v ^•-•*^: i_ — i«^^-^ ^"» ..•-'. § o 00 O 'a 1 a V _D 10 "3 u '5 _o o _c u o u > V o PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MODERATE DOSES OF ETHYL ALCOHOL ON A RELATED GROUP OF NEURO-MIJSCULAR PROCESSES IN MAN BY RAYMOND DODGE AND FRANCIS G. BENEDICT WITH A CHAPTER ON FREE ASSOCIATION IN COLLABORATION WITH F. LYMAN WELLS WASHINGTON, D. C. PUBLISHED BY THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON 1915 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON PUBLICATION No. 232 PRESS OF GIBSON BROTHERS, INC. WASHINGTON, D. C. CONTENTS PAGE. CHAPTER I. — PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION 9-32 Principles of selection of the experimental processes 13 General methodological considerations 18 Normal or basal experiments 20 Control mixtures 22 Subjects 24 Statistical expression of the measurements 27 Dosage 29 General arrangement of the apparatus 30 CHAPTER II. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS 33-74 Available human reflexes 34 Effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex 35 Technique 36 Stimulus 37 Recording device 40 Experimental procedure 41 Results 44 Variability of the patellar reflex 44 Normal variations in the case of Subject II 46 Summary of the effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex 54 Effect of alcohol on the protective lid-reflex 56 Technique 56 Stimulus 57 Eyelash 58 Photographic recording camera 58 Experimental procedure 60 Records 61 Results 62 Summary of the effect of alcohol on the protective lid-reflex 71 CHAPTER III. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS 75-108 Effect of alcohol on the reaction of the eye to perip1 eral visual stimuli 76 Methods for recording the eye-reactions 77 Theory of recording the movements of the eye by photographing the move- ment of reflection from the cornea 78 Reaction-time of the eye 78 Apparatus 79 Recording camera 79 Head-rest 81 Recording light 81 Exposure apparatus and stimulus 81 Time records 82 Experimental procedure 82 Results 83 Summary of eye-reaction data 89 Variability of the measurements 89 Effect of alcohol on the eye-reaction 90 Effect of alcohol on the reaction-time in reading isolated words . 90 Exposure apparatus 91 Voice-reaction key 97 Experimental procedure 99 Records 101 Results 101 Summary of the word-reactions 106 Effect of alcohol on word-reaction 108 3 4 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. PAGE. CHAPTER IV. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON FREE ASSOCIATIONS 109-125 Methods and apparatus 109 Apparatus for the psycho-galvanic reflex 100 Apparatus for recording the association time 110 Stimulus words 113 Association-reaction time 114 Associative categories 117 "Frequency" of the response words 120 Correlations between the various measurements 123 Special episodes 125 CHAPTER V. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE PROCESS OF MEMORIZING 126-133 Apparatus and technique 129 Experimental procedure 132 Summary of the effect of alcohol on memory 1 33 CHAPTER VI. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE SENSORY THRESHOLD FOK FARADIC STIMULATION (MARTIN MEASUREMENTS) 134-145 Apparatus and technique 137 Results 139 CHAPTER VII. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON MOTOR COORDINATIONS 146-185 General motor processes 146 Motor coordinations 148 Effect of alcohol on the velocity of eye-movements of the first type 150 Technique for measuring the velocity of eye-movements 151 Results 154 Summary of eye-movement data 164 Effect of alcohol on the reciprocal innervation of the finger 167 Technique 168 Apparatus 169 Position of the subject 170 Experimental procedure 170 Results 171 Summary of finger-movement data 182 CHAPTER VIII. — EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE PULSE-RATE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK EXPERIMENTS 186-241 Techniques for recording the pulse during psychological experiments 189 Telephone pulse-recorder 189 Construction and operation of an electrical sphygmograph for recording pulse-rate at a distance 189 Electro-cardiograms from body leads through condensers 193 Effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate during association experiments 194 Effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate during word-reaction and finger-movement experiments and also during moderate muscular activity and rest 21 1 Cause of the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol 233 CHAPTER IX. — SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS 242-265 Differential incidence of the effects of alcohol 242 Evidence for alcoholic stimulation 250 Is alcoholic depression a conservative process? 253 Temporal incidence of the effect after the ingestion of alcohol 256 Effect of repetition on the various measurements 259 Correlation of the various measurements with the average 262 APPENDIX I. — Tentative plan of investigation on physiological and psychological effects of alcohol on man 266-275 APPENDIX II. — Family and personal histories of the subjects 276-281 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE. Frontispiece. General view of the psychological laboratory of the Nutrition Laboratory. FIG. 1. General plan of psychological laboratory and apparatus 31 2. Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (first view) 32 3. Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (second view) 32 4. Apparatus for stimulating the patellar reflex 38 5. A typical record of the patellar reflex 43 6. The noise-stimulus apparatus for the lid-reflex in position before the photo- graphic recording camera 59 7. Time-recording interruptor at rest 60 8. Interruptor in action 60 9. Protective lid-reflex record 60 10. Falling-plate recording-camera 80 11. Falling-plate recording-camera (inner construction) 80 12. Eye-reaction records 83 13. Diagram of pendulum-stop exposure apparatus 94 14. Diagram of apparatus for Faradic threshold, word-reaction, lid-reflex, and eye-movement 95 15. Record showing latency of the pendulum-stop exposure apparatus 96 16. Voice-reaction key 99 17 to 20. Records of the latency of the voice key 100 21. Photograph of a subject in position for the association experiments 101 22. Typical record of a word-reaction experiment 101 23. Curves of the association-reaction time 115 24. Curves of the frequency of the association categories 118 25. Curves of the usualness of the association 122 26. Diagram of the connections for memory experiment 129 27. Typical eye-movement record 154 28. Typical records of the finger-oscillations and pulse of two subjects 171 29. Reproduction of a temporal-pulse record as made by the Dodge telephone- recorder in series with the string galvanometer 171 30. Part of an association experiment record 195 31. Association pulse of Subject VII 201 32. Variations of the normal subjects from the average of the group for various measurements 264 5 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF MODERATE DOSES OF ETHYL ALCOHOL ON A RELATED GROUP OF NEURO-MUSCULAR PROCESSES IN MAN DT RAYMOND DODGE AND FRANCIS G. BENEDICT With a chapter on Free Association, in collaboration with F. Lyman Wells CHAPTER I. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION Probably no subject in physiological chemistry has received so much desultory experimental attention as has that of the effects of ethyl alcohol on organic processes. We have numerous systematic and exhaustive contributory studies on the physiology of the proteins, of the carbohydrates, and of the fats; but in spite of the fact that several million people regularly obtain a somewhat larger proportion of their total energy requirement from alcohol than they do from protein, there has been no adequate, systematic investigation of the metabolism of alcohol and its physiological action. This is a misfortune to science. On these grounds the Nutrition Laboratory believed it important to classify the lines of research, and to prepare a tentative plan for an extended systematic investigation into the physiological action of ethyl alcohol in man. While the central problems of the plan are questions of general physiology and total metabolism, it seemed desirable that there should be a correlated investigation of the psychological effects of alcohol. Accordingly, as the plan indicates, a definite program was arranged for the study of the specific effects of alcohol on the various neural processes. This plan,1 which was privately printed and issued under date of January 1, 1913, is reprinted in full, with minor typographical changes, as Appendix I of this monograph. As a consequence of the distribution of this plan among scientists in Europe and in America, we received a large number of comments and suggestions which showed clearly that the program was given serious consideration. Many scientists granted personal interviews and freely discussed the problems. These are Drs. Paul He*ger, Slosse, and Van Laer, of Brussels; Alquier and Bertrand, of Paris; Kossel, of Heidel- berg; Cohnheim, of Hamburg; Jaquet and Staehelin, of Basel; Fano, of Florence; Luciani, of Rome; Tangl and V6rzar, of Budapest; Durig, Kassowitz, and Hans Horst Meyer, of Vienna; Franck, Griiber, F. Miiller, and Neubauer, of Munich; His, Rubner, and Zuntz, of Berlin; Schaternikoff, of Moscow; Albitsky, Kartaschefsky, Likhatscheff, and Pawlow, of Petrograd; Tigerstedt and Von Wendt, of Helsingfors; Arrhenius, Johansson, and Santesson, of Stockholm; Hasselbalch, 'Tentative Plan for a Proposed Investigation into the Physiological Action of Ethyl Alcohol in Man. Boston, 1013. (Reprinted aa Appendix I.) 10 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Henriques, and Krogh, of Copenhagen; Hamburger, of Groningen; Pekelharing and Zwaardemacher, of Utrecht; Pembrey, of London; Schaefer, of Edinburgh; and Martin, of Boston. Many of these gentlemen supplemented their personal interviews by carefully written statements with regard to the program, and friendly, helpful letters were also received from the following: Drs. Hemmeter, Baltimore; Metzner, Basel; Bickel, Friedenthal, and Grot- jahn, Berlin; Kiilpe, Bonn; Cannon, Cabot, Councilman, W. F. Dear- born, Edsall, Hunt, Joslin, and Rosenau, Boston; Cleghorn, Brantford. Canada; Aron and Rosenfeld, Breslau; Hari, Budapest; Langfeld, Cambridge, Massachusetts; Rivers, Cambridge, England; MacNider, Chapel Hill, North Carolina; Hough, Charlottesville, Virginia; Carlson, Freeman, and Judd, Chicago; MacLeod and Sollmann, Cleveland, Ohio; Sewall, Denver; Kirkpatrick, Fitchburg; Mora- witz, Freiburg; Cattell, Garrison-on-Hudson, New York; Miiller, Gottingen; Abderhalden and Schmidt, Halle; Bingham, Hanover, New Hampshire; Cushny and Horsley, London; Davenport, Long Island, New York; Cady, Middletown, Connecticut; Rosemann and Krum- macher, Minister; Galeotti, Naples; Berthelot, Neuchatel; Henderson and Mendel, New Haven, Connecticut; Coleman, Dana, and Thorn- dike, New York; Douglas, Oxford; Hare and Keen, Philadelphia; Holitscher, Pirkenhammer bei Karlsbad; Brooks, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl- vania; Pick, Prague; Shaffer, St. Louis, Missouri; Crawford, Palo Alto, California; Geill, Viborg; Goddard, Vineland, New Jersey; Franz, Langworthy, and Salant, Washington, D. C. Helpful criticism of the psychological program was given on the occasion of the partial presentation of our data at the 1914 meeting of Experimental Psychologists at Columbia University and at the Phil- adelphia meeting of the American Psychological Association, 1915. It was generally felt that the tentative plan filled a real need. The principle of commencing a new alcohol research upon definitely organ- ized lines was fully approved by practically all of the scientists with whom we conferred. While the Nutrition Laboratory is committed to a continuation of the investigation, and while definite arrangements have been formulated to make the alcohol investigation, either on the physiological side or on the psychological side, a substantial part of each year's work, it is inconceivable that any one or a dozen laboratories can adequately complete this program in a decade. Consequently, as the published program clearly stated, it was presented with the hope that it would suggest profitable lines of articulated research in a con- siderable number of laboratories and institutions whose facilities and interests particularly fit them for undertaking the various problems. In the tentative plan no suggestions were made for digesting the literature of alcohol. The accumulation of scientific research upon the physiology and psychology of alcohol has been in more or less active PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 11 progress for the last half century. An enormous number of titles is included in the available bibliographies, notably those of Abderhalden1 and Viazemsky.2 Many of these researches are at present absolutely inaccessible to us. To cover all adequately would be the labor of years. To delay experimentation until a complete digest had been made would have meant to postpone experimental work indefinitely. We have attempted to digest the main experimental investigations per- taining to the special phases of the alcohol problem of which we treat in this book ; but we have written with a painful sense of many omis- sions that should appear in any attempt to record faithfully each experimenter's share in the progress of knowledge concerning the psychology of alcohol. Our lists of works cited disclaim any pretense of being a complete collection of the relevant literature. For such, reference must be made to the excellent bibliographies just cited. The investigation of certain purely physiological phases of the alcohol problem was begun concurrently with the investigation in the psycho- logical laboratory. But the larger proportion of the efforts of the Nutrition Laboratory in the alcohol investigation during the academic year of 1913-14 were concentrated upon the psychological program. This arrangement seemed desirable, since we were forced to take advantage of the relatively short time that Dodge could be free from his academic work. This first publication under the general plan for the systematic investigation of alcohol consequently has to deal with the effects of alcohol on the neuro-muscular tissue, with special refer- ence to mental operations and conduct. Neither the technical nor the practical difficulties of this phase of the problem were underestimated. As we pointed out in the psychological program, unfortunately only the simpler and more elementary neuro- muscular processes can be studied directly by present laboratory techniques. Of the important higher mental and moral processes there is at present scant probability for securing experimental data of scientific reliability, owing to the difficulty of measuring them experi- mentally in any direct way. This technical defect is a serious limita- tion to all experimental investigations of the psychological effects of the ingestion of alcohol, since it is in precisely these directions that our general and scientific experience indicates that the effects of alcohol are probably the most serious.3 It is in these directions also that animal experimentation most needs to be supplemented by data from human subjects. The present investigation makes no pretense to have 'Abderhalden, Bibliographic der gesamten wissenschaftlichen Literatur iiber den Alkohol und den Alkoholismus, Berlin and Vienna, 1904. 2Viazemsky, A bibliography on the question of alcoholism, Moscow, 1909, Part I. (Russian.) The Russian original, together with an English translation made by H. A. Norman and H. B. Dine, are both on file at the Nutrition Laboratory. 3Hodge, Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1896-97, 50, pp. 594 and 796; Hunt, Hyg. Lab., Public Health and Marine-Hospital Service Bull. No. 33, 1907; Laitinen, Zcitschr. f. Hyg. u. Infectionskrankheiten, 1907, 58, p. 139. 12 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. solved this fundamental technical difficulty. We believe, however, that in our selection of definitely related groups of measurable phe- nomena we have not only secured accurate data concerning the action of alcohol on definite neuro-muscular processes, but that we have positively contributed to the knowledge of the conditions of the more complex psycho-physiological effects. In addition to the theoretical and technical considerations which we outlined in the psychological program, a number of accidental condi- tions combined to determine the particular series of measurements that could be undertaken in the single academic year which Dodge could devote to the alcohol program. These were chiefly matters of expediency. They concerned the economical use of the time, energy, and laboratory equipment which were available. Two different reac- tions to these practical limitations suggested themselves. The first was to cover as much of the program as practicable with one or two subjects. One could thus eliminate by trial such technique as seemed likely to yield least consistent data and elaborate those that seemed more promising. The second possibility was to limit the year's work to relatively few lines of research, investigating the neuro-muscular system at various levels by techniques for which we were peculiarly well equipped, and endeavoring to make the data from those particular lines of investigation as exhaustive and definitive as possible. After consideration, the second reaction was adopted as on the whole the more expedient. Under these circumstances it was inevitable that the year's work should raise many questions to which there was no oppor- tunity for obtaining experimental answers. This explains also why a considerable part of our original psychological program is apparently neglected, and why we were unable to put into practice the many valu- able suggestions which were kindly sent in reply to our request for suggestions and criticisms on the original program. The Nutrition Laboratory is continuing this part of its plan under the direction of Professor W. R. Miles. It is a pleasure to acknowledge our grateful obligation to Professor Miles for his kindness in supplying several of the photographs used in this report and for his counsel in many ways. The preparation of the report has had the editorial supervision of Miss A. N. Darling, whose careful scrutiny of the tabular presentation of the material has been a valued service. Before beginning experimentation on the effects of alcohol upon the neuro-muscular processes, the special laboratory devoted to this pur- pose had been partially equipped for nearly a year and the main appa- ratus had been tested in a systematic research with several subjects on the neuro-muscular effects accompanying the metabolic disturbances which were provoked by an acidosis resulting from the use of a carbo- hydrate-free diet. Thus we were able to secure valuable experience prior to the undertaking of this more elaborate research. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 13 The following neuro-muscular processes were investigated in relation to the effects of alcohol: ( 1 ) Simple reflexes : (a) Lumbar arc. The patellar reflex, its latency and extent of contraction as measured by quadriceps thickening, with indication of its refractory period. (6) Cephalic arc. The protective lid-reflex to noise stimulus; its latency, extent of movement, and refractory period. (2) Complicated reactions — cortical arcs : (a) Eye-reactions to suddenly appearing peripheral visual stimuli. (b) Adequate speech-reactions to a series of 24 visual words. (3) Free-association reactions. Latency, character of the response, and concurrent pulse-changes. (4) Memory. Learning a normal series of 12 significant but uncon- nected words. (5) Sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation. Method of Martin.1 (6) Motor coordination: (a) Speed of the reciprocal innervation of the middle finger. (6) Speed and accuracy of eye-movements in looking from one point of fixation to another in the same horizontal plane through an arc of 40°. (7) In addition to the neuro-muscular processes of the cerebro-spinal system, the autouomic system was investigated in the peculiarly significant pulse-rate. Throughout the experiments pulse was recorded either continuously or at such intervals as the changing conditions seemed to warrant. PRINCIPLES OF SELECTION OF THE EXPERIMENTAL PROCESSES. In several respects this group of experimental measurements repre- sents a conscious departure from traditional methods for the investi- gation of the effects of foods or drugs on man. The fundamental principle of their selection was the attempt to secure a group of syste- matically coordinated measurements. Instead of studying the effect of alcohol on special, isolated, more or less arbitrarily chosen processes, we have tried to bring together systematically coordinated data cover- ing the most fundamental aspects of neuro-muscular action. It may be objected that in the end several investigations of different processes, even though the latter are somewhat arbitrarily chosen, would be as useful as a single investigation of coordinated processes. It would seem that if unrelated investigations are sufficiently numerous and sufficiently varied, they must finally furnish data for the most extensive correlations. This would undoubtedly be true provided the experimental material were obtained by comparable techniques on the same subjects. Such conditions, however, could scarcely be realized, except in carefully organized series like the present. Even under the 1Martin, Measurement of Induction Shocks, New York, N. Y., 1912. 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. most favorable experimental conditions the individual subject is often measurably different in his reactions at one session from what he was at another. The statistical problem of correlating the various meas- urements would be enormously more difficult if, in addition to the differences of the individual at different times, one must take into account the still larger differences between the several individuals. Whatever the faults of the present application of our fundamental principle, and they are admittedly many, we feel confident that the attempt to secure accurate measurements of the most complete possible group of systematically related phenomena is sound procedure. Indeed, on any of the current theories of science it appears to be the only sound basis for this sort of experimentation on man. Only in the simplest of inorganic processes can the measurement of a single function be satisfactory. The more complex the system under investigation the greater will be the number of possible organic variants, and the larger should be the group of coordinated measurements. In a group of tissues as complex as the neuro-muscular tissues in man our best arrangements for simultaneous measurements of coordinated processes must fall far short of the ideal. The arrangement of the experimental processes in convenient series was entirely a matter of laboratory economy and expediency. The main principles of arrangement were to distribute the use of our instru- ments so as to prevent waste of time and material, to avoid disturbing readjustments of the subject, and to condense the most possible into the half-hour periods into which the sessions were divided. Recom- binations of the series were consequently not specially avoided where they would increase laboratory efficiency. There were originally five series of experiments which were subsequently reduced to three, partly by the omission of some of the members and partly by consolidation. Experiments which were not carried into latter series are marked "not continued." The various original series are as follows: SERIES I. (1) Electro-cardiogram, lead I, of Einthoven, taken at the first session only (not continued). (2) Reciprocal innervation of the middle finger of the right hand for 8 seconds repeated after 60 seconds. (3) Pulse-records (tem- poral artery, telephone recorder) at rest and during finger-movements. (4) Patellar reflex; stimulated by pendulum hammers of various weights and recorded from the quadriceps thickening. (5) Sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation, Martin1 measurement. SERIES II. (1) Eye-reactions. (2) Eye-movements through an angle of 40°. (3) Pro- tective lid-reaction to noise stimulus. (4) Memory. (5) Tapping test, full arm and wrist (not continued). (6) Time estimates, seconds (not continued). 1Martin, Measurement of Induction Shocks, New York, N. Y., 1912. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 15 SERIES III. (1) Adequate speech-reaction to visual words. (2) Memory, repetitions and new material. (3) Protective lid-reflex to noise stimulus with con- trolled attention. (4) Involuntary eye-movements in reading a moving text with supposed constant fixation (not continued). (5) Pulse-records, quiet, immediately after standing and after 60 seconds of standing, after two double genuflections, and after 60 seconds quiet. (6) Threshold for muscle contrac- tion in response to Faradic stimulation (not continued). SERIES IV. (1) Adequate speech-reactions to complete series of 24 words with con- current pulse-records. (2) Finger, hand, and arm tremors, photographic registration (not continued). (3) Rapid reading, with photographic registra- tion of eye-movements: (a) natural, as rapid as possible; (6) letter by letter (not continued). (4) Convergence and divergence eye-movements (not con- tinued). (5) Pulse-records as in Series III. SERIES V. (1) Association experiments under the direction of Dr. F. L. Wells, of McLean Hospital staff, with continuous graphic records of reaction time, pulse, and respiration, and occasional observation of the " psycho-galvanic reflex" by the aid of the string galvanometer. (2) Sensory threshold to Fara- dic stimulation. In the 12-hour experiments, Series I to IV were condensed to a single series, which was repeated each hour: (1) patellar reflex; (2) sensory threshold to Faradic stimulation; (3) protective lid-reflex; (4) eye-reaction; (5) eye-movement; (6) speech-reaction with pulse; (7) finger-movement with pulse. Series V was never changed nor united with any other. It was not given to the psychopathic subjects. (See p. 25.) For most of the main group of subjects, and for all the psychopathic and occasional subjects, Series I to IV were condensed to two series, as follows : SERIES I A. (1) Patellar reflex; (2) speech-reactions with pulse; (3) finger-movements with pulse; (4) threshold to Faradic stimulation. SERIES II A. (1) Eye-reaction; (2) eye-movement; (3) protective lid-reflex; (4) memory; (5) pulse at rest, after rising, and after two double genuflections. In the succeeding detailed discussion of the various techniques and their results the matter will be arranged according to the nature of the experiment rather than according to the series. If we call the first principle which determined our selection of meas- urable phenomena the principle of systematic coordination, a second conscious departure from traditional procedure may be called the principle of relative simplicity. We have made the attempt to inves- 16 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tigate elementary neuro-muscular processes in their simplest available form, and of the more complex processes to choose those involving as few unknown factors as possible. In particular we have tried to measure processes that were as insusceptible as possible to direct and arbitrary conscious modification, and as free as possible from uncontrollable influences of bias, effort, and attention. We thus tried to avoid the occasion for most of the adverse criticism that has been directed against earlier researches on the psychological effects of alcohol. This second principle led us to lay particular emphasis on the simplest reflex arcs as a precondition for interpreting the complicated reactions. In addi- tion to the accuracy and simplicity of the photographic technique, the freedom of the processes from arbitrary modification led us to measure the velocity of the eye-movements in preference to the movement of members which are more subject to voluntary control. The same principle of simplicity led us to measure the sensory threshold for Faradic stimulation in preference to those sense thresholds which are complicated by more or less elaborate adaptive mechanisms, as in vision; or by the irregular interplay of related sense data, as in the pressure threshold. On the negative side, this principle led us to ex- clude a considerable number of familiar techniques, the most conspicu- ous example of which is the ergographic experiment. In addition to the fact that any ergographic data which we might collect would add rela- tively little to the mass of more or less conflicting data already at hand, and quite apart from the purely mechanical difficulties in the operation of the ergograph and in the interpretation of the resulting data, we were disinclined to use that instrument because of the fundamental difficulty of disentangling the numerous physiological and psychological factors that unite to produce any specific ergographic accomplishment.1 On similar grounds, any measurements involving long-sustained attention or effort, or indifference to increasing discomfort, without opportunity for adequate, objective control, seemed undesirable. But obviously, even at best, in view of recent analyses of neuro-muscular processes, such as those of Sherrington,2 Verworn,3 and Isserlin,4 simplicity can be no more than a relative term. We must concede that the action of even the simplest spinal arcs is normally dependent on the interplay of an indefinite number of inhibiting and reinforcing conditions that can never be entirely eliminated. The action of the higher nervous lrThe attempt of Mile. Joteyko (Joteyko, Travaux du Laboratoire de Physiologic, Instituts Solvay, Brussels, 1904, 6, p. 361) to give a mathematical expression to the interrelationship of central factors, the effects of exhaustion, and the intoxication by fatigue products must be regarded as suggesting a direction of investigation rather than as establishing a technique. At the present time, at least, her original analysis can not be said to supply a reliable instrument for general application to ergographic curves. The classical analysis of the fatigue curve by Kraepelin shows how complex may be the interplay of the various factors. 2Sherrington, Integrative Action of the Nervous System, New York, N. Y., 1907. 'Verworn, Irritability, New Haven, 1913; Verworn, Erregung und Lahmung, Jena, 1914. 4Isserlin, Psychol. Arbeiten, 1914, 6, pp. 1 to 196. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 17 centers commonly follows enormously complex patterns. Granting all the difficulties, we still believe that the principle of simplicity is an im- portant practical guide in the selection of measurable phenomena, even though it must remain for the present a principle of relative simplicity. A third principle that guided us in the selection of our techniques is the principle of customary reaction. Wherever the practice curve is not intentionally an object of investigation, we believed that our ex- periments should be so arranged that the motor response of the subject will be a thoroughly natural and familiar act. The theoretical advan- tage of customary reaction is that, in view of the large number of pre- experimental responses of a similar character, the relatively few ex- perimental instances would not operate to introduce a practice curve in the results.1 It was on this principle that we chose adequate eye- reactions instead of any arbitrary opening or closing of special reaction keys. The adaptive movement of the eyes, by which a suddenly appearing peripheral object is fixated, has been practiced since birth. It does not have to be taught the subject for experimental purposes. It consequently seemed unlikely to us that any practice effects of our relatively short experimental series would materially affect the results. The sequel will show that our technique did not entirely eliminate unusual limitation in the variety of possible positions and consequent practice. But that does not affect the value of the principle. It was on similar grounds that we chose the familiar speech-reactions to visual word-stimuli in place of the more unfamiliar controlled association tests. It should be emphasized that neither the principles of selection nor the techniques for measuring the selected processes were elaborated solely for the study of the effects of the ingestion of alcohol. With the exception of the Martin's Faradic threshold measurements and the association experiments, for which Dr. F. L. Wells was responsible, both the theory and the techniques of all our measurements have been elaborated by Dodge2 through a number of years with special reference to their bearing on mental work and mental fatigue. Not only were the technique and apparatus in general thoroughly tried out, but the particular equipment of the psychological laboratory had been installed and tested in the previous acidosis experiments. Furthermore, assis- tants had been thoroughly trained to this investigation before the alco- hol problem was begun. *Bryan and Harter, Psychol. Review, 1S97, 4, p. 27; also 1899, 6, p. 346; Book, The Psychology of Skill, 1908; Swift, Mind in the Making, New York, 1908. "Detailed references to the original papers are given in the bibliography of the various processes. 18 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. GENERAL METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS. The problem of studying the consequences of any experimental inter- ference with a living organism is fundamentally a problem of scientific method, both general and specific. Both the experimenter and his critical reader should have clearly in mind the available canons of investigation, and the degree of accuracy that may be legitimately expected in the results, as well as the specific lines of investigation and the specific techniques that can be relied on to yield adequate quantitative data. Since in our case the question at issue is the nature of the neuro-muscular consequences of the ingestion of alcohol, the logical problem is strictly causal. It is our task to isolate from the complex phenomena that may follow the experimental ingestion of alcohol the uniform and necessary consequences. It may not be amiss to emphasize at the beginning that the basic experimental method of difference in its true form is inapplicable in such experiments as these. It is obviously impossible to isolate a single experimental circumstance in man. The living human organism includes too many complex variables. It is subject to too many rhythmic and arrhythmic changes, which make it, at any moment of time, different from what it has ever been before. After the intro- duction of our experimental circumstance into this complex of ever- changing conditions, we could not be sure that even notable variations in the measurements of selected processes were not conditioned in whole or in part by organic changes which were quite unrelated to our experiment. Our excuse for appearing to insist on the obvious is that in past experiments on the physiological effects of drugs the obvious has not always been noticed. The importance of distinguish- ing between the accidental and the necessary by carefully planned series of control experiments is a relatively recent product. It is nqt always realized even in current studies. Still more frequently do experiments on the effects of drugs on animals as well as on man fail to provide for an adequate statistical elaboration of their results. This is a particularly difficult matter in operative techniques. But, in man at least, it is never a satisfactory procedure to regard succeed- ing changes in a measured phenomenon as the effect of an experi- mental change, merely because one is consequent to the other. If all the organic rhythms and accidental changes were adequately known we might arrive at the quantitative results of our experiment by a process of subduction. Unfortunately, with our present knowl- edge this can not be done directly. With a few notable exceptions, such as the work of Lombard,1 and of Grabfield and Martin,2 we know altogether too little about the daily rhythms of even the simplest neuro- muscular processes. We have still scantier quantitative data of the Bombard, Journ. Physiol., 1892, 13, p. 25. 2Grabfield and Martin, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1912-13, 31, p. 300. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 19 accidental environmental effects, such as those produced by changes of temperature, light, humidity, etc. Except in a few isolated cases we have no knowledge at all of the mental consequences of such complex vital processes as are involved in the secretions of the various ductless glands, changes in blood-pressure and pulse-rate, the ingestion of different foods, and various kinds of muscular activity. As far as these various factors were known to influence the question at issue, they were more or less completely avoided by the arrangement of our experimental program. For example, we endeavored to avoid the interplay of possible weekly, as well as daily, rhythms by experi- menting on each subject, in so far as possible, only once a week on the same day of the week, at the same time of day, and at the same time after eating. (The group of psychopathic subjects made the only exception to this rule. They served as subjects five consecutive days.) But the climatic changes were not controllable. Moreover, from the data that we regularly collected at the beginning of each experimental session, it is clear that in the comparatively even life of students there were more or less conspicuous differences in the conditions which immediately preceded our experiments. The weekly routine of work and relaxation was far from constant. Neither the amount nor the kind of food could be accurately predetermined. Slight indispositions, differences of subjective tiredness and sleepiness, and probable differ- ences of real fatigue developed as the experimental sessions progressed. To have interrupted or deferred the experiments whenever any of these differences appeared would have lost much time and have enormously increased the number of experimental periods. To have demanded rigid controls and strict regulation of life would have meant the loss of all our subjects of the student class, and possible serious mental dis- turbances in the others. The complete elimination of physiological variation would be utterly impossible in human beings. For the purpose of our experimental investigation we were conse- quently forced to regard all the rhythmic and arrhythmic variables which we could not eliminate as accidents which a sufficiently large number of instances should tend to distribute, without bias to the question at issue. While we must carefully protect the experiments from every known bias, we must realize the possibility that in any given instance the real effects of alcohol may be completely masked by the accidental variables, and on the other hand, that on occasion the real effects may be more or less grossly exaggerated. Within the physiological limits which are prescribed by our immediate problem, viz., the effects of moderate doses, we can not expect any fundament- ally important neuro-muscular process to entirely disappear. Neither may we properly expect the appearance of a new specific reaction to alcohol within the limits of our selected measurements. All that we can legitimately expect to say at the end of our investigation is that 20 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. some modifications of the measurable qualities of selected neuro-mus- cular processes occur more regularly or in greater or less degree after the ingestion of alcohol than without it. Giving due weight to our measurements of the normal variations, we can say that the average change in the measurable qualities of the selected processes after the ingestion of alcohol, minus the average change under otherwise similar conditions, but without the ingestion of alcohol, will represent the effects of the dose of alcohol that was administered. Experimental results of this sort have a degree of probability which depends not only on the accuracy of the individual measurements and the similarity of controllable circumstances, but also on the number of experimental instances and on the probability of a really chance distribution of the accidental variations. The sequel will show that for no single subject are the data sufficiently numerous, except in the case of the pulse- records, to give a satisfactory quantitative statement of the individual differences of the effect of alcohol. Our experimental answer to the main question at issue, viz, as to the general direction and amount of change in the various processes consequent to the experimental inges- tion of alcohol, is, we believe, conclusive and adequate. In addition to the main experimental precautions, wre systematically varied the alcohol dose. This was done for the following reasons: In the first place, it is a fact that different doses of some drugs produce quite different physiological effects, amounting even to a change of sign. That this is probably true of alcohol seemed to be indicated in more than one experimental investigation. The existence and con- ditions of such a change in the effect of alcohol, if it really occurs, is a peculiarly important phase of the alcohol problem. In the second place, we felt that no safeguard against mistaking accidental variation for causal relationship is so effective and no evidence is quite so con- vincing as that of concomitant variation in the amount of the alcohol dose and its effects. We believe that the results justify the increased labor, and that in no other way could we have secured the same insight into the vagaries of the commonly observed effects of alcohol. NORMAL OR BASAL EXPERIMENTS. The fundamental requirements of method which we have already considered demand the largest possible number of measurements of the phenomena under investigation, both with and without alcohol, but under otherwise similar or comparable circumstances. On general logical principles, the number of instances should be approximately equal in both cases. This was arranged for in our routine, by the regular introduction of normal days identical with the alcohol days as far as practicable, with the exception that on normal days no alcohol was administered. Furthermore, even on alcohol days one normal period was given before the dose. Each experimental session may PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 21 thus be regarded as beginning with a " normal of the day,"1 which was followed either by normal or by alcohol experiments according to a predetermined plan. The non-alcohol periods and days are frequently called control periods and control days in the literature. The term is misleading. It would seem to imply that such experimental periods were occasional and incidental to the main course of the experiments. In fact, the non-alcohol experiment is as essential to the logical theory as the alcohol experiment. Strictly speaking, the non-alcohol experiments are not supposed to furnish controls of the validity of the other experi- ments; they are supposed to furnish norms or base-lines from which the alcohol experiments may or may not show characteristic differences. In careful terminology, then, our non-alcohol experiments are not controls, but basal or normal experiments, as Warren1 and Rivers2 properly call them. The normal or basal experiments were necessarily placed somewhat differently in the various series, as they were arranged for the different groups of subjects. The general arrangement for the main group was as follows : For each series of tests, one normal session of three consecu- tive hours preceded experiments with alcohol. Then followed one session each with the smaller and larger dose of alcohol respectively, given after the normal of the day. A final normal session concluded the work of each subject in each series of experiments. The psycho- pathic subjects began each of their two series of experiments with a normal session. This was followed by an alcohol session for the same series. On the fifth day a normal session was given for the combined series. In the 12-hour experiments only two subjects were used, and they were already familiar with the tests. The first day for each of them was normal. On the second day hourly doses of 12 c.c. absolute alcohol were administered after the normal of the day. In all cases the alcohol was administered after dilution with 5 volumes of water, cereal coffee, or other flavoring liquid. The arrangement as outlined above provided for normal sessions before and after the alcohol sessions. This gave an adequate normal base-line for the experiments, and provided that any effects of practice in the various tests which might appear in the alcohol sessions must also appear in the normal. 'A term first used in alcohol experiments by Prof. J. W. Warren. (Journ. Physiol., 18S7, 8, p. 311.) 2Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 190S. 22 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. CONTROL MIXTURES. As our program indicated (Appendix I, p. 272) we were unmindful neither of the advisability nor of the difficulty of preparing a suitable control mixture to be used on normal days in place of the dose of alcohol. Since the discussion of Rivers,1 the regular use of control doses has become a touchstone of accuracy in psycho-physiological experiments with drugs. The function of the control mixture is to prevent the subject's knowing which are normal and which are alcohol sessions. As Rivers himself notes, such control doses are relatively easy to pre- pare in the case of caffein and relatively difficult in the case of alcohol. The difficulty in the case of alcohol became more and more apparent as our preparations progressed. With the help of the various chemists of the Nutrition Laboratory, and the advice of a number of physiologists, a variety of possible control mixtures were considered. A number of these, including the preparation advised by Rivers,2 were tried on ourselves and other members of the Laboratory staff. None of them proved to be entirely satisfactory. In every case the alcohol mixture of a concentration anywhere approximating 20 per cent could always be detected by com- petent observers, even when the flavoring was sufficiently strong to raise serious questions as to its pharmaceutical indifference. Wiping the rim of the glass which contained the control mixture with alcohol introduced a somewhat confusing discrepancy between smell and taste, but the alcohol "taste," its peculiar stinging warmth, was never even approximately masked. If enough capsicum were put into the control dose to produce a sting at all comparable to that of the alcohol, it was conspicuously different in its subjective after-effects. But even then the control dose seemed flat. In those cases where the administration of control mixtures seemed imperative, i. e., for the psychopathic subjects, we used Rivers's mix- ture, substituting 1 c.c. strong infusion of quassia for the capsicum. We substituted the quassia for the capsicum because of its pharma- ceutical indifference and because of the general capacity of a strong bitter to cover other tastes. The mixture has good precedents; quassia was used by Zimmerberg,3 and by Von der Muhll and Jaquet.4 It produces a medicine-like taste which apparently distracts the attention from the other ingredients. While in these experiments none of the Divers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 1908. 2Coneerning his recent experience with the control mixture Professor Rivers kindly gave us information by letter. The control finally adopted by him is as follows: Concentrated compound infusion of orange 0.5 drachm. Elixir saccharine 1 minim. Alcohol or water 1 ounce. Liquor capsici to taste. 3Zimmerberg, Untersuchungen iiber den Einfluss des Alkohols auf die Thatigkeit Dissertation. Dorpat, 1869. 4Von der Miihll nrnl Jaquet, ( 'nrrcsp.-Hiatt f. schweizor Aerzto, 1891, 21. p. 1.57. