Historic, archived document Do not assume content reflects current scientific knowledge, policies, or practices. eg ee ag es ae ees ' 7 = ial z a 7 rn = IGRIGUL ee, ‘Une: ff orm DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE . US FOREST SERVICE TROPICAL FOREST RESEARCH CENTER RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 1 AND 2 ) O Zz fe) a Li = 2 = fe) > Caribbean Forester El Caribbean Forester es una revista semes- tral gratuita publicada en Puerto Rico desde el afio 1938 por el Centro Tropical de Inves- tigaciones Forestales del Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos. Esta publicacién esta dedicada a promover la mejor ordenacion y utilizacién de los recursos forestales del trépico con especial énfasis a la region del Caribe. Provee informacion a los que laboran en la dasonomia y ciencias afines sobre los pro- blemas especificos que confrontan, las politi- cas forestales vigentes y el progreso del tra- bajo que se lleva a cabo para mejorar la or- denacién y utilizacién de los recursos fores- tales tropicales. También sirve como medio informativo sobre los resultados y el progreso de los programas experimentales, en ordena- cin forestal tropical y utilizacién, que se lle- van a cabo en el Centro de Investigaciones en Puerto Rico. También le brinda una opor- tunidad a otras personas interesadas en la dasonomia tropical para presentar el resultado de sus trabajos. Se solicitan aportaciones de otras fuentes en el campo de la dasonomia tropical siempre que no estén considerandose para publicacién en otras revistas. E] manuscrito generalmente no debe exceder 20 paginas escritas a maqui- na a doble espacio, aunque ocasionalmente po- dria aceptarse un articulo mas largo cuando tuviera un interés especial. Los articulos deben someterse en la lengua vernacula del autor, deben incluir su titulo o posicidn que ocupa y un resumen corto. De- ben estar escritos a maquina a doble espacio, solamente en un lado de la pagina, en papel blanco primera, tamafio 814 por 11 pulgadas. Las tablas deben numerarse consecutiva- mente, cada una en una hoja separada con su titulo. Las notas al pie usadas en las ta- blas deben escribirse a maquina como parte de la tabla y designarse por medio de niu- meros. Las ilustraciones deben designarse con nt- meros y numerarse consecutivamente. Los ti- tulos para cada ilustracién deberan someterse en una pagina separada. metidas como ilustraciones deben ser claras, bien definidas y en papel glaseado, preferible- mente 5 por 7 u 8 por 10 pulgadas en tamanio. Las fotografias so-. Las notas al pie deben numerarse consecu- tivamente con un numero de llamada siguiendo la palabra en el texto a la cual hace referen- cia la nota al pie. La nota al pie debe apa- recer en el texto en la linea siguiendo el nt- mero de referencia y separada del texto por medio de una linea corta hacia dentro desde el margen izquierdo del texto. Las notas al pie se usan para dar crédito a material no publicado y a comunicaciones. Si se hacen solamente unas pocas referencias a la litera- tura entonces dichas citas pueden aparecer como notas al pie. Las citas incluiran el nom- bre del autor, el afio de publicacién, el titulo del trabajo, y el nombre y paginas de la pu- blicacion. Los manuscritos deben enviarse al Lider del Centro Tropical de Investigaciones Forestales, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Las opiniones expresadas en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Servicio Forestal. Los articulos publicados en el Carib- bean Forester pueden reproducirse siempre que se haga referencia a la fuente original. The Caribbean Forester is a free semi-an- nual technical journal published since 1938 in Puerto Rico by the Tropical Forest Research Center, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. This publication is devoted to the development of improved management and utilization of tropical forest resources, with special interest in the Caribbean region. Through the pages of the journal tropical foresters and workers in allied scientific fields are informed of specific problems of tropical forestry, policies in effect in various countries, and progress of work being carried out for the improvement of the management and util- ization of forest resources. It furnishes a means of distribution of information on the progress and results of the experimental pro- grams of the Tropical Research Center in Puerto Rico. In addition, it affords an op- portunity for other workers in the field of tropical forestry to make available the results of their work. Contributions for the journal are solicited. However, material submitted should not be under consideration for publication elsewhere. Manuscripts should not ordinarily exceed 20 (Continiaa en la portada #3) The printing of this publication has been approved by Director of the Bureau of the Budget (June 26, 1958) The Tropical Forest Research Center is operated in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico. VoL. 20, Nos. 1 AND 2 JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Caribbean Forester Comiren tc Sib aa telecine Page 1958 Annual Report Tropical Forest Research Center ____ 1 The 1959 Tropical Forestry Training Course ____________ lat F. Bruce Lamb A Selected, Annotated Bibliography on Mahogany ________ 7, F. Bruce Lamb Effects of the 1956 Hurricane on Forests in Puerto Rico __ 38 Frank H. Wadsworth and George H. Englerth Ranura y Cuenca de Pino Radiata _____________________ Dr. Ervin Ijjasz Sixth Session of the Latin American Forestry Commission At the Sixth Session of the Latin Ame- rican Forestry Commission of FAO held at Antigua, Guatemala in November 1958 two working group were formed. One was the Long Forest Policy Committee the other Forest Research Committee. The Long Term Forest Policy Group discussed and made recommendations regar- ding the following subjects: oes (a) Colonization and related. factors, (b) Shifting cultivation, (c) Reforestation. The Forest Research Group heard brief report from the members on current research in the following fields: Dendrology, Botany, Ecology, Mensuration, Inventory, Silviculture, Management, Protection, Wood Utilization. Yn addition three sections were establi- shed to continue work in the various assigned tields and report to the Forest Research Com- mittee. The sections formed are the follows: (a) Forest Terminology, (b) Utilization of Tropical Hardwoods, (c) Planting. The assigment of Leader of the Section on Planting was given to Dr. Frank H. Wadworth, Leader of the Tropical Forest Research Center in Puerto Rico. This Sec- tion was given the assigment of investigating forest plantations in Latin America. A pre- liminary report was requested at the end of the first year. Therefore a report on the work of Planting Section will be subitted early in 1960. The date of Seventh Session of the Latin American Forestr Commission was not set but will be held sometime after the World Forestry Congress aud will be announced by FAO. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 1658 Annual Report Tropical Forest The program of the Center during 1958 continued within six broad fields: forest man- agement research, forest utilization research, forest administration, forestry assistance, for- estry training, and the Virgin Islands pro- gram. Progress in each of these fields was equal to that of the past, and in some, it was accelerated. With the appointment of a project lea- aer in forest management research for half the year three new studies were begun: re- forestation of the shallow loam area in east- ern Puerto Rico, expanded testing of pines, and development of new techniques for poi- soning undesirable trees. Forest utilization research, concerned chiefly with preparation of equipment during the previous year, made full use of the new non-pressure treating plant in the testing of fence posts of 53 species. In the Caribbean National Forest (in- cluding the Luquillo Experimental Forest), where a unique tropical example of multiple forest use is being maintained, the progress of stand improvement was accelerated, costs per acre were reduced, and the volume of timber sales increased. Progress was also made in the elimination of undesirable cultiva- tion from within the forest and in more effi- cient administration of special uses of the for- est under some 200 distinct permits, includ- ing a large recreation area, summer homes, and numerous electronic installations. Cooperative assistance in forestry again emphasized potential industrial markets for local woods but also expanded into Common- wealth forest administration. Cost sharing with the Commonwealth continued for the production and distribution of planting stock and technical forestry assistance to farmers. A forestry short course for training for- eign students was held as in the past. A to- Research Center tal of 21 students from 12 countries partici- pated. A notable development in this course was more complete treatment of forest utili- zation. In the Virgin Islands an outstanding accomplishment was the acceptance on the part of a large number of landowners that forest plantations are needed and their wil- lingness to pay the costs of establishment. In addition, major improvements were made in the production of mahogany plant- ing stock. FOREST MANAGEMENT RESEARCH A total of 149 studies were active in the field of forest management research during the year. These were in the following pro- jects: dendrology, environmental factors, re- generation cuttings, nursery practice, species adaptability, planting methods, growth of residual trees and stands, silvicides, and man- agement units. Only those studies which produced results of special interest during the year are described here. Reforestation of the Shallow Loam Area The shallow loam soils on steep slopes within the eastern mountains cover an area of about 166,000 acres. Elevation ranges from 1000 to 2500 feet above sea level and annual precipitation from 50 to 80 inches. Most of this area is so steep that it needs forest pro- tection yet it is almost completely deforested. Tests were started in 1958 to determine the adaptability of several tree species to refor- estation of this area. The following fast- growing species with soft, light timbers were tested:Spathodea campanulata Beauv., Ery- thrina poeppigiana (Walp.) O. F. Cook, Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dec. & Planch., Hernandia sonora L., Castilla elas- tica Cerv., Cecropia peltata L., Spondias 2 mombin L., Eucalyptus kirtoniana F. Muell., Casuarina equisetifolia Forst., and Cupressus lusitanica Mill. This study entailed the use of seeds of tree species heretofore untried locally. It was found that for Hernandia there are 156 seeds per pound. Germination averaged only 17 percent. For Erythrina it was found that there are 2099 fresh seeds per pound and germination was 72 percent. For Cast- illa seed weighings showed 1850 per pound, and although interference prevented an exact germination count, it was high. For Spath- odea the number of seeds per pod ranged from 550 to 730 and the seeds ran 52,000 per pound. Germination was poor but this was probably due to losses from washing by rains. It was found that for Spondias there are 400 fruits per pound. Production of nursery stock did not prove difficult, al- though the plant percentage was low. A preliminary test of planting stock, started in November 1957, showed that wild- ing stock of Hernandia could be used satis- factorily (6-month survival was 75 percent). Survival of wildings of Didymopanax and Cecropia, however, was unsatisfactory, possibly due to poor stock. Cuttings were tried with Spathodea, Spondias, Erythrina, and Castilla. Surprisingly these species, which root abundantly in nature, did not respond well in the nursery, even with hormones. Therefore, nursery stock was used since no serious problem developed in producing it. Field planting was tested in six locations ranging from 1500 to 2500 feet elevation. At each location 16 trees of each species were planted in each of two plots. At the end of the year these tests are still so recent that only indications of results are apparent. The most promising species appear to be Spathodea, Cupressus, Casuarina, and Cecropia. Adaptability of Pine The spectacular response of Pinus elliot- tii, Engelm. to inoculation with mycorrhizal CARIBBEAN FORESTER fungi on poor laterite soil, reported previous- ly, has led to several recent trials, the largest of which was undertaken this year. Failures to obtain seed of P. occidentalis Sw. and P. caribaea Mort. left the United States as the only remaining source of planting material this year. Three thousand seedlings each of P. elliottii and P. taeda L. were imported and planted at seven sites on the island. Eleva- tions range from 500 to 3500 feet, rainfall from 50 to 120 inches annually, and soils from coarse sands to heavy clays. The work was done late in the year and no results are yet apparent. Future plans call for new tests with tropical species of pines. Yagrumo Hembra Planting Yagrumo hembra (Cecropia _peltata L.) has recently attracted attention as a tree of rapid growth producing a light wood with many possible uses. Studies of natural re- generation after clear cutting have been start- ed and artificial regeneration is being tested. Previous seed collection has shown the extraction factor to be about 20% and the number of seeds per pound to be about 2,250,000. Seed extraction is difficult because the gummy material surrounding the seed makes washing a slow process. The germina- tion of well ripened seed is high, with indi- vidual samples up to 80 percent. Successful propagation resulted from treating the seedlings like eucalyptus. The seed bed is prepared with about equal parts of clay, sand, and filter press cake and is fumigated before sowing. Sowing is done under shade, which is maintained continuous- ly until the seedlings shade the ground (See Fig. 1). After 10 weeks, when the seedlings are 4 to 6 inches tall, they are transplanted into the open at an 8 x 8 inch spacing. The transplant beds are heavily shaded for 2 weeks, after which the shade is gradually removed. Almost no mortality occurred in the transplanting. When the transplants are 10 to 24 inches tall (See Fig. 2) they are ready for lifting. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Fig. 1—Yagrumo hembra seedlings 35 days after transplanting and 81 days from sowing. Fig. 2.—Seedling of Yagrumo Hem- bra 79 days after planted to an outside covered bed and 164 days from seed sowing. Survival of bare-rooted seedlings in the field has not always been satisfactory, but 80 percent was obtained in six localities in 1958, equal to that of Casuarina. Most oi the trees show little evidence of shock from transplanting, and in favorable locations the best specimens reached 6 feet in height in 7 months. Teak Weeding on St. Croix Severe grass competition has handicap- ped the development of plantations of teak (Tectona grandis L.) on St. Croix in the Vir- gin Islands. During the first two years it has been necessary to weed the plantations twice a year, an expensive practice involving hoeing. The most important competitor is guinea grass (Panicum maximum Jacq.). A test of the use of herbicides was made in 1958. Treatments included (1) hoeing a 24- inch strip along the rows (2) hoeing the entire area (3) same as 2, above, with stubble spray- ed with 100 gallons per acre of 2“ aqueous emulsion of pentachlorophenol (4) same as 2, above, sprayed with 100 gallons per acre of 20% aqueous solution of CMU, and (5) same as 2, above, sprayed with sodium TCA at the rate of 20 pounds per acre in aqueous solution. Treatments applied in January, at the beginning of the dry season were all effective 3 months later although regrowth of grass had begun in all of them. Retreatment in April was not effective until June, regardless of method. It was apparent that the re- establishment of the grass was taking place from new seed. Further tests are planned. Complete weeding at the beginning of the dry season adversely affected trees. The 6-month height growth of the trees protected by grass strips 24 inches wide was 60 percent above that of the trees weeded completely. The poison spray was difficult to apply selective- ly. even though low power was used and a relatively windless period was selected. Teak mortality of 22% in the CMU plots, double that elsewhere, was apparently in part due to contact of the poison with the teak trees. CARIBBEAN F'ORESTER Advanced Mahogany Plantation Growth Where adapted, broadleaf mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King), is the most promising exotic plantation tree in Puerto Rico. In the protected sinkholes on the lime- stone region of the north coast and in the foothills below 1500 feet on clay soils which have not been degraded by farming this species is exceptiona! in growth rate and tree form. Growth, development, and reproduction of mahogany plantations are under continu- ing observaticn because none of the planta- tions has yet reached maturity and the final harvest. The oldest plantations on record are two on the Luquillo Mountains, esta- blished in 1931. Regular reexaminations of both of these were made in 1958. Both plantations are located on heavy clay soils in a rainfall belt of 90-120 inches annually. One is at about 800 feet elevation and the other at 1200 feet. One plantation has been dense and pure throughout its life, the other, because of heavy early mortality, consists of scattered mahogany trees sur- rounded by a volunteer stand. The pure stand, now 27 years old, was unthinned until its 20th year, and has since been maintained at a basal area in excess of 100 square feet per acre. From 105 square feet in 1952 the stand grew to 153 feet in 1958. The average diameter of the dominant and codominant trees is now 14 inches, with the maximum, 18 inches. Current diameter growth of the dominant and codominant trees is about 4 inches per decade. A_ thinning made in 1958, reduced the basal area to 110 square feet per acre and yielded about 1000 board feet of timber per acre. Fruiting and natural regeneration appeared for the first time in the 23rd. year. First-year seedlings are now plentiful but only those in openings around the edges of the plantation have reached 6 feet in height. The mixed stand, now 27 years old, shows clearly the effects of more open spacing JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 in early years. The dominant and codomi- nant trees average 18 inches, with a maxi- mum of 24 inches. Tree form is as good as in the other plantation (20-to 30-foot mer- chantable heights) despite more open growth. The scattered occurrence of these trees has made precise basal area measurement imprac- tical. Apparently it has always been below 100 sq. ft. per acre. Natural regeneration present as in the other stand, has been kept suppressed by the volunteer growth beneath the mahoganies. The most striking feature of this second plantation is the sustained rapid diameter growth. Current diameter growth (1952-57) of the dominant and codominant trees is more than 6 inches per decade. This growth rate is more than that of any other cabinet wood species under ob- servation in Puerto Rico, and it approaches that of eucalyptus. Tree Poisoning Techniques Extensive stand improvement operations 5 conducted as a part of the pilot management study have shown the need for more effective methods of eliminating undesirable trees. A shift from felling to girdling and then to poisoning has taken place in the past 3 years. The current standard method is treatment of frills with 5% 2,4,5-T in diesel oil. As described elsewhere in this report most trees can be killed within a year by this method. However, a more rapid and cheaper tech- nique and a quicker kill are desired. This was the objective of an experiment begun early in 1958. The test concerned trees of 5 common species in the diameter range of 5 to 11 in- ches, typical of that in the stands under treatment. The tests were made in January, deliberately selecting the time of year when results would be least rapid. Poisoning with ammonium sulfamate and 2,4,5-T (4 pounds acid equivalent per gallon) was compared with a chip girdle. A preliminary tabula- tion of the results after 12 months is shown in Table 1. Table 1.—The Results of Tree Poisoning Treatments | Percent Dead Percent Unaffected Treatment ae. 7 eee. LAS ae | 2mo. | 6 mo. | 12 mo. 2 mo. | 6 mo. | 12 mo. % % % % Ge % Chip girdle 0 8 42 71 70! 29 Frill with 19.3% Ammate 0 7 31 WE 73 48 Frill with 2% 2,4,5-T in water 0 7 23 67 63 40 Basal incision with 10% 2,4,5-T in water 0 5 10 82 85 82 Basal spray with 5% 2,4,5-T in oil 2 50 73 40 35 20 Incised bark spray with 20% 2,4,5-T in water 16 44 62 56 40 17 Bark spray with 20% 2,4,5-T in water 0 8 28 72 36 85 ae —___—__—__- The trees not accounted for in this table are in a stage of partial defoliation or loss of crown. Only two of these treatments ap- peared superior to the chip girdle. The most effective of the treatments, the basal spray with 5% 2,4,5-T in oil, proved to be no bet- ter than the current practice of frill girdling, and the transportation of the spray through the forest proved too cumbersome to be practical. Additional treatments, begun later, ap- plied sodium arsenite under similar condi- tions. Early result are shown in Table 2. Pilot Management Study The pilot management study, a 6,734- acre demonstration of the results of silvicul- tural treatment of secondary rain forest, con- tinued into the third year of the first 5-year cutting cycle. About 3,480 acres have been subjected to their first improvement cutting. Details of the technique appeared in the last annual report. Frill-poisoning, using 2,4,5-T at 5 percent strength in diesel oil, continues to be superior to a number of other tech- niques and poisons tested. The average cost of the treatment for the year was 11.8 man- hours per acre. To the present about 480,000 board feet of timber have been sold from these operations. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Results of the poisoning, reported in preliminary fashion a year ago have now been summarized. An examination of 500 trees was made 9 months after treatment. Thirty- six species were included. Of the total, 345, or 69 percent were dead and 93 percent showed some effects in the crown and are expected to die. A_ particularly resistant species, pomarrosa (Eugenia jambos L) has not yet been defoliated by the poison but a few trees have broken off as a result of insect attack and decay in the bole at the point of treatment. Detailed sampling of the stands before and after treatment has continued. Some 220 fifth-acre plots were measured in 2 compart- ments during the year, with about 100 more remaining. Data from 80 of the established plots have been summarized but no analyses have been completed. Better utilization of the forest is in prospect. A small sawmill is to be set up near the forest in the near future, a facility which we hope will provide an outlet for many of the less-known timbers. The most important progress made in this direction during 1958 was the sale of all yagrumo hembra (Cecropia peltata L) in the cutting budget, as excelsior wood. Table 2—Preliminary Results of Poisoning Treatments Treatment Continuous frill with 50% sodium arsenite Continuous frill with 25% sodium arsenite Discontinuous frill with 50% sodium arsenite Discontinuous frill with 25% sodium arsenite 50% sodium arsenite in cups (applied to palms only) 25% sodium arsenite in cups (applied to palms only) | 6-Month Results | % Unaffected | % Killed 25 45 25 55 20 60 60 at 10 80 50 40 JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 FOREST UTILIZATION RESEARCH Cooperation with private industry, the Commonwealth Division of Forests, and the Economic Development Administration was the keynote in the work of the Division of Forest Utilization Research in 1958. This cooperative work varied considerably depend- ing on the nature of the request, the source, and the project. This work is described else- where in this report. The preservation of fence posts was the main research project during 1958. A total of 4700 posts of 53 species, including one species of bamboo were collected, peeled, and piled for air seasoning. The green moisture content of all posts to be treated was deter- mined from the average moisture content of samples taken adjacent to the top and bot- tom of each 6-foot post. The posts were weighed soon after peeling and the calculated ovendry weight determined. From this the moisture content of each post was calculated from the current weight at any given period of seasoning. A manuscript on machining of Puerto Rican woods was reviewed, corrections made, and it is now awaiting publication. A display of 40 Puerto Rican woods was prepared for the Sixth Session of the Latin American Forestry Commission Conference in Guatemala. FOREST ADMINISTRATION The Luquillo Experimental Forest, ac- tually a part of the Caribbean National Forest, has continued to serve not only the research needs of the Center but also as a demonstra- tion of the application of the principles of multiple forest land use in the tropics. As a National Forest this area is subject to the policies of the Forest Service in the United States and its management is dedicated to the principle of “the greatest good for the greatest number in the long run”. The area serves as a locale for field experiments, a source of timber for commercial use, a spec- ~] tacularly scenic resource for forest recreation, and on the peaks a unique area for radio communication. The protection, administra- tion, and management of the 33,000-acre national forest continues to be an important part of the work of the Center. Timber Sales Sales of timber from the forest are made primarily as a part of the pilot management study described elsewhere in this report. During 1958 a total of 53 timber sales were made with receipts of $2,742. Sales of other products such as bamboo, moss, and fruits totalled $502. The main obstacle to timber sales is inaccessibility and the lack of facili- ties for milling lumber and _ preservative treatment of posts. Special Uses The proximity of the forest to a popula- tion center of over 300,000 is reflected in the number and types of special uses that are active on the forest today. At the present time there are 203 active permits, of which 140 are paid and 63 are free. In 1958 these permits earned a total of $6,535.67. Of the paid per- mits, 47 are for electronic installations on either El Yunque Peak or Toro Negro and 40 are for home sites in the La Mina Recrea- tional Area. The others vary from camp sites to water lines. The administration of the La Mina Re- creational Area by the Commonwealth Public Parks and Rerceation Administration has been quite satisfactory. All facilities under their permit are being well maintained or improved; however, the whole area has reach- ed its capacity in the number of people using the facilities. Over 156,000 people visited the area in 1958 and this was about a 20,000 increase over 1957 and a 50,000 increase over 1956. The number of visitors will undoubt- edly continue to increase, and this on an area of only thirty-four acres. In recognition of 8 the seriousness of the situation the Center submitted to the Commonwealth detailed plans for the expansion of facilities in the La Mina area and the development of an addi- tional area on the south side of the forest. A significant step taken during the year was the decision to eliminate the parcelero system, or agriculture permits, on the Luqui- llo Experimental Forest. This will end a complex and unsuccessful marriage of forest management versus crop production. Some twenty-two permittees still remain as hold- overs from the 250 who formely lived in the forest. The goverment-owned residences have been sold to their occupants at a nominal price with the condition that they be remove: by June 30, 1959. Those permittees who have their own homes are allowed to remain on a quarter-acre residence site for life tenure. All areas which have been farmed will be planted to trees as soon as possible. There has been a continuous increase in demand for sites for radio communication on the forest with resulting problems of space and frequency interference. Two areas within the forest are especially suitable to this use at the present time because of their height, accessibility, and available power supply. These are El Yunque Peak (which has an area of about one-half acre) and Mount Ma- ravilla and Mount Tres Dias at Toro Negro. Two radio advisory committees have been formed by the permittees to deal with fre- quency interference as well as road and site maintenance problems. These committees have operated to our mutual benefit. Application has been made by the De- partment of the Navy for the construction of a radar site on East Peak in the Luquillo Unit, by the International Telephone and Telegraph Company for a radio relay site on El Toro in the Luquillo Unit, and Radiotel- ephone Communicators of Puerto Rico, Inc. for a radio relay site on Cerro Punta in the Toro Negro Unit. Completion of these proj- ects would require about ten miles of new. road construction and additional power lines to serve the sites. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Roads and Trails The steepness of the slopes and the rainy climate within the national forest make the provision of transportation facilities a costly and continuing problem. During the past year a revised plan for development and maintenance of roads and trails was complet- ed. About 6 miles of road are proposed for construction and some 35 miles of existing foot trails are being maintained. The present road system is maintained by the Common- wealth Goverment. The foot trails are maintained primarily to provide ready access for inspection of all of the compartments of the pilot management study. Mapping of these trails was begun during the year. FORESTRY ASSISTANCE Forestry assistance to Commonwealth and private agencies was offered by the Cen- ter in four general fields: propagation and distribution of forest tree planting stock, technical assistance to private landowners in forest management, assistance to the Com- monwealth Division of Forests in public for- est administration, and technical assistance in forest utilization. The Forest Service shared with the Com- monwealth the cost of the operation of a for- est nursery and the distribution of nearly a million forest trees to farmers during the year. Also shared with the Commonwealth was the cost of a program of cooperative for- est management in which farm foresters ad- vise farmers directly on reforestation and woodlot management. This program, for- merly concentrated within 5 critical munici- palities on the eastern mountains, was ex- panded during the year to include 8 munici- palities. A joint integrating inspection was made with the Division of Forests of the Guavate Forest and a report was prepared to assist the Division to improve administration of this area. Similar inspections of other Common- wealth forests are scheduled for the future. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 A 1-day field training session on stand im- provement techniques was held for rangers of the Division of Forests. One of the major problems in the use of wood for furniture and other manufac- tured products is the wood-moisture relations. The equilibrium moisture content, that is, the moisture content which wood will finally attain at a given combination of temperature and relative humidity, was calculated for the San Juan area. These data were furnished to local furniture manufacturers, the Ramey Air Force Base, and a local designer, and resulted partially in the awarding of contracts for furniture by the armed forces to local in- dustry. Information was furnished the Ramey Air Force Base on the cause of breakage in installing spliced antenna poles, and recom- mendations given on avoiding such breakage in the future. Help was given to a local man- ufacturer of knives on the possible source of local woods for handles, and methods that might be used to dye these handles a dark color. Assistance was given to a local man- ufacturer of a cement-wood fiber composition board on the procurement of raw material and methods of preserving the wood during seasoning. In cooperation with the Economic De- velopment Administration seven demonstra- tions on the use and maintenance of woods tools were given, with Mr. Frederick Simmons of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Sta- tion leading the instruction. About 50 people attended the sessions which were held at El Verde, Adjuntas, Guavate Forest, Toro Ne- gro Forest, and Las Marias. At the request of the Economic Develop- ment Adminisration, samples of local char- coal were sent to two, and wood samples to five, prospective manufacturers in the States. FORESTRY TRAINING The fifth tropical forestry short course was held in the spring of 1958. A total of 21 trainees from 12 countries attended the 9 course. Details have been described fully in a previous issue of the Caribbean Forester (19:25-29, 1958). VIRGIN ISLANDS PROGRAM The Virgin Islands Forestry Program completed its fourth year as a cooperative venture between the Forest Service and the Virgin Islands Corporation. The program is financed through a $30,000 grant from the Corporation. The program has consisted of three main activities: Forest planting, forest improvement, and forest utilization. To date the program has been limited primarily to the island of St. Croix. Forest Planting Planting work centers around the intro- duction of Dominican mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) into natural forests and reforestation with teak (Tectona grandis L.). The mahogany stock is produced locally and the teak is imported from Puerto Rico. Seed handling and nursery practices have evolved gradually and are now as follows for Domi- nican mahogany: the seeds are collected in February and March and sown immediately in 5-inch plastic pots, using alluvial soil. Two seeds are sown per pot. They are propagated under light shade and are ready for planting by September. Planting of mahogany is done in brushy areas in the more humid parts of the island (mean rainfall 40 to 60 inches in a normal year). Strip clearing is done at a spacing of 20 to 25 feet and the trees are planted 10 feet apart in the rows. About 15,000 trees were planted during the year, and early in- dications are that survival everywhere is very high. Teak has been used for the reforestation of cleared lands. Most of the teak has been planted on lands of the Corporation but in the past year about 2000 trees were set out on private lands in different parts of St. Croix. Survival of teak to date has not gen- erally been satisfactory, losses being due to 10 stock delayed in shipment, stock below stand- ard size, inexperienced planters, and unsea- sonable droughts. At its best, however, teak is sufficiently promising to suggest a con- tinuing program to establish extensive plan- tations. Forest Emprovement Improvement of natural forests on St. Croix has been limited to those already con- taining mahogany and has not yet progressed beyond the lands of the Corporation. During the past year about 15 acres were cleared of wolf trees to liberate young stands of maho- CARIBBEAN FORESTER gany. About 250 acres on the island still merit improvement. Forest Utilization The Program sawmill, used to provide a service to the community in cutting up numerous old trees of mahogany and other valuable species, was subjected to extensive repairs during the year. It has continued to operate on an occasional basis to cut logs re- moved from forest improvement operations and from private estates. Equipment is being acquired to set up a hot-and-cold-bath plant for the preservative treatment of fence posts. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 11 The 1959 Tropical Forestry Training Course F. BRUCE LAMB Training Officer Tropical Forest Research Center INTRODUCTION Technical assistance programs develop- ing on a world wide scale draw increasing attention to the vital relationship between national welfare and national development of natural resources. In tropical regions the importance of managing the land for contin- uous long range production of valuable food and industria! raw material becomes more apparent every day with population growth and the desire for better standards of living. A large proportion of the soils in the tropics are not suitable for continuous, clean cultivation, and the practice of forestry offers one of the most promising means of obtain- ing permanent yield of valuable products from such land. To achieve a higher level of production from tropical forest lands re- quires improved methods of utilizing the raw material available in the natural forests and a change in the forests composition to pro- duce more valuable types of raw material. Many countries that have extensive tropical forests lack the forestry technicians needed to organize the adequate utilization of their forest resources. For several years the Tropical Forest Research Center of the U.S. Forest Service has offered a tropical forestry training course at Rio Piedras, Puer- to Rico, in cooperation with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Na- tions and the International Cooperation Administration of the United States, This program provides tropical training for forest- ry technicians and helps to fill the need for tropical foresters. Since the first course in 1955, ninety trainees from thirty countries have taken advantage of the facilities offered. The 1959 training program covered a period of 12 weeks from March 30 to June 19. The International Cooperation Adminis- tration recruited the trainees and financed travel and subsistence for all but two of the participants. ICA also paid the local costs of instructors, administration, and transpor- tation. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations provided many pu- blications of special interest to tropical for- esters and an instructor for the study of forest administration and policy. The Tropical Forest Research Center was responsible for administration and con- duct of the course. Assistance was provided by the Office of Technical Cooperation, Puerto Rico Department of State; Division of Forests, Fisheries, and Wildlife of the De- partment of Agriculture and Commerce of Puerto Rico; Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puerto Rico; the Soil Conservation Service, and Agricultural Sta- bilization and Conservation Service both of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Ori- entation, technical assistance, instruction, and training materials were provided within the fields of specialization of these organiza- tions. FACILITIES Puerto Rico with its various land use and population problems combined with pro- grams to solve them offers an excellent en- vironment for the presentation of a tropical forestry program. The Tropical Forest Re- search Center in combination with other Federal and Commonwealth agencies has ac- cess to a wide range of land use programs. Tro- pical forestry administration has been in pro- gress for 40 years. Forestry programs vary from reforestation projects begun 30 years ago to the development of management plans for 12 natural forests. The wood utilization §sec- tion has a well equipped installation for machining tests and preservative treatment of wood. Contact is also maintained with many private forestry and wood utilization projects. Library facilities cover tropical forestry and allied fields in several languages. Equipment furnished by ICA made possible simultaneous translation from Eng- lish to Spanish and vice versa. With this equipment the class material could be pres- ented more rapidly than in previous years. OBJECTIVES The principal objective of the course was to explain and demonstrate to a_ picked group of practicing tropical foresters the methods, techniques and practices that prom- ise success in the management of tropical forests and related natural resources. By means of personal interviews and a series of round table discussions the material of the course was adapted as far as possible to fit the problems of specific countries and individual trainees. A long range objective of the program is to establish lasting personal contacts be- tween foresters working in the tropics, and promote multilateral exchanges of ideas, points of view and problems. Instruction The personne! of the ‘Tropical Forest Rémy Al Delphin Director of SHADA Mare Rouge Forestry Division Apandi Mangoendikoro Director of Tarakan Forestry District John Irving Reeves Forest Ranger Bureau of Forest Conservation CARIBBEAN FORESTER Research Center did most of the teaching, covering a wide range of fields of individual specialization. The Commonwealth Division of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife made a considerable contribution to the success of the course by assisting in the work of aerial photographic interpretation and field demons- tration of regeneration, silviculture, and nursery practice on Commonwealth Forests. Mr. Louis Huguet, Food and Agricul- ture Organization of the United Nations, presented material on forest legislation and policy and led the final round table discussion of individual country problems in this field. Mr. Huguet is stationed in Mexico and has had more than 10 years experience in Latin America. TRAINEES The program was open to men with forestry training and experience, preferably graduate engineer-agronomists or graduates of secondary or technical schools with at least 4 years of forestry experience. Trainees were expected to have an active professional interest in tropical forestry and a working knowledge of either Spanish or English. Candidates were recomended by their gov- ernments to the local ICA Mission which sponsored the training of qualified applicants. Thirteen full time trainees from eight The position and country of each is as follows: countries attended the course. aame, Haiti Indonesia Liberia JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Willie Wuelleh Cooper Forest Ranger Bureau of Forest Conservation Pablo Jaime Bellido Agricultural Instructor Ministry oi Agriculture Carlos Aurelio Lopez Ibanez Forestry Extension Agent Agriculture Extension Service Alvaro Villamizar Cardozo Forest Superintendent Municipality of Cali Rafael Cassannello Forester, Colombian-American Agricultural Technincal Service José Vicente Rodriguez M. Forest Superintendent Forest Experiment Station Piedras Blancas Alberto Loaisiga Cruz Forest Inspector Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Julio César Moya A. Forest Inspector Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Enrique del Valle Private Forester Edwin Pacheco Smith Forester, Commonwealth Division of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife TRAINING PROGRAM The training program included lectures, round table discussions, field trips, labora- tory demonstrations, and training films. Orientation 3 days During the first three days the students were given general background information Liberia Panama Colombia Colombia Colombia Colombia Nicaragua Nicaragua Chile Puerto Rico on Puerto Rico including history, economy and education. The history of forestry in Puerto Rico including the present status and the future were covered along with a preview of the course. Round Table I 2 days The trainees gave a general presentation of the geography and development of the ‘OOIY, OPONG ‘VABATY “YW + BLIOGIT ‘saaooqy uYyor Sa[lyD : i: ' a yae 4 : 2 ‘y fenseivoin ‘eso +B ‘ZanBUpoy “[ 2}4sl1 0} FJaT ‘MOL PUOIY S ale ap ‘a ferdeqry ‘tadooy “AQ SBIQuMIOjO) “ARZTUTeTLLA V fenservsin ‘edo “f + BIquio[o,) con poy : k Oba ‘oloyipusosureyy “V HieH wUydpod “Wo FVNseaBIIN ‘VSISIVOTY “VY SRIquie[e) ‘Zede'T “OD SOMML ‘1ooJOQ suruiesy, ‘quey sont “q (Bwueurd ‘opiy]ed "qd {BIquiojo) ‘OyjouULsse) “Y POOR, OPN ‘ossused “Wf YSU 0} JJoT ‘MOL Youg JezUa) Yrvasey S010 yeordory, ay} JV aSaNOd WAOYS oY} Suspuoz}e syuapnig— AWLSAY Od 40 ASUNOD IVNOLLVNUALNI HLXIS AHL dO NOLLVUAA THOT “S31 CARIBBEAN FORESTER 14 J ANUARY - JUNE, 1959 countries represented which served as a back- ground for the course and later discussions of individual forestry problems. General Forestry 2 days This review of the forestry field covered tree production, forest products, services of the forest, forest management and support- ing fields, related fields, and world forestry. Two days were taken up with field trips to give a general picture of forestry activities in Puerto Rico. Dendrology 3 days The material covered in this field includ- ed nomenclature, botanical classification, con- struction and use of botanical keys for tree identification, collection and preparation of botanival specimens. Ecolegy 2 days The use of environmental factors in the classification of tropical vegetation into For- mations, Associations, and Types was pres- ented. The importance of the proper eval- uation of ecological factors in forest manage- ment and reforestation projects was empha- sized. One day was spent in field demon- stration. Round Table II 2 days A description of the tree species and forests of the countries represented was given by trainees along with questions and discus- sions. Artificial Regeneration 2 days Included in the discussion of this subject were purposes, problems, and methods of artificial regeneration. Seedling production, lifting, grading, storage and transportation were also covered along with tree planting principles and practices. One day was spent in the field observing forest nursery practices, and the training film “Soil Bank” was shown. 15 Silviculture 5 days Silvics, silvicultural principles, tropical silviculture, and timber stand improvement were discussed. Field trips covering three days presented plantation treatment of ma- hogany and teak, timber stand improvement in mixed natural forest, mangrove forest cut- ting practices, and improvement of secondary forests. Wood Utilization 9 days The prcgram of instruction on wood utilization covered forest products research in Puerto Rico, new uses of wood, wood structure, wood properties, milling practices, wood-moisture relationships, pulp and paper, wood laminates, seasoning and drying, wood preservation, finishes, joints, and fasteners. The following films on utilization were shown: “A Piece of Wood”, “The Small Sawmill”, “Tree to Trade’, and “Longer Life for Wood’. Field trips were made to a local wood treating plant, a furniture fac- tory, two paper plants, and a factory produc- ing building material from a mixture of cement and excelsior. Round Table III 2 days The utilization problems of individual countries were discussed. Forest Protection 1 day This phase of the course included fire prevention and suppression, protection against insects and disease. Training films “Building a Fire Lane” and ‘‘Watershed Wildfire” were shown. Public Forestry 3 days Forest Service organization. U.S. Nation- al Forest resource policy, watershed manage- ment, forest engineering, safety programs, information and education methods were discussed. Training films “Rainbow Valley”, “Mountain Water’, “Water of Coweeta’”. and “Forest Service Engineer’ were shown. 16 Forest Mensuration 9 days Equipment use, map use, units of meas- urement, volume tables, basic _ statistics, aerial photo interpretation, type mapping, cruising techniques, types and designs of cruises, field cruise, and analysis of cruise data were considered. Forest Management 2 days Multiple use, timber production, manage- ment plans, and yield computation were dis- cussed. Forest Research 2 days Research in regeneration, silviculture, and utilization were discussed along with research requirements, problems, and problem area. Forest Policy and Legislation 2 days Forest policy formulation, required leg- islation to implement policies and _ special problems in tropical America were covered in this presentation. The training film “The River” was shown. Private Forestry 2 days United States, State and private for- estry programs were presented along with a panel discussion of local programs of assist- ance to private forestry. Representatives of the U.S. Agricultural Stabilization and Conser- vation Service, Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Division of Forests, and Agricultural Extension Service of the University of Puer- to Rico assisted. The training film “Out of the Woods” was shown. A one-day field trip demonstrated the type of work being done in Puerto Rico. Round Tabie IV 3 days A general discussion among the parti- cipants presented the special forestry pro- CARIBBEAN FORESTER blems, forest policy and legislative programs of each country. The course was terminated with a resume of the general forestry situa- tion of the area represented by Mr. L. H. Huguet of FAO and presentation of diplomas by Dr. F. H. Wadsworth, Tropical Forest Research Center Leader. Training Course 1960 The training course for 1960 will be similar to that offered in 1959 and will be held during the period September to De- cember. The exact dates will be announced later. Persons desiring to attend the train- ing course should apply through their Go- vernments. Ordinarily, their application should be forwarded through their immediate superior to .the Chief of their Forest Service or Ministry of Agriculture. If the individual or his Government wishes to pay his expenses, the Government will simply forward the ap- plication to Dr. Frank H. Wadsworth, Tro- pical Forest Research Center, U. S. Forest Service, Post Office Box 577, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico, giving such biographical data as age of applicant, education, past positions held, and present position. If financial aid is desired, the proper Government official will ordinarily contact such agencies as the International Coopera- tion Administration of the United States of America, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rockefeller Founda- tion or Ford Foundation. The cultural attaché at the American Embassy in most countries is in a position to advise individuals and Government representatives regarding the availability of, and procedures for applying for, scholarships from these and other sources. Applications for funds should be forwarded to the central office of the financing agency not later than June 1, 1960. The principal point to remember is that the individual should apply through his Government and not directly to the Tropical Forest Research Center. J ANUARY - JUNE, 1959 17 A Selected, Annotated Bibliography on Mahogany. F. BRUCE LAMB Tropical Ferest The literature on mahogany goes back to the time of the conquest of the New World and is published in a variety of media and in several languages. Since the 17th century, mahogany lumber has been an important item in world hardwood lumber markets. Until recent years little interest has been shown in determining the position of mahogany in tropical forests as a perma- nent source of industrial raw material. The main effort has been spent in extracting the logs from the forest and promoting the sale of the products therefrom. However, with the present drive of underdeveloped countries in the _ tropical regions of the world to improve their condi- tion of life there has come an increased in- terest in natural resources. It has been well established that extensive tropical areas are for various reasons not suitable for perma- nent cultivation. Many of these lands are suitable only for forest growth. If these areas are to contribute to the permanent welfare of people that control them they must be managed to produce valuable woods or other forest products. Mahogany, a product of the forest of tropical America, has been established for more than 200 years as a standard of quality for many uses of wood. Because of its position in the milieu of tropical vegetation and its universal acceptance as a wood, mahogany will no doubt receive increasing attention from tropical foresters. This bibliography of the literature, which has been accumulated over a period of several years, is published in the hope that it may be of help to tropical foresters who are interested in mahogany. It is not intended that this be consider- ed a complete and exhaustive coverage of the field. Additional material was examined Research Center but omitted here because it did not contri- bute materially to the subject matter. Some publications of interest have undoubtedly been overlooked. The material is grouped under ten of the major headings oi the Cxiord Decimal System of Classification for Forestry. Under the headings the citations are listed chrono- logically by years. Some of the publications covering a broad field are listed under several of the headings. An author index occurs at the end to facilitate location of the work of any particular author. The annotations are meant to give in as brief a manner as possible an idea of the content. Where the title oi some citations is descriptive of the content no further remarks are made. UNA BIBLIOGRAFIA SELECTA Y ANOTADA SOBRE CAOBA La literatura sobre caoba se remonta a los tiempos de la conquista del Nuevo Mundo habiéndose publicado en varios idiomas y de diversos medios. Desde el siglo 17 la made- ra de caoba ha sido un articulo de importan- cia en los mercados mundiales de maderas duras. Hasta hace poco tiempo se habia de- mostrado poco interés en determinar las po- sibilidades de la caoba de los bosques tro- picales como una fuente permanente de materia prima para las industrias. La mayor actividad y esfuerzo se ha empleado en extraer la madera bruta de los bosques y en la promocién de la venta de sus productos. Sin embargo con el movimiento actual de los paises tropicales subdesarrollados hacia el mejoramiento de sus condiciones de vida, ha despertado el interés en la contri- bucién de los recursos naturales. A] mismo tiempo se ha reconocido que extensas zonas tropicales, por diversas razones, no son aptas para cultivarse permanentemente. Muchas 18 de estas regiones se prestan solamente para la produccién forestal. Naturalmente - si dichas zonas han de contribuir al bienestar permanente de los pueblos que las controlan, deben manejarse para la produccién de ma- deras valiosas o de otros productos forestales. La caoba producida en los bosques de la América Tropical ha constituido durante mas de 200 afios un standard de calidad para muchos usos de la madera. Debido a la po- sicidn de la caoba en el ambiente de la vege- tacion tropical y a su universal aceptacién como madera sin duda alguna atraera cada vez mayor atencién de los dasénomos del tropico. Esta bibliografia de la literatura sobre caoba, acumulada durante un periodo de varios anos, se ha publicado en la esperanza que pueda ser de ayuda a aquellos daso- nomos interesados en esta materia. No ha sido la intencién que dicho tra- CARIBBEAN FORESTER bajo se considere como un estudio completo y detallado. Se han examinado otras publi- caciones, las que no se incluyeron por consi- derarse que no constituian una contribuci6n importante a la materia. No hay duda de que algunas publicaciones de interés han pa- sado inadvertidas. El material se agrup6 bajo diez de los encabezamientos principales del Sistema De- cimal Oxford de clasificacién para literatura forestal. Bajo dichos encabezamientos las citas se enumeran cronol6gicamente por anos. Algunas de las publicaciones que cubren un campo amplio estan incluidas bajo varios en- cabezamientos. Ai final se incluy6 un indice por autores para facilitar la selecci6n de ma- terias por sus autores. Ha sido la intencién que las anotaciones den una idea del conte- nido de la manera mas breve posible. En caso de que el titulo de algunas citas sea descriptivo de su contenido no se afaden otras notas. 1%. SYSTEMATIC BOTANY 1. CATESBY, M. 1754. NATURAL HISTORY OF CAROLINA, FLORIDA AND THE BAHAMA ISLANDS. London. Printed for C. Marsh, T. Wilcox and B. Stichall. Description and illustration of mahog- any, type specimen for Jacquin’s des- cription of S. mahagoni. V.2, p.81. 2. LINNAEUS, C. 1758-59- SYSTEMA NATURAE. Ed. 10, 940 pp., Holmiee, L. Salvii. First botanical description of mahogany as Cedrela mahagoni from Catesby’s illustration. 3. JACQUIN, J. N. 1760. ENUMERATIO SYSTEMATICA PLAN- TARUM, QUAS IN INSULIS CARIBASIS. Haak, Lugduni Batavorum. Description of genus Swietenia and spe- cies mahagoni, from Catesby’s illustra- tion. 4. DESROUSSEAUX 1789. MAHAGONI. In Lamarck’s Diction- naire encyclopedique de botanique 3:678-679. (Paris) Botanical description of Swietenia sene- galensis from Senegal, Africa (African mahogany). 5. JUSSIEU, M. A. 1830. LE GROUPE DES MELIACEAE. Me- moires du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, (Paris) 19:153-304. S. senegalensis Desr. renamed Khaya senegalensis, Botanical description 6. ZUCCARINI, J. G. 1837-40. PLANTARUM NOVARUM VEL MI- NUS COGNITARUM, QUAE EN HORTO BO- TANICO HERBARIOQUE REGIO MONA- CENSI SERVANTUR. IV fasiculi. Munchen Monschi, Franz. Abhandlungen Akademie. Botanical description of S. humilis. a CANDOLLE, C. de 1873. MELIACEAE. Phan. 1:399-752. In de Candolle, Monoer. Botanical description. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 8. KING, G. 1886-87 SWIETENIA MACROPHYLLA, Hooker’s Incones Plantarum. illus. London, Williams and Norgate. Botanical description S. macrophylla, (Ser: 73), V-76; Ble 1950): We) BUSCH, P 1911. DIE MAHOGANISORTEN DES HAN- DELS, GEGRDNET NACH DEN EINZELNEN PRODUKTIONSGEBIETEN UND THRER BO- TANISCHEN ABSTAMMUNG. Tropenpflan- zer (Berlin) 15(9):479-493. Types of mahogany, origin and bota- nical classification. 10. DIXON, H. H. 1918. MAHOGANY, AND THE RECOGNI- TION OF SOME OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS BY THEIR MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERIS- TICS. Royal Dublin Soc. Sci. Proc. (N.S8.) 15 (34) :431-586. Comparison of minute anatomy. 11. ROLFE, R. A. 1919. THE TRUE MAHOGANIES. Kew Bul. No. 3:201-206. Source material on early history and synonymy, description of wood. range of S. mahagoni, humilis, and macrophy- lia from the literature. 12. BLAKE, S. F. 1920. REVISION OF THE TRUE MAHOG- ANIES. Jour Wash. Acad. Sci. 10(10) :286- 297. History of bctanical collections, descrip- tions and sources, detailed botanical description of genus Swietenia Jacq., S. mahagoni, humilis, macrephylla, cirrhata, candollei, type, locality, other localities and collectors, distribution given now incomplete. py IAB MRA ish 1929. THE VENEZUELAN MAHOGANY, A HITHERTO UNDESCRIBED SPECIES OF THE GENUS SWiETENIA. Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci. 10(1) :32-34. Botanical description of S. candollei. 14. STANDLEY, P. C. 1920. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE USS. NATIONAL HERBARIUM. 23(3) :559-561. 15. 16. 1 | 18. 1s) 20. 21. 19 Botanical description, local use, common names, S. humilis, S. cirrhata. S. ma- crophylla. PITTIER, H. and RECORD, S. J. 1921. LA CAOBA VENEZOLANA. 14 pp., Caracas, Tipografia Americana. Also Bol. Comercial e Industrial (Caracas) 18:582- 593. RECORD, S. J. 1921. THE WOCD OF VENEZUELAN MA- HOGANY (S.CANDOLLEI). Yale Sch. of Forestry Contrib. 