BIOLOGY

LIBRAE

G

1. Indian Muntjac (Ctrvulus muntjac).

2. Reindeer (Ran^ifer tamndus).

3. J.ivan Deerlet I Trafulus nafu).

DEER FAMILY.

4. Fallow Deer (Dama vulgarise

5. Wapiti Deer (Ctrvus strmizyloccros)

6. Porcine Deer (Hytla.phusporcir.ia).

7. Roebuck (Capreolits capnaY

8 Elk (Alces mar.hlis).

9. Chinese Water Deer (Hydrofoil.

CASSELL'S

NATURAL HISTORY

EDITED BY

P. MARTIN DUNCAN M.B. (LOND.) F.R.S. F.G.8.

PROFESSOR OF OEOLOOY IN AND HONORARY FELLOW OF KINO's COLLEGE LONDON
CORRESPONDENT OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES PHILADELPHIA

VOL. III.

ILLUSTRATED

CASSELL AND COMPANY LIMITED

LONDON PARIS & MELBOURNE

1893

ALL RIGHTS RESKIiV»i<

BIOLOGY

RA
6

* • : :• : :, /
..... •--.

UNGULATA:—

EUMINANTIA.
A. H. GARKOD, M.A., F.R.S.

EODENTIA.

W. S. DALLAS, F.L.S.

EDENTATA.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (Losn.), F.R.S., F.G.S.

MAESUPIALIA.

P. M \RTIN DUNCAN, M.B. (Loxn.), F.R.S., F.G.S.

AVES.

R. BOWDLER SHARPE, F.L.S., F.Z.S.

265339

CONTENTS,

CHAPTER I.
ARTIODACTYLA — RUMINANTIA:

BOVID;E— SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES. PAGE

Ruminantia— Che wing the Cud— Metaphorical Expression— The Complicatrd Stomach : Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Many-
plies, Reed— Order of Events in Rumination — Feet and Dentition of Ruminants— Brain— Classification — HORNED
K! -.VINANTS— Divided into two Groups— Difference between them — BoviD.E — Horns — Aberrant Members— SHEEP
AND GOATS — General Characteristics — Sheep of South- Western Asia— Merino Sheep — Breeds of Great Britain —
Dishley, or Improved Leicesters — Mr. Bakewell's Description— Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other British
Breeds — Table of the Importation of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom — MARCO POLO'S
SHEEP — OORIAL — SHAPOO— MOUFLON— AMSION — BURHEL — AMERICAN ARGALI — WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY— THE
GOAT — Compared with the Sheep— Descent— Cashmere Goat— IBEXES— PASENG— Their remarkable Horns— Old
Theories as to the Use of the Horns — MARKHOOR— TAHR — GAZELLES— General Characteristics— Sir Victor Brooke's
Classification — THE GAZELLE — Appearance — Habits — ARABIAN GAZELLE — PERSIAN GAZELLE — SOEMM ERING 's
GAZELLE — GRANT'S GAZELLE — SPRINGBOK — SAIGA -CHIRU — THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA — THE INDIAN ANTELOPE,
OR BLACK BUCK 1

CHAPTER II.

ARTIODACTYLA — RUMINANTIA:
novinjE («>nti..:/cd)— ANTELOPES.

THE STETNBOKS : KLIPSPRINGEH, OUREBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK, MADOQUA— THE BUSH-BUCKS— Appearance— Distinctive
Marks— THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES — Peculiarity in the Chikarah — THE WATER ANTELOPES: NAGOR, REITBOK,
LF.CHK, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU, REH-BOK — THE ELAND — Beef — Appearance — Captain
Cornwallis Harris' Description — Hunting — -Scarcity — THE KOODOO — Appearance— King of Antelopes — ANGAS*
HARNESSED ANTELOPE— THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES: GUIB-BUSH BUCK, OR UKOUKA— Appearance— Pluck

— THE BOVINE ANTELOPES — THE BUBALINE — HARTEBEEST — BLESBOK — BONTEBOK — SASSABY— THE GNU —
Grotesque Appearance— Habits— BRINDLED GNU— THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES— SEROW— Ungainly Habits— GORAL

— CAMBING-OUTAN — YAKIN — MAZAMA — THE CHAMOIS — Distribution — Appearance — Voice — Hunted — THE
ORYXES— BLAUBOK— SABLE ANTELOPE— BAKER'S ANTELOPE— ORYX — BET.SA— BEATRIX— GEMSBOK— ADDAX . .17

CHAPTER III.

ARTIODACTYLA — EUMINANTIA:
JIOYID.T: (concluded) — OXEN, PRONGIIOKN ANTELOPE, MUSK [DEER], AND GIRAFFE.

THE NYL-GHAU— Description— Habits— THE MUSK Ox— Difficulties in associating it— Distribution— Habits— THE
Ox— Cb.illingb.am Wild Cattle— Their Habits— Domestic Cattle— The Collings, Booth, and Bates Strains-
American Breeding — Shorthorns, and other Breeds — Hungarian Oxen — Zebu--Gour — Gayal — Curious mode
of Capturing Gayals — Banting — THE BISONS — Description — European Bison, or Aurochs— Almost extinct— Csesar's
Description of it — American Bison — Distribution — Mythical Notions regarding it— Their Ferocity and Stupidity
— " Buffalo " Flesh— THE YAK— Habits— THE BUFFALOES— Varieties— Description— Fight between two Bulls-
THE ANOA— THE PRONGHORN ANTELOPE— Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull— Professor Baird's and Mr.
Bartlett's Independent Discovery of the Annual Shedding of the Horns — Habits — Peculiarity about its Feet —
Colour — Difficulties as to its Position — THE MUSK [DEER] — Its Perfume — Where is it to be placed? — Description
—Habits— Hunters for the Perfume— Their Sufferings— THE GIRAFFE— Peculiarities— Skull processes— Its Neck-
Habitat — Running power — Habits— Hunting 29

CHAPTER IV.