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 23 psychopathic subjects knew whether or not alcohol was being given, they all spontaneously remarked that the dose with alcohol was "stronger" than the other. Even the hard drinker (Subject XIII) specified that it felt warm in the stomach. There appear to be only three adequate means for masking the alcohol: capsules, stomach or duodenal tube, and intravenous injec- tions. It seemed to us that the use of any of the three would violate the principle of simplicity; that is, all of them would introduce into the experimental process more or less distracting if not annoying con- ditions which would be subject to enormous adaptive variations as the experiment progressed. Capsules seemed inexpedient because of the size and number that would be necessary to ingest 30 c.c. of alcohol in suitable dilution. Many subjects would apparently be unavailable if large capsules were used, through inability to swallow them. The stomach-tube would doubtless be less objectionable after sufficient practice, but the judgment of various physicians was that it would take some subjects so long to become even relatively indifferent to it that it was inexpedient for us to try it. The use of intravenous injections apparently presented too many possibilities for serious trouble. We believe, however, that if it becomes essential to com- pletely mask the alcohol dose, some one of these devices must be used. It seems clear to us that if the alcohol must be masked it must be masked completely, with no unregulated instances of half-knowledge or doubt, controlled only by the subject's impression that the degree of knowledge did not influence the results. The difficulties of really masking the alcohol, the questionable pharmaceutical action of strong flavors, and the final probability that some of the subjects would know what they were getting, or at least be more or less conscious of differ- ences in the doses, led us to scrutinize more closely the grounds for attempting to mask the alcohol and to keep the subject ignorant of the fact that he was taking it. The fundamental theoretical grounds for masking the ingestion of alcohol by the use of control mixtures is the increased similarity of the experimental conditions in normal and in alcohol experiments. Aside from the matter of taste, which should properly be regarded as a part of the total action of the drug, this is a valid ground; but it is significant only if the knowledge that the subject had taken alcohol might probably modify the course of the experiment. In his own case, Rivers1 was led to suspect just such a modification of the results. He found (p. 20) "that the days on which I took the drug interested me more than the normal days on which nothing was taken." While in his own case the control mixtures wTere "usually wholly indistinguishable" from those which contained the active substances, Rivers remarks (p. 66), concerning the attempts to disguise the alcohol, that "the disguise is much more difficult than in 'Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and Other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 1908. 24 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the case of caffein." While it was "very difficult to distinguish the two from one another when the dose was small," with doses of 24 to 40 c.c., such as were used in his work with the ergograph, Rivers regarded it as probable that the alcohol would be recognized; conse- quently he adopted the additional precaution of comparing two dif- ferent doses. In other words, in experiments on alcohol, Rivers felt obliged to supplement the doubtful efficacy of control mixtures by the systematic arrangement of his experiments. We carried this process to its only logical conclusion in experiments on alcohol, i. e., to develop as far as practicable the controls that are dependent on the nature of the experiments as well as those that are dependent on their systematic arrangement. These internal preventatives of the effect of bias we believe to be particularly effective in our experiments, since one of the main principles of selection of measurable phenomena was the greatest possible freedom of the process from the interplay of arbitrary and capricious voluntary modification. The danger of such bias must have been much greater in ergographic experiments, in which the complex interrelation between capacity and effort is subject to large and uncontrollable variations. It must have been peculiarly great while the experimenter served as subject. After mature consideration, in view of the impracticability of completely masking the "taste" of the alcohol, in view of our systematic precautions against voluntary modification of our experimental results, and in view of the character and variety of our subjects, we decided that the regular use of highly flavored control mixtures be abandoned, except in the case of the psychopathic subjects, in whom the knowledge that alcohol was being taken might conceivably have produced some agitation. We believe that the nature and sj^stematic arrangement of our experiments, on the latter of which Rivers himself came finally to rely in alcohol experi- ments, contain more efficient controls than could be produced by the use of doubtful control mixtures. SUBJECTS. The selection of subjects presented a number of practical difficulties. In accordance with our program (p. 267), it seemed desirable to inves- tigate the effects of alcohol on total abstainers, occasional users, moderate users, habitual drinkers exceeding 30 c.c. of absolute alcohol a day, and on excessive drinkers. Of these groups, the first and last proved most difficult to secure. With respect to the first group the practical difficulties were social and moral, on the one hand, and theoretical on the other. In the first place, we were loth to assume responsibility for administering alcohol to total abstainers for a series of experimental days. There was a small but serious risk of initiating a practice that might become habitual and excessive. In the second place, we were confronted by PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 25 the theoretical absurdity that after the first experimental ingestion of alcohol the total abstainer had ceased to exist as such. For the pur- pose of experimentation he could scarcely be differentiated from the very moderate or occasional user. A third difficulty was the reluc- tance of total abstainers to serve as subjects, even for purely scientific ends. It may be remarked in passing that if there had been any chance of modifying the results by personal bias, that chance would have been greatest in the case of the total abstainer. Consequently no serious efforts were made to secure a group of totally abstinent subjects. One subject only of this class offered himself, Subject VIII. Unfortunately, business engagements interrupted his sessions before the series were completed. For totally different reasons the class of excessive drinkers had but one representative, Subject XIII, though we had three other subjects who at one time had been excessive drinkers, the psychopathic Sub- jects XI, XII, and XIV. The most serious limitation to this class seems to be that the excessive drinker especially resents any consider- able interference with his alcoholic habits. Our one subject of this class was a man who regularly consumed from one-half to one pint of whisky a day. Except for some general observations, his experimental results are quite worthless to us for the following reasons: The time and amount of his pre-experimental drinking could not be determined nor controlled. Even his own statements in the matter were not alto- gether convincing. Still more disastrous was the fact that he flatly refused to abstain long enough for a significant normal base-line. He believed that he " needed the whisky" and he did not propose to jeop- ardize his health by abstinence. None of his results are included in the tables of results, as without a normal base-line it seemed impos- sible to give them intelligible statement. The most numerous class of subjects in our investigation was that of the moderate users. This resulted partly from the relative ease with which they could be obtained and controlled, and partly because of the comparatively small moral responsibility of the experimenters. Even in this class, however, care was exercised to secure subjects of maturity and stability of character. Legal age and graduation from a college were made prerequisites in the selection of these subjects. Three of this class of subjects who served for complete series of experi- ments were medical students. Three others were of the rank of instructors or interns. One was one of the writers. A particularly interesting group of three subjects volunteered from the out-patient department of the Psychopathic Hospital of Boston. All three had been under treatment for excessive alcoholism, and were still under observation. They made excellent subjects. We would take this opportunity to thank publicly Dr. E. E. Southard and Dr. F. W. Stearns, of the Psychopathic Hospital, for their cooperation in securing this group. 26 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. At the beginning of the first experimental period, each subject was requested to supply data for the following questions : Identification number, . Date, Nationality of father, Mother, When married? Number and ages of brothers and sisters, Does father take any alcohol? ; kind, : amt., ; time, ; effects, mother " " brothers " " sisters " " Is there any habitual use of other drugs by any member of the family? Any nervous or mental disease in the family history? Any excessive use of alcohol in family history? Subject's age, ; height, ; weight, ; occupation, ; sport, Education, ; college or high school, ; place, ; scholarship, studies, ; worst, Verbal memory, ; quick, ; accurate, ; long, ; responsive, If abstainer, what are the reasons? moral, ; scientific, ; practical, ; family, ; social, ; accidental, If non-abstainer, kind, ; amt., ; time, ; effects, Largest amt. ever taken? kind, ; time, ; effects, Last use? amt., ; " ; ; Ever intoxicated? ; when, ; kind, ; how often? How much without noticeable effect? ; kind, ; time, First noticeable effects, excitement or the contrary, ; normal, talkative or the contrary, ; happy or the contrary, peculiar sensations, effect on flow of ideas, effect on affection, ; temper, effect on pain, mental, ; physical, effect on routine work, ; strength, ; accuracy, ; ease. effect on sense of propriety, ; on morals, effect on digestion, ; urine, Use of tea and coffee, When last examined for life insurance, ; what company, In each case the subject was assured that his replies and the experi- mental data would be published anonymously. Every precaution was taken by the experimenter to secure accurate replies. A complete set of these histories of our subjects is published in Appendix II. At the conclusion of the last experimental session each subject was given the following form, which he was required to read, fill out, and sign. No serious "exceptions" were noted under this form by any of the subjects. The undersigned hereby makes affidavit on bis honor as a gentleman: (1) That all data given by me concerning last ingestion of food, and the use of alcohol, were correct according to the best of my knowledge and belief, except as herein specified. (2) That there has been no conscious modification of effort or attention to modify the results; and that there has been no intention to modify them, except as herein specified. (3) That there has been no discussion of the experiments and their probable results with any person outside the psychological laboratory, except as herein specified. (Please be full as to time and nature of the conversation, if there are exceptions.) (4) That there has been no habitual use of drugs during the experimental weeks, and no occasional use of any drug that might modify the effects of the alcohol as far as I know, except as herein specified. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 27 STATISTICAL EXPRESSION OF THE MEASUREMENTS. In our previous discussion of the general methodological considera- tions we have pointed out certain limitations in the outside control of our subjects. It is in several respects unfortunate that the 3 hours of confinement in the laboratory determined the practical limits of strict experimental procedure. To have predetermined for all our subjects the antecedent ingestion of foods and fluids, antecedent voiding of feces and urine, antecedent amounts and kinds of mental and physical activity, and antecedent periods of rest, with fixed waking and sleeping hours, would have been difficult, if not impracticable. But even these precautions, valuable as they might be, must have failed to provide strict similarity of conditions on successive days. Experimental inter- ference with the spontaneous reactions of intelligent and busy men in their routine demands for food and drink, work and rest, might easily produce mental and even purely physical disturbances which it would be difficult or impossible to measure. At best we could not control the immediate and remote effects of " colds," intestinal disturb- ances, and other slight infections of the mucous membrane. It would be obviously impossible to take account of all these and numberless similar variations, and at the same time provide for similar phases of the weekly and yearly rhythms, possible climatic changes, etc. A pre- liminary exploration of the possible disturbances to discover then* re- spective significance for each of our subjects would have been entirely impracticable. Admitting the desirability of enforcing stricter experi- mental conditions outside of laboratory hours, it seems that the best practical procedure in the use of subjects whose outside activities are not strictly regulated is to treat all except obvious or gross disturb- ances as chance variations, which can not obscure any really significant tendency in the group, provided the measurements are numerous enough and their statistical treatment is adequate. In thus emphasizing the group system of comparison we are merely following established precedents in this laboratory since its beginning. The resources and facilities of the laboratory are such as to make it practically obligatory that conclusions should not be drawn from exper- imental data until there are sufficiently large groups of individuals on whom the special observations have been made, and a sufficiently large number of normal experiments for adequate comparison. In the previously published studies from this Laboratory on diabetes and on the metabolism of athletes, vegetarians, and normal and atrophic infants, the group system has been invariably applied. Our main statistical requirement, after provision is made for a suffi- cient number of accurate measurements of significant and systematic- ally related processes, is to provide for the best basis of comparison of the normal and alcohol experiments. 28 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. We have raised serious objection to expressing the effect of alcohol by any difference in the measurements of the experimental processes before and after the dose is administered.1 Such an expression would fail to show any accidental inhibition of normal changes, while it would improperly include all changes due to other intercurrent tendencies, such as the results of enforced quiet, of repetition, of regular daily rt^thms, etc. There are even greater objections to expressing the effect of alcohol by the difference in the averages of measurements which are made on normal and on alcohol days respectively. Such expressions would improperly include all the accidental peculiarities of the condition of the subject on the respective daj^s, such as changes of general well-being, fatigue, and mild infections, all the seasonal rhythms, climatic changes, etc. It is obvious, however, that if the number of experiments were sufficiently large, and if they were spread over a number of years, the accidental errors in this method of ex- pression would tend to balance. The real statistical problem is to find an impartial expression for the effects of alcohol from a relatively small number of experiments on a subject on any experimental day. It should tend to exclude the short rhythmic and arrhythmic changes on the one hand, and the longer changes in general condition on the other, leaving as exclusively as possible just those precise changes that are occasioned by the experi- ment itself. We believe that on the whole these requirements are best met by the average differences between the " normal of the day" and subsequent measurements on normal and alcohol days respectively. The normal of a day, it will be remembered, is the result of meas- urements which are obtained during the first period of each session. The first period in our experiments was always normal, even on days when an alcohol dose was subsequently administered. The normal of any day should consequently represent the general condition of the subject on that particular day. The average differences between the normal of the day and subsequent measurements on a normal day should represent the normal rhythmic and arrhythmic tendencies of an experimental session. Deviations of the average difference after alco- hol from a normal average difference should come as near as possible to expressing the actual change produced by the alcohol alone. In all our statistical expressions, then, these average differences between the first and subsequent periods are of primary importance. In our tables they are commonly accompanied by a statement of average measurements, but the latter are regarded as of relatively little importance. They are only given as details that may be of interest to some future investigator who may be measuring similar processes. The effect of alcohol on the average differences may be expressed either in absolute units or in percentiles. The percentile expression is 18. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 29 probably more useful for comparing one individual, dosage, or process with the others. The main objection to the percentile is that it elimi- nates every vestige of the units in which the measurements were actually made. It is useful for comparative purposes to know the percentage of change. It is also important to know these same changes in terms of the unit of measurement. Our summaries will contain both values. The methods for computing these various values are not especially significant. It is important only that they be uniform and clearly understood. The average difference of a day's measurements is obtained as follows: Av. D. = (1-2) + (1-3) + (1-4) + (I-*) n That is, the sum of the algebraic results of subtracting the various subsequent measurements from the normal of the day is divided by the number of periods. If the Av. D. has a minus sign it shows that the measured values are larger as the session progresses. Con- versely, if the Av. D. has a positive sign it shows that on the average the subsequent measurements are less than the normal of the day. The effect of alcohol as expressed in Av. D. is computed as follows: Effect of alcohol = the Av. D. on alcohol days minus the Av. D. on normal days. If the effect of alcohol has a plus sign, then the +Av. D. on alcohol days is greater than the +Av. D. on normal days, or the latter has a negative sign. Similarly, mutatis mutandis, if the effect of alcohol has a negative sign. It should be noticed that the sign of the effect in all cases is a result of the statistical procedure. It does not indicate whether the effect of alcohol increases or decreases the sensitivity of a process unless it is interpreted in the light of its origin. The effect of alcohol as expressed in percentiles retains the same sign as when the effect is given in the units of measurement. It is computed by dividing the latter by the average of the relevant normals of the day. For the convenience of the reader, these various mathematical expressions are commonly reinterpreted as they occur in the tables and the text. DOSAGE. Neither in the experimental literature nor in the theoretical dis- cussions is there any uniform standard of alcohol dosage. Probably the most satisfactory arrangement of the dosage, in man as in animals, would be according to some definite percentage of the mass of the blood. This would appear to be necessary in all attempts to measure individual differences. In view of our relatively simpler problem, we chose to follow the easier traditional usage in these experiments, and administer the alcohol in fixed doses for all subjects. The quantity of alcohol in 30 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. a ''moderate dose" is determined neither by general experimental agreement nor by convention. Single experimental doses vary in the literature from 10 c.c. to 100 c.c. and over. Almost any size of dose would have precedents enough. Meyer and Gottlieb1 place the " stimu- lating" dose for abstemious adults at 30 to 40 grams, adding that for those accustomed to its use the dose must be larger. As a standard dose we adopted what seemed to be a fair average of 30 c.c. (actually 29.8 c.c.). In the text we refer to this standard dose as dose A.~ Two variations of the standard dose were made for methodological reasons. In the 12-hour experiments, 12 c.c. was given hourly for 8 consecutive hours, excepting the hour of lunch. This is called in the text dose C. A dose of 45 c.c. (actually 44.7 c.c.) was given to the regular group of moderate drinkers on a sufficient number of experi- mental days to obtain adequate measurements in Series I A, HA, and V. We refer to this dose in the text as dose B. In order to relieve somewhat the disagreeable raw taste of the diluted alcohol, one-third of the total volume consisted of a solution of cereal "coffee."3 Fruit juices, which we tried, proved to be dis- agreeable to one of the first subjects and were consequently abandoned. The liquids were invariably drunk at room temperature, about 20° C. The total volume of dose A was 150 c.c.; that of dose B was 225 c.c. In all cases the alcohol and control mixtures were administered by mouth, the subjects being instructed to drink the mixtures as rapidly as convenient. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF THE APPARATUS. The research occupied a specially constructed laboratory of the Nutrition Laboratory, measuring about 5.5 by 3.5 meters, with a balcony about 4.5 by 3.5 meters. All the experimental records were made in this room. The incidental photographic work, such as loading the plate and paper holders, and developing the photographic records, was done in a small dark-room which was partitioned off in one corner of this laboratory. Uniform lighting of the room during experimental sessions was insured by shutting out the variable daylight altogether, and by the use of incandescent electric lights. Ventilation was provided for by forced draught. An electric fan to provide free circulation of air in and Gottlieb, Experimentelle Pharmakologie, Berlin, 1914. 2In the original preparation of the standard solution of pure grain alcohol to be used in this research, emphasis was laid upon the constancy of the amount in each dose rather than the absolute values. Owing to a misstatement on my part, Professor Dodge used the values 25 c.c. and 37.5 c.c. as representing the amount of absolute alcohol in the two doses employed in thia research in giving preliminary reports of the work at the 1914 meeting of Experimental Psychol- ogists at Columbia University, and at the Philadelphia meeting of the American Psychological Association in 1915. The true values should have been 30 c.c. and 15 c.c., respectively. The error is wholly mine. F. G. B. 'Prepared from roasted cereal and obviously free from caffein. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATION. 31 a 3 .3 » a- |g| IS o> _= 49 a 'C •- o i •• 5 3 S«2 Sl»sl^ I3 +-> u T3 C w» o o M 3 o o a CO 43 03 b — --- • c3 co -^H b/] ft *S ft O S3 G •73 - C3 O 03 3 0 CU T3 ,. -^ a o '> .^ _>r S _a __• ^ J fl? $2 02 M "^ *"^^ . — . 9 ' o 0 o ~ 'S I "o « 1 S.2i---g^| f^^t^^^^ St1B»»l»«5 ^1 S1 2 a -w -Ss c ^ a 2 x d 3 03 "ft 315 03 60 d d '^-g o gl > d a « o> K "* ila. . o «" os ® S 2j Si co a 3 a>^^ s 2 -S a 9 « D t. 03 tu o m. x 5a T> g 3 ,-g CD a B CJ 32 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the room was commonly kept in motion during experiments, but naturally it was not allowed to blow directly on the subject. A general plan of the room and apparatus is given in figure 1. A general photographic view is given in the frontispiece. The string galvanometer equipment for pulse-records occupied one side of the room (bottom of the plan). The galvanometer itself occupied the central table G. A hand-fed horizontal carbon arc light L', burning at 5 amperes, supplied its illumination. A separate controlling table at the left of the galvanometer table provided the space for resistances, switches, etc. The recording camera RC occupied still another table, shown at the extreme left hand. The main apparatus table, approximately in the middle of the floor, held the following apparatus : inductorium and resistance boxes for the Faradic threshold (Martin measurements) ; enlarging camera for photographing the eye-movements and eye-reactions; the word-expos- ure apparatus; and the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph, for patellar reflex and memory test. A separate table, shown at the upper left of the plan, held the camera for the lid-reflex records. The source of light for these various photographic records was the self-regulating arc light L at the right. Figure 2 is from a photograph of the main apparatus table from the corner of the room which was normally occupied by the recording camera for the string galvanometer. It shows the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph in the foreground, with the patellar-reflex apparatus and word-exposure device at the right, and the voice-reaction key at the left. In the background is the camera for eye-movements, with its head-rest at the left. At the extreme upper left is shown the noise- stimulus key for the protective lid-reflex, and a part of the lid-reflex camera. In figure 3 we have a view of the same table from the position of the self-regulating arc light, i. e., from the extreme right end of figure 1. In the center foreground are the inductorium, mil-ammeter, and resistance boxes for the Faradic threshold. Beyond these the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph is seen in end-view. The patellar-reflex apparatus appears at the left. On the right appears the long enlarging camera for the eye- movements. All measurements, except those of Series V, i. e.} except the associ- ation and Faradic threshold measurements, were made with the sub- ject either at position I or position II, figure 1. In Series V the subject and Dr. Wells, the operator, occupied the balcony. FIG. 2. — Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (first view). Fia. 3. — Main apparatus table in psychological laboratory (second view). CHAPTER 1 1. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. Pursuant to the principles on which this investigation was organized, a study of the simplest reflex arcs under the influence of alcohol is held to be of basal importance. Since the simple reflexes are conspicuously free from direct voluntary control, as well as from the effects of practice, they should furnish unambiguous and conclusive evidence of the effect of alcohol on the particular group of tissues on which they depend. As the simplest complete neuro-muscular process, they should furnish a basis for the interpretation of the effects of alcohol on the more complex ones, and, in conjunction with the rest of the systematically related processes, they should furnish evidence of the relative inci- dence of the effects of alcohol on the various neural levels of the same individual. In view of its theoretical importance, quantitative knowledge of the action of the simple human reflexes under alcohol is surprisingly scanty. Bunge1 asserts that reflex excitability is decreased by alcohol, basing his assertion on a single apparently incomplete reference to J. C. Th. Scheffer.2 Sternberg3 holds that alcohol operates at first to increase the reflexes. He gives no references. The effect of alcohol on animal reflex is better known. In 1873, Meihuizen4 studied the effect of various drugs on the reflex excitability of the frog to induction shocks. In his three specimens, 1 c.c. of 10 per cent alcohol decreased reflex excitability. The effect began within 15 minutes and reached its maximum in from 45 to 90 minutes. Of the many more or less casual observations which are scattered in the physiological and pharmacological literature of animal experi- mentation, we have found it impracticable to take account. That doses of alcohol as large as 5 per cent of the circulation of the frog produce complete inexcitability of the cord appears in the work of Winterstein.5 The most complete systematic study of the effect of alcohol on the frog reflexes is that of Hyde, Spray, and Howat.6 They found that alcohol in doses stronger than 1 c.c. of 15 per cent solution per 10 gm. of weight depressed all the reflexes of the frog. The depres- sion differed for the different reflexes and for different doses. The depression came in 10 minutes after the dose, and lasted 1 to If hours. The relatively larger number of studies of the reaction of the inverte- brate organisms to alcohol have no direct bearing on our present prob- lem, since the anatomical and physiological conditions are so different. , Lehrbuch der Physiologic des Menschen, Leipsic, 1903, p. 209. 2Scheffer, Nederl. Weekbl., 1900, p. 217 (not accessible, reference apparently incomplete). 3Sternberg, Die Sehnenreflexe, Leipsic, 1893, p. 177. 4Meihuizen, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1873, 7, p. 201. 'Winterstein, Zeitschr. f. allg. Physiol., 1902, 1, p. 19. »Hyde, Spray and Howat, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1912-13, 31, p. 309. 33 34 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. AVAILABLE HUMAN REFLEXES. A considerable number of relatively simple neural arcs are available, even in human subjects, for more or less accurate quantitative study. Some of them have assumed considerable diagnostic importance with- out a corresponding development of satisfactory quantitative tech- niques. The swallowing reflex, the skin reflexes, the semicircular- canal reflexes, the pupil reflex, the corneal reflex, and many of the tendon reflexes are in regular clinical use. But their clinical investi- gation is generally satisfied by cataloguing the case under one of three or four general categories, such as absent, depressed, moderate, and exaggerated. Change of a case from one category to another repre- sents a relatively profound disturbance. Accurate techniques for measuring small differences would perhaps be too time-consuming for clinical purposes. Their development for special experimental investi- gations has followed the development of definite experimental problems. While none of the available reflexes may be ignored in a study like the present, certain of them have a better experimental status than others. Such, for example, are a few of the tendon reflexes, particu- larly the patellar reflex and the Achilles reflex, the pupil reflex, and the protective lid-reflex. Experimental techniques for the measurement of these reflexes have been developed so that they are dependable. This was our main reason in selecting the patellar reflex and the protective lid-reflex for immediate investigation. In choosing these two arcs we were also influenced by several other considerations. It seemed advisable: (1) to study the effect of alcohol on the nervous system at as widely different reflex levels as practicable; (2) to use reflex arcs of similar latency, and presumably similar complexity; and (3) to avoid fatigue and adaptation phenomena. The patellar reflex appeared most suitable as a representative of the lowest spinal level. On a variety of grounds one would have preferred the Achilles reflex. For instance, it is less subject to accidental ana- tomical conditions than the patellar reflex. That is, length of tendon and the underlying cushions of connective tissue effect less extreme indi- vidual differences in the Achilles than in the patellar reflex. Opposed to this advantage are certain technical difficulties in recording the Achilles reflex from the thickening of isometric muscle, and the practical necessity for the subject to assume an unusual position with more or less variable antecedent muscular activity. The patellar reflex, on the other hand, can be recorded from a sitting or reclining subject without moving him from the position he would naturally adopt for other neuro-muscular measurements. Moreover, if the leg is prevented from moving, quadriceps thickening may be registered from practically iso- metric muscle by direct recording levers, resting on the anterior thigh. Reflexes of the higher levels are perhaps best represented by those of the eye. In particular, the pupil reflex deserves and has received SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 35 relatively careful observation. It is, however, in no way analogous to the knee-jerk. It is relatively slow, and is controlled through the autonoDoic system. Furthermore, a series of measurements may give rise to long-continued and painful ocular disturbances, as is known to one of us from unpleasant personal experience. Finally, the best available registering technique for the pupil reflex is by cinematograph, an arrangement that gives too few records per second for accurate measurements of latency. For these reasons, and on account of the necessity of limiting the selection, the pupil reflex was omitted from the present study. The protective lid-reflex, on the contrary, seemed to offer a perfect analogy to the knee-jerk. It has a latency of the same order as the knee-jerk, and normally changes very slowly from adaptation. Fur- thermore, entirely adequate and relatively simple technique is avail- able, by which uniform stimuli (sound) can be recorded by the same optical system that records a movement of the shadow of the eyelashes. The resulting photographic records are unusually free from instrumental latency and distortion. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE PATELLAR REFLEX. The present investigation of the effect of alcohol on the knee-jerk is based on the assumption that the reflex character of the human knee- jerk has been established. The classical controversy as to the nature of the phenomenon was started by Westphal's1 contention that there was no evidence for receptors in the muscle. After Westphal's evi- dence was weakened by the discovery of proprio-muscular receptors, Waller2 and Gotch3 were led to believe that the knee-jerk was not a reflex because of the exceedingly low latent time that was required under favorable conditions by the knee-jerk of the rabbit. The psychiatrists, on the other hand, have long assumed the reflex character of the human knee-jerk. The clinical value of the knee- jerk test is so firmly fixed by the mass of clinical experience that psychiatry may be comparatively indifferent to the question as to its nature. Its diagnostic significance rests secure on empirical correla- tions. Its physiological exploitation, however, was practically impos- sible as long as the uncertainty remained. But if the knee-jerk is a true reflex, it must be of value not only in diagnosis of nervous disease, but also for a large number of studies of the normal physiology of the human reflex arc, such as the rate of propagation of nervous excitation in human nerves and in the cord, for studies of fatigue, inhibition, and "Bahnung," as well as for the effects of drugs on man. A number of recent studies have shown conclusively that whatever may be true of the rabbit, the normal human knee-jerk as ordinarily HVestphal, Archiv f. Psychiatrie, 1875, 5, p. 803. "Waller, Journ. Physiol., 1890, 11, p. 384. 3Gotch, Journ. Physiol., 1896, 20, p. 322. 36 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. elicited is a true reflex. The evidence may be summarized as follows: (1) Records of currents of action with the string galvanometer by Dodge and Bull,1 Hoffman,2 Jolly,3 Snyder,4 and others, show that their latency is too long for purely peripheral phenomena. On the basis of recent measurements of the speed of nervous currents (Piper5), and the latency of the cord (Miss Buchanan0), these studies show that the latent time of the knee-jerk is that of a true cord reflex, with the simplest possible central organization. (2) In addition, it appears from the character of the current of action that the impulse is not a simple muscle-twitch, but a more or less complex contraction wave which travels through the muscle from the point of entrance of the motor nerve. Similar evidence was obtained by Dodge1 from direct muscle tracings. Photographic records of the quadriceps contraction, which were taken simultaneously from five different points of the muscle, showed a gradual peripheral progression of the muscle con- traction. (3) Further evidence is that with accurate recording devices the latent time of the human knee-jerk is related to that of the Achilles- jerk directly as the distance of the respective receptor-reactors from the cord. These differences in latent time are best explained by the increased length of nerve-conduction. (4) It was also found that the latent time of the knee-jerk was practically identical with that of an undoubted reflex, the protective lid-reflex. (5) Finally, in the normal human knee-jerk, the quadriceps contraction was found to be coordinated with the contraction of the flexors of the leg. Such muscle coordination can be explained only by the action of nervous centers. We have consequently regarded it as proved that the knee-jerk is a reflex. TECHNIQUE. Extended preliminary study of the normal knee-jerk technique, undertaken by Dodge1 in connection with a different, though related, problem, showed that the only satisfactory records of reflex latency are those made from muscle thickening. For the details of that study we must refer to the original paper, where it was shown that the form of the curve and the apparent latency of the reflex are enormously influ- enced by the nature of the recording device. The latency as recorded by the movements of the leg averaged 65 tr, with a mean variation of 1 1 (7. Slight prestimulation activity of the flexors, to produce a back- ward pressure of the leg against a fixed support, reduced the latent time to an average of 52 cr, with a mean variation of from 2.7crto 4.7j>-u-:i!u* for stiiiuiliitiii-j; tin1 reflex. Dodge1 suggested as an indi- cator of the fatigability of a re- flex, as far as that can be shown in its relative refractory phase, that it would be desirable to give two similar stimuli separated by a definite interval of time within the relative refractory period. For that purpose our pendulum was made double, with similar bobs, and two separate release magnets. The weight of the two bobs was deter- mined directly. The actual lengths of the two pendulums were con- trolled by comparing their periods of oscillation. To secure uniformity of application of the two successive stimuli was more difficult. A light wooden rod (Bf, fig. 4), about 60 cm. long. 'Dodge, Am. Journ. Psych., 1913, 24, p. 1. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. was mounted at one end on a vertical axis, so that it could move freely in a horizontal plane at about the height of the subject's patella r tendon. The free end of this rod was attached by a flexible cord to a point concentric with the axis of the pendulums, and was adjusted to such a height that both pendulums struck it at their center of gravity when they reached a vertical position. The height of the whole system could be changed for each subject, without changing any of the instrumental constants, by raising or lowering the sliding base BB, so that the rod B' rested against the middle of that particular subject's patellar tendon. Once adjusted, the base was securely clamped against the vertical frame, and the rod B' was given an even tension against the tendon by the pressure of an elastic band which was stretched between the rod and a fixed point on the upright support. When once fixed for any subject, this system remained unchanged throughout an afternoon's experiments. It could be afterwards reset for the same subject by the use of a scale which was attached to the side of the frame. But for obvious reasons the scale alone was never depended upon. On each day the position of the system was carefully verified for each subject. The blows of the pendulums were thus transmitted to the subject through a light horizontal lever which was adjusted as above indicated. This secured identity of the point of application of the two blows. Since a lever neither increases nor decreases energy, the effect on the tendon must be practically identical for both pendulum hammers, even though one pendulum strikes the horizontal transmitting-rod somewhat nearer its axis than the other. This simple theoretical relationship is somewhat complicated by the fact that in practice the lever will have a certain amount of weight and elasticity. To reduce the error of transmission to a minimum, our transmitting rod is as long as it can conveniently be (60 cm.), while the two percussion hammer pendulums strike it as near together as practicable (25 mm. apart). The consequent discrepancy in the energy of the successive blows is a small fraction of 1 per cent, and is negligible in practice. In compara- tive measurements this discrepancy can play no role at all, since it is an instrumental constant. Two checks on the constancy of the stimulus blows are included in our records. (1) If the blows of the pendulums are exactly equal, the extent of the mechanical disturbance to the muscle incident to stimulation should be equal after each blow. To be sure, this can not be a very fine measure of the relative energy of the pendulums, but it served to disclose any accidental differences in the weights. (2) We took what is probably excessive precaution in arbitrarily omitting the first blow at least once in every series of experiments, to see if the blow from the second pendulum produced an appropriate reaction. There were no measurable discrepancies. 40 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. RECORDING DEVICE. On grounds which are already indicated, we believe that adequate records of the human knee-jerk must be either direct records of quad- riceps thickening or galvanometric records of the muscle-current of action. While the latter are probably preferable to the former, and should be used for the final analysis of the phenomenon, they are much more expensive of time and material, and are practically more difficult to manage. In the present investigation the records were produced by direct recording levers which wrote on a Blix-Sandstrom kymograph the reflex thickening of isometric quadriceps muscle. The adaptation of our recording levers to the different subjects proved an unexpected source of difficulty. It was proved in the case of Dodge that neither the size of the lever terminal which rested on the muscle nor the pressure which it exerted on the muscle at the point of contact, had any considerable influence on the latency of the reflex. In various subjects, however, a new and somewhat serious source of error was discovered. The blow of the hammer upon the tendon always sets up within the muscle a mechanical wave-like disturbance. We depend on this wave to record the moment of stimulation. Under certain combinations of stimulus intensity and tonic contraction of the muscle, which are otherwise undefinable, this mechanical disturbance consisted of a succession of damped oscillations, which occasionally seriously complicated the curve and rendered the true beginning of reaction uncertain. Two devices seemed to lessen these vibrations: (1) The area of contact between the lever system and the muscle should be relatively large. In all except the earliest experiments we used a rectangular base, 13 mm. by 70 mm., placed lengthwise of the muscle. (2) The elastic pressure of the lever system against the muscle should be relatively intense as well as quick acting. An elastic band was used for this purpose which exerted a pressure of about 500 gm. Though this varied somewhat from individual to individual because of the variations in diameter of the respective thighs, it remained practically constant for each individual throughout the series. Our lever system magnified the muscle thickening by the proportion of 6 to 1. This proportion was found by preliminary experiment to be the most favor- able with our particular lever arrangements. For recording the knee-jerk we used the Blix-Sandstrom1 kymo- graph, which was run at a peripheral rate of 100 mm. per second. While this form of kymograph is one of the most accurate and con- venient available, it may not be used without constant watchfulness and occasional readjustments of the regulator. Even the most careful regulation at the beginning of an experimental session proved to be inadequate. Except in the earliest experiments, we consequently used a]control time-record throughout. Unfortunately for psychological ix, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1902, 90, p. 405. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 41 investigations, the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph has one rather serious defect. It is never noiseless. In our measurements of the knee-jerk the noise itself was probably negligible, but the correlated vibration tended to transmit itself through the table to the axis of the recording levers. When this occurred an irregular base-line was produced, which more or less obscured the moment of muscle contraction. These vibrations of the lever axis may be largely eliminated by suitable independent supports. Before the cure was found, however, these vibrations ruined a number of early knee-jerk records. A final difficulty which appeared as the experiments progressed was the fact that the knee-jerk of a few subjects was highly refractory. In all our subjects a knee-jerk was elicitable, but in some only by reinforcements, by extra heavy hammers, or by considerably increased velocity of the hammers. Under these exceptional circumstances, the knee-jerk measurements were omitted, since intense stimulation tended to produce not merely mechanical disturbances of the muscle, but also unpleasant mental correlates, and an involuntary tendency to stiffen the leg-muscles for the blows. Any one of these factors would operate to make interpretation of the records questionable. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. The subject was seated comfortably in a slightly reclining chair at the edge of the main apparatus table (position I, fig. 1). The experi- menter moved the chair so that the subject's left leg fitted comfortably into the double V supports (fig. 4) ; and the whole was oriented with respect to the apparatus table so that the middle point of the quad- riceps of the left leg was directly beneath the recording lever. Before the first records of a day were taken, the height of the pendulum- hammer system was controlled and accurately adjusted, so that the blow was delivered on the middle of the patellar tendon. The recording-lever was then adjusted to its proper position. The muscle end of the lever was placed in position and secured by an elastic band which was passed around the thigh and fastened at proper tension. The recording end of the lever was adjusted so that it was perpendicular to the axis of the drum and tangential to its surface. The kymograph was set in motion and allowed four revolutions to gain regular speed. (Measurements showed that our instrument gains regular speed in three revolutions, when run at the rate of 100 mm. per second.) The time-marker was set in operation. The subject was instructed to relax completely, but to say "Ha" each time the knee was struck. This was done in an effort to control both the attention and the respiration. At each revolution of the kymograph, offsets from the shaft broke the circuit of the electromagnets which controlled the hammers, at a definite point of each revolution. This regulated the interval between the stimuli and determined the position of the records on the smoked paper. To insure regularity of the first stimulation, 42 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the contact-breaker was tested by one free revolution of the drum, but without letting the hammers fall. When all these details were in order, the operator touched the key to the mechanism which gave the rotating smoked drum a gradual lateral displacement, so that the succession of knee-jerk records appeared as one continuous line whose base was a spiral. .Alter each stimulus the operator caught the hammer on its rebound from the knee and raised it to the magnet. If more than one stimulus weight was used, the record regularly began with the lighter. The pendulum bobs were then progressively increased in weight until a vigorous reflex was produced. For all except the earliest records, two or more stimulus weights were regularly used in each period. Unless this had been done, it would frequently have occurred that the reflexes at some period of the experimental session would have had no comparable "normal of the day." For example, it frequently, almost regularly, happened during an experimental session that, after an hour or two of relative quiet, the knee-jerk was notably decreased in extent. Occasional!