de tracciOn. Solamente puede existir en la zona comprimida. La elevada dureza de los nudos, la desvia- cién de las fibras a su alrededor no solamente dificultan la elaboracién de la madera, sino que por la diferente estructura de sus tejidos JULY - DECEMBER 1957 la madera reacciona de otra manera a las va- riaciones de la humedad y en consecuencia se mueve, 0 como se dice practicamente, “‘traba- ja” de un modo distinto que a su airededor, tendiendo a separarse de su contorno por me- dio de las llamadas grietas de secariento. Esta caracteristica es mirada con poco agra- do en la ebanisteria y ésta es la causa por la cual no se permite la presencia de nudos en los trabajos delicados y solamente se admiten nudos vivos de pequefio didmetro y en canti- dades muy bajas. Por ejemplo, solo se permi- ten nudos vivos de hasta 14 mm de ciametro y tnicamente dos por metro cuadrado. De lo anteriormente dicho se compren- dera que los nudos muertos se caen de la madera durante la elaboracién o un tiempo después de ello. Esta circunstancia obliga al carpintero a recortar no solamente el nudo, sino también su alrededor para reemplazarlo con un pedazo de madera nueva que servira de tapa. Estas correcciones naturalmente, ele- van el costo de la elaboracioén, pues exigen mu- cho tiempo, material y mano de obra. Por lo tanto, es l6gico que la carpinteria fina evite el empleo de maderas nudosas lo que implica la disminucién de su valor comercial. Lo mismo ocurre con las maderas nudo- sas en la fabricacién de terciado, pues el re- corte y el reemplazo de los nudos exigen Maquinarias especiales de alto costo, sin contar Ja pérdida de tiempo, material y ma- no de obra. Las laminas nudosas aunque reparadas, tnicamente pueden colocarse en el interior del terciado; es lo que lUamamos vulgarmente placas ciegas. Los nudos influyen considerablemente sobre la resistencia de la madera pues la dis- minuyen considerablemente. Las exigencias contra la nudosidad cre- cen cuanto mas valiosos y delicados produc- tos deseamos fabricar. Asi por ejemplo, 1a- minas para chapas, instrumentos musicales, articulos de deportes, partes de avidn y Maquinarias, no permiten ningtin nudo; lo mismo sucede con los articulos que requieren ser doblados y las hormas y otros articulos fabricados en el torno il Hasta la elaboracién quimica de la ma- dera es muy exigente contra la nudosidad- Por ejemplo, en la fabricacién de papel son muy molestos los nudos y es por ésto que en la clasificacién de los palos para la celulosa se toma en cuenta la nudosidad. Solo excepcionalmente pueden valorizar los nudos a la madera. Un ejemplo tipico de ello lo tenemos en la madera para deco- raciones. Entre las maderas chilenas son muy apreciados los nuditos del pino arauca- ria. Para otros fines se permiten solamente determinadas cantidades y distribucién de los nudos, como en las construcciones en las minas, los postes, en los durmientes, etc. En éstos ultimos no se permiten nudos en la zona comprimida. Por los rollizos sin nudos se pagan pre- cios especialmente altos, como sucede en Europa con los rollizos de roble y de abedul que se usan en la fabricacioén de laminas. Por lo general la practica demuestra que el! valor del rollizo sin nudos aumenta el 49 al 100 por ciento el volor de la madera. De lo anteriormente expuesto se deduce que todas las normas de clasificacién fijan las clases de nudos, el didametro mAximo per- mitido y la distancia del uno al otro. En las normas de clasificacién para las maderas de exportaciOn vigentes en Chile, se agrupan los nudos de la siguiente manera: a) nudos firmes, b) nudos sueltos y c) raci- mos de nudos. Los nudos firmes son idénti- cos a los nudos vivos y los nudos sueltos a los muertos, lo que ya hemos tratado ante- riormente. Los racimos de nudos estan formados por varios nudos, alrededor de los cuales las fibras de la madera hacen desvia- ciones e irregularidades. El citado reglamento determina el tama- fio de los nudos para cada clase de madera y para cada especie. Asi, en la primera clase de alerce, laurel, lingue, rauli, olivillo y tepa se permiten hasta 3 nudos firmes de no mas de 1/2 pulgada de didmetro con una sepa- racién minima de 20 pulgadas entre dos nudos. 