THE CERVID^, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS:
THE ELK, ELAl'HINE, SUH-ELAJ'HIXE, AND IH'SINE DEEK.

The Deer Tribe — DUtinguishmg Characters — Exceptions to the rule — The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer —
Other Characters of the Cervidze— Antlers, their Nature, Growth, and Ch dding— The Knob — " Velvet "—Getting
rid of the "Velvet" — Full equipment — Contests — Interlocking Antlers— Distribution— C'assification — Develop-
ment of Antlers in the Common RED DEER — Explanation of the various stages — Splendid "Heads" — Simple
and Complex Antlers — Types of Antlers — THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER — Appearance — Antlers— Habits — Hunting —
THE EL.VPHINE DEER— THE RED DEER— Distribution— Appearance — Hunting- THK WAPITI— Acting of the
Fawns— THK PERSIAN DEER, OR MARAL— THE CASHMERIAN DEER, OR BARASINC HA —Habits and General

vi KATl'RAL HISTORY.

p.vriE

Appearance— BARBARY DEER— SUB ELAPHINE DEEK-THE JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER— THE
FALLOW DEER— Peculiarity of its Antlers -THE PERSIAN FALLOW DEER— THE RUSINE DEER— THE SAMBUR, OR
GEROW — Habits — Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra, Borneo, Timor, Ternati, and the Philippines— THE HOG
DEER— THE Axis DEER— PRINCE ALFRED'S DEER— THE SWAMP DEER— SCHOMBURGK'S DEER— ELD'S DEER, OR THE
THAMTN— Description— Habits— Hunting— Shameful havoc . 46

CHAPTER V.

THE MUNTJACS — THE KOEHl'CK — CHINESE I)EEU — REINDEER —AMERICAN DEEll — DEERLETS— CAMEL TRIBE— LLAMAS.

THE MUNTJACS— Distribution— Characters— THE INDIAN MUNTJAC, OR KIDANG -Hunting— THE CHINESE MUNTJAC—
Habits— DAVID'S MUNTJAC— "Shanyang"— THE ROEBUCK— THE CHINESE WATER DEER— Peculiarity— Chinese
Superstition regarding it— THE CHINESE ELAPHURE— Peculiarity of its Antlers— THE REINDEER— Distribution-
Character— Colouration— Antlers— Canadian Breeds— Food— THE AMERICAN DEER— THE VIRGINIAN DEER—
THE MULE DEER— THE BLACK-TAILED DEER— THE GUAZUS— THE BROCKETS — THE VENADA, OR Punu DEER—
THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS — Antlerless — Their Position —Bones of their Feet— General Form and
Proportions— Species— THE MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET— THE JAVAN DEERLET— THE KANCHIL— THE
STANLEYAN DEERLET— THE WATER DEERLET— THE CAMEL TRIBE— Their Feet— Stomach Its Peculiarity-
The Water Cells —THE (TRUE) CAMEL — Description— The Pads of Hardened Skin— Its Endurance — Its Disposition
— Anecdote of its Revengeful Nature— THE BACTRIAN CAMEL — THE LLAMAS— Description— Habits — Used as
Beasts of Burden— Wild and Domesticated Species— THE HUANACO--THE LLAMA— THE VICUNA— THE ALPACA
—The Alpaca Industry— FOSSIL RUMINANTIA— Strata in which they are found— Chceropotamus—Hyopotamvs
—Dichobune — Xiphodon — Cainotherium—Oreodon — Sivatherium — Fossil Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels,
Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes— The Irish Elk— Its huge Antlers— Its Skeleton— Ally— Distribution . . . .01

ORDER RODENTIA
CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION — THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, ANT) BEAVER FAMILIES,

Character of the Order— A well-defined Group -Teeth Evidence— Kinds and Number of Teeth— The Incisors : their
Growth, Renewal, and Composition— The Molars -The Gnawing Process— Skeleton — Brain— Senses— Body -
Insectivora and Rodentia— Food of Rodents -Classification— THE SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS -Character-
istics—THE SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS— SCIURIDJS— Distinctive Features— THE COMMON SQUIRREL— Form-
Distribution -Food— Bad Qualities — Habits — THE GREY SQUIRREL — THE Fox SQUIRREL— Flying Squirrels—
Their Parachute Membrane— THE TAGUAN — Appearance — Habits — Other Species — THE POLATOUCHE — THE
ASSAPAN — The Genus Xerus — THE GROUND SQUIRRELS— THE COMMON CHIPMUNK— THE MARMOTS— Distinguishing
Features — THE SPERMOPHILES— THE GOPHER — THE SISEL, OR SUSLIK — THE BARKING SQUIRRELS— THE PRAIRIE
DOG— Description— Species — Habits— Burrows — Fellow-inmates in their " Villages"— THE TRUE MARMOTS THE
BOBAC— THE ALPINE MARMOT — THE WOODCHUCK — THE HOARY MARMOT, OR WHISTLER— ANOMALURID./E—
Tail Peculiarity— Distinctive Features— HAPLODONTID^E— Description— THE SEWELLEL— CASTORID.E -THE
BEAVER— Skeletal Peculiarities — General Form —Appearance — Distribution — The Beavers of the Old and New-
World— Habits— Wonderful Sagacity — The Building Instinct— Their Method of Working— The various Stages —
Their Lodges— Their Dams— Activity by Night -Flesh— Hunted— The Castoremn 81

CHAPTER II.