}-' a stimulus that at first produced a good reflex later produced no reflex at all. If that stimulus alone had been used, either the later experiments would be meaningless, or the stimulus must be changed at some time during the session, with consequent incom- parability of earlier and later results. In the record shown in figure 5, reading the upper line from left to right, the mechanical shock to the muscle, which is produced when the pendulum hammer strikes the tendon, is recorded by the first slight drop in the base-line. In reading the records for the latent time of the reflex, this point is taken as the moment of stimulation. Owing to the delay which is occasioned by the progression of this mechanical wave along the partially elastic muscle-tissue, this curve does not represent the exact moment when the pendulum strikes the tendon. As measured by Dodge1 in his own case, there is a delay between the two events of about 3cr. While it does not represent the moment when the tendon was struck, this first dip of the line does represent with greatest preci- sion the much more significant moment when the particular part of the muscle suffered deformation as a result of the blow. And since the real stimulus of the muscle receptors is due to the sudden muscle deforma- tion, as we have mentioned before, this indicator of muscle deformation shows the moment of actual stimulation of the corresponding receptors more accurately than as though we recorded the moment of contact between hammer and tendon. The moment of reaction is indicated by the main drop in the line. Here again we are not recording the beginning of change in the muscle as a whole, but rather the reflex thickening of the muscle at exactly the point where we have previously recorded its stimulation. Records from several places along the axis of the muscle show a measurable , Zeitschr. f. allg. Physiol., 1910, 12, p. 1. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 43 progression of the thickening wave. With our recording device, how- ever, that progression is entirely irrelevant, since we measure from the moment of stimulation of any part of the muscle to the moment of the reflex thickening of that particular part. Since both events are re- corded by the same writing lever, the record as it stands is an exceed- ingly accurate measurement of the latency of the particular arc which is involved in the reflex action of that part of the muscle. The vertical displacement of the recording line indicates the amount of the reflex FIG. 5. — A typical record of the pateilar reflex. muscle thickening, multiplied by the leverage of the recording-arm. We believe that these reflex measurements are particularly well adapted to indicate the relative changes induced in latency and amount of this reflex arc by the use of drugs. Each line represents the reflex response to a double stimulation of the same intensity. The interval between the lines is one complete revolution of the drum. Since this was regulated to occur in 5 seconds, the series of records follow in pairs at intervals of 5 seconds. Differ- 44 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ences between the first and second reflex in each pair of records indicate the relative amount of refractoriness of the patellar reflex of the sub- ject at that particular time after that particular interval. The task of reading the records is rather exacting, though relatively simple. At the rate for which the kymograph was regulated, each running millimeter of the record is equivalent to 10 a (0.01")- The records were read with a lens through a glass plate which was divided into millimeter cross-sections. The glass coordinate system was so placed on the record that its horizontal ordinates were parallel with the base-lines of the records. It was then carefully moved so that a main ordinate cut the record line at the first indication of reflex muscle thickening. The length of the abscissa from the ordinate which was placed on the beginning of the reflex thickening to the beginning of the stimulation curve can be read on the millimeter scale directly to lOcr (0.01") and estimated with reasonable accuracy to la- (0.001"). RESULTS. VARIABILITY OF THE PATELLAR REFLEX. In all the studies of the patellar reflex its variability has been one of the most conspicuous features of the records. Normal individuals differ widely in their susceptibility to the ordinary stimuli. Since the patellar reflex is not essential to any known vital process, these individual differences are not surprising. In addition to the variation between individuals, the patellar reflex is subject to more or less gross variation in the same individual at different times. Even with string- galvanometer technique, Jolly1 found the latent time to vary in one individual so that the highest value was more than double the lowest (11. 7 a and 24.4 a respectively). When, as in Jolly's measurements, the currents of action are used as indicators, this variation must be almost entirely central. It is proportionately more prominent as one decreases the relative importance of the peripheral factors. For the purposes of a science that seeks an invariant, these central variations seem unfortunate. On the contrary, no fact may properly be regarded as unfortunate in science. The variability of the knee-jerk empha- sizes, in the case of the simplest possible neural arc, the contention which appeared in our introduction, that biological invariants do not exist except as statistical artifacts. Simple reflex in an intact vertebrate is after all a relative term. There is no reflex arc so simple as to consist of an isolated chain of neurons from receptors to muscle-fiber. There is no reflex so simple that we can conceive of it as a transmission of energy from receptor to reactor through a more or less resistant conductor. At no step, except, perhaps, in conduction through the axones, does the process follow a physical model. In no living organism can we ever assume that an Molly, Quart. Journ. exp. PhysioL, 1911, 4, p 07; British Med. Journ., 1910, 2, p. 1259. SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 45 absolutely inactive tissue is aroused to action by our stimulus. Rather, we must think of the living central nervous system as in a continuous state of excitation. In the waking state, at least, it probably originates a continuous succession of centrifugal excitations, so that each "final common path" has converging upon it every moment a complex of stimulating and inhibiting impulses whose algebraic sum at any moment of time conditions the state of the "final common path " at that particular moment. A stimulus to reflex action is not a form of energy to be transmitted to muscle. It does not develop activity in an other- wise inert system. It merely modifies the balance of existing tendencies. On these grounds the reflexes may not be expected to be uniform. The extreme susceptibility of the patellar reflex to peripheral re- inforcement was shown by Jendrassik1 in the familiar Kunstgriff; by Weir Mitchell and Lewis2 in simultaneous stimulation of the skin; by Schreiber3 in friction of the skin; by Beevor4 in cold-water douches; by Bowditch and Warren5 through various methods; and by Stern- berg6 in the simple handclap. Similarly, central conditions of rein- forcement and inhibition are in constant interplay. It is surprising- how often in the literature of the patellar reflex one finds without a sequel the "preliminary announcement" of some remarkable correla- tion between the knee-jerk changes and various mental processes, like attention. The verification of these supposed correlations seldom appears. Only in spinal preparation are successive reflexes relatively uniform. Of the various conditions that produce this lack of uniform- ity only a few are definitely localizable like the specific action of curare, strychnine, and carbolic acid. In general we know that reflex excita- bility is modified by the degree of activity of the higher centers. Antag- onistic and facilitating influences may also arise at or about the same spinal level as the reflex itself. Variations in pulse-rate and blood- pressure, and various phases of respiratory rhythm, also seem to modify the reflexes. With a full realization of all these sources of variation, our first direct and immediate problem is to discover whether the irritability of this human reflex arc is increased or decreased by moderate doses of alcohol. Assuming that all these sources of variation and many others may be present in our records in greater or less degree, it was a technical problem to equalize the conditions as far as practicable. The problem of interpreting the results is first of all statistical. It is obvious that the need of statistical treatment to eliminate as far as possible accidental variations not otherwise shut out by our technique is just as great in the simple as in the more complex processes. 1 Jendrassik, Neurolog. Centralbl., 1885, 4, p. 412. 'Mitchell and Lewis, Med. News, 1886, Feb. 13, p. 48. 'Schreiber, Deutsch. Archiv f. klin. Med., 1884, 35, p. 254. 4Beevor, Brain, 1883, 5, p. 56. 'Bowditch and Warren, Journ. Physiol., 1890, 11, p. 25. "Sternberg, Die Sehnenreflexe, Leipsic, 1893, p. 177. 46 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. NORMAL VARIATIONS IN THE CASE OF SUBJECT 11. An instance where the difficulties of an adequate interpretation of the data appear in extreme form is the case of Subject II. Table 1 gives the data for 2 days' knee-jerk experiments on Subject II. TABLE 1. — Palellar reflex. Subject II. [R' and R" are given in thousandths of a second.] Norm il.1 Alcohol (c ose J- u. Date and time. R' H' R" H" Date and time. R' H' R" H" Oct. 8, 1913. 50 gm. hammer: 7h 45m p. m a 51 mm. 2 4 a 50 mm. 2 2 Sept. 23, 191.-;. 30 gm. hammer: 8h 18m p m 2 cr 85 mm. 21 A. a A2 mm. 7 8 05 p. m 51 2.0 50 1 6 Alcohol given. 8 45 p. m ... 51 2 4 48 3 0 8h 40m p. m Sfi 9 0 4? 5 6 9 10 p. m 46 5 0 43 6 0 8 50 p. m 37 8 0 44 2 0 9 50 p. m .... 50 5.2 51 2.8 9 03 p. m . 3.0 0.0 50 gm. hammer: 9h 05m p. m . . . . 40 13.7 41 4.0 9 20 p. m . . 43 10.3 48 5.3 9 34 p. m 4? 5 0 0.0 9 50 p. m 3 0 0.0 10 02 p. m 44 7 0 48 3 4 10 12 p. m. . 47 7.0 48 6.1 10 20 p. m 4fi 7.2 47 5.8 10 30 p. m. 44 8.3 4fi 4.4 1Subject had been "all day at the microscope." 2Normal period preceding the taking of alcohol. In this and all subsequent tables, the data for the first period of the alcohol experiments will be printed in italics to indicate that they were obtained before the alcohol was given. On September 23, 30 c.c. of absolute alcohol were given in a total volume of 150 c.c. directly after 8h 20m p.m. October 8 was a normal day without alcohol. The time of day at which the series were given is shown in the first column. Columns R' and R" give the latency of the first and second responses, respectively, in thousandths of a second. Columns H' and H" show the amount of muscle thickening in milli- meters as recorded by a marker with a magnifying leverage of 6 : 1 . The most conspicuous fact is that the two days, September 23 and October 8, started at widely different levels of reflex excitability. In the first period on September 23, a 30 gm. hammer falling 20 cm. pro- 21 4 duced an average muscle-thickening of — p- mm. This was about four-tenths of the maximum voluntary isometric contraction of Subject II. In the first period, on October 8, a 50 gm. hammer falling through the same distance produced a contraction thickening of only one-ninth of the previous amount. The latency in the two cases was 35 a and 51o- respectively. The regularity of the succeeding periods shows that these values are not accidents. The notes on the two days show only SIMPLEST NEURAL ARCS. 47 one apparently relevant difference. On October 8, Subject II remarked that he had "spent all day at the microscope and was tired " A second obvious difference in the two days is shown in the course of succeeding periods. On the normal day, succeeding periods after the "normal of the day" show a tendency toward increase in the height of contraction and a reduction of its latency. On the alcohol day, on the contrary, succeeding periods after the "normal of the day" show a gradual increase of latency and a rapid fall in the height of contrac- tion. This change begins within 20 minutes after the ingestion of alcohol and lasts about 90 minutes. At 9h 3m, the effect of the 30 gm. hammer had almost disappeared. The substitution of a 50 gm. hammer showed a continual fall of height up to about 90 minutes after the ingestion of alcohol and a slight subsequent recovery. If the data of September 23 stood alone, one could interpret them only as an evidence of the depressing effect of alcohol on the knee-jerk. Taken in connection with the normal record of October 8, the question arises whether the changes on September 23 are not really due to an acci- dental initial extreme excitability and whether the opposite tendency on the normal day is not due to an initial abnormal subexcitability. Subsequent records imply that both of these hypotheses are partially true. It is obvious that the least valid measure of the effect of alcohol on the patellar reflex of Subject II would be the difference in the average values of the two days. That would be significant only if they started at the same level. The most significant data are given by the course of the process in succeeding periods after the respective normals of the day, with alcohol and without. If the average of all our cases shows a predominant change in the relation of subsequent measurements to the normals of the day on alcohol days, the direction of that change must be taken as the direction of the probable effect of alcohol. But only if related processes show similar tendencies can we regard this evidence as conclusive. All our knee-jerk data are exhibited on this plan in table 2. Each value entered under the appropriate column shows the algebraic dif- ference between the measurements of the first period, or "normal of the day" and each of the succeeding periods of the day. For example, + 5 entered opposite 1 —4, under Subject II, October 8, R', shows that on that date the latency of the knee-jerk was 0.005" less in the fourth series than in the first of the same day. In the measurements of the patellar reflex, it proved impracticable to follow the usual plan of securing complete sets of comparable data after both doses of alcohol. The extent of the muscle contraction was reduced enormously even by the 30 c.c. dose. In many cases the curves were so low that the latency could not be satisfactorily measured when the action of the alcohol was at its maximum. In most cases 48 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the same stimulus that produced a good reflex on a normal day pro- duced no reflex at all after the larger dose of alcohol (45 c.c.)- To have increased the weight of the stimulus hammer in such cases until a reflex was produced would have resulted in serious complication of the data, and would not have added to our comparable facts. To have foreseen the results was of course impossible. But even if the results had been foreseen, there are grave objections to using excessive stimuli on normal days. These objections may be summarized as follows: (1) excessive blows and excessive contraction of the big quadriceps muscle tend to produce prestimulation and preparatory stiffening of the whole body, with consequent inhibition of the reflex; (2) excessive isometric con- traction stretches the muscle mechanically at each contraction and notably changes the muscle tonus; (3) if the leg is held so that it can not move, it is hurt at the point of contact with the supports by exces- sive contraction of the muscle; (4) excessive contraction of the quad- riceps moves the body of the subject more or less out of alignment with the apparatus. In the few cases where reliable data were obtained after the larger dose of alcohol, the results are entered in the table with appropriate designation. Table 2 shows the results of the patellar reflex measurements for each subject, in D values (D equals the deviation of the measurements of the subsequent periods from the first period, or "normal of the day") . The table is so arranged that all the data for each subject are grouped together. Normal days are given on the left and alcohol days on the right. Under R' and R" are entered data from the latent time of the reflex after the first and second stimulation respectively. 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B---3 2p i3'''a Bj5 y--'5 B • • • ct> £»•::::::: 2 ::: S p >-j P" ro o b: : : : : ffi b b: P- ^ a- W I i I I i I ill M t>3 h- » H^ tr P '"To 'To """i* ^7« ^o ^»o ^^o /To ^7* », J^To tO M ^ 0 S" ^ +++++++++++4 + + + ++++++++++ +++ o cr *. -a ^ asoooooooocooc ooootog W B. p o^I^ 4 3 Average 4 ... Mar. 17, 1914: 1 5 . . Average Mar. 10, 1914: Dose B : 1 2 + 6 -10 + 5 +14 + 9 0 + 4 +25 + 8 + 6 - 8 + 19 2 + 8 3 2 - 29 - 48 - 14 - 30 -17 + 4 +25 + 4 4 3 5 4 6 Average 7 Subject III. Jan. 26, 1914: Dose A: 1 Average Subject III. Jan. 19, 1914: 1 2 3 -10 + 4 -3 + 6 + 10 + 7 0 + 17 + 10 + 9 + 20 + 22 + 16 + 3 +21 + 8 + 8 + 8 +10 4 3 Average 4 . . Mar. 9, 1914: 1 5 6 Average Feb. 9, 1914: Dose B: 1 2 + 8 + 14 +11 0 -20 -10 3 2 + 14 - 13 - 8 - 2 - 5 + 3 + 3 +0.3 Average 3 . . Subject IV. Jan. 30, 1914: 1 4 Average Subject IV. Feb. 13, 1914: Dose B:4 1 2 +32 +25 +24 + 7 +22 + 5 - 3 + 8 - 8 + 0.5 3 2 - 13 - 4 - 3 - 7 + 6 + 1 + 17 + 8 4 3 5 4 Average .... Average Mar. 17, 1914: 1 2 +33 + 19 + 3 - 7 +12 - 1 + 14 + 1 + 3 + 4 3 4 5 Average JRecords illegible. 2The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 'Missing. ^Experiment with dose A was accidentally omitted. COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 85 TABLE 7. — Latency of the eye-reactions — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Normal. Alcohol. Subject, date, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Subject, date, dose, and Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference d-2, 1-3, etc.). Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. number of period. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Subject VI. Oct. 22, 1913: 1 0 200 197 192 227 230 209 230 184 170 212 200 175 197 196 222 175 196 219 208 215 219 228 218 193 190 239 196 204 0 20 12 30 26 20 22 20 14 17 44 22 30 29 19 9 23 23 13 14 14 33 12 17 14 20 36 21 23 Subject VI. Oct. 29, 1913: Dose A : 1 -16G 145 147 (3) 158 190 159 21S5 180 199 195 200 255 206 2 176 169 199 223 171 185 171 189 190 198 194 189 *223 195 197 214 192 232 206 Z199 191 242 241 225 223 22 10 (3) 28 35 24 *20 25 27 25 16 45 28 -17 33 43 34 31 20 34 9 42 38 25 31 *16 8 9 11 22 22 14 *24 39 21 45 35 <> 3 + 3 + 8 -27 -30 -11 + 8 -10 - 6 0 - 2 2 . ... + 21 + 19 + 1 +13 4 3 5 4 fi .... 5 + 8 - 24 + 6 - 5 -12 - 0.7 \verage . 6 12 hr. experiment. Jan. 1, 1914: 1 Average Jan. 22, 1914: Dose B : 1 2 + 5 - 14 • 10 - 15 - 75 - 22 - 5 - 7 - 5 + 4 - 25 - 8 3 4 ... 5 6 Average 12 hr. experiment. Jan. 2, 1914: Dose C: 1 o +46 +60 +18 +30 +55 +33 +34 + 8 +55 +38 + 6 + 3 -24 - 2 -10 - 9 + 1 +11 - 3 - 3 3 2 + 7 - 23 - 47 + 5 - 9 + 5 - 13 - 14 - 22 - 18 - 13 -16 -26 -17 -14 - 3 -17 + 8 -25 -21 - 8 -14 4 3 5 4 .... 6 5 7 6 8 7 9 8 10 9 Average . 10 Subject VII. Oct. 21, 1913: 1 11 ... Average Subject VII. Oct. 28, 1913: Dose A: 1 2 +11 + 4 0 - 9 + 1 - 1 • 1 -20 + 1 - 5 3 2 + 28 + 26 + 9 + 31 g + 17 + 8 + 7 + 5 - 6 - 6 + 1.6 4 3 5 4 Average 5 Mar. 20, 1914: 1 6 Average Mar. 13, 1914: Dose B : 1 2 + 3 -46 - 3 -15 - 6 -22 - 7 -12 3 2 + 8 - 43 - 42 - 26 -15 + 3 -21 -11 4 3 Average 4 Average 1Records illegible. 2The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 3No record. 86 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. TABLE 7. — Latency of the eye-reactions — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Normal. Alcohol. Subject, date, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Subject, date, dose, and numberof period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Subject IX. Oct. 27, 1913: 1 286 190 198 201 204 216 (2) 164 180 167 195 (2) 187 167 187 183 179 254 218 222 234 225 199 225 74 34 18 21 40 37 0 5 20 22 10 (2) 15 11 4 31 15 59 16 27 21 12 6 23 Subject IX. Nov. 3, 1913: Dose A: 1 ... 1S45 256 197 181 202 209 1161 156 201 202 170 182 182 1167 180 184 173 162 160 198 213 220 193 (2) 187 1240 230 327 216 235 206 243 178 87 16 29 16 37 133 15 9 20 17 16 15 118 35 17 24 17 10 41 12 20 22 (2) 22 1S8 23 31 4 25 11 19 2 +96 +88 +85 +82 +88 +40 +56 +53 +34 +46 3 2 + 89 + 148 + 164 +143 +136 - 9 +62 +49 +62 +41 4 3 5 4. ... Average 5 1% hr. expcrintftit. Dec. 22, 1913: 1 Average . . . Jan. 21, 1914: DoseB: 1 2 + 5 - 40 - 41 - 9 - 21 - 21 +18 +24 + 13 + 16 + 17 +18 3 4 5 6 . . . Average 12 hr. experiment. Dec. 23, 1913: DoseC: 1 ... 2 3 -16 - 3 -31 -15 -17 - 5 2 - 13 - 17 6 + 5 + 7 - 31 - 46 - 53 - 26 -17 + 1 - 6 + 1 + 8 -23 + 6 - 2 - 4 4 3 5 4 . 6 5 7 -23 - 3 -23 -19 -17 -10 - 6 + 1 -26 -11 6 8 7 9 8 10 9 Average 10 Subject X. Mar. 11, 1914: 1 11 Average - 20 4 Subject X. Mar. 18, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 +36 +32 +20 +29 +55 +34 +43 +32 +38 +47 +53 +43 3 2 + 10 - 87 + 24 + 5 + 34 - 3 + 10 + 1 +28 + 7 +21 +13 4 3 5 4 ... 6 5 .... Average 6 Average .... 'The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 2Records illegible. COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 87 TABLE 7. — Latency of the eye-reactions — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] PSYCHOPATHIC SUBJECTS. Normal. Alcohol. Subject, date, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Subject, date, dose, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Subject XL Mar. 26, 1914: 1 220 23 Subject XI. Mar. 27, 1914: Dose A: 1 1221 222 259 212 231 1202 165 182 154 173 168 1212 190 215 196 198 203 200 129 51 19 35 35 128 25 15 25 32 24 137 24 20 23 8 12 17 2 279 251 250 242 211 205 219 178 162 150 187 141 164 178 164 209 184 240 222 202 238 225 195 200 197 69 27 39 21 13 17 17 28 19 24 30 22 25 49 19 43 37 30 2 36 29 24 40 12 26 -59 -31 -45 +31 +37 +34 -46 - 4 -25 + 8 + 4 + 6 3 2 - 1 - 38 + 9 10 -22 + 10 - 6 - 6 Average 3 Mar. 28, 1914: 1 4 .... Average . Subject XII. Apr. 3, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 3 Average Subject XII. Apr. 2, 1914: 1 2 + 16 +28 - 9 +37 +18 + 9 + 4 — 2 + 6 + 4 3 2 + 37 + 20 + 48 + 29 + 33 + 3 +13 + 3 - 4 + 4 4 3 ... 5 4 Average 5 Apr. 4, 1914: 1 Average . . . Subject XIV. Apr. 24, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 + 14 -31 - 8 +30 + 6 +18 3 Average Subject XIV. Apr. 23, 1914: 1 2 +18 +38 + 2 +19 +28 - 6 + 1 + 8 3 2 + 22 - 3 + 16 + 14 + 9 + 12 +13 + 17 + 14 +29 +25 +20 4 3 Average Apr. 25, 1914: 1 4 5 6 Average 2 - 5 -28 Average 'The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 88 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. TABLE 8. — Summary of the latent time of the eye-reactions. [Values are given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Normal. Alcohol. I | II Aver- age differ- ence. Dose A.1 Dose B. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age differ- ence. Normal subjects: II 250 193 199 209 218 216 225 216 196 179 187 250 164 225 213 30 23 22 22 17 37 23 25 23 15 19 39 25 24 29 205 179 183 26 14 18 0 + 4 + 17 -11 - 7 +88 +34 234 187 19 16 231 179 184 206 225 182 21 15 9 28 35 15 -30 o - 7 -22 -26 -21 III. . + 16 IV VI 159 206 209 243 206 U89 J187 '188 231 168 200 199 24 14 37 19 21 '31 122 '26 35 24 17 25 + 6 + 17 + 136 - 3 VII 204 23 IX x Average . . . 12 hr. e x p e r i - ments: VI 193 20 201 20 +38 -17 !- 13 !- 20 IX Average . . . Psychopathic subjects: XI 219 184 197 200 17 37 26 27 - 5 + 5 + 7 - 10 + 33 + 12 XII XIV Average . . . 1Dose C was used in the 12-hour experiments. TABLE 9. — Summary of the effect of alcohol on the latent time of the eye-reactions. [Average values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Effect as shown in average differences.1 Effect as shown in percentile differences.2 Dose A. Dose B. Dose C. Dose A. Dose B. Dose C. Normal subjects: II a <7 - 30 - 6 - 24 11 - 19 -109 a p. ct. p. ct. -13 7 p. ct. Ill + 12 + 6.2 - 3.2 -12.2 - 6.0 - 9.3 -49.0 IV VI +17 +24 +48 -37 +13 + 9.3 + 11.1 + 15.2 -15.0 + 5.4 VII IX X Average - 33 -15.6 12 hr. experiments: VI -51 - 3 -27 -25.1 - 1.8 -13.4 IX Average Psychopathic subjects: XI - 5 +28 + 5 + 9 - 2 2 XII + 15.0 + 2.3 + 5.0 XIV Average Effect on the average difference equals (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., alcohol) minus (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., normal). 2Effect on the percentile difference equals average difference divided by average of the cor- responding first periods. COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 89 SUMMARY OF EYE-RE ACTION DATA. A summary of the latent time of the eye-reactions, as well as the average differences, is given in table 8. The first and second normal days are shown on the left, the two alcohol days on the right. The other headings are self-explanatory. A summary of the effect of alcohol on the eye-reactions is given in table 9, calculated from the differences. On the left the effect is shown in the units of measurement. On the right it is shown in percentiles. VARIABILITY OF THE MEASUREMENTS. Inspection of the averages and mean variations of table 8 will throw considerable light on the reliability of this group of measurements: (1) In the first place, it will be noticed that the average mean variation of eye-reaction is about 12 per cent of the average of the measurements. In interpreting this variability it should be borne in mind that, with the exception of Subject VI, none of the subjects had ever served in sim- ilar experiments. We regard it as a conspicuous service of the eye- reactions that they furnished us comparable " choice reaction" data with an average mean variation of approximately 12 per cent from a heterogeneous group of subjects without previous training. No other "choice reaction" with which we are acquainted is so uniformly avail- able. (2) As appears from the table of average reactions, there is a slight but regular improvement in the average reaction time of all subjects as the experiments progress. The averages show a total reduction of 23 a for the main group and 13 a for the psychopathic group between the first and last normal days. The only exception is the second normal day of Subject XII, which prevents the average of the psychopathic subjects from showing any advantage of repetition on the second normal day as compared with the alcohol day. Notwith- standing this exception, the facts are unequivocal. The average latent time of the eye-reactions decreases by an average of about 11 per cent from the first to the last experimental day as a result of repetition. A regular practice effect of 1 1 per cent between the first and last quar- ters of 120 measurements clearly shows that the process was not ini- tially as thoroughly practiced as we had expected, i.e., to the degree that the practice effect of the experimental sessions would be insignificant. The question of the origin of the effect of repetition in the case of the supposed thoroughly practiced eye-reaction, and the possibility of adopting suitable experimental measures to reduce it, will be taken up again in the summary, Chapter IX. We would point out here that, notwithstanding the obvious effect of repetition, our normal base-line is adequate for any interpretation of the effect of alcohol. The experimental as well as the statistical procedure of these experiments was especially planned for just such exigencies. 90 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE EYE-REACTION. Following our regular procedure of calculating the effects of alcohol from the differences between the normal of the day and subsequent periods, it appears from table 9 that the average effect of the smaller dose of alcohol (dose A) is to decrease the reaction time in four cases out of five, amounting to an average change of 13 a- or 5.4 per cent. The effect of the larger dose of alcohol (dose B), on the other hand, is a length- ening of the reaction time, in all six subjects, by 33 > O ^ a :O a CD > O o3 '3 c '^ r > CD -, "/] rj •o a 03 a T) : o '« CD •~ CD ^: O C CO >fH ^ <-t •^ ^ '[>_ "O - CD 7J CD O EH [""•« .- a 2" a 3 c3 B^ 43 CD . . .£? ^ to >. 1 _a •r - X T~~t ^ .i ^i CO CD _a g _5 ," CD P g ~ - ' • o3 -. h i o 3 1 -4J O '•3 03 'C o -.-' o a 03 -. s recor E4H ~ 3 t g £ > _3 CD bt 03 c ::., — ,r ^ T3 t_ &H •" o ** v- a ••• g — rn fcS -. - - of apparatus for rt 3 CO Q m -' o" for word-reaction recording camera [rrors for deflectin 7£°, fine re.si.stanc le skin resistance td IH J_" CD H ~- g r IFfi, Wheatstone a ^,^ CO • a • — « -.. "3 •/j 73 '3 CJ H-3 OS - -- IL, O M J -M a 03 Q orium cir JM 73 fS ft rt CD o '-; a rt ^ • a 01 13 CD u, r measuri lammers 1 e-movem« rh E CO ~ . ^ 73 ,0 pj-j >. fi i w I-* H * $ s.si.8 .3 . OTJ a I . 03 CD O CD — t« CO U 90 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. produced when the pendulum reaches a vertical position. Rebound is impossible, because the pendulum in the vertical position is at a dead- point with respect to the direction of the applied forces. The accompanying record (fig. 15) is one of a series which was made to measure the latency of the drop and the character of the stop. These records were taken in the following manner: The apparatus was set up before the vertical slit of a photographic recording-camera. A word was exposed exactly as during the experiments, except that a light marker was attached to the free end of the movable arm. This marker made the shadow record .4 (fig. 15). The horizontal ordinates are approximately 2 mm. apart. The vertical ordinates are produced by the vibrator interrupting the recording beam of light 100 times a second. Line nt. The; move>me'nl terminates abruptly, absolutely with- out rebound or secondary vibration. Inspection of the curve at the moment of stopping shows that the transition from the; most rapid movement to complete rest occurs in about 0.002". The exposure' is not absolutely noiseless. II seems to begin with a light swish and ends with a light thud. Neither noise bears any resemblance to the usual noisy stop of the spring or the gravity tachistoscope. (J run ting its reasonable fulfillment of the main criteriaof a satisfactory exposure appa- ratus, the chief advantage of this form over the camera tachistoscope of Erdmann-Dodge,1 the transparent-mirror tachistoscope of Dodge," and other satisfactory instruments, is its simplicity and compactness. None of these forms could have been used in our complex of instruments with- out serious inconvenience to the operator or subject or both. All of them are relatively bulky, and in our experimental arrangements space was a valuable asset . VOICE-REACTION KEY. Considerably more difficult of construction thnn an adequate ex- posure apparatus is an adequate reaction key for vocali/at ion. We know of no even relatively good reaction key for recording the move- ments of the vocal organs. Movements of the chin, lips, tongue, and larynx may each be recorded separately, as is commonly done in experimental phonetics. But then- is no one key for them all. The familiar voice keys of Kraepelin,1* ( 'attell,4 Erdmann-Dodge,1 Homer,1' and others fnmkly surrender the effort to register the; muscle-action of articulate speech in favor of the consequent air-movements. But this is a questionable e;xpc;elie;nt, unless due precautions are taken to tender it innocuous. Voice keys de?pe;nel on the expiration of air involves! in utterance, to break an electric contact. Unfortunately, the e;hrono- logical place of the expiration of air in the- total physiological process of utterance is ve-ry different for different worels. Consequently, no air- current key c;m ever register in ;iny reliable, way the re;d beginning of the vocali/;it ion re;ie;tion. In most e'xperinient.'d investigations, how- ever, this is not a materinl source of error. If one seeks the relative efficie'iicy of the vocalization process under varying conditions, arid if one uses a definite, unchanging series of stimulus words, such as our group of words was, the precise beginning of muscular reaction is relatively unimportant. For studying the effect of a drug, any one of the systematically correlated movements of the reaction would be equally significant in comparing the nor:n;il with the drug-reaction periods. It is on these grounds and with the corresponding limitations that air-movement keys are defensible in speech-reaction movements. As Wirth0 stales in a discussion of this type; of key, "They permit 'Erdrnann and Dodgo, Paychologuche UntersuchuM^cri iibcr das L':,-.«'ii, Flallo, 1898. "Dodgo, PHychol. Bull., l'J<>7, \, p. 10. "Kraepelin, Phil. Stud., 1883, 1, p. 417. 4Cattcll, Phil. Stud., 1SS5, 3, p. 313. *R5mer, Kr.'irpflin'H P.syrhol. Arlx-if,., 1, p. 577. 'Wirlh, Psychophynik. TigerHtedt's Handbuch der physiologiHchon Mcthodik, 1912, 3, p. 400. 98 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. comparative records of the same sounds only." The admissibility of any particular type of such sound keys is first a matter of sensitivity and constancy, and secondly a matter of convenience. Sensitivity of the voice key affects reaction experiments chiefly through its relation to instrumental constancy. The use of extremely sensitive recording devices, like the phonoscope of Weiss, or the microphone, would be possible, but is probably inexpedient, since, in view of the fundamental defects of all records of speech-reactions by air-movement, an instru- ment of such sensitivity could only give the illusion of extreme accuracy in speech-reaction measurements. It would not obviate the main defects of the measurement. Simultaneous records of the throat- muscle movements and tested sound keys make it clear that the simi- larity of sequence of the physiological processes as close as 0.001" can not be relied upon even for similar sounds. The demand for an ex- tremely sensitive instrument under such circumstances would be experi- mental pedantry. The voice key which was used in this experiment is one which was first described by Dodge.1 Like the Erdmann-Dodge key, it is a modification of the Kraepelin-Cattell sound key. The present form was evolved after a considerable number of changes, to make the instrument more compact, more manageable, and more regular in its action. One end of a short brass tube, 4 cm. in diameter, is fitted with a hard- rubber ring (shown removed from the brass tube in fig. 16). Across the ring a rubber membrane is stretched. This membrane presses a light spring, with platinum tip, against an adjustable contact-point within the tube. When the spring and membrane are in elastic equil- ibrium, the contact-point is adjusted by a micrometer-screw to make the lightest possible contact. The contact should be tested to break by a slight free-hand jerk of the key. It should break positively in movements of 2 cm. Under such circumstances a slight increase of air-pressure within the tube, such as is produced by speaking into its open end, disturbs the elastic equilibrium of spring and membrane and breaks the electric circuit. The relative latency of this instrument has been tested in a number of ways. Records illustrating some of these tests are reproduced in figures 17 to 20. All these records are read from left to right. The vertical ordinates are 0.01 " apart. The horizontal ordinates are approximately 1 mm. apart. These and similar records also give us definite controls of the total latency of our voice key in series with the Harvard marker, as actually used in these experiments, and also the relative latency of the Harvard signal as compared with the Deprez signal. The total latency of our voice key and Harvard marker is not over 2cr (0.002") for open tones. The latency of the Deprez signal is not over 0.5 4 525 512 508 438 473 479 471 403 465 465 462 477 476 476 485 465 457 472 461 470 (3) 460 456 452 456 3 5 4 \verage 5 Nov. 24, 1913: 1 6 Average Jan. 21, 1914: Dose B: 1 2 - 35 - 41 - 33 - 25 33 + 2 -15 -12 - 8 - 8 3 0 -141 - 69 - 60 41 - 40 70 -79 - 4 -18 - 3 -16 -24 4 3 5 4 Average 5 .... 12 hr. expcriint ni Dec. 22, 1913: 1 6 Average 12 hr. experiment. Dec. 23, 1913: Dose C: 1 2 + 3 • 12 11 • 11 - 20 0 + 8 - 7 + 4 - 5 - 5 -18 -22 - 5 -18 -11 + 5 - 2 + 2 - 9 3 2 ... + 21 11 + 8 - 28 - 27 - 24 4 + 7 - 29 - 54 14 + 1 - 3 0 - 1 0 -20 + 3 + 1 - 3 -18 - 4 4 3 5 4 ... 6 5 7 6 s 7 9 8 10 9 Average Subject X. Feb. 11, 1914: 1 10 11 Average Subject X. Feb. 18, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 3 + 4 + 8 + 6 - 4 _ 2 - 3 2 - 17 3 • 17 - 35 - 18 -12 - 8 + 11 - 9 - 4 4 3 Average 4 5 Average . Mar. 18, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 - 12 - 35 - 27 - 44 - 29 + 5 - 1 -11 -10 - 4 3 4 5 Average JThe measurements for the first period were obtained in the preliminary exposure of the words and the records are therefore not included in the table of results. 2The values for the first periods of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 'Key was held too low, so that only a few records were made. COMPLEX NEURAL ARCS. 105 TABLE 10. — Word-reaction measurements — Continued. [Values given in thousandths of a second.) PSYCHOPATHIC SUBJECTS. Normal. Alcohol. Subject, date, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Subject, date, dose, and number of period. Aver- age. Mean variation. Difference (1-2, 1-3. etc.). Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Subject XI. Mar. 24, 1914: 1 706 682 704 697 686 729 696 704 573 485 459 506 489 508 513 503 573 473 641 562 563 581 571 572 56 69 78 68 42 53 59 51 54 59 50 54 37 41 28 35 54 59 76 63 33 44 46 41 Subject XI. Mar. 25, 1914: Dose 15 c.c. : 1 1681 658 728 690 689 15S8 518 518 495 474 508 1613 607 589 587 570 593 188 45 61 74 67 128 37 48 57 51 44 14S 52 52 44 60 51 •> + 24 + 2 + 13 -13 -22 -17 3 2 + 23 - 47 - 9 16 +43 +27 + 14 +28 Average 3 .... Mar 28, 1914: 1 4 Average Subject XII. Apr. 1, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 - 43 - 10 - 26 -11 -17 -14 3 Average Subject XII. Mar. 31, 1914: 1 2 + 88 + 114 +101 - 5 + 4 0 3 2 +20 +20 +43 +64 +37 - 9 -20 -29 -23 -20 Average 3 Apr. 4, 1914: 1. ... 4 5 Average . . Subject XIV. Apr. 22, 1914: Dose A: 1 2 - 19 - 24 - 21 - 4 + 9 + 2 3 Average Subject XIV. Apr. 21, 1914: 1 2 + 100 - 68 + 16 5 -22 -13 3 o + 6 +24 +26 +43 +25 - 4 - 4 + 4 -12 - 4 Average 3 Apr. 25, 1914: 1 4 5 Average 2 - 18 - 8 13 -11 -13 -12 3 Average values for the first periods of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. 106 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SUMMARY OF THE WORD-REACTIONS. A summary of the word-reaction data is given in table 11, in the same general arrangement of columns as obtained in table 10. Since the effects of alcohol are relatively slight at most, it seemed desirable to present the results in true averages as well as by differences. All the results are given without correction for the instrumental latency. In accordance with our investigation of that factor (p. 99) , absolute values will be found by subducting 37 a from recorded values. TABLE 11. — Summary of word-reactions. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Normal (I and II). Alcohol. Dose A.1 Dose B. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Average difference.2 Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Average difference.2 Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Average difference.2 Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Aver age. Mean varia- tion. Aver- age. Mean varia- tion. Normal subjects: II 478 402 462 472 431 486 456 455 494 470 482 700 504 567 590 42 24 35 39 30 43 30 35 39 36 37 59 44 52 52 -20 0 + 15 -25 4-13 -41 4 6 _ 7 -82 5 -43 - 6 +40 4 1 412 - 9 - 6 - 8 - 6 + 8 -23 - 3 99 - 8 - 9 - 8 -15 + 1 -12 _ 9 446 401 (3) 451 406 498 462 444 J481 !473 1477 689 508 593 597 32 22 (3) 38 23 45 39 33 J38 J33 '35 67 44 51 54 -25 - 8 (3) - 2 + 10 -18 -23 -11 l-17 i_14 '-15 -16 +37 +25 +15 0 + 5 (3) -10 + 1 - 5 - 4 - 2 l- 9 l- 4 »- 6 +28 -20 - 4 + 1 511 411 473 542 461 524 30 27 35 62 41 50 -99 4- 1 - 6 -48 - 9 -70 -11 - 6 - 6 -19 -17 -24 III IV VI . VII IX X Average . . . 12 hr. exp eri- ments: VI 487 42 -38 -14 IX Average . . . Psychopathic subjects: XI XII XIV Average . . . !Dose C (12 c.c.) was used in the 12-hour experiments. Differences equal period 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 'Experiment with dose A was accidentally omitted from this series. As appears from table 11, the average recorded normal latency of the word-reaction for the normal group, is 455 + 6 - 1 - 7 + 2 + 9 1 <- 1 4- 3 4- 2 + 8 0 - 1 + 2 +23 - 3 +23 -29 0 4 +05 4 — 9 4 +28 -10 - 3 +24 + 4 - 4 - 7 + 18 1 + 4 4- 1 4+ 5 4+ 2 +43 -21 + 8 +10 + 5 - 1 + 5 0 4 +15 •»— 2 4 + 6 - 1 1 + 4 + 1 VII . . IX . X Average . 12 hr. experi- ments: VI +32 + 6 -29 - 6 -6.2 IX Average . Psychopathic subjects: XI XII XIV Average . 'Effect on averages equals alcohol average minus normal average. "Effect on the average difference equals (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., alcohol) minus (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., normal). 3Effect on the percentile difference equals the effect of alcohol on the average difference divided by the average of the corresponding normals of the day. 4Dose C given in 12-hour experiments. The effect of repetition decreases the reaction latency between the first and last normal day 3.7 per cent for the normal group. The effect of repetition for the psychopathic group is less than 1 per cent. With respect to instrumental accuracy, community of pre-experi- mental experiences, low variability, and small effect of repetition the word-reaction measurements qualify as among the most satisfactory of the group. 108 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON WORD-REACTION. A summary of the effect of alcohol on the word-reactions is given in table 12. In the three sections of the table the effect of alcohol is shown respectively, by averages, by average differences, and by percentile differences. No matter how the effect of alcohol is reckoned as a result of these measurements, it is minute to the point of disappearance after dose A, and small but consistent after dose B. By every method of computa- tion, dose B increases the latent time of the reaction. By percentile differences the increase averages 6.2 per cent, i. e., 80 per cent of the normal mean variation. The apparent effect of dose A, however, depends on the table from which it was computed. If on the basis of the small mean variation and the small effect of repetition, one ven- tured to compute the effect from the averages, it would appear that dose A decreased the latency in 4 out of 6 normal subjects, by about 3 per cent. If we reckon the effect, as in previous cases, by the differ- ences, we find that dose A appears to lengthen the latency in 4 out of 6 cases, averaging 1 per cent. Taking the average of percentile changes, dose A appears to effect practically no change at all, either in the main group or in the psychopathic subjects. For reasons previously dis- cussed, we believe the differences represent the facts more closely than the simple averages. While these show an increase in reaction latency in 4 out of 6 cases as a result of dose A, the percentile average change is zero. The average change of latency due to the ingestion of alcohol (both doses) is consequently about 3 per cent. In view of all our precautions and the reliability of our technique, this must be regarded as evidence for a real though slight tendency of moderate doses of alcohol to increase the latency of the word-reaction. CHAPTER IV. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON FREE ASSOCIATIONS.1 The highest complication of the reflex arc with which we felt justified in dealing in this research is that which is commonly known as the free- association experiment, and this would not have been attempted had it not been for the generous collaboration of an expert in the field. METHODS AND APPARATUS. As it is commonly practiced, the association experiment is a kind of reaction. The stimulus to reaction is a word spoken by the operator . The reaction is a response word spoken by the subject. The kind of response which is demanded of the subject may be systematically varied, giving rise to several different types of association experiments. In the free-association experiment the subject is required merely to speak as quickly as possible the first word that occurs to him after the stimulus word is given. The relationship between the stimulus word and the response, together with the latency of the reaction word, are the usual significant facts in the experiment. In addition, the so-called psycho-galvanic reflex and the accompanying pulse-changes have been regarded as significant. We undertook to measure all these factors. The free-association experiment occupied the balcony of the psy- chological laboratory (see p. 30). The subject reclined in a steamer- chair and faced a bare corner of the room. Behind the subject and to his right the operator (Wells) sat at a small, properly illuminated writing-table, on which were the switches for the various electric currents, a 2-volt signal light, and the operator's reaction key.2 The device for securing pulse-records3 was attached to the left wrist of the subject. A light but sensitive pneumograph capsule was but- toned under his vest. Electrodes for securing the psycho-galvanic reflex rested on a suitable stand at the subject's right hand, so that the index and second digit of his right hand could reach them with the arm in a natural and comfortable position. APPARATUS FOR THE PSYCHO-GALVANIC REFLEX. The apparatus which was used for measuring the psycho-galvanic reflex was : (1) non-polarizable electrodes for the fingers : (2) a Wheat- stone bridge which was connected as though to measure the skin- resistance against a variable, known resistance; and (3) a string galva- nometer connected across the bridge. The electrodes were the same *In collaboration with Dr. F. L. Wells, of McLean Hospital, Waverly, Mass. 2See figure 21, facing page 101. 3A complete description of this device is given in Chapter VIII, p. 189. 109 110 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. as were regularly used by us for measuring the sensory threshold to Faradic current. Two evaporating dishes about 6 cm. in diameter were one-quarter filled with a saturated solution of zinc sulphate. Each dish held an amalgamated zinc rod, through which the electrode was connected with the wiring from the bridge, and a porous porcelain cup, which was half filled with physiological salt solution, in which the respective fingers were immersed. The Wheatstone bridge was the same as that used in determining the skin-resistance for the Martin measurements of Faradic threshold; but in the present case it was operated by a constant current of 3 volts, instead of the alternating current which must be used for skin-resistance measurements. In place of the usual telephone receiver we connected the string gal- vanometer. (See fig. 1.) The recording beam of light from the string galvanometer was reflected at the eyepiece of the projection microscope at an angle of 90° to a millimeter scale which was attached to the side of the eye-reaction camera. The string was loosened to a sensitivity of about 20 cm. per 0.001 volt. Its position on the scale was kept approximately constant by balancing the Wheatstone bridge between the experiments. The experimental movement of the string shadow resulted from a lack of balance in the arms of the bridge, and showed at once the direction of change and its amount. 