16:1-7. Also Bol. Comer- cial e Industrial (Caracas) 18:577-581. Anatomy and comparison with S. ma- hagoni, commercial possibilities. . SARGENT, C. S. 1921. MANUAL OF TREES OF NORTH AMERICA. 910 pp., illus. New York, Houghton Mifflin. Botanical description illus. distribution (S. mahagoni). KOEHLER, A. 1922. THE IDENTIFICATION OF TRUE MAHOGANY. U-S. Dept. Agri. Pul. No. 1050, 18 pp., illus. Distribution then known, physical pro- perties, structure. Key for identifica- tion of true and mahogany-like woods. HARMS, H. 1927. SWIETENIA TESSMANNIT HARMS. Notizblat des Konig]. Bot. Gartens und Museums zu Berlin - Dahlem 10:180. Botanical description. MACBRIDE, J. F. 1928. .IDENTITY OF THE PERUVIAN MA- HOGANY. Trop. Woods 16:49-50. S. tessmannii and S. macrophylla. COLLARDET, J. 1930. LES KHAYA, SON-ILS DES ACA- JOUS? Actes & Comptes Rendus. L’Associa- tion Colonies - Sciences (Paris) 6(6):197- 209. Name controversy, history, botany Swie- tenia and Khaya, comparison of wood properties, chemical, technological, phy- sical, mechanical. ' 20 22. KRIBS, D. A. 1930. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF WOODS OF MELIACEAE. Amer. Jour. Bot. 17(8) :724-738. 16 refs. 23. PANSHIN, A. J. 24 25. 26. 27. 28. 1933. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY OF THE WOODS OF MELIACEAE, SUB-FAMILY SWIETENIOIDEAE. Amer. Jour. Bot. 20: 638-688. Botanical description of Swietenia spe- cies including wood description, gene- ral and minute. Range and distribution, now incomplete. . ANONYMOUS 1936. THE TRUE BOTANY OF MAHOG- ANY. Hardwood Record 173(10) :9-10. Botany of Swietenia and Khaya, name, wood comparison. MELLVILLE, R. A. 1936. A LIST OF TRUE AND FALSE MA- HOGANIES. Kew Roy. Bot. Gard., Misc. Inform. Bul. 3:193-210. Mahogany trade, appearance of woods not Swietenia, list common and scien- tific names. GLEASON, H. A. and PANSHIN, A. J. 1936. SWIETENIA KRUKOVII: A NEW SPE- CIES OF MAHOGANY FROM BRAZIL. Amer. Jour. Bot. 23(1):21-25. Botanical description, status of species in genus, range habitat and occurrence, associates, logging, wood description, minute anatomy, (S. macrophylla). ANONYMOUS 1937. TRUE AND FALSE MAHOGANIES. Kew Bul. Misc. Information p.274-276. Discussion of application of name ma- hogany. CHEVALIER, A. 1937. NOTES HISTORIQUES ET SOUVE- NIRS SUR LES ACAJOUS VRAIS. Rev. Bot. App. and d’Agric. Trop. 17(194) :709-724. Notes on early use, application of name to Khaya (African mahogany) develop- ment of name ‘Acajou’ French for ma- hogany. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. CARIBBEAN FORESTER HARMS, H. 1940. MELIACEAE. In Engler and Prantl, Die naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, ed 2, Bd. 19b:1-172. Botanical description. LUNDELL, C. L. 1941. STUDIES OF AMERICAN SPERMA- TOPHYTES. - I. Contribution from Univ. of Mich. Herbarium No. 6., 37 pp. Ann Arbor. Description of S. belizensis and occur- rence in British Honduras. RECORD, S. J. 1941. AMERICAN TIMBERS OF THE MA- HOGANY FAMILY. Trop. Woods 66:7-33. Lists American genera of family Melia- ceae, describes Swietenia and _ species, variation in characteristics, early uses, various name spellings, sources of early shipment, distribution in upper Amazon, wood description, common names. STANDLEY, P. C. and STEYERMARK, J. A. 1946. FLORA OF GUATEMALA. Fieldiana: Botany. Field Mus. Natl. Hist. 24(5):456- 459. Botanical description of 3 accepted spe- cies, Swietenia mahagoni (L.) Jacq., S. humilis Zucc., S. macrophylla King, giving limited information on range and distribution. RECORD, S. J. and HESS, R. W. 1947. TIMBERS OF THE NEW WORLD. 640 pp., illus. New Haven, Yale Univ. Press. Botanical description, discussion of spe- cies differences, wood variation, history of use, distribution, reforestation activi- ties, wood description. HESS, R. W. 1950. IDENTIFICATION OF SWIETENIA AND CARAPA. Trop. Woods No. 96:47-50 STEHLE, H. 1956. LES MAHOGANYS DES ANTILLES FRANCAISES ET LE SWIETENIA AUBRE- VILLEANA. Soc. Bot. France Mem. 1956/57 41-51. 23 refs. Botanical description. Origin, history of introduction of mahogany to French Antilles, occurrence of intermediate form between small leaf and broad leaf ma- J ANUARY - JUNE, 1959 hogany in the reproduction, description of the three types, discussion of syno- nymy and distribution, botanical des- cription of the intermediate type as S. aubrevilleana Stehlé & Cusin, spec. noy. - hybrid, mutation or undescribed species introduced with the broadleaf, S. macrophylla, use in reforestation. 18. PLANT ECOLOGY 36. GIFFORD, J. C 1909. THE MAHOGANY TREE AND ITS GROWTH AND NATURE. Woods-Craft (Cleveland) 11(6):159-162. 3 pes toe Sok 1911. THE EVERGLADES. 134 pp., Kansas City, Everglades Land and Sales Co. Description of occurrence of S. mahag- oni in Florida. 38. HUMMEL, C. 1920. NOTES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE WILD MAHOGANY AND PINE FOREST IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Agric. News (Bar- bados) 20:134-135. 39. RECORD, S. J. 1925. DISTRIBUTION OF THE SPECIES OF SWIETENIA. Trop. Woods No. 1:2-4. Distribution listed now outdated. AQ teens sts 1926. MAHOGANY IN THE UPPER AMA- ZON. Trop. Woods 6:1-2. Occurrency of mahogany in Peruvian Amazon (S. macrophylla). 41. STEVENSON, D. 1926. REPORT ON THE FRESHWATER CREEK CROWN LANDS, LOWRY’S BIGHT, BRITISH HONDURAS. 8 pp., illus. Belize. Description of mahogany producing forest types (S. macrophylla). 42. OWER, L. H. 1927. FEATURES OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Geog. Jour., (London) 70:372-386. Description of geology, soils and vege- tation of mahogany producing area. 43. OLIPHANT, J. N. 1928. MAHOGANY IN BRITISH HONDU- RAS. Empire Forestry Jour. 7(1):9-10. 21 Description of occurrence of S. macro- phylla, relation to past cultivation, plant succession and vegetation types. 44. STEVENSON, D. 1928. TYPES OF FOREST GROWTH IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Trop. Woods 14:20-25. Description of forest types producing mahogany (S. macrophylla). 45. STANDLEY, P. C. 1930. FLORA OF YUCATAN. Pub. _279, Field Museum of Natl. History; Bot. Serv. 3(3):157-492. 186 refs. Geology, climate, vernacular names, Maya names, plant descriptions, im- portant manogany area (S. macrophy- lla). AGS (oe eee ea oe 1930. NOTES ON MEXICAN TREES - THE MAHOGANIES. Trop. Woods 21:6-8. Discussion of nomenclature, occurrence in Mexico of (S. macrophylla and S. humilis). 47. WILLIAMS, L. 1931. THE FORESTS OF NORTHEASTERN PERU. Trop. Woods 25:5-12. Importance, distribution, stocking, lo- cation of cutting, time of high water for rafting logs, climate (S. macrophy- lla). 1932. PERUVIAN MAHOGANY. Woods 31:30-37. AMeoyey. Discovery, botanical classification, dis- tribution, sites, stocking. supply, des- cription of tree and wood, insect caused defects, volume of exports, location of cutting (S. macrophylla). 49. CIFERRI, R. 1933. STUDI SULL’ECOLOGIA DEL MOGA- NO (S. MAHAGONI JACQ.) EN SANTO DOMINGO. Atti. Istit. Bot. di Pavia. 4: ser. 4:87-166., illus. Distribution, geographic and altimetric, ecology, habitat, associates, regenera- tion, insects and diseases, seed and fruit study, silvics. 22 50 dl. 5 iw) 53. 54. 55. . LUNDELL, C. L. 1933. PRELIMINARY SKETCH OF THE PHYTOGEOGRAPHY OF THE YUCATAN PENINSULA. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Contrib. Amer. Archeol. 2(12):257-321. Vegetation studies ducing forest. in mahogany pro- DUCKE, A. 1934 & 1938. COLHEITA DE MATERIAL BOTANICO NA REGIAO AMAZONICA. Braz. Min. du Agr. Bul. 23(1-3):71-79 & (4-6) :33- 47. 27(406) :23-58. Occurrence and exploitation of mahog- any in the Amazon with description of vegetation, and names of other timber species. . STEVENSON, R. 1934. THE RESOURCES OF BRITISH HON- DURAS. Bul Imperial Inst. No. 32:356-410. Description of plant associations con- taining mahogany. BARTLETT, H. H. 1936. A METHOD OF PROCEDURE FOR FIELD WORK IN TROPICAL AMERICAN PHYTOGEOGRAPHY BASED UPON BOTA- NICAL RECONNAISSANCE IN PARTS OF BRITISH HONDURAS AND THE PETEN FOREST OF GUATEMALA. p. 1-25, illus. Botany of the Maya Area; Miscellaneous Papers I-XIII Washington, Carnegie Inst. Ecological description of forest in im- portant mahogany producing’ area of Yucatan peninsula, including plant as- sociations, plant succession, soils. HOLDRIDGE, L. R. 1936. CAOBA. Rev. de Agri. de Puerto Rico Suplemento No. 3:25-30. illus., 6 refs. Adaptation of mahogany to conditions in Puerto Rico. RICE, C. H. 1936. THE NORTHERN OUTPOST OF MA- HOGANY. American Forests 42:266-267. S. mahagoni in Florida, distribution, dif- ferences in wood, mainland and island:;, use. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. CARIBBEAN FORESTER LUNDELL, C. L. 1937. THE VEGETATION OF PETEN. 244 pp., lus. 60 refs. No. 478. Washington, Car- negie Inst. Ecological study of vegetation of Peten, Guatemala, mahogany producing area, including history, geology, soils, climate, vegetation analysis and classification. CIFERRI, R. 1938. OSSERVAZIONI SUL GENERE SWIE- TENIA E POSSIBILITA DI ACCLIMATIZA- ZIONE DEL VERO MOGANO (S. MAHAGONI) NELLA REGIONE DEL GIUBA (a. o. i.). L’Alpe (Milan). 25(4):89-95. Distribution, introduction, ecology, pro- duction in Santo Domingo. STANDLEY, P. C. and RECORD, S. J. 1938. THE FOREST AND FLORA OF BRIT- ISH HONDURAS. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Bot. Ser. 12. 432 pp., illus. Discussion of soil, climate, forest types and important timbers including ma- hogany. WILLIAMS, L. 1938. FOREST TREES OF THE ISTHMUS OF TEHUANTEPEC, MEXICO. Trop. Woods 53:1-11. Forest description, occurrence of ma- hogany, coastal and central zone (S. macrophylla). STEVENSON, N. S. 1939. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT, BRITISH HONDURAS. 25 pp., illus. Belize. Mahogany exports, control of cutting on public and private land, mapping vegetation types from aerial photos, relation of forest types to soils, rain- fall distribution map (S. macrophylla). CHARTER, C. F. 1940. THE SOILS OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 31 pp., illus., 16 refs. Port of Spain, Trinidad. Description of forest vegetation con- taining mahogany in relation to soil, northern portion, semi-deciduous mon- soon forest; Chiquibul region. transi- tional to semi-evergreen rain forest; semi-evergreen rain forest of well- drained river valleys. J ANUARY - JUNE, 1959 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. — 62. LUNDELL, C. L. 1940. THE 1936 MICHIGAN-CARNEGIE BO- TANICAL EXPEDITION TO BRITISH HON- DURAS. No. 14:1-57. illus., 65 refs. Botany of the Maya area. Miscellaneous Papers. Pub. 522. Washington, Carniegie Inst. Archaeology, mahogany exploitation, classification and description of the vegetation, transect studies of forest types. EGLER, F. E. 1941. MAHOGANY: A POTENTIAL RE- SOURCE OF SOUTH FLORIDA. For. 39(8) :725-726. Jour. of S. mahagoni in Florida, sites, ecology in West Indies, growth, quality. STEVENSON, N. 8. 1942. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 8 pp. Belize. Hurricane effect on forest, wind resistant. mahogany ISH HONDURAS. Carib. For. 3(4):164-172. Description of mahogany producing plant associations, structure, physiog- nomy, composition, and habitat. DUCKE, A. 1943. THE MOST IMPORTANT WOODS OF THE AMAZON VALLEY. Trop. Woods 175: 1-15. Aguano (S. macrophylla) discussion of species, distribution, lumber trade. PAE sry: 1943. LATIN AMERICA. 564 pp. New York, McGraw-Hill. Description of occurrence Panama (S. macrophylla). in part of FROES, R. de Lemos 1944. MAHOGANY DISCOVERED IN THE STATE OF PARA, BRAZIL. Trop. Woods No. 78:1-3. Logging upper Amazon, discovery of mahogany on Rio Tocantins and Rio Xingu, lower Amazon (S. macrophylla). 69. 70 (pe 72. 13. 74. bo Qo GIFFORD, J. C. 1944. TREES OF SOUTH FLORIDA. Scien- tific Monthly. 59:101-107. Occurrence of S. mahagoni in Florida. . LUNDELL, C. L. 1945. THE VEGETATION AND NATURAL RESOURCES OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Plants and plant science in Latin America. pp. 270-273. Chronica Botanica. Description of forest association, mahogany industry, vegetation type map. _ STEVENSON, N. S. 1945. FOREST ASSOCIATIONS OF BRIT- ISH HONDURAS. Carib. For. 6(2&3) :45-61 and 131-147. Description of mahogany producing plant associations, structure, physiog- nomy, composition, and habitat. LITTLE, E. L. 1947. DOES MAHOGANY (SWIETENIA) OCCUR IN ECUADOR? Trop. Woods 92:41-43. No herbarium material recorded from Ecuador, literature confused. IRMAY, H. de 1948. LA CAOBA EN BOLIVIA. Boletin Forestal No. 1:5-12. illus., 13 refs. Pub. Fa- cultad de Ciencias Agronomicas. Cocha- bamba. Bolivia, Imprenta Univ. Also in Carib For. 10(1):43-52. 1949. Distribution map, associates, occur- rence, supply, quality (S. macrophylla). HOLDRIDGE, L. R., LAMB, F. B., and MASON JR., B. 1950. LOS BOSQUES DE GUATEMALA. 175 pp., illus. 25 refs. Guatemala, Instituto de Fomento de la Produccion. Peten forests, Maya occupation, effects of chicle production, mahogany logging operations, aerial photo study, ground studies at Uaxactun, Paso Caballos, La Libertad, Poptun; ground interpreta- tion of photos, forest types. 24 75. LAMB, F. B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus., 269 refs. Ann Arbor Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Occurrence S. mahagoni, S. macrophylla, S. humilis, distribution maps and other details by country, ecological relation- ships in “Tropical Moist Forest” and “Tropical Dry Forest” in climax associa- tions, primary and secondary succes- Sional stages, giving distribution, struc- ture and composition, and habitat, pro- file diagrams. p. 123-197. 20. SILVICULTURE 76. VINCENT. F. 47. 1884. MAHOGANY IN CEYLON. Indian For. 10:156-157. List of mahogany trees planted at Jaffna 1840-45 measured in 1882. Av.7 feet circumference and 60 feet high. Wood appears equal in color and grain to wood torm Central America. TROUF, R. S. 1921. THE SILVICULTURE OF INDIAN TREES. V. 1, p. 205-208. illus. Oxford. Swietenia mahagoni introduced to India 1795. Success in plantations variable, requires well drained soil, fruits well, seed at 20 years of age, flowers April and May. fruit ripen October to De- cember, not tolerant to shade, insect damage severe, growth rapid on fayor- able sites, mean annual girth incre- ment 2.2 inches. S. macrophylla intro- duced to India 1872, flowered and fruited in 12th and 13th year, this ma- terial type specimen for King’s botani- cal description, grown in plantations, intolerant to shade, growth more rapid than S. mahagoni. 78. MELL, C. D. 1923. PLANTING MAHOGANY IN VENE- ZUELA. Pan Amer. Union Bul. 57:599-601. illus. Comparison of S. candollei with other mahoganies. 79. NOLTEE, A. C. 1925. SWIETENIA MACROPHYLLA KING. Med. van het Proetstation voor het Boshwezen, 125 pp., Java, Buitenzorg. SWIETENIA MAHAGONI JACQ. EN. 80. 81. 82. 84. 85. CARIBBEAN FORESTER In Dutch, English account, history, distribution, names, exploitation, experience in Dutch E. Indies. S. macrophylla, S. mahagoni compared, insect attack, woods of two species in Java show only small dif- ferences. summary, general OLIPHANT, J. N. 1925. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST TRUST OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 25 pp., Belize. Short discussion of forest improvement, cost, insect attack, forest production of mahogany (S. macrophylla). 1926. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST TRUST OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 24 pp., Belize. Discussion of stand improvement, light requirements, insect attack, cost of producing mahogany (S.macrophylla) in planted stands. STEVENSON, D 1927. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST TRUST OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Silviculture, insect attack, natural rege- neration, forest improvement cost for mahogany (S. macrophylla). 1927. FOREST RESEARCH IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Bui. Imp. Inst., (London) 25 (3) :313-320. Regeneration, growth, seedling care in forest vegetation (S. macrophylla). STEVENSON, N. S. 1927. SILVICULTURAL TREATMENT OF MOHOGANY FORESTS IN BRITISH HON- DURAS. Empire For. Jour. 6(2):219-227. illus. Description of forest types as related to mahogany regeneration, systems of pro- pagation, forest improvement work, sil- vicultural treatment (S.macrophylla). OLIPHANT, J. N. 1928. MAHOGANY IN BRITISH HONDU- RAS. Empire For. Jour. 7(1):9-10. Description of occurrence of S. macro- phylla, relation to past cultivation, plant succession and vegetation types. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 FOREST i pps 1928. ANNUAL REPORT OF TRUST OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Belize. Short discussion of silviculture, produc- tion, future supply of mahogany S. ma- crophylla). THE CULTIVATION OF MAHOGANY Third 1928. IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Papers, Brit. Emp. For. Conf. pp. 517-524. Mahogany regeneration methods in na- tural, cut over, and cleared forests, insect attack, silviculture (S. macrophy- lla). 88. MARSHALL, R. C. 1930. NOTES ON THE SILVICULTURE OF THE MORE IMPORTANT TIMBER TREES OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. 50 pp., illus. Port of Spain. Plantations, soils, time of flower and fruit, seed germination, growth. insect and fungus attack, (S. macrophylla); (S. mahagoni) slower’ growth, less planted. 89. RECORD, S. J. 1930. FORESTRY IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Trop Woods 24:2-15. Methods of regeneration, effect of com- petition, application of “Taungya” system (S. macrephylla). 90.TROUP, R. S. 1932. EXOTIC FOREST TREES IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE. 259 pp., 152 refs. Oxford. Introduction into India _ 1872, sites, erowth (S. macrophyila and mih2goni). World rainfall maps. 91. KINLOCH, J. B. 1933. ANNUAL REPORT OF FOREST TRUST OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 22 pp., Belize. Short discussion of S. macrophylla, planting methods, growth, fire effects. 92. PONCE, S. E. 1933. MAHOGANY AS A REFORESTATION CROP. Makiling Echo 12(1):13-33 25 Introduction to Philippines (S, mahag- oni) seed, from Cuba _ survival poor, growth 14 years 20 centimeters diameter, S. macrophylia seed from Calcutta bet- ter adapted to local conditions, good growth, climate, soils, silvical charac- teristics, root, stem, crown, reproduction, wind resistance, insects, important en- vironmental factors. 93. CHAMPION, H. G. 1934. TOUR JOTTINGS FROxI BENGAL. Indian Forester illus. SOUTH 60 (7) :460-466. Small plantation estab. 1891 near Kaptai, after 38 years height 85 ft., dia- metes up to 22 inches. Natural regene- ration profuse. 94. KINLOCH, J. B. 1937. REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPART. MENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 5 pp., Belize. Silviculture, regeneration, stocking, for- est successions. 95. STEVENSON, N. S§. 1938. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST BEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 25 pp., Belize. Natural regeneration study, forest types map of country. 96. MARSHALL. R. C. 1939. SILVICULTURE OF THE TREES OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO. 247 pp., illus. Oxford, Univ. Press. S. macrophylla, distribution, habitat, botanical classification, seedling growth, silviculture, regeneration, plantation erowth. S. mahagoni, distribution, ha- bitat, silviculture. 97. DUQUE-JARAMILLO. J. M. 1940. MELIACEAS COLOMBIANAS. Tierras y Aguas 3(2):27-32; (22) :3-11. Botanical description and planting pos- sibilities of Swietenia. 98. HOLDRILGE, L. R. and MARRERO, J. 1940. PRELIMINARY NOTES ON THE SIL- VECULTURE OF THE BIG-LEAF MAHOG- ANY. Carib. For. 2(1):20-23. 26 Classification of species, differences S. macrophylla S. candollei noted, seed storage, germination, nursery, trans- planting, seedling growth, insect attack. 99. STEVENSON, N. S. 1941. REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPART- MENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 4 pp., Be- lize. Hurricane effect, silviculture S. macro- phylia). 100. SWABEY, C. 1941. AN ISLANDER LOOKS AT THE MAINLAND. Carib. For. 3(1):39-40. Mahogany regeneration and improve- ment, control of shoot borer, Hysipyla grandella, (S. macrophylla). 101. MARRERO, J. 1942. STUDY OF GRADES OF BROAD LEAVED MAHOGANY PLANTING STOCK Carib. For 3(2):79-87. S. macrophylla, seed from Venezuela and Panama, site requirements, insect attack, use of overgrown planting — stock, pruning. 102. SMITH, J. H. N. 1942. THE FORMATION AND MANAGE- MENT OF MAHOGANY PLANTATIONS AT SILK GRASS FOREST RESERVE. Carib. For. 3(2):75-77. Site description, method of planting, importance of associate vegetation, insect attack. 103. MARRERO, J. 1943. A SEED STORAGE STUDY OF SOME TROPICAL HARDWOODS. Carib. For. 4(3) :99-105. S. macrophylla seed storage under var- ious conditions, and germination tests, cold storage effective, prolongs life to one year. 104. STEVENSON, N. S. 1943. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 8 pp., Belize. Hurricane effect, mahogany regenera- tion, treatment of plantations. CARIBBEAN FORESTER 105. LAMB, A. F. A. 1944. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 13 pp., Belize. Growth of forest trees and trees in open, cost of establishment by “Taun- gya”, mahogany cutting in Guatemala, sample plot where past cultivation re- sulted in high stocking of mahogany, hurricane effect on mahogany producing forest. 106. RECORD, S. J. 1944, NOTES ON TROPICAL TIMBERS. Trop. Woods No. 80, p. 5. Age by annual growth rings in India (S. macrophylla). 107. WADSWORTH, F. H. 1944. THE FIRST YEAR IN THE CAMBA- BALACHE EXPERIMENTAL FOREST. Carib. For. 6(1) :34-44. P. 37 S. mahagoni transplant survival, direct seeding results. 108. LAMB, A. F. A. 1945. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 18 pp., Belize. Management of mahogany on private land under new law, drought and fire, hurricane in Toledo district, thinning costs, growth from sample plot data. OOS ee 1946. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 10 pp., Belize. Hurricane damage, mahogany stump- age, mahogany planting costs, growth. 110. KINLOCH, J. B. . 1947. PLANTACION DE ARBOLES TROPI- CALES EN GUATEMALA. La Hacienda 42 (10) :44, 62. Development of plantations in Guate- mala (S. macrophylla). 111. LAMB, A. F. A. 1947. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 28 pp., Belize. Mahogany planting costs, silviculture, treatment. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 112. 113. 114. 116. 117. 118. WADSWORTH, F. H. 1947. THE SECOND YEAR IN THE CAM- BALACHE EXPERIMENTAL FOREST. Carib. For. 8(1):65-70. S. mahagoni establishment, transplant, direct seeding, site requirements. 1947. THE DEVELOPMENT OF SWIETENIA MAHAGONI JACQ. ON ST. CROIX. Carib. For. 8(2):161-162, in Spanish 162-164. Description of stands S. mahagoni, na- tural reproduction, sites, stocking, growth, one of best species for dry regions of Caribbean, easy to establish, wood unsurpassed value. 1947. THE THIRD YEAR IN THE CAM- BALACHE EXPERIMENTAL FOREST. Carib. For. 8(3):203-207. seeding, S. mahagoni growth, direct shade requirement. . LAMB, A. F. A. 1948. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 28 pp., Belize. Mahogany planting costs. MARRERO, J. 1948. FOREST PLANTING IN THE CARIB- BEAN NATIONAL FOREST. Carib. For. 9 (2) :85-148., illus., 14 refs. English & Spanish. S. macrophylla, candollei, mahagoni, planting and weeding costs, site re- quirements, light requirements, growth, insect attack, wind throw, recommends against pure stands. VOOGD, C.N.A. de 1948. DE BOSCULTUREN VAN JAMLAPPA. Tectona 38(2) :63-76. In Dutch, S. macrophylla good results in plantations in Indonesia. WADSWORTH, F. H. 1948. FIVE YEARS OF FOREST RESEARCH ON THE NORTH COAST OF PUERTO RICO. Carib. For. 9(4):373-376. Shade for S. mahagoni, site climate, establishment. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124. 125. MARIE, E. 1949. NOTES ON REFORESTATION WITH S. MACROPHYLLA IN MARTINIQUE. Carib. For. 10:211-222. Also in French and Spanish. Introduced 1900, first plantation 1905. nursery practice, transplanting, field planting, growth, pests, rotation, planta- tion care, cost and yield. MARRERO, J. 1949. TREE SEED DATA FROM PUERTO RICO. Carib. For. 10(1):11-30. S. macrophylla, S. mahagoni seed ger- mination studies. ANONYMOUS 1950. TENTH ANNUAL REPORT TROPI- CAL FOREST EXPERIMENT STATION. Carib. For. 11(2):59-80. West Indian mahogany (S. mahagoni) growth, (S. macrophylla) thinning. HOLDRIDGE, L. R., LAMB, F. B. and MASON JR., B. 1950. LOS BOSQUES DE GUATEMALA. 175 pp., illus., 25 refs. Guatemala, Instituto de Fomento de la Produccion. Nursery practice, field planting, plan- tation care, yield. MRRERO, J. 1950. RESULTS OF FOREST PLANTING IN THE INSULAR FORESTS OF PUERTO RICO. Carib. For. 11(3):107-147. illus. In Spanish also. S. macrophylla site requirements, growth. S. mahagoni site requirements, growth. MARRERO, J. 1950. REFORESTATION OF DEGRADED LANDS IN PUERTO RICO. Carib For. 11(1): 3-15. illus., 32 refs. Also in Spanish. S. mahagoni, adaptability, establish- ment, nursery. transplant, direct seed- ing. GUTIERREZ, J.T. and MARTINEZ, G.J. 1951. NOTAS SOBRE TRABAJOS DE RE- POBLACION ARTIFICIAL DE CAOBA Y CEDRO EN EL ESTADO DE CAMPECHE. Chihuahua, Boletin Forestal 3 (35) :30-31,35. Direct sowing preferred, germination 80%, requires rainfall exceeding 1600 mm. in Mexico. 126. 127. 128. 129. 130. HUGUET, L. and MARIE, E. 1951. LES PLANTATIONS D’ACAJOU D’ AMERIQUE DANS LES ANTILLES FRAN- CAISES. Bois et Forests des Tropiques. 17(1) :12-25. Relationship Swietenia and Khaya, S. macrophylla 350 hectares pure planta- tions ages 0 to 40 years in Martinique, seed production, sale, germination, nurs- ery, piantation method, high forest ‘taungya’, secondary forest cleared lines, light requirements, table of increments, 15 cubic meters per hectare per year growth, 200 trees per hectare, mer- chantable in 30 to 40 years, abundant natural regeneration in o!der p_anta- tions, suggests ‘coupes d’éclaircies’ group selection method of cutting to obtain adequate regeneration. KERMANI, W. A. 1951. EXOTIC FOREST TREES IN EAST PAKISTAN. Pakistan Jour. For. 1(3):273-9. S. macrophylla established tion 1891 at Kapati in 1950 average height 92 feet girth 4 feet 9 inches, some natural regeneration, seed collect- ed for further planting. in planta- CHINTE, F. O. 1952. TRIAL PLANTINGS OF LARGE LEAF MAHOGANY IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Carib. For. 13(2):75-84. 33 refs. Also in Philipp. For Jour 6(4):313-325. 1949 illus. History of planting in Philippines, cli- mate and soil, silviculture, seed storage and sowing, nursery, field planting, treatment, growth, and yield, disease and pests. BARNARD, R. C. 1953. EXPERIENCE WITH EXOTIC TREE SPECIES IN MALAYA. Malay. For. 16(1): 29-40. S. macrophylla. 1903 to 1935 one tree 82 feet total ht. 67 inch circumference b.h. natural regeneration under trees. Plantations established since 1928, nurs- ery practice, planting practice, early growth rapid. BURGOS, J. A. 1954. UN ESTUDIO DE LA SILVICULTURA DE ALGUNAS ESPECIES FORESTALES EN TINGO MARIA, PERU. Carib. For. 15(1 &2) 14-53. illus., refs 31. 131 133 CARIBBEAN FORESTER S. macrophylla, tree distribution, seed, wood, propagation, nursery, cuttings, comparison with other species in planta- tions at age of 6 years. . CREE, C. S. 1954. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTAMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 26 pp., Belize. Pruning, natural regeneration, growth in sample plots, exports of logs and lumber, map of land ownership. . LAMB, F. B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus., 269 refs. Ann Arbor, Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Silvical and silvicultural characteristics of mahogany, reproductive habits, seed, growth habits, tolerance, soil require- ments, moisture requirements, insects and diseases, fire, natural regeneration, artificial regeneration. nursery practice, seed storage, planting, silvicultural practices. p. 215-279. . CHAPUIS, J. 1955. LE MAHOGANY ET L’AMELIORA- TION DE LA FORET MARTINIQUAISE., Rev. For. Franc. 7(2) :85-94. S. macrophylla. 465 hectares planted in Martinique, various ages to 30 years, height growth 0.8 m. (mean annual in- crement), circumference growth 5 cm. (m.a.i.) 2400 trees per hectare planting. 134. CREE, C. S. 1955. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 29 pp.. Belize. Planting program, natural regeneration study. 135. PERERA S. P. 1955. SWIETENIA MACROPHYLLA AND ITS PROPAGATION BY STRIPLINGS. Ceylon For. n. s. 2(2):75-79. Introduced to Ceylon 1890, natural rege- neration, abundant striplings used to rehabilitate degraded forests with good results. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 136. 137. 138. 139. 30. 140. 141. 142. ANONYMOUS 1957. SEVENTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT, TROPICAL FOREST RESEARCH CENTER. Carib. For. 18(1 & 2):1-11. S. mahagoni and S. macrophylla, test plantings established, plantation mana- gement results. BASCOPE, F. et al. 1957. DESCRIPCIONES DE ARBOLES FO- RESTALES NO. 1 SWIETENIA MACROPHY- LLA. 18 pp., illus., 16 refs. Mérida, Vene- zuela. Instituto Forestal Latino Americano. Botany, silviculture, wood description. PRE AS C: 1957. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 24 pp., Belize. Natural direct growth. regeneration, seeding, LAMPRECHT, H. and HUECK, K. 1959. ESTUDIOS MORFOLOGICOS Y ECO- LOGICOS SOBRE LA GERMINACION Y EL DESARROLLO EN LA PRIMERA JUVENTUD DE UNAS ESPECIES FORESTALES EN VE- NEZUELA. 37 pp., illus. Mérida, Venezuela. Inst. For. Lat. Amer. Swietenia macrophylla. Description of fruit, seed, seediing development at 6 Stages 33, 37, 50, 54, 57, 65 days old. Crawing. HARVESTING, LOGGING, TRANSPORT GIBBS. A. R. 1883. BRITISH HONDURAS. 