THE DORMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, RAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.

T.TE Mo*jsE-LTKE RODENTS — MYOXID*— Characteristics — THE DORMOUSE -Description— Habits— Activity -Food -
Winter Condition— THE LOIR -THE GARDEN DORMOUSE LOIMUOMYID.V. -How the Family came to be Founded -
THE LOPHIOMYS — Milne-Edwards' Opinion— Skull General Form —Habits -M rum. K Number of Species —
Characteristics— Variety of Forms— Distribution— The Murine Sub-Family — THE BROWN RAT History -
Fecundity and Ferocity — Diet — At the Horse Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon — Shipwrecked on Islands — Story
of their Killing a Man in a Coal-pit— In the Sewers of Paris and London — THE BLACK RAT — THE EGYPTIAN
RAT — THE COMMON MOUSE — Habits — Destructiveness— Colours— THE LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE— Description
—Food— THE H VRVEST MOUSE —Description— Habits- In Winter— Agility— Their Nest— THE BANDICOOT RAT—
THS TREE RAT— THE STRIPED MOUSE— Allied Genera— THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE— The American Murines
—THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE— THE GOLDEN, OR RED MOUSE— THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE— THE AMERICAN
HARVEST MOUSE— THE FLORIDA RAT— Description— Their Nest— Food- -Mother and Young— THE BUSHY-TAILED
WOOD RAT— THE COTTON RAT— THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON— THE HAMSTERS— Characterises- Appearance
— Distribution -Burrows— Disposition— Food— Habits -THE TREE MICE — THE BLACK-STREAKED TREE MICE—
THE GERBILLES— Characteristics— Habits— Other Genera— THE WATER MICE -Characteristics— Species— THE
SMINTHUS— THE VOLES -Characteristics— THE WATER VOLE— Appearance— Distribution— Food— THE FIELD
VOLE- THE BANK VOLE— THE SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE— THE SNOW MOUSE— THE ROOT VOLE— THE MEADOW
MOUSE— THE PINE MOUSE— THE MUSQUASH, MUSK RAT, OR ONDATRA— Distinguishing Features— Habits— His
House— THE LEMMING — Description —Food — Habits — Disposition— Their Extraordinary Migrations— Other
Lemmings— THE ZOKOR . id

CHAPTER nr.

MOLE HATS, POUCHED UATS, POUCHED MICE, JEKhOAS, AM> OCTUDONriD.I,. F46E

SPALACID.E, Oil MOLE RATS —Characteristics of the Family— Habits -Food— THE MOLE KAT— Distribution-
Description— THE CHESTNUT MOLE RAT -THE XAKED MOLE RAT -THE STRAND MULE RAT— Description—
Habits— THE CAPE MOLE RAT -GEOMYIIXE, OR TOUCHED RATS -Characteristics of the Family— The
Cheek-pouches —THE COMMON POCKET GOPHER— Distribution — Description - Din-rowing —Runs- Subterranean
Dwelling— THE NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER— HETEROMYIX.E, OR POUCHED MICE- Difficulties as to Position-
Characteristics— PHILLIPS' POCKET MOUSE— Where Found— Description— THE YELLOW POCKET MOUSE -THE
LEAST POCKET MOUSE DIPODIDJ5, OR JERBOAS— Organisation for Jumping Chai acteristics— Distribu-
tion— THE AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE— Description- -Characters peculiar to itself -Habits THE TRUE JERBOAS
— Characters— THE JEKHOA -Distribution -Habits -Mode of Locomotion— THE ALACTAGA— THE CAPE JUMPING
HARE-THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS -OCTODONTID.E Characteristics Sub- Family CTENODACIY-
LIN.E -Tun: GUNDI— THE DEGU -Description -Habits -THK DROWN SCIIIXOPON— THE TUKOTUKO— THE CURURO
—THE ROCK Pi AT— Sub Family ECHINOMYIN.E— THE COYPU— One of the Largest Rodents— Description— Burrows
—Habits— Mother and Young— Tun HUTIA CONQA THE HUTIA CARABALI— THE GROUND RAT . . . .120

CHAPTER IV.

POllCl 'VINES — CHINCHILLAS — AGOUTIS — CAVIES — HAKES AND KAH1UTS— 1MKAS.