100 mm. of scale was measured in terms of millimeters of balanced bridge at the beginning and at the end of each experimental period, so that the experimental changes could be reduced to terms of resistance changes. Two circumstances greatly reduced the value of the resulting readings: (1) Long immersion of the fingers in the fluid electrodes was found almost to annihilate the phenomenon. It was consequently measured only in the D-D' series (Kent-Rosanoff series). (2) In the predeter- mined sequences of reactions, 6 per minute, it appears that there is not sufficient time between experiments for a return of the psycho-galvanic equilibrium. At any rate, in our experiments the resistance changes seemed cumulative. For some cause the apparent resistance at the end of a series was regularly different from that at the beginning. These circumstances make it doubtful if our measurements of the psycho-galvanic reflex are of any real significance. APPARATUS FOR RECORDING THE ASSOCIATION TIME. The arrangements for recording the latent time of the responses and the synchronous pulse- waves were somewhat complex. It will be remembered that both subject and operator occupied the balcony of the research room. There was no apparatus on the balcony except the tambour and the mercury-cup devices to transform the mechanical pulse and respiration waves into electric impulses. All graphic records were taken on the Blix-Sandstrom kymograph on the floor below. It FREE ASSOCIATION. Ill was consequently necessary to correlate the processes by some scheme that would identify each phase of the records, as well as to unite the various records into one whole. The signal for giving each stimulus word was transmitted to the operator (Wells) at each revolution of the kymograph drum by an automatic break in the 2- volt incandescent signal-lamp circuit. Since the kymograph was regulated to make 1 revolution in 10 seconds, these signals placed the stimuli 10 seconds apart. At the moment of actually giving the stimulus word, the operator simultaneously pressed a tele- graph key that registered the event on the kymograph record by a characteristic break in the curve. On the continuous spiral record cor- responding to 50 experiments, these breaks come at approximately the same moment of each revolution, and make a more or less approximately straight line. When the subject responded to the stimulus, the operator signaled the moment of response by releasing his pressure on the tele- graph key, and the recording curve correspondingly returned to its pre-stimulation base-line. The latent time of each response thus appeared on the records as a plateau, whose rise corresponded with the moment of stimulation and whose fall corresponded with the opera- tor's reaction to the response of the subject. A constant error in the association time as thus recorded is involved in the fact that the stimulation signal is given synchronously with the stimulus word, while the recorded moment of reaction must include the personal equation of the operator, who can give the signal only after he hears the subject speak. While it makes all our values somewhat too large, in the comparison of one series of performances with another, this constant error is negligible. Aside from this constant and negligible error, the probability that any measured association time corresponds with the real association time is dependent on the variability of the personal equation of the operator. Our records are protected in this respect by the fact that Wells is an unusually practiced reactor, with a small mean variation. Moreover, we did not aim at an accuracy greater than is implied in the rather large unit of measurement of 0.01". We shall probably be criticized for not using some more mechanical form of stimulus and reaction key. The answer to all such criticism must be to emphasize the main purpose of the free-association experi- ments. Their main value lies in the character of the response. Any- thing that tends to disturb that phase of the experiment is unpardon- able. Other phases are only of relative importance. For example, it would have been easy to give the stimulus word optically, with all the accuracy that characterizes the word-reaction experiment. But the optical word is a stimulus for a very different mental operation from the auditory. The inevitable associate for the optical word is its auditory- motor associate. We depended on that regular connection in the word- 112 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. reaction experiments. But that association would have been disas- trous to the present experiments. It would have been equally possible to give words by a dictaphone, as was suggested by some friendly critics before the experiments began. But there is no natural impulse to talk back to a dictaphone, none at least to respond to its pronouncements by an associated word. Still more serious than the psychological "set," is the confusion of the intercurrent noises and the instrumental elisions of sound which may be variously important in stimulus words of different lengths. Moreover, it takes practice to become a good dicta- phone operator, and even the best must constantly depend on recon- structing the sound from the sense. This is naturally impossible with isolated words. Actual experiments with a typical series of words recorded on the dictaphone showed enormous individual variations in the number of errors. One subject failed in about 80 per cent of the trials. Not even a practiced operator understood them all. It would have been entirely possible to record the moment of reaction by our speech-reaction key. We tried it. But, owing to the muffling of the sounds by the diaphragm, it proved to be utterly impossible for the operator to be sure what was the response of the subject. At present, at least, there appears to be no means for mechanizing the timing device without jeopardizing the main technical requirement of the experiment — the clear mutual understanding of operator and subject. For convenience of identification on the record, the stimulus words were given in groups of 5. Between each group of 5 words a blank line was run on the record without reaction. After the first 25 words of each series an interval of a few seconds was allowed for resetting the markers. This divided the graphic record further into halves. Each half con- sisted of 5 groups of 5 records each. Thus the subsequent correlation of each record with its appropriate association was a simple and accu-. rate process. The pulse-records and pneumographic records were superposed on the reaction-records by the following arrangements : After the mechan- ical pulse-wave had been transformed into an electric impulse by the mercury-cup device, which is described on page 191, the electric cir- cuit was carried directly to the same duplex marker that recorded the latency of the response. Coincident with the association latency records, then, and on the same record line, appears a continuous record of the length of the concurrent pulse-waves. Thus the pulse-lengths at any part of the reaction process may be read directly from the records. The pneumograph records were made by using a second mercury-cup device to transform the mechanical action of respiration to electrical waves which caused a marker to touch the record during each inspira- tion only. This recorded only the respiration rhythm, not its depth, but it sufficed to show that the pulse-rhythm of the experiments is FREE ASSOCIATION. 113 not a mere respiration rhythm, but is superposed on the latter in a definite manner. A time-line was also introduced into the records to control the accu- racy of the kymograph. The pendulum of an accurately running clock was made to break the electric circuit of a time-marker, which was thus permitted to vibrate against the drum for a moment every 2 seconds. This intermittent time-record is so delicate that it can not interfere in the least with the other lines, while it serves as an absolute guarantee of the speed of the kymograph. STIMULUS WORDS. The series of stimulus words was that given in the Appendix of the monograph by Woodworth and Wells.1 The Kent-Rosanoff2 words were eliminated from it, and made into two series, D and D', as here- after described. The entire series was divided into 20 lists of 50 words each. One list formed the material for a single experimental period. Six lists were given on each experimental day, regularly alternating with the Faradic threshold experiments. On a few occasions diffi- culties of technique caused a delay which necessitated the omission of the threshold experiment, but the interval between the association experiments approximated 12 minutes in each case. The instructions to the subject were verbal, in a form that frequent repetition has re- duced to practical uniformity. On the first day, conventional examples of stimulus and response were given to the subject, who also reacted correctly to preliminary stimulus words before the experiments were begun. In this manner all difficulties in understanding the nature of the test were avoided during the experiment. If a stimulus word was misunderstood, it was taken in the sense in which it was understood; if the response were doubtfully understood, the subject was requested to spell it, or was asked about ambiguities. There are three more or less standard ways of dealing with the data of the association experiment. These are: (1) according to the reaction time of the response; (2) according to certain quasilogical relations of the response and the stimulus word; (3) by the statistical frequency of the responses within the range of the material where this has been determined. In addition, the present experiments record the pulse- reactions of the subjects and, in certain cases, also "psycho-galvanic" reactions. These phases of the experiment are first described in order, after which some questions of correlation are dealt with. Woodworth and Wells. Psychological Monographs, 1911, 13, No. 57. 2Kent and Rosanoff, Am. Journ. Insanity, 1910, 67, pp. 37 and 317. 114 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ASSOCIATION-REACTION TIME. This is the most highly educated group of subjects that Wells has used in the association experiment. As a group, the reaction times are a little longer than those of less-educated subjects Wells has seen, the slower formulation of the response being very probably due to the more complex mental processes the stimulus word is likely to arouse in educated subjects. In spite of the fact that the differences between the averages are small, the order of quickness in which these averages place the subjects is fairly constantly maintained, Subjects X and III being the fastest. Then follow in order Subjects VI, VII, II, and IX. The place of Subject IX is doubtless accounted for by the fact that not English but German is his native language. TABLE 13. — Association-reaction times. [Values given in hundredths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Series A. Series B. Series C. Series D. Series E. Series F. Aver- age. Normal I: II 240 241 234 205 254 248 237 Ill 196 205 194 163 194 202 192 IV 233 216 215 201 235 230 222 VI 234 207 217 191 194 224 211 VII 228 225 218 209 187 223 215 IX 316 313 280 248 267 281 281 X 157 163 162 158 163 179 164 Alcohol (dose A) : II 1218 261 268 203 233 274 248 Ill . 1203 189 187 164 182 193 183 IV 1262 239 241 191 240 240 230 VI 1219 244 212 194 208 205 213 VII 1202 223 235 204 226 243 226 IX 1268 270 275 256 278 285 273 X 1177 173 172 161 168 169 168 Alcohol (dose B) : II 1287 258 257 196 239 267 243 Ill 1185 189 179 169 193 188 184 IV 1203 223 212 188 207 228 212 VI 1190 193 186 170 184 186 184 VII 1196 207 196 189 196 198 197 IX 1245 231 279 256 292 309 271 Normal II : II 236 222 248 212 273 268 243 Ill 189 177 201 180 191 185 187 IV 207 155 191 182 206 209 192 VI 187 172 185 177 198 198 186 VII 180 177 196 185 193 218 191 IX 266 242 251 237 272 267 256 1Values for Series A obtained before alcohol was given, and therefore not included in averages. The complete table of association-reaction times is given in table 13. In the column at the extreme left is given the kind of experiment and the designation of the several subjects. The columns headed Series A, Series B, etc., contain the average results for the 6 experimental periods FREE ASSOCIATION. 115 into which each session was divided. The last column shows the average of the whole experimental session for each subject. That the present doses of alcohol have produced no marked effect on the association reaction times is at once apparent; it is rather a ques- tion of whether a consistent effect is discernible. I. (Normal) 2. (Dose A) 3. (Dose B) 4.(N o JD J? u 00 < u_ UJ o CO < LJ o < u. LJ U < LL. LJ Q U CO < u LJ O o \ PL ^s 1 1 ,! 2t V I ! i \ s s\ & I Iffr moinoinoinoin n m t\j CM — — LJ ooinomooLnOLnoinoinooifioino M ,.^-rOroojro ,,fM~- o o r , 8, p. 307. -Brown, Nature, 1S95, 52, p. 184. MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 151 satisfactory is the evidence obtained by direct observation of another's eyes. If the observer is careful not to look directly at the moving eye, but rather at some point on the eyelid, the alternation of movement and stops, as the subject attempts to move his eye slowly, will be clearly distinguished. Photographic records show that these pauses are of varying length, the shortest being of slightly less than 0.2". TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING THE VELOCITY OF EYE-MOVEMENTS. It is unnecessary to repeat here a critical resume of the earlier attempts to measure the duration of the eye-movements by optical methods. The first measurements of the eye-movements from photographic records are reprinted in table 24 from the paper by Dodge and Cline.1 TABLE 24. — Duration of eye-movements. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] 1 Angular Relation A B C Gen- lateral lo eral displace- primary I aver- ment. position. M. M.V. No. M. M.V. No. M. M.V. No, age. L. R. 5° 5+0 34.5 1.5 x 29.4 2.9 8 22.4 3.3 10 28.8 10° 5+5 41.8 1.4 9 40.9 3.8 8 33.7 2.1 5 38.8 15° 10+ 5 46.7 4.5 X 47.9 2.6 10 49.9 3.1 10 48.2 20° i 10 + 10 54.5 8.0 x 51.3 3.5 10 58.6 4.1 10 54.8 30° ! 15+15 84.3 8.9 7 74.3 9.3 10 82.5 3.8 10 80.4 40° 20+20 100.4 4,5 7 93.4 7.3 10 106.0 8.0 8 99.9 Table 24 shows the mean duration of the eye-movements of three subjects, A, B, and C, through angles varying from 5° to 40°. The two columns at the left give the angular lateral displacement of the line of regard, together with an indication of the orientation of the lateral displacement with relation to the preliminary line of regard. For example, eye-movements of 40° were between two points which were 20° to either side of the primary line of regard. M. signifies the mean value in terms of thousandths of a second, M. V. the mean variation, and No. the number of records from which the mean is reckoned. At the extreme right is given the general average for all three subjects for the various angles of displacement. The results given in the table indicate that the duration of the move- ments of any individual eye through a given angle tends to remain constant within the limits of a relatively small variation from the mean. The larger mean variation for the angular movements above 15° is due in part to the differences which were found to exist between the adduc- tive and the abductive movements of the eye. The table shows further that the duration of eye-movement increases in direct ratio with the angle. Taking the general average of all three 'Dodge and Cline, Psychol. Review, 1901, 8, p. 145. 152 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. subjects as a basis for calculation, it would appear that for every 5° added to the amplitude of the eye-movement between 5° and 40°, about 10 a is added to the duration of the movement. But the apparent implication of a fixed maximum velocity of 10 a for each 5° is false. The experiments of Guillery1 and of Bruckner,2 as well as Erdmann and Dodge's3 experiments by the Lamansky method, all showed that the maximum velocity of the eye during movements of large amplitude is greater than the maximum velocity during move- ments of small amplitude. The record of every eye-movement of the first type, between 5° and 40°, shows three distinct phases. The first phase consists of a positive acceleration to a maximum velocity. This is maintained for a considerable angle of movement, and constitutes the second phase, giving place in turn to a negative acceleration phase as the eye comes to rest. The relation of these phases is not constant. In the shortest excursions measured, the second phase is very short, while in the longest excursions, with the exception of a peculiar modification in the abductive movements, the second phase is by far the most conspicuous. Moreover, if one superimposes a curve for a movement of 15° on a curve for a movement of 40°, the second phase of the latter record will be found to incline slightly more to the horizontal. This confirms the law that the maximum as well as the average velocity increases in direct ratio with the angle of movement. Guillery1 observed a decided difference between the velocity of the eye at the beginning and at the end of an eye-movement; but his experimental method involved two conditions that tend to distort the relation. In the first place, his eye-movements were uniformly ex- treme, and involved considerably more muscle strain and effort than the more natural excursions measured by Dodge and Cline, which never exceeded 20° from the primary position of the eye. Still more important is the fact that it is found to be impossible, even under the most favorable conditions, to secure a series of simple direct movements of the eyes from one fixation point to another which is more than 40° distant. This distance is persistently underestimated, and the initial long movement of the first type is succeeded by a shorter corrective movement of the same type. Since Guillery 's eye-movements were all 40° or over, it seems probable that his attempt to measure the velocity of the end of the eye-movements was confused by the small corrective movements whose average velocity is comparatively low. In the abductive movements, the photographic records commonly show a marked difference between the velocity of corresponding portions of the first and third phases. This peculiarity of the third phase is sufficient to account for the longer duration of the abductive move- ments as remarked independently both by Guillery, and by Dodge and Guillery, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1898, 73, p. 87. 2Briickner, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1902, 90, p. 73. 'Erdmann and Dodge, Psyehologische Untersuchungcn iihor das Lesen, Halle, 1898. MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 153 Cline. Bruckner found the relation reversed in his own case, i. e,, the adductive movements were longer than the abductive. This led him to conclude that the differences are mere personal peculiarities rather than universal differences of the eye-movements in the two directions. All these various characteristics of the simple eye-movements have since been confirmed by a wealth of photographic records.1 They make it clear that the reciprocal innervation of the antagonistic muscles of the eye under normal conditions is a nice adjustment of great regularity in ordinary vision. We know of no other voluntary action which is so completely with- drawn from voluntary control as the eye-movements. There is scant sensory data concerning them, so scant that ordinarily one is unable to give any subjective account of these movements. Physiologically their velocity is probably determined by visual considerations. Eye-move- ments exist for the sake of unconfused vision. They should be of such short duration that vision does not seem to be interrupted. They must be rapid enough to prevent the confusion of an apparently moving field. When satisfactorily executed, attention is abstracted from the eye-movements to the clear vision that they condition. For our pur- poses it is a further advantage of the eye-movements that they are thoroughly habituated. Moreover, the technique is adequate. The records are photographic. The time is given directly through regular interruption of the recording beam of light by a vibrator in series with a tuning-fork. It should be noted, however, that the photographic procedure is not without some difficulties of its own. The eyelid may droop and interfere with the recording light without parallel interference of vision. Excessive head- movements may render a considerable portion of the plate illegible, or take the subject out of focus of the recording-camera. However, the demands on the subject's intelligence and cooperation are so small that satisfactory sets of eye-movement records were obtained by Diefendorf and Dodge from 40 inmates of the Connecticut Hospital for the Insane, including manic, depressed, epileptic, paralytic, and prsecox patients. Our photographic arrangements for recording the movements of the eye are similar to those for recording eye-reaction, except that instead of the apparatus to expose peripheral objects, two constant fixation marks are shown (Fl and F2, fig. 14). These latter are so oriented that in looking from one to the other the eye of the subject will move through an angle of 40°, i. e., 20° on either side of its primary position, as in the eye-move- ments of 40° which were measured by Dodge and Cline. The subject occupied position II, figure 1, exactly as in the eye-reaction measure- ments. The physiological brilliancy of the arc light was stopped down Unfortunately the pretentious work of Koch (Archiv f. d. ges. Psychol., 1908, 13, p. 196) is unreliable. In spite of apparently minute care in determining fixation, he can not prevent inaccuracies of vertical displacement. All such inaccuracies, however, will appear on his records as a modification of the apparent time of movement. The wide individual variation in the velocity of the eye-movements which he found is an instrumental artifact. 154 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. with one or more thicknesses of blue glass. The oscillating light- interrupter was set in motion by starting the electrically-driven tuning- fork with which it was in series. The enlarging camera was focused to secure the best image of the arc light as reflected from the cornea of the subject. The shutter dropped and the signal was given to the subject to look from one point of regard to the other, back and forth as rapidly as possible, until the signal to stop was given at the end of 5 seconds. A typical record of the eye-movements is reproduced in figure 27. The horizontal lines on this record indicate the moments of visual fixa- tion. The oblique lines of dashes indicate movements of the eye from one fixation point to another. Each sweep is usually continuous until near the end, when a sharp break often occurs, followed by one or more short corrective movements. These corrections are usually not over 5° of movement. They are always noted in reading the plates and are recorded in the tables. But their algebraic sums are so nearly constant that no correction of the final values has been attempted on their account. The time interruptions of the record were made by the fork- driven vibrator. The indicate hundredths of a second. Similar time FIG. 27. — Typical eye-movement record. records appear on the original records in the fixation lines, but there was no particular object in adding to the burden of the reading by counting them. Instead, we took the total number of eye-movements in 5 sec- onds to be a satisfactory measure of the fixation pauses. RESULTS. All our data on the velocity of the eye-movements are collected in table 25, arranged according to the numbers of the subjects. Under movements to the right and left respectively are given the duration of the abductive and adductive eye-movements, together with the extent of the corrective movements. Under the heading "Total movement' is given the sum of the durations of movement to the right and left. This is made the basis of the calculation of the effect of alcohol, in the effort to equalize any fault of muscle-balance that may have been present in any of the subjects, or induced by the experiments. Under "No. of cycles" is entered, as far as data are available, the number of complete cycles of eye-movement and fixation that occurred in 5 seconds of experiment. MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 155 d . 8 10 a) a H a °J in ic » ic ic o OOO rH rH O rH CO rH CM W OrHrHOOO II 1 1 1 1 ++++ 1 +++ + d CD 3 JS 2 ^ b rH CN CM CN rH rH 1 ++ II 1 1 1 + 1 + 1 1 -H3 > d O O CD H a a CM CT> UJ OOfOt^OO 00 Ol C0~|> O l> rH O >O t> 111 i i i i i i i vl i MI ii 1 **- tO £H O Q} cNt^M^! lOiOON ^<0 OICOU3CO 0 1C K f2 1C 1C t» III w es o a OQ S2lis bOrHOt>. 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C^ CO IO "^"^"^ft ^^ QO *"H O5 O5 ^^ O^ O5 CO 00 iO iO iO CO ^H CO ^}^ ^^ Is* ^^ g> .. " &•* . M •• bB " c3 O e3 ^ rt jg (H *"^ . >-. i— ' (-i f-H ->j QJ Oi Hi _ , ' S O5 ^ *""' ^. r* i— ' ^ i-H r* i— 1 o •^ " ^ *** ^ oo IO '"H .C 03 ^H (^ CO ^^ . ^^ s a MCOTfiiO ^i-ilNCOTjHiOcO M -»^ -1J u f 0 0 !-H 1 5 rH £ o I o o 3 Normal II £ ? Is o ^- 3 cc'g "o o « fc ^ « s 1 1 •si !1 O f •H 3J 03 -2 OS "2 £3 o "ft 0 SJ SP aJ-0,2 P4 HS 158 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. a*o j IOIOOOOOOOOU5 iOOt2 C*l t^» iO *O O O IO iO iO *^* 10 iO C-l O O s 7 *J| § 2 * M ^ OC^l^OOiOCCOOOffO COt^-OS^HGO COt*»OCOlft 1 + +++ 1 ++ +++++ ++ 1 + "o o « • b 05-d^ w Ol O ^^ *O O O5 ^ ^^ Is* Ol C& ^? O^ O CO ^H ^ ^O *O C-J iO t* O do g ^ 'C * ~ o o o nas GO ^D Oi Oi ^^ 01 ^^ co r*™ co 01 *"•< ^^ ^D ^H ^D o^ o-i Tt^ ^i co ^H 01 -JJ M g« 2 §^H~ H m - 0 - 00 iO t1* &) • • v LCCOOXC^COXCOOO *OO(NO»-(OOOOO(N *^3 t— t i-H i— ( I-H £ O -tJ tn «§ O5 • > — . »H <(J^H *f i& ^^ r Q § 3 ""1 1-5 1-3 O Subject and kind of experiment. a "S Si I •! ° ^ J i- t^ u s. i ~ i» I .*>. o ?? ts> .• — ; — ^ — • s^ a 03 g <^§ 1 § -9 S - 3" st a ?\ (O o oo o co JThe values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. -These records showed several irregular eye-movements. Illegible. 4Records for period 5 illegible. 0 rH M ++++ 0 0 + I-H'O" - I — _ _H o to to CNN 1 + CM rH T}< 1 + 1 O rH | rH rH Tf {>J CO O CO O 1 O rH 7 i o o 1 1 O CD to C>1 1 1 + 1 rH CO CO 1 1 1 1 1 oo to co rH CN 1 1 1 "^ t* CN rH I 1 CN CO X cN CN co co eo Mil CO ^ CO 1 1 ss 1 1 CO 30 rH 1 + rH rH 1 + rH US OS 00 CO rH ^H 1 1 1 1 to O O CN O iO to US to O O CN CN t- tjj CM O iO OS CN to t^- US co^' to to o CN CN O CO O CD to O CN OS 1Q tO t^- IO C?S •* -^J" ^ CO CO rf CO CO CO CO iO US ^ •* •* CO CO tO tO ^ to o o I> CO «£ OO iO O CO t- g Cs OS CO 00 CO CO CO os co c\ ^""\ ^J JO ^~^ rH OS CO CC T^. CM CN rH 00 CN CN rH rH tO O O OS O O rH CN CN t-~ l> ~-t- CN OS l> OS OS Oo OS OS O i— 1 rH »-l rH rH CN QO rH 6$ T)< OO O ^t O O Oi rH CN CO CN CM cN ^i CN CN CN CN IO rH OS OO OS rH rH rH CN ?-l CN i— s— ' O^ t"^ i— i i-H CO rH CO t-. rH IO Tf O OS °i OS CO rH rH CN rH >s l-H C-l 1 ++ 1 *^ ^2 ++ ^H QC i— 1 00 OS 00 00 CN rH O CN O rH 1 1 + 1 + + + + + CN CO CO + 1 1 O rH 1 00 CO CN rH CN 1 1 1 "* t> CNrH 1 1 CN CN t> t~ rH CN rH rH 1 1 1 1 •0 OS i 7 co eo rH rH 1 1 O »O 1— 1 + CO M 1 + 00 CN CN t«- CO rH rH MM 0 O O CN O CO iO O tO cN to 00 ous j^t-co CN rH eo t> CO t> CO US 00 ^CO O 1 W ®j 0 rH >- O O O CO o o o CS O O rH rH t^ 00 -3 OS OS j* •CN O CO C rH rH 00 rH 1C t> t^ CN W rH rH C5 rH CN 01 CN CO OS Sr3 i-H rH CM CO IO I-H O C rH rH rH e-jr*'*' *O ^D N— * O^ O5 f— 1 CO CO CC i— i o C i-H rH >~ rj< oo oo eo rH CO rH {VJ rH rH rH rH -< 0 0 O CN O 1 1 rH rH rH 1 1 + U5 -HO 1 1 tO N CN OS CM rH l-H rH rH + + + + rH O 1 0 O* 1 0 0 'CO rH rH CO CO Tf O CO I-l 1 + + + CO CO CO 1 1 1 CO CO 1 1 + 1 00 i-H rH CN rH 1 1 1 1 rH 1O rH 1 1 1 1 CO CO 1 + COrH 1 1 l> CO t~ rH + 111 o o o CN O •"- 1 O O CN 1 us O O S3 »i iO tO O CN O CO o rH O o o' o 0o o CO O *• 1 1 t^ O 0 (N rH rH CN O 1 80 o o o i-H rH rH O OS g CD os ^^ l-H •" sss §8 § i— 1 i— t rH X O ** OS O rH CO ^^ t"* c£*^ ^^ ^^ OS OS OO ^ OS 00 O 00 C) CO CO t^- rH OS 00 05 00 OS OS OS . CU . . . CU !-C ^ : : : ^2 : sf « tc • • S l-H * 53 os . M ,-H . . . ' I~H • jj. rH . > --1 • ^ 2 : : : 1 .: *£ *"* <5 + i 7 i i i dlO COlOrHTflOO rHrHMrHtNlOlOTfOlO + + +MIII +ii77ii7 i °? rH "3 » -^ Ci .2 > s o o « H s a i i i 7 i i OS i-- XM (MOXrHCOO OOCOO5rHO3COtO!N-rJ(O rH C<) rH rH rH + + + +11+ Ill + l + ll + l a o s »o f"* 1^* t*" C"7 ^^ t"* ^i t** OO OiOOOOWJ CiOiOOOOOiOiOOM 3 fe S fc.0 g ^Tt^iOO-tfTf ^ ^^^,0^^,0,0^ .p^LO^LO 0.0.0^ ° I> •£ T! • g • 3 "S G "" b^O O5 CO O C^ O »H CO 4O tf • • i L O *~H IO rH O rH f1^ lO O CO !>• !>• O l-O » rH !"•• co ^~* co to t** to jC* ^^ tc ^t1 Gs *o o >o co C1! oo oi eo OrH^^rHrHONrHTH '1~i'r}HrHC^rHCOrHCOrHOC l> 0 CO ^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 eo + i +++ 11+ 7 i i i i +7 i + i a a> &< /— \ s £ a H f o ^^ S'OOXMOOCON rH "«+ 1 1 II f-J 00 77^ 1 1 1 5-*t.5rH 2 d 3.2 n -M b^OtOOC^T^iOlO O OCOtOiOX'i'lO IM OOO^t^-OOiOtOIMOS OOrHrH^t^COINNIMC^ ^T1 "^ f-N ^1 rH t-4 QJ O 0 CO (H • fl 1 • *"* ^C ^ - o § IM •* rH ^ r* r™* ^ d Q. •*^ *. jj » ^H ri r-T ^ ^ . ' ^< CO ' ^ r p ^^ ^H C^ CO ^^ *O CO * rH d r? Q W rH ^ •" rH rH O) Q Subject and kind of experiment. . • P S'- i" 1 q o »< •g3 » ••^'o h "3 !•§ ^§ — >-c O ^ r5 0 S 1 _c m s MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 161 1 1 + 1 1 1 + + + CN •<*< CO rH ic CM + 1 1 1 1 1 O TjH Tji CD C^ 1 + + + + T}l O 1-H 1-H t> co ic •-! os 1-H rH CO l>- 00 00 iC CO CN rH CO r-H + 1 1 1 1 1 TJH T}< 00 O QO rH rH CO rM 1 1 1 1 1 1C 1C CN 1 1 CC «O O CN M -^ \ 1 1 1-H CO CO t-» rH 1C U^J 1^) U^) (^) l^J lj^ iC 1C O 1C O O CN C t~ CO ^ CN £•" PI CN O T}< CN v^ 1— 1 r— 1 1— 1 T—I CO^ ?« CO CN CM O CO r-H 1C OS N rH CN rH ^H cc a t~ O .-H i-H 00 t- SX! OO O CN rH CN O "I co iJ^cO O CC O C^ 1s* ^rt' ^^ t"^ CD CD C0 4s* Oi 800 1C >C O Os oo o os •O CN b- O 00 •O CN CN CO CM 1-H ^H >H 1- 1C 1C 1C 1C 1C t» co ic co ^ ic in 1 1 1 1 1 1 co i— i co t~ m + + 1 + + oo co + 1 ^ i-t CN •* CO + 1 + + + + 1 7 1 ce ^^ T^ C*^ Oi t^~ t^ rH rH + 1 1 1 1 1 CO CN O5 OS FH rH i-H 1— 1 1 1 1 1 1 r/i O CO 1-H r-l 1 1 CC in CN CN t» 1— 1 1^ 1-H II III t» -^ x co w rH 1 1 + + + 1C CC CO CN CO rH CN 1-H N rH i-TcC 0 0«N EH CO 1C OS ^ Tf O CM 1C CO 1-1 M < 00 ^ rH ^^ H^ ^-4 ^^ •H M CN i— C i"~ ic co o cc t*» *- CJ O i-H i-H rH O *- r-H >— ' CN C-l CO CM CO 0 o o in s?} ic t^ GO l» °o CO c t- o ^j CN in O OS O O ^H o •o o i> ic o ^H -i CN I-H O O »H ^ (Tl *"* iC 1C 1C iC iC OS t- H U9 t. C 1C CN CO CN ^H 1 1 1 1 + 1 CO •* CO •* «O i i i 7 i O i-H rH + 1 CO CM ~ CO i-H Tj< O 1 + ++ CN CO CO O> 00 OS i-H r-i + 1 1 1 1 1 1-1 CN O OS 00 i i 77 i 0 CO 1C CN C rH r- + 1 1 C 1-4 1C 1-H »-( 1 1 1 00 O O «O 1-H 1-H i-H ++ 1 + If. F-" 1-H CN t> Tf ic I-H co eq 1 x S~; o ic cc oo pH in • iij T^ 'cf ^o 1"^ m m • • C CC CO CN CM in ^* Is"" CO O fO CN c- O iC OC I-H O OS *- O5 O5 O O I-H OS C C^ ^ CO rH O O O ^ O rH C1! O CN tv. OS C) CN C O5 CC OO 05 O C O »•* O iC CM O O OS O OS o CN o o in M O ^H CO 1-H - HH ^ 5J3 HH bO^ bfi to C3 rH c3 Oi M O5 ^ "^ f_t ' " " 1? _J 4) rH ^ rH U i O ^ . . . . a> > •" ^ l> !•* ^ " -^ " jJ » •" ' "3 S "3 B p S S r?i & CO CO s" S M ^ a 3 rH II - ^ T3 a 03 a 0) •S 8.3 ££ — bo o _« o ^ CD O .C 'g -M g a P. ^S co <« .0 CO O a> rH § o J ^3 § •3 CO T3 « •SS CO feO p, co TO ? 2 «2 "c3 T3 > s CO o X! co Htf 162 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. i *** * g o g 0 £ ° a 1> o S co" ^ fe 1 i i + + i + i + + : : : : : + P 1 _. 1 • CO _ cj O -*^ ^ -*> > g o o ^ H S S I I i I I i : ; i ; : i **-• an M O 09 H fr* *C .*~ Q} s Z -0 u M i H •^ l> IA - >• 0 5 "3 *3 .*. _- _, *. .^ . -^ .^ > , _ _ : = rf SH 'o 0 a; H a s CO ^d^fioc'-oo^H OCCI-H o »o w t- OOOOOOOO OOOOOO I-H fHrHi— t^M rHf— I^H +3 8 co 2 a i • ^ §17 w ^1 CO ^> CC i-H CO CO ^ F^ t** r-< r'H *~^ O ^ +1+1 ++ + + i ++ 00 (N r-H O O IO O <~> 1 + ++ + 0 |2* i § K ^ ^ ^ O C~l ^H CO O O O CO IM o oo o o o r- CO p^ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 II 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 a 0) o 2 'a w ^ oo in t» M m • • £ a 3.2 o £ bOo>;;> •*'.'.'.'.>*-* [> fH J^ C ft S •. ^^ » ^^ CO ^^ f}* 0 0 (8 P ft ft ft ft ft Subject and kind of experiment. G 1 <1 1^, ^ »o ' — '"' •<~»HH ' —t rO -M _« .« ^ 53 S «J O -ffx! Q &2 a -^ "* •""! *~r *~r *3J ^5 <"H " ^< 1—4 1— I "3 o O a li 1 O CO .S? . o 5 o a "3 03 03 3 S O TO 43 I .-§ H £ § 2 a a) O "aw TABLE 26. — Summary of eye-movements. [Average values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Movements to right. Movements to left. Total dura- tion of move- ment. Mean variation Num- 3er of cy- cles. Difference.1 Dura- tion. Error. Difference.1 Dura- tion. Error. Difference.1 Total dura- tion. Mean vari- ation Num- ber of cycles. Dura- tion. Error. Dura- tion. Error. Normal subjects. Normal I and II: II a [ 93 1 96 [ 99 1 99 [112 1120 101 [ 99 \ 94 88 99 [ 99 1102 92 90 deg. 0.9 -0.33 2.3 0 0.8 0.6 0 0.4 0.2 -0.7 3.1 1.0 0.1 0 0 cr + 13 - 1 - 9 - 7 + 6 deg. - 0.4 • 1.7 - 0.8 0 - 0-4 + 1.0 - 1.9 - 0.6 0 0 a \ 92 \ 98 [100 1105 [116 \128 92 [ 98 \106 103 107 [101 1109 107 88 deg. 0.9 2.2 3.7 0 1.2 2.8 0 0.4 5.0 1.2 11.2 2.7 2.5 10.0 -2.0 a - 5 + 2 - 8 H -22 + 9 deg. + 2.8 + 4.0 - 3.7 ff [185 1193 [199 \204 [228 1248 198 [197 1200 191 207 J201 \211 199 178 <7 7 19 9 10 16 15 1 3 6 6 11 7 12 22 12 6.4 6.7 7.8 9.5 8.1 8.0 a }-„ }-» + 1 - 2 - 3 -0.1 -0.4 -0.8 Ill . . . IV VI VII.. . + 1.1 + 9.0 - 5.7 + 1.2 - 5.0 + 8.2 }-„ + 1 -16 -29 + 16 + 1 - 6 o - 2 —22 - 4 +0.7 4.5 4.9 5.5 6.5 7.2 5.6 8.7 IX X -0.3 -0.2 -1.1 -0.5 Average . . . Alcohol (dose A) : II Ill IV VI 99 90 91 109 95 115 100 132 143 102 111 6.5 0.5 0.2 8.7 2.6 0 0 0 0.6 0.8 1.0 -12 0 - 1 - 8 - 4 -21 0 -24 -44 -15 -19 - 3.5 - 0.5 + 1.4 - 6.7 - 1.5 0 + 2.0 0 + 3.4 + 11.2 + 1.0 112 111 123 122 110 122 106 141 136 122 155 2.5 2.5 2.3 12.0 4.5 0 0 4.3 2.7 3.8 -2.6 - 5 -17 -17 -11 -10 -39 - 5 -30 -19 -17 -47 - 0.5 + 13.5 - 1.1 + 5.2 + 3.4 0 + 3.0 + 5.7 + 5.2 - 0.2 + 10.6 200 201 214 230 205 230 207 273 271 224 267 11 7 18 14 14 13 15 25 8 21 5.4 5.7 3.9 5.5 5.8 3.7 9.2 7.7 4.4 3.9 4.9 -12 -17 -18 -18 -13 -67 - 6 -54 -55 -32 -67 + 3 - 1 - 2 + 2 - 4 -0.2 +0.7 +1.6 +0.2 +0.1 +2.3 -0.2 + 1.5 +1.5 +0.6 -0.1 VII IX X Average . . . Alcohol (dose B) : II III . . 0 - 4 - 8 + 2 - 5 IV . VI VII IX x Average . . . 12 hr. experiments. Normal : VI . . 117 106 95 100 101 100 100 [ 89 \ 92 [115 \120 [ 92 1 93 r 99 1102 101 120 92 104 0.4 4.5 0.7 2.6 1.8 5.4 3.6 4.5 2.5 3.5 -0.5 0.7 3.5 2.9 1.8 3.5 1.0 1.0 1.8 -20 -21 0 -10 0 - 4 - 2 iji -11 -20 + 2.9 + 7.2 - 6.4 - 0.4 + 2.1 - 1.4 + 0.3 + 1.0 - 1.1 - 0.6 - 0.2 + 2.5 + 1.0 + 1.0 + 1.5 130 115 119 117 114 122 118 (75 \105 (111 \121 [ 92 { 88 [ 93 1105 97 122 90 103 1.4 3.9 -0.1 1.9 2.7 0.8 1.7 9.0 3.0 1.0 2.5 1.7 1.5 5.2 2.3 2.0 2.8 4.2 3.0 -26 -18 + 1 - 8 + 1 - 2 0 }-• H -15 -12 -10 -12 + 4.0 + 6.8 + 1.3 + 4.0 - 2.7 - 2.8 - 2.7 + 5.0 + 0.5 + 0.6 + 2.0 - 1.0 + 1.2 + 0.8 + 0.3 245 221 214 217 215 223 219 [164 1190 [228 \241 [182 \182 [191 1204 198 242 182 207 16 16 14 15 17 17 17 4 2 19 7 5.6 5.3 4.7 5.0 5.8 4.9 5.3 -47 -39 + 1 -19 0 - 6 - 3 -26 -32 - 3 + 3 - 1 + 1 + 5 - 5 0 + 2 + 8 + 5 + 5 +10 + 3 +0.9 +1.0 0 +0.5 -0.1 +0.1 0 IX . Average . . . Alcohol (dose C) : VI IX. . Average . . . Psychopathic subjects. Normal I and II: XI XII XIV Average . . . Alcohol (dose A) : XI 4 11 4 XII 11 11 11 XIV Average . . . -15 -29 + 6 lDifference equals periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. 163 164 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SUMMARY OF EYE-MOVEMENT DATA. In view of the fact that reliable data on the eye-movements are rela- tively few, and in view also of the peculiar importance of this group of measurements, as will appear in the concluding chapter, it seemed advisable to make the summary as complete as possible. A complete statement of all the averages is consequently given in table 26. In this table appear (1) the average duration of the eye-movements; (2) the average errors; and (3) the average differences, under each of the three headings "Movements to the right," "Movements to the left," and "Total," i. e., the sum of the movements in both directions. In the group of data which is indicated as Normal I and Normal II the aver- ages for both normal days are given in a single column. But the dura- tions for the two days are given separately for each subject, whenever available, connected by a bracket. Similarly the averages at the foot of the columns appear double; the upper ones (99, 101, 201) are the average durations of the eye-movements of the group for the first normal day; the lower ones (102, 109, and 211) are the corresponding values for the second normal day. In giving the "differences" for this group of experiments the two normal days have been averaged, since that is the form in which they will be used in the subsequent tables. The summary of the effect of alcohol on the eye-movements is given in tables 27 and 28. In the former, the effect is computed from the averages according to the formula: the average values after alcohol minus the average values of the two normal days equals the effect of alcohol. From table 27 it appears that the average duration after alcohol is almost uniformly greater than the average duration on normal days. In table 28 the effect of alcohol on the various processes is calculated from the "differences." In the left-hand part of the table the effect is stated in average differences; in the right-hand part it is stated in percentile differences. The formulae for the two values are given in footnotes to the respective tables. In order not to complicate our main results and obscure their bearing on the main question at issue, we would for the present abstract from the minor questions of ocular balance, the individual differences in the interaction between the internal and external recti, the amount of fixation error, and the number of cycles for the sake of giving greater emphasis to the most general of all the eye-movement data that are given under the heading of "Total." This averages — 2.5 per cent after dose A, and —18.6 per cent after dose B. That is to say, after 30 c.c. of alcohol, eye-movements of 40°, without regard to the direction, took an average of 2.5 per cent longer time than under normal conditions. Similarly, after 45 c.c. of alcohol, they took an average of 18.6 per cent longer time than the normal. It is conspicuous that in all these values there is only one exception, viz, Subject III after dose A. It is further conspicuous that for all the subjects where there are comparable data, MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 165 dose B delayed the eye-movements more than dose A. These effects are equally obvious in the effects as calculated from the simple averages which are given in table 27. The number of cycles in 5" seems to show a significant change only after dose B, when it is diminished by 15.8 per cent. In this case, the simple averages given in table 27 again furnish corroborative evidence. Taken alone they would have indicated, however, that both doses operate to reduce the number of cycles. TABLE 27. — Summary of effect of alcohol on the eye-movements as shown by changes in the average values. (Alcohol— normal.) [Time units given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and kind of experiment. Effect on move- ments to right. Effect on move- ments to left. Effect on total move- ment. Effect on mean varia- tion. Effect on number of cycles. Duration of move- ment. Error. Duration of move- ment. Error. Normal subjects: Dose A: II a - 2 - 9 - 2 - 6 + 3 + 10 _ | +21 + 1 +16 +42 + 6 +23 +18 - 5 + 5 0 +11 + 3 0 + 5 deg. -0.3 -1.1 +6.5 +0.2 +0.9 +5.6 +1.9 -0.3 -1.1 -0.7 +0.6 +0.5 + 1-7 +0.1 -2.7 +4.7 +1.0 0 -0.5 -1.1 -0.5 ff + 12 -14 +20 + 9 +20 + 15 +10 +27 + 4 + 19 +44 +20 +52 +28 - 1 + 3 + 1 + 7 + 6 0 + 4 deg. +8.5 -3.8 +2.5 -0.2 + 1-1 +0.8 +1.5 -1.5 -1.8 +2.3 +2.7 + 1.1 -3.8 -0.2 -1.2 +0.9 -0.1 -4.0 + 1.1 +2.6 -0.1 cr + 10 -23 + 8 + 3 +23 +23 + 7 +41 + 6 +35 +73 +26 +76 +43 - 6 + 9 + 1 +21 + 8 0 +10 tr + 9 + 3 + 10 + 3 + 12 + 3 + 7 -0.9 +0.1 Ill !VI VII + 1-2 -1.0 0 -0.1 -2.8 +0.6 -0.3 IX X Average Dose B: II Ill + 4 0 +24 + 4 + 15 + 9 + 1 + 3 + 2 IV VI VII -0.6 0 -0.6 +0.5 +0.2 +0.3 2IX.. . Average 12 hr. experiments: Dose C : VI IX Average Psychopathic subjects: XI XII — 2 + 7 + 2 XIV Average measurements of the eye-movements with dose A were made with Subject IV. 2No measurements of the eye-movements with dose B were made with Subject X. The data for the psychopathic subjects are complete only for Sub- jects XI and XII. They show a consistent effect of alcohol in the same direction as the normal group, only considerably more in amount, averaging 12.9 per cent after dose A. The incomplete data for Subject XIV are in the same direction as those for Subjects XI and XII. The two 12-hour experiments show opposite tendencies, as usual in these two subjects. 166 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. There is no consistent change in the errors of fixation due to the alco- hol dose. Apparently the average error after dose A was materially greater than the normal error, or the error after dose B. The mean variation is increased after both dose A and dose B in table 27, but this change does not stand the test of the computation by differences. In addition to these generalizations with respect to the effect of alcohol, there are other less important, but none the less interesting, general tendencies of our data. The errors of fixation which occurred in eye-movements to the left (adductive movements) are conspicuously larger than those in the movements to the right (abductive movements) . While there are occasional exceptions to this rule, it seems to apply to all subjects, including the psychopathies. In general, the errors of TABLE 28. — Summary of effect of alcohol on the eye-movements as shown by changes in the differences. [Time units given in thousandths of a second.] Subjects. Effect as shown in average differences.1 Effect as shown in percentile differences.2 Movements to right. Movements to left. 1 1 Mean variation. Number of cycles. Movements to right. Movements to left. Total. Num- ber of cycles. Duration of movement. Error. Duration of movement. Error. Dura- tion of move- ment. Error. Dura- tion of move- ment. Error. Normal : Dose A: II a - 4 + 7 -•>5 deg. + 0.4 + 1-7 a -10 + 8 0 -10 -19 - 3 - 6 -27 - 6 -19 -14 -10 -49 -21 + 19 - 3 + 8 >j -12 - 5 - 8 deg. - 7.8 + 4.2 a -13 + 17 a -23 - 2 -1.0 -0.1 •p. ct. - 4.5 + 7.1 —25 8 p. ct. p. ct. -11.8 + 7.9 p. ct. -181.5 + 73.7 p. ct. - 7.5 + 8.5 p. ct. - 1.7 -12.4 Ill 3VI VII + 5 0 + 1 - 3 -18 + 1 -17 -57 -10 -18 -19 +21 + 8 -11 -23 - 0.1 + 0.4 - 4.8 - 0.5 + 0.4 + 3.7 + 0.8 + 12.4 -10.1 + 10.9 + 1.9 - 2.8 - 1.0 + 9.4 - 1.3 + 1.6 + 1.2 - 9.5 - 4.1 - 6.8 - 6.0 + 0.7 + 0.2 - 1.7 - 5 -19 - 2 - 4 -37 - 5 -36 -20 -68 -33 +39 - 7 +16 -19 -34 - 2 + 4 + 4 - 4 +"2 - 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 2 4 - 1 + 8 - 5 0 + 5.4 + 33.3 + 50.0 -282.0 + 66.2 -10.4 -18.1 - 2.8 - 7.0 -32.1 - 5.9 -17.0 -13.6 -10.1 -46.2 -20.8 + 17.7 - 2.5 + 7.6 - 8.3 -10.5 - 5.9 - 8.2 + 161.0 -220.0 + 93.2 - 14.7 -104.0 - 2.5 +348.0 - 35.2 + 20.0 + 45.3 -190.0 +410.0 +110.0 - 95.2 + 21.2 + 6.6 - 22.5 - 2.6 - 9.8 - 0.9 - 2.5 -29.0 - 2.5 -16.2 -10.5 -34.7 -18.6 + 19.5 - 3.3 + 8.1 -11.0 -14.9 IX X. . . . +0.5 -0.1 +2.4 +0.2 +2.3 -0.1 + 1.0 - 3.4 -19.6 + 1.0 -15.6 -55.3 -11.0 -20.1 -20.1 +22.6 - 4.2 + 9.2 -12.1 -20.4 + 9.2 - 1.6 +37.4 + 2.3 +25.8 - 2.2 Average .... Dose B : II III. . . +530.0 IV. . VI +290.0 VII + 11.6 0 + 3.3 - 5.1 + 5.0 0 + 1.5 + 2.1 + 1.6 + 1.7 4IX Average .... 12 hr. experiments: Alcohol : VI IX +1.2 -1.1 +0.1 -0.5 +410.0 - 68.0 -500.0 -284.0 + 32.0 + 161.5 + 80.0 + 91.2 +15.8 -18.3 + 2.1 - 8.1 Average .... Psychopathic: XI XII XIV Average .... -17 -26 + 1 -16.2 -12.9 Effect on the average difference equals (av. 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc., alcohol) minus (av. 1-2, 1-3,1-4, etc., normal). 2Effect on the percentile difference equals the effect of alcohol on the average difference divided by the average of the corresponding normals of the day. 3No records for Subject IV. 4No records for Subject X. MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 167 fixation decrease with repetition, as is shown by the comparison of the two normal days. Comparison of the normal days also shows that as a consequence of practice the duration of the eye-movements increases lightly for both groups of subjects. These two changes are probably to be regarded as causally related. With decreased errors of fixation, the eye-movement sweeps become more nearly full 40° and their dura- tion would naturally increase proportionately. If this connection is admitted, the actual angle velocity of the eye- movements appears to have been unaffected by the experimental repeti- tion under otherwise similar circumstances. In spite of the larger errors, however, the adductive movements average slower than the abductive. This difference does not appear to be due to decreased maximum vel- ocity of the eye-movements, but to a proportionately slower third phase, i.e., the final 5° are slower. Any attempt to explain this peculiarity of our subjects would lead us too far from our main problems. EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE RECIPROCAL INNERVATION OF THE FINGER. Eye-movements are not adapted to show the rapidity of free oscil- latory movements of a member, and the consequent speed of alter- nating reciprocal innervations of antagonistic muscles. Successive eye- movements are regularly separated by moments of fixation, seldom less than 0.2" in duration. These are moments of significant vision, for the sake of which the eye-movements exist. True oscillatory move- ments of the eye can not be produced at will without considerable special practice. In adopting the reciprocal innervation of the middle finger for meas- uring the speed of alternating reciprocal innervation of antagonistic muscles, we lose the almost ideal conditions with respect to independ- ence of conscious control that obtain in measuring the velocity of the eye-movements. Finger-movements are subject to all sorts of inter- current, facilitating and inhibiting conscious interference. The con- ditions which modify the rate of voluntary reciprocal innervations have not all been experimentally located. In long experiments one will expect warming-up, fatigue phenomena, and spurts of various sorts, as well as lapses of attention and interest, and changes due to subjective feelings of discomfort. (Compare Wells.1) Long-continued finger- movements appear to violate our principle of simplicity at almost as many points as the ergographic experiments. These considerations, and practical experience in a series of experi- ments in the fall of 1912, led us to abandon the arrangement of this experiment which was proposed in the program, namely, movements for intervals of 30" followed after 5" by another group of movements for 5". Other things being equal, that would be a most desirable Wells, Am. Journ. Psychol., 1908, 19, pp. 345 and 437. 