92 Clasificando los nudos segun su tamano, podemos agruparlos en los siguientes cinco grupos: nudos pequefisimos, cuyo didme- tro es menor de cinco milimetros; pequefios entre 5 a 14 milimetros, medianos entre 15 a 34 milimetros, grandes entre 35 a 45 milime- tros y muy grandes superiores a 45 milime- metros. El tamano del nudo se determina en milimetros sobre la cara visible. Si el nudo no es redondo se toma siempre el dia- metro mayor. Sin embargo, las normas ale- manas (DIN No. 52181) toman el nudo por el diametro menor. Cuando los nudos estan dentro de la madera rodeados con cascara reciben el nombre de “entrecasco’’, su diadme- tro se mide junto con la corteza. En los ra- cimos de nudos se toman en cuenta las sumas de los didmetros menores en una distancia de 15 centimetros. PODA DE LOS ARBOLES COMO FACTOR PRINCIPAL EN LA PRODUCCION DE MADERAS DE CALIDAD De todo lo mencionado anteriormente se puede afirmar que una empresa forestal ge- neralmente tiene el fin de producir econ6émi- camente madera de calidad en gran escala en breve tiempo. Estas condiciones basicas tie- nen hoy especial importancia pues las exigen- cias modernas son cada dia mayores con res- pecto a la madera. Por lo tanto, el silvicul- tor debera procurar de satisfacer estas exi- gencias en el mas alto grado posible. La técnica silvicola moderna ofrece mu- chas posibilidades para la silvicultura en la realizacion de esta tarea, pero la que nos in- teresa es la poda como un factor principal en la produccién de madera de calidad. Como sabemos, las ramificaciones son ye- mas desarrolladas del tallo, en nuestro caso, el tronco del arbol. Estas pueden ser late- rales y terminales. Iin la ramificacion lateral la yema termi- nal del eje del tronco persiste, por lo que el eje se prolonga emitiendo a su alrededor ra- mas laterales cuyo grosor y longitud dismi- nuyen regularmente de la base a la punta. CARIBBEAN FORESTER El conjunto de esta ramificacién da al arbol un aspecto cénico y muy caracteristico. A este tipo de ramificacién se da el nombre de monopodial y es caracteristico en las conife- ras, como son el alerce, el ciprés, el mafio, etc. En la ramificacién terminal la yema ter- minal se seca por lo cual el tallo no crece mds longitudinalmente, desarrollandose las yemas axilares originando una ramificacién que re- cibe el nombre de simpodial. En ésto no se puede distinguir el tronco como eje principal del arbol y las ramas fundamentales que lo reemplazan son aproximadamente del mismo grosor y nacen al mismo nivel. Estos tipos de ramificaciones los encontramos principal- mente en las dicotiledonias como el algarro- bo, el coigiie y otros. Las ramas de las ramificaciones monopo- diales son siempre mas chicas y mas delga- das que las ramas simpodiales. Debido a esta causa, las comiferas producen troncos bien rectos, cilindricos y largos, con tejidos muy uniformes y con nudos pequefos. Por el contrario, los troncos de los arbo- les con ramificaciones simpodiales son cortos, generalmente irregulares y con nudos gran- des. Los tejidos son también de formacién irregular, con muchas desviaciones causadas por las ramas grandes. La calidad de la madera obtenida de estos Arboles es general- mente inferior a la de las coniferas. Como los nudos son la unién de las ramas con el tronco del arbol, tanto su lugar, su forma como su tamafio son determinados por las ramas y por lo tanto pueden ser espira- lados o alternados en los arboles de hojas ca- ducas y verticilados en las especies de coni- feras. En el desarrollo y vida de las ramas influ- yen muchos factores, de los cuales nos inte- resa unicamente el que se refiere a si los Ar- boles crecen solitarios 0 en grupos. Los Arboles solitarios tienen abundantes ramificaciones, las ramas muy desarrolladas y en consecuencia su didmetro es siempre mas grande que el de los arboles que crecen en grupos. En el otro caso, cuando los 4r- boles crecen en espesuras, las ramas inferio- JULY - DECEMBER 1957 res no se desarrollan, su didmetro es siempre pequefio y en consecuencia producen nudos pequefios e insignificantes. Naturalmente que los cortes efectuados a las ramas delgadas se cleatrizan mas rapidamente y con mayor ia- cilidad que los de las ramas