HYSTRICID.E, THE PORCUPINES— Conversion of Hairs into Spines-Skull— Dentition— Tail -Sub-families— The True
Porcupines The Tree Porcupines— THE COMMCN PORCUPINE— Distribution— Description— The Crest of Bristles-
Nature of the Spines-Habits- Young— Flesh— On the Defensive— Other Species-Species of Tree Porcupines—
THE COUENDOU— THE COUIY— Description — Habits— THE URSON, OR CANADA PORCUPINE — Description — Habits
— Food-CHINCHILLIDJE, THE CHINCHILLAS— Characteristics -THE VISCACHA— Description Life on the
Pampas— Their Burrows— Habits--The Chinchillas of the Andes— THE CHINCHILLA — THE SHORT-TAILED CHIN-
CHILLA— CUVIER'S CHINCHILLA— THE PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA— DASYPROCTIDJ2, THE AGOUTIS— Characters
— THE AGOUTI— Distribution— Appearance— Habits— AZARA'S AGOUTI — THE ACOUCHY — THE PACA — Appearance
— Distribution— Habits— DINOMYIDJS — Founded for a Single Species— Description— Rarity— CAVlIDj'E, THE
CAVIES — Characteristics — THE RESTLESS CAVY — Appearance — Habits —The Guinea-Pig Controversy— THE
BOLIVIAN CAVY— THE ROCK CAVY— THE SOUTHERN CAVY— THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR MARA— Peculiar Features

— Its Burrows Mode of Running— THE CAPYBARA— Its Teeth— Where Found— Habits— THE DOUBLE-
TOOTHED RODENTS— Characteristics— LEPORID.E, THE HARES AND RABBITS -Structural Peculiarities
Distribution -Disposition —THE COMMON HARE -Hind Legs— Speed— Its "Doubles"— Other Artifices— Its
" Form "—Habits— Food— Pet Hares— THE RABBIT -Distribution— Habits -Domesticated -THE MOUNTAIN HAKE

— LAGOMYIDJ3, THE PIKAS— Characteristics— Distribution— THE ALPINE PIKA— THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA 13c

CHAPTER V.

FOSSIL K () I) E N T I A .

Families of Rodents represented by Fossil Remains— State of the "Record of the Rocks" — THE SCIURID^E — Sciurinc
Genera now Extinct — No Fossil ANOMALURID.E and HAPLODONTID^E — ISCHYROMYID^E— Pseudotomus hians—
Gyamoptyckvt — CASTORID.E— Mr. Allen's CASTOROIDID.E--THE MYOXIDJE — No Fossil LOPHIOMYIDA; — THE
MuKiD.fi— THE SPALACID.E— THE GEOMYID^E — THE DIPODID^;— THE THERIDOMYID^E— THE OCTODONTIIXE—
THE HYSTRICID.E— THE CHINCHILLIIXE— THE DASYPROCTID.E— THE CAVIID^;— THE LEPOKIDA;— THE LAGOMYIU£
— Mesothcrium cristalttm— Difficulties concerning it— Mr. Alston's Suggestion — THE HEBETIDENTATA — Teeth-
Skull— Skeleton— Conclusions regarding it— Table of Rodent Families— Concluding Renmite 155

ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).

CHAPTER I.

SLOTHS.

The South American Forests— Discovery of the Sloth — How it derived its Name — Peculiarities of Dentition — Food-
Fore Limbs and Fingers— Hind Limbs and Heel— Other Modifications of Structure— Kinds of Sloth— Waterton's
Captive Sloth— Habits of the Animal— Burchell's Tame Sloths— Manner of Climbing Trees— Disposition— Activity
among Trees— Naturalists' Debate about Anatomy— Probable Conclusion regarding it— Skeleton — Vertebras —
the Rudimentary Tail— Most Distinctive Skeletal Characters— Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers, Claws— Mode of
Walking— Great Utility of the Claws-Face of Sloth— Skull— Teeth -Classification— TARDIGRADA— BRADI-
PODID^E — Genus BRADYPUS- Characteristics— Genus ARCTOPITHECUS— Characteristics— CHOLOZPODID^E—
THE COLLARED SLOTH— Description— Skull Bones— Habits— Circulation of the Blood— Rcte Mirabite—THE Ai—
THE UNAU— Appearance— Skull and Teeth - Skeleton Interesting Anatomical Features— Stomach— HOFFMANN'S
SLOTH- -Description— Habits 15&

CHAPTER II.

THE ANT-EATEKS.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER— The Cage at "the Zoo. "—Appearance of the Animal— Its Prey— The Ant-hills— How the
Orycteropus obtains its Food— Place in the Order — Teeth— Skull — Tongue— Interesting Questions concerning
the Ant-eater— THE PANGOLINS, OK SCALY ANT-EATERS— THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS— Differences between

viii NATURAL HISTORY.

PAGE

the Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters- Their Habitat— Description — TEMMINCK'S PANGOLIN — Habits— Food — How
it Feeds —Superstitious Regard for it shown by the Natives — Scarcity — Appearance — THE LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-
FINGERED PANGOLIN— THE GREAT MANIS— THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS— THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-
FINGERED PANGOLIN— The Species of Manis— Skull — Stomach — Claws fitted for Digging— Other Skeletal
Peculiarities— THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS — General Appearance— Genera— THE GREAT ANT-BEAR— Habits— Diet
— How it Procures its Food— Distribution — Mode and Kate of Locomotion— Stupidity — Manner of Assault and
Defence — Stories of its Contests with other Animals — Appearance — THE TAMANDUA — Description — Where Found
—Habits— Odour— THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER— Appearance— Two-clawed Hand— Habits —Von Sach's Account of
his Specimen 16C

CHAPTER III.

THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.

The Armour-plates —How the Shields are formed — Their connection with the Body — Description of the Animals —Mode
of Walking— Diet— Skeleton — Adaptation of their Limbs for Burrowing— Classification— THE GREAT ARMADILLO
—Appearance— Great Burrower — THE TATOUAY — THE POYOU, OR YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO -THE PELUDO, OR
HAIRY ARMADILLO— THE PICHIY— THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU— THE MULE ARMADILLO— THE BALL ARMADILLO—
Dr. Murie's Account of its Habits— Description — The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and Unrolls itself —THE
PICHICIAGO — Concluding Remarks : Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of Munis in
South Africa and Hindostan 131

ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.

SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.

CHAPTER I.

THE KANGAROO AND WOMHAT FAMILIES.

THE GREAT KANGAROO — Captain Cook and the Great Kangaroo— Habitat— Appearance of the Animal — Marsupials
separated from the other Mammalian Orders, and why ( Footnote) -Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)—
Mode of Running — The Short Fore Limbs — The Marsupium, or Pouch — Head— Dentition — Peculiarities in the
Teeth — Hind Extremities — Foot — Great Claw— How the Erect Position is maintained — Whence their Jumping
Power is derived— Other Skeletal Peculiarities — Kangaroo Hunts — Becoming Rarer — Mode of Attack and
Defence — Hands — Bones of the Fore Limbs— Skull —Stomach — Circulation of Blood — Peculiarity in Young -
Nervous System not fully developed — Brain— The Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch — THE HARE KANGAROO— THE
GREAT ROCK KANGAROO— THE RED KANGAROO— THE BRUSH KANGAROO— THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO
— THE COMMON TREE KANGAROO— THE KANGAROO-RATS— Characteristics— THE RAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS—
Description— THE WOMBAT FAMILY- THE WOMBAT— Peculiarities— Description— Habits— Teeth— Skeleton . 191

CHAPTER II.

THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.

THE PHALANGER FAMILY— THE KOALA— Habits— Characteristics— THE Cuscus— THE VULPINE PHALANGER—
THE DORMOUSE PHALANGER— Habits— Remarkable Characters— THE FLYING PHALANGERS— Its Flying Machine-
Habits— THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGERS— Habits— The Parachute-like Membrane— Exciting Scene on board
a Vessel— Characteristics— THE OPOSSUM MOUSE — THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT — A Curiosity among Marsupials
—Distinctive Features— THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY— Characteristics— THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES
—THE BANDICOOT— THE BANDED PERAMELES— THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES— Discussion regarding it-
Characteristics— THE DASYURUS FAMILY— Characteristics— THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS— THE BANDED
MYRMECOBIUS — Description— Great number of Teeth— History — Food — Habits— Range— THE URSINE DASYURE —
Appearance — "Native Devil " — Ferocity — Havoc among the Sheep of the Settlers — Trap to Catch them — Its
Teeth — A True Marsupial, though strikingly like the Carnivora — Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself —
MAUGE'S DASYURE — THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS — Description — Resemblance to the Dog — Habits —
Peculiarities— THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE— Description- Other Varieties. 203

CHAPTER III.

THE OPOSSUMS.

Prehistoric Opossums— Description of the Animal— Their Teeth— Habits— THE COMMON OPOSSUM— Appearance— Use of
its Tail— Food— The Young— How they are Reared— D'AZARA'S OPOSSUM— THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM— THE
THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM— MERIAN'S OPOSSUM— Pouchless Opossums— Their Young— THE MURINA OPOSSUM— THE
ELEGANT OPOSSUM— THE YAPOCK— Classification of Marsupial Animals— Geographical Distribution of the Sub-
Order—Ancestry of the Marsupials — Fossil Remains . 219

SUB-ORDER— MONOTREMATA.
CHAPTER IV.

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order — The lowest of the Mammalian Class — THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-
SPINED ECHIDNA — An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate — Its Correct Name— Description of the Animal— Habits and
Disposition — Manner of Using the Tongue — Where it is Found —Anatomical Features : Skull, Brain, Marsupial
Bonas -The Young — Species of Van Diemen's Land and New Guinea— THE WATER-MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED

CONTEXTS. ix

PAGE

PLATYPUS— The most Bird-like Mammal — Various Names— Description— Their Appearance and Movements in
Water — Their Burrows— Habits of an Individual kept in Confinement— Used by Natives as Food- -How they
are Captured — The Young- -A Family in Captivity— The Snout — Jaws — Teeth — Tongue — Fore and Hind Feet —
Heel— Spur— The Shoulder Girdle— Breastbone— Concluding Remarks on the Sub-orders— Postscript . . . 227

THE CLASS AVES.— THE BIRDS.
CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION — WING STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS — DISTRIBUTION.

Introduction — Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves— Power of Flight — The Wing — Its Structure— The Six Zoo-
geographical Eegions of the Earth — Birds peculiar to these Regions 235

CHAPTER II.

THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

The Three Divisions of the Class Aves — ANATOMY OF A BIRD— The Skeleton — Distinctive Features — Peculiar Bone
Character — The Skull — Difference between the Skull of Birds and that of Mammals — The Jawbones — Vertebral
Column — Sternum — Fore-limbs — Hind-limbs — Toes — The Muscular System — How a Bird remains Fixed when
Asleep— The Oil-gland— The Nervous System— The Brain— The Eye— The Ear— The Digestive System— The
Dental papillae — The Beak — Tongue— Gullet— Crop— Stomach — Uses of the Gizzard— Intestine — The Liver,
Pancreas, and Spleen— The Blood and Circulatory System— Temperature of Blood of a Bird— Blood Corpuscles—
The Heart— The Respiratory System— Lungs— Air-sacs— The Organs of Voice— The Egg— Classification of the
Class Aves .- 239

CHAPTER III.
DIVISION L — THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINAT^E).

THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER— BIRDS OF PREY.
VULTURES AND CARACARAS.

The Birds of Prey— Distinctive Characters— The Cere— How the Birds of Prey are Divided— Difference between a Hawk,
an Owl, and an Osprey— The Three Sub-orders of the Accipitres— Sub-order FALCONES— Difference between the
Vultures of the Old World and the Vultures of the New World— THE OLD WORLD VULTURES— Controversy as to
how the Vultures reach their Prey— Waterton on the Faculty of Scent— Mr Andersson's, Dr. Kirk's, and Canon
Tristram's Views in Favour of Sight — THE BLACK VULTURE — THE GRIFFON VULTURE — Its Capacity for Feeding
while on the Wing— THE EARED VULTURE— One of the Largest of the Birds of Prey— Whence it gets its Name—
THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE— A Foul Feeder— THE NEW WORLD VULTURES— THE CONDOR— Its Appearance
—Power of Flight— Habits— THE KING VULTURE— THE TURKEY VULTURE— THE CARACARAS— Distinctive
Characters— Habits— THE SECRETARY BIRD— How it Attacks Snakes— Habits— Appearance— THE CARIAMA . . 254

CHAPTER IV.

THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE— Habits —Its Movable Tarsi— THE HARRIERS— Distinctive Features— THE MARSH HARRIER—
Habits — Its Thievish Propensities— THE HARRIER— HAWKS— Colonel Greyson's Account of their Habits — THE
CHANTING GOSHAWKS— Why so Called— Habits— THE TRUE GOSHAWKS— Distinctive Characters- THE GOSHAWK
— Distribution— In Pursuit of its Prey — Appearance— THE SPARROW-HAWKS— Distinctive Characters — THE
COMMON SPARROW-HAWK— HABITS— Appearance— THE BUZZARDS— Their Tarsus— THE COMMON BUZZARD— Where
Found — How it might be turned to Account— Food — Its Migrations— Habits— Appearance — THE HARPY . . 267

CHAPTER V.

EAGLES AND FALCONS.

THE EAGLES — THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LXMMERGEIEK— A Visit to their Nest— Habits — A Little Girl carried off
Alive — Habits in Greece— Appearance — Von Tschudi's and Captain Button's Descriptions of its Attacks —
THE TRUE EAGLES — THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE — Eye — Crystalline Lens — How Eagles may be Divided — THE
IMPERIAL EAGLE — THE GOLDEN EAGLE — In Great Britain — Macgillivray's Description of its Habits — Appearance
—THE KITE EAGLE— Its Peculiar Feet— Its Bird's-nesting Habits— THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE— THE INDIAN
SERPENT EAGLE— THE BATELEUR EAGLE— THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE— A Sea Eagle— Story of Capture of some
Young— THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE— On the Wing— THE COMMON KITE— THE EUROPEAN HONEY KITE—
Habits— ANDERSSON'S PERN— THE FALCONS— The Bill-THE CUCKOO FALCONS— THE FALCONETS— THE
PEREGRINE FALCON— Its Wonderful Distribution— Falconry— Names for Male, Female, and Young— Hawks and
Herons— THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON— THE KESTRELS— THE COMMON KESTREL— Its Habits and Disposition . 277

CHAPTER VI.

THE OSPKEYS AND OWI. S.

THE OSPREY— Distribution— Food— How it Seizes its Prey— Nesting Communities— STRIGES, or OWLS-Distinctions
between Hawks and Owls— Owls in Bird-lore and Superstition— Families of the Sub-order— THE FISH OWL—

b

x NATURAL HISTORY.

PAGE

PEL'S FISH OWL — The EAGLE OWL — Dr. Brchm's Description of its Appearance and Habits— THE SNOWY

OWL — HAWK OWLS — PIGMY OWLETS — THE SHORT-EARED OWL — THE LONG-EARED OWL— THE BARN OWL The

Farmer's Friend — Peculiar Characters— Distribution 296

THE SECOND ORDER.— PIC ARIA N BIRDS.

CHATTER VII.

THE PARROTS.

Characteristics of the Order— The Sub-orders— ZYGODACTYL^E— THE PARROTS— Their Talking Powers— Sections of
the Family— THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO—THE PYGMY PARROTS— THE AMAZON PARROTS— THE AMAZONS
THE GREY PARROT — Court Favourites — Historical Specimens — In a State of Nature— Mr. Keulemans' Ob-
servations—THE CONURES— THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET— Known to the Ancients -Habitat- -Habits— THE
CAROLINA CONURE— Destructive Propensities — THE PARRAKEETS — THE OWL PARROT— Chiefly Nocturnal—
Incapable of Flight— How this Fact may be accounted for— Dr. Haast's Account of its Habits— THE STRAIGHT-
BILLED PARROTS— THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS -THE NESTORS— THE KAKA PARROT— Skull of a Parrot—
The Bill 308

THE SECOND ORDER.— PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.— ZTGODACTTL^L

CHAPTER VIII.

CUCKOOS HONEY GUIDES PLANTAIN-EATERS— WOODPECKERS TOUCANS— BAKHETS.