198 pp. Lon- don, Sampson. Low, Marston, Searle, and Rivington. Description of early logging operations. BROWN, F. E. 1816. LOGGING MAHOGANY IN GUATE- MALA. Timberman 17(10):34-35 Labor recruiting, squaring logs, grading logs, dye from bark and sawdust. SAUNDERS, L. F. 1921. MAHOGANY PRODUCTION IN GUA- TEMALA. Timberman 22(5) :48,48B. Volume and sources. 143. 144. 146. 147. 148. 149. 29 — ANONYMOUS 1925. MAHOGANY LOGGING IN MEXICO AND BRITISH HONDURAS. South Lumber- man 119(1552) :44. BONNET, E. A. 1925. MAHOGANY CHIEF PRODUCT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Bur For. & Dom. Com. Repts No. 31:271-272. Colony based on mahogany trade, ex- ported 200 years, logging risks, contract logging, advances against log produc- tion. . HAMLIN, M. J. 1926. MAHOGANY PRODUCTION. berman 27(6):76. Tim- MAY, E. S. 1926. CENTRAL Timber Trades Jour. AMERICAN MAHOGANY. (London 99:551-554. Recruiting labor, log grading and measurement, organization of logging, quality by countries of origin (S. ma- crophylla). PAYSON, W. F. (ed.) 1926. MAHOGANY—ANTIQUE AND MO- DERN. A STUDY OF ITS HISTORY AND OSE IN THE ARTS. 154 pp., illus. New York, Dutton. Description of logging, sources and cha- racteristiscs. Gillis, <2: 1931. TROPICAL FORESTS OF THE CARIB- BEAN. 317 pp., illus. Washington, Tropical Plant Research Foundation. Description of early logging operations. MILLER, W. A. 1941. MAHOGANY LOGGING IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Carib. For. 2(2):67-72. Past cutting, density of stocking in forest, logging conditions, cruising, fell- ing, trucking (S. macrophylla). . VON HAGEN, V. W.- 1942. MAHOGANY GOLD. Amer. Forests. 48 2539-542, illus. cree old. Mahogany logging operations in Hon- duras, and history. 30 151. 152. 153. 154. 155. 15 157. 158. a MARKHAM, W. A. 1945. MAHOGANY LOGGING IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Timberman 46(12) :52-54, illus. Logging methods, log size, log defects, loss of logs in streams (S. macrophylla). LAMB, G. N. 1946. THE ROMANCE OF MAHOGANY. The Chicago Naturalist 9(1) :2-9. illus. Botanical discussion without sources, distribution, locating trees, pests, logging (Swietenia & Khaya). 1947. THE HUNT FOR MAHOGANY. Natl. Hardwood Mag. 21(11):88-89, 131. Brief sketch of mahogany exploitation in Latin America, discussion of supply and requirements of American market. LAMB, F. B. 1948. STATUS OF FORESTRY IN TROPI- CAL AMERICA. Jour. of For. 46(10) :721-726. Mahogany trade, logging, export re- strictions, planting. DUBEAU, N. P. 1949. PELIGROSO Y GRANDE; MAHOG- ANY HUNTING IN COLOMBIAN CHOCO. Monsanto Mag. 28:18-22. Logging experiences, forest description. HARRISON, D. B. 1949. MAHOGANY LOGGING IN CENTRAL AMERICA. Alumni News N.Y. State Ranger School. 49:32-33, 37. Account of truck and tractor logging. ANONYMOUS 1950. REPORT OF FAO MISSION TO NI- CARAGUA. 200 pp., illus. FAO, UN Rome. P. 52 Logging, occurrence, air reconnais- sance locating mahogany. SAKS, E. V. 1953. TROPICAL MAHOGANY PRODUC- TION. South Lumberman 187(2345) :127-130. illus. Logging operations in Central America. 159. 160. 161. 162. 163. 164. 165. CARIBBEAN FORESTER LAMB, F. B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus. 269 refs. Ann Arbor Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Logging, history, log export import figures, contract logging, tree location, defects in timber, felling and bucking, ox logging, machine logging, planning machine logging, aerial photo surveys, driving and rafting, log scaling and grading, shipping. P. 23-65. 40. INJURIES AND PROTECTION KALSHOVEN, L. G. E. 1926. BESCHADIGINGEN, ZIEKTEN EN PLAGEN VAN MAHONIE (S. MAHAGONI EN S. MACROPHYLLA), AANGEPLANT OP JAVA. Mededell. Inst. Plantenziekten, (Java) No. 69:126. In Dutch, English summary. Mahogany disease and pests in Java, fungi, insects, life cycle of shootborer, natural checks, recommends against pure plantations. FRAVIE, M. 1930. PLAGAS DE LA MADERA DEL CAO- BA. Mexico Forestal 8(8) :182-186. Defects in mahogany logs and lumber. SCHEDL, K. E. 1937. NEW SCOLYTIDAE AND PLATYPO- DIDAE (COLEOPTERA). Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London Ser. B. Tax, 6(1):13-15. Erineophilus guyanaensis Brit. attacks mahogany British Guiana. GARCIA, L. A. 1939. A MAHOGANY SEEDLING BLIGHT IN PUERTO RICO. Carib. For. 1(1):25-26. MARTORELL, L. F. 1939. SOME NOTES ON FOREST ENTO- MOLOGY. Carib .For. 1(1):25-26 Apate francisca attacks S. mahagoni, Puerto Rico. 1940. SOME NOTES ON FOREST ENTOMO- LOGY. Carib. For. 1(3) :23-24. Ichnaspis longirostris Signoret attacks S. macrophylla, Puerto Rico. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 166. WOLCOTT, G. N. 1940. THE ENTOMOLOGIST LOOKS AT MAGA. Carib. For. 1(2):29-30. S. mahagoni and termite resistance. rary for) —I . MOSES, C. S. 1955. LABORATORY DECAY TEST OF SOME COMMERCIAL SPECIES OF MAHOG- ANY. For Prod. Jour. 5(2):149-152. Tested S. mahagoni and macrophylla, Khaya spp., Shorea spp., Parashorea spp., Diptrocarpus spp., Swietenia was high- est in general level of decay resistance. 168. ANONIMOUS 1958. SHOOTBORERS OF THE MELIA- CEAE. Unasylva 12(1):30-31. Trees attacked, type of damage, life cycle, control difficult, young plants protectived by leaving brush. 50. MENSURATION 169.GILL, T. 1925. ON THE TRAIL OF MAHOGANY. Yale Forestry School News 13(2):20-22. Mahogany cruising. 170. STERLING, E. A. 1943. THE PETEN SURVEYS TO DETER- MINE THE REMAINING CHICLE RESERVES. 42 pp. Unpubl. Report. New Orleans, James D. Lacey. Cruise figures for mahogany northern Peten, Guatemala. 171. LAMB, F. .B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus. 269 refs. Ann Arbor, Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Aerial photo surveys, remaining sources of mahogany p. 203-214. 172. CREE, C. S. 1955. ANNUAL REPORT OF THE FOREST DEPARTMENT OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 29 pp., Belize. Aerial photo study of mahogany forest, and inventory. dl 173. ORDEN, T. 1956. PREPARATION OF LOCAL VOLUME TABLE FOR LARGELEAF MAHOGANY AND ITS APPLICATION. Philippines Jour. For. 12(3-4) :117-132. Based on plantation trees in Philippines, information developed for 4 areas in- cludes: estimated stand per hectare up to 400 trees, volume per tree 0.62 cubic meters at 24 years, estimated stock per hectare 141.36 cubic meters at 24 years, mean annual growth 5.88 cubic meters per hectare, growth percent 3.23 at 24 years. 60. MANAGEMENT HOLDRIDGE, L.R., LAMB, F.B., and MASON JR., B. 1950. LOS BOSQUES DE GUATEMALA. 175 pp., illus., 25 refs. Guatemala, Instituto de Fomento de la Produccion. blocks, 174. Forest management manage- ment of Poptun area. 175. LAMB, F. B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus., 269 refs. Ann Arbor, Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Mohogany forest management, S. macro- phylia, “Tropical Dry Forest’, growing stock growth, intensive management extensive management, ‘Tropical Moist Forest’. S. mahagoni, natural stands, planted stands, stocking, growth, yields, sustained yield management, financial returns. p. 280-350. 176. ARDIKOESOEMA, R.I. and DILMY, A. 1956. TENANG DJENIS KAJU JANG DISE- BUT “MAHONI ”ATAU “MAHAGONI”’ TE- RISTIMEWA KELUARGA “KHAYA”, (notes on mahogany especially about the genus khaya.) Rimba Jour. For. (Indonesia) 5(5-6): 266-328. illus., 31 refs. In Indonesian, English summary. Swietenia planted on soils not adapted to teak, shootborer attack both spe- cies, S. mahagoni attacked by miseltoe Loranthus sp., yield table and silvicul- tural data. 70. MARKETING 7. CHALONER, E 1850. THE MAHOGANY TREE. Liverpool, Rocklift. ~I 4 117 pp., 178 179 180 181. 182. 183. 184. General, sources, history of use. Discus- sion of trade to 1850. . MELL, C. D. 1917. TRUE MAHOGANY. U.S. Dept. Agri. Bul. No. 474, 24 pp. Names by place of origin, distribution then known, wood characteristics, cha- racter by regions, market values, uses and supply, imports to New York 1892- 1910, logging, minute anatomy of wood. . ANONYMOUS 1928. U.S. COURT AFFIRMS FEDERAL TRADE COMMISSION RULING ON “PHI- LIPPINE MAHOGANY”. Trop. Woods 15:27 31. Mahogany name controversy, use of name Philippine mahogany prohibited. . MELL, C. D. 1930. BIOGRAPHY OF THE WORD MO- HOGANY. Timberman 31:146-152; 32:180- 184; 33:113-115. | Discussion of use, Name controversy, and development of mahogany trade. BURDON, J. 1932. FORESTS OF BRITISH HONDURAS. Timber Trades Jour., (London) 122:350. Importance of mahogany exports, re- maining sources (S. macrophylla). STOBART, T. A. 1932. EMPIRE MAHOGANY IN THE UNIT- ED KINDOM. Crown Colonist. Describes British trade, sales methods, p. 15 STEVENSON, R. 1934. THE RESOURCES OF BRITISH HON- DURAS. Bul Imperial Inst. No. 32:356-410. Mahogany export figures 1802-1932. History of logging industry in the country. ANONYMOUS 1946. LICITACION PUBLICA DE CAOBAS NACIONALES. Rev. Agri. (Guatemala) Ser. (2) 2:359. Public mahogany timber auctions. 185. 186. 187. 188. 189. 190. CARIBBEAN FORESTER BONFIN, S. 1950. ECONOMIA MADEIREIRA AVINCU- LACAO DO AGUANO. Assoc. Com. do Ama- zonas Bul. 9(106) :3-8. Amazon timber trade, especially mohog- any. LATHAM, B. 1951. A HISTORICAL SURVEY OF THE TIMBER TRADE. Wood (London) 16(2):61- 63; 16(3):101-103. illus. Account of British lumber markets handling of mahogany. 1954. MAHOGANY. Wood (London) 19(1-3): 15-17; 87-89; 125-127. illus. History of introduction to Europe and early trade. GALLANT, M. N. 1959. REPORT TO THE CARIBBEAN COM- MISSION ON FORESTRY AND TIMBER TRADE IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA. Rome. FAO Report 1060. Part I, 40 pp., Part II, 104 pp. Future mahogany market assured for prime quality, experience and informa- tion from plantations. French Antilles enriching forests with mahogany (S. macrophylla) by planting, excellent re- sults, by 1957 a total of 1,703 hectares mahogany plantations established, erowth data, quality forest exports from oldest plantations favorably reported— 18 tons 1956, 45 tons 1957. Lumber pro- duced locally good texture and figure. 3,500 hectares of additional plantation; contemplated rate of 200 hectares per year. Natural regeneration profuse in openings made by fellings. Economic soundness of mahogany planting seems assured. 80. FOREST PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILIZATION CHALONER, E. 1850. THE MAHOGANY TREE. 117 pp., Liverpool, Rocklift. General, sources, history of use. CHAMBERS, R. & W. 1851. MAHOGANY. Chamber’s Jour. (London) 15:181-183. Edinburg Source and use, ship construct-_on. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 190. 192. 193. 194. 196. 197. 198. 199. ANONYMOUS 1914. TROPICAL AMERICA’S MAHOGANY. American Lumberman (Chicago) 2049:41. Characteristics and uses. ANONYMOUS 1924. HISTORIC MAHOGANY. Mahogany Association. 16 pp. New York, History of use. RECORD, S. J. and MELL, C. D. 1924. TIMBERS OF TROPICAL AMERICA 810 pp., illus. New Haven, Yale Univ. Press. Mahogany history, use of name, sources of supply, wood description, 5 species. PAYSON, W. F. (ed.) 1926. MAHOGANY—ANTIQUE AND MO- DERN. A study of its history and use in the decorative arts. 154 pp., illus. New York, Dutton. History of use in boat »uilding and furniture. . STEVENSON, N. S. BRITISH HONDURAS MAHOGANY. (London) 127:813-814. 1933. Timber Trades Jour., Milling practice. HOWARD, A. L. 1934. TIMBERS OF THE WORLD. 672 pp., illus., 35 refs, London, MacMillan. Vernacular names, characteristics of wood, use of name. NIERENSTEIN, N. 1934. NATURAL ORGANIC TANNINS. 319 pp.. London, Churchill. Tannins in mahogany bark and wood. SYMONDS, R. W. 1934. EARLY IMPORTS OF MAHOGANY FOR FURNITURE. Connoisseur (London) pp. 213-220; 375-381., illus. LAMB, G. N. 1935-1951. THE MAHOGANY BOOK. eds 1 to 8. Chicago, Mahogany Assoc. Inc. illus. History, sources, identification, uses. es) w 200. RENDLE, J. 201. 202. 203. 204. 205. 1938. COMMERCIAL MAHOGANIES AND ALLIED TIMBERS. For Prod. Res. Bul No. 81. 46 pp. ANONYMOUS 1940. TIMBER LEAFLET. Timber Develop- ment Association. London 1(30):1-3. Mahogany, Central American and Cuban names, distribution, tree, timber, sea- soning, strength, durability, working qualities, uses and supplies. BUSH, W. D. 1941. MAHOGANY (SWIETENIA SP.) FOR- EIGN WOODS, LEAFLET. 20 pp., illus. 39 refs. Washington, U. S. Forest Service. Sources, nomenclature, distribution in- cluding map, supply by countries, re- forestation not carried out, mahogany planted experimentally in many parts of world. Production volume of timber trade by years, wood properties, uses, other woods called mahogany in lumber trade, African mahogany, Philippine mahogany, etc. LAMB, G. N. 1942. MAHOGANY GOES TO WAR. Wood Products 47(6):19-20 illus. Wood qualities for uses, exacting spec- ifications. ANONYMOUS 1943. THE PROCUREMENT OF AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 68 pp., illus. Washington, Of- fice of Economic Welfare. SR-31-325. Species of mahogany, variation in leaves, flowers, fruits, and wood struc- ture, detailed discussion of distribution, production, and characteristics by countries from Mexico to Brazil and Bolivia, U. S. import statistics, physical properties, log defects in detail, log measurement. MARKHAM, W. A. 1945. MAHOGANY LOGGING IN BRITISH HONDURAS. Timberman 46(12):52-54 illus. Saw milling. o4 206. 207. 208. 209. 210. 211. 212. PISHAWIKAR, D. G. and SHAH, S. V. 1946. A STUDY OF THE OIL FROM SEEDS OF SWIETENIA MAHAGONI. Jour. Univ. of Bombay 15A:Pt. 3, No. 20:17-20. Content of insoluble fatty acids, separa- tion of fatty acids, unsaturated acids, unsaponifiable matter, solid cake. ANONYMOUS 1947. MAHOGANY. Industrial Ref. Serv., Commodity ref. Serv. U.S.D.C. 5:12:2:1-3. illus. Production, U.S. imports, sources, cha- racteristics, uses (Swietenia, Khaya). DESCH, H E. 1947. THE MAHOGANIES. Wood, (London) 12(10) :288-290. illus. Distribution, characteristics, anatomical features, uses, also describes other woods sold as mahogany. JANE, ¥. W. 1947. THE STRUCTURE OF WOOD, Ii MA- HOGANY. Timber News (London) 55(2092): 52-54. illus. Swietenia compared with several similar woods, Shorea Entandrophragma and Aucounea. LAMB, G. N. 1947. MAEOGANY - FROM TREE TO TRIM. Cosgrove’s Magazine 19(6):20-25. illus. Characteristics of wood, early use, dis- tribution, logging, milling finishing, uses. RECORD, S. J. and HESS, R. W. 1947. TIMBER OF THE NEW WORLD. 640 pp., illus. New Haven, Yale Univ. Press. Discussion of species differences, wood variation, history of use, distribution, wood description. DICKINSON, F. E., HESS, R. W. and WANGAARD, F. F. 1949, PROPERTIES AND USES OF TROPI- CAL WOQDS. Trop. Woods 95:1-145. illus., 11 refs. Study of S. macrophylla plantation grown material, description of wood, drying, strength, decay resistance, test data. Other woods included. 213 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219 CARIBBEAN FORESTER . LAMB, G. N. 1950. BURL AND SWIRL AND THE STRANGLER FIG. Veneer and Plywood 64 (2) :61-63. illus. Figure in mahogany and causes. ANONYMOUS 1952. MAHONIE (MAHOGANY). Meded. Inst. Trop. Amst. No. 98 (Afd.) Trop. Prod. No. 38:18-20, 65. Wood of Swietenia, Khaya, and Entan- drophragma spp. described, common names and place of origin. In Dutch. WANGAARD, F. F. and MUSCHLER, A. F. 1952. PROPERTIES AND USES OF TRO- PICAL WOODS. Trop. Woods 98:1-190., illus. S. macrophyila (P. 101) test material young plantation grown trees, compared with forest grown. Mahogany, test data. Other woods included. SAKS, E. V. 1953. TROPICAL MAHOGANY PRODUC- TION. South. Lumberman 187(2345) :127- 130. illus. Veneer cutting methods to produce figures material. HALE, W. H. 1954. SOME TIMBERS USED IN PATTERN MAKING. Timber Technology 62(2178) :177- 179. S. macrophylla withstands high mois- ture content of foundry sand, rough usage, repairs, storage. LAMB, F. B. 1954. UTILIZATION, DISTRIBUTION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL AMERICAN MAHOGANY. 441 pp., illus., 269 refs. Ann Arbor, Mich. Univ. Microfilms No. 7679. Mahogany utilization, physical charac- teristics, decay, insect attack, defects, milling, uses of mahogany, history fur- niture, architecture, boat construction, aircraft construction, models and pat- terns, miscellaneous uses, production statistics p. 10-22 and 74-122. . LAMB, G. N. 1954. MAHOGANY FOR FOUNDRY PAT- TERNS. Modern Patternmaking. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 90. Name substitution, sources of true ma- hogany, characteristics for pattern making, grading rules, uses. SAKS, E. V. 1954. TROPICAL HARDWOOD FOR VE- NEER PRODUCTION IN MEXICO. Carib. For. 15 (3&4) :112-119. illus. S. macrophylla log export ban, descrip- tion of veneer, figures log characteristics. WANGAARD, F. F., KOEHLER, A., and MUSCHLER, A. F. 1954. PROPERTIES AND USES OF TRO- PICAL WOODS. Trop. Woods 99:1-187. illus. 9 refs. (P. 149) range and wood variation, physical and mecha- nical test data, sources of material, durability to rot, conclusion that wood of this species is not affected by wide differences in geographical origin, test data. Other woods tested. S. macrophylla LAMB, G. N. and ALBINI, A. 1956. FIGURE TYPES IN MAHOGANY. Chicago, Mahogany Association. 32 pp., illus. ANONYMOUS 1958. RULES FOR MEASUREMENT AND INSPECTION OF HARDWOOD LUMBER,—. 102 pp. Chicago, National Hardwood Lumber Association. Rules for the measurement and grading of mahogany lumber and veneer. CHAKRABARTY, M. M. and CHOWDHUR. D. K. 1958. THE FATTY ACID COMPOSITION OF THE SEED FAT FROM SWIETENIA MACROPHYLLA. Amer. Oil Chem. Soc. Jour. 34(10) :489-490. NORMAND D. and SALLENAVE, P. 1958. CHARACTERISTIC ET PROPRIETES DE ACAJOUS Bois et Forests des Trop. 59:43-52. illus. Comparison of woods of American and African mahogany. English summary Test confirms American (Swietenia) and African (Khaya) mahoganies form a homogeneous group. FOREST & FORESTRY FROM A NATIONAL POINT OF VIEW (SWIETENIA ET KHAYA). 226. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 35 NEVILLE, H. D. 1919. HARDWOODS IN CUBA. Cuba Review 18(1) :13-25. Cuban mahogany wood characteristics difference in relation to site, uses as fuel wood, poles, ties (S. mahagoni). . HUMMEL, C. 1925. FORESTS OF BRITISH HONDURAS. 122 pp. London, Crown Agents for the Co- lonies. Discussion of mahogany producing forests and their management. MATTHEWS, D. M. 1928. THE CUBAN FOREST PROBLEM. Mich. Acad. Sci. and Letters, Papers $:525, 530. Mahogany production volumes and for- est destruction (S. mahagoni). STEVENSON, N. S. 1935. FORESTRY IN BRITISH HONDURAS. 21 pp., British Empire Forestry Conference, South Africa. Belize, Govt. Print. Off. Also in Carib. For. 1(1):1-3. 1939. Area, population, topography, geology, soils, climate forest types, mahogany variation with soil type, future supplies 25 million cubic feet cedar and mahog- any. SWABEY, C. 1939. FORESTRY IN JAMAICA. Carib For. 1(1):5-6. S. mahagoni exported after 1665, little left now. PEVAN, A. 1940. POSSIBILITIES FOR FORESTRY IN THE VIRGIN ISLANDS; ST. THOMAS, ST. JOHN, AND ST. CROIX. Carib. For. 2(1): 8-12. Possibility of mahogany plantations, S. mahagoni). HAGLEY, W. H. 1940. FORESTRY For. 1(2):5-6. IN GRENADA. Carib. S. mahagoni and S. macrophylla esta- blished in wood lots on Grenada, small export to Trinidad. 36 233. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. GOMEZ-MENOR, J. 1943. LA CAOBA (SWIETENIA MAHAGONI (L.) JACQ. Rev. Agri. (Dom. Rep.) 34(147): 388-390. background and_ relation- and occurrence in Botanical ships distribution Santo Domingo. HOY, H. E. 1946. MAHOGANY INDUSTRY OF PERU. Economic Geography 22(1):1-13. Discovery, logging, climate, site and wood quality, stocking, location of log production, cutting periods, size and growth, regulation of cutting, quality of lumber, plantation growth, indicates 40 yr. rotation (S. macrophylla). STOVALL, R. P. 1947. MAHOGANY OF SANTO DOMINGO. Agric. Americas (Wash.) 17(889):107-108. illus. 500,000 board feet cut Cross in Cathedral S. mahagoni. annually, price, use. bears date 1514. SWABEY, C. 1949. GLIMPSES OF JAMAICA NATURAL HISTORY. Nat. Hist. Soc. of Jamaica 1(2): 73-75. Mahogany, history, once abundant foun” in few locations now in Jamaica. LAMB, F. B. 1953. THE FOREST OF DARIEN, PANAMA. Carib. For. 14(384):128-135. illus. Remaining mahogany volume, logging, future supplies, plantation cost and return, distribution map (S. macrophy- lla). PEET, C. 1954. MAHOGANY. American forests 60 (8) :12-16. General account of production in Brit- ish Honduras. LAMB, F. B. 1955. A STUDY OF MAHOGANY. The Asa Gray Bulletin N. S. 3(1):33-48. illus. Description of area covered for disser- tation, “Utilization, Distribution and Management of Tropical American Mahogany.” CARIBBEAN FORESTER 1959. 110:16-28. Mahogany and other tree crops for per- manent land use, mahogany production, need for management program. AUTHOR INDEX (By Item Number) Albini, A., 222. Anonymous, 24, 27, 121, 136, 143, 157, 168, 179, 184, 191, 192, 201, 204, 207, 214, 223. Ardikoesoema, R. I., 176. Barnard, R. C., 129. Bartlett, H. H., 53. Bascope, F. et al., 137. Bevan, A., 231. Blake, S. F., 12. Bonfin, S., 185. Bonnet, E. A., 144. Brown, F. &., 141. Burdon, J., 181. Burgos, J. A., 130. Busch, P., 9. Bush, W. D., 202. Candolle, C. de., 7. Catesby, M., 1. Chakrabarty, M. M., 224. Chaloner, E., 177, 189. Chambers, R. & W., 190. Champion, H. G., 93. Chapuis, J., 133. Charter, C. F., 61. Chevalier, A., 28. Chinte, F. O., 128. Chowdhur, D. K., 224. Ciferri, R., 49, 5%. Collardet, J., 21. Cree, C. S., 131, 134, 172. Desch, H. E., 208. Desrousseaux, 4. Dickinson, F. E., 212. Dilmy, A., 176. Dixon, H. H., 10. Dubeau, N. P., 155. Ducke, A., 51, 66. Duque-Jaramillo, J. M., 97. Egler, F. E., 63. Fravie, J., 161. PROSPECTS FOR FOREST LAND MANAGEMENT IN PANAMA. Trop. Woods JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Frith, A. C., 138. Froes, R. de L., 68. Gallant, M. N., 188. Garcia, L. A., 163. Gibbs, A. R., 140. Gifford? J. ©:.36,7 37;- 69: Gill, T., 148, 169. Gleason, H. A., 26. Gomez-Menor, J., 233. Gutierrez. Je T., 125: Hagley, W. H., 232. Hale, W. H., 217. Hamlin, M. J., 145. Harms, H., 19, 29. Harrison, D. B., 156. JERS, Use Wes Shy BES Ste abl sabe Holdridge, L. R., 54, 74, 98, 122, 174. Howard, A. L., 196. Hoy, H: E., 234. Hueck, K., 139. Huguet, L., 126. Hummel, C., 38, 227. Irmay, H. de., 73. Jacquin, J. N., 3. Jane, F. W., 209. Jussieu, M. A., 5. Kalshoven, L. G. E., 160. Kermani, W. A., 127. King, G., 8. Kinloch, J. B., 91, 94, 110. Koehler, A., 18, 221. Kribs, D. A., 22. Lamb, A.F.A., 105, 108, 109, 111, 115. Tham Dib 01451, d22 132. 154, 159) 1. 174: 175, 218, 237, 239, 240. amb, GN. 152; 153, 199, 203, 210, 213; 219, 299. Lamprecht, H., 139. Latham, B., 186, 187. Linnaeus, C., 2. Little, BB: Ts,-72: Lundell, C. L., 30, 50, 56, 62, 70 MacBride, J. F., 20. Markham, W. A., 151, 205. Marie, E., 119, 126. Marrero, J., 98, 101, 103, 116, 120, 123, 124. Marshall, R. C., 88, 96. Martinez, G. J., 125. Martorell, L. F., 164, 165. Mason Jr., B., 74, 122, 174. Matthews, D. M., 228. May, E. S., 146. Mell, C. D., 78, 178, 180, 193. Mellville, R. A., 25. ~l e) Miller, W. A., 149. Moses, C. S., 167. Muschler, A. F., 215, 221. Neville, H. D., 226. Nierenstein, N., 197. Noltee, A. C., 79. Normand, D., 225. Oliphant, J. N., 43, 80, 81. 85. 86, 87. Orden, T., 173. Ower, L. H., 42. Panshin, A. J., 23, 26. Payson, W. F., 147, 194. Peet, C., 238. Perera, S. P., 135. Pishawikar, D. G., 206. Pitter, EH. 13; 15: Platt, R. S., 67. Ponce, S. E., 92. Record, S. J., 15, 16, 31, 33, 39, 40. 58, 89, 106, 193. 200, 211. Rendle, J., 200. RiCey Caukien 5) Rolfe, R. A., 11. Saks, E. V., 158, 216, 220. Sallenave, P., 225. Sargent, C. S., 17. Saunders, L. F., 142. Schedl, K. E. 162. Shah, S. V., 206. Smith, J. H. N., 102. Standley, P. C., 14, 32, 45, 46, 58. Stehlé, H., 35. Sterling, E. A., 170. Stevenson, D., 41, 44, 82, 83. Stevenson, N. S., 60, 64, 65. 71, 84, 95, 99, 104 195, 229. Stevenson, R., 52, 183. Steyermark, J. A., 32. Stobart, T. A., 182. Stovall, R. P., 235. Swabey. C., 100, 230, 236. Symonds, R. W. 198. Abobo, Jee iss, (Hi, lip Vinvent, F., 76. Von Hagen, V. W., 150. Voogd, C. N. A. de, 117. Wadsworth, F. H., 107, 112, 113, 114, 118. Wangaard, F. F., 212, 215. 221. Williams, L., 47, 48, 59. Wolcott, G. W., 166. Zuccarini, J. G., 6. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Eftects of the 1956 Hurricane on Forests in Puerto Rico FRANK H. WADSWORTH & GEORGE H. ENGLERTH Tropical Forest Research Center Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico Tropical hurricanes, or cylonic storms revolving about a central ‘eye’ and charac- terized by winds of 75 miles per hour or more and by heavy rainfall, frequently pass through the West Indies and occasionally strike Puerto Rico. These hurricanes nor- mally originate either near the Cape Verde Islands or in the doldrums south of 10°N. latitude and between 40° and 55°W longi- tude!. They usually move westward into the Caribbean, then northwestward, becoming expended in the zone of the westerly winds north of the Tropic of Cancer. About 50 hurricanes have passed directly over Puerto Rico during the 450 years of recorded history?. Hurricane damage to exposed trees is generally spectacular. Breakage of branches and uprooting are important causes of failures in communications and electrical service and interruption of vehicular traffic. Dam- age of this character is deemed so serious by some that large and attractive trees along roadsides and near buildings sometimes are sacrificed to eliminate the hazard. The effects of hurricanes on _ forests, many of which are in remote areas, are not well understood. Damage to forests, though less apparent to the layman, is nevertheless real, since the trees in the forest constitute a 1/ Tannehill, I. R. 1943. Hurricanes. Princeton University Press. pp. 265 On the frequency of hurricanes in Porto Rico Jour. Pub. Health & 2/ Fassig, O. L. 1929. the vicinity of Porto Rico. Trp. Med. 5:106-113. 3/. Bates, Charles Z. 1929. Efectos del huracan del 13 de septiembre de 1928 en distintos arboles. Rev. de Agr. (Puerto Rico) 23:113-117. 4/ Vaukan, R. E. & Wiehe, P. 0. 1937. Studies on the veget- ation of Mauritius, Pt. 1. A preliminary survey of the plant communities. 5/ King, H. C. 1945. Notes on the three cyclones in Mauritius in 1945: their effect on exctic plantations, indigenous forest and on some timber buildings. Empire Forestry Rev. 24:192-195. valuable crop which attains the proper size for harvesting only after years of exposure to . hurricanes. The prediction and prevention of hurri- cane damage are matters of interests to the entire population. In the forest, however, there is little evidence from past studies to determine whether or how hurricane damage might be minimized. The only attempt at a written description of the effects of hurri- canes on trees in Puerto Rico concerns the hurricane of 19283. It was observed that more trees were broken off than uprooted and that some trees escaped serious damage through loss of their leaves early in the storm. Some trees died without any apparent cause except defoliation. Dieback of limbs was caused by sun-scald on exposed branches. Dense forest was less damaged than open forest. This last observation appears to be corroborated by observers in Mauritius?,/® who found indigenous forest relatively resist- ant to hurricane damage. Forestry in Puerto Rico has made its most important advances during a period in which no hurricanes passed over the island, from 1932 to 1956. The land area under forest management doubled, and _ forests were established or improved on thousands of acres. Lands of all types and in all parts of the island were included. Measured plots have been established in areas representative of many of these conditions. This growing investment in forests and forestry makes it imperative that more be known about the nature of hurricane damage and any circum- stances which tend to minimize it. According- ly, a field survey of hurricane damage was made by the Tropical Forest Research Center with the cooperation of the Division of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife of the Commonwealth o> CO JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 T one, ‘& VauV 1S3YO4 © NOILVLS YSHLVSM ® YSLN3A9 4O H1Vd BS AYyYINIV @— ims TVAYNVA - © \'ON LNVId 3LINVO ® : O oly aworvwe JLIYVo OY9D3AN ominont JLVYYISNOW Ovowo O LSA “LS IvZONO9 e OYOL sv1 S3AaWVN O @ e Ay y ( |) @ Svudsild Olu VOSA Nvar nws Ol © SJIIW - 31V9S 02 Ol ie) 00 699 HOCr. O ae aHovIVaNWo 99 9G6l ‘2! LSNONV OdIY OLYSANd YSAO ASLI8 JANVOINYNH JO H1LVd eS voINvno Fy — 00.0 | Nouanoog ©) vnsns JLYVIING © OvoINWW ofvav Oly NYLVW dWVO LNOOS sv908 sod € VOVLVrVNdS svT1dvY¥a3aNo @ ———— mas OP IONFIYUV ABWVY @ ,O€ 81 00 .19 AO Department of Agriculture and Commerce during the three months immediately follow- ing the hurricane of 1956. THE 1956 HURRICANE The 1956 hurricane, designated ‘“‘Betsy” by the U. S. Weather Bureau, and locally called ‘Santa Clara”, developed from an easterly barometric wave found in longitude 33°W. on August 6, reached hurricane inten- sity on August 10, and was centered over Puerto Rico from about noon to 3:15 p.m. on August 126. The storm first hit Puerto Rico near Maunabo and left near Camuy. Its path, as plotted by radar, is shown in Fig. 1. Recorded maximum wind velocities ac- companying the hurricane were 92 miles per hour at San Juan, about 30 miles north of the path of the center, and 115 miles per hour at Ramey Air Force Base, 13 miles southwest of the path®. Unfortunately wind records were insufficient to show the pattern of extreme velocities over the island. How- ever, all of Puerto Rico, according to the Weather Bureau,® received wind velocities of at least 50 miles per hour. 6/ U. S. Weather Bureau. 