168 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. arrangement; it would give valuable data not only with respect to oscillation frequency, but with respect to the onset of fatigue and the rapidity of recovery. The insurmountable difficulty in this arrange- ment was that it proved impossible to secure maintained maximum effort from our subjects for 30 consecutive seconds. Unintentionally perhaps, but none the less really, some tended to adopt an initial speed that they could maintain. Spurts appeared from uncontrolled sources. Some may have been purely physiological. Some were clearly connected with the feeling that the effort had lapsed. In connection with the related but more complex tapping test, Wells states (p. 356): "The feelings of annoyance arising from a long-continued test make it desir- able that the experiment should be one giving the requisite data in as short a time as possible." This may be generalized as follows : Every consideration, practical as well as theoretical, demands the shortest experimental period that will give the requisite data. In this particular case, spurts and variability due to discomfort and other causes were enormously reduced by adopting shorter experimental periods of 8". That these shorter periods were in fact more satisfactory than the 30" periods appears from the relative uniformity of the results. ^Even in this relatively short experimental time, a regular decrement in the speed of oscillation, as measured by 2" intervals, shows the beginning of a fatigue process. Regularity in the onset of this fatigue process is our best insurance against initial indifference, and sub- maximal finger-movements. If no fatigue occurs, one suspects initial indifference. But if the fatigue drop is regular and normal, initial shirking is improbable, since it is beyond the capacity of an ordinary subject to simulate this gradual onset of fatigue. Other forms of incomplete adaptation to the experimental conditions are less easily determined. Correlated pulse- and respiration-rate should be worth something in this respect as an indicator, but our knowledge of the pulse-changes due to effort allows at present no numerical correc- tion of results from this source. A variable interplay of changed attention, effort, and adaptation to the experimental conditions must be admitted as a possible, if not an inevitable, source of disturbance of the results of the finger-movement tests. If our cases are sufficiently numerous, however, accidental disturbances of this sort should compen- sate and leave the general tendency of alcohol, both in direction and amount, clearly marked. TECHNIQUE. For purposes of comparison with existing data, our measurements of the most rapid possible reciprocal innervation of the finger may be regarded as the tapping test reduced to its simplest form. As ordinarily used, the "tapping test" measures the number of electric contacts that can be made by the subject, either between a stylus and a plate, or by the closure of a telegraph-key. Several considerations combine to make both of these processes physiologically unsatisfactory : MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 169 (1) A succession of taps is physiologically a succession of interrupted reciprocal innervations. Whether the interruption occurs early or late in the process, whether much or little force is exerted in the tap itself, will be an experimental accident which will be likely to suffer more or less irregular changes as the subject's experience suggests possible improvements. Wells1 found that one effect of practice was to shorten the periods of contact with the key. Langfeld2 found that practice tended to lessen the extent of the movement. (2) A second disadvantage of the finger-taps as recorded by the telegraph-key or stylus, is the difficulty of isolating the finger-move- ments from other movements of the arm and hand. Probably the interchange of finger, wrist, and arm movements is less apt to occur in short periods than it is in long periods of experiment under the incentive of conscious fatigue. But practice may change the type of movement, and may bring different groups of muscles into use in the succeeding experimental periods. It seems certain that the tapping time of the different limbs is not uniform. In an unpublished experimental study of the finger-movements by Dodge, it proved possible to get a tapping- rate of the arm when all the muscles of the arm were in voluntary tetanus that could not be duplicated with the finger alone. In less degree the same holds true of the wrist-movements. This seems to cor- respond with the finding of Griffiths,3 that " loaded muscles in tetanus show a higher number of responses per second than unloaded." In the above case, the load was the contraction of the antagonistic muscle. (3) Moreover, all arrangements for recording the rapidity of the finger-movements by stylus or telegraph-key demand a more or less consciously controlled position of the subject's arm, with a more or less conscious control of the aim of the finger or arm movements. By reducing the tapping test to its lowest physiological term, i. e., the true reciprocal innervation of the finger, we have preserved the freedom of movement of the original experiments by Von Kries,4 and of the myo- graphic experiments by Binet and Vaschide,5 without introducing the questionable ergographic complication of the latter work. The reciprocal innervation of the finger, like the tapping test, seems to satisfy our demands for relatively slow practice improvements. As Wells states, "This would seem to indicate that such unsystematic practice in this function as we receive in normal life eliminated the marked gains so frequently seen at the beginning of practice curves." APPARATUS. In our experiments records of the finger-movements were never taken separately, but always in conjunction with corresponding pulse-records. The pulse-records are electro-cardiograms. The finger-movements were recorded on the same photographic record by the following device: s, Am. Journ. Psychol. 1908, 19, p. 445. 4Von Kries, Archiv f. Physiol., 1886, Supplbd., p. 1. 2Langfeld, Psychol. Review, 1915, 22,p. 453. 5Binet and Vaschide, L'Annee Psychol., 1897, p. 267. 'Griffiths, Journ. Physiol., 1888,9, p. 39. 170 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. In front of the slit of the photographic recorder of the string galva- nometer which recorded the pulse, a light wooden lever was placed so as to throw a shadow across the slit. The other end of this recording lever was attached to the finger by a light rod held against the upper phalanx of the middle finger by the pressure of an elastic band. The axis of the lever was so placed as to decrease the amplitude of the move- ment in the proportion 5 to 1 . The mass of the entire recording system is about 7 grams. Since the leverage is the most favorable possible, both with respect to the recording-lever and its attachment to the finger, interference with the free movement of the finger is objectively and sub- jectively so slight as to be practically negligible. The finger feels no resistance to starting and no instrumental momentum in stopping. POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. For measurements of the finger-movements, the subject was seated in the steamer-chair approximately at position I. But the steamer- chair was so moved by the operator that the subject was nearer the recording-camera of the string galvanometer than in other experiments from position I. A stand with an adjustable arm-rest was so placed that the subject's right arm was comfortably supported with the hand near the edge of the recording-camera table, but slightly above the level of its top. The palm of the hand rested against a vertical wedge- shaped support, against which it was held by the flexible but regular pressure of a broad elastic band. The sharp end of this wedge rested against the palm of the subject's hand, leaving the digits entirely free to move in a horizontal plane. In a relaxed position, the upper phalanx of the middle finger should be perpendicular to the face of the recording- camera, so that when it was attached to the recording levers there would be as little lateral movement of the levers as possible. The operator was always careful that there should be no unnatural or forced position of the hand or fingers, and that the arm was comfortable. There was no restriction of the movement of the other fingers, but their movement did not affect the recording lever. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE. While the subject sat in a half-reclining position in the steamer-chair, with electrodes in position, and connected for recording his electro- cardiogram as in word-reaction movements, the chair was slid into position by the operator. The subject's arm was placed on the arm- support, so that his fingers were entirely free beyond the edge of the hand-support against which his palm was held by the pressure of the elastic band. A fine rubber band about 1 cm. in diameter was then placed so that it rested on the fold of the skin which separates the first phalanx of the finger from the palm of the hand. This elastic band served to hold an offset from the end of the horizontal member of the recording levers, and thus formed a flexible but close connection between * • **. . •*• ** FIG. 28. — Typical records of the finger-oscillations and pulse of two subjects. FIG. 29. — Reproduction of a temporal-pulse record as made by the Dodge telephone-recorder in series with the string galvanometer. (See p. 235.) MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 171 the finger and the recording levers. The vertical member of the re- cording levers was then adjusted to cast its shadow on the center of the slit of the recording-camera. The standard instructions were repeated by the operator. While the subject was entirely in position and relaxed as far as practicable, a normal pulse-record was taken without finger-movement. Immediately after this record a combined pulse- and finger-movement record was taken as follows: When the record started the operator said "go," in time with the stroke of a Jaquet clock, beating seconds. After 8" the operator gave the signal "stop." After a 60" rest, but without disturbing the position of the subject's arm or finger, a second finger-movement record was taken like the first. The standard instructions, repeated before each experiment, were as follows: At the signal "go," move the middle finger back and forth as fast as you can until you receive the signal "stop." Figure 28 reproduces two typical records of the reciprocal innerva- tion of the finger by different individuals. They should be read from left to right. The lower line in each case marks the seconds (Jaquet clock) . The next line is an electro-cardiogram (body leads) ; the upper line is the respiration curve. Inspiration is represented by a rising curve. The oscillating line shows the finger-movements. Instructions to the assistants who were detailed to read finger-move- ment records were to commence reading 6 movements from the begin- ning in order to avoid the initial irregularities, which seem to be a characteristic of the beginning of almost every finger-oscillation curve. The reader then counted the number of complete oscillations in 2", 4", 6", and 8", respectively. Full 8" of oscillation were so rarely com- pleted in legible form that they seldom appear in the results. For the sake of uniformity the calculations are all based on 6" of oscillation. RESULTS. The data for the reciprocal innervation of the finger are given in table 29, under the several subjects arranged in numerical order. The number of complete finger oscillations in 2", 4", and 6" is entered in the appropriate columns. In the earliest experiments, as for example those with Subject II on October 8 and September 23, only one record was taken at each experiment. In the later experiments, where two records were taken, the data from both are given, together with their average. Wherever available these averages are used in the elabora- tion of the results. 172 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. 0) •j ^ > _^ M cO C4 — |— _L, _j j_ _| 1 1_ _j 1_ _| j. - -j [— — j— -1- -4— -i- 1 £ CJ d COCOCO rHCMCM COOrH ^) CMCMCM CMCMIN (NCNiN SI 0 0 « 0 ^ ^ CD iO 0 N CO « c t* **^ o t* COIOOS IOOOO OCOCO CO c ^ **4" ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO ^ CO ^ ^ •rf CO 0^ ^ fH rt fH - • o ^ "O O a p* • • (D • -^H CO ~i — . 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C IIC SUBJECTS. aJ EO O •o 0! &C _o O) MH O | a c3 •f^ ^ ^ "^ iO -•*-,.»- ^ 3 /M O ** . r* r CQ . § ^H < c. < re - * K* " T- ^f* Average %•*• * C H ^1 0 «$ J. ^ c^ O ^ ft 0s! ... . . | . . | 1 — |- -|— H- -f i S 1 fe K x_x O 10 S ^ 1 "3 .a •8 a I 01 o 1 00 • o i CO 00 o I o o ~+ I + I I CO f« CN O O 00 t-. 3 GO *<5 >-H ic *c o co -H CN IN O co 00 •vf-03 O O O O O >C t> O b- oo o> o as CN IN CN CM CM IN CO O} •* M 00 (M GO O O t-i O -^ O t-H t-. o 1C co cc x ic 1-1 us a to "I o •i I § "2 a '3 *= .0 O 2 a I I o ^o 'a « •a o I I I/ W. 5J Cl co •*! ic • o : + o + oo d = d I c o o I CO w d «o d ffl CO d o I I CD CD d d CO G5 O O O + o + CO d CO d 00 <0 iC--i t^ri^ CO'tOO ao OOO CO ^^ CO CO ^^ CO ^^ ^^ Tt^ O CO CD O >C O1 MO 00 O> IA COOCD COOCO ~ o o C^ (N M CN CN IN CN IN -N CN CN CN CO O 'X CO O 1C iC O CN (N IN OJ '- (N CO •82 0> T-t u, o. CN CO co - •a I 182 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SUMMARY OF FINGER- MOVEMENT DATA. Summaries of the data on the reciprocal innervation of the finger are given in tables 30 and 31. Table 30 gives the average number of oscillations; table 31 gives the average differences between the first and the succeeding periods of each session. In fable 30 the total averages for the normal subjects show how uniform is the fatigue effect even within the 6" periods of our experiments. The averages of the TABLE 30. — Summary of the average number of reciprocal innwalwn* of the middle finger. Number of subject. Normal. Alcohol (dose A) .' Alcohol (dose B) Number of experiment. 2" 4" 6" 2" 4" 6" 2" 4" 6" I Normal sub- jects: II I 13.5 11.7 12.6 25.6 23.5 24.5 37.5 34.7 36.1 36.8 35.8 36.3 35.7 13.7 26.9 39.6 11.6 22.6 33.3 Ill II Av I 13.0 25.1 37.0 12.7 24.3 35.6 IV II 12.4 12.4 24.4 24.4 Av I . 37.6 12.3 24.4 35.9 VI II 12.4 12.4 9.6 12.8 12.9 12.8 11.4 12.8 16.1 24.5 24.5 18.9 25.3 25.4 25.3 22.2 24.7 31.0 36.4 36.0 27.8 37.0 36.8 36.9 32.4 36.1 45.3 Av I 8.4 12.2 16.4 23.9 24.2 34.4 8.8 11.7 17.5 22.8 25.8 33.4 VII . I V11I. II . . Av I 10.9 11.7 16.1 22.2 23.0 31.6 33.2 34.1 46.6 IX I 10.8 21.7 31.9 X I 12 hr. experi- ments : VI Total average. . I 12.5 8.8 11.6 10.2 12.4 10.9 14. S 12.7 24.5 17.5 23.6 20.5 24.1 21.5 28.7 24.8 35.8 26.0 26^0 35.4 31.6 42.3 36.4 12.3 '9.1 41.2 40.1 12.4 10.7 14.5 12.5 24.2 48.0 »23.1 '20.5 24.3 21.2 28.7 24.1 35.8 '26.8 12G.8 35.5 31.7 41.8 36.3 11.3 22.2 32.6 1 IX. . . I Psychopathic subjects: XI Average . I XII I XIV I Average . C (12 c.c.) was used in the 12-hour experiments. normaljexperiments show that in the last 2" the performance fell off 0.6 per cent of the first 2". There are no exceptions to the rule among the normal subjects. A similar fatigue process appears after alcohol. But it is conspicuous that it is less than on normal days. After dose A the last period of 2" differs from the first 2" by only 5.7 per cent. After dose B the difference is 8 per cent. Without further knowledge MOTOR COORDINATIONS. 183 of the conditions that relate initial depression of the performance to decreased fatigue, one must be cautious about ascribing this decreased fatigue after alcohol directly to the alcohol. But it is a rather sug- gestive fact that the decreased fatigability after dose A changes a depression of the phenomenon at the end of the first 2" to an equally good performance at the end of 6". If one might venture a prelimi- nary hypothesis, it looks as though the effect of alcohol on the reciprocal TABLE 31. — Summary of average differences between the first and succeeding periods of reciprocal innervation of the middle finger. Number of subject. Normal. Alcohol (dose A).1 Alcohol (dose B). Number of experiment. 2" 4" 6" 2" 4" 6" 2" 4" 6" Normal sub- jects: 11 1 -1.0 +0.7 -0.1 -0.9 +0.9 0 -1.0 + 1 2 +0.1 + 1 4 111 II Av +0.3 + 1.0 +2 . 0 + 1.1 +2.6 +3.9 1 IV II 0 0 +0.2 +0.2 +0.1 +0.7 -4 0 Av +0.5 + 1.5 +2.5 -0.0 -0.0 -1.4 I VI. II -0.1 — 0 1 -0.1 -0 1 +0.2 — 1 9 +0.4 -0.1 +0.1 +0.2 Av I +0.7 -0.1 -0.6 -0.3 +0.7 -0.4 -0.5 + 1.1 -0.1 -0.5 -0.3 +0.9 -1.5 -1.1 +0.9 +0.1 +0.1 +0.1 -0.2 -4.1 -0.4 + 1.0 +3.3 +5.3 +0.8 + 1.6 +2.5 VII I VIII II . + 1.6 +2.3 +4.4 + 1.6 +3.0 +4.2 Av I +2.1 +0.1 +0.1 +2.8 +2.0 +0.3 +3.3 +3.0 -0.8 IX. I. +1.4 +2.9 +4.9 x I 12 hr. experi- ments: VI T o t a 1 avera a S _rt "3 o -u g 196 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. The first rise in each group of these plateaus corresponds with the systolic wave. The subsequent rises correspond with the dicrotic and (occasionally) the post-dicrotic waves. The highest plateau on the line, about 3 cm. from the left of the record, indicates the duration of the reaction. The left-hand beginning of this plateau indicates the moment at which the experimenter simultaneously pressed a signal-key and spoke the stimulus word. The end of the plateau shows the moment at which he released the signal-key as the subject reacted. Faint dots in rows about 3 cm. long, one row above the other, constitute a time- record from the pendulum of an accurately running clock. They are 2" apart, and serve to control the kymograph rather than as a basis of measurement. The kymograph is regarded as running satisfactorily if the variation would not affect any unit of measurement. The broken straight lines which appear between the pulse-curves are respiration records. They were transmitted by the same sort of transmitting device that was used for the pulse. Contact of the marker with the records occurred during inspiration. The complete association-pulse data of one experimental period for one subject (Subject VII), together with his association reactions, are given in table 34. It seemed desirable to give the complete data of one period for some subject to show the actual variations in the pulse, and to illustrate the process of elaboration. The data for Subject VII were chosen because his experimental pulse-changes were the largest of the regular group of subjects. The extreme left-hand column in table 34 shows the groups in which the words were given. The second column contains the reaction-time of each of the 50 asssociations of one period. The other three columns contain the duration of each pulse- cycle in the corresponding association experiment, arranged according to its place in the pre-stimulation, stimulus to reaction, and post- reaction phase of each experiment. Since the association experiments began at a similar part of each corresponding complete revolution of the kymograph drum, each line of the pulse-record, after it is detached from the drum, is naturally divided into these three periods, of which the most important determinants are the moment of stimulation and the moment of reaction. Pulse-cycles which preceded the movement of stimulation are entered in the " Pre-stimulation " column. Pulse-cycles which lay chiefly between the moment of stimulation and the moment of reaction are entered in the "Stimulus to reaction" column, while those pulse-cycles which occurred immediately after the reaction are entered in the "Post-reaction" column. The dividing-line between the post-reaction pulse-cycles of one association and the pre-reaction pulse-cycles of the next association is quite arbitrary. Obviously there is no experimental break between them. An apparent break is produced when the record is cut to be removed from the drum. While this break is really artificial, it occurs PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 197 TABLE 34. — Association pulse data — Subject VII. (Dec. 10, 1913, Series II, 4k 50m p. m.) [Time units are hundredths of a second.] Group number. Reaction time. Pre-stimulation pulse-cycles. Stimulus to reaction- cycles. Post-reaction pulse-cycles. 1 145 76 72 70 70 70 74 74 73 74 75 75 74 72 2 182 74 74 70 64 66 64 64 64 63 64 64 68 70 78 76 3 194 73 76 74 74 73 68 65 60 64 62 62 68 76 79 4 184 77 78 78 80 80 76 72 6s 64 62 69 82 90 5 156 84 86 87 86 85 80 77 73 70 64 70 73 1 166 77 78 77 7S 76 75 74 71 69 67 70 72 77 . 2 214 73 77 77 78 79 75 74 74 70 64 66 69 77 84 3 180 85 82 80 SO 78 77 73 72 69 69 71 75 78 4 •T>4 .... 78 77 79 79 78 76 71 70 68 . . 64 68 64 83 5 ^f>'> 84 82 82 82 79 80 77 73 72 71 71 73 75 1 154 71 73 72 74 72 74 75 71 74 72 69 69 67 2 186 66 69 72 76 75 72 76 74 69 67 66 67 64 63 3 4 226 239 64 66 68 70 75 72 S2 83 84 82 79 70 69 66 . 78 74 71 ... 64 65 68 69 76 64 62 67 75 5 1 240 282 . 84 85 85 84 S2 79 . . 73 76 78 78 73 77 78 73 71 . . 78 77 72 71 .... 66 66 68 74 68 68 69 72 2 238 74 71 70 73 75 78 78 76 72 68 . 63 64 64 69 3 18? . . 79 82 82 80 84 83 80 75 68 70 70 67 70 4 18? . . 68 69 64 68 69 67 165 62 65 66 68 72 76 5 320 . . 75 74 78 78 78 78 76 73 68 64 64 67 74 1 326 . . 77 77 75 79 78 80 77 73 70 . 64 63 67 65 2 282 86 90 88 88 84 83 79 75 72 . . 69 66 68 74 3 15K . . 82 82 82 82 81 80 75 70 68 64 73 86 88 4 208 92 90 89 88 84 81 75 .. 72 68 69 77 82 5 184 . . 86 86 87 86 86 85 77 74 70 70 73 1 2 338 ISO . 64 64 66 67 72 78 76 76 76 75 74 74 73 84 74 70 69 73 70 68 69 74 76 70 66 68 77 88 3 286 .... 89 89 87 86 84 83 75 72 70 .... 67 68 74 78 .. 4 393 83 82 81 79 80 79 78 74 .... 72 70 69 72 76 5 1 274 210 . . 78 80 82 78 78 78 78 78 80 79 77 74 72 70 .... 75 163 ... . 64 66 72 79 (3) (2) (2) (2) o 212 84 84 84 84 84 79 76 73 73 74 76 3 317 . 78 78 79 80 82 80 80 76 74 68 . 62 64 64 4 200 . 78 82 84 84 84 82 82 76 73 69 67 72 79 5 170 .... 81 81 79 78 78 79 73 72 67 64 1 2 3 168 232 211 78 78 78 ... 77 76 72 72 73 . . 85 88 86 83 81 78 76 73 73 65 71 ... 81 74 74 74 71 72 67 70 62 68 69 73 66 64 64 70 72 71 74 78 81 4 256 83 82 82 80 78 78 73 72 .... 68 64 66 69 74 5 109 . . 80 81 79 78 77 78 74 71 .. 67 66 70 72 77 .... 1 206 . 72 72 71 70 69 70 74 71 68 .. 67 67 70 66 65 2 385 . . 68 68 70 69 70 70 74 75 70 65 64 64 65 70 76 3 4 318 252 .... 82 83 83 81 77 . . 73 74 72 71 69 63 75 74 68 69 .... 65 87 61 58 .... 66 66 69 70 60 59 58 61 67 ... 5 218 86 90 91 90 90 84 80 75 72 75 80 6 214 91 90 88 88 88 86 80 76 72 68 79 1 2 228 254 82 78 77 . . 84 82 80 79 78 77 78 177 78 75 76 .. 74 74 78 79 83 83 70 70 73 80 3 212 .... 85 86 86 84 82 80 78 74 72 68 69 76 82 4 Av 172 ?.?5 88 88 90 88 ... 78.4 79.3 79.16 78.76 78.8 86 85 79 77.4 74.4 78 76 76 77 68.4 67.4 69.6 73.0 ^Average of two. 2 No record. 198 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. at approximately the same point in all records, and consequently permits comparison of approximately the same number of pre-stimu- lation pulses. The main purpose of the present statistical arrangement of the data is to isolate the post-stimulation pulse-change. On this account, the arbitrary break between the post-reaction pulse of one experiment and the pre-stimulation pulse of the next is without signifi- cance. Since all the pulse- waves were read, the data are capable of any other arrangement that statistical interests might demand. The theory of the statistical elaboration of the pulse data by which we hoped to realize the correlation between the different phases of the experimental process and the pulse-rate probably needs some expla- nation. An examination of the duration of successive pulse-cycles, as given in table 34, will show that, except by accident, no two successive pulse-cycles take equal times. This corresponds with the well-known physiological laws of the extreme susceptibility of the pulse to waves of nervous excitement. The pulse of relaxed subjects is accelerated by the slightest physical or mental activity. Even without conscious activity, as, for instance, in sleep, it is yet complicated by a considerable group of rhythmic and arrhythmic physiological processes. In normal life there are short rhythms, corresponding to respiration and the Traube-Hering waves. There are longer rhythms corresponding to the ingestion and digestion of food, to work and relaxation, to the sequence of day and night, etc. A constant base-line with clear-cut experimental deviations does not exist in practice. Experimental deviations from the normal, if they occur at all, will be superposed on a complex of the rhythmic and the arrhythmic changes to which the pulse is normally liable. The obvious problem in any statistical treatment of the pulse data for experimental purposes is to disentangle the significant experi- mental changes from the various rhythms. Even the most common use of pulse data is not free from the neces- sity for similar statistical treatment. In the so-called pulse-rate one may not regard as significant the measure of any individual pulse-cycle. However accurate such a measurement might be, it would be meaning- less unless it were known in what phase of the various rhythms it occurred. At once a simple and more accurate measure of the pulse- rate is to average such a large number of pulsations that it is safe to assume that the lesser rhythms have run their course a number of times. Under such precautions, the " pulse-rate" of relaxed subjects will be relatively constant, not because the pulse-cycles do not vary, but because their variations in successive periods tend to counter- balance each other. Just how long a period is necessary for such measurements is not a matter of universal agreement. Common prac- tice finds 60" a convenient and satisfactory unit. In using such a unit, one assumes that in 60 successive pulse-cycles (if 60 happens to be the pulse-rate) the various lesser rhythms have become statistically eliminated by counterbalancing one another. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 199 Our attempt to measure the effect of the association experiment on the pulse-rate rests on a similar theoretical basis. If the pulse data are arranged according to their experimental incidence it may be assumed in this case, as in the case of the pulse-rate, that in a sufficient number of instances the non-experimental rhythms and the accidental variations will tend to balance and leave only the significant experi- mental change. In other words, in the case of the pulse, as in our general statistical procedure, we postulate that chance variations can not obscure any systematic change in the measurement of a process if the number of cases be sufficiently large. In the measurement of the pulse-cj^cles during association, the non-experimental rhythms are treated as chance variations. Significant variations would be such as correlate with the reaction process. A comparison of the average of all the pulse-cycles which occur just after the moment of stimulation and the average of all the pulse-cycles which occur just before that moment should give the pulse correlate of the effect of stimulation. While this theory of pulse elaboration is believed to be sound, it may well be questioned if 50 cases are sufficient for the non-experimental rhythms to be eliminated. Our only answer to that objection is that we have no means of knowing. Fifty cases is, however, the best available unit in our experiments, and it is not seriously different from a widely used physiological standard, viz, of pulse-rate per minute. The experimental pulse-changes in association tests for Subject VII, elaborated according to the foregoing theory, are summarized in table 35. The first column shows the kind of experiment and the number of the word series. The average values of the pulse cycles are entered in the appropriate columns under pre-stimutation pulse-cycles, stimulation to reaction, and post-stimulation pulse-cycles, corresponding to the arrangement of table 34. Thus the right-hand column under pre-stim- ulation pulse-cycles shows the average duration of the pulse-cycles just before the stimulus words were given for each period of the four experi- mental days. An average pulse-rate for each experimental period is shown in the extreme right-hand column. An examination of table 35 shows that in each normal experimental session the average length of the pulse-cycles increases from period to period. What is true of the average is true also at each stage of the experimental cycle, say at the first post-reaction pulse. The same phenomenon appears also on the second normal day. It is less con- spicuous after dose A of alcohol, and is often reversed after dose B. That is to say, in Subject VII alcohol tends to prevent the retardation of the pulse which occurs in a " normal" 3-hour experimental session. A second clear indication of table 35 is that there is a conspicuous difference in the course of pulse-changes from pre-stimulation to post- reaction between the normals of the day, 1, 6, 11, 16, and subsequent periods of the same day. 200 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. These changes appear more obviously in the curves of figure 31, which were plotted from table 35. In addition to the phenomena already mentioned, figure 31 brings out several correlations between the course of the experimental process and the pulse. The pulse-changes in the successive periods of the first normal day seem to indicate a gradual process of adaptation to the experiment. In the first period of the first normal day there is a marked pre-stimulation decrease in the length of the pulse-cycles. This pre- stimulation effect clearly diminishes during the session, though the last TABLE 35. — Summary of the association pulse data of Subject VII. [Length of pulse-cycles given in hundredth.? of a second.] Kind of experiment and number of association series. Pre-stimulation pulse-cycles. Stimulation to reaction. Post-reaction pulse-cycles. Aver- age. Normal I: 1 74.8 77.0 75.3 75.7 74.9 73.2 70.9 65. s 64.9 67.0 70.0 71.8 2 78.4 79.3 79.1 78.7 78.8 77.4 74.4 68.4 67.4 69.6 73.0 75 0 3 78.9 79.7 79.5 79.4 79.1 78.0 75.7 72.3 72.0 72.5 75.4 76 6 IA 83.9 85.2 85.0 88.3 85.9 81.4 81.9 78.8 79.0 80.8 S3 . 0 4 . 87.2 87.1 86.0 84.7 88.5 81.5 79.0 81.0 83 6 84 3 5 88 4 87 4 87.1 87.4 87.2 87.0 82.0 81.1 81.6 80 8 85 0 Alcohol (dose A) : 26 78. 8 79.2 79.3 78.5 76.8 75.9 74.0 70.0 71.0 73.0 75.0 ^C ft 7 82.0 83.9 83.7 83.6 81.9 80.9 78.6 72.4 71.9 74.4 79 3 Q 78.2 79.0 79.0 79.2 78.1 78.1 76.8 72.9 72.8 74.9 76 9 JB 84.5 85.3 85.4 85.3 85.5 84.5 83.3 80.6 81.4 82.0 83 8 9 82.6 82.6 83.5 84.0 83.9 83.0 81.6 78.7 79.2 81.4 . . 82 0 10 82.6 83.0 83.5 83.6 83.6 82.8 81.9 81.2 79.9 80.1 82.2 Alcohol (dose B) : 211 74-4 70.0 76.0 74.fi 74.2 75.4 73.1 6S.9 68.6 69.9 70.9 72.9 12 72.5 71.3 71.6 72.0 73.1 72.9 71.2 68.1 68.2 68.5 69.9 70.8 13 68 4 68 8 69.4 69.4 70.6 69.8 70.2 68.8 68.5 68 8 68 6 69 2 IA 73.3 73.1 72.9 73.7 74.4 73.9 73.1 72.8 72.5 72.7 71.6 73.1 14 . . . . 74.3 74.5 74.8 75.2 75.6 76.0 74.6 74.0 73.2 72.9 72.0 74.3 15 70.6 69.6 70.9 69.9 70.8 70.8 69.4 70.5 72.0 70.8 68.5 70 4 Normal II: 16 77.7 79.0 78.4 78.6 79.8 79.0 74.6 72.5 72.6 73.2 72.6 76.2 'A. 80.4 81.5 81.4 82.7 83.7 83.3 79.:: 79 . 3 79 . 3 78 . 0 ... SO 9 17 82.4 83.3 83.6 83.7 84.3 84.4 81.6 81.8 82.8 82.0 83 0 *B 86.8 86.3 86.3 86.6 87. 3 87.9 85.5 85.7 86.2 85.5 86 4 1 ... 89 . 0 89 . 7 89 . 5 90 . 5 91.0 *8.1 87.0 87.7 87.1 88 8 18 . . . 89.3 91.3 91.6 91.4 91.7 S7.9 84.9 85.6 85.8 88 8 'Kent-Rosanoff series; see p. 120. 2Series 6 and 11 are normals of the day and were taken before the alcohol dose was givi-n. three periods are too irregular for generalization. Similarly, in the succeeding days, the pulse of the first period (the normal of the day) shows increasing adaptation as the subject gets more and more familiar with the experiment. That is, the normal of the day pulse has slightly less pre-stirnulation drop on the second day than on the first. On the third day it shows no pre-stimulation drop, while on the fourth day the greatest relaxation occurs just before the stimulus is given. That this is not an accident is obvious in the configuration of the curves for PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 201 > -M o i/> o S> 2 & «*- o J a o •-S =4 'o i tc t-- X t^ 1C CM X X CO X t^ X CO *1^ GS O OS OS ^ X OS CS OS •F^l 1C OS QC x x CO CO W 0: O 0 FH rH - • .g 5 rH t_ '2 * ^ QJ *J OQ O o o> o> — » ^ — C t- ST ?2 rf\ rt x O O OS CS •<** CO ^ OS *Q i— * CO OS X O O O N- Tf< X OS X CO CO CO CO ^co^ CO- 00 «« FH co o SFSF O oo x r-* x - t^. X X CS *t / s. CO •* t>. X S§i >« t- o CM C5 Sx-g i-H rH a 3 •B, »O X o »*'«*' '~ '~ CO O ^i CO Cs CO >O CM OS CO C iO PVJ 1-1 1C -^ -TMCS O ^ CD s QO o os cs co o Co t"1* Is* t^* Is* 'X °0 t1- 1C ^ H^ »o 00 CO CO 6- X X >o x x co os r- S. f. 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O OS X. f-H fH _ °5 CO t» ^- X Ol ^. oo oo oo oo oo >* CN t^ CN 1C CO given. s i2 — i Ol »C t- O f— OQ t-» X X Ol Ol • X 1C CO O CC cc ^t" x co x os OQ 00 l> OO 00 00 •»*H iC t^» O Is- X C: OS Ol O O O fH f-H f-H 1C O iC X t^ OS X t- Cl X b- «*i t>- X X Ol OS O: CO 1C CN 1C rt CN OS rj< X X X Ol *^ X X X X X CO fH CO t- CO T}i rf: 1 "c • ^i ^H £*• ^1 ^H • I> X X X Cl • co t) -f X CN X rj< oo X l> X X X O O CO M O O 0:010:000 0 X Cl Cl t>» X CO t- X X OS Ol O! f-H Tj- CD fH T}< CO 01 TJI oo t-- x o t^ X X X X Ol 8 "3 CD • X : :^ : : : X X X X 1C X CO b- X X Ol Cl Ol CO • t^ OS co .... t» 00 • • • • u 1 d CO • t^ l> • X • • • 1 d CS -a CD 5 CO ""3 -"f tn o -o ..-••• "o cd t- x TO oi o -C ^ r" ' ffi o o "o co J t~- _«' f-i x XI — 1 <, fH W fH r-H ...... 1 2 . x ffi os o o _o Normals oi 206 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. the succeeding periods. This whole picture of the pulse adaptation in successive periods of the same session and in the first period of successive sessions is a direct analogue to the familiar laws of habit formation, and corresponds with the large practice effect that was actually found to occur in the association experiments (Chapter IV). Another conspicuous difference in the pulse-reactions on the first and last day is the longer duration of the experimental disturbance on the former. This again is probably an adaptation phenomenon. To recur to the apparent effect of alcohol on the association pulse, figure 31 makes it clear that gradually increasing pulse-retardation from the beginning to the end of the session is a distinct and character- istic feature of the normal days. The second normal day starts at a slightly different level from the first, but the total relaxation change is practically the same in both days. It is exactly this gradual relaxation which is most obviously modified in the curves for the alcohol pulse. After dose A there is still an increase in the average duration of the pulse-cycles, but it is distinctly less than on the normal days. After dose B, this increase in duration gives place, after the third period of the day, to an irregular decrease. A further conspicuous effect of the larger dose is almost to annihilate the experimental rhythm. These pulse-changes in Subject VII are too systematically related and too clearly marked to be accidental, but only a few of them are general with the group. While there are points of agreement, several subjects seemed to show more or less persistent pulse-changes in the association test which are purely individual. For some of them, the course of the pulse was quite irregular. Subject VII shows the most pronounced experimental change. Subject IX (a native German), who had considerable difficulty with the association test, shows peculiarly long and relatively large post-stimulation acceleration. The data of association pulse-changes for all the subjects except Subject VII, which has already been given in the preceding table, are given in table 36. As hi table 35, each average represents about 50 pulse-cycles hi a corresponding phase of the association experiment. All averages are given in 0.01". The number or letter in the first column designates the series of association words as described in Chapter VI. Inspection of tables 35 and 36 shows that the pulse of all the subjects is accelerated more or less in the post-stimulation phase of the associ- ation experiments. For all subjects, moreover, the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration is greatest on the first normal day. The same kind of adaptation process that appeared conspicuously in the pulse-records of Subject VII appears in the records of all the subjects to some degree. Subjects II, X, and III show a rapid return of the pre-stimulation pulse-length immediately after reaction. The average post-stimulation acceleration of the pulse is shown in table 37, for both the normal and the alcohol experiments, by the aver- PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 207 age decrease in the length of post-stimulation pulse-cycles. For illus- tration, the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration of Subject II on the first normal day is 0.043" for the first period (see table 36), 0.023" for the second, 0.026" for the third, etc. The average of all periods of the first and second normal day for Subject II is 0.023." (See table 37.) From the averages of table 37 it appears that alcohol tends to de- crease the post-stimulation acceleration, though not directly in propor- tion to the dose. This disproportion depends on two cases, Subjects VI and IX. Unfortunately, the lack of records for Subject VI after dose A unbalances the data here and elsewhere in the association-pulse records. Inspection of the individual records shows that the dispro- portionate effect of the doses is not general. Doubtless in these, as in TABLE 37. — Summary of the post-stimulation acceleration as shown by decreased length of post-stimulation pulse-cycles. [Values in hundredths of a second.] Subject. Averages. Difference (1-2, 1-3, etc.). Normal I and II. Dose A. Dose B. Normal I and II. Dose A. Dose B. II 2.3 3.3 3.1 8.8 5.8 8.2 3.0 4.9 1.3 -2.5 -0.1 1.8 2.3 -0.9 8.8 2.1 7.7 1.1 -0.8 -2.0 2.0 1.6 1.3 — 1 2 0.3 5.5 -0.2 1.6 4.1 1.6 1.6 2.9 4.4 -1.3 III IV. VI. VII 5.1 1.2 3.1 1.3 0.8 8.2 1.9 3.0 IX X Average . . 3.6 2.2 other measurements, the " differences" between the normal of the day and subsequent periods is a better expression of the effect of alcohol than the averages. Both expressions agree in their clear indication of a falling-off in the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration after the ingestion of alcohol. As a contribution to the general theory of association, as well as to the knowledge of the effect of alcohol on the association process, it seemed desirable, if possible, to use our extensive pulse data for a comparison of the other characteristics of the association experiments with the post-stimulation pulse-acceleration. Such a comparison de- manded a measure of the experimental acceleration in each association reaction. In view of the previous discussion of the intercurrent pulse- rhythms, and the statistical treatment of our pulse data in the effort to eliminate these rhythms from the average results, the sources of error which are involved in the attempt to isolate the true experimental changes in each experiment need no new emphasis. While the averages of 50 measurements at each homologous moment in the experiment should give a fairly satisfactory indication of the 208 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tendency of the pulse during the experiment, the course of the pulse in any single experiment would be subject to all possible accidental disturbances. For example, if the post-stimulation acceleration hap- pened to coincide with the inspiration acceleration it would be too large. Conversely, if it happened to coincide with the expiration depression, it would be too small, perhaps even negative. Fortunately, the experimental rhythm, 10" between stimuli, is quite different from the respiration rhythm, and it seemed possible, consequently, to elabo- rate the data by using the statistical device which is commonly known as the sliding average to eliminate in part the shorter rhythms, while leaving the longer rhythm relatively undisturbed. For example, a supposititious series of pulse-records may be thus elaborated. We may suppose a pulse-sequence which shows a respiratory pulse-rhythm cor- responding to the series, 95, 90, 95, 100, 95. If the experimental accel- eration were 10, and the stimulus occurred at 90, the series would read, 95, 90, 85, 90, 85; in which case the apparent post-stimulus acceleration would be only 0.05", or only 50 per cent of the hypothetical acceleration. If, on the other hand, the stimulus coincided with the value 100, the line would read, 95, 90, 95, 100, 85, 90, etc., and the apparent post- stimulation acceleration would be 0.15" or 150 per cent of the hypo- thetical stimulation. The operation of a sliding average of 3 would transform our supposititious pulse-rhythm to 93, 95, 97, 95, and the consequent disturbance of the experimental change occurring at any point would be correspondingly reduced. The pulse data for the Kent-Rosanoff association series, A and B, were elaborated in this way by substituting the sliding average of three for each measured pulse-length. From the elaborated table the post- stimulation accelerations were computed for each experiment. It is these values which are used in the correlation measurements of pulse and association character as described in Chapter IV. It is obvious that such elaboration of the pulse data does not entirely eliminate the lesser rhythm that it mitigates, and that it leaves all of the larger but probably slower and less disturbing rhythms untouched. Each meas- urement, consequently, has a relatively large probable error. But the errors were accidentally distributed, and any regular or close connec- tion between an association category and an exaggerated pulse-accel- eration should appear as a general tendency in the correlation, if it existed. In addition to the effect of alcohol on the post-stimulation pulse- acceleration, our data permit us to study the more general effect of the alcohol doses on the course of the pulse from period to period throughout the 3-hour experimental sessions. A summary of the average duration of the pulse-cycles on normal and on alcohol days is given in the first part of table 38, together with the average differences between the normal of the day and subsequent pulse-cycles. In the second part of PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 209 table 38 is shown the effect of dose A and dose B on the average pulse and on the average difference respectively. An inspection of table 38 shows that the general effect of alcohol on the average duration of the pulse-lengths during the 3-hour association experiments is in the direction of pulse-acceleration. The average pulse-cycles are shorter under alcohol than on normal days. In terms of the average differences (1-2, 1-3, etc.), the natural retardation of the pulse in the sequence of the experimental periods is notably dimin- ished by alcohol. The numerical values of these changes after dose A and dose B are given in the columns under the legends, "Effect of alcohol: dose A," TABLE 38. — Summary of the average length of pulse-cycles during the association experiments [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Normal I and II. Alcohol. Effect of alcohol (alcohol —normal). Dose A. Dose B. Dose A. Dose B. Aver- age Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age Aver- age differ- ence. Aver- age. Aver- age differ- ence. II 1,050 797 931 876 816 968 913 907 - 69 -106 -168 -172 - 91 -102 -161 -124 1,018 769 890 + 8 - 79 -152 1,040 872 927 849 728 850 + 26 - 59 -114 -173 + 1.4 + 19 - 32 - 28 - 41 +77 +27 + 16 - 10 + 75 - 4 - 27 - 88 -118 + 95 + 47 + 54 - 1 + 92 + 121 Ill IV VI VII 799 862 862 867 - 56 44 - 88 - 68 - 17 -106 - 51 46 +35 +58 +73 +48 IX iX Average 878 - 50 - 29 + 68 lOne normal day only. and "dose B " respectively. This table shows that the average normal retardation of the pulse in the 3-hour association experiments is 0.048" more than it is after the 30 c.c. dose, and 0.068" more than it is after 45 c.c. dose of alcohol. In each case where there are data for both doses, the effect varies with the dose. In the entire group of data there is only one negative instance, Subject VI. In answer to the question whether alcohol accelerated or retarded the pulse during the association experiments, one must say that while an actual acceleration after the dose of alcohol is only occasional, a relative acceleration is almost universal. In other words, under similar conditions, and in homologous periods of the 3-hour experimental sessions, the pulse is faster after alcohol than on normal days. A comparison of the pulse-lengths of the various periods of the two normal days and after alcohol is given in table 39. The course of the pulse on the first normal day shows a regular retardation from the first to the last period. A comparison of the 210 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. course of the pulse in homologous periods of the first and second normal days shows that the retardation is slightly less in the second normal day, period for period, than it is in the first. The second normal day, moreover, shows a somewhat less regular retardation than the first. Period for period, the alcohol days show less retardation than the normal. As between the different doses of alcohol, the larger dose shows less retardation in homologous periods than the smaller. TABLE 3ft. — Differences between the average pulse-length of the first and of each succeeding period. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject and ] formal Subject and . \lcohol experiment. 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 experiment. 1-2 1-3 1-4 1-5 1-6 Normal I: II - 30 - 45 - 74 - 72 Dose A: II + 26 + 28 - 28 + 8 + 7 III - 73 - 79 -144 -166 -196 III... • 18 -100 - 99 - 67 -109 IV -118 -169 -189 -229 IV - 89 -152 -164 -207 VI -109 -114 -175 -218 -175 VI VII — 32 - 48 -112 -125 -132 VII - 37 - 13 - 82 - 74 - 76 IX - 86 - 75 -130 -125 IX + 15 - 35 - 57 - 60 - 95 X -128 -122 -193 -207 -170 X - 52 - 92 — 91 - 94 -113 Average - 82 - 95 -145 -163 -170 Average . . . - 26 - 61 - 87 - 82 - 79 Normal II: II - 51 - 58 -102 - 84 -123 DoseB: II + 25 + 32 + 27 0 - 36 Ill - 22 - 80 -157 -112 - 79 Ill - 25 - 52 - 65 - 87 - 66 IV -137 -163 -169 -174 IV — 43 - 81 -119 -212 VI -139 -142 - 85 — 201 -216 VI — 82 - 89 -201 — 262 —234 VII - 47 - 68 -102 -126 -126 VII + 71 + 39 - 2 • 14 + 25 IX - 56 - 48 J9O -142 -135 IX - 29 - 71 - 40 - 25 - 21 Average - 75 - 93 -140 -140 -136 Average - 22 13 - 51 -100 - 66 Total av Diff. (I -II)... - 78 7 - 94 - 2 -142 — 5 -151 - 23 -153 - 34 Diff. (A-B).. . Effect (alcohol — normal). Dose A 4 + 52 • 48 + 33 - 36 + 55 + 18 + 69 • 13 + 74 Dose B + 56 + 81 + 91 + 51 + 87 In estimating the degree of probability of these results, it should be remembered that they are based on the measurement of over 12,000 pulse-cycles for each subject, except Subjects X and VI. The large number of data, the consistency of the results, and then- direct corre- spondence to the size of the dose satisfy, we believe, the most rigid criteria of experimental evidence for a causal relationship between the ingestion of small doses of alcohol and a relative acceleration of the pulse during the moderate mental activity of the association experiments. It is worth inquiring further whether there is evidence that the rela- tive acceleration has reached its climax within the experimental session. A comparison of the effects of alcohol on the differences (table 39) shows that there is a regularly increasing relative acceleration after dose A PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 211 that is greatest at the end of the session. The evidence is less clear after dose B. But in neither case does it appear clear that a real climax of the acceleration effect has been reached in the 3-hour session. The question of cause can not be answered from our association-pulse data. These data alone can not even answer the question whether the relative acceleration is a general consequence of the ingestion of alcohol, or a consequence that is peculiar to a special kind of moderate mental activity after taking alcohol. Both of these questions need the addi- tional data from the pulse-records during the other experimental processes. THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL ON THE PULSE-RATE DURING WORD- REACTION AND FINGER-MOVEMENT EXPERIMENTS AND ALSO DURING MODERATE MUSCULAR ACTIVITY AND REST. In accordance with our general program (Appendix I), pulse-records were taken at a variety of homologous points in the course of every experimental session. In the light of the results, it would doubtless be desirable if these records, like those taken during the association experi- ments, could have been more numerous, or perhaps even continuous. That tliis was not arranged for was due partly to the enormous addi- tional labor and expense that would have been entailed, partly to the technical difficulties, and partly to the belief that shorter records covering several respiration rhythms at homologous points in the experi- mental session would contain sufficient pulse data to indicate clearly the effect of alcohol on the pulse frequency during the experiments. With respect to continuous records, it is obvious that they would be useful only if homologous moments of the session were clearly indi- cated, and only the records of such moments might be compared. Our "sample" records, as we may call them, are theoretically as adequate as any comparable phases of continuous records could be. The only advantage of continuous records would be that the number of phases could be indefinitely extended. It will be obvious, to all those who have struggled with the difficulties of securing pulse-records during muscular activity, why sphygmo- graphic devices which depend on air transmission were not even con- sidered for the present group of records. The pulse-recording technique first used in these experiments was the Dodge telephone-recorder from the temporal artery, our method I. Later we took electro-cardiograms from body leads through condensers, our method III. Both methods call for the use of a string galvanometer as a recording instrument. Both methods are equally accurate, but in simplicity of adjustment, and dependability under all sorts of conditions, we believe that the latter method has no equal for recording the pulse-rate. 212 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. . Q A • a .2 fl .. _ a; C o s- .2 ^ ri . FH £"8 ^5 > * *« o> tfl i h H n « s .2 > T3 -^ *^ <1 S i • «8 .2 C -fc^ • * C o i % 5 c3 • 3 a o & > -^ S'i W) I c3 c3 ^i N .2 S S 5 53 S 3 .2 > t3 -^ << C A . «3 .3 fl 1-1 0) u o _s • •g c3 • « % a <5 > -^ - 55 0> tl 1 5^ "C S c3 t-5 O « M H S to W P .2 > -3 -i3 ^ o A • =3 .2 C -^ a> E o • w, o3 • f5 p >a > * 53 v b£ i a PH N H S « s .2 > 73 -3 << > • (3 A . J> * s » G) tJD i w, -S rt O 2 £ 9 .2 £ a> 3 .2 is a > T3 -3 0 t o A • 5? •-' a .3 c > v C c ^r 2 o w d .a a* <5 > * fe « V & "S ™ C 2 2 9 w 3 .2 E S > -o -P ^ p fl A • o o3 .2 C -^ i* S Os s A cj "8 2 £ 9 g o> 3 .2 > T3 *" K ^ -4J 1 jd -X ,_, 3 ^ < C' ^ ;i > C^ O t^. O P-4 *C 5 Tj( rJH T^ CO ^f CC 03 K 0) M 1 . c3 C3 0 |S| X— V OcOOi'HO100>O.O)XCiOO b °OTt.o«ocoi— i a °iO5O5O>O5O5>- T3 -^ O(NoOOOXOOOOO3a!OOiO3OOOOfe „r^ ^13. ^HT-lT^rHrOO •S v^ ^a ^•o& ^1 ^=02 g O 1 5 ^ z i c > c H C - 01 34 ?