THE CUCKOOS— THE BOSH CUCKOOS— THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR COUCALS— THE COMMON CUCKOO- Its
Characteristics— Mrs. Blackburn's Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant— Breeding Habits — The Eggs
—The Call-notes of Male and Female— Food— Its Winter Home— Its Appearance and Plumage— THE HONEY
GUIDES — Kirk's Account of their Habits — Mrs. Barber's Refutation of a Calumny against the Bird— THE
PLANTAIN-EATERS— THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER— THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER— THE COLIES—
THE WHITE-BACKED COLY— THE WOODPECKERS -How they Climb and Descend Trees— Their Bill— Do they

Damage Sound Trees?— THE WRYNECKS— THE YAFFLE— THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER THE SPOTTED

WOODPECKER— THE TOUCANS— Mr. Gould's Account of their Habits— Mr. Waterton's Account— The
Enormous Bill— Azara's Description of the Bird— Mr. Bates' History of a Tame Toucan -THE BARBETS—
Messrs. Marshall's Account of the Family— Mr. Layard on their Habits 323

THE SECOND ORDER.— PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER II.-FISSIROSTRES.

CHAPTER IX.

THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.

THE JACAMARS— THE PUFF BIRDS -THE KINGFISHERS— Characters— THE COMMON KINGFISHER— Distribu-
tion— Its Cry — Habits — After its Prey — It's own Nest-builder — Mr. Rowley's Note on the Subject —Nest in the
British Museum — Superstitions concerning the Kingfisher — Colour — Various Species — CRESTED KINGFISHER —
PIED KINGFISHER— Dr. Von Heuglin's Account of its Habits — New World Representatives — OMNIVOROUS KING-
FISHERS— THE AUSTRALIAN CINNAMON-BREASTED KiNGFisHER--Macgillivray's Account of its Habits— THE LAUGH-
ING JACKASS of Australia— Its Discordant Laugh — The " The Bushman's Clock '' —Colour — Habits — THE HORN-
BILLS— Character— Their Heavy Flight — Noise produced when on the Wing— Food -Extraordinary Habit of
Imprisoning the Female —Native Testimony — Exception — Fed by the Male Bird — Dr. Livingstone's Observations
on the point, and Mr. Bartlett's Remarks — Strange Gizzard Sacs — Dr Murie's Remarks — Mr. Wallace's Descrip-
tion of the Habits of the Hornbills— Capture of a Young One in Sumatra — THE GROUND HORNBILLS— South
African Species — Kaffir Superstition regarding it — Habits — Mr. Ayres' Account of the Natal Species — How it Kills
Snakes — The Call — Habits — Mr. Monteiro's Description of the Angola Form — Turkey-like Manner — Wariness -
Food— THE HOOPOES— Appearance— Distribution— THE COMMON HOOPOE— Habits— The Name— How does it
produce its Note ?— THE WOOD HOOPOES— Habits . 343

CHAPTER X.

THE BEE-EATERS MOTMOTS — HOLLERS — TROGONS NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS SWIFTS — HI MMING-HIRDS.

THE BEE-EATERS— Their Brilliant Plumage— Colonel Irby's Account of the Bird in Spain— Shot for Fashion's sake —
THE MOTMOTS -Appearance— Mr. Waterton on the Houtou— Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail— Mr. O.
Salvin's Obseivationsonthis point— Mr. Bartlett's Evidence— THE ROLLERS— Why so called— Canon Tristram's
Account of their Habits— Colour— Other Species— THE TROGONS— Where found— Peculiar Foot— Tender Skin-
Inability to Climb— Their Food— THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL— Mr. Salvin's Account of its Habits— Its
Magnificent Colour— How they are Hunted— THE NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS— Appearance— Distribu-
tion—The Guacharo, or Oil Bird— "Frog-mouths"— Mr. Gould's Account of the Habits of the Tawny-shouldered
Podargus -How it Builds its Nest— Mr. Waterton's Vindication of the Goatsucker— What Services the Bird does
really render Cattle, Goats, and Sheep— Its Cry— THE COMMON GOATSUCKER— THE SWIFTS— THE COMMON
SWIFT— Migration— Their Home in the Air— When they Breed— Nest— TREE SWIFTS— The Edible-Nest Swiftlets
—Mr. E. L. Layard's Visit to the Cave of the Indian Swiftlet— THE HUMMING BIKDS— Number of Species
—Distribution— Professor Newton's Description of the Bird— Mr. Wallace on their Habits— Wilson on the North
American Species ...,...,., 360

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

The Chamois ...... Frontispiece.

The Water Dcerlet, or Chevrotain .... 1
Stomach of a Ruminating Animal : exterior and

interior ........ 2

Brain of a Sheep 3

Merino Sheep 5

The Ammon .8

The Ammon 9

The Barbary Wild Sheep 10

The Ibex 11

The Markhoor 12

The Dorcas Gazelle 14

The Saiga 15

The Indian Antelope 16

Head of Female Bush-buck . . . . .18

The AVater-buck . . 19

The Eland 20

The Koodoo ........ 22

The Bubalino Antelope ...... 24

The Gnu 25

The Goral . 26

Head of the Chamois 27

The Oryx 28

The Nyl-ghau 30

Musk Oxen . . 31

Chillingham Cattle 32

The Hungarian Bull 33

The European Bison ...... 36

The American Bison . . . . . .37

The Yak 38

The Anoa 39

Skull of the Pronghorn Antelope . . . .40

The Pronghorn Antelope 41

Skull of the Musk [Deer] 42

The Musk [Deer] 43

Skeleton of the Giraffe 44

Giraifes ......... 45

Head of Rod Deer, in which the growing Antlers

are seen covered with " velvet " . . .46
Head of Red Deer, in which the Antler is fully

developed and the " velvet" has disappeared . 47
Various Types of Antlers .... .49