gruesas. Los cortes efectuados a éstas Ultimas se cicatri- zan dificilmente y por su gran demora son muy peligrosos, pues constituyen un foco de putrefaccion. Mientras las ramas estan vivas no hay peligro, pues por una parte los tejidos del tronco y de las ramas constituyen nudos vi- vos que pueden producirse sin ninguna infec- cién. Pero en cuanto se muere la rama por cualquiera circunstancia, el tejido del tronco no continia en la rama sino que la rodea y de esta manera se forma el nudo muerto. Las ramas muertas empiezan a podrirse y llevan la putrefaccién al tejido vivo del arbol. La produccién de la madera de calidad exige co- sechar a4rboles con la menor cantidad posible de nudos. EI silvicultor puede obtener ésto criando Arboles en masa y alejando las ramas sobrantes del tronco. El alejamiento de las ramas puede verificarse por método natural o artificial. El primero se denomina poda na- tural y el Ultimo poda, o para diferenciarlo del anterior, poda artificial. La poda artificial se obtiene graduando, segtin las necesidades, la espesura del bosque por intermedio del raleo. Porque si los ar- boles viven en espesura cerrada, la luz y el sol llegan unicamente a aquellas ramas altas y las inferiores por falta de luz y sol van mu- riéndose y el arbol se despoja de ellas paula- inamente. Sin embargo, los Arboles se libran con gran dificultad y lentitud de las ramas muer- tas sobrantes, debido a que las ramas muer- tas deben ser atacadas por hongos para ser destruidas de tal modo que lleguen a romper- se por su propio peso o por accion de los fac- tores naturales, hasta que su lugar se cica- trice. Este proceso requiere mucho tiempo pues para que los hongos puedan penetrar hasta los tejidos de las ramas, éstos deben ser pri- 93 meramente perforados por insectos o rajadu- ras por secamiento. El] desarrollo posterior de los hongos depende de las circunstancias que hayan encontrado. Si éstas son d6ptimas, la destruccién es répida. La naturaleza pone sin embargo numerosos obstaculos a la rapi- da accion de los hongos, entre los cuales de- bemos mencionar en el primer lugar la va- riacion continua del contenido de humedad de las ramas, lo que constituye el factor prin- cipal en el desarrollo de los hongos. Si la humedad de las ramas baja o sube en cierto limite, los hongos terminan sus actividades. Ademas los diferentes materiales, como el bAl- samo, el tanino y otros, que se encuentran acumulados en las ramas, dificultan también la destruccién. Cabe destacar que segtin las investigacio- nes rererentes, cuando una rama, por falta de luz y sol pierde su normal equilibrio biolégi- co, el arbol mismo por medio de su zona ge- neratriz aisla interiormente la rama del tron- co, apresurando de esta manera su muerte. Las ramas destruidas por hongos se rom- pen por pedazos, desde su extremo hacia el tronco. Esta separacién natural de las ramas del tronco exige mucho tiempo. Los experi- mentos nos demuestran que la _ separacién natural de las ramas de haya de 1 centime- tro de grosor, requiere tres a 6 afios, de 3 centimetos de espesor 4 a 9 afios y de 6 cen- timetros de 7 a 17 afios. La poda de pinos “spruce”? requiere mucho mas tiempo, entre 30 a 90 anos. El motivo de este largo pe- riodo se encuentra en el contenido del bAlsa- mo que, como ya hemos dicho, dificulta la accion de los hongos. La poda natural se verifica de abajo hacia arriba cuyo motivo es que el grosor de las ramas en las coniferas aumenta de abajo hacia arriba. Por lo tanto, la poda natural es un proce- so sumamente lento, cuya consecuencia natu- ral es el aumento de la nudosidad de la made- ra. Un gran inconveniente de la poda natural es que después de la separacion natural dle las ramas del tronco siempre quedan bastantes pedazos adheridos al tronco, que el arbol so- lamente después de tanto tiempo puede cica- 94 trizar. Este hecho, ademas de ser un foco de infeccion, da origen a nudos muertos, los cuales descalifican y muchas veces inutilizan completamente la madera. Podemos deducir que la poda natural no satisface completamente las exigencias de una produccion de calidad, por lo cual de- bemos completarla con la poda_ artificial. Bajo ésto entendemos el alejamiento de las ramas sobrantes