§ c 3 1 < .. Q* ft a P. .. CO C CO a s-^ i-* a Soiooio « t- 1- Is ,g 3 ft ; •• o ^^ o IQ |p 1 1 I I PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 213 * exi oj CO ^*. 00 * " * * " * 4s *n o> "O fv-i d tr* 43 o a o» o 01 o ,3 > 3! S c! ~a o A d) .£ co b£ 9} fl3 > 0 * * At At W. *~3 « 0) 53 _ £ r* o . *"" %*-* cu CQ O O> Oi CO »O CO *-< t>COCOO5OiO5 -XOOO O *QO OCOCOCDt^ -H « •-( iH C5 1-1 O ^ O iO r1* (•* i^ r^ 49 J3 O £ 0 ^_ •J3 a cu 1 • f*» ^Jjj (yj (^ l^J l^J t«*J 1^1 (jj, J ^H fll ** "* "^ Q/ o J^^QO CoOOC^l> (MOOO *OCO QOCOOiOfMOiOO^O > COiNrtCOCOCOCOINM | U O) 3t> v^^iooi co^(N r-* ^-'^ II-H QocOCOC^ Ol^CO ,— v Oi QOCDCDCOt^OOOOO >Oi >-iOO»-* I>'XO«^,O CpcOCOCOCOOCOt^ 00 CO ?"J ^J^ t1* Tf^ '»' OS O5 ^^ ^) ^^ ^^ lO ^^ ^^ co r^* t1* t*^ t^ t^* t^» Is* *o T3 i a 3a s s s a aaaaa aaaaaaaa aaaaaaaa x CL ^^ CL f^i t"x CL ^^ CX O« 0^ Oi O* ^^ * co ^, ^, ^^ ^, £^ ^^ p, Q, *" ^H ^H . ^ — ^ ^^ g 'f ... V-_,y ^l/DajCQrHt^-OlCOdJ i-HO*OTf*»OlO 110 i-l *= *** QJ CO Ct. J- i . » 7 . 7"1 ** O - 3 3.2 u ^TJ * d ' OSOOSl-00 t- t- -H T}< CN 00 i / *S eS "« CM CM 1-M ^JH rH rt r-H 1-H 1-4 3 d d o 2 > *•* &•§ 1* C3 .£ b'C CO u d '33 £ iveragc Mean Average Mean Average dura- varia- dura- varia- dura- tion, tion. tion. tion. tion. COCOt^O M^iOiOcOiO W W Cl l« ^H eo M "^ -4-O OS OS ^.«MW «N . • ej eo oo 00 O> CM t^ CO -^ CO ^J ^^ '•"^ "*^ ^v *) a ^ > -^ £ O O O5 CO "s £ £ S ^O t>- t^ Is* S 3 .2 M f ™ ^i ^ 2s "^ a 21""1 s o c^OCOOOCMOOcu WoiOO*O C* i-t i— t ?l ~* CO O t^ (N r^ x t>- x CO 1C *< OS O OS t*» 0-1 • W5 $>_ CO X CD t>» CO 1C "^t1 CO i— i CO ^^ « « ft M XK "" ^^ INCOCO to ic os o r- oxx>-t t-» »— t 1C OQ X l^ CN l^» CJ CO *C i— f h-OSX »•» X X OS X XXXO '*~N £3 S?^ ^^ J3l ^ « ^5 iC X CD OS O -^ w -^t^oor^o »-i(Ncocoi^-t» CO CO CO e*COC^C^CO CC^CC-^COW 1C OS •* O 1-1 00 XXX O O5 O^OOO O«tOW 'Record illegible. *The values for the first period of the alcohol experiments were obtained before the alcohol was given and are therefore not included in the averages. iO CiC COCMO (-, ^JiN'tOCO iNO3O CO iJ-OOt^l^t^ l^cot^ ^^ T}^ »^ ^^ t^* *O CD ^^ ^^ ^3 ^^ ^OOCOrt^ >-iCOiOO}O5CO toCDOCO^D ^t^t^cDcOO w c» CO 00 O IN iN CO iC O CN (N 00 • COCO <**COCOt-~C^^' COCO ( -r QOCO^l^-^^ QOOOOOCOOO^ M QOCOlOWCNCO ^l C^«-Hi-lr-tFH M iCI>cO iC 1C CO 5O co t- ^- 1- CO CO co OQ o O O '30 ^ O CO C1^ O ^O <30t>.OCOf^ ^iQCDCO'— '--^ ^OCDt^OCO ^ocDCO*O^OcO 7) QOOit^-OlOO >*COO N e-* -*-cO<3S OtNOOO^OScN t-'* OlNOX^CjS ^P i— 1 CN >-i i— i i-< i-t CN »• < 9H rH iNFH >-l ^H rH cl N « 1C cOOCO C-l *» r*~ Tf GOfM-^QO OO »H W Cl C^l 00 M 0» I-H W « ^ I-H iO CO O5 C-^ ^J 10 t>* ^t^ Is" t^» t*» t"» l^* t*^ -* 2? ri "^ O ^ O O GO ^ Tf O •— « Ifl ^SuO^CO^lt** O5 Ol Ci O *-i C^ CO *O C^l Ift ^OiCOiOC^T^C^ CO »-H CO -< I-H C^ (M^H ^-t (M Tt< CO Q$ - oo r^ t>- GO co GO OQ co GO cc co cs GO co M OQ CO ^^ Oi CO **^t~ ^^ ^^ ^f *O *^ iQCOCO^Ci >-HGCCOiOI>O QQ t'* t^* l^* co ^-C t^* l^* Is* l>- GO « M a s a a a a aaaaa aaa a a a a a aaaaaa da a •• a a p. ..coftftftnft coftftft CO _ i— i _ *H „ T-H a Ooi s « a O O O CD o *C 1C O CD ^ i— i iC O iC >N O CD i— t O O O i-HCO O bC I-H iN 1C CO b/a ,jj .. 1C • > 3- K.- > ^ ^••5* j(< •* •f'-'f* •%—jO ^ — ' O ^r3O S >• 2 57 2 ^ a^ |» a^ » CX C* Qi O| Ot * — - ~. O| Q! P), ^^ ? 2 3 £" 'H 9 ^ QD ^3 03 03 ^ Jt ^ ^ O ^\T ^}^ *O *O CO CO Jit O ^*^ T^ iO *O CO CO CO Sit > s . > s ^ > **^ — « fll ^ ^-1 fl "**1 O o, O c3 1° r ? ^ 218 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ^ A • C1! 3 tf .2 a 0 fc. c t- ° 3 « • B """ *« 0) M i b c fe is o 50 a > -a -^ •< c« .2 C3 4) t« O 5- 53 • a fi 0 * S'-S « M i e5 rt rt C1 cS £ fc. 5 1J 3 .2 > 13 •*> < a A • a .2 c I-. 0 (- o V . 5 « • 3 •i a « > * *. '^ v be t O •" u H S o « 3 .2 > ~a -^ < c i . eS .2 a « h 0 • 5 « • - a & > " "in 0. tl t c3 C3 r; PS M H S S 3 .2 > -a *i ^_ i • C i . « !M os .2 a > » G o - 2 o 5! «3 • s ?& <5 > * & » ID tC i &•£ n a C ti 5 • 2 2 u 3 .2 £ S >• -o -^ <3 1 a i . £ -1 e3 .2 C ^1 * • ^ S3 <" o 60 i /— \ — • r Sis crj C3 cl e 9 M H n •S £ » 9 .2 £ s >• 13 -1-1 M < fl a i . o cs .2 a « E c S •S =5 '5 c3 2 > -^ M O ^l 1 c3 03 r^ ESS 5 S 3 .2 >-3 -fl £ <; "S gjd aN «f CO CO i 1 03 TO fl KBJ > T3 •** s *H 0 O O >C ^ O CO N. O5 O ^ oi x x r^ t-i i— i t^ 5 i— « 0 c; CONOCO CiOiOiNC^^O^O ooi-fco socjcocc^ioc^co t»OOGOOO tpt>-t^l^.|^ ^TJ ? ro ro'J ^^S^"5"3500 fe^rH10 ~- a ^--? .«^^ ^fe -5 o o a « u ^^ ^ c o "? 1C i 0 >c o t^ 1 « sw < — *= •% °2-3 » "o « aO ^aO o 1 5 •s 3 .S — § I o 1 I 7? a f s I « § * | S §>£ •sz a A 03 ll S d r* QJ ^i > J3 « i I •« ^ PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 219 . be "-3-rt* co oo »-t e» o >o 10 1-1 t_ ^ 03 J3 d T! 0 ^ i-l OO O i-t ?0 'S •£ S 55 ^. S o. P o» r* r^ r^ -fj VAJ tAj os S -2 ° ^Q CJ ^5 CO ^H C^ CO C^ C^ ^| &$ CO d CO C1^ ^1 ~S Tt< 1-1 00 O> O ^i (N C4 rH rH W OQ ^i CO ^* ^1 CO ^J* ^^ 20 ^J "W^iMCO (NMMifJW "3 § *Q OJ CD CO 43 O J3 Z 8 8 . .. a & & o. & <2^0l-0i0 .-a J* r § % ^p o """*" S B S 3 fflf-4iOOOiO U i-H»O»OO^O n> ^3 .COiO^OtO ,(N*H»ocObfl CO CO J3 ^ O J3 *^ r* > ^— i Ct **3 1-^1 C3 *^ ^C ^ p ^ o E 3 ho CO T!i 4) " — _3 ro a 220 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. . o i . 03 .2 fl 4) C O F-i ^ 2 ^ -2 "g *c3 .2 V ;E 229 9 9 5 3 .2 > T3 3 &fl ^ a i . a .2 fl . 1> (-1 O A 2 S ^ 3 fl JJ/-C 9 ou £} W 5§ 2 S 9 S 3 .2 > -5 -S a ' . =3 -S G j_, 0 C o OJ . t-i t(j «§; > *> 01 S" S 3 2 > -c -3 O ' . 3 .S fl a C 5 • a ^ > -^ '35 o of cs a K W 3 .2 «J< , o A • 0} ^ « .3 fl ^ 0 o ^^ cS *^ <5 > *• *•"< r. O •**. -*^ O CD ^ £ S 9 I S > -o -3 i. a JL . . 1-1 ^fc Jfc-, — ^ g GS -H S % ^ m M" ^ ce 03 e Clj p^ S 0) S 3 .2 r^r S > -O 5 r^ C ^4 d a ^ . o •rt o3 'C S — — ••— & > •*» £ O) "2 229 « 3 .2 p£ << S >'^ 83SJS55; 5§S 8SS82S a88S»8Q 8§§ 09 tf m M i . SSI £0*1 •— * I-H co t^ 10 • *c o CO CO X CO iO • ^r O O5 O5 'X O O • ^ 00 rH t-H Ol iO CO Oi ^H OXiOO'MOO'— • OO^t^- ^H f-H - _ ' S a5 a a a a a : a a aaaaa aaaaaaa aaa It I 1 * \ 0 * fi •< S - -0 2 -£ j B ? 3 Q •^ ^cocoocoiObCflj^cOi-H « Tja ^ m r.ja f ^^icoot" ^3^^"° CQ " +-• ^ i__( -*J go Jo S a o * a c3 * ^Q c3 Q ^3 ^1^5" ^JLT go 1^: 5 8 a Jl PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 221 Dt*. «» OS CO t^ I-H Ifl H I-l »ji i-l CO CO i-l C tN »-* OS CN 00 CJ CO CN r-l CO OS to tN e» OS 1C ^H •<}< i-H C<« § CO IN ^ CD 03 b, o> CD c -5 "o _g 4a o s t & CD cc CO t. cS T? d rt '3 s! tt "o c o "5 CD (H CD 1 3 c to co oo os b- 1 ~i 00 OO CO 1-- 3 to co h- t> t» CO t- rfi CN t~- r^ 00 CO <* o t» 00 05 »l b. 00 GO OS i-H i-H OS CO »C CO t^- f- 00 to t>0 b. O »C CD 00 O5 t- r~ t^ t> O CM 88 • OS f^ CD M CO »C CN 5 CO ^J Ol M i-l CM CN O CO CM oo co in 1C 1C CO I* 1-1 co o ic (N •* I-H C t~ M O "N CO CO i ^ iC CO CM CO ^O ?O Oi CO *^ ^O CO ^C l> t^ 00 CO OS -H CO t^ CD OO i-H O5 t>- 1^ I •-H OO CO 1C co r- ^ co b- t» t* l> Ci ^< ^ sss t^ X CO SCO CM t^ t^ CO 00 1— 1 rH CC TJH 00 C^ ^ I-l *0 1C O i-H •* t- °5 •— I i— 1 d CN i^ »«i i-H CD CO CO I-H CM 1C CD CN -H CM cN CO CO 01 •* CO O 00 00 op co t^ oo oc 00 ggggi M M M i e eo »i co I-H I-1 ^H i— i CO CO i-H I— 1 O OJi-* 05 CO W ^ OS OS OS O (N CO CM I-H 00 ^ cN ^ i— i O i— i 1-H IN 1— 1 CO OS ^t i-H ** i ^ tO *O *^ O5 •v(- Tf* CO *O O Co CD CO CD CO CO CO 00 OS CO O CO CO C l^ CO c^ O l> t^ C5 to to CO CD iC OS CM CO CO t^ CD •# -H OS O CO O to CO rH t^ COCO Gp CO >C CO Tft ^ O O CO -H OO 30 O OS >C I>- b- 00 l^ t» l^ >o IN ic CN o in --*• ic «c t^- oo «5 f^ CM I-H I-H CO f^ OO 00 OS CO f~ t^ CO 00 1C «C iC O CO •* co CO rH CO •*! CO SOS CO O 0 OS CO OS 1-H 1C CO CO o o rH i-H o • • •* CO • • CO oo • • os 3 i- 3 M 90 t- CO CO t^ OS »C CO CO CO -* CO 00 1C CO CO 00 c^ ^t* co 10 OC O Cl CO -^ ^ vf- GO 00 ^ »— i O «— < CO C5 O CO »— * Oi O ^J^ ^) £^ ^H ^H ^^ *tj^ iO CO ^O CO CO CO CO CO 1 ) i to co CN i-i co d ^f os co os CS OO OS OS X OS CO So oo OS OS 5 o iC CO CO >-H -H Tfl O OS OS rH 05 «1 00 O O 1C I-H t>- o i— i Os 00 00 OS 00 rH CD CM i-H o oo ^*CO CO -H 00 i a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a X ^^ Oi c^ — — - — 5 QJ^irHOOOlC^O O *tJ3 s .• > •"0° "i 1 1 < £ CO ft ft 2oo . . t* o Os 5^ -o CM •< ^ (3 O e3 o 0 ft ft ft ft ft lO ^5 ^O *O ^O flj CO t^ ^^ ^H ^H trf) J S •HH ic "O CO CO 53 > 222 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. -a s/ _fl °-*i e •ni 1 . a i cs .3 a *— i ~ • — -2 "o & &. -^ *3 £ *3 O 3 S3 > T3 -^ a i . «s .3 a _ . «-, ^ ^ P. 2 — — — — — &c "*"* a; 22 S Cfl 33 3 o CO CO CO CO CO CO > -o -3 a j, . d .3 C f^ (^ » E 5 (D . S * £ bt a> O *£ 22 « Q% l^t t*~ CO *H co fe|.2 . . . . t^ l> CO co t> << C ' 03 .2 S 0) C o fcC a S >'5 S-l *55 OJ -fl 1 ••^ ^» ^ ^/ ~^ ^T "^ OJ CO ^H ~4 , 4 PH S £ 9 S 3 .2 > "3 -*•* .5 ( fl A • ^ C^4 03 5 fl _ ^ ^ 3} M O 0 o ^H C3 '"^ t?0* ** rt > *• o m O bJD i °P a * 3 2 3P ^ . S S >> ~~~' *-' •^ 1 . (3 i . CL) ^-4 03 .2 a t*

"*" m w 0 tr i 2> -*j S"21 22" G a; a; 3 2 E a > T3 -S a a JL . o os .2 a _ >^ -3 M n £ 0) bC i • S H 8 5 53 3 .2 .~ P> 73 -*^ « P •^ 73 cs .3 a i2 S .2 Z22S2 ®i lO *^ C"0 CO **! »^ C^ C"D ^1 sa-a-sa 1^1 i-H i— f O M a> j>43'£ oo oo oo oo ^ GO GO CO oo oo oo oo t^ t^ ISS88 1 o3 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a ft g I IS1 CO \ "S TJ ^ a a a & ^ si, •5^ ^-T-° o 5z; .. ^ O. ft ft ft Is g 5 1 «*" a a ft ft 6 a S a o ™H ^D ^^ *O *O ^D ^D ® *^ O^ lO ^* ^^ ^^ CO i/' fl-N ^H ^3 O CD o 2| a a a a a 4) J3 •n o ffl -37 Alcohol + 74 - 21 - 73 + 36 - 53 - 15 ] 16 - 75 - 33 - 9 11 + 49 j 60" after 2 genuflections: Normal ... . - 39 -130 19 + 37 - 82 - 6 + 30 - 16 > -28 Alcohol + 44 - 29 - 28 - 10 -131 + 16 ] + 4 - 80 - 23 [-22 + 69 - 90 Differences equal periods 1-2, 1-3, 1-4, etc. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 231 less than on normal days, just as it was in the association experiments. In the wide variety of mental and muscular activities which are repre- sented by these measurements, making very different demands on the heart, the effect of alcohol is always in the same direction. Individual exceptions to the rule are more numerous than in the association experiments, but they are negligible in view of the uniform tendency in the averages. The greatest average relative acceleration effect of alcohol appears in the rest-pulse, where it is 5.3 per cent of the average length of the pulse-cycles.1 After standing quietly for 60" subsequent to the double genuflection experiment, the average accelerating effect of alcohol is least, being 0.8 per cent. Between these two extremes the order of effect is 4.1 per cent for the double genuflections; 3.2 per cent for the finger-movements; 3.1 per cent for the standing rest subsequent to the rising; 2.4 per cent for the word-reactions; and 2.2 per cent for the rising. The average effect of alcohol in all these experiments is 3 per cent of the normal pulse-cycles. An indication of the relative demands of the various experimental processes on the pulse is shown in the summary of the normals of the day for each of the experiments. (See table 43.) From a comparison of the averages of table 43, it appears that the word-reactions accelerate the pulse 1.1 per cent; finger-movements 9.3 per cent; rising 21.6 per cent; two double genuflections, 18.5 per cent; while 60" after rising and the genuflections the acceleration is slightly less than 1 1 per cent in both cases. The word-reaction acceleration is conspicuously less than that of muscular work; it appears to be less also than the acceleration of the association measurements. These latter values are, however, not strictly comparable, since the word- reaction pulse was not correlated with the process of reacting, as was the association acceleration. We were content in the former case with the average pulse of the experimental process. The amount of experimental acceleration bears no fixed relation to the percentile effect of alcohol in the several instances. The dispro- portion is greatest and probably also the most significant in the pulse- accleration 60" after the more violent muscular activities of rising and the double genuflections. We would not imply that our data in this respect are numerous enough or sufficiently followed up by related experiments to be conclusive, but taken together with other data the}' form part of the cumulative evidence that the effect of alcohol on the pulse-changes incident to physical as well as to mental work manifests itself in a slowness or sluggishness of response. In the association lThe percentile average relative acceleration of the pulse effected by alcohol is calculated from the data of tables 42 and 43. For example: the normal rest retardation of the pulse during the three hours experiment averages 0.062" (table 42) ; the alcohol retardation under similar circum- stances averages 0.0175", giving a relative acceleration of 0.0445", or 5.3 per cent of the average normal of the day pulse during rest as given in table 43. 232 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. TABLE 43. — Summary of the average duration of the pulse-cycles during each of the experimental processes for the first period or normal of the day. [Values given in thousandths of a second.] Subject. Rest. Word- reac- tion. Finger. Rising. 60" after rising. 2 genu- flec- tions. 60" after genu- flec- tions. 1 0X7 927 980 861 1 030 968 962 961 898 865 985 691 942 862 958 971 969 848 944 848 952 888 884 815 784 886 Ill 860 853 800 665 612 690 760 765 585 611 580 675 759 671 687 506 743 680 677 798 805 772 TV 835 820 837 786 797 780 860 809 890 814 881 870 617 810 778 806 VI 794 736 787 872 867 847 778 901 784 788 875 738 689 766 827 677 673 726 858 582 683 638 G90 851 577 709 625 690 814 749 602 695 629 715 930 747 600 666 657 726 717 643 634 590 VII 703 626 655 675 577 795 728 730 818 809 802 735 644 656 690 748 820 568 655 562 662 700 843 565 654 561 668 IX 839 683 731 698 743 829 660 782 719 786 1 001 1,061 774 860 804 719 906 649 663 616 786 719 602 727 906 940 771 745 832 931 808 888 870 815 809 x 817 728 669 783 746 654 836 695 708 676 745 801 799 702 721 620 740 Average 835 826 757 675 745 681 744 PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 233 experiments this was shown in a flattening out of the experimental change after alcohol. In the pulse-acceleration of physical work the effect of alcohol is greater immediately after the exercise; 60" later it is conspicuously less. CAUSE OF THE RELATIVE ACCELERATION OF THE PULSE AFTER ALCOHOL. While a positive acceleration of the pulse after the ingestion of alcohol is found only occasionally in the succeeding periods of our experimental sessions, relative acceleration is, as we have seen, almost universal. By relative acceleration we mean a more rapid pulse than occurs at homolo- gous periods of normal days. It seems possible that some part of the discrepancies in the literature which we cited in the first section of this chapter, with respect to the effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate of both man and animals, results from a confusion between positive and relative acceleration. In the ordinary course of investigation it requires especial and insistent emphasis on normal experiments to detect relative acceleration. In operative techniques it is often difficult if not impracticable to secure homologous normal experiments in sufficient number for the detection of relative changes. Even when practicable it often seems like a waste of material. But where the alcohol effects are small and necessarily superposed on normal or other experimental rhythms, we believe that our data show the value of careful comparative treatment. To indicate a probable partial cause in the discrepancies of traditional data we believe to be almost as useful as direct data in our attempt to solve the alcohol problem. Other and more significant causes of dis- crepancy will appear in the following discussion. In our experiments at least, relative acceleration of the pulse occurs in greater or less degree in all subjects as a part of the effect of alcohol on the pulse during a considerable variety of mental and physical activities. The large number of our records and the variety of the processes permit us to make the following generalization: A regular effect of moderate doses of alcohol on temperate non-abstainers during intermittent mental and physical activity is a relative acceleration of the pulse. The fact is quite unequivocal in our records, but it consti- tutes a clear exception to our other experimental results. In no other case have we found consistent increase of a function as a result of the ingestion of alcohol. The cause of the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol thus becomes a question of considerable theoretical importance. As is well known there are two reciprocating mechanisms that determine the rate of heart-contraction. The classical paper of Reid Hunt1 is generally credited with the demonstration that increased pulse-rate after the beginning of muscular activity is commonly produced by a depression of the heart inhibitor as well as by a stimulation of the accelerator. , Am. Journ. Physiol.. 1899, 2, p. 395. 234 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Practically it might make no difference whether a given acceleration was produced by one mechanism or the other; but for the theory of the effect of alcohol on neuro-muscular tissue it is of the utmost importance whether or not the autonomic system reacts in a directly opposite way to that of the cerebro-spinal. For theoretical reasons we are under obligations to ask the bearing of our data on the question whether the pulse-acceleration as effected by alcohol is due to a positive stimulation of the cardiac accelerator or to a partial paralysis of the cardiac in- hibiting mechanism. In the conflicting answers of traditional experiments to the funda- mental direction of the effect of alcohol on the human pulse, it is not surprising that there is scant experimental evidence with respect to the origin of that effect. Dixon,1 Reid Hunt,2 and Lauder Brimton3 hold that in view of the reflex acceleration of the heart from the stimu- lation of various afferent nerves, the acceleration of the heart by alcohol is a reflex of the vasomotor center to the local irritation of the mouth and stomach. But apparently the evidence for this view is indirect rather than direct. Our own data can not be harmonized with this hypothesis. If the relative acceleration were a reflex to local irritation, it should be most pronounced soon after the ingestion of alcohol, and should gradually decrease as the alcohol is absorbed. Our association data, on the contrary, show a relatively small effect in the first half hour and a gradually increasing relative acceleration up to the end of the 3-hour experimental session, when the alcohol by absorption and dilution may be supposed to have lost a large part or all of its effect on the stomach-walls as a local irritant. Hascovec4 found with dogs that atropin, which specifically paralyzes the vagus endings in the heart, increases heart-rate after alcohol. But even that, if it were conclusively demonstrated for humans, would hardly answer our question. The observations of Reid Hunt2 on the differential effect of accel- erator and inhibitor mechanisms on the relative length of systole and diastole give us the only non-operative technique which is commonly accepted as proving the involvement of either of the two heart-regu- lating systems. Hunt found that after stimulating the accelerator both diastole and systole decrease together, while as a result of the loss of vagus tone the chief loss is in diastole. In this manner he proved that chloral, chloroform, and ether affect chiefly the cardio-inhibitory center, and seem to have but little effect on the accelerator center. The chief difficulty in applying the method of Hunt to ordinary sphyg- mograms is the indistinctness and uncertainty of the separation between systole and diastole, which is incident to the interaction of the natural 'Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. 2Hunt, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1899, 2, p. 395. 3Brunton, Therapeutics of the Circulation, London, 1914, p. 17,s. ^Hascovec, Wiener med. Wchnsch., 1909, 59, p. 457. PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 235 period of the registering system, as well as to the broadness of the dicrotic notch. Fortunately the Dodge temporal-pulse recorder, in series with the string galvanometer, gave sphygmograms which are peculiarly adapted to the differentiation of systole and diastole. Not only is the string galvanometer an aperiodic recorder, but the form of the pulse-wave is such as to emphasize the beginning of systole and the dicrotic incisure. Without going into the details of the construction and operation of the recorder, let us recapitulate its principles. The string galvanometer is affected by minute electric currents which are generated in a telephone- receiver, when the little armature which rests on the artery moves towards or away from the permanent magnet of the receiver. The action of the armature on the field of the receiver and consequently on the string of the galvanometer depends on the speed and direction of its movement. If the armature is at rest or moves only slowly, as in the systolic plateau, the string returns to its zero-point, from which it moves in the opposite direction at the beginning of the dicrotic incisure. A pulse-record from this instrument consists chiefly of a large systolic spike and a small inverted spike at the dicrotic notch, as represented by a specimen record in figure 29 (opposite page 171). The only limitations to the accurate reading of such records are their length and the care of the reader; the points are clearly enough marked to read thousandths of a second. In the records at our disposal, however, the speed of the photographic paper was adjusted for reading not closer than 0.005". Pursuant to the theory of Hunt, a number of our temporal-pulse records were re-read with reference to the relative length of systole and diastole. The records that we happened to read first were those of Subject III and they will serve very well as an illustration. Three records from the normal rest pulse of Subject III on March 9 gave the following averages: 5hOOmp. m. Av. systole 313(7. Av. diastole 556 a. 6 00 p. m. Av. systole 315 40 Rising: Normal 125 62 i(31) 40 63 11 1 , 21 }54 Alcohol 184 15 90 17 13 1 19 14 i 44 12 28 I 60" after rising: Normal 34 59 K40) 23 18 12 29 Alcohol 30 22 19 17 10 } 16 22 19 16 j 2 genuflections: Normal 231 18 38 39 10 1 ec 24 25 }bb Alcohol 81 10 49 22 12 34 77 1 36 14 30 J 60" after 2 genuflections: Normal 56 40 31 17 13 \ . 23 25 }29 Alcohol 27 28 24 25 13 25 29 I 25 14 37 J Bracketed normal mean variations had no corresponding alcohol measurements and are conse- quently excluded from the averages. 238 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. This change was so marked and consistent in this subject, and in several others that were sampled, that we reviewed the whole pulse data to collect the mean variations of the pulse-cycles of each record. The pulse-changes that commonly occur within the limits of our 12" records are on the one hand the respiration rhythms, and on the other hand such arrhythmic changes as are produced by the experimental processes. In both cases the long cardio-accelerator latency obviously precludes the accelerator mechanism from participation in these short rhythmic and arrhythmic changes in the pulse frequency. Consistent change in the mean variation of the pulse or its absence seemed to us to be a most important indicator of the responsiveness of the cardie-inhibitor mechanism. The relevant data are collected in table 44 and sum- marized with respect to the influence of alcohol in table 45. TABLE 45. — Summary of the effect of alcohol on the mean variation of the pulse-cycles. Condition. Effect of alcohol as shown by the mean variation. Percentage effect. Rest: Dose A a a Decreased from 35 . 5 to 21 . 5 p. ct. 40 Dose B Decreased from 35 5 35 4 0 Word-reaction Decreased from 41 32 22 Finger-movements : Dose A Increased from 46 48 - 4 Dose B Decreased from 46 40 13 Rising Decreased from 54 44 18 60" after rising . . ... Decreased from 29 19 33 Genuflections Decreased from 55 36 35 60" after genuflections .... Average decrease Decreased from 29 25 13 19 Notwithstanding large individual variations, and considerable vari- ability in records from the same individual, which follow inevitably from the varying conditions under which the records were taken, the average changes, which alone are significant, indicate a persistent tendency for alcohol to diminish the mean variation of the pulse-cycles within the limits of our "sample" records. In only one instance, finger-movements after dose A, is the average mean variation larger after alcohol than on the normal days, and in this case the percentile change is conspicuously small. The average decrease in the mean variation of the pulse-cycles after alcohol is 19 per cent. It should be noted that these percentages are based on the entire pulse-cycle, and not on the diastole, as in the discussion of the relative changes in systole and diastole of Subject III. It may be held that the smaller mean variation after alcohol is due to the relative acceleration of the pulse after alcohol. This could not explain it. The changes in mean variation are absolute, not relative, and occur even in those cases in which there is no absolute acceleration. Moreover, the average acceleration was only 3 per cent (p. 231), while the average decreased mean variation is 19 per cent. The decreased PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 239 mean variation of the pulse-cycles after alcohol must consequently be regarded as a real effect of alcohol. The bearing of this fact on the evidence for alcoholic partial paralysis of the heart inhibitory mechanism depends on the previously discussed difference between the latency of inhibitor and accelerator. Let us repeat: Accelerator latency is 10" and over; inhibitor latency is less than I". Consequently the first response of the heart to increased muscular activity with a latency of less than one pulse-cycle is not an accelerator impulse, but a release of the heart from the inhibitory influence of the vasomotor centers. Similarly, normal respiratory pulse-rhythms follow expiration and inspiration within one pulse-cycle. Inspiration, the active phase of respiration, accelerates the heart with a latent time of less than 1". Expiration retards the pulse with a similar latent time. Such latency corresponds with the known latency characteristic of the vagus, and fixes the respiratory rhythm as a function of the inhibitory mechanism. The accelerator latency of 10" absolutely precludes its participation in the pulse-changes correspond- ing to our experimental processes, or to the respiratory rhythms of rest. The flattening out of the respiratory and experimental rhythms after alcohol is consequently due to a partial paralysis of the inhibitor. It might be objected that some other influences could produce the same effect, as, for example, decreased depth of respiration. Such a change in the respiration would be the exact opposite of that found by Wilmanns1 and Weissenfeld.2 Unfortunately, our respiratory data are too few to give us any clue to the situation. But even if it were proved to exist, such a far-reaching flattening-out of respiration would be as significant as the changes in the pulse. Instead of one being referred to the other, doubtless both would have to be referred to a common cause. Moreover, the pulse-changes after experimental move- ments and other definite amounts of physical activity give us a clear guarantee that we are not dealing with a mere accident of modified respiration. The pulse-changes at the beginning of physical work have a latency that shows them to be due to changes in the vagus tone. And these work accelerations suffer even greater loss after the ingestion of alcohol than the respiratory rhythm of rest. It should be noted that the inhibitor paralysis as affected by 30 and 45 c.c. of alcohol is not complete, but only partial. Even after 45 c.c. of alcohol, increased activity still produced a faster pulse. This is in line with other experimental facts. Gutnikow3 showed that the vagus could be stimulated by electricity in alcoholic narcosis; but in our experiments the accelerating effect of muscular action is less after alcohol, and the decreased mean variation indicates that its beginning- is more sluggish. The whole picture of the effect of alcohol on the 'Wilmanns, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1897, 66, p. 167. 2Weissenfeld, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1898, 71, p. 60. 'Gutnikow, Zeitschr. f. klin. Med., 1892, 21, p. 168. 240 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. depressor corresponds point for point with the effect of alcohol on the reflex mechanisms of the cord and basal ganglia. The extent of the reflex response was lessened and the latent time was lengthened. Hence it should not surprise us that the cardio-inhibitory reflexes of the medulla show similar effects of alcohol. The question as to why alcohol in moderate doses acts selectively on the heart inhibitor rather than on the accelerator is one that property belongs to general physiology rather than to this investigation. It may be noted, however, that alcohol in this respect, as in others, appears to follow its pharmacological relatives, ether and chloroform (Hunt1). Moreover, it seems that the inhibitor is in general more susceptible to disturbing influences than the accelerator. It acts quicker and re- sponds to less vigorous stimuli (Hunt,1 Aulo,2 Krogh and Lindhard3). But we expressly limit our generalizations as to the effect of alcohol on pulse frequency to the dosage and other conditions of our experiments. There is, indeed, some probability that the curve which represents a direct proportion between the dose and pulse frequency for 30 and 45 c.c. would follow the same direction above and below these limits. But our actual data are limited to our two doses; and theoretically there is no guarantee that a cusp in the curve or a change in its direc- tion might not occur at any point. In fact, Dixon4 definitely voices a common conviction that in the qualitative pulse-changes produced by different doses, alcohol is unique. Moreover, if alcohol is a general depressant, as our evidence shows, there is no reason why it should not also partially paralyze the cardio-accelerator as well as the cardio- inhibitor mechanism. Indeed certain of our results, viz, the relatively large loss in rhythmic, respiratory, and experimental changes in the pulse variability, as compared with the slight acceleration changes, suggest that the effects of a decreased irritability of the cardio-inhibitory center are contaminated, even in our data, by a decreased accelerator tone. That under our experimental circumstances the inhibitor mechanism suffers the greater depression seems to be clear from our data. But different circumstances might supposedly alter the balance of the effects in the two systems so as to produce no change at all in the pulse-rate or even to produce a pulse retardation instead of an accel- eration after alcohol. Something of that sort apparently happened in the case of Subject IV in the association-pulse after dose B. The commonly accepted doctrine that alcohol retards the pulse of fever patients may be another case to the point. Mosso and Galeotti5 remarked the similarity of the alcohol pulse to the fever pulse. It seems plausible that if the cardio-inhibitor center has already been notably depressed before the alcohol is given, its further depression t, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1899, 2, p. 395. 2Aulo, Skand. Archiv f. Physiol., 1911, 25, p. 347. 3Krogh and Lindhard, Journ. Physiol., 1913, 47, p. 120 (esp.). 'Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. 6Mosso and Galeotti, Lab. Sci. Int. du Mont Rosa, 1903. (Published 1904.) PULSE DURING MENTAL AND PHYSICAL WORK. 241 be relatively slow, thus bringing into prominence a coincident depression of the accelerator. Further support for this general rela- tionship appears in the antagonism between atropin and alcohol (Hascovec) . Moreover, the effect of alcohol on the pulse-rate has been found to persist after the vagi are cut (Hascovec1 and Dixon2). Such an event would be inexplicable if the inhibitor center alone were affected. We suggest that in this probable effect of alcohol on both antagonistic mechanisms, combined with the failure to differentiate absolute and relative acceleration, there is ample opportunity for all the various experimental results that were noted from the alcoholic tradition in the first part of this chapter. Reversal of effect on the pulse-rate would seem to be theoretically probable, if ether or chloroform had been administered previous to alcohol or in febrile cases. The contention of Cushny3 that the pulse-acceleration effected by alcohol is due to increased muscular activity, and not to any direct action on the regulating mechanisms, is not supported by our data. One might have criticised any data that were obtained during mental experiments alone, on the ground that while the subjects seemed to be quieter after alcohol than on normal days, there might have been increased muscular activity that we did not notice. The fact that similar changes accompany definite physical tasks leaves such an objec- tion improbable. We have no disproof, however, of the hypothesis that without any mental or physical activity the pulse-rate might remain unchanged. We would again insist that the changes in the pulse-rate herein described belong to experimental conditions of moderate mental or physical activity. They should not be uncritically transferred either to intense activit}^ or to complete relaxation, for reasons that we have already discussed. But whether the relative acceleration results or not, the effect of alcohol on the cardie-inhibitory center ought to be demonstrable wherever it occurs by a depression of the normal rhythms. In view of the large amount of our pulse data, and the thoroughness with which it was read and elaborated, we believe that the accelerating tendency of alcohol on the pulse-rate of normal human subjects, during moderate mental and physical activity, may be regarded as certain. We also believe that the evidence is sufficient to show that such relative acceleration must be referred to a partial paralysis of the cardio- inhibitor centers. But whether these generalizations be accepted or not, the experi- mental fact remains that generally decreased irritability of a consider- able number of related neuro-muscular processes consequent to the ingestion of alcohol was regularly accompanied by a relative accelera- tion of the pulse-rate. These two facts taken together we must regard as a clear indication of decreased organic efficiency as a result of mod- erate doses of alcohol. 'Hascovec, Wiener med. Wchnsch., 1909, 59, p. 457. 2Dixon, Joiirn. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. 'Cushny, Pharmacology, Philadelphia, 1910. CHAPTER IX. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. DIFFERENTIAL INCIDENCE OF THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. The first attempt to measure the relative incidence of the effect of alcohol on various fundamental mental processes is the classical work of Kraepelin.1 In this task he was a pioneer. Since his work there have been numberless special investigations of the action of alcohol on various mental operations, but there have been no systematic groups of experi- ments that permitted an inference as to the relative incidence of the alcohol effect. The well-known conclusions of Kraepelin may be condensed as follows : All doses of alcohol depress the intellectual processes of appre- hension, memory, and judgment. Small doses facilitate motor dis- charge at first and subsequently depress it. Large doses depress both intellectual and motor processes from the first. The nature and amount of the effects depend on the characteristics of the individual and on his condition. Certain apparent discrepancies between our results and his led us to a careful review of Kraepelin's original arguments. In that review two factors challenged our attention, viz, (1) the neural complexity of all his experimental processes, and (2) the unsatisfactoriness of some of his analyses as judged by present standards. For example: As experimenter and as theorist, Kraepelin worked under the tradition of a complete differentiation of the sensory and motor factors in reaction. Choice and discrimination were for him real factors in the reactions called by these respective names. It is now generally realized, however, that choice is not discoverable in the consciousness that accompanies the practiced so-called choice reaction, and that the discrimination reaction is complicated by notable inhibitory tendencies that are in their nature motor rather than discriminatory. But from his stand- point, Kraepelin was able to say without hesitation that the difference between the results of the discrimination reaction and those of the simple reaction can be referred only to the new factor which it was intended to introduce into the process, viz, the discrimination. Conse- quently, since the " discrimination " appears to be lengthened by alcohol, he holds that the intellectual factor in reaction processes is paralyzed by alcohol. Similarly, since the intentionally new factor in the choice reaction is primarily a motor process, and since the choice reactions are shorter in his experiments after alcohol, he held that the discharge of motor processes is facilitated by moderate doses of alcohol. Con- 1Kraepelin, Wundt's Phil. Studien, I, 1883, p. 573. Ueber die Beeinflussung einfacher psychischer Vorgange durch einige Arzneimittel. Jena, 1892. 242 SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 243 tributary evidence for these conclusions he found in his other experi- ments, as well as in acute alcoholic intoxication, and in the interrelation between the effects of alcohol and disease processes, particularly in relation with epilepsy. The conception of all sensory and motor processes as a resultant of complex stimulating and inhibiting factors was not as well established in the psychophysiological tradition when Kraepelin did his experi- mental work and made his first analyses, as it is at present. His own analysis of the work curve, for example, was a later development. While we can no longer regard discrimination and choice as adequately describing the characteristics of the " discrimination " and " choice" reactions, we have come to regard the conditions of neural processes on a scheme of reciprocating mechanisms, as a complex of exciting and controlling tendencies, with great variability of the adequacy and completeness of the controls. In contrast to the experimental processes of the Kraepelin series, our experiments were planned expressly to test the conditions of the nervous system at widely different levels in the simplest practicable processes. The question of the incidence of the effect of alcohol on the different levels is not merely an effort to explain our data. It was a direct problem from the beginning of our investigation and served as one of the principles that determined the choice of measurable processes.1 But, even more than the direct measurement of the effects of alcohol on the various processes, we believe that their interrelations and experimental analyses give us the conditions for a more definite answer to the problem of the incidence of the effects of alcohol within the physiological schema of nervous action than could have been given by a less systematically organized group of processes. The relevant data with respect to the incidence of the effect of alcohol are collected in table 46, arranged in the order of previous discussion. From this table it appears that the most marked effects of alcohol are shown in the knee-jerk, where alcohol increased the average latent time 10 per cent and decreased the average extent of muscle- thickening 46 per cent. This extreme effect, it will be remembered, made it impracticable to measure the knee-jerk of several subjects after the larger dose (dose B). The second largest effect is produced in the lid-reflex, which shows an average increased latency of 7 per cent and decreased extent of movement of 19 per cent. These changes vary directly with the dose of alcohol, and must satisfy the most exacting demands of reliability. The change would be much larger, save for the two exceptional cases of Subjects X and IV whose lid reflexes were small in amplitude by reason of inheritance, or training, or both. In explanation of these two cases, Psychological Program, p. 273, (2) and (3). 244 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. in view of the general effects of alcohol, and in view of the specific evidence that in the pulse apparent facilitation in response to alcohol was proved to result from a paralysis of inhibitors, the most practical hypothesis is, as we have seen, that alcohol diminished the controlling influence of the particularly prominent inhibiting mechanism. The third largest change was produced in the sensory threshold for electrical stimulation. The threshold was raised an average of 14 TABLE 46. — Nummary of the effect of alcohol on the various experimental processes in percentilefi.1 Subject. I jects: XI A A A - 1 + 16 (2) + 7 XII XIV Average . . . JThe plus and minus signs in this table must be taken in the light of their origin on the basis of our statistical conventions. We express the effect of alcohol throughout this investigation by the formula "Effect of alcohol equals the average difference on alcohol days minus the average difference on normal days" (see page 29). That is, if the effect of alcohol has a plus sign, then the average difference between the normal of the day and subsequent periods on alcohol days is greater than the average difference on normal days, i. e., the alcohol tended to reduce the meas- urements. 