1956. Climatological Data, Puerto Rico and Virgin Islands. II, No. 8, GPO. Washington, D. C. CARIBBEAN FORESTER The maximum rainfall measured in Puer- to Rico on August 12 was 8.7 inches at El Verde in the eastern mountains. The pat- tern of rainfall is shown for selected sta- tions in Table 1. There it is seen that the tendency for rainfall to increase with proximity to the storm center, while generally apparent, is marred by a number of exceptions such as the heavy rainfall at Luquillo and the light rainfall at Aguirre. High rainfall appeared to extend farther in a northerly direction than to the south. A rather clear relationship with elevation is also apparent in Table 1. All but one of the stations receiving more than 5 inches of rainfall were above 1500 feet elevation. Moreover the least rainfall recorded at high elevation, 28 miles from the center, was equal to the rainfall much nearer the center at low elevations. The rainfall immediately prior to Betsy might, by having already loosened the soil, contribute to the damage on the forest. However, an analysis of the August 9 to 11 rainfall on Puerto Rico indicates that it ex- ceeded one inch for that period at only four of the selected stations. Such prior rain is believed to be too light to have contributed materially to the damage. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Table 1.—The relationship between location, elevation, and rainfall Distance and Direction Approximate Rainfall Place of from storm center August 121 Observation Miles Inches Elevation 0-1500 ft. 378 0.5 Guanica 338 0.8 Boqueron 31N one, San Juan 29S 12 Sustia 27N 2a St. Just 24N Dee Rio Piedras 15S 4.6 Guajataca 13S 4.6 Scout camp 9S 4.1 Quebradillas 9NE Bul Vega ON 2.4 Monserrate vi) 4.1 Rio Abajo 6S 4.1 Dos Bocas 5S - fee 1.6 Aguirre 4NE eee 6.2 Corozal 3N 2.4 Cambalache 3N 4.9 Carite Plant No. 1 1S 2 Yaurel 0 3h 74 Arecibo Elevation 1500-3000 ft. 28S 32 Maricao 25N 8.0 Luquillo 20SW A. Guilarte 10SW 5.6 Toro Negro 7SW 8.6 Matrullas Dam 6N 4.2 Carite 4SW 6.3 Mameyes 3N 5.0 Jajome Alto 2SW 8.5 Cacao 1/ Based in some areas om interpclation from nearby station. 42 Hurricane Betsy was not as severe as many previous hurricanes. The storm was comparatively small in diameter (apparently little more than 100 miles), it progressed more rapidly across the island (about 20 miles per hour) than is usual, and the winds and rainfall which accompanied it both were considerably less than has been experienced in the past. Extremes for other hurricanes recorded in Puerto Rico are diameters in ex- cess of 300 miles, forward velocity of less than 10 miles per hour, winds of 160 miles per hour, and rainfall up to 29 inches in 48 hours!. THE NATURE OF THE DAMAGE Observations of the effects of the hurri- cane were made in 20 areas which contain natural or planted forests in Puerto Rico, the area surveyed totalling some 17,000 acres (See Fig. 1). These observations were based upon reconnaissance from the air and by counts on the ground within established plots or along transects?. In the selection of areas to be studied an effort was made to include a maximum range in the following factors: distance from the path of the center of the hurricane, elevation, topogra- phy, soil types, and stand structure and composition. The most general type of damage to the forests was defoliation. In many areas the leaves of the exposed parts of tree crowns turned brown and dropped a few days after the storm passed. Elsewhere defoliation was immediate, apparently a direct result of the physical force of the wind. Loosening and shredding of the bark of trees due to the whipping action of the winds was another form of damage. This effect was evident mostly in trees which had not been completely defoliated. 1/ Op. cit. 7/. Assistance is acknowledged for part of the field work by Benjamin Seda, Jorge Rivera, and forest ranger and guards of the Commonwealth Division of Forests, Fishieries & Wildlife; and by B. J. Huckenpahler, José Marrero. Raul Ybarra Corona- do, Ramiro Agosto Ruiz, and José Reyes Mateo of the Research Center. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Breakage was another common effect of the hurricane on trees. At its least this form of damage affected only small limbs. At the other extreme trees were snapped off near the base. Such serious breakage resulted in damage to adjacent trees. Uprooting was the usual effect of strong wiads upon trees which were more resistant above than within the soil (See Fig. 2). At a minimum such trees were tipped and torn partially loose at the roots. However, up- rooted trees were commonly blown to the ground, their root systems being pulled out of the soil, and neighboring trees often going down with them. In extreme conditions considerable areas of raw soil or rock were exposed beneath the upturned root systems. Indirect effects of the hurricane on the forest are less spectacular but apparently serious. Defoliation apparently was follow- ed by sun-scalding on the limbs and their subsequent death. Loosened bark, even where the tree is not killed, can adversely affect the quality of the tree. Insects and decay can enter where breakage has occurred. Trees which lean as a result of the wind tend thereafter to produce compression and tension wood which is of little value. Forest openings created by breakage and_blow- down foster the development of vines which interfere with the re-establishment of the forest. It was necessary for this study to define what constitutes the “loss” of a tree. Many of the trees damaged are neither dead nor will they die soon. Thus “loss” refers chief- ly to the removal cf a tree from the produc- tive potential of the stand. Trees which suffered only defoliation and top breakage were not considered “lost”. However, those with trunks snapped off, even where part of the tree could be salvaged, were considered “lost”. Also trees with sufficient lean (15%-+) to adversely affect future wood production, whatever their present salvage value, were considered “lost”. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DAMAGE . AND SITE Observations made on the field were grouped on the basis of five factors of the physical environment: proximity to the path of the storm center, elevation, topographic exposure, aspect, and character of the soil. Site is not subject to much practical modi- fication by man, but relationship to damage may show limitations on potential forest yields which need to be understood. 43 that no appreciable damage was recorded beyond 15 miles to the south or 27 miles to the north of the storm center. Within this range the damage shows a general tendency to increase as the path of the center is approached. Table 2 shows certain inconsistencies in this relationship between distance and dam- At Toro Negro, for example, the dam- yet the age. age was less than at Guajataca, Fig. 2—Damage to 26-year old white mangrove stand at Aguirre by Hurricane Betsy. Fifty-nine of the trees were broken cr upreoted by the storm as de- termined by a sample plot of 621 trees. Proximity to the Path of the Center of the Hurricane Hurricanes normally are most active near the center and are progressively weaker toward the periphery. Thus it might be expected that forests would be damaged by hurricanes roughly in proportion to their distance from the center. Table 2 compares damage to proximity to the path of the storm center. It is seen distance from the storm path was only two- thirds as great. In addition to general variation there was evident in the field extreme local variation, making difficult the classification of damage as shown in Table 2. At Guajataca, Rio Abajo, and Cambalache se- vere damage was mostly in small areas or strips, suggesting both a large local variation in the susceptibility of different forest areas and the probability that there were numerous small squalls of exceptionally high velocity. 44 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 2.—The relationship between location and hurricane damage 7 Degree of Damage Place of Distance and Direction ——————— ; ; Local or Extreme | : From Storm Center Negligible Slight | or Severe : ieee Miles 37 to 20 S x Gudnica, Boqueron, Susta, Maricao and Guilarte 15 to. 13 8 x Guajataca and Scout camp 10S x Toro Negro 7 SW x Rio Abajo 5S to6N x Aguirre, Mameyes, Cacao, Cambalache and Carite 9 to 27 N x Vega, Monserrate, Rio Piedras, Luquillo, and St. Just 31 N x San Juan The relationship between damage and distance from the center of Betsy would not necessarily be applicable to other hurricanes. The radius of the damaged area could vary greatly with the severity of the hurricane. Elevation Forest damage might be expected to show a relationship to elevation, yet the data do not bear this out. Although several areas at high elevation were severely damaged, such as Mameyes (1,600 ft.), Cacao (2,000 ft.), and Carite (1,800 ft.), others near sea level and no closer to the storm center, such as Aguirre (sea level) and Camba- lache (100 ft.), were equally damaged. On each side of the path the most distant areas with reportable damage, Guajataca and St. Just, are both below 500 feet eleva- tion. Within the Luquillo forest, where elevation ranges from 400 to 3,500 feet, dam- age did not increase with elevation. Topographic Exposure Most of the areas studied are rough in topography and afford within short distances an opportunity to compare the damage under different degrees of exposure and aspects. On the limestone hills of the north coast damage was found both on the exposed hill- tops and in the protected areas between the hills. A count of trees broken off or wind- thrown at Cambalache showed that of 834 trees on a hilltop 26 percent were lost, whereas of 1,445 trees on the adjacent slopes 21 per- cent were lost. Browned leaves and defoliation were chiefly confined to hilltops and exposed upper slopes, suggesting that the surviving trees there withstood more wind than those re- maining in more protected areas. Nevertheless, on a few exposed slopes at Guajataca all vegetation was removed. Evidence from other parts of the island supports the observation that trees on ex- posed hills and ridges withstood the winds JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 at least as well as on slopes and in valleys. In the northern part of the Luqui- llo forest damage on the ridges was limited to defoliation, yet near the bottom of the deep Mameyes Valley windthrow was locally severe. At Mameyes, in the central moun- tains, damage was most severe on concave slopes protected from normal winds. At Cacao the most extensive damage seen in the mountains, about 300 acres with nearly every tree windthrown, was located in a deep valley. Whereas the susceptibility of the forest to wind damage may not have been proven greater in the valleys than on the ridges, there can be no question but that the eco- nomic loss in the valleys is by far the most important. Lower slopes and valleys usual- ly bear better stands than upper slopes and ridges, both as to quality of species, and tree form and height. The loss of these better trees may be in terms of sawtimber, either actual or pctential, whereas on the ridges the trees generally contain only posts, poles, or short logs. This relationship is particular- ly sharp at Luquillo, St. Just, and Rio Abajo, where potentially valuable plantations in the valleys suffered yet natural forests on the upper slopes, where little investment had been made, were much less affected. Aspect West Indian hurricanes are described as areas in which the general wind direction, as visualized on a map, forms a counterclock- wise spiral about the center. Thus any area in the hurricane zone can be expected to experience, sooner or later, winds of hurri- cane force from ali directions. An area di- rectly in the path of the center should receive winds in one direction which gradual- ly strenghten in violence and then a complete reversal of direction and gradual reduction in force. Areas affected but not in the path of the center experience winds which may gradually shift 90 degrees or more. Consid- ering the direction of the drift of Betsy across the island, areas directly in the path 45 of its center might be expected to receive north and south winds; areas to the north of the path, southeast to northeast winds, and areas to the south of the path north- west to southwest winds. Observations in the field, which includ- ed the prevailing direction of windfallen trees, generally bear out this description. Areas lying in the path of the center were affected mostly by those winds which preceded the eye of the storm. Other areas were affect- ed chiefly by winds from the direction to be expected when the storm center was closest. The significance of wind direction to dam- age was especially apparent on opposing slopes. To the north of the path the damage was due mostly to easterly winds. At Lu- quillo defoliation was chiefly on east-facing slopes in watersheds draining north and east, with only the west-facing slopes entirely unaffected. At Vega defoliation was also apparent only on the east-facing upper slopes. At Carite damaging winds ranged from east to northwest. Defoliation at Cambalache was chiefly in areas exposed to the east and north, yet in number of trees destroyed the west slope suffered more heavily (30%) than the east (11%). From Cambalache to Arecibo the north-facing slopes showed most defoliation. To the south of the path the damaging winds were mostly westerly. At Guajataca northwest winds damaged the north- and west-facing slopes, whereas those {acing south were intact. At Toro Negro blow- down was caused by northwest winds also. At Aguirre windthrow was chiefly toward the east, indicating that the damaging winds were from the west. At Cacao, only 2 miles from the center, trees were blown down regardless of aspect, indicating destructive winds from several directions. Seil The forests in which hurricane damage was studied cover a wide range of soil con- 46 ditions, some of which might well be signif- icant to the resistance of trees to windthrow. In areas where windthrow was serious it is clear that anchorage of the trees in the soil was deficient. Where damage is due to breakage xaiher than windfall, anchorage might be considered adequate. The soil characteristic most significant to damage might be expected to be soil depth, since trees with shallow roots could be expect- ed to have less anchorage than those deeply rooted. However, the observations do not bear this out. At St. Just the forest on the shallow soils of the slopes was undamaged, yet serious uprooting took place in a com- parable stand on the deep soils of the bot- tomland. In the Luquillo Forest damage on shallow soils was nearly all breakage. On the shallow soils on the limestone hills at Guajataca, Vega, Rio Abajo, Cambalache, and the Scout Camp breakage was far more serious than uprooting, and in many places neither was important. Adjacent to these hills at Guajataca and Rio Abajo the forests of deep soils suffered serious damage, chiefly due to uprooting. An exception was found at Cambalache where breakage was also most important on the deep soils of the bottom- land. The factor responsible for this resist- ance to windthrow on shallow soils may well be anchorage of the roots in cracks and other openings in the upper layer of the parent rock. Normal available moisture in the soil, unlike soil depth, appears to be very signif- icant to tree anchorage. The most serious damage due to uprooting was on deep soils where moisture is normally abundant, and particularly where protection from the nor- mal trade winds further favors moist conditions. Outstanding losses under these conditions, not shared by adjacent forests in less moist or protected locations were found at Luquillo, Carite, St. Just, Mameyes, Cacao, Guajataca, Rio Abajo, Cambalache, and Aguirre.. The Luquillo forest, normal- ly 50 percent more rainy than all other forests studied, suffered more damage than CARIBBEAN FORESTER some other forests much closer to the path of the storm center. The relationship described here is further supported by the small root systems of the trees blewn over. It would appear that under conditions of abundant moisture and protection from pre- vailing winds the top-root ratio of the trees increases to a point which reduces capacity to withstand exceptional winds. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DAMAGE AND THE CONDITION OF THE FOREST Observations on damaged forests were directed toward relationships with the struc- ture and composition of the stands. Struc- ture concerns the proportionate representation of different tree sizes and the density of the stand. Composition is concerned with the number and the identify of the species present. These conditions, unlike those of site, are subject to control and might be materially modified if suggested by differences in the susceptibility of different types of stands. The stands observed varied from those with all trees of the same young age and of only one or a few species to the very old uneven-aged forests with 30 or more species per acre such as originally covered most of Puerto Rico. Structure and composition in Puerto Rican forests vary together to such a degree that it was not possible to isolate entirely either of them in order to relate damage to it. Stands which are even-aged in struc- ture are almost everywhere pure in compo- sition and stands which are all-aged are ge- nerally mixed. Thus comparisons could be made only among even-aged pure and _ all- aged mixed forests. | Within these two con- ditions it was possible to make a few compa- risons in young and old and in dense and open stands and to different individual tree species. All-aged Mixed vs. Even-aged Pure Stands There was a general difference in the character of the damage in all-aged mixed stands as compared with even-aged pure J ANUARY - JUNE, 1959 stands. In all-aged stands there was a range of susceptibility of individual trees within the stand, due apparently to inequalities in the degree of exposure of each tree and also, to a lesser degree, to species characteristics. Thus dominant, exposed trees generally suf- fered more than those subordinate in the canopy. This relationship was observed at Guajataca, Cambalache, Rio Piedras, Luqui- llo, and St. Just. In even-aged pure forests damage was far less selective than in all-aged mixed stands. Forests of this character, if dam- aged at all, generally suffered severely, apparently because all trees were so similar as to be about equally susceptible. Exten- sive damage of this type was suffered by even- aged pure forests at Guajataca, the Scout Camp, Rio Abajo, Toro Negro, Aguirre, Ma- meyes, Cacao, Cambalache, Carite and Lu- quillo. The extreme character of such damage to even-aged forests is apparent in a number of areas where data were taken. The most ex- tensive devastation seen in even-aged pure stands was in coffee shade at Cacao. There in an area of 300 acres almost every tree was windthrown. At Aguirre a sample of 621 trees in an area of several hundred acres of 26-year-old (4 to 12 inches d.b.h.) natural forest showed 59 percent of the trees lost. suffered In the Luqui- Pure ferest plantations also heavy losses in several areas. AT llo forest one 19-year-old plantation (5 to 10 inches d.b.h.) was reduced from 600 to 12 trees per acre; another from 960 to 128. At Ca- rite a 15 year-old plantation (6 to 15 inches d.b.h.) was reduced from 380 to 20 trees per acre, and an 18-year-old plantation (6 tol2 inches d.b.h.) from 202 to 2 trees per acre. At Rio Abajo an 18-year-old plantation (6 to 11 inches d.b.h.) was reduced from 293 to 30 trees per acre. In a few areas it was possible to com- pare within close range the degree of dam- age suifered by all-aged and even-aged for- ests. Although it was frequently difficult to classify the severity of the damage, an attempt was made in Table 3. There it is seen that among the stands studied even- aged stands everywhere suffered as heavily as all-aged stands, and generally more so. Age of Trees and Stands Few direct comparisions were possible between old and young trees subject to si- milar exposure. It has already been pointed out that the larger (and presumably older) tress in all-aged forest are generally more affected than the subordinate trees. How- ever, this appears to be due chiefly to great- er exposure, rather than age. That advanced age is not alone an important factor in susceptibility is apparent in the many old trees on exposed ridges and slopes on the mountains, some of which must have survived dozens of hurricanes. Table 3.—Comparative Damage in All-Aged and Even-aged Forests. | Degree of Damagel Negligible Local or Slight Extensive or Severe Toro Negro A E Guajataca A E Rio Abajo A K Carite A E Cambalache AE 1/ A - all-aged mixed stands; E - even-aged pure stands. 48 A contrast between damage to young and old forests was apparent at Aguirre. There, as has already been described, a 26 year-old even-aged forest suffered extensively, more than half of the trees being eliminated. In the midst of this area a 3-year-old stand of trees 12 feet tall was unharmed. At Luquillo the greater resistance of young trees was also apparent in plantations of eucalyptus (Eucaliptus spp.) There 12 year-old plantations (4 to 10 inches d.b.h.) lost 15 to 40 percent of their trees, whereas 5-year-old plantations (1 to 3 inches d.b.h.) remained undamaged. Stand Density No observations were made in natural stands which were alike except for density. However, the effect of the hurricane in ad- jacent thinned and unthinned stands could be compared at Cambalache and at the Scout Camp. At Cambalache a 6-year-old plantation of teak (Tectona grandis L. ) 3 to 4 inches d.b.h. had been thinned about 6 before the The results are shown in Table 4. months hurricane. The greater hazard created by heavy thinning is apparent in Table 4. Of the trees CARIBBEAN FORESTER lost, about 35 percent were broken off, 5 percent were uprooted, and 60 percent were tipped or bent permanently. Those left standing were not only defoliated but had been so whipped by the wind that much of their bark was stripped off or hanging in loose shreds. All tree areas have made a remarkable recovery. After cutting off the trees considered lost, the stumps have pro- duced sprouts which in the larger openings provide a_ satisfactory replacement stand. Bark stripping on the trees left proved to be less serious than anticipated as new bark was formed over all wounds. Another similar result from thinning was observed at the Scout Camp in an even-aged pure stand of guaraguao (Guarea trichilioides L.) averaging 6 to 10 inches d.b.h. A portion of this stand thinned from 100 to 80 square feet of basal area per acre 9 months earlier suffered crown breakage in more than 50 percent of the trees whereas nearby unthinned stands suffered only slightly. The most seriously damaged plantation at Rio Abajo had been heavily thinned only months before the hurricane. This planta- tion, 18 years of age and ranging from 6 to 11 inches in diameter, had been thinned from about 100 to 40 square feet of basal area. Table 4.—Teak Losses at Cambalache Basis of measurement | _ Number per acre by degree of thinning _ | | 2. © _ Heavy _ Light None Before Hurricane All trees 380 620 785 Crop trees 100 100 100 Basal area, sq. ft. 28 42 53 Losses All trees 180 65 45 Crop trees 60 35 25 JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 The hurricane reduced it from 293 to 30 trees per acre. Damage in comparable adjacent plantations, while substantial, was less severe. Tree Species Observations already described have indi- cated variation in the susceptibility of forests to damage related to site and general stand conditions. Most of these observations are confounded in some degree with differences in the tree species present. Now, looking at it the other way, which tree species, other things being equal, showed the greatest susceptibility or resistance to the hurricane? Variations in sites and stand conditions from place to place make difficult true com- parisions of the susceptibility of different Ag tree species to hurricane damage. However, it is apparent in Table 5, which presents data from a single location, that real differences do exist. Indications of relative susceptibility were evident in other forests where individual species suffered either much more or much less than the general run of the forest. Where this relationship was observed under more than one condition the indication is especially strong. The results of these observations are summarized in Table 6. In this tabu- lation susceptible species are classified as subject primarily to windthrow (anchorage weaker than the stem) or to breakage (stem weaker than anchorage). Resistant species apparently have neither deficiency. Table 5.—Damage to Different Tree Species on a West Slope at Cambalache Percent Trees Trees Species Lost Examined %o No Sanguinaria (Dipholis salicifolia [L.] A.D.C.) 5 D2, Uvilla (Coccoloba diversifolia Jacq.} 8 37 Almacigo (Bursera simaruba [L.] Sarg.) 18 17 San José (Sabinea florida [Vahl.] D.C.) De, 55 Verde seco (Tetrazygia eleagnoides [Sw.] D C.) AT 106 Mameyuelo (Ardisia obovata Desv.) 54 85 Laurel avispillo (Nectandra coriacea [Sw.] Griseb) bye 58 50 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Table 6.—Especially Susceptible or Resistant Tree Species. Species Where Observed Susceptible to Windthrow Caoba hondurefia (Swietenia macrophylla King) Ciprés (Cupressus lusitanica Miller) Cupey (Clusia rosea Jacq.) Eucalyptus (EF. robusta J. E. Smith & albaReinw.) Jacana (Pouteria multiflora [A.DC] Wyma) Laurel (Nectandra spp.) Mangle blanco (Laguncularia racemosa [L.] Gaertn.) Teca (Tectona grandis L.) Susceptible to Breakage Algarrobo (Hymenaea courbaril L.) Avelluelo (Colubrina arborescens [Mill.] Sarg.) Bucayo (Erythrina poeppigiana [Walp.] O.F. Cock) Casuarina (Casuarina spp.) Cedro Macho (Hyeronima clusioides [Tul.] Muell.) Eucalipto (Eucaliptus spp.) Guaba (Inga vera Willd.) Guano (Ochroma pyramidale [Cav.] Urban) Guaraguao (Guarea trichilioides L.) Mangle bianco Mahoe (Hibiscus elatus Sw.) Teca Luquillo, Carite, Rio Abajo, St. Just Luquillo, Toro Negro Guajataca, Cambalache St. Just Guajataca Rio Piedras, Cambaiache, Rio Abajo Aguirre Luquillo, Carite Luquillo Rio Abajo Rio Abajo Luquillo, Cambalache, Scout Camp Rio Abajo Luquillo, Carite, St. Just, Cambalache Luquillo, Carite, Mameyes, Cacao Guajataca Guajataca Scout Camp Aguirre Rio Abajo Carite, Cambalache JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 Wind Resistant Almacigo (Bursera simaruba [L.] Sarg.) Aquil6n (Laugeria racemosa Vahl) Ausubo (Manilkara bidentata [A. DC] Che.) Caoba dominicana (Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.) Capa blanco (Petitia domingensis Jacq.) Capa prieto (Cordia alliodora [R&p.] Cham.) Hoja menuda (Eugenia sp.) Maga (Montezuma speciosissima [Sesse & Moc.] Dubard) Mangle colorado (Rhizophora mangle L.) Maria (Calophyllum braziliense Camb.) Moca (Andira inermis [W. Wright] H.B.K.) Roble (Tabebuia heterophylla [DC] Britton) Table 6, in presenting exceptional spe- cies, undoubtedly includes only a few of those which might, with more observations or hurricane force, be so classified. Species found only near the path of the storm, lo- cated only on susceptible sites or in even- aged plantations probably showed failings which may be equally characteristic of but less evident in species not so located. Thus, although all-aged forests are much more exten- sive than even-aged, some 60 percent of the ratings were based upon even-aged forests. Considering the proportion of native and exotic tree species exposed to the hurricane the number of susceptible exotics was high. Of those species susceptible to windthrow only cupey, laurel, and mangle blanco are native species in natural forests. Those susceptible to breakage include the following natives in natural environment: algarrobo, avelluelo, cedro macho, and guano. Never- theless a few planted species, such as caoba dominicana, maria, and roble proved resistant. CONCLUSIONS 1. Serious forest damage in Puerto Rico Vega Guajataca Monserrate Guajataca, Rio Abajo Luquillo, Guajataca, Scout Camp, Rio Abajo Guajataca, Monserrate Cambalache Rio Abajo Aguirre Luquillo, Carite, Guajataca, Scout Camp, Rio Abajo, St. Just Guajataca Guajataca, Rio Abajo, Luquillo, Carite due to Hurricane Betsy was confined to an area within about 6 miles of the path of the center. Damage was negligible beyond 15 miles southwest and 27 miles northeast of the path. 2. Damage was as serious on sites protect- ed from normal winds as on those exposed. 3. Forests on slopes are subject to the hazard of hurricane damage regardless of aspect. 4. Forests on shallow soils have not proven to be less windfirm than those on deep soils. 5. Uprooting of trees, indicating poor an- chorage, is a common form of hurricane damage on soils which normally are very moist or wet. 6. All-aged mixed forest frequently suffer from slight and selective hurricane damage; even-aged pure forests generally suffer either no damage or very serious damage. 7. Heavy thinning of forests is conducive to susceptibility to wind damage. 8. Different tree species vary to a signif- icant degree in their susceptibility to wind- throw and breakage from hurricanes. 