del tronco con diferentes herramientas. Se puede clasificar la poda artificial, se- gun sus fines, en poda de aprovechamiento y poda de educacion. El primero, como ya su nombre indica, tiene por fin principal servir al aprovechamiento del bosque, como son los bosques economicos, las ramas forrajeras, las ramas de lecho, las ramas_ decorativas, etc. La poda de educacié6n tiene por objeto pro- ducir madera de calidad, cuya propiedad me- canica satisface en el mas alto grado posible las necesidades de la humanidad. Dentro de la poda de educacién distin- guimos dos tipos: la poda verde y la poda seca. En el primer caso cortamos las ramas verdes y en el segundo las ramas secas. El efecto de estas dos clases de poda es muy di- ferente, por consecuencia el silvicultor debe tener gran cuidado en este aspecto. La poda seca, e3 decir por una parte impedimos el avance de la infeccién mediante la putrefac- cion de esa rama, por otra parte hacemo3 po- sible que el Arbol pueda cicatrizar rapida- mente su lugar y de esta manera se evita la propagacion de nudos muertos. El problema de la poda verde es mas complejo. Su empleo correcto exige profun- do conocimiento y el estudio de las circuns- tancias locales. Con un empleo incorrecto podemos ocasionar grandes dafos. Scélo pue-- de utilizarse con precaucion. Principalmen- te debemos tener cuidado en el alejamiento de las ramas gruesas. Generalmente hay que tratar de evitar la disminuciOn exagerada de la superficie asimiladora del arbol, ademas la superficie total de los cortes a cicatrizar no debe pasar cierto limite, por una parte para la rapida cicatrizacion, por otra parte, para CARIBBEAN FORESTER evitar el desequilibrio de la vida biolégica del arbol. Pues es natural que siendo la super- ficie de los cortes grandes, el arbol no puede generar su tejido antes de que los hongos lo hayan atacado. Si el proceso de la cicatri- zaciOn ocupa demasiada energia, cesa el cre- cimiento del arbol, especialmente si junto a ello hemos disminuido demasiado la superfi- cie de la copa. No necesito dar mayores ex- plicaciones, pues ustedes comprenderan de todo lo antericrmente expuesto, que la poda verde en este caso es dafiina. El fin de la poda verde es la .educacién individual del arbol para aumentar su adap- tabilidad técnica, es decir, la disminucién de su nudosidad, la regularizacién de la forma del tronco, el aumento de su _longitud, etc., etc. Este tipo de poda mejora también la uniformidad de los tejidos del tronco del Ar- bol y su cilindricidad, pues modifica la for- macion natural de los anillos de crecimiento debido a que éstos serdn mas anchos en la parte superior del tronco y mas angostos en la parte inferior. En consecuencia, el tron- co toma una forma cilindrica bastante unifor- me en toda su longitud, lo que aumenta su valor comercial. La poda verde disminuye en cualquier modo la superficie asimiladora de la copa, en consecuencia disminuye el crecimiento en lon- gitud y espesor del arbol. La medida de esta disminuci6n varia segun la especie, la edad y las circunstancias locales. Es decir, en cuan- to en mejores condiciones crece el Arbol, tan- to con mayor facilidad y rapidez cicatrizan las heridas originadas por la poda._ Es natu- ral que los arboles j6venes cicatrizan con mas facilidad que los viejos. La poda verde de los arboles viejos es por lo general inconveniente. Puesto que estos arboles no pueden cicatrizar heridas o sola- mente durante largo tiempo, dan oportunidad para la accidn de los hongos. Se comprende pues, que el efecto de la poda verde puede ser tan diferente, que podas realizadas de la misma manera, pueden dar efectos totalmen- te diferentes. El efecto de la poda verde de- pende mucho del método de su _ realizacién, JULY - DECEMBER 1957 es decir, el corte, las herramientas empleadas, el tratamiento de los cortes, la época de la poda y su tamano. El corte de las ramas puede efectuarse de dos maneras. Cortando las ramas inmedia- tamente al lado del tronco, o en caso especial a mayor distancia de éste a fin de impedir el engrosamiento de la rama. El corte de las ramas inmediatamente al tronco puede reali- zarse ye sea paralelamente al tronco o per- pendicularmente al eje de la rama. General- mente