2Records too few for inclusion but in the same direction as the average. per cent, but this effect is irregularly distributed between doses A and B, showing the interaction of some new factor with the higher dose. As we have already seen, this is partially if not wholly accounted for by a modified critical demand of the subject. Fourth in extent is the effect on coordinated movements as seen in the speed of the eye-movements, which average 11 per cent slower SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 245 under alcohol. The effect of alcohol on the eye-movements varies directly with the size of the dose. A close fifth is the speed of reciprocal innervation of the finger, which is decreased by an average of 9 per cent. Sixth and seventh in the list are the changes in the reaction-time of the eye and speech organs, an increase in the latent time of 5 and 3 per cent respectively. Finally, there is practically no change at all in the memory. But our memory experiments did not include dose B. The natural grouping of the processes with respect to the magnitude of the percentile effects of alcohol, viz, first, the two reflexes; second, the sensory threshold; third, the two motor coordinations; fourth, the two elaborated reactions; and fifth, the memory, is too consistent to be accidental. It is confirmatory evidence of the reliability of our results, that similar processes yield similar results. It is noteworthy that 5 of the 6 processes, in which there are com- parable data, show a greater average effect of the larger dose. The one exception is in the sensory threshold, where, as we have seen, the results are probably complicated by the interaction of at least two different processes. The group of psychopathic or reformed alcoholic subjects is too small and the experimental days are too few to give data of similar reliability to that of the normal subjects. On the whole, however, it may be regarded as probable that the general effect of dose A on the reformed alcoholic is not fundamentally different from that on normals. The average effect on the lid-reflex is greater than in normals. The change in the eye-reaction and word-reaction is identical with that of normals for dose A. The effect on the Faradic threshold is consistent, and while less than the effect of dose A on normals, is more than that of dose B. The effect on the finger-movements is reversed, but the effect on the eye-movements in the two cases in which the data are complete is relatively large and in the same direction. As we shall see later, the eye-movements are of especial significance. The average improvement of the eye-reaction after dose A is similar to that of normal subjects. It is probable that the improvement has a similar basis in the two groups. The most pronounced difference between the normal and the psychopathic subjects appears in the case of the finger-movements. For this difference we have no satisfactory explanation. Taken altogether, our data leave no doubt that alcohol shows a real difference of incidence in its effects on different levels of the nervous system of both normal and psychopathic subjects. The lower centers are depressed most and the highest least. This is entirely contrary to our traditions. But as Professor Hunt remarked in an informal dis- cussion of these results: "If alcohol had selectively narcotized the 246 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. higher centers it would have been used as an anaesthetic centuries ago.'' It can not be an experimental accident that all the cerebral reaction processes, eye-reaction, word-reaction, memory, and the free-associ- ation experiments are in a class by themselves with respect to the small percentile change effected by moderate doses of alcohol. In direct contradiction to the Kraepelin contention that motor discharge is facilitated by alcohol, are the regular and self-consistent data that the simplest possible movements are much more seriously depressed by alcohol than the more distinctly intellectual processes. Kraepelin's sensory-motor schema of the effect of alcohol arose from a questionable interpretation of the complex reaction forms. It proves utterly inade- quate for the facts. We believe that the incidence of alcohol on the nervous system is a much more complex problem than that simple schema would indicate. In view of the self-consistent differences of the effect on the different levels, we must ask whether alcohol has a specific action at these dif- ferent levels, or whether the differences in its action are due to a differential organization of the processes. It is to be noted that the greatest and most persistent change consequent to alcohol is in the processes which are most completely withdrawn from voluntary rein- forcement and voluntary control. The higher centers alone show capacity for autogenic reinforcement. In spite of sleepiness, pain, or sensory distraction, and even narcosis, one can reestablish the normal controls on occasion, and make a fair showing, especially when the results would be serious if one let oneself go. Indeed, there is a wide- spread popular belief that persons in acute alcoholic intoxication may be sobered by some unusual circumstance if the shock is intense enough. It seems to be common experience for the excessive user on occasion to struggle to remain master of himself. He finally succumbs to alcoholic narcosis only when the autogenic reinforcements fail. There is direct evidence in the experience of our subjects that cerebral autogenic reinforcement did in fact occur to modify the effect of alcohol. One of the subjects remarked with surprise how "sleepy" he could be and yet "pull himself together" at the signal for the word-reaction. A similar phenomenon was noted in the discussion of the free association experiments, in which a subject went to sleep for a few seconds and failed to hear one stimulus word, and 10" later, after being awakened, responded normally both as to the latent time and the character of the associate word. The capacity for pulling oneself together with alter- nating periods of relaxation is a familiar expression of the same rhythmic reinforcement that conditions attention waves and " spurts" of various kinds. But in spite of the autogenic reinforcement, with one exception the performance after alcohol was not superior to normal. Reinforce- ment in these cases seems to consist chiefly of an arousal to more or less SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 247 normal performance. There is, however, one exception to this rule, and that is the eye-reaction. Here, at least, there seems to be a definite corroboration of the Kraepelin contention that the choice reaction is facilitated by moderate doses of alcohol. The case will receive our most careful attention (see pages 250 and 251). But granting the exception as a real one, there can be no doubt con- cerning the general experimental depression of the various processes. With only one apparent exception (the eye-reaction after dose A), alcohol regularly tends to depress neuro-muscular action. But so does sleep. The statement of the tendency gives no clue to its physiological character. Depression of neuro-muscular action may be due to any one of a considerable variety of antagonistic conditions. The same is true of facilitation. The unanalyzed question whether alcohol effects a positive or negative increment in the capacity of the subject for any specific mental performance or group of performances is scientifically crude. We would not appear to deny the practical importance of such a question. Both morally and economically it may be useful to know whether an individual can do more or harder work after taking alcohol as a part of his food or as a condiment. But the practical capacity for effective work of any definite sort is scientifically the product of an indefinite number of interacting neural facilitations and inhibitions. In this complex and relatively unexplored interplay of psycho-physio- logical processes, the balance in any direction can rarely be predicted with scientific accuracy. In no single case do we know accurately either the number or the relative force of the various factors. Con- versely, any specific outcome may be the resultant of an indefinite number of various configurations of the polygon of forces which may be in operation. In ergographic accomplishment, for example, a specific increase in the work done may be due to an actual increase of the available muscular energy, to a spurt, to increased interest and determination; or it may be due to decreased susceptibility to the normal inhibiting influence of muscular discomfort or pain. Similarly, a decreased reaction time may be due to increased attention, to real facilitation of the motor discharge ; or it may be due to careless reaction to some accidental pre-stimulation cue that the true stimulus is about to come, or even to some arbitary simplification of the reaction modes, such as the change from a sensory to a motor type. Only correlated data can determine which of the interacting tendencies is actualty responsible for the increased output. The naive assumptions that increased physiological action is always organically beneficent, as well as that depression of physiological action is always organically disad- vantageous, are merely popular prejudices. 248 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. Let us represent in schematic form some of the possible conditions of variations in the action of an indicator consequent to the ingestion of a drug. Apparent reinforcements of a process might be due to: A. Increased action at some point in the direct process. B. The decreased action of some inhibiting factor. Under the first condition, i. c., increased action at some point in the direct process: 1. The drug may stimulate the indicator directly. (Pilocarpin on the ciliary muscle.) 2. It may make the indicator more sus- ceptible to its normal stimuli. (Eserin.) 3. It may really depress the indicator, but the depression may at first produce Frolich's1 "scheinbare Er- regbarkeitssteigerung" due to the summation of delayed processes. (Action of COa and fatigue products on muscle, nerve, and nerve centers.) 4. The drug may act on some of the cen- tral links of the neuro-muscular arc, (1) to stimulate them directly, (2) to make them more susceptible to stimulation, or (3) to produce "scheinbare Erregbarkeitssteige- rung." (Caffeine on central nervous system; strychnine on the cord; CC>2 and fatigue products on cen- tral nervous system.) o. It may supply some condition of metab- olism, i. e., the drug may be a food, or, like adrenalin, may facilitate the liberation of stored foods. 6. It may facilitate the diffusion of food or oxj'gen, by increased osmotic pressure, or by decreased resistance of permeable membranes. 7. It may facilitate the distribution of food or oxygen by increasing the flow of blood. (Increased pulse- rate.) B. Similarly the drug may depress inhibit^ ing or controlling mechanism in some of the ways described under depres- sion and so facilitate the process that serves as indicator. Apparent depression of a process might be due to: A. Decreased action at some point in the direct process. B. The increased action of some inhibiting factor. Under the first condition of direct depression : 1. The drug may narcotize the indicator directly. (Like curare on motor- nerve endings, or cocaine on pain- receptors.) 2. It may make the indicator more sus- ceptible to depressing condition. (Increased fatigability after strych- nine.) 3. It may directly increase the conserva- tive processes in the indicator by delaying metabolism. (The best example is not a drug, but cold.) 4. It may act on some remote point of the neuro-muscular arc (1) to nar- cotize it directly, (2) to make it more susceptible to inhibiting stim- uli, or (3) to increase in it some con- servative process. (Morphine on central nervous system; unknown to writers if any drug has this specific action; extreme form in normal sleep.) 5. The drug may destroy or render una- vailable some normal food or oxygen supply. (Nerve-tissue under chlor- oform narcosis.) 6. It may hinder the diffusion of food or oxygen, by decreasing osmotic pres- sure.* 7. It may decrease the distribution of food or oxygen by decreasing the blood flow, or by affecting the hemoglobin, as CO. B. Similarly it may stimulate the inhibit- ing and controlling mechanism in some of the ways described under stimulation of the direct process. Even this analysis does not exhaust the possibilities of complication ; but it serves to illustrate the difficulties of the task of interpreting the meaning of any specific increase or decrease in the operation of an indica- tor. What we know of the physiological oxidation and pharmacology of alcohol makes it clear that some of these complications really exist in ^rolich, Zeitschr. f. allg. Physiol., 1909, 9, p. 1. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 249 its action. Quite apart from the question of any hypothetical selective effect, alcohol is known to be a source of energy, which some tissues at least seem able to use directly (perfused heart). Under certain con- ditions it is known to act as a local irritant. In large doses at least it is known to be a narcotic belonging pharmacologically to the chloroform group. Following the general outline of problems that is indicated by our schema, the action of alcohol is first of all a problem of the resultant of its various possible effects on any given process, as a source of energy, local irritant, and narcotic. For human subjects our data seem to show rather conclusively that in the several neuro-muscular processes which we have investigated, depression overbalances all other effects of alcohol. But we are bound to ask whether the apparent depression is due to a real paralysis of some factor in the direct process, or whether in part or in whole it may not be due to the stimulation of inhibitory mechanisms. In either case we must inquire further whether the effect is peripheral or central; that is, whether the alcohol directly affects the end links in the neural chain, or whether it affects coordination processes in nervous centers. Finally, since the activity of nervous tissue as a whole is modified by the interaction of other tissues, a complete account of the action of alcohol on any given indicator involves the coordinate action of alcohol on all the several processes that may influence the indicator or the central nervous mechanism that operates it. This final problem will not be solved until the whole alcohol program is completed. But in the systematic interrelation of the processes which we have measured, as well as in- the variation of the dose, we hoped that our present data would permit some definite contribution to the final solution. With the total problem in mind, our first task is to scrutinize our data for whatever indication they may give with respect to the fundamental interpretative question as to whether or not the apparent depression is due to a stimulation of inhibitory mechan- isms. The second question that we must face is as to whether the alcoholic depression ma}^ not be regarded as conservative or recupera- tive. Thirdly, we shall look for a possible interrelationship of the processes through differences in their temporal incidence, and finally, we shall inquire which of the various effects which we have measured represents the central tendency most completely. This should not only show us something of the general reliability of the measurements for the estimation of personal differences; it should also indicate whether the effects of alcohol are predominantly sensory, motor, or central. 250 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. EVIDENCE FOR ALCOHOLIC STIMULATION. There is in the scientific literature concerning the effect of alcohol a large body of experimental evidence that, like the mass of common non-experimental experience, seems to point to an initial neuro- muscular excitation, resulting from small or moderate doses of alcohol (school of Binz1). Thus in excised muscles, the work of SchefTer2 and of F. S. Lee3 and his collaborators seems to have demonstrated that a small amount of alcohol "is capable of augmenting the work of a skeletal muscle." Increased excitability after alcohol was found in frog nerves (Mommsen,4 Efron,5 and Breyer6) . The reinforcing action of alcohol on the exhausted perfused heart may be regarded as demonstrated (Loeb,7 Wood and Hoyt,8 and Dixon9). The reaction experiments by Krae- pelin and various ergographic studies are commonly cited in support of a short stimulatory effect of moderate doses on the central nervous system. Evidence is not wanting, on the other hand, that much of the augmenting effect of alcohol is really due to secondary or remote effects (school of Schmiedeberg,10 Bunge,11 et al.). The most carefully controlled ergographic work of Rivers12 is entirely negative. In our own material, the chief evidence for neuro-muscular excitation is found in the latent time of the eye-reactions. They alone show consistent improvement after the smaller dose of alcohol. In 4 out of 5 available cases the result of alcohol was facilitation. The greatest individual improvement was 15 per cent. The average improvement for the group was 5 per cent. Similarly, for the psychopathies, 2 out of 3 cases show decrease in the latency of the eye-reaction as a result of the smaller dose of alcohol. The facts are clear enough. It is no argu- ment against them that they are unique in our experiments. But it should not be forgotten that 15 c.c. more of alcohol, i. e., a dose of 45 c.c. conditioned a delay in the eye-reaction three times greater than the improvement produced by the smaller dose. The average result of both alcohol doses on the eye-reactions is to lengthen their latency about 5 per cent. But it would be unjust to our data and to our problem to consider only the general average. Exceptions to a general tendency, provided they are genuine, are theoretically as important as the generalization. , Grundziige der Arzneimittellehre, Berlin, 1901. 2Scheffer, Archiv f. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1900, 44, p. 24. 3Lee and Salant, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1903, 8, p. 61; Lee and Levine, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1912, 30, p. 389. 4Mommsen, Virchow's Archiv, 1881, 83, p. 273. 6Efron, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1885, 36, p. 467. "Breyer, Archiv f. d. ges. Physiol., 1903, 99, p. 481. 7Loeb, Archiv f. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1905, 52, p. 459. "Wood and Hoyt, Mem. Nat. Acad. of Sci. (pub. 1905), 1911, 10, p. 39. "Dixon, Journ. Physiol., 1907, 35, p. 346. 10Schmiedeberg, Grundriss der Pharmakologie, Leipsic, 1902. "Bunge, Lehrbuch der Physiologic des Menschen, Leipsic, 1905, 2d ed.; Die Alkoholfrage, Leipsic, 1887. "Rivers, The Influence of Alcohol and other Drugs on Fatigue, London, 1908. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 251 While they do not affect the general tendency, they do save generali- zations from the error of artificial simplicity. We are consequently under a double obligation to examine in some detail the apparent exception to the main tendency of our results. In discussing our eye-reaction technique, we found some grounds for dissatisfaction owing to the limited number of positions for the peripheral object of regard, and the consequent possibility of antici- patory reactions. The same fault will be found (p. 89) to have pro- duced an unexpected practice effect in the eye-reactions on normal days. We can not agree with a supposititious critic who, on the ground of this practice effect, might hold that the eye-reaction fails to fulfill our demands for a thoroughly practiced experimental process. That which is thoroughly practiced in this reaction is, however, the differ- ential coordination of the eye-muscles to bring the line of regard to any one of an indefinite number of positions. Our experiment was an arti- ficial simplification of natural conditions. Instead of an indefinite number of possible positions we used only 6. Apparently all our subjects learned by experience during the experiments to respond to one of the 6 new positions more rapidly than they were in the habit of responding to an indefinite number. Doubtless this should have been foreseen in planning the experiment. In excuse one can only say that the data on normal eye-movements are not very abundant and the particular point had never arisen before. Dodge1 had found that in the course of over 10 years of eye-reaction records his eye-reaction had not materially changed and we failed to realize that in his experiments a great variety of positions were used. It is not impossible that indefi- nite variation of the eye-reactions would have been open to more serious criticism because of lack of uniformity on the different experimental days. After all, as far as the main results are concerned, a moderate practice effect is not serious. It was provided for by the distribution of normal days. This type of reaction gave comparable values for all sorts of untrained subjects, and the effect of repetition is clearly repre- sented on the normal base-line. Our facilitation-inhibition problem, however, gives the possibility of simplified elaboration of reaction a more serious aspect. We may indicate its bearing by a question: "What would have happened if we had still further simplified the motor elaboration of the eye-reaction by reducing the number of stimulus positions to one instead of six?" The answer to this question we know from accidental experience. Such simplification would have led to frequent if not to regular anticipatory reactions. The voluntary control of our eye-movements is meager at best. If we know where an object is about to appear it takes a great deal of practice and an entirely artificial inhibition to prevent looking at the expected place. The artificial development of such inhibitions 1Dodge, Monograph Supplement of the Psychol. Review, 1907, No. 35. 252 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. would have produced a most unnatural reaction type. Similarly, by analogy with all known "choice" reactions the simplification of the possible modes of reaction from infinity to six would also tend to reduce the reaction time. Now it is not inconceivable, and indeed, from the numerous indications of our experimental results, it seems probable, that the more elaborate controls often suffer earlier than the function itself. This tendency appeared in the highly inhibited reflexes (Subjects X and I V) , where the inhibition suffered first. It appeared in the memory experiments of Subject VII, when the complex associative " story" suffered far more than simple perseveration. Indeed, the suppression of distraction in one instance seemed to aid the perseveration process. This tendency appeared also in the threshold to Faradic stimulation, where alcohol disturbed the subject's caution and produced more numerous false reactions, i. e., reactions when there were no stimuli. The more exact elaboration of the motor response which brings the eye to a new point of regard in a single sweep also involves a complex control, and less careful elaboration would permit a quicker response. Whether or not the eye-movements after 30 c.c. of alcohol are in fact less accurately adjusted than normal could be finally settled only by experimental measurement. But unfortunately spatially quanti- tative techniques would be vastly more exacting than our temporally quantitative technique. It is somewhat doubtful if it could be applied indiscriminately to untrained subjects, such as those with whom we dealt. However that may be, the records at hand were not taken with spatially quantitative results in view. Consequently our results may not be directly interpreted in spatial terms. But in the absence of direct measurements it was obviously necessary to bring whatever indirect evidence we possessed to bear on the problem of the apparent exception. It is not without significance that under almost identical circum- stances of a complex ''choice" reaction in the process of training, Frankfurther1 found typewriting errors enormously increased by alco- hol, while the speed was occasionally increased (cf. his 41st day, pp. 436-437). His introspection is not irrelevant (p. 455): "I had the feeling that the fingers ran faster than I could find the right spot for the stroke. I often struck keys against my will, so that I must voluntarily inhibit the movements in order not to make a mistake at every letter." There can be little doubt that even in small experimental doses along with and as a part of the general depression we have clear indications of a paralysis of inhibitory or controlling factors. These may on occasion suffer greater relative depression than the direct process, as in the pulse. When this depression of controls is combined with a reinforcement caused by the experimental instructions, suitable conditions are pro- vided for the slight reinforcements of reactions that rapidly pass over into 'Frankfurther, Psychol. Arbeit., 1914, 6, p. 419. '-'Translated by authors. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 253 depression with slightly larger doses. It seems probable, too, that we have herewith come upon the grounds for a wide variety of effects which are commonly observed in the social use of alcohol, when circumstances give the reinforcement and alcohol reduces the inhibitions. Whatever may be the effect in isolated tissue, our data give clear and consistent indications that the apparent alcoholic depression of neuro- muscular processes is a genii-ne phenomenon that can not be reduced to the excitation of inhibitory processes; but that, conversely, whenever apparent excitation occurs as a result of alcohol it is either demon- strably (pulse-rate, reflexes, memory, and threshold) or probably (eye- reaction) due to a relatively overbalancing depression of the controlling and inhibitory processes. IS ALCOHOLIC DEPRESSION A CONSERVATIVE PROCESS? One factor in our related group of measurements was expressly intro- duced for its indication of general physiological conditions. That factor is the pulse-rate. There are grounds for believing that the pulse- rate is the best index of the general metabolic demands that is available in psychological experiments (Dodge1). It would doubtless be better if the psychological experiments could be carried out coincidently with respiration experiments, or some other means for determining total metabolism during the mental activity. Such an arrangement, however, would present the greatest technical difficulties both from the standpoint of the psychological experiments and from the standpoint of total metabolism experiments. With respect to the psychological experiments, it would be a questionable procedure to add the insistently obvious and not too comfortable attachments for respiration experiments in the expectation of getting natural psychological reactions. With respect to the metabolic experi- ments, it would not be easy to arrange a technique to measure the differential metabolism for the few minutes that are involved in the psychological experiments. Probably both difficulties could be over- come by sufficient sacrifice of time and money, but the satisfactory simultaneous operation of the two elaborate techniques would always be a difficult task. Fortunately for provisional experiments, at least, there are scientific grounds for believing that changes in general metabolism are indicated by the pulse-rate. The experience of the Nutrition Laboratory in its studies of the relationship between pulse-rate and metabolism is best expressed by the following quotations: "A comparison of this pulse-rate with the total heat-production shows a striking uniformity in fluctuations and similar comparisons with other experi- ments show in nearly every instance a parallelism."2 , Psychol. Review, 1913, 20, p. 1. 2Benedict, The Influence of Inanition on Metabolism, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 77, 1907, p. 488. 254 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. "In the course of experiments it has been observed that with very slight activity the pulse and the metabolism are at a minimum. When the activity is increased, the pulse-rate is likewise accelerated, and there is an increase in the total metabolism. It has furthermore seemed clear that the increase in the pulse-rate is relatively proportional to the increase in the actual mus- cular activity observed." (Benedict and Carpenter.1) Again (p. 249) : "Pulse-rate increases during the waking hours of the day as compared with the night. We can obtain an approximate idea of the total metabolism from the pulse-rate of a subject, although the rate per minute of itself is not neces- sarily a general index of the katabolism for all individuals." Still more recently Murlin and Greer2 wrote: "Experiments on dogs were devised in which the absorption of oxygen and the output of carbon dioxide were determined by means of a small Benedict respiration apparatus attached directly to the dog's trachea. Simultaneously the blood-pressure was recorded. The effects of anesthesia were controlled. Similar experiments on several different men in widely different nutritive conditions and in varying degrees of muscular activity (lying on a bed, stand- ing, standing and lifting weights, shivering, etc.) were also done by means of the same respiration apparatus and the Erlanger sphygmomanometer. The results show a fairly close correlation in the same individual between the heart- output expressed as the product of the pulse-pressure and the heart-rate on the one hand, and the absorption of oxygen and the elimination of carbon dioxide on the other. The relation between carbon-dioxide elimination and heart-action is on the whole a little more constant than that between the oxygen absorption and heart action." Quite recently observations by Professor H. M. Smith, of the Nutri- tion Laboratory, have shown that during walking the metabolism may increase 250 per cent without any increment in pulse-rate. This striking exception to the rule makes us very cautious in drawing unsup- ported inferences from the pulse-rate to metabolism, in spite of the fact that all the other experience of the Laboratory is to the effect that increased muscular activit}r correlates with an increased pulse. The existence of some intimate connection between pulse and mental states is a commonly accepted fact of great antiquity. Mosso3 and his followers found in the relative distribution of the blood to the brain and other parts of the body a measure of mental activity. Seriously controlled attempts to correlate definite circulatory changes with defi- nite mental processes find their most important expression in the work of Lehmann.4 An enormous amount of data still leaves the question open whether any specific mental state can be absolutely correlated with any specific change in pulse or respiration, in the sense that the one can be inferred from the other. Indeed, in our knowledge of the nervous conditions of vasomotor inner vation there seems to be no good reason for definite correlation with specific cerebral processes. That 1Benedict and Carpenter, The Metabolism and Energy Transformations of Healthy Man during Rest, Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 126, 1910, p. 248. 2Murlin and Greer, Am. Journ. Physiol., 1910-11, 27, p. xviii. 3Mosso, Ueber den Kreislauf des Blutes im menschlichen Gehirn, Leipsic, 1881. *Lehmann, Die korperlichen Aeusserungen psychischer Zustande, Leipsic, 1899-1905. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 255 the circulatory system responds with great delicacy and complexity of adjustment to waves of nervous excitation is an empirical fact. But the mechanism of those adjustments is as little known to us as the nervous conditions of thought itself. As mere expressions of mental states they probably have no peculiar analytic function in psychology which may not equally well be assumed for a considerable number of involuntary muscles and glands. The biological function of the circulatory system, however, gives it a unique connection with the nervous as well as with the muscular activi- ties of the body. Since the blood-currents supply the conditions of all metabolism, in any adequately organized body within the limits of physiological efficiency there must be a general correspondence between need and supply. This theoretical assumption is borne out by the experimental evidence. Muscular activity in any part of the body almost immediately increases the heart-rate over the rate during relax- ation. In any individual under normal circumstances, the heart-rate is more or less closely proportional to the amount of activity. Apparently for considerable periods of sustained work the corre- spondence between metabolism and the heart-rate is much closer than for short periods. Grounds for the unreliability of short periods are easily discoverable. The biological correspondence between need and response can not be a cooordinate or a preliminary adjustment. No automatic vasomotor or cardiac excitation could be based on prophecy of action without the need of constant readjustment. No adjustment could be based on the actual need without a certain lag of latent time. So whatever the mechanism, whether one of preparation or one of reaction, we would expect oscillatory variations about the line of actual need. This gives rise to a serious limitation of the use of heart-rate as an indicator of metabolism in mental activity. To assume that the intense disturbances of short duration that occur in emotion exactly correspond to metabolic demands would be unwarranted by any of the present evidences of correlation. It is not impossible. Since the emotions represent moments of active readjustment, there is some ground for suspecting that they will make their own peculiar demands on metabolism. But correlations are matters of fact, not of probability. A direct study of metabolism would seem to be a desideratum in the dynamic psychology of the emotions. Similarly, to assume that every change in the heart-rate is significant of some definite though uncleared mental state would be unwarranted. Lehmann some time ago aban- doned his early supposition to this effect. The rhythmic changes in heart-rate due to respiration give an illustration of the danger of attempting to isolate short intervals experimentally. Furthermore, the pulse-rate never gives direct and absolute values- only relative and comparative. The pulse of muscular work is com- monly known to be both larger and faster than that of muscular relaxation. The amount of acceleration produced by any given quan- 256 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. tity of muscular work is a purely individual matter and varies within wide limits in different individuals. It is a significant factor in the organic personal equation of the individual. At different times and under different conditions of health the pulse of the same individual shows changes of excitability. But, other conditions being constant within the same organic equation, two different kinds of work giving rise to the same pulse conditions may be provisionally expected to be physiological equivalents. Conversely, if the kind of work remains the same, difference in the pulse in successive experiments will indicate subjective changes. Such subjective changes are clearly shown in our records in the adaptive process, as indicated by the pulse during the association experiments. That the same moderate physical activity is accompanied by a higher pulse-rate after alcohol is abundantly proved by our pulse- records. Still more significant is the fact that notwithstanding de- pressed neuro-muscular action the pulse-rate is uniformly higher for the same kind of mental work after alcohol than it is without it. It does not seriously modify the meaning of the correlation if we should abandon the probable but debatable implication of increased metabolism for a given amount of mental work. Even if it should prove true that the local action of alcohol on the circulation centers disturbed the normal correlation between metabolism and the heart-rate, the fact of increased heart-rate for a given kind and amount of mental work absolutely prohibits us from regarding the neuro-muscular depression incident to alcohol as a conservative process like sleep. TEMPORAL INCIDENCE OF THE EFFECT AFTER THE INGESTION OF ALCOHOL. The beginning of the effect of alcohol on our measurements is found within the 30-minute period after ingestion. Our experiments were not designed for a closer approximation. It is doubtful if, with our present techniques, the problem of a differential beginning of the effects of alcohol can be investigated profitably, since the first relatively slight effects will be obscured by, or confused with, the normal accidental variations. The beginning of the effect of alcohol will probably be studied in the future as in the past on some particularly favorable indicator. As will appear later in this chapter, of all the techniques which are used in this investigation, the eye-movements are not only the most consistent for the entire group, but they correlate most closely with the average results for each individual, and can be repeated indefinitely without significant practice effects. Of all our measure- ments they are consequently the most likely to show the beginning of the effects of alcohol. That, however, is a problem for the future. In addition to the fact that the beginning of the effect of alcohol occurs within the first period, our present data show that the maximum effect and the beginning of recovery usually occurs within the 3-hour SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 257 session. The incidence of the maximum effect appears to differ some- what for the different processes, as is shown in table 47. The general time of incidence of the maximum effect of alcohol, as shown by table 47, is surprisingly uniform within the limits of the half- hour periods in which the measurements were repeated. While there are apparently some individual differences, the averages show consid- erable uniformity. The most conspicuous exception to the average incidence is found in the case of the eye-movements. The alcoholic disturbance, as shown in these most complex of the coordination proc- esses which we attempted to measure, increased up to the last period of the session. This disturbance of the eye-movements may partially account for the subjective impression of several of our subjects that they found it less easy to study effectively during the evening after an experi- mental session when dose B was given. In general it appears that the TABLE 47. — Time of incidence of the maximum depressive effect of alcohol. [Values in minutes after ingestion of alcohol.] Measurement. Patellar reflex: Reaction time Extent of contraction Lid reflex: Reaction time Extent of contraction Eye-reaction Word-reaction Faradic threshold Finger-movements Eye-movements Time. 95 65 90 100 90 95 100 100 120 reflexes begin to recover first. It would be an easy hypothesis that the more primitive processes should show the earliest recovery. On the other hand, in the intricate interconnection of neural processes which we must take into account, it would be uncritical to assume that the relatively early maximum effect of alcohol on the reflexes and a conse- quent relatively early commencement of recovery is really an indication of particularly rapid recuperation of the reflex arcs from the effects of alcohol. It is not impossible that the partial recovery of sensitivity of the lower is due to the increasing paralysis of the higher centers. It is physiological commonplace that reflexes are quicker, more pro- nounced, and more regular when the lower centers are freed from the inhibiting action of the higher. Against this hypothesis, however, is the fact that the knee-jerk is depressed or lost in sleep, notwithstanding the extreme depression of the cerebral processes. Conversely, mental excitement commonly increases the amplitude of the jerk. Mere attention to the process may reinforce it. Direct evidence that might decide the question as to the conditions of the variation in incidence in our experiments is entirely lacking. It is doubtful if it can be 258 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. produced without operative technique. But whatever may be found to be the conditions, it seems to be of considerable theoretical and practical importance that the lower reflex centers begin to recover from the depressive action of moderate doses of alcohol while the disturbance of the more complex coordinating centers is still increasing. It is an important psycho-physiological question whether alcohol effects permanent residual modification of any neuro-muscular proc- esses in the direction of the original disturbance or not; and if not, whether the subsequent recovery just reaches the normal base-line or crosses it. This question is directly related to the problem of tolerance, increased susceptibility, and secondary reactions to the alcoholic dose. It is also related to the theoretical question of the consequences incident to the disturbance and the permeability of the limiting membrane of the cell and the solution of lipoid substances (Meyer1 and Overton2) . Minute permanent lesions, if they exist as the consequence of a small dose of alcohol, could scarcely be detected by any available technique. They would be swamped by uncontrollable accidental variations inci- dent to other conditions of development and by the inevitable environ- mental changes. That permanent anatomical and physiological changes may and do follow long-continued use of even moderate doses of alcohol seems to be supported by a mass of clinical and experimental evidence. Such permanent changes, however, are certainly not uni- formly in the direction of the immediate changes produced by alcohol. Excessive patellar reflexes, for example, are not uncommon in confirmed alcoholics. Unfortunately our experimental sessions did not last long enough to follow any of the recovery processes to their base-line. This is another of our unsolved problems. However, two indications in our data are relevant. First, the refractoriness of the lid-reflexes is inversely proportional to the decrease in the initial response after alcohol. In view of the demonstrated relationship (Verworn3) between refractori- ness and fatigue, the depression of reflex processes as the result of alcohol can not be regarded as due to exhaustion of available material, but chiefly to a decrease in its immediate accessibility. The alcoholic effect is, then, not due to exhaustion, but to decreased irritability. It is consequently a plausible expectation that in all fatiguing experi- mental processes the recovery after alcoholic depression should give relatively better results than the normal values after a correspond- ing period of relatively more fatiguing maximum responses. There are indications in ergographic experiments that something of this kind is true. In our own experiments, something of this sort was found in the finger-movements. Even the fatigue of the 3-hour experi- mental session without exhausting work may properly be expected to r, Archiv f. exp. Path. u. Pharm., 1899, 42, p. 109. 2Overton, Studien iiber die Narkose, Jena, 1901. 3Verworn, Erregung und Lahmung, Jena, 1914. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 259 show similar results in some cases at least. The difference between the beginning of recovery of the simple reflexes and of the complex coordi- nation processes is again relevant. While the first effects are not so great in the case of coordinations, they are more persistent, and the probability of their passing their base-line in recovery would seem to be less. Moreover, it is in the direction of coordination of nervous processes that one would reasonably expect the most serious and lasting effects in the higher mental processes. There is no measurable difference in our records between the incidence of the maximum effect after the smaller and after the larger dose. Under comparable conditions the maximum effect came earlier after dose B in approximately the same proportion of instances as after dose A. EFFECT OF REPETITION ON THE VARIOUS MEASUREMENTS. The effect of repetition on the various measurements is a matter of some interest in forming an opinion of the applicability of the various techniques for untrained subjects. The relevant data are given in tables 48 and 49. From tables 48 and 49 it appears that the latent time of the reflex lid-movement shows the smallest average percentile change of all the comparable processes as a result of repetition. It is not zero for any individual, but in this case, as in the general interpretation of our data, we must not lose sight of our statistical principles that individual varia- tion must be expected from numerous interacting tendencies. Only in the group or in a considerable number of cases may these accidental variations be expected to neutralize each other and disclose the syste- matic or experimental change. The extent of the reflex lid-movement, on the other hand, decreased more than any other measured phenomena, especially in the psycho- pathic subjects. The general apprehensiveness of the psychopathies on their first day in the laboratory would have given us a reasonable ground for this change on the plausible, though unproved, assumption that the protective reflexes would be increased in activity if the mental "set" were in the direction of suspicion and fear. Partridge1 held that a diminished lid-reflex after alcohol was entirely accounted for by the increased indifference of the subject. In the present case, however, this ground becomes most problematical, inasmuch as the lid-reflex was not measured until the third day of the series, when the apprehensive attitude of the subjects had largely subsided. But as the data stand it is doubtful if the two can be wholly divorced. The second smallest percentile effect of repetition in the main group of subjects appears in the case of the word-reactions. This is a striking confirmation of our previous experience and theoretical expectation, to the effect that in the case of reading familiar words the few repetitions Cartridge, Studies in the Psychology of Intemperance, New York, 1912. 260 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. of the experimental session would be a relative^ insignificant addition to the sum of past experience. In only one subject does the effect of repetition approximate 10 per cent in this measurement, and that is the case of Subject VII, a native German with noticeable limitations in his use of English. Practically as satisfactory in this respect for the main group of subjects was the reciprocal innervation of the finger. Its average practice change in these experiments was 4 per cent. TABLE 48. — Effect of repetition on the various measurements. (Normal I minus Normal II.) [a equals 0.001".] Measurement. Normal subjects. II III IV VI VII IX Aver- age effect Per- centile effect. Lid-reflex : H' (mm.) ...... Eye-reaction ( + 7 + 10 +G -1 + 1 -3 + 1 -2 +3 + 5 + 18 - 8 + 11 + 12 0 -29 + 18 - 2 - 9 - 3 + 1 + 2 + 14 -10 + 2 -14 + 5 +5.1 -3.7 + 1-1 -1.0 -2.1 +2.0 -0.4 - 5 -13 - 3 + s + s -13 - 5 + G — 5 + 11 -10 to us that we are already justified in using our average percentile effects of alcohol as a provisional standard for the estimation of the susceptibility, not only of our present subjects, but as well of those subjects that may serve in later tests. For such a comparative esti- mate, however, it would be of great advantage if there were some process whose measurement might be taken to represent the average without the laborious and time-consuming measurements of our entire series of tests. In the effort to discover if any of our values would qualify for such a purpose we have plotted the various values of table 50 in figure 32. Doubtless the first impression from figure 32 is that the several values are quite irregular and unrelated. A more careful inspection, however, will show that there is a fairly close correspondence between the curves for similar kinds of measurement, especially for the reciprocal innerva- tion of the finger and that for the velocity of the eye-movements. Furthermore, both of these curves resemble more or less closely the curve for the total results. These three curves are not identical. One could scarcely expect that, even if they were curves of the same identical process. But the eye-movement curve is sufficiently similar to the 264 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. curve for the total results so that subjects above the average and below the average are identical in both. Moreover, the values below the average are closely proportional in both. Taken together with the similarity of the total percentile effects of alcohol on the finger and eye movements, these resemblances can not be accidental. They strongly suggest the possibility that the percentile effect of alcohol on the eye- movements might be made to serve a very practical end as the best available test of the susceptibility of the individual to the effects of Subjects II III IV VI VII IX •15 •10 + 5 -10 -20 ••20 + 10 -10 -15 -20 -2 -3C Memory Farad ic Threshold \ \ j \ Subjects II III IV VI VII IX \\ Eye Reaction Word Reaction + 15 + 10 + 5 - 5 + 15 + 10 + 5 Eye Movement Average -15 + 5 FIG. 32. — Variations of the normal subjects from the average of the group for various measurements. SUMMARIES AND CORRELATIONS. 