52 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Ranura y Cuenca de Pino Radiata - Por Dr. Ervin Ijjasz Universidad Austral de Chile Las anomalias de la madera pueden producirse por varias causas, que pueden ser de origen interno o externo. Las internas son las causadas por las_ propiedades hereditarias de las especies. Las externas pueden tener origen en los fendmenos naturales, como son los rayos, vientos, granizos, o ser de origen animal o vegetal como insectos, hongos o pa- rasitos. Finalmente pueden ser de origen hu- mano, como incendios u otros danos ocasio- nados por actividad humana. A este grupo pertenecen aquellas anomalias que son pro- ducidas por el tratamiento inadecuado de las maderas, como rajaduras o alabeos. La produccién de anomalias puede ser en arbol vivo o volteado, ya sea en los rolli- zos o bases (vigas) pero también en maderas elaboradas, como tablas, tirantes o durmien- tes. La ciencia maderera divide las anoma- lias en los siguientes tres grupos: (a) defec- tos, (b) alteraciones y (c) deformaciones. Los defectos son anomalias estructurales de la madera como la acebolladura, rajadu- ras, nudos o excentricidad. Estos afectan so- lamente las propiedades fisicas y mecdanicas de la madera. Las alteraciones influyen hasta en la composicién quimica de la madera, como por ejemplo las manchas, podredumbre y tumo- res. Las deformaciones son anomalias que afectan la forma y la disposicién de los te- jidos, como el alabeo y revirado. RANURA La ranura y la cuenca de Pinus radiata D. Don pertenecen al primer grupo - los de- fectos. Afectan las propiedades fisicas y me- cdnicas de la madera y dan en algunos casos un aspecto muy caracteristico a estos pinos. A continuacién describiremos estos defectos muy particulares de los Pinus radiata chile- nos por cuanto no se tiene conocimiento de ellos en otros paises ni figuran en la litera- tura. La ranura (Fig. 1) es una depresién superficial alrededor de los haces foliares del tronco e influye principalmente sobre las caracteristicas estéticass Cuando es muy pronunciada su presencia en el fuste es muy notorio y da tal caracteristica a su ma- dera que facilita su exacta determinacion. Su distribuci6n sigue las leyes del orden de las agujas. Estas ranuras son de muy diver- sos tamafios segtn la edad del Arbol, su vi- gorosidad, su situacién dentro de la masa boscosa, las caracteristicas del sitio, exposi- cién y otros factores. Generalmente son de 5 a 40 mm. de longitud, 1 a 8 mm. de ancho, y 5 a 20 mm. de profundidad. Muchas veces las ranuras estan dentro de un surco longitu- dinal que proporciona un extrafio aspecto ca- racteristico al tronco. Estos surcos a veces corren en espiral a lo largo del tronco. Las ranuras son muy notorias en los troncos des- cortezados. Bajo la corteza solamente se les aprecia con experiencia. Las ranuras de un mismo tronco varian mucho en sus tamafios. Muchas veces ranu- ras de diferentes tamafios se acercan tanto que forman una linea en zig-zag. La mayo- ria de las ranuras poseen una forma de carre- te con extremidades agudas y ensanchadas en el medio. Si la ranura es corta y ancha, su forma se acerca a la eliptica. Las de ta- mafio mas chico se acercan a la forma redon- da. Como hemos dicho, las ranuras son depre- siones en el tejido del tronco alrededor de los haces de agujas. Todas las ranuras se continuan en el tronco con los rayos modu- Fig. 1.—Tronco ranurado de Pinus radiata D. FORMACION ¥ DISTRIBYC/ION BE LAS RANGAS fN LL PUES RADUIA D. SSTRIBHICH DE LAS Remmss ZoRA DEL TROeCO Sot RATURAS Take TEL TRA TRO im RAnus Lsgutra /7/? 7. Ghgeo Begs Fig. 3—Esquema No. 1. Fig. 2——Ondulacion de los anillos de creci- miento en tronco ranurado. g. 4.—Tabla ranurada de VPinus radiata D. Fi 1 54 CARIBBEAN FORESTER ae oS : ae Fig. 5.—Tabla ranurada mixta de Pinus ra- diata D (Parte derecha ranurada, parte iz- quierda sin ranuras). Fig. 6.—Cuenca de Pinus radiata D. (en la. terminacion de los nudos (pedtinculo) puede observarse las depresiones causadas peor los conos. CYENGA DEL BUS BADMTD D © Cogar okt cars FORMATION BL CUENCAS RARE DE Lab CHEMESS BI gi TeoACe EARCES DE LAS UANEAS BH Une TABLA squats 2 2 Déiso foie Esquema No. 2. Fig. 7.—Tronco deformado por las cuencas de Fig. 8. Pinus radiata D. _La deformacion fué causada por 4 conos. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 lares, que son de gran tamafio. En los 4ar- boles solitarios las ranuras son mas grandes y su distribucién es desigual. En algunos 4r- boles aparecen en manchas o grupos sobre el tronco debido a la presencia de agujas se- gun las proyecciones de los rayos solares so- bre el fuste. En otros Arboles se desarrollan mas en un lado que en otro, segtin su expo- sicidn; por lo general en el lado sur y oeste son mas débiles que en norte y este. Origen Buscando el origen de la formacién de las ranuras encontramos tres posibilidades que son: (a) propiedades heredadas, (b) propie- dades adquiridas y (c) efectos de ambas. Nuestros estudios nos condujeron a la conviccién de que la ranura es el efecto de la caracteristica heredada del Arbol desarrolla- do excesivamente por las condiciones 6ptimas de los factores de crecimiento. Afirmamos nuestra opinién en el hecho de que si las ranuras fueran propiedades he- redadas de la especie, entonces deberian pre- sentarse en todos los Arboles sin excepci6n, en cualquier sitio. Nuestras observaciones sin embargo, nos muestran que este defecto solo se produce en pequefias cantidades, asi por ejemplo en los bosques estudiados solo llegaba a 1 6 2 por ciento. Por el contrario, si las ranuras fueran propiedades adquiridas causadas por factores de crecimiento, entonces todos los ejem- plares de un mismo sitio deberian tenerlas. Sin embargo, segin observamos en un mismo sitin solo aparece esta anomalia en algunos ejemplares sin ningtin orden o regla. Por lo tanto, ésto tampoco es real. Nuestras experiencias demuestran que las ranuras aparecen siempre en los ejempla- res que son mas fuertes y desarrollados del promedio o sea en los que su vitalidad supe- ra a los demas. Asi se nos presenté la idea de que el defecto de ranura es el resultado de la extraordinaria vitalidad del Arbol cau- sado por las 6ptimas condiciones de creci- miento. Or OV Ocurrencia En condiciones normales de crecimiento, a pesar de que la parte superior del fuste del pino radiata esta siempre cubierta con haces, no se forman ranuras, pues el arbol se desprende de sus agujas a tiempo y el crecimiento longitudinal de los rayos me- dulares esta sincronizado con el crecimiento en espesor del Arbol. Cuando no _ existe esta normal armonia de crecimiento por los efectos de los factores del sitio, las agujas son mas fuertes y vigorosas y no se desprenden a tiempo; el crecimiento de es- pesor del tronco es tan grande (1-3 cm.) que envuelve la base de los haces foliares dando depresiones que nosotros denominamos ra- nuras. Este hecho proporciona a los anillos de crecimiento una forma ondulada (Fig. 2) muy parecida al defecto llamado ‘Hasel- holz’’ que se encuentra en la Picea excelsa (H. Knuchel. Holzfehler, 1947, Pag. 25). Es- te defecto se caracteriza por la depresién en forma de “v’ que presentan los anillos de crecimiento en los rayos medulares, lo que confiere al tronco una seccién ondulada y proporciona una madera llamada “Hagel- Ton” o “Mandli-Holz” (Greyerz “Das Ha- gel, Ton oder Mandli-Holz’. Schweizerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwirtschaft, 1919, Pag. 125) apreciada por su estética. La caracte- ristica de las maderas que sufren este defecto, segin Greyerz, es que se parten facilmente en sentido radial y muy dificilmente en sen- tido tangencial. Las maderas ranuradas tie- nen las mismas caracteristicas. Se parten tan facilmente en sentido radial, que hasta en el secamiento se rajan en la direccidn de los rayos medulares. En la direccién tangen- cial estos rayos medulares actuan como cla- vos evitando su rajadura. La madera “Ton- Holz” es muy apreciada en Europa como ma- dera resonante. Posiblemente la madera ra- nurada encontrara la misma utilizacion, ade- mas de su valor decorativo. La formaci6n de ranuras solo dura hasta la caida de las agujas. Después de ésto, la madera cubre las depresiones y ondulaciones de los anillos de crecimiento, tapandolos com- pletamente. Asi las ranuras en un Arbol adul- 56 to se originan en la punta y van desapare- ciendo hacia abajo. Jin consecuencia, se dis- tinguen dos tipos de ranuras: abiertas y cu- biertas. Mientras la primera es un defecto superficial de! tronco, la segunda es ya un defecto interno de los tejidos del arbol, que solo se aprecia después del aserrado. La made- ra de los arbeles ranurados puede ser dividida en partes ranuradas y en partes lisas. La parte lisa recubre como una capa a las par- tes ranuradas en forma de cono truncado. La parte ranurada constituye un bicono cu- yo didmetro medio es el diametro menor del cono (Fig. 3.) De lo expuesto se concluye que en el aserrado de un tronco ranurado obtenemos maderas de tres tipos, seytin la parte del tron- co de donde procedan; (a) ranuras (Fig. 4), (b) sin ranuras o (c) mezcla de ambas Fig. 5). Un aserradero radial proporciona en la parte inferior del tronco madera mixta con o sin ranuras y en la parte superior ta- blas ranuradas. En la desbobinacion solo se llega a las partes ranuradas después del corte de la capa exterior. Importancia La ranuracién en las maderas solo se considera como defecto por el hecho que es una anomalia de los tejidos, que en cierto modo cambia sus propiedades fisicas y me- canicas, pero desde el punto de vista comer- cial, para fines decorativos es ventajoso y cuando ésto sea descubierto por la industria de la foliacién y terciado, seguramente sera muy apreciado, lo mismo que el ‘“Vogelauge”’ del arce y la “madera ondulada” (Welliger Faserverlauf) (J. Durst ‘‘Taschenbuch der Fehler und Schaden des Holzes. 1955, pag. 31) y otras irregularidades de tejidos buscados por la ebanisteria. CUENCA Descripcion Este defecto que nosotros denominamos cuenca es una depresi6n en el tronco de Pinus CARIBBEAN FORESTER radiata causada por la base de los conos o estrobilos. (Fig. 6). Generalmente los conos de Pinus radiata crecen sobre los troncos y ramas en grupos horizontales de 3 a 5 pero su numero puede subir hasta 11 pinas en casos excepcionales. (Echevarria-Simon, Crecimiento y produc- cidn en el norte de Espafia y aplicacion a la elaberacion de la pasta de celulosa, Tercera edicion, 1956, pag. 12). Estos conos, lo mismo que las ramas, estan adheridos a los tejidos y sdlo se les pue- de considerar como partes biol6gicas del Ar- bol hasta su maduracién (2 a 3 afios). Des- pués de cumplir su funcidn biol6gica no se desprenden enseguida, sino que, al igual que las ramas secas, permanecen aun en sus lu- gares. De estos conos inttiles el Arbol debe- ria desprenderse por fuerzas mecanicas, pre- sin de sus tejidos o por via biol6gica pu- driendo su pedunculo. La presion mecanica no es suficiente para desprender el cono y por el gran contenido de resina de pino ra- diata el proceso biol6gico es muy lento du- rando varios decenarios segtin las circuns- tancias locales. En consecuencia los estr6ébi- los permanecen varios anos sobre ei tronco. Cemo los conos se forman adheridos inme- diatamente sobre los troncos o ramas, los te- jidos, en el rapido crecimiento de espesor, rodean su base formando asi la cuenca. La profundidad de esta depresi6n varia segun la vitalidad del Arbol. Segtin V. Pastor (Car- tilla Forestal, El Pinus insignis'/, 1936) el crecimiento en didmetro es mayor de 2 cm. anuales, llegando en condiciones especiales a sobrepasar los 3 cm. Origen A pesar de que los conos aparecen en todos los arboles en el tronco y en las ra- mas, la cuenca es un defecto resultante de las propiedades heredadas y la influencia de los factores de crecimiento. Pues las de- presiones son muy profundas solamente en aquellos individuos que se desarrollan en un medio muy favorable, es decir, su vitalidad 1/ Sinénimo para P. radiata. JANUARY - JUNE, 1959 es mas alta que los otros. En estas piantas, cuando en un lugar existen muchos conos, és- tos estan tan profundamente introducidos en el tejido del Arbol que en algunos casos la parte superior queda raquitica, siendo ade- mas el punto preferido por donde se rompen los troncos, pues esta completamente defor- mado. Esto puede observarse muy frecuen- temente (Fig. 7). Aumentando los efectos de las cuencas bajo condiciones favorables en Chile (V. Pas- tor, El Pinus insignis, 1936) el pino ra- diata tiene una vegetacién de invierno tan intensa como la de verano; es decir, no in- terrumpe su vida vegetativa. Aunque esta afirmacion de Pastor es exagerada, es indis- cutible que la vida vegetativa contintia du- rante todo el afio variando solo su ritmo. Toda cuenca termina en un nudo muerto por el pedtinculo del cono, que penetra en los tejidos del tronco por lo menos a una pro- fundidad de 2 a 3 anillos, segtin ei tiempo que permanezca el cono sobre el trenco. Importancia Segun lo expuesto, los efectos de las cuencas pueden agruparse en los siguientes tres grupos: (a) deformaciones de los tejidos por las depresiones, causadas por los conos; (b) el defecto producido por el pedtinculo del cono (nudo muerto y nudo vivo) y (c) las irregularidades causadas por la opresién de los conos (Fig. 8). Mientras que los dos primeros son efectos inmediatos, este ultimo efecto no lo es. Todas estas irregularidades de los tejidos causadas por la cuenca influyen también en las propiedades fisicas y mecdnicas de la ma- dera. Después de la caida de los conos el Arbol 57 cicatriza estas cuencas. Las partes cicatriza- das pueden encontrarse en el tronco de los arboles, desde la edad de fructificacién hacia arriba (aproximadamente desde los 10 afios). Del mismo modo cubre también los densos tejidos causados por la opresién de los conos. Por consecuencia en la misma parte del tron- co, hay una parte inferior de tejido denso y sobre ésta una parte exterior de tejido nor- mal. Esta variacién de los tejidos, similar a la diferencia de los tejidos de los anillos de crecimiento (primavera y otofio), altera to- talmente las propiedades fisicas y mecanicas de estas partes, disminuyendo naturalmente el valor comercial de todo el tronco. Las anomalias causadas por los pedtncu- los de los conos, son semejantes a los defectos bicl6gicos de los tejidos denominados “nudos muertos” que, como es sabido, son uno de los defectos mas desagradables, pues el pe- dunculo como nudo muerto, queda siendo un cuerpo extrafio en los tejidos, que no esta adherido a las fibras que lo circundan. Estos clavos contribuyen fuertemente a la desvalo- rizacion de la madera. Aumenta su efecto perjudicial el hecho de que estan situados a un mismo nivel en direccién radial, lo que, como ya hemos dicho, debilita enormemen- te este sector del tronco. RESUMEN Los defectos de ranura y cuenca trata- dos en este articulo, como se ve, tienen efec- tos considerantes en la utilizacién del Pinus radiata. Como el defecto de ranura es mas ventajoso que perjudicial, su eliminacién no es un problema silvicola. Por el contrario, los efectos perjudiciales de las cuencas nos obligan a tratarlas con igual importancia que los nudos, debiendo por lo tanto, evitarse me- diante una poda artificial, oportuna y co- rrecta. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Tropical Silviculture The Forestry and Forest Products Divi- sion of FAO has published a series of Forestry and Forest Products Studies. Tropical Silvicurture is Number 13 of this series. It is a three volume work prepare by I. T. Haig, M. A. Huberman, U. Aung Din, et al. This publication undertakes the sum- mation and evaluation of silvicultural expe- rience in the tropical forests of the World. Volume I is a review and summary of the lite- rature on the subject by the above named authors. Volme II and III are made up to the papers presented in this field at the Fourth World Forestry Congress of 1954. This work is the only comprehensive reference now available in the field of tropical silviculture and will be of interest to those tropical foresters who have not seen it. Vol. I, 190 pp., $2.00; Vol. II, 415 pp., $4.00; Vol. III, 101 pp., $1.00. FAO, United Nations, Rome, Italy. double-spaced typewritten pages, although an occasional longer article of special interest may be acceptable. Articles should be sub- mitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include title or position of the author as well as a brief summary of the material. Manuscripts should be typewritten, double spaced, on one side of the page only, on 814 x 11 inch white bond paper. Tables should be numbered consecutively, each on a separate sheet with a title. Foot- notes used in tables should be typewritten as part of the table and designated by numerals. Illustrations should be designated as figures and numbered consecutively. Captions for each illustration should be submitted on a separate sheet. Photographs submitted for il- lustrations should be clear, sharp, and on glos- sy paper, preferably 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches in size. Footnotes should be numbered consecutive- ly, with a superior figure placed after the word in the text to which the footnote refers. The footnote should appear in the text in the line following the reference number, separated from the text by a short line running inward from the left margin of the text. Footnotes are used to give credit to unpublished material and communications. If only a few references to literature are made, literature citations may be placed in footnotes. Literature citations should include the author, year published, ti- tle of the work cited, name of publication, and pages. Manuscripts should be sent to the Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Ar- ticles published in the Caribbean Forester may be reproduced, provided reference is made to the original source. BR Le “Caribbean Forester” est une revue semi- annuelle qui a été publiée depuis l’année 1938 en Puerto Rico por le Centre Tropique de Recherche Forestier, Service Forestier du Départment de l’Agriculture des Etats-Unis. Cette revue est dediée a l’aménagement et a lutilisation des forests surtout dans la region caraibe. Par les pages de cette revue les personnes qui travaillent aux tropiques peuvent etre in- formées sur les problemes specifiques des fo- rets tropicales et sur les travaux effectués pour realiser une ameilloration technique par l’aménagement et usage des resources fores- tiéres. Cette revue pourvoit aussi un moyen de destribuer l'information et les resultats ob- tenus par le programme experemental du Cen- tre Tropique de Recherche Forestier de Puerto Rico; en plus cette revue offre ses pages a les autres travailleurs forestiers des pays tropi- caux pour qu’ils purssent publier les resultats de leur travaux. Cette revue accepte volontiers des contribu- tions ne depassant pas 20 pages dactilografiées a double espace, cependant que certains tra- vaux du intéret spécial plus long purvent etre acceptés. Les contributions doivent etre ecri- tes dans la langue maternelle de l’auteur et doivent bien preciser son titre et sa position professionnelle, l’appert doct etre accompagné d’un résumé de |’étude. Les manuscripts doi- vent etre dactilografiées en double espace su du paper 814 por 11 pouces. Les tables du travail doivent etre numero- tées en ordre sur page separée et les notes au pied de ces tables doivent etre dactilografiées, comme une partie du table. Les illustrations doivent etre designées avec des numeros consecutifs. Les titres de chaque illustration doivent etre sumis sur une page separée Les photographies comme les illus- trations doivent etre bien claires, bien definies et sur papier glacé preferablement 5 x 7 pouces au 8 por 10. Les notes au bas de la page doivent etre numerotées apies le mot qui fait reference a la note. La note au pied devra aparaitre dans le texte sous la ligne qui suit le numero de reference, separée de texte par une ligne courte couront de gauche a driole de la marge du papier. Les notes au pied sont usées pour faire honneur aux travaux qué nont pas été publiés. Si on fait seulement quelques-unes reference qua la litterature pauvent designée les comme notes au pied. Citation au littera- ture publiée doivent comprendu, |’auteur, |’an- née publiée, le titre du travail, le nom de la revue et les pages de cette revue. Les manuscripts doivent etre evnooyés a: “Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.” Nous voulons rappeller a nos lecteurs que les opinions expumées dans cette revue ne sont pas necessairement les opinions du Forest Service et que les articles publiés dans la re- vue le “Caribbean Forester” peuvent etre re- produits mais doivent jaire reference a cette revue. EE ee a WhY be 5 ae gs ern yO | U.S. DEPARTMENT OF aoRcHL TURE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOREST SERVICE TROPICAL FOREST RESEARCH CENTER RIO PIEDRAS, PUERTO RICO JULY - DECEMBER, 1959 VOLUME 20 NOS. 3 AND 4 INDEX VOL. 11 TO 20 Caribbean Forester El Caribbean Forester es una revista semes- tral gratuita publicada en Puerto Rico desde el afio 1938 por el Centro Tropical de Inves- tigaciones Forestales del Servicio Forestal del Departamento de Agricultura de los Estados Unidos. Esta publicacién esta dedicada a promover la mejor ordenacion y utilizacién de los recursos forestales del trépico con especial énfasis a la region del Caribe. Provee informacion a los que laboran en la dasonomia y ciencias afines sobre los pro- blemas especificos que confrontan, las politi- cas forestales vigentes y el progreso del tra- bajo que se lleva a cabo para mejorar la or- denacién y utilizacién de los recursos fores- tales tropicales. ‘También sirve como medio informativo sobre los resultados y el progreso de los programas experimentales, en ordena- cién forestal tropical y utilizacién, que se Ile- van a cabo en el Centro de Investigaciones en Puerto Rico. También le brinda una opor- tunidad a otras personas interesadas en la dasonomia tropical para presentar el resultado de sus trabajos. Se solicitan aportaciones de otras fuentes en el campo de la dasonomia tropical siempre que no estén considerandose para publicacion en otras revistas. El manuscrito generalmente no debe exceder 20 paginas escritas a maqui- na a doble espacio, aunque ocasionalmente po- dria aceptarse un articulo mas largo cuando tuviera un interés especial. Los articulos deben someterse en la lengua vernacula del autor, deben incluir su titulo o posici6n que ocupa y un resumen corto. De- ben estar escritos a maquina a doble espacio, solamente en un lado de la pagina, en papel blanco primera, tamajfio 814 por 11 pulgadas. Las tablas deben numerarse consecutiva- mente, cada una en una hoja separada con su titulo. Las notas al pie usadas en las ta- blas deben escribirse a maquina como parte de la tabla y designarse por medio de nu- meros. Las ilustraciones deben designarse con nt- meros y numerarse consecutivamente. Los ti- tulos para cada ilustracién deberan someterse en una pagina separada. Las fotografias so- metidas como ilustraciones deben ser claras, bien definidas y en papel glaseado, preferible- mente 5 por 7 u 8 por 10 pulgadas en tamanio. Las notas al pie deben numerarse consecu- tivamente con un numero de llamada siguiendo la palabra en el texto a la cual hace referen- cia la nota al pie. la nota al pie debe apa- recer en el texto en la linea siguiendo el nt- mero de referencia y separada del texto por medio de una linea corta hacia dentro desde el margen izquierdo del texto. Las notas al ‘pie se usan para dar crédito a material no publicado y a comunicaciones. Si se hacen solamente unas pocas referencias a la litera- tura entonces dichas citas pueden aparecer como notas al pie. Las citas incluiran el nom- bre del autor, el afio de publicacién, el titulo del trabajo, y el nombre y paginas de la pu blicacién. Los manuscritos deben enviarse al Lider del Centro Tropical de Investigaciones Forestales, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Las opiniones expresadas en esta revista no coinciden necesariamente con las del Servicio Forestal. Los articulos publicados en el Carib- bean Forester pueden reproducirse siempre que se haga referencia a la fuente original. The Caribbean Forester is a free semi-an- nual technical journal published since 1938 in Puerto Rico by the Tropical Forest Research Center, Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture. This publication is devoted to the development of improved management and utilization of tropical forest resources, with special interest in the Caribbean region. Through the pages of the journal tropical foresters and workers in allied scientific fields are informed of specific problems of tropical forestry, policies in effect in various countries, and progress of work being carried out for the improvement of the management and util- ization of forest resources. It furnishes a means of distribution of information on the progress and results of the experimental pro- srams of the Tropical Research Center in Puerto Rico. In addition, it affords an op- portunity for other workers in the field of tropical forestry to make available the results of their work. Contributions for the journal are solicited. However, material submitted should not be under consideration for publication elsewhere. Manuscripts should not ordinarily exceed 20 (Continua en la portada #3) The printing of this publication has been approved by Director of the Bureau of the Budget (June 26, 1958) The Tropical Forest Research Center is operated in cooperation with the University of Puerto Rico. VoL. 20 NOS. 3 AND 4 JULY - DECEMBER, 1959 Caribbean Forester @ountem 1s S\iUiigaroMiesne Page Growth and Regeneration of White Mangrove in Puerto Rico 59 Frank H. Wadsworth Early Results of Mycorrhizal Inoculation of Pin in Ruercom nico. == gt a. Lt eee ay is Charles B. Briscoe The Coastal Swamp Forest of Narino, Colombia __________ 78 F. Bruce Lamb Subject Index Volume 11 to 20 oe ms = Author Index Volume 11 to 20 ___ FIFTH WORLD FORESTRY CONGRESS The Fifth World Forestry Congress to be held in Seattle, Wasington, U.S.A. August 29 to September 10, 1960 is the first such Con- gress to be held in the Western Hemisphere. Previous World Forestry Congresses have been in Rome, Italy, 1926; Budapest, Hungary, 1936; Helsinki, Finland, 1949; and Dehra Dun, India, 1954. The program of the Fifth Congress is di- vided into 10 sections. The 10th section on Tropical Forestry will be of special interest to readers of the Caribbean Forester. The provisional program indicates that world re- cognized authorities on tropical forestry will present papers on various aspects of the fol- lowing topics: The Regeneration and Establishment of Tropical Forests Obstacles to Tropical Forestry Intensive vs. Extensive Management of Tropical Forests Shifting Agriculture Copies of the Proceedings of the Congress will be made available for purchase and the individual papers will no doubt be available in the form of reprints. Inquires concerning the Congress and the Proceedings should be addressed to: I. T. Haig, "xecutive Secretary Fifth World Forestry Congress c/o Office of International Conference te Sok Department of State, Washington 25, D. C. JULY - DECEMBER 1959 59 Growth and Regeneration of White Mangrove ~ in Puerto Rico ) By Frank H. Wadsworth Tropical Forest Research Center Puerto Rico Mangrove is one of the most important forests of the tropics as a source of timber, fuel, posts, poles, tanning, and other minor products. Along protected shorelines, estu- aries and lagoons at levels from just below low tide to just above high tide (6) from la- titude 32° North to slightly farther south of the equator mangrove covers millions of acres. Throughcut the world mangrove is similar in physiognomy, although the four major tree species which make up the mangroves of tro- picel America (some also in West Africa) are distinct from those in the East. Puerto Rico’s coasts once supported some 30,000 acres of mangrove, if we are to judge by the extent of the organic soils they pro- duce (7). Early descriptions of the men- groves of Puerto Rico are not detailed, but little-disturbed mangroves elsewhere suggest that it must have been dense and composed of large trees. The woods of the mangrove were prized ior boat building, construction, and posts. Some 18,000 acres of mangrove remain in Puerto Rico. The decrease in mangrove area, while substantial, is less remarkable than the fact that this forest has resisted encroach- ment so well. Accessible to the earliest coast- al settlements along harbors and protected estuaries, the entire mangrove has been cut over, most of it many times. Decades of the extraction of charcoalwood resulted in repeat- ed clearcutting of stands as soon as the trees reached two or three inches in diameter. Much of the mangrove that remains is immediately adjacent to highly developed urban or agri- cultural lands. Locally no other type of for- est has survived such heavy and repeated cut- ing nor such close proximity to densely pcp- ulated areas. Mangrove probably will not, in the fore- seeable future, cease to exist in Puerto Rico as a possible source of forest products, even though encroachment can be expected to con- tinue, especially near San Juan. The persist- ence of the mangroves of Puerto Rico is due primarily to the inhospitable nature of the site for other uses. Conversion to cropland, although this has taken place on extensive areas, involves ccstly drainage, a process which in one area requires perpetual pumping. The soil, raore than 30 percent organic, is an unstable base for urban construction, even when raised by superficial filling, as is regret- tably apparent in the surface of Isla Grande Airport. A current project to extend Isla Verde Airport into the mangrove involves the removal hydraulicly of the muck to a depth of 35 feet and the substitution of sand. About 8,500 acres of mangrove lie within Common- wealth forests and are thus by public policy 60 reserved from other uses and protected and managed for timber production. White mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa [L.] Gaertn.) is the most abundant