el primero es mas correcto. A_ pesar de que la superficie del corte en este caso es mas grande, pero el arbol la cicatriza mas ra- pidamente ya que la superficie cortada que- da en nivel de los tejidos generatrices del tronco. En este caso naturalmente el nudo sera menor. El corte etectuado perpendicularmente al eje de la rama se cicatriza con lentitud, oca- sionando nudos muertos, grandes y que por el mismo motivo muestran a menudo sefales de infeccién. Desde el punto de vista cuali- tativo de la madera, este caso es siempre inconveniente. Sin embargo, pueden presen- tarse casos, como en el corte de ramas gran- des, cuando la superficie del corte paralelo al tronco seria tan grande que éste no puede regenerarlo y en consecuencia es mas ventajo- so el corte perpendicular al eje de la rama. La mutilacién de la rama no es aconseja- ble. En casos excepcionales puede permitir- se, como cuando se trata de dar espacio para los renovales al lado del arbol grande, muti- lando algunas de sus ramas. Pero solo pue- de permitirse si el Arbol sera volteado dentro de poco tiempo. El efecto de la poda depende tarnbién de la herramienta empleada. La condicién pre- via para una cicatrizacion raépida es que la superficie del corte sea lo mas lisa posible. Toda rajadura, barba de fibras, pedazos de cascara, etc., dificultan la cicatrizacion. Para evitar ésto debemos utilizar herramientas con bastante filo tales como machetes u otros tipos de cuchillos especiales que s6lo podran emplearse en caso de ramas delgadas. El corte de las ramas mas gruesas debera reali- 95 zarse slempre con serruchos (manual, con mango largo o circulares especiales) pues unicamente con ésto se puede cortar las ra- mas sin que se produzcan rajaduras. Para estos fines existen serruchos especiales que tienen pequefios dientes continuos triangula- res oblicuos o parados. Estos dientes estan fabricados para trabajar de tiraje 0 empuje. Los serruchos de mango largo generalmente trabajan tirando. Otro factor que influye en el resultado de la poda es la técnica empleada en el corte. Ramas gruesas deben cortarse por pedazos, del extremo hacia el tronco. Al llegar al dl- timo pedazo antes de efectuar el corte hay que practicar una incisiOn en la parte infe- rior de la rama y si es necesario introducimos ademas una cufia. Si se trata de sunpertficies de corte extremadamente grande, en otono, es recomendable cubrirla con una capa de cera. En ramas de coniferas no es necesario. Es sumamente importante que la poda sea efectuada por obreros especialistas. A las ramas inferiores las cortamos desde la tierra con serruchos manuales; ramas mas altas, de 10 a 12 metros se cortan con serruchos de mango largo. Las ramas situadas ain mas arriba las cortamos también con serrucho. La época de la poda tiene especial impor- tancia en su efecto. Generalmente la época mas propicia para efectuarla es el fin del in- vierno 0 el principie de la primavera, cuando las heridas, los cambios de clima, como el frio y el calor, no pueden danaria y cuando la corteza esta aun adherida al tronco. A\l- gunas personas opinan que la mejor época para la poda es el comienzo de la circulacién de la savia, pues la cicatrizacion de Jas heri- das comienza enseguida, pero tiene por de- fecto el que en esta época, por la circulacién de la savia, son inevitables los desprendi- mientos de corteza y las rajaduras en el tronco. Es muy dificil determinar la medida de la poda, el diametro de las ramas a cortarse y su cantidad, ademas su distribucion en el tronco. Solamente especialistas con practica pueden determinar la superficie herida que 96 determinadas especies, en distintas edades y circunstancias, pueden soportar y el efecto que va a producirse en la calidad de la ma- dera. Como ya sabemos, una mala poda tiene graves consecuencias en el incremento y en la calidad de la produccion. Asi mismo es también un problema muy importante determinar la economia de la poda. Pero es muy dificil encontrar el limi- te econémico de ella, o sea, cuando los gas- tos de la poda son recompensados por la ca- lidad de la madera. El silvicultor con prac- tica sabe muy bien que la poda es un traba- jo bastante costoso y su ejecuciOn mayor- mente se