265 alcohol. That finger-movements would be serviceable in considerably less degree for a general test, when for any reason the eye-movements were not available, is obvious if one remembers the gross differences in the pre-experimental practice of the finger-movements of different individuals, and the relative ease with which they can be arbitrarily modified. In every respect we believe that the eye-movements are the most reliable and the most important measurements of the group. They are least open to arbitrary modification, vary directly with the dose of alcohol, come closest to the total average of all the tests, cover the most general characteristics, and come nearest to being a true test of the individual's susceptibility to the effects of alcohol. Aside from the practical value of this correspondence between the effects of alcohol on the coordination processes and the average effects, it has a rather far-reaching theoretical implication. If, in all the diverse processes which we have measured, the coordination processes represent a central numerical tendency, it must be that they correspond in some closer way than the rest to a real central tendency of the alcohol effect. It would seem to indicate that the alcohol change in the average per- formance of our subjects is a function of central coordination. If this indication is substantiated by later investigations it should prove to be not only of the utmost importance for an understanding of the various manifestations of the effect of alcohol in individual cases and for the general phenomena that accompany its excessive use, but it would throw a flood of light on the complex organization of normal psycho- physical processes, as well as on the effects of fatigue and other de- pressing agents. NUTRITION LABORATORY OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, Boston, Massachusetts, May, 28, 1915. APPENDIX I. REPRINT OF THE TENTATIVE PLAN FOR A PROPOSED INVESTIGATION INTO THE PHYSIO- LOGICAL ACTION OF ETHYL ALCOHOL IN MAN. PROPOSED CORRELATIVE STUDY OF THE PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON MAN. (Nutrition Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Vila Street, Boston, Mass., U. S. A.. January t, 1913.1 PROPOSED TENTATIVE PROGRAM FOR AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PHYSIO- LOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL TO BE CARRIED OUT IN THE NUTRITION LABORATORY OF THE CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON, BOSTON, MASSACHUSETTS. It is a well-established fact that ethyl alcohol, when taken in small doses, the total amount per day not exceeding 75 grams, is completely oxidized in the body and thereby replaces nutrients as a source of energy. This fact suggests a large number of experimental problems in the domains of physiology and physiological chemistry which, when studied by the newer methods, should give results of fundamental importance. The calorimetric researches of Professor Atwater and his associates in Middletown, Connecticut, were extended over long periods, usually of 24 hours. The evidence regarding the rapidity of the combustion of alcohol is very uncertain and it therefore seems desirable to again study this source of energy and to determine if possi- ble its relation to severe muscular work. The Nutrition Laboratory is especially well fitted for studying problems regarding body temperature, the respiratory exchange, and calorimetry, both during rest and during severe muscular work. Furthermore, with the recent introduction of the string galvanometer and photographic registration appara- tus, many observations which have hitherto never been made of the influence upon physiological processes of the ingestion of alcohol may be accurately recorded. Concurrently, there has been established in the Nutrition Labora- tory an equipment for psychophysical studies based upon the investigations of Professor Raymond Dodge. The extensive research on the metabolism during severe muscular work carried out at the Nutrition Laboratory during the winter of 1911-1912 by Dr. E. P. Cathcart has considerably illuminated our knowledge of the metabolism under these conditions, and the possibility of altering the metabolism by the ingestion of varying amounts of alcohol should prove a most practical field for research. Believing that a fundamental investigation by modern technique of the influence of moderate amounts of alcohol upon the body processes is of great importance, it is planned to begin such a study in the fall of 1913. In accord- ance with plans which have been formulating during the last two or more years, I have prepared an outline for this research which I propose to submit to the leading physiologists throughout the world, many of whom I shall personally see on a forthcoming tour of Europe. It is my hope to secure from these men adverse criticism of the plan, together with suggestions for any changes or additions which may seem desirable, so that on my return a revised schedule can be prepared which can truthfully be said to meet the consensus of opinion of practically all physiologists and physiological chemists. If this plan can be successfully carried out, the investigation ought to be undertaken under the best auspices and with the most careful planning of any alcohol investigation thus far attempted. The resources of the Laboratory can be devoted to this investigation for a sufficient length of time to satisfy the majority of scientists 266 APPENDIX I. 267 as to the accuracy of the results obtained. The investigation may require a considerable proportion of the time for a number of years. In thus preparing this elaborate program, there is not the slightest desire to preempt any portion of the field, for, as Professor Lusk recently said: "The importance of the problem is too great not to have the work repeated in as large a measure as possible in at least two different laboratories." I shall appreciate most fully any adverse criticisms that you may see fit to make of this program. Any additions to it will be most gratefully received, and obviously full credit will be given for such suggestions. Will you not kindly send to this laboratory copies of such reprints as you have available bearing in any way upon the subject here outlined. Such reprints will materially lighten our work and insure a correct and adequate consideration of your own researches. The investigation will be undertaken primarily to establish the important physiological relationships existing between the ingestion of alcohol and the metabolism and the activities of the body functions. As an important correlative investigation, it is planned to carry out simul- taneously an investigation on the psychological effects of alcohol, employing the technique that will make the results as objective as possible. The program for the psychological study to accompany this research has been prepared by Professor Raymond Dodge, the experimental psychologist of the Nutrition Laboratory. FRANCIS G. BENEDICT. PHYSIOLOGICAL PROGRAM. I. Subjects (numerous in each class): 1. Non-users of alcohol. 2. Moderate occasional users. 3. Habitual drinkers (exceeding 30 c.c. absolute alcohol per day). 4. Excessive drinkers (with whom the effects of abstinence should be likewise studied). II. Alcohol doses. Controls if possible under conditions in which the subject will not know irhen alcohol is administered! 1 . Ethyl alcohol in various forms. Pure alcohol, distilled spirits, wines, champagne, beers, ales, and hard cider should be used. The variation in effects of the different kinds of liquors, if any, to be determined on one or two simple physiological or metabolic processes. If the effects in the above are not found directly proportional to the amount of absolute alco- hol present, this fact should be elaborated in a subsequent research, and this present investigation should adhere to pure ethyl alcohol + water. 2. Doses, amounts. a. One single dose, varying amounts. b. Repeated doses at varying intervals. 3. How administered. a. By mouth (drinking). 6. By mouth (stomach tube). c. Rectal enema. d. Inhalation of alcohol vapor. (Leonard Hill.) e. By the skin. Immerse hand or arm in vessel (arm plethysmograph) containing moderately dilute alcohol. Is there any cutaneous absorption? Perhaps stimulate cutaneous circulation by massage or electricity and note alcohol absorption. 4. When administered. a. Empty stomach (cocktail) between meals drinking. b. With food. 1. With protein. 2. With fats. 268 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. II. Alcohol doses — continued. 4. When administered — continued. b. With food — continued. 3. With carbohydrates. 4. With condiments. 5. With glucose or nutritive enemata. 6. After or with a very hearty meal, i. e., when stimulated by large amounts of protein, and by large amounts of food with little protein or little stimulation. c. During fatigue. 1. Mental fatigue. 2. Physical fatigue. d. During sleep (wake up from sound sleep and take dose and sleep afterwards). III. Absorption of alcohol : 1. Absorption rate. a. From stomach. After introduction into stomach, use stomach pump. (Lavage. ) b. From colon. After enemata, irrigate, determining alcohol in residue after vary- ing lengths of time. c. By digestive tract vs. by respiratory tract. Which is quicker? Results to be noted by respiratory exchange. (Leonard Hill.) 2. Completeness of absorption to be ascertained. No alcohol in urine, feces, etc.? 3. Absolution by skin to be tested. IV. Circulation: 1. Heart-beat and pulse. a. Graphic tracings by sphygmograph. Radial artery. Carotid artery. Capillary plethysmograph. Electro-cardiograms. Studying changes in the character and in rate of propagation of pulse-waves. Effect of irritation of the stomach on the heart-beat. 5. Pulse-rate. (1) Resting subject, michtern, lying quietly until pulse has reached minimum level before alcohol is administered, (a) Use minute pulse as unit. (6) Use pulse in two respiratory rhythms as a unit (electro-cardiogram). (2) During sleep, if possible. (3) During muscular work. (a) Riding a bicycle ergometer at definite rate of revolution and degree of resistance. Ride till pulse constant, then take alcohol while riding. (6) Is maximum pulse level affected by alcohol taken just prior to muscular work? Time to reach same or actual level. (c) Is time of return to minimum pulse lying down after work altered? Is actual level after work altered? (4) During various forms of mental activity. 2. Vasornotor reactions. a. Plethysmograph observations. b. Blood-pressure. (1) Resting. (2) Severe muscular work. Quasi-continuous records (Erlanger sphygmomanometer) . After rectal administration . c. Note alteration in cutaneous circulation. Is parallelism noted in temperature curves from rectum, groin, axilla affected? (Also skin temperature curve if possible.) (See Body temperature.) d. Effect of alcohol on splanchnic circulation. Rapidity of stomach and intestinal movements. (See Digestion.) 3. Rate of blood flow (Krogh.) APPENDIX I. 269 IV. Circulation — continued. 4. Blood. a. Morphology. b. Blood gases. Note effect of alcohol on tissue respiration. Is dissociation curve of blood changed? V. Respiration : 1. Respiratory center. Does alcohol affect the sensitivity of the respiratory center (Lindhard)? 2. Alveolar air. Does alcohol affect the alveolar air? a By reason of respiratory center changes or 6. By affecting the alkalinity of the blood? 3. Volume of lungs. Does alcohol affect elasticity of bronchial passage or alveoli? a. Tidal air. 6. Vital capacity, etc. c. Dead space in breathing. 4. Respiration-rate, depth, rhythm. Spirometer tracings under all conditions (best done in connection with experiments on gaseous exchange). 5. Rich oxygen mixtures. Is respiratory quotient altered by breathing oxygen-rich mixtures, when the (easily and rapidly?) oxidizable alcohol is present? (Pulmonary combus- tion.) 6. Holding the breath. Does alcohol alter "breaking point"- a. After breathing high oxygen? 6. After forced deep breathing? Paying special attention to inhaling oxygen containing alcohol vapor. (Leonard Hill.) VI. Digestion and secretion : 1. Motibility of stomach. a. X-ray studies. b. Effect of alcohol on rapidity of movements and continuance of movements. c. Hunger. (Cannon, Carlson.) 2. Diuresis . VII. Nutrition (Metabolism): I. Alcohol and general and total metabolism. Effect on character of katabolism. a. Respiratory quotient as index. If man at rest on high carbohydrate diet on preceding days has respiratory quo- tient niichtern of 0.90, how will alcohol ingestion affect the respiratory quotient? Is there a selective combustion for alcohol? If so, respiratory quotient should approach 0.666. b. If a ntichtern quotient of 0.78 is obtained by regulation of diet on preceding days and alcohol + sugar is given, will quotient— (1) Rise, indicating prevailing carbohydrate combustion? (2) Or fall, indicating prevailing combustion of alcohol? c. Relative combustion rates of alcohol and various sugars as determined by above method. What amount of various sugars will offset the ingestion of alcohol to prevent lowering the quotient? Effect on amount of katabolism and energy output. a. Series of niichtern experiments with respiration apparatus, subject very quiet, pulse minimum, etc. Then alcohol and note effect on total katabolism on — (1) Carbon-dioxide production. (2) Oxygen absorption. 270 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. VII. Nutrition (Metabolism) — continued. 1. Alcohol and general total metabolism — continued. This experiment can be advantageously made simultaneous with observations on pulse, temperature, and respiration. Is intensity of effect proportional to dose? Is duration of effect proportional to dose? For example, will a 50-gram dose double the effect on the katabolism noted by a 25-gram dose, or will it simply prolong it twice as long? b. If any effect on metabolism, is there a compensatory effect later, i. e., is there an after-effect? What is its nature? c. Protein ingestion results in a greatly stimulated katabolism. What is effect of alcohol on this increase? Study effect on rapidity of beginning of initial increase, intensity of rise, prolongation of effect, and return to normal base-line. d . Ingestion of cane sugar or levulose likewise increases noticeably the total katab- olism. Has alcohol any effect on this increase? 2. Alcohol and carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Effect of alcohol on the tolerance of various sugars. Influence of alcohol upon the amount of reducing material in the urine (Peters's method). Study this from the standpoint of the influence of alcohol upon the oxidative powers of the body. If alcohol given simultaneously with sugars and alcohol burned first, then possible lowering of sugar tolerance. To what degree? Are various sugars affected differently? 3. Acidosis. a. Meat-fat diet or non-carbohydrate diet induces an acidosis in normal man. (1) Will alcohol ingestion retard or hasten the onset of the acidosis? (2) In such an acidosis what is effect of alcohol ingestion? (3) Alcohol + large amounts of protein in an acidosis. Is increased metab- olism due to protein ingestion plus the increased metabolism of acidosis affected by the alcohol? Will the body burn alcohol and facilitate the storage of the de-aminized portions of the protein molecule? b. Alveolar air and respiration volume. By Haldane's apparatus and by the spirometer on the universal respiration apparatus study the relationship between alcohol ingestion and the alveo- lar air in acidosis, also the respiratory volume. 4. Protein metabolism. a. Nitrogen output. Probably affected by alcohol diuresis. If an increase, is it due to— (1) Washing out, or (2) Increased cell katabolism? Controls should be made with distilled water diuresis. Nitrogen partition in blood may be studied by Folin's methods. b. Purine metabolism. (1) Uric acid in blood. By Folin's new colorimetric method; study effect of alcohol on uric acid in blood. (2) Urine. On purine-free diet. With large volumes of urine by diuresis produced by alcohol and control by drinking large amounts of water. (3) Does alcohol ingestion alter exogenous or endogenous purine metabolism? (Beebe.) c. Effect of alcohol on the nitrogen partition and the total N balance on — (1) Starch-cream diet. (2) Protein-rich mixed diet. (3) Meat-fat diet. (Kayser's work.) APPENDIX I. 271 VII. Nutrition (Metabolism) — continued. 4. Protein metabolism — continued. d. After-effect of severe muscular work on N output. Is it atVcctcd by ;dcohol ingestion? Is it exaggerated or not? Compare also N partition under these conditions. 5. Intermediary metabolism. a. Carbonaceous material in urine. Any change in character of solids in urine. C : N ratio. Cal : N ratio. A possible index of a perturbed intermediary metabolism (Higgins and Bene- dict). 6. Energy metabolism. a. Muscle tonus. Is it altered? Muscle hardness. (Exner.) b. As muscular work demands a rapid oxidation of material, increases the ventila- tion of the lungs, quickens the circulation, and there is in part at least a selective combustion of carbohydrate, a series of experiments to study the oxidation of alcohol by the body under the influence of intense mus- cular activity is of fundamental importance. (1) Is there a selective combustion for alcohol during severe muscular work? With no alcohol the respiratory quotient always tends to rise during severe work. If alcohol is burned in preference to protein, fat, or carbo- hydrates, the quotient would be markedly lowered. (2) When alcohol and carbohydrates are ingested and muscular work follows, is the metabolism chiefly of carbohydrate, with high quotient or of alcohol with low quotient? (3) In a body depleted of glycogen by severe muscular work — (a) Is the carbohydrate first stored if fed together with alcohol, i. c., does the respiratory quotient remain low? (b) When alcohol is given is there any evidence of formation of glycogen from either protein or fat to replace the store, the maintenance-combus- tion being from alcohol? (4) Does muscular work increase the capacity of the body to burn alcohol? To what extent? Maximum amount burned? During muscular work are larger amounts tolerated before signs (incip- ient) of intoxication appear? (5) Is appearance of "second wind" quickened or retarded by alcohol inges- tion? (6) After-effects of muscular work as influenced by alcohol? (a) Rapidity of return to normal metabolism. Is rate of return altered, i. e., does alcohol help out on the rapidity of recuperation? Is pulse base-line lower or the same after work as without alcohol? Do alcohol and glucose superimpose their effects on after-work period or is glucose stored and alcohol burned? Is a larger amount of alcohol burned per hour after work when glycogen supply is low? (7) Heart-beat, character of wave, etc., after severe muscular work. Does alcohol alter it? Electro-cardiograms, etc. (8) Intensity of work. Capacity for wrork. Endurance. Is it affected? Can subject do more or less with alcohol? Maximum working capacity. Bicycle ergometer sprint ! ! How long and how high revolutions per minute? Is the efficiency of the body as a machine based upon the rate of speed with a constant load altered by taking alcohol? Any compensating after-effects? In a prolonged fatigue experiment, i. e., riding strong pace and load. How test endurance? Ratio of external muscular work and total energy output? 272 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. VII. Nutrition (Metabolism) — continued. 7. Heat regulation. a. On resting subject. Secure normal diurnal variation, i. e., after lying down for some time to avoid temperature rise due to muscular activity. (1) Does alcohol administration alter character of the curve taken from min- ute to minute? Rectal temperature by thermo-element. (2) Body-temperature rise produced by muscular work. Is it affected in intensity or time by alcohol? (3) Body-temperature fall after work. (a) Rapidity of fall. (b) Level after work. (4) Sensitivity to temperature. Local plotting of skin area to temperature reaction. (Tigerstedt's lab. technique.) Is physiological zero altered? (Aesthesiometer tests should be of interest.) (5) Reaction to exposure to cold air 15° C. Shivering keeps up temperature. Will shivering take place after alcohol is given? Get body-temperature curve of subject and expose to cold air by dis- robing. Is curve altered? Is alcohol given before it is altered? Same experiments on drunken man. What effect of disrobing on tem- perature curve? PSYCHOLOGICAL PROGRAM. [PREPARED BY RAYMOND DODGE, EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGIST OF THE NUTRITION LABORATORY.] It is assumed without discussion that any complete investigation of the effects of the ingest ion of ethyl alcohol mupt include not only its immediate and remote effects on the general metabolism of the body, but also, as far as possible, its effects on special tissues that are influenced in any peculiar way by that particular kind of alcohol. It seems obvious further that among those special tissues, nervous tissue and the end organs of sense and motion are of particular importance because of their intimate con- nection with intelligence, personality and conduct, and their bearing on social welfare and economic efficiency. Unfortunately, only the simpler and the more elementary neuro-muscular processes can be studied directly by present laboratory technique. Of the important higher mental and moral processes there is at present pcant probability for securing expeiimental data of scientific reliability. Modifications of the moral con- trols, of business judgment, tact and relia- bility, of mental stability and balance, are not experimentally measurable in any direct way. They must be studied, if at all, by some indirect method. This technical de- fect is a serious limitation to all experimental investigations of the psychological effects of the ingestion of alcohol since it is in precisely these directions that general experience indi- cates that the effects of alcohol are probably mo^t serious. It is consequently all the more necessary to choose the lines of direct investigation with experimental tact for probable correlations. The direct investi- gations must not only be reliable in them- selves, but they should indicate as much of the higher and more complex mental mech- anism as possible. Consequently, of the indefinite number of expei imental facts con- cerning elementary processes that might be collected, actual experimentation should be determined by the following principles: (1) The technique must be scientifically adequate to the precise purpose in view and reliable with respect to instrumental con- stants, latency, variability, etc. (2) Relatively elementary neuro-muscular processes should be investigated in their simplest forms so far as possible. Complex processes should be so chosen as to be defi- nitely related to the elementary processes and directly or indirectly analyzable into their several factors. (3) All experiments should directly con- tribute to a systematic analysis of neuro- muscular processes and their variations. The real value of an adequate test consists in its correlation s or possibility of correlation. (o) It is of the utmost importance that there should be the highest possible com- parability of data obtained from different individuals and from the same individuals under different conditions. All instrumental const ants should be known and the technique should be reproducible. APPENDIX I. 273 (b) Unless the personal peculiarities and idiosyncraeies of voluntary attention and effort are directly the subject of investiga- tion or are otherwise capable of estimation, experiments should be as independent as possible of the caprice of the subject. This is particularly true of the elementary proc- esses. Uncontrolled complex tests, such as ergographic experiments, addition and multi- plication experiments, are particularly ques- tionable. One must know whether decrease of achievement is due to decreased specific capacity or to fatigue of general psycho- logical controls, such as interest and incen- tive. (c) All experiments should be as free as possible from practice effects. Thoroughly practiced processes that require no special training should be chosen wherever possible. This excludes most of the common reaction experiments except for a few trained sub- jects. Under all circumstances base-lines should be complete enough to include a measure of any practice effects that may develop. (d) In all psychological experiments it is desirable, and in the investigation of proc- esses subject to the caprice of the individual it is essential, that the ingestion of alcohol of one subject or set of subjects should be rigidly controlled by other normal subjects and by the same subjects under normal circumstances. (e) I believe that the ingestion of alcohol should be masked as completely as possible. I do not know the best technique. Sugges- tions on this matter are especially requested. (/) It seems desirable also to obtain quan- titative data wherever possible of remote n euro-muscular effects; especially should this be studied with reference to the deterio- ration of memory residua, and associations established under alcoholic use, and con- versely. (". This is a modification of the tapping test, eliminating the stop; (3) steadiness of muscle contraction, either visual nystagmus in lateral fixation or direct measurement of involuntary movements of the hand; (4) velocity of muscle contraction. In order to eliminate voluntary control I suggest photographic registration of eye-movements, for reasons explained in "The Ocular Reac- tions of the Insane"1 by Diefendorf and Dodge; (5) the corresponding metabolic de- mands should be measured directly or by their effect on the pulse-rate. In fact, pulse- rate should be taken with every test. I regard this as of the utmost importance, as indicated in my paper on "Mental Work;"2 (6) most of these muscle and threshold ex- periments should be made before and after severe physical work and periods of rest. 1An experimental study of the ocular reactions of the insane from photographic records. Brain, 1909, 31, p. 451. 2Psychol. Review, 1913, 20, p. 1. 274 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SECTION II. — LATENCY, SENSITIVITY, CONFIGURATION, REFBACTOKY PHASE, AND RECUPERATION OF THE SIMPLE REFLEXES. Since the entire psychophysical mechanism must be studied as a complication of nervous arcs, the nervous arc should be studied in its simplest form, according to principle (3), i. e., in the simple reflexes. The refractory phase may be of peculiar importance in connection with the problem of fatigability and recu- peration. Because of the adequacy of the respective techniques I suggest particular study of the knee-jerk and the protective wink-reflexes. (1) The knee-jerk should be measured by muscle thickening, with special reference to latent time, sensitivity, height and configu- ration of the curve, and the duration of its return to the base-line from which it starts. For reasons described in my "Systematic Exploration of the Knee Jerk"1 I prefer a pendulum hammer stimulus and direct regis- tration of the muscle curve; (2) the protec- tive wink-reflex should be studied with special reference to latent time, sensitivity, height and configuration of the curve, and the duration and completeness of the subsequent, refractory period. For reasons described in my paper on the "Refractory phase of the protective wink-reflexes"2 the stimulus should be a sound stimulus and the registra- tion should be photographic. SECTION III. — COMPLICATED REACTION AKC.S. Practiced reactions of more complex arcs which would be comparable in different indi- viduals are relatively few. I suggest (1) eye- reactions to suddenly appearing peripheral visual stimuli. These are in the nature of choice reactions and demand a definite space complication of the muscular response. They are thoroughly practiced for all normal adults and relatively independent of the caprice of the subject (see "Ocular reactions of the insane "). (2) Since speech is the best practiced universal (for literates) reaction, I should combine these records of the eye- movements with speech-reactions, naming the letter presented (one of 2 or 4), as carried out in my "Experimental study of visular fixation."3 (3) I believe further that in specially trained individuals their regular business reactions should be studied as in the Kraepelin and Aschaffenberg experiments. SECTION IV. — MEMORY AND ASSOCIATION TESTS. Since distinctively mental functions chiefly involve memory and association,4 some ap- proved form of memory and association tests should be used. They should not be too time-consuming or too exacting for the sub- ject, (a) For memory I suggest the speech reaction to a "normal" series of 12 gradually appearing words; three repetitions of the series should show a quantitative persevera- tion value without actually learning the series. This test has the tentative approval of G. E. Muller (Gottingen) . (6) Controlled association test should be made either in the form of Kraepelin mathematical tests or some similar method. Pulse-rate must be taken with these tests.5 Free association tests for the possible changes in the character of the associates should be made with special reference to time of response and pulse-rate. (c) I also recommend tests on the rapidity of reading aloud, including photographic regis- tration of the fixation pauses of the eyes (Dodge and Dearborn) and a record of the pulse-rate. *A systematic exploration of a normal knee-jerk, its technique, the form of the muscle con- traction, ita amplitude, its latent time, and ita theory. Verworn's Zeitsch. f. allg. Physiol.. 1910, 12, p. 1. 2The refractory phase of the protective wink-reflex. Am. Journ. Psychol., 1913, 24, p. 1. 3An experimental study of visual fixation. Monograph supplements of the Psychol. Review, 8, No. 4, esp. pp. 53-55. 4A working hypothesis for inner psychophysics. Psychol. Review, 1911, 18, p. 167. 'Mental work. A study in psychodynamics. Psychol. Review, 1913, 20, p. 1. APPENDIX 1. 275 SECTION V. Correlated with the above experiments there should be some investigation of the perseverance of the subject, i. e., of the fatiga- bility of the higher psychological controls involved in persistent effort and prolonged voluntary attention. (a) In connection with experiment 2, section I, I propose reciprocal innervation of one finger^to the "breaking-point," i. e., where the subject stops. This might be studied in connection with the "breaking point" of inhibited respiration. (6) In connection with photographic regis- tration of the eye-movements, I propose persistent fixation of a given mark under experimental change of the visual environ- ment. (c) If a satisfactory analysis of the McDougall test could be made, I should favor its use. The above outline particularly disclaims being a catalogue of all mental and physio- logical investigations that might be under- taken with scientific profit. Of the infinite number of possible observations, selection has been made: first, on the basis of tech- nique; second, on the basis of simplicity of the elementary processes; and third, on the basis of an attempt at a systematic explora- tion of the effect of alcohol on psycho- physical processes. The purpose in printing this outline is that it may be submitted to the leading physi- ologists, psychologists, physiological psy- chologists, neurologists, and neuro-patholo- gists in the hope that we may have the benefit of any adverse criticism and any suggestions for changes or additions that may occur to them. It is particularly de- sirable that the final program shall meet the consensus of opinion of experts throughout the world. Naturally, credit for suggestions and changes will be given with scrupulous care. APPENDIX II. FAMILY AND PERSONAL HISTORIES OF THE SUBJECTS.1 SUBJECT II. Date— September 23, 1913. Family history. — Father, American (Scotch-Irish); uncle, hard drinker; mother, American (English descent) ; brother, hard drinker; father and mother married 31 years. One sister, 27 years old. Does not know whether father took alcohol, but probably did in last two years of his life, during illness. Mother took practically none; wine 4 or 5 times a year; sisters practically none. No habitual use of drugs by any member of family. Grandfather on father's side died in "melancholia." Personal data. — Age, 29 years; height, 182.2 cm.; weight, 74.8 kilos. Occupation, student. Sport, gymnastics. Education. — Williams College, 1905; high scholarship; best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Visual ; fairly quick; fairly long (fixed if seen) ; fairly responsive; high in accuracy. Very moderate user, in part for practical reasons; does not care for alcoholic drinks. Has occasionally taken wine, 5 glasses a year, at banquets, etc., with no effect. Largest amount, pint bottle of blackberry brandy as medicine, with no effect. Last use, 10 days previous, l£ glasses wine at dinner. Never intoxicated; not affected by amounts taken. Tea and coffee. — Very little of either; occasionally weak coffee for hay fever. Life insurance. — Last examined in 1907. Northwestern Mutual and Con- necticut Mutual Life Insurance Companies. Accepted by both. SUBJECT III. Date.— September 9, 1913. Family history. — Father, American; mother, American; father and mother married 27 years. One sister, 22 years old. None of the family take alcohol or use drugs of any kind. No insanity in the family. Personal data.— Age, 25 years; height, 176.5 cm.; weight, 67.5 kilos. Occu- pation, physician. Sport, tennis, an hour at a time. Education.— Dartmouth College, 1909, and Boston University. Tenth in class of 200 members. No special preference for any study. Memory. — Very quick, accurate, responsive, but forgets easily. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer, a quart in two weeks; no effect except geniality. Largest amount of alcoholic liquor taken, about 1 pint of whisky in high- balls at a banquet; "head " next morning. Last use, bottle of beer September 8. Never intoxicated. Quickly affected by alcoholic liquor. It produces excitement, though sub- ject is normally quiet; no talkativeness, but a feeling of happiness; no physical sensations; does not affect affection or temper; effect on routine work not known; no effect on digestion; occasionally increases the flow of urine. Tea and coffee. — Uses neither, but tobacco in excess. Life insurance. — Examined in 1903. Mutual Life Insurance Company of Moritpelier. Accepted. 'The histories of three subjects are not included because the experimental sessions in which they served were too few for statistical treatment with the group (Subjects I and V), or because it proved impracticable to carry out the experimental program for some other reason (Subject XIII). The last mentioned was a hard drinker who refused to give us non-alcohol or normal days. Th» first two broke oft the experiments to meet business engagements. 276 APPENDIX II. 277 SUBJECT IV. Date.— September 25, 1913. Family history.— Father, American (Scotch descent); mother, American; father and mother married 34 or 35 years. Two brothers, 33 and 32 years old. Three sisters, all younger. Father takes whisky to excess at the end of the week; makes him ugly. Mother takes gin, rarely to excess, occasionally at period. One brother heavy drinker; no special kind of liquor; drinks frequently; to excess once a week. Other brother moderate drinker, but never intoxicated. Sisters abstainers. No insanity in family. Personal data. — Age, 27 years; height, 181.6 cm.; weight, 73 kilos. Occu- pation, student. Sport, football coach. Education. — Colby College. Average scholarship; best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Quick and accurate when he remembers at all ; slow in response ; cioes not retain for any length of time. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer three or four times a week at dinner. It exhila- rates at first, but later makes him drowsy. Largest amount taken, 2 or 3 bottles of beer and fancy drinks at a banquet. Last taken September 24, 1 liter of beer at dinner. Never intoxicated; makes him sick first. Can take 1 liter of beer without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects aiv exhilaration, though subject is normally quiet; more talkative than usual, normally moderate in speech; gives feeling of happi- ness, though normally depressed. No peculiar sensations except a blurring of vision. No effect on the flow of ideas; softens the temper; produces a ten- dency to looseness of morals; no effect on the digestion or on the urine. Tea and coffee. — Two cups of strong coffee a day. Life insurance. — Examined in 1911. Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Com- pany of New Jersejr. Accepted. SUBJECT VI. Date.— October 7, 1913. Family history. — Both father and mother American, Scotch descent; married 28 years. One brother, not living, 21 years. None of the family take alcohol or drugs. There is no insanity in the family, and no alcoholism in the collateral branches. Personal data. — Age, 25 years; height, 164 cm.; weight, 68 kilos. Occupa- tion, student, second year medical school. Sport, walking 2 miles a day. Education. — Oklahoma Agricultural College. Average scholarship; best in biology, worst in English grammar. Memory. — Poor, verbal. Not quick, accurate, long, or responsive. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer, etc., at banquets; 1 or 2 glasses at a time; effect, stupefying. Largest amount ever taken, 10 or 12 glasses, mixed drinks, in the evening, one year previous; "attempted to get drunk"; stupefying effect ; only time ever intoxicated. Last used, October 3,1913, one glass of beer. Two glasses of beer can be taken on a full stomach without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects are drowsiness and unsteadiness. Produces no excitement, though subject is normally nervous; causes talkativeness, normally moderate in speech; produces a feeling of elation, normally cheerful. No peculiar sensations. Seems to increase the flow of ideas. No effect on the affections, but sweetens the temper. Effect on routine work not known, as he never takes it when working. No effect on morals. One glass aids digestion ; two glasses retard it; no effect upon the urine. Tea and coffee. — One cup strong coffee every morning. Life insurance. — Examined for life insurance a year previous. Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company. Accepted. 278 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. SUBJECT VII. .— October 8, 1913. Family history. — Father and mother both American ; married 29 years. One brother, 22 years. Neither the father nor the mother takes alcohol, nor the brother so far as known. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. Paternal grandmother had psychosis at menopause. Personal data. — Age, 26 years; height, 177.8 cm.; weight, 67.5 kilos. Occu- pation, student, medical school. Sport, tennis. Education. — Grinnell College, 1907. Scholarship, Phi Beta Kappa. Best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Good " crammer." Fairly quick, more accurate than the average. quick to memorize but as quickly lost, responsiveness above average. Non-abstainer. — Drinks beer (not more than a pint at a time) irregularly; acts as a "narcotic, more sedative than stimulating." Largest amount ever taken, 2 quarts of beer at an evening party; "stimulation from social sugges- tion." Last used, October 4, 1913, 400 c.c. of beer in the afternoon; no effects observed. Intoxicated once, January 1911; took 1 quart of beer, 1| glass whisky, and £ glass port. Can take one glass (^ pint) of beer after supper without noticeable effect. First noticeable effects, acts as narcotic; tends to talkativeness if more is taken; produces a feeling of happiness; when subject is in bed, alcohol pro- duces a sensation of floating; seems to make the ideas flow more easily. He becomes mellower, more affectionate, but there is no effect upon the temper. Seems to help physical pain; never taken for mental pain. Feels "like dancing the tango;" sense of conventionality lessened. Only physical effect is that beer sometimes causes fermentation. Tea and coffee. — Coffee every day, not too strong; seldom tea. Life insurance. — Examined spring of 1909. Union Central Life Insurance Company. Accepted. SUBJECT VIII. .Date.— October 9, 1913. Family history. — Father, American (Scotch-Irish); mother, American (Pennsylvania Dutch) ; father and mother married in 1886. Two brothers, 26 and 13 years; one sister, 17 years. Father takes beer moderately, not with meals. Mellowing effect; intoxi- cated twice a year. Mother abstainer. Older brother, moderate amounts; younger brother and sister, abstainers. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No insanity in the family. Personal data. — Age, 24 years; height, 178.4 cm.; weight, 74.8 kilos. Occu- pation, student, third year medical school. Sport, walking at present, 3 miles a day. Education. — University of California. Scholarship, high honors. Best in sciences, worst in mathematics and English. Memory. — Very quick, accurate, not very long, moderately responsive. Total abstainer. — Reasons, more particularly moral, but also scientific, practical, and family (mother). At 10 years of age, accidental overdose of whisky. Lost equilibrium on coming home, was put to bed and was sick for several days. Tried beer since, but did not like the taste. Tea and coffee. — Moderate amount of coffee about four times a week. Life insurance. — Never examined. Medical examination, June 1913; jaundice, at City Hospital.'' APPENDIX II. 279 SUBJECT IX. .— October 10, 1913. Family history. — Father, South German; mother, South German. Father and mother married in 1890. One brother, 20 years old. Father takes wine and beer, 1 bottle at a time in the evening; no effects observed. Brother takes beer, 2 or 3 bottles at a time. No habitual use of drugs, no nervous or mental disease, and so far as known, no excessive use of alcohol in family history. Personal data. — Age, 22 years; height, 174 cm.; weight, 63.5 kilos, in July 1913, after losing 10 kilos. Occupation, student, dental school. Sport, foot- ball ; tennis previously. Education. — Gymnasium, Wiesbaden. Scholarship, average. Best in gym- nastics and languages, worst in mathematics. Memory. — Rather quick, usually accurate, forgets quickly, no special diffi- culties in response. Non-abstainer. — Drinks | to 1 bottle of wine or beer a day now, but pre- viously 3 bottles a day, in the evening; no general effects. Largest amount taken, 4 bottles beer in the evening; did not feel intoxicated, but vomited. Last use, previous evening 1 bottle of beer; no effects. Never intoxicated. 2 or 3 liters of beer could be taken in the evening without noticeable effects. Sometimes produced vomiting next day. In excess of 2 or 3 liters it acted as a diuretic. Tea and coffee. — One or the other taken at every meal; amount, one cup. Life insurance. — Examined. July 1913. Stuttgarter Lebensversicherung. Accepted. SUBJECT x. February 10, 1914. Family history. — Father and mother, American, married in 1868. Two brothers, 41 and 39 years. Not known as to whether father took alcohol ; probably took small amounts rarely. Mother, abstainer. One brother, abstainer; other probably does not take alcohol. No knowledge of habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No nervous or mental disease or excessive use of alcohol in the family history. Personal data. — Age, 43 years; height, 182.9 cm.; weight, 85 kilos. Occu- pation, scientist. Sport, no systematic exercise. Education. — Harvard University. Scholarship, A. Best in sciences, worst in languages. Memory. — Verbal, good. Memory for poetry poor; memory for figures phenomenal. Abstainer, but not total. Reasons, moral, scientific, practical, social. Occasionally takes small amount of wine at dinners. Effects rarely noticeable ; has produced flushing, with a distinct desire for fresh air; is not loquacious by design ; never appears to affect reasoning. Largest amount ever taken and last time used, December 15, 1913, 2 glasses of champagne at dinner. Never intoxicated. First noticeable effects: No noticeable excitement or increased flow of ideas; so far as known, does not cause talkativeness or feeling of happiness, or affect routine work, the sense of propriety, the affections, or the urine. No effect on the digestion has been observed. Only peculiar sensation observed was (once) the flushing referred to. Tea and coffee. — A moderate use of coffee; two cups a day. Life insurance.— Last examined, 1907. Provident Life and Trust Company. Accepted for two policies. 280 PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. PSYCHOPATHIC PATIENTS. SUBJECT XI. Date.— March 24, 1914. Family history. — Father and mother, English; date of marriage unknown. Three brothers, four sisters. Father heavy drinker, often intoxicated; probably drank ale. Mother, moderate drinker; takes ale and porter; never intoxicated. Brothers, mod- erate drinkers; three or four drinks a year. Sisters, very moderate drinkers. Never heard of an habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. No nervous or mental disease or the excessive use of alcohol in the family history was reported. Personal data. — Age, 51 years; height, 161.3 cm. ; weight, 55.8 kilos. Occu- pation, grocery clerk. Sport, none. Education. — Common schools from 5 to 11 years. No high school or college education. Memory. — Excellent for long poetic citations; not good for proper names; indifferent for figures. Non-abstainer. — Last use, November 1913, drank to excess 7 to 10 days, this leading him to go to the Psychopathic Hospital. At present abstainer, under hospital supervision. Previously took perhaps 2 glasses of whisky and 7 glasses of ale a day. Very little affects him very quickly. One glass of ale makes his head dull; feels the effect of one glass of whisky for whole day. When he once begins drinking, continues until intoxicated. First noticeable effects: Head dull with ale; whisky makes him talkative. Piequires 3 or 4 glasses of ale to produce a feeling of happiness, but only I glass of whisky. Is not conscious that he is becoming intoxicated until he has reached that state. Drinking causes a flow of ideas; " could make a speech," as words come easily. Does not make him quarrelsome. Does not drink to dull mental or physical pain. Drinking incapacitates him for work; he can not reason, and makes blunders. Produces a feeling of independence, but does not affect morals. Has no appetite after a day's drinking. Ale increases the flow of urine. Tea and coffee. — Drinks coffee only on Sunday, strong. Tea freely, strong; 6 cups a day with no effect. Life insurance. — Examined, 1912; John Hancock Life Insurance Company; accepted. Examined, also, at the Psychopathic Hospital, to which he has been admitted twice for delirium tremens. Physical defects. — Left eye has scar on cornea; vision impaired; right eye, ordinary vision. Front teeth bad, preventing clear utterance of words in reaction experiments. SUBJECT XII. Date.— March 31, 1914. Family history. — Both father and mother mulatto; date of marriage un- known, probably 1849. Three brothers, 54, 52, and 37 years; two sisters, 58 and 46 years. Father drinks considerable of any kind of liquor, when his work permits; makes him somewhat ugly. Mother total abstainer. Only one brother drinks occasionally, but not affected by it. Sisters, abstainers. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family or nervous or mental disease in the family history ; no knowledge of excessive use of alcohol in the family history. Personal data. — Age, 40 years; height, 169.1 cm.; weight, 68.1 kilos. Occu- pation, night watchman, railroad station. Same place for 4 years. Sleeps 6 p. m. to 12 midnight; works midnight to 10 a. m. Has worked nights all of his life on Pullman cars. APPENDIX II. 281 Sport. — Used to run a great deal, but had pain in his heart after running and the "physician told him that the valves were clogged." Education. — Five years in common schools. Halifax, Nova Scotia; also attended evening school, Boston, one winter. Memory. — Fairly good. Non-abstainer. — At present abstainer, under hospital supervision. Previ- ously drank anything, in any amount, at any time. Largest amount ever taken, 10 to 15 glasses of whisky. Made him "shaky"; unable to sleep after- wards. Last use 8 months previous, except at Christmas, when he took a glass of wine and an eggnog. Regular dose used to be 4 to 5 glasses of whisk}' or several bottles of cheap wine. Has always been able to get home, even when drinking heavily. Not affected by 2 or 3 glasses of whisky. Insists that stopping affects him more than drinking; makes his hand tremble. First noticeable effects: Makes him sleepy; does not cause talkativeness; naturally of a happy temperament and the liquor does not increase the feeling of happiness. No peculiar sensations; no effect on the flow of ideas or on the temper. Never had physical pain, so is unable to say what would be the effect of drinking upon it. Two or three glasses of whisky does not affect his work. No effect upon morals or digestion, except that he loses his appetite when he stops drinking. Whisky does not affect the amount of urine, but wine does to some extent. Tea and coffee. — Three cups of coffee per day; sometimes takes tea instead of coffee. Life insurance. — Was examined for some company, the name of which has been forgotten, and was admitted, but did not pay his premiums. SUBJECT XIV. Date.— April 21, 1914. Family history. — Both father and mother Irish; married about 1864. Seven in family; subject next to the youngest; one brother. Father drank whisky, but worked steadily; effects unknown. Not known whether mother took alcohol or not. Brother drank heavily once a week ; made him "soft." Sisters practically temperate. No habitual use of drugs by any member of the family. Grandfather had traumatic disturbance as a result of a blow on the head. No excessive use of alcohol in the family history. Personal data. — Age, 39 years; height, 166.6 cm.; weight, 67.6 kilos. Occu- pation, bottler, but has not been employed for 6 months. Education. — Educated in Ireland to second highest grade in national school ; scholarship good. Memory. — Average; not forgetful. Non-abstainer. — At present abstainer, under hospital supervision. Previ- ously, drank three-quarters of a bottle of beer every hour, about 8 bottles a day. Became intoxicated only when he drank whisky in addition to the beer. Largest amount ever taken, perhaps a pint of whisky at Christmas. Last use, 6 months previous, led to admission to the Psychopathic Hospital. Occasion- ally intoxicated, after using whisky and beer. Never dizzy, but had heartburn and fermentation. First noticeable effects: Drinking made him "full of fun," talkative, happy, and argumentative. Did not drink to dull mental pain. Did not prevent him from doing his work. No noticeable effect on the urine. Tea and coffee. — Takes both tea and coffee now, of moderate strength, 5 cups a day. Life insurance. — Examined for life insurance in Metropolitan Life Insurance Company and Knights of Columbus; for the latter about 1894 or 1895. Accepted. LIBRARY