of the four local species of mangrove, the others being red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle L.); black mangrove (Avicennia germinans [L.] Stearn or A. nitida Jacq.); and buttonwood (Conocarpus erecta L.). The occurence of these species is markedly zoned by environ- mental differences which are both natural and man-made. It has been suggested that there have been substantial changes in the compo- sition of these forests during the period that they have been subject to exploitation (3). Whatever the full importance of different factors upon these stands, it may be said that red mangrove now is limited largely to a sea- ward fringe of this forest, frequently no more than 25 feet in width, and to small patches or strips behind this fringe. Buttonwood, whatever may have been the extent of its original occurrence, is not now available in commercial quantities, occuring only as scat- tered, malformed individuals along the land- ward edge of the swamps. The rest of the area, and this includes the central part of all extensive forests, is composed aimost entirely of white and black mangroves, with the former generally dominant. White mangrove can be expected to con- tinue to dominate most of the mangroves of Puerto Rico. Its abundance today is testi- mony to its capacity to withstand frequent cuttings. Its sprouting vigor after cutting or windthrow does not characterize red man- grove, and is unequalled by black mangrove. If, as is reported from Florida (2), white man- grove constitutes a more advanced succes- sional sere than black, the latter can be ex- pected to disappear with the gradual natural rise in the soil surface. Nevertheless, a nat- ural rise in soil level to a point where white mangrove will be invaded by upland forest species appears to be a very distant prospect CARIBBEAN FORESTER in most areas. Timber production from white mangrove forests apparently will always have round- wood products as its obiective. Neither white nor black mangroves commonly grow to saw- timber dimensions, yet the good form of both makes them generally suitable for posts and poles. Although the service life of untreated fence posts of these species is only 18 to 30 months, they treat well by nonpressure pre- servative methods (hot-and-cold bath) which should extend their service life to more than 10 years. THE PROBLEM The greater accessibility of the mangrove than other local forests, the high present and potential demand for mangrove products {mere than 10,000,000 fence posts alone con- sumed annually in Puerto Rico), and the sim- plicity of these nearly pure forests in contrast to the complex mixtures of the uplands have all created a need to know how to produce high sustained yields from mangrove. Basic to such production is information as to the erowth rate and regeneration of white man- grove. SEILVICULTURAL EXPERIENCE With the exception of an excellent ecoleg- ical study of mangroves in Florida (2) and a review of silvical data (1) the literature bears little evidence of research or forestry experi- ence in the mangroves of this hemisphere which is of significance to their silviculture. It appears that the mangroves, extensive and accessible as they are, have been almost com- pletely neglected by foresters in tropical America. The most extensively reported silvicultural experience in mangroves appears to be that of Malaya (4, 5, 9, 10). There the initial approach was, as in upland forests, by cutting to a girth limit. Some good crops of regene- JULY - DECEMBER 1959 ration were produced in this manner. How- ever, results were considered generally un- reliable and the method was abandoned in favor of heavier cutting, leaving only scattered seed trees. This technique was in turn aban- doned because the seed trees were soon wind- thrown and the regeneration was less com- plete, making necessary extensive planting. The shelterwood system was tested and ccn- cluded to be no more satisfactory from the standpoint of regeneration, and involved heavy wind damage to the eoverstory. Although completion of the final cut within 4 years aiter the regeneration thinning minimized damage to the young trees, which were then less than 3 feet tall, numerous unregenerated areas still required planting. Clearfelling after a number of intermediate cuts has been the regeneration practice in Malayan mangroves since 1931. Considered normally as successful in regeneration as the seed-tree method (about 20 percent of the area requiring planting) this practice pro- duces a greater harvest yield. The success of this technique is believed to be due largely to the presence of regeneration on the ground before felling. Failures are common in the areas subject to deep flooding. Mangrove regeneration in Malaya has generally required planting of failed spots, a feature which is now under close scrutiny be- cause of rising labor costs. Efforts are now directed toward complete regeneration by natural means. It has been suggested (4) that the minimum girth and seed tree methcds should be retested under present circum- stances since experimental proof of their fail- ure is lacking. Another suggestion has been to regenerate the forest in strips so that no unregenerated area will be distant from a seed source, In Puerto Rico early observations and ex- perience were recorded by Holdridge in 1940 (3). The rapid regeneration of many clearcut d1 areas led to the conclusion that mangrove is capable of fast growth, at least initially. Past cuttings were thought to have favored white mangrove at the expense of red and black mangrove, in part because the red mangrove does not sprout. Regeneration failures were laid to adverse water levels, the fern Acrostic- hum aureum L., and excessive salinity. Direct secding of red mangrove produced survivals cf more than 90 percent. Lifting and plant- ing of two-foot wildings or white mangrove gave excellent survival and height growth of 3 feet in 10 months. Use of wildings of black mangrove was unsuccessful. it was also ap- parent to the author shortly after Holdridge’s paper apeared that traditional permits issued by the government fer cutting of mangrove posts from public lands were creating residual stands of malformed sprouts of little or no present or prospective value. PROCEDURE Studies were undertaken in typical stands of white mangrove in the two most extensive areas of mangrove in Puerto Rico: (1) at Pi- fiones, east cf San Juan on the Atlantic coast, and (2) at Las Mareas, east of sobos Bay on the Caribbean coast. Both areas are within Commonwealth Forests and are protected and managed by the Division of Forests, Fisheries and Wildlife of the Puerto Rican Department of Agriculture and Commerce. Assistance by many of the personnel of the Division in the field work is gratefully acknowledged. The first study undertaken concerned thinning in a small sapling stand of unknown age (1 inch average d.b.h, and 20 feet in height) at Pifiones. In 1938 five quarter-acre plots were established in this stand, four of which were thinned to different degrees. All remaining trees of 4.5+ feet in height were tallied by diameter, and 100 trees in each plot were tagged for remeasurement. ‘The stands within these plots and the tagged trees were remeasured in 1942, 1945, and 1949. 62 Numbers of trees per acre, basal areas, and growth of tagged trees were determined. The effects cf the 1938 thinning had largely disappeared by 1949, and since dia- meter growth proved unexpectedly slow, three of the plots were then subjected to a second thining experiment. At that time the average d.b.h. was 1.7 inches and the height was about 30 feet. One plot was thinned to 79 square feet of basal area per acre and another to 61 square feet. The stand and the tagged trees were measured before and after treatment and in 1951, 1953, and 1955. A third study was begun in 1949 at Las Mareas to determine the effect of thinning on tree growth and natural regeneration in a larger, 19-vear-old pole stand (See Figure 1). This stand averages 4.3 inches d.b.h. and the canopy was 65 feet in height. Four quarter- acre plets were established, and all trees with- in them were tagged and classified by crown position. These were all left unmodified until CARIBBEAN FORESTER remeasurement in 1952, at which time one plot was thinned to 77 square feet of basal area per acre and another to 63 square feet, the remaining two being left unthinned. A final remeasurement was made in 1955. The lack of regeneration in the thinned plots at Las Mareas led in 1951 to a study of regeneration after clearcutting nearby. A strip 66 feet wide by 660 feet in length, with the long axis north-south, perpendicular to the wind direction, was cut in the pole stand. Adjacent strips, of equal dimensions and to- ward the windward, were cut in 1953 and 1955. Observations and measurements in the regeneration have been made annually since that time. A cubic-foot volume table, based upon diameter at breast height (d.b.h.) and total height and including all volume to a 1-inch bole diameter limit, was constructed from measurements of 130 trees of white mangrove felled in the 1951 clearcutting at Las Mareas. Figure 1. - Unthinned 19-year old pole stand cf white manzrove JULY - DECEMBER 1959 The table, developed from a logarithmic for- mula derived by the least squares method and simplified for average heights, has been used to appraise stand increment in the plots under measurement. Some of the comparisons originally in- tended in these studies could not be made. One reason was an unexpected degree of initial variability among the few plots studied, some of which were found to differ too much to be comparable. Another was wind damage, which seriously modified the relative densities re- sulting from the treatments intended for com- parison. Except where specifically qualifie? the results presented include only those free of serious interference from these sources. RESULTS Tke chief results of these studies concern tree growth in unthinned mangrove, tiee growth in thinned mangrove, and natural re- generation. The results from the different studies are combined in the descriptions under each heading. : Tree Growth in Unthinned Mangrove The growth of trees in plots in three un- modified white mangrove stands is summa- rized in Table 1. These stands represent the range in diameter up to that of commonly used posts. Trees of larger size have been used in the past only for charcoal, a lower value product. Tree growth was measured in the plot in the small sapling stand from 1938-1942, in the large sapling stand from 1951-1955, and in the pole stand the period was 1952-1955. Table 1. — Growth of Unthinned White Mangrove Smal! Large Index Sapling Sapling Pole Plot Plot Plot Stand conditions* Average d.b.h., inches 1.0 1.7 5.0 Trees per acre 13,640 9,040 940 Basal area, sq. ft. per acre hil 148 126 Volume, cu. ft. per acre 550 1,580 2,680 Subsequent diameter growth Basis of measurement Number of trees 93 61 201 Period, years 4 4 3 Annual growth, inches Mean, all trees 0.041 0.102 0.107 Dominants 0.100 0.324 0.183 Codominants 0.120 0.192 0.157 Intermediates 0.060 0.126 0.093 Suppressed 0.010 0.062 0.067 1/ Based upon 1/4-acre sample of each stand. 64 The great density in the small sapling plot is manifested in a number of ways. The number of trees and basal area at this early stage are unequalled in the uplands of Puerto Rico except by coppice stands of pomarrosa, Eugenia jambos L. (8). Mean diameter growth is very slow and corresponds to that of trees inferior to intermediate in crown po- sition, showing the large preponderance of suppressed trees. Although basal area incre- ment was 5 square feet per acre per year for the 4-year period measured, the annual mor- tality was 780 trees per acre, about 6 percent. Slow tree growth is evident in the record of this plot for the longer period of 11 years from 1938 to 1949. During that time basal area rose to a phenomenal 148 square feet per acre (8 square feet per year) in spite of the death of 4,600 trees per acre (3 percent par year), yet the average d.b.h. rose only 0.7 inch. Many of the dead trees had been attacked by the stem borer, Psychonoctua personalis Grote. Diameter growth in the plot in the large sapling stand averaged more than twice as rapid as in the small sapling plot (the same plot 13 years earlier). Nevertheless, as in that stand, the mean d.b.h. growth of the large saplings is seen in Table 1 to rank be- tween that of intermediate and suppressed trees, showing a continued preponderance in these categories. The pole stand plot, although its basal area is less than that in the large sapling CARIBBEAN FORESTER stand, showed slower d.b.h. growth by crown classes, suggesting an inferior site. Never- theless, the mean growth rate, more rapid than the average for the intermediate trees, apparently because of the disappearance of many of those which were suppressed, was as high as in the large sapling stand. Basal area increment for the 3-year period of measure- ment was negligible, apparently due to the mortality of 44 trees per acre per year, or 5 percent. Mean annual net volume increment for the 22 years to the beginning of the period of measurement was 122 cubic feet per acre. The preserce of a few trees of black man- grove in these plots made it possible to com- pare the concurrent d.b.h. growth rates of the two species in the best represented crown classes. The results, shown in Table 2, show ditierences so shght that they proved to be of no statistical significance. Tree Grcewth in Thinned Mangrove The slow mean diameter growth in the mangrove and the high proportion of sup- pressed trees suggested thinning as a correc- tive measure. Thinnings were tested in each of the three stands described. One half-acre in the small sapling stand, thinned to a density of 40 sauare feet of basal area per acre (compared to 71 in the adjacent unthinned stand) suffered no wind damage and in the four subsequent years grew an annual average of 0.068 inch in mean diameter, Table 2. — Comparative d.b.h. Growth of White and Black Mangrove Mean Annual d.b.h. Growth ‘Trees of Pilot Crown Each 7 _ Class _ = Species No. Large sapling Codominant 42 Pole — Suppressed 43 Period of Measurement White Mangrove Black Mangrove aeons poche Inches _ 4 0.242 0.289 ‘6 0.156 0.153 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 compared to 0.041 inch in the unthinned piot, a difference of 65 percent. However, the thinning required about 20 mandays of labor per acre and yielded only small stakes of little value, so there appeared to be little prospect of practical thinnings in such small stands. Moreover, during the subsequent 11 years natural mortality in the unthinned stand re- duced its density to that of the thinned stand, and the dominant trees in the former were equal in quality to those in the thinned stand. The thinnings in the large sapling and pole stands are described and their results com- pared with the same plots before thinning and the adjacent unthinned plots are sum- marized in Table 3. The thinned plots are adjacent to and initially were essentially sim- Figure 2. - Large sapling stand of white mangrove after thinniag. ilar to the plots in the respective unthinned stands described in Table 1. Directed toward a residual basal area of 60 square feet per acre, the thinnings were considered heavy, removing 72 percent of the trees in the large sapling plot (see Figure 2) and 46 percent of those in the pole plot. However, because the thinning was from below, the reduction in bacal area and volume was less than pro- portional to that in number of trees. This type of thinning had and immediate effect in raising the average d.b.h. In no instance did the thinning precipitate significant windiéall losses. The effects of thinning upon diameter growth in the large sapling plot are evident in Table 3. The mean_diameter growth in the thinned plot during the first 4 years after treatment was about 3 times that in the un- thinned plot. Whereas the mean growth rate in the unthinned plot was 19 percent below that of the average intermediate tree, in the thinned plot it was 11 percent above the average intermediate, showing a reduction in the representation of suppressed trees due to thinning. The average diameter growth rate for trees in each crown class was higher in the thinned than in the unthinned plot and most marked in the subordinate trees. In the im- portant codominant and intermediate classes these differences proved highly significant. This means that those trees in each class be- fore treatment grew more slowly than those in the same class (not necessarily the same trees) after treatment. In the pole stand the unthinned plot and the plot selected for thinning were initially similar. The difference between the average d.b.h. of the two plots was not statistically sig- nificant. The mean annual net increment, at age 22, in the unthinned plot was 122 cubic feet per acre, compared with 108 cubic feet in the plot selected for thinning. Mean di- ameter growth during the three years prior to treatment differed only 0.013 between the two 66 plots, an amount of no statistical significance. In the thinned pole plot the three-year mean diameter growth increase was highly significant, whereas the increase in the un- thinned plot, only 5 percent, was not. The concurrent difference in mean diameter growth between the two plots after thinning, 0.116 inches, proved also highly significant. The increase in average d.b.h. growth by crown classes, as in the large sapling stand, was most marked in the subordinate classes. The aver- age growth rates for the codominant and in- termediate crown classes both increased by highly significant amounts. An analysis of d.b.h. growth of 197 individual trees in the unthinned plot showed them to be growing only 2 percent more in the second three years than they had in the first. The corresponding difference for 82 trees in the thinned plot was CARIBBEAN FORESTER 80 percent; the former increase not statis- tically significant and the latter highly sig- nificant. Differences in overall stand development in these two pole plots were found. In the unthinned plot the basal area increment de- clined slightly one square foot per acre per year for the first three years to none in the last three years. In the thinned plot basal area increment jumped from -7 to +5 square feet. Both plots lost the same number of trees per acre in the three years before treat- ment, yet after treatment the losses in the thinned plot were only one third as great in number of trees as in the unthinned plots. Even on a percentage basis tree mortality was less in the thinned plots (3 vs. 5 percent per year). In volume increment the unthinned plot declined from 2 percent to 1 percent per Table 3. — Growth in Thinned White Mangrovc Large Sapling Plot Pole Plot Difference From Befcre Difference from Thinned Unthinned Plot Thinned Thinning Unthinned Stand Conditions‘ Average d.b.h., inches 1.9 Trees per acre 3,020 Basal area, sq. ft. per acre 61 Volume, cu. ft. per acre 770 Subsequent diameter growth ~ Basis of measurement Number of trees ay Period, years 4 Annual growth, inches Mean, all trees 0.307 Dominants 0.340 Codominants 0.310 Intermediates 0.278 Suppressed - 1/ Based upon one 1/4-acre sample ef each stand. Percent Percent Percent +12 3.0 +4 +10 -67 380 -46 -60 -59 63 -42 -50 -51 1,380 -42 -49 84 3 +201 0.223 +108 +108 + 20 0.307 - +68 +61 0.2538 +15 +61 +121 0.220 +77 +137 - 0.170 +166 +154 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 year while the thinned plot jumped from -5 to +6 percent. Natural Regeneration Natural regeneration, although an objec- tive of treatment only in the pole stand, was a subject of observations in all studies. None of the thinnings in the sapling stands produced efective natural regeneration. Even in the pole stand the thinning did not serve as an ad- equate preparatory cut fOr regeneration. A few seedlings of red and black mangrove ap- peared, but none of white, presumably be- cause of its relative intolerance. The failure of white mangrove regenera- tion to appear under the thinned pole stand led to a test of clearcutting in narrow strips (See Figure 3). The stand selected was sim- ilar to that in the unthinned plot, and results were obtained concurrently. At the end of the first year the strip was not completely regenerated, although there were sprouts to =P) —l 8 feet in height. The windward half of the strip had a fair crop of 4 inch seedlings oi white mangrove, and a good crop was seen under the adjacent remaining forest. No wind damage to the standing trees along the edge of the strip occurred. A few areas throughout the strip showed seedlings which apparently had floated in and germinated along ihe edge of inundated areas. Only a few seedlings of black and red mangrove were found. At the end of the second year the strip was regenerated completely. Sprouts had grown to 12 to 15 feet in height and abundant seedlings were up to 4 feet tall. There was no windthrow along the edges. A second strip, adjacent and to the windward (east), was then cut (See Figure 4) with equally succes- ful results. The process was repeated at the end of the fourth year. The young growth arising from these cut- tings (See Figure 5) was the only stand to escape serious damage in the hurricane which Figure 3. - Clearcutting in pole stand of white mangrove. 68 destreyed 59 percent of the trees in 2000 acres of mangrove in 1956. At age 9, the original strip contains 3,100 trees per acre with a mean d.b.h. of 2.6 inches and a maximum of 5 inches, a canopy height of 35 feet, and a basal area of 115 square feet per acre. About 70 percent of the trees are white mangrove, the rest is black. As the new stand developed concern was felt that it would be primarily coppice and of poor form (See Figure 6). The rapid early growth of sprouts was evident generally, and in the 9-year-old stand 43 percent of all trees (60 percent of all of white mangrove) are of sprout origin. However, measurements of a few trees, beginning at age 3, indicate that the sprouts no longer are outgrowing in di- ameter the straighter seedlings (See Figure 7). In the period 1954-57 the seedlings outgrew the sprouts by about 30%. Since then the relationship is apparently even more favorable to the seedlings. However, the data collected Figure 4. - Second clearcutting of nele stand. CARIBBEAN FORESTER have not been adequate to determine whether this difierence is statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS The scope oi these studies was such that they lead to definite conclusions regarding the behavior only of individual trees of white man- grove. A number of indications are also ap- parent concerning stand behavior, but replica- tion was inadequate to establish these con- clusively. The findings are assumed to be limited in applicability by environmental and stand conditions which are not fully under- stood. Although the sites selected for study appeared to be typical of large local areas of white mangrove forest, it is possible that rates of sedimentation, water levels, and sa- linity at these sites may prove to be less re- presentative than they appear. Both the con- clusions reached and indications apparent in these studies are described, the latter being qualified. Ney Newly cleared strip to the right and 2-year old regeneration on adjacent strip to left. July - DECEMBER 1959 iL. bo Undisturbed small sapling stands of white mangrove, developing aiter clear- cutting, while the average d.b.h. is still only 1.0 inch, may contain 13,600 trees, 70 square feet of basal area, and 550 cubic feet of wood per acre. Tree mortality in the small sapling stand studied was 6 percent annually, or 780 trees per acre over a period of 4 years. Diameter growth of trees in a plot in the small sapling stand averaged only 0.04 inch annually. For codominant trees the average was 0.12 inch. . Undisturbed large sapling stands of white mangrove may, when an average d.b.h. of 1.7 inches is reached, contain 9000 trees, 148 square feet of basal area, and 1580 cubic feet of wood per acre. es ye -_— oa aed nm aS ee on “I 69 Diameter growth of trees in a plot in the large sapling stand averaged 0.10 inch annually. For codominant trees the average was 0.19 inch. Undisturbed stands of white mangrove 22 years old may attain pole size, an average d.b.h. of 5.0 inches, 940 trees, and 2680 cubic feet of wood per acre, a mean annual net volume increment of 122 cubic feet per acre. Tree mortality in the pole stand studied was 5 percent annually, or 44 trees per acre over a period of 3 years. Diameter growth of trees in a plot in the pole stand averaged 0.11 inch an- nually. For codominant trees the aver- age was 0.16 inch. There was no significant difference in d.b.h. growth rates of white and black mangroves in the plots studied. Figure 5. - -Natural regeneration ef white and black mangrove 3 years after clearcutting, 70 10. dil 1 13. CARIBBEAN FORESTER Figure 6. - Sprouts of white mangrove 5 years old, showing typical leaning of lower stems. Thinning a plot in the large sapling stand to a residual basal area of 60 square feet per acre tripled mean d.b.h, growth during the subsequent 4 years. In a plot in the pole stand a similar thinning doubled mean d.b.h. growth during the following 3 years. These in- creases arose from two sources: (a) the elimination of slow-growing trees and (b) the acceleration of the growth rate of those remaining. This acceleration was produced in part by an upward shift in the position of the remaining tree crowns in the canopy, but was also significant in trees where no marked change in crown position took place. No serious windthrow losses were suf- fered as a result of the thinnings made. The thinings made did not induce ef- fective natural regeneration of any species. Adequate natural regeneration of white 14. 15. 1G: We mangrove appeared within 2 years on strips 66 feet wide clearcut perpendic- ular to the wind in the pole stand. Wind damage along the edge of the clearcut strips was no greater than elsewhere in the pole stand. A 5-year-old sapling stand on the area regenerated after clearcutting suffered negligible damage in a hurricane which destroyed 59 percent of the trees in the adjacent pole stand. Evidence of water-borne seed of white mangrove in the clearcut strips indi- cates that regeneration might be equally prompt on larger clearcut areas. Naturally regenerated white mangrove 9 years after clearcutting in strips at- tained an average d.b.h. of 2.5 inches (maximum 5.0 inches), a canopy height JULY - DECEMBER 1959 of 35 feet. and a basal area of 115 square feet per acre. . The white mangrove trees regenerated after clearcutting at age 9 were 60 per- cent of sprout origin, but the seedling trees are currently at least holding their own in d.b.h. growth as compared with the sprouts. = CO LITERATURE CITED A. Luciano; and 1. Bascope, Federico; Bernardi, Jorgensen, Richard N.; Hueck, Kurt; Lamprecht, Hans. 1959. LOS MANGLARES EN AMERICA. Descripcion de Arboles Forestales No. 5, Figure 7. - Seedling of white mangrove 5 years old, showing characteristic enlarged butt and erect growth. re inst. Forestal Latinoamericano, Méridz Venezuela. 52 p., illus. 2. Davis, John H., Jr. 1940. THE ECOLOGY AND GEOLOGIC ROLE OF MANGROVES IN FLORIDA. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 517, Paper XVI. 412 p., illus. .3 Holdridge, L. R. 1940. SOME NOTES ON THE MANGROVE SWAMPS OF FUERTO RICO. Carib. For- ester 1 (4):19-29. 4. Noakes, D.S.P. 1951. NOTES ON THE SILVICULTURE OF THE MANGROVE FORESTS OF MATANG, PERAK. Malayan Forester 14:183-196. oO 1957. MANGROVE. TROPICAL SILVI- CULTURE. Forestry & Forest Products Series No. 13. FAO Vol. II 309-318. 6. Richards, P.W. 1952. THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST. Cambridge Press 450 p., illus. ~l . Roberts, R.C. 1942. SOIL SURVEY OF PUERTO RICO. U.S. Dept. Agri. & Univ. Puerto Rico Agr. Expt. Sta. 495 p., illus. 8. Wadsworth, Frank H. 1943. POMARROSA, JAMBOSA JAMBOS (L.) MILLSP. AND' ITS PLACE IN PUERTO RICO. Carib. Forester 4(4) :183-194. 9. Walker, F.S. 1938. REGENERATION OF KLANG MAN- GROVES. Malayan Forester 7:71-76. 10. Watson, J.G. 1928. MANGROVE FORESTS OF THE MALAY PENINSULA. Malayan Forest Rec. No. 6, 260 p., illus. 