restringe o anula por causa3 econo- micas, como se hace actualmente con las plantaciones de pino insigne en Chile. Como regia general podemos decix que la poda seca en cualquier circunstancia es siem- pre economica, pues los nudos muertos des- valorizan la madera. La poda verde requie- re ya muchas precauciones. Pero la poda educativa siempre se recompensa con sus efec- tos, por lo tanto, hay que tratar de ejecutar- la. Podemos economizar mucho en la poda usando podadores mecanicos como el moto- machete por ejemplo, que en una mano ex- perta tiene un alto rendimiento y asi su uso es muy economico. Su precio se recompen- sa siempre con su rendimiento. Debo mencionar todavia que en la cicatri- zacion de las heridas por el arbol, no hay di- ferencia entre la poda verde y la poda seca. Pero es muy importante saber que los tejidos de la cicatrizaci6n se pueden unir con los te- jidos muertos de la herida. La cicatrizacion solamente recubre fuertemente la_ superficie del corte, dejando una capa de celulosa muer- ta dentro del tejido del tronco. Esta capa es tanto mas gruesa cuanto mas lenta haya sido la cicatrizacion. Si la cicatrizaci6n se efectua después que los hongos han infectado esta parte, generalmente continua su destruc- cidn, atin después de haber sido encerados. Los tetidos de la cicatrizacién pueden ser de dos origenes: tejidos de la zona genera- CARIBBEAN FORESTER triz del tronco y tejido del cambium de las ramas. La cicatrizaciOn se efectia de afue- ra hacia adentro, pero no con la misma ra- pidez. Los !ados se cicatrizan mas rapida- mente que las partes superior e inferior, y de la parte superior a la inferior mas _ rdapida- mente que de la parte inferior a la superior. Esta es la causa por la cual las heridas que- dan abiertas mas tiempo en la parte inferior. En heridas grandes la parte inferior queda descubierta durante muchos afios. En estos lugares es muy caracteristico ver una ema- naciOn negruzca, que no es mas que los ma- teriales de la corteza y albura lavados (tani- no, etc.) por el agua que luego al evaporar- se queda pegada a la corteza. Desde el punto de vista prdctico es muy importante la rapidez de la cicatrizaci6n. Cuanto mas rapida es la cicatrizaci6n de las heridas, tanto menor es el peligro de infec- cién de los tejidos del Arbol. Es comprensi- ble que la bruta superficie dejada por la poda natural se cicatriza lentamente y con mayor dificultad que la superficie lisa de la poda artificial. Es por ésto que también es nece- saria la poda seca ya que acelera la rApida cicatrizacion del corte. Es también l6gico que los cortes de poda verde se cicatrizan mas rapidamente que las heridas de poda seca, pues en la poda verde el corte esta en contacto inmediato con las células vivas de la zona generatriz, mientras que en el corte de la poda seca las células estan mas lejos, es decir, tienen que cicatrizar relativamente mayor superficie en ramos iguales. Como ya dijimos, las heridas causadas en la linea del tronco cicatrizan siempre mds rapidamente que las situadas mas afuera de él. Cualquier irregularidad dificulta la cicatrizacion. La superficie lisa o bruta no incluye en la rapi- dez de la cicatrizacion. La poda educativa debe estar en estrecha relacién con el raleo. Ninguna puede ser reemplazada por otra. El raleo es el medio de la educacién de la masa. La poda como hemos visto, esta destinada a asegurar la produccién de madera de calidad. Por lo JULY - DECEMBER 1957 tanto, ambas son indispensables para que el silvicultor pueda satisfacer las necesidades econdmicas de la empresa silvicola, es decir, la produccién de maderas de calidad y en mayor cantidad. RESUMEN La silvicultura debe procurar produccio- nes cualitativas, pues tnicamente de esta manera podra satisfacer las exigencias del oT mercado futuro y puede obtener mas precio por sus productos. La base de la produccién cualitativa es producir maderas poco nudosas. La poca nudosidad se obtiene con la adecuada técni- ca de cultivo, raleo y poda natural y artificial. Es muy dificil determinar la medida de la poda artificial. La poda seca se puede efectuar en todos los casos. El limite de la poda verde queda determinado por el conjun- to de factores biologicos y econémicos.