12 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Centennial of Forest Administration in India India’s forests occupy 278,083 sq. miles, forming 22% of the total land area (1,266,980 sq. miles). They yield annually nearly 500,000,000 cu. ft. of hard woods and 50,000,000 cu. ft. of coniferous softwoods. The annual gross revenue of all Forest Depart- ments in India, for the year 1958-59 was Rs. 46,37,00,000. The total expenditure on staff and productive works was Rs. 19,45,00,000 leaving a net surplus of Rs. 26,92,00,000. The average net surplus per sq. mile works out to Rs. 968. Systematic scientific management of In- dia’s forests commenced in the year 1861. The Government of India, with the coopera- tion of State Forest Departments, propose to celebrate the centenary of forest adminis- tration in India during 1961, in a fitting man- ner. At that time, two volumes of centenary publications will be issued, describing India’s forests in all their aspects. It is proposed that articles of general in- terest on forestry from eminent foresters in India and abroad, should form part of the centenary publications. The President, For- est Research Institute and Colleges, will gratefully acknowledge contributions for the above publications. JULY - DECEMBER 1959 —l we) Early Results of Mycorrhizal Inoculation of Pine in Puerto Rico By Charles B. Briscoe Tropical Forest Research Center Despite the presence of more than 500 native tree species in Puerto Rico, many ei- forts have been made to introduce pines. These attempts have been made _ because, compared to the native species, pine has a much wider accepted market and has the longer fiber necessary as a component of kraft papers. In addition pine produces high- er yields on poor sites, and its silviculture and utilization are relatively simple. The lat- ter two reasons alone would be sufficient on this island, where there is an abundance ot degraded, abandoned agricultural land and a population almost completely lacking a woods- working background. Although private introductions may have been attempted earlier, the first efforts of the U. S. Forest Service to introduce pine was in 1932. During the next two decades 93 studies were made, including 27 species listed, drawn from North America, Central America, the West Indies, Europe, and south- eastern Asia. Trials were made on soil vary- ing from heavy plastic clays to very light sandy loams. Elevations varied from less than 100 meters to more than 1000. Water- logged, wet, moist, and dry soils were planted. Seedlings were outplanted barerooted and in various types of containers. Planting was deep and shallow, and in deep shade to full sun. Plantations were left completely untend- ed, cleaned completely, and cleaned in a cir- cle around plants. Seedlings were fertilized in the nursery and in the field; fertilization was nitrogen only, minor elements, nitrogen- phosphorous-potassium, and complete. Although various treatments and species led to better development in the nursery, greater survival and longer persistence in the field, the ultimate result of all studies was complete failure. The only really encourag- ing note was that seedlings of Pinus elliottii Kngelm. and P. caribaea Morelet treated in the nursery in 1950 with an inoculum of my- corrhizal fungi yielded outstanding seedlings. These failed in the field, but failure appeared to be clearly attributable to field handling rather than to a lack in the seedlings them- selves. ENTRODUCTION OF MYCORRHIZAL FUNG! Therefore, encouraged by reports of the success of the Trinidad Department oi For- estry following mycorrhizal inoculation o/ pine seedlings, attention was concentrated beginning in 1955 on the introduction of my- cerrhizal fungi. This was done in three ways: inoculating seedlings already established in the field, importing inoculated seedlings, and treating nursery bed with imported inoculum. Inceculaticon of established seedlings Seedlings of slash pine (P. elliottii elliottii Engelm.) were treated two years after out- planting with inoculum collected wndei stands of loblolly (P. taeda L.) and short- leaf (P. echinata Mill.) pine in North Care- lina, U. S. A. The material was als«. kept separately as collected from the F horizon 6 ta 7 5 uw Zz 4 = a Oo 3 WW xr > 2 ) S S i Sin TS = s CYL Q) : Ss \ »; WSS WATS S 6 Oe, aN A \ BES) Ki ip ONG ne WITS GRATES LAS (eT EAE ay > / : : 3 Nt Lira! N Z 7; WVANGLAR VATAL SAJAL SUANDAL UPLAND SCALE 1:50,000 Figure 5. - Type Map. JULY - DECEMBER 1959 Summary The developing interest of the lumber industry in the forest of the Pacific coast of Colombia has brought about a need for better knowledge of the forests of this region. A reconnaissance timber survey in the Tumaco area made possible the observations record- ed here. Extensive swamp forests have developed in the coastal lowlands as a result of flooding by salt, brackish, and fresh water. The for- ests that develop under these conditions are relatively simple in composition and produce a considerable volume of wood that is draw- ing commercial interest. Mature mangrove swamp forest may con- tain volumes of 20,000 board feet per acre composed of trees as large as 30 inches in diameter 30 to 40 feet to the first limb. Sajo forest may have up to 300 trees to the acre 6 to 18 inches in diameter with a gross vol- ume of 2450 cubic feet per acre. Cuangare forest produces as much as 25,000 board feet per acre in trees up to 50 inches in diameter with often 50 feet to clear cylindrical bole. The mixed upland tropical forest is a complex mixture o: species with volumes as high as 35,000 per acre. Planting of valuable timber species as well as the encouragement of natural repro- duction will no doubt be part of any future forest management program in the forests of the Tumaco area. However, a great deal of work remains to be done in both wood utili- zation and forest management before the maximum yield can be obtained from the for- est resources cf this region on a permanent basis. ri for) L1. 12. 89 BIBLIOGRAPHY . Acosta-Solis, M. 1959. LOS MANGLARES DEL ECUADOR. Inst. Ecuatoriano de Ciencias Naturales. Contrib. No. 29. 82p. . Cuatrecasas, José 1958. ASPECTOS DE LA VEGETACiON NATURAL DE COLOMBIA. Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias Exac- tas, Fisicas y Naturales 10(40)221-264. . Davis, J. H. 1940. THE ECOLOGY AND GEOLOG:C ROLE OF MANGROVES IN FLORIDA. Tortugas Lab. Paper No. 22 Carnegie Inst. of Wash. Pub. 517, p. 303-412. . Holdridge, L. R. and Teesdale, L. V., Myer, J. E., Little, E. L. Jr., Horn, E. F., Marrero, J. 1947. THE FORESTS OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL ECUADOR. U.S. Forest Serv- ice. 134p. . Holdridge, L. R. 1953. DETERMINATION OF WORLD PLANT FORMATIONS FROM SIMPLE CLIMATIC DATA. Science. 195(2727): 367-368. . Holdridge, L. R. & Budowski, G. 1956. REPORT OF AN ECOLOG:ICAL SURVEY OF PANAMA. Carib. For. 17(3 & 4):92-110, . Lamb, F. B. 1953. THE FORESTS OF DARIEN, PANA- MA. Carib. For. 14(3 & 4):128-135. . Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1948. A COLLECTION OF TREE SP£C- IMENS FROM WESTERN ECUADOR. Carib. For. 9:219-288. . McLaughlin, J. H. & Simmons, C. S. 1957. EL CACAO EN COLOMBIA. Inter- national Cooperation Administration. . Richards, P. W. 1952. THE TROPICAL RAIN FOREST. Cambridge Univ. Press 450 p. West, R. C. 1956. MANGROVE SWAMPS OF THE PACIFIC COAST OF COLOMBIA. Assoc. American Geographers. 64(1):89-121. West R. C. 1957. THE PACIFIC LOWLANDS OF CO- LOMBIA. Soc. Sci. Ser. No. 8, Lousiana State Univ. Press. Baton Rouge 278 p. 90 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Subject Index to Volumes 11 to 20 of the Caribbean Forester December 1949 — December 1959 Volume Acclimatization of species Acidity of selected Puerto Rican woods, The xX Aclimatacion de especies XIII Additions to the Flora of St Barthelemy XVII Adiestramiento forestal en Puerto Rico bajo el programa del “Pun- to Cuarto”’ XI Akawaio indian plant names XIV Alder “Alnus Acuminata”, as a farm timber tree in Costa Rica, The XII ‘Alnus acuminata” as a farm timber tree in Costa Rica, The Alder XII ‘Alnus Acuminata” para los arbo- lados de las fincas de Costa Rica XII Amazon and its forests. The XII Amazon Valley, The lumber in- dustry of the lower XVIII Amazonicas, Florestas XiI América Central, La primavera, una importante madera de eba- nisteria de la XII América tropical, Sistemas de re- generacion de los bosques de bajura en la XVII Annual report, Tenth, Tropical Forest Experiment Station XI Anual report, Eleventh, Tropical Forest Experiment Station XII Annual report, Twelfth, Tropical Forest Experiment Station XIII Annual report, Thirteenth, Tropi- cal Forest Experiment Station XIV Annual report, Fourteenth, Tropi- cal Forest Experiment Station XV Annual report,-;Fifteenth, Tropi- cal Forest Research Center XVI XIII Page 45 47 Annual report, Sixteenth, Tropi- cal Forest Research Center Annual report, Seventeenth, Tro- pical Forest Research Center Annual report 1958, Tropical For- est Research Center Arboles en la finca Argentina, F'orest management in the subtropical rain forests of Misiones Argentina, Ordenacion de los bos- ques hidrofiticos y subtropica- les de Misiones Australia, Some observations from the Eucalyptus study tour to Bibliography on mahogany, A se- lected, annotated Blue stain fungus, The inhibitory action of organic chemicals on a Eosques amazonicos, Los Eotanical observations. on Pitch Lake in Trinidad British Guiana — a review, The vegetation of British Guiana, Forest conditions, problems and programmes in British Guiana, Forest types of Eritish Guiana, Note on the devel- opment of forest policy in British Guiana, Some siliceous timbers of Cajaput tree in Florida, The Caoba hondurena (Swietenia ma- crophylla) ex Filipinas, Siembra de prueba de la Caribbean forests, Observations of some Caribbean timbers, Marketing of XIII XIII XIV 1 1 165 145 133 30 57 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 Central America, Primavera, im- portant furniture wood of Chile, Procedimientos para peque- hos viveros forestales en Chile, The forestry phase of the United States technical assitance program in Climax forests of Puerto Rico and their destruction and conserva- tion prior to 1900, Notes on the Coastal swamp forest of Narino, Colombia, The Colombia, The coastal swamp for- est of Narino Comision forestal latinoamericana, Cuarta reunion de la Companhia paulista experience with eucalyptus, The significan- ce to Puerto Rico of Costa Rica, The Alder “Alnus acu- minata” as a farm timber tree in Costa Rica, El jaul, para los arbo- lados de las fincas de Cuarta reunion de la Comision Forestal Latinoamericana Cuba, Las plantaciones de euca- lipto de la Compania Minas de Matahambre, S. A. en la provin- cia de Pinar del Rio Cuba, Las plantaciones de eucalip- to de la Manaja, Minas de Ma- tahambre, S. A. Pinar del Rio Cuenca de Pino Radiata, Ranura Mf Cybistax donnell-smithii Dasonomia tropical celebrado en Puerto Rico, marzo 1 a mayo 29, 1955, Informe sobre el curso corto de Décimo informe anual! de la Esta- c:on de Investigaci6n Forestal Tropical Décimotercer inform2 anual de la Estacion de Experimentacién Forestal Tropical X11 XVII XVII xX xX XIII XII XII XIII XVIII XI XIV 28 143 143 49 81 34 Duodécimo informe anual de la Estacion de Experimentacion Forestal Tropical Early results from the improve- ment of a farm woodlot Eariy results of mycorrhizal ino- culation of pine in Puerto Rico Ecological survey of the Republic of Panama, Report of an Ecologico de Panama, Informe so- bre un levantamiento Effects of 1956 hurricane on jor- ests in Puerto Rico Eicventh Annual report Especies del género Inga usadas como sombra de café en Puerto Rico Estacion de Experimentacion Fo- restal Tropical, Décimotercer in- forme anual de la Estacion de Experimentacion Fo- restal Tropical, Duodécimo in- forme anual de la Estudio de la silvicultura de algu- nas especies forestales en Tingo Maria, Peru, Un Estudio de las zonas forestales del estado Portuguesa Eucalipto de ia Compania Minas de Matahambre, S. A. en la pro- vincia de Pinar del Rio, Cuba, Las plantaciones de Eucalipto de la Manaja, Minas de Matahambre, S. A. Pinar del Rio, Cuba, Las plantaciones de Eucalipto, su importancia para Puerto Rico, Experiencias de la Companhia Paulista con Eucalyptus study tour to Austra- lia, Some observations from the Eucalyptus, The significance to Puerto Rico of Companhia Pau- lista experience with Experiencia de la Companhia Pau- lista con eucalipto, su importan- cia para Puerto Rico AIT XII XX XVII XVIII $ XIII XIT XVIII XVI XIV XIV vil 22 21 14 35 49 uo ou Xe) bo Explotaciones forestales en el su- reste de México Farm woodlot, Early results from the improvement of a Fifteenth annual report Fifth topical forestry short course, The Filipinas, Siembra de prucba de la caoba hondurenha (Swietenia macrophylla King) en Fineas de Puerto Rico, indicacio- nes para la Repoblacion Fores- tal de las Flora of St. Barthelemy, Additions to the Florestas amazonicas Florida, The cajaput tree in Forest conditions and problems in participants’ countries Forest conditions, problems, and programmes in British Guiana Forest management in the Luqui- llo Mountains, I Forest management in the Luqui- llo Mountains, II Forest management in the Luqui- llo Mountains, ITI Forest management in the sub- tropical rain forests of Misiones, Argentina Forests of Darien, Panama,The Forest planting in the Insular forests of Puerto Rico, Results of Forest policy and legislation Forest policy in British Guiana, Note on the development of Forest preservation in the Wind- ward Islands Forest types of British Guiana Forest utilization in St. British West Indies Lucia, Forest utilization in Southeastern Mexico XII XII XVI XIX XIII XIX XVII XII XTX XVIII XVIII XII XIII XIIT XIII XIV XVII XII 85 56 12 141 50 40 44 93 49 93 165 128 CARIBBEAN Forestry phase of the United States Technical Assistance Pro- gram in Chile, The Forestry terminolozy, V., A Span- ish - English glossary of Fourteenth annual report Fourth Tropical Short Course, Report on the Frost damage in the pine forest Growth and regeneration of white mangrove in Puerto Rico Guayana Britanica, Algunas ma- deras siliceas de la Guayanag Britanica, Nota sobre el desarrollo de la politica forestal de la Hurricane effects on forests in Puerto Rico, 1956 Improvement of a farm woodlot, Early results from the Indicaciones para la repoblacion forestal de las fincas de Puerto Rico Industrial wood use in Puerto Ri- co Influencia de los nudos en la ca- lidad de la madera y métodos para disminuirlos, La Informe anual de la Estacion de Investigacion Forestal Tropical, Décimo Informe anual, Undécimo Informe anual, Duodécmo Informe anual, Décimotercer Informe sobre el curso corto de dasonomia tropical celebrado en Puerto Rico, marzo 1 a Mayo 29, 1955 Informe sobre un levantamiento ecologico de Panama Inga, usadas como sombra de café en Puerto Rico, Especies del género Inhibitory action of organic che- micals on a blu2 stain fungus, The FORESTER XVII 28 XI 25 XV 1 XVili 33 XIV 93 xX 59 XII 139 Xit 165 xX 33 XII 59 XIX 56 XVI 64 XVIII 83 XI 81 XIU 17 Xiit 22 XIV 34 XVI 24 XVIII 1, XV 54 XIV 136 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 Insects of ‘“almendron”’, Prunus ocecidentalis Sw., The Islas Barlovento y Sotavento, Juicio critico sobre la obra de J. S. Beard, Vegetacion natu- ral de las Jaul “Alnus acuminata”, para los arbolados de las fincas en Costa Rica Juicio critico sobre la obra de J. S. Beard “Vegetacion natural de las islas Barlovento y Sota- vento” Legislation, Forest policy and Luquillo Mountains, Forest Man- agement in the, I Luquillo Mountains, Forest Man- agement in the, II Luquillo Mountains, Forest Man- agement in the, III Luquillo I, Ordenacion forestal en las montanas de Luquillo II, Ordenacion forestal en las montanas de Luquillo III, Ordenacion forestal en las montenas de Lumber industry of the Lower Amazon Valley, The Maderas siliceas de la Guayana Britanica, Algunas Mahogany, A selected, annotated bibliography or Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) in the Philippines, Trial planting of large leaf Mangrove in Puerto Rico, Growth regeneration of white Marketing of Caribbean timbers Mejoramiento del arbolado de una finca, Resultados prelimi- nares del Mexican and Central American pines in the world reforestation projects, Possibilities of XII XII XII XIX 98 176 62 43 México, Explotaciones en el sureste de forestales Mexico, Forest Utilization in Southeastern Mexico, Tropical hardwoods for veneer production in Mona island, Trees of Mycorrhizal inoculation of pine in Puerto Rico, Early results of Natural vegetation of the Wind- ward and Leeward Islands - A review, The New observations of tree growth in tabonuco forest Nota sobre e! desarrollo de la politica forestal de la Guayana Britanica Notas sobre los bosques climaticos de Puerto Rico y su desiruccion y coOnservacion con anterioridad al 1900 Note on the development of forest policy in British Guiana Notes on the climax forests of Puerto Rico and their destruc- tion and conservation prior to 1900 Nudos en la calidad de la ma- dera y métodos para disminuir- los, La influencia de los Observaciones botanicas sobre el Lago de Brea de la isla de Trinidad Observations of some Caribbean forests Ordenacion de los bosques hidro- fiticos y subtropicales de Misio- nes, Argentina Ordéenacion forestal en las mon- tanas de Luquillo, I Ordenacion forestal en las tanas de Luquillo, II mon- Ordenacion forestal en las mon- tanas de Lugquillo, III Ornamental trees in Puerto Rico xX XI XII XVIII XII XIX XIII XIII XIV tea) ie) 38 88 94 Our efforts to conserve trees Panama, Informe sobre un levan- tamiento ecoldogico de Panama, Report of an ecological survey of the Republic of Panama, The torest of Darien Pert, Un estudio de la silvicultura de algunas especies fosestales en Tingo Maria Pine forest, Frost damage in the Pine in Puerto Rico, Early results of Mycorrhizal inoculation of rino radiata, Ranura y cuenca de Plant names, Akawaio indian Piantaciones de eucalipto de la Compania Minas de Mataham- bre, S. A. en la provincia de Pinar del Rio, Cuba, Las Plantaciones de eucalipto de la Manaja, Minas de Matahambre, S. A. Pinar del Rio, Cuba, Las Politica forestal de la Guayana Britanica, Nota sobre el desa- rrollo de la Possibilities of Mexican and Cen- tral American pines in the world reforestation projects Primavera, important furniture wood of Central America Primavera, una importante ma- dera de ebanisteria de la Amé- rica Central Procedimientos para pequenos vi- veros forestales en Chile Prunus occidentalis Sw., The in- sects of ‘‘almendron” Puerto Rico, Adiestramiento fores- tal bajo el programa del ‘“Pun- to Cuarto”’ Puerto Rico and the Virgin Is- lands, The status of forestry and research in XIV XVIII XVII XIV XV XIV XX XX XIV XVIII XVI XII XIX XII XII XVII XVI XI XIX 140 12 49 43 75 84 37 98 58 CARIBBEAN Puerto Rico, Early results of my- corrhizal inoculation of pine in Puerto Rico, Effects of the 1956 hurricane on forests in Puerto Ricc, El suelo como un factor para la existencia de dos tipos de bosque montano en Puerto Rico, Especies del género Inga usadas como sombra de ca- fé en Puerto Rico, Indicaciones para la repoblacién forestal de las fincas de Puerto Rico, Industrial wood use in Puerto Rico, Informe sobre el cur- so corto de desonomia tropical celebrado en marzo 1 a mayo 29, 1955 Puerto Rico, La reforestacion de tierras degradadas en y su destruccion y ccnservacioOn con anterioridad al 1900, Notas sobre los bosques climaticos de Yuerto Rico y Puerto Rico and their destruction and conservation prior to 1900, Notes on the climax forest of Puerto Rico, Ornamental trees in Puerto Rico, Reforestation of de- graded lands in Puerto Rico, Resultados de la re- poblacion forestal en los bos- ques insulares de Puerto Rico, Results of forest nianting in the Insular forests of Puerto Rico, Soil as a factor in the occurrence of two types of montane forests in Punto Cuarto, Adiestramiento fo- restal en Puerto Rico bajo el programa del Que arbol sembraré? FORESTER xX 73 xX 38 XII 70 XV 54 XIX 56 XVI 64 XVI 24 XI 16 XI 47 XI 38 XIV 97 XI 3 XI 151 XI 107 XII 67 XI 58 XIV 152 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 Rain forest, a review, The tro- pical Banura y quenca de Pino Ra- diata Reforestacion de tierras degrada- das en Puerto Rico, La Reforestation of degraded lands in Puerto Rico Reforestation projects, Possibilities of Mexican and Central American pines in the world Regeneracion de los bosques de bajura en lo América tropical, Sistemas de Regeneration systems in tropical American lowlands Repoblacion forestal de las fincas de Pudrto Rico, Indicaciones para la Riepotdacion forestal, Resultados en los bosques insulares de Puerto Rico de la Report of an ecological survey of the Republic of Panama Report on the fourth Tropical Forestry Short Course Report on the tropical forestry short course held in Puerto Ri- co, March 1 to May 29, 1955, A Republic of Panama, Report of an ecological survey of the Research in Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, The status of for- estry and forest Resultados de la repoblacion fo- restal en los bosques insulares de Puerto Rico Resultados preliminares del mejo- ramiento del arbolado de una finca Results of forest planting in the insular forests of Puerto Rico XIV 161 AX 52 XI 16 XI 3 XIX 43 XVII 53 XVII 76 XIX 56 XI 151 XVII 92 XVIII 33 XVI 12 XVII 92 XIX 1 XI 151 XII 62 XI 107 Selected, annotated, bibliography on mahogany, A Seventeenth annual report Siembra de prueba de la caoba hondurena (Swietenia macro- phylla King) en Filipinas Significance to Puerto Rico of Companhia Paulista Experience with Eucalyptus, The Siliceous timbers of British Guia- na, Some Silvicultura de algunas especies forestales en Tingo Maria, Peru, Un estudio de la Sistemas de regeneracion de los bosques de bajura en la Amé- rica Tropical Sixteenth annual report Soil as a factor in the occurrence of two types of montane for- est in Puerto Rico Some observations from the Eu- calyptus Study Tour to Austra- lia Southeastern Mexico, Forest utili- zation in Spanish-English glossary of for- estry terminology, V St. Barthelemy, Additions to the flora of St. Lucia, British West Indies, Forest utilization in Status of forestry and forest re- search in Puerto Rico and the V:rgin Islands, The Suelo como un factor para la existencia de dos tipos de bosque montano en Puerto Rico, El Swamp forest of Narino, Colombia, The coastal Swietznia macrophylla King en Fi- lipinas, Siembra de Prueba de la caoba hondurena, xX XVIII XIII XIV XII XV XVII XVII XII XVII XV XIX XIII 95 67 12 120 96 Swietenia macrophylla King in the Philippines, Trial planting of large leaf mahogany, Swietenia spp., A selected, anno- tated bibliography on mahogany Tabonuco forest, New observations of tree growth in Teak in Trinidad, The utilization of Technical assistance program in Chile, The forestry phase of the United States Tenth annual report Thirteenth annual report Tree growth in Tabonuco forest, New observations of Trees of Mona Island Trial planting of large leaf ma- hogany (Swietenia macrophylla King) in the Philippine Islands Trinidad, Botanical observations on Pitch Lake in Trinidad, Observaciones botanicas sobra el Lago de Brea de la isla de Trinidad, The utilization of teak in Tropical American lowlands, Re- generation systems in Tropical Forest Research Center, 1958 Annual report Tropical Forestry Short Course held in Puerto Rico, March 1 to May 29, 1955, A report on the Tropical Forestry Short Course, XIII Peres XIII XII XII XIX XVII XX XVI 17 106 80 12 CARIBBEAN FORESTER Report on the fourth Tropical Forestry Short Course, The fifth Tropical Forestry Training Course, The 1959 XVIII AIX xX Tropical hardwoods for veneer pro- duction in Mexico Tropical rain forest - A review, The Twelfth annual report Undécimo informe anual Utilization of teak The in Trinidad, “Vegetacion natural de las islas Barlovento y Sotavento’’, Juicio critico sobre la obra de J. S. Beard Vegetation of British Guiana - A review, The Veneer production in Mexico, Tro- pical hardwoods for Venezuela, Estudio de las zonas forestales del estado portuguesa Virgin Islands, The status of for- esty and forest research in Puer- to Rico and the Viveros forestales en Chile, Pro- cedimientos para pequenos Windward and Leeward islands - A review, The natural Vegeta- tion of the Windward islands, Forest preser- vation in the XV XIV XIII XII XIX XII XIII XV XII XIX AVII XIII XVII 80 176 179 112 35 37 173 JULY - DECEMBER 1959 Author Index to Volumes Il to 20 of the Caribbean Forester December 1949 — December 1959 Almeyda, N. XIV 97 Amos, G. L. XII 133es139 Ascorbe, F. J. XIV 136 Avila Hernandez, Mario XII 37, 42 Ronnet, Juan Amedée xn 67, 70 Briscoe, Charles B. xX 73 Budowski, Gerardo XVII 53, 76, 92 XVIII 12 Burgos, José A. XV 14 Chalmers, W. S. AIDA 30 Chinte, Félix O. XIII 75, 85 Cozzo, Domingo XIII 145, 165 Diaz Serrano, Vicente XVI 55 XVIII 49 Duffield, J. W. XIV 111 Egler, Frank E. XIII Mitae LG XIV 161 Ehelebe, Carl F. XVI 12, 24 Englerth, George E. xX 38 Estacion de Experimentacion XI 58, 81 Forestal Tropical XIII 22 XIV 34 Estacion de Investigacion XII 17 Forestal Tropical XIII 143 Fanshawe, D. B. XIV 126 XV 73 Fernandez, Hermano XII 141, 153, 156 Fraser, H. XVII 25 Garcia Piquera, Carmen XI 25 Gomez, Pimentel XII 141, 153, 156 Hardee, Jay H. XVII 28, 37 Heesterman, J. E. XVI 57 Holdridge, L. R. XII 47, 53 XVII 92 XVIII 12 Horn, Eugene F. XVIII 56 Howard, Richard A. XII ltl air hs, Huckenpahler, B. J. XVI 12, 24 XVIII Bo Ijjasz, Dr. Ervin XVIII 88 xX 52 Lamb, F. Bruce XII 75, 84 XIV 128 xX 11, 17, 79 Lang, W. G. XV 120 Larsen, Egon XIX 43 Le Gallo, Pere C. XVII 12 Little, Elbert L. XVI 36 “I 98 Longwood, F. R. Marrero, José Martorell, Luis F. Ministerio de Agricultura y Cria Mirov, N. T. Monachino, Joseph Pedersen, Arthur Richardson, H. Ross, Philip Saks, Edgar V. Schory, Jr. Elbert A. Smith, C. M. Stein, A. H. Swabey, Christopher Throop, Ralph Tropical Forest Experiment Station Puerto Rico Tropical Forest Research Center Puerto Rico Viera, V. Vivaldi, Santiago A. Wadsworth, Frank H. Winter, H. F. Wolcott, G. N. XVI AI XII XIV XV XIX XIV XII XIX XVII XIV XVIII XIX XV XIX XIII XVIII XII XIX XI XII XIII XIV XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX xX XVII XIV XI XII XII XIV XVI XIX xX XIV XVI CARIBBEAN FORESTER 64 3, 16, 107, 151 59, 62 38, 47 59, 62, 67, 70, 93, 115 49, 62, 93, 120 65, 79, 106, 140 12, 24 double-spaced typewritten pages, although an occasional longer article of special interest may be acceptable. Articles should be sub- mitted in the author’s native tongue, and should include title or position of the author as well as a brief summary of the material. Manuscripts should be typewritten, double ispaced, on one side of the page only, on 814 x 11 inch white bond paper. Tables should be numbered consecutively, each on a separate sheet with a title. Foot- notes used in tables should be typewritten as part of the table and designated by numerals. Tilustrations should be designated as figures and numbered consecutively. Captions for each illustration should be submitted on a separate sheet. Photographs submitted for il- lustrations should be clear, sharp, and on glos- sy paper, preferably 5 x 7 or 8 x 10 inches in size. Footnotes should be numbered consecutive- ly, with a superior figure placed after the word in the text to which the footnote refers. The footnote should appear in the text in the line following the reference number, separated from the text by a short line running inward from the left margin of the text. Footnotes are used to give credit to unpublished material and communications. Ii only a few references to literature are made, literature citations may be placed in footnotes. Literature citations should include the author, year published, ti- tle of the work cited, name of publication, and pages. ~ Manuscripts should be sent to the Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico. Opinions expressed in this journal are not necessarily those of the Forest Service. Ar- ticles published in the Caribbean Forester may be reproduced, provided reference is made to the original source. ® Le “Caribbean Forester” est une revue semi- annuelle qui a été publiée depuis l’année 1938 en Puerto Rico por le Centre Tropique de Recherche Forestier, Service Forestier du Départment de l’Agriculture des Etats-Unis. Cette revue est dediée a l’aménagement et a Putilisation des forests surtout dans la region caraibe. Par les pages de cette revue les personnes qui travaillent aux tropiques peuvent etre in- formées sur les problemes specifiques des fo- rets tropicales et sur les travaux effectués pour realiser une ameilloration technique par laménagement et l’usage des resources fores- tiéres. Cette revue pourvoit aussi un moyen de destribuer l'information et les resultats ob- tenus par le programme experemental du Cen- tre Tropique de Recherche Forestier de Puerto Rico; en plus cette revue offre ses pages a les autres travailleurs forestiers des pays tropi- caux pour qu’ils purssent publier les resultats de leur travaux. Cette revue accepte volontiers des contribu- tions ne depassant pas 20 pages dactilografiées a double espace, cependant que certains tra- vaux du intéret spécial plus long purvent etre acceptés. Les contributions doivent etre ecri- tes dans la langue maternelle de l’auteur et doivent bien preciser son titre et sa position professionnelle, ’appert doct etre accompagné d’un résumé de ]’étude. Les manuscripts doi- vent etre dactilografiées en double espace su du paper 814 por 11 pouces. Les tables du travail doivent etre numero- tées en ordre sur page separée et les notes au pied de ces tables doivent etre dactilografiées, comme une partie du table. Les illustrations doivent etre designées avec des numeros consecutifs. Les titres de chaque illustration doivent etre sumis sur une page separée Les photographies comme les illus- trations doivent etre bien claires, bien definies et sur papier glacé preferablement 5 x 7 pouces ~ au 8 por 10. Les notes au bas de la page doivent etre numerotées apies le mot qui fait reference a la note. La note au pied devra aparaitre dans le texte sous la ligne qui suit le numero de reference, separée de texte par une ligne courte couront de gauche a driole de la marge du papier. Les notes au pied sont usées pour faire honneur aux travaux qué nont pas été publiés. Si on fait seulement quelques-unes reference qua la litterature pauvent designée les comme notes au pied. Citation au littera- ture publiée doivent comprendu, |’auteur, |’an- née publiée, le titre du travail, le nom de la revue et les pages de cette revue. Les manuscripts doivent etre evnooyés a: “Leader, Tropical Forest Research Center, Rio Piedras, Puerto Rico.” Nous voulons rappeller a nos lecteurs que les opinions expumées dans cette revue ne sont pas necessairement les opinions du Forest Service et que les articles publiés dans la re- vue le “Caribbean Forester’’ peuvent etre re- produits mais doivent jaire reference a cette revue.