Elk Hunt 50

Young Elk 51

The Red Deer 53

Red Deer and Fallow Deer in Winter . . .54

Red Deer Fighting 55

The Fallow Deer 56

The Sambur Deer 57

The Borneo Rusine Deer . . . .58

The Axis Deer .... To face page 59

Schomburgk's Deer 60

The Indian Muntjac 62

The Roebuck : Male, Female, and Young . . 63
The Chinese Water Deer . . . . .64

The Chinese Elaphure 65

Reindeer at a Lapp Encampment . . . .66

The Reindeer .67

The Guazuti Deer ....... 69

The Javan Deerlet ... ,70

The Stanleyan Deerlet— Foot of Camel . . .71
Stomach of the Llama— Water Cells of the Camel . 72

Hi ail of the (true) Camel 73

The (true) Camel 74

The Bactrian Camel ...... 75

Huanaco attacked by a Puma . . . .76

The Alpaca To face page 77

The Llama 77

Skeleton of the Irish Elk . . . .79

The Irish Elk (Restored) 80

The Prairie Dog 81

Skull of the Taguan, a Flying Squirrel — Dentition

of the Hare . ,82

Skeleton of the Rabbit

Brain of Beaver, from above and in profile

Teeth of the Taguau

The Common Squirrel ......

The Black Fox Squirrel

The Taguan ........

The Polatouche

The Common Chipmunk .....
Molar Teeth of the Marmot — The Striped Spermo-

phile, or Gopher .....

Burrows of the Prairie Dog .

The Alpine Marmot ......

The Fulgent Anomalure — Molar Teeth of the

Anomalure

Molar Teeth of the Beaver

The Beaver ........

Molar Teeth of the Dormouse — The Dormouse

The Garden Dormouse

Skull of Lophiomys — The Lophiomys .
Molar Teeth of the Black Rat .
The Brown Rat

PAGE

83

84
85
86

89
90

91

92
93
95

96

97

98

102

103

104

105

106

The Black Rat 107

Harvest Mice ....... 109

Molar Teeth of the Hapalote Ill

Head of the Rabbit-like Reithrodon . . .112
Hamster . . . . . To face page 113

Molar Teeth of the Hamster 113

Molar Teeth of the Gerbille— Skull of the Water

Mouse — Teeth of Sminthus . . . .114
Molar Teeth of the AVater Rat . . . .115

The Southern Field A'ole 116

The Musquash 118

The Lemming 119

Skull of Mole-Rat— The Mole-Rat . . . .121
Molar Teeth of the Mexican Pouched Rat — Under

Surface of the Head of Heteromys . . .122
Skull of the Mexican Pouched Rat " . . .123
Skull of the Cape Jumping Hare . . . .124
The American Jumping Mouse — Molar Teeth of

the Jerboa 125

The Jerboa 126

The Alactaga — Molar Teeth of the Jumping Hare . 127

The Cape Jumping Hare 128

The Degu 129

Dentition of the Rock Rat— Teeth of the Spiny

Rat 130

The Coypu -131

The Hutia Conga — Teeth of Plagiodon — Molar

Teeth of Loncheres 132

Skull of Loncheres 133

Skull of the Porcupine — The Common Porcupine . 134

The Tree Porcupine 136

Mexican Tree Porcupines . . . . .137

Viscachas To face page 139

Molar Teeth of the Chinchilla— The Chinchilla . 139
Molar Teeth of the Agouti — Azara's Agouti . . 140

Skull of the Paca— The Paca 141

The Dinomys 142

The Patagonian Cavy 144

Molars of the Capybara 145

The Capybara 146

The Common Hare 148

The Alpine Pika 150

Side A'iew of Skull and Lower Jaw of Meso-

therium Cristatum — Dentition of Mesotherium

Cristatum 155

Group of Sloths . . . . . . .158

Skeleton of the Sloth . . . . .161

Bones of Hand of Three-toed Sloth . . .162

Skull of Sloth 163

The Collared Sloth ....... 164

The Ai 165

Skull of Ai 166

NATURAL HISTORY.

PAGE

Stomach of Sloth '. .167

Hoffmann's Sloth 168

The Cape Ant-eater ... . 170

Skull of the Cape Ant-eater . . , . .171
Temminck's Pangolin . . , , . .172

The Four-fingered Pangolin 173

The Five-fingered Pangolin . . „ . .175
The Great Ant-Bear . . . . .177

The Two-toed Ant-eater . . ... 180
Bones of Claw of Great Armadillo . . . .181
Skeleton of the Armadillo — Skull of the Armadillo 182
The Great Armadillo — Brain of tbo Armadillo . 183

The Poyou ' . . .185

The Ball Armadillo 188

The Pichiciago 189

The Great Kangaroo . . . To face page 191
Skeleton of the Great Kangaroo . . . .192
Teeth of the Great Kangaroo .... 193

Stomach of the Great Kangaroo . . . .195
Brain of the Great Kangaroo . . . . .196
The Brush- tailed Rock Kangaroo . . . .197
The Common Tree Kangaroo ..... 198
The Kangaroo Eat — Teeth of the Kangaroo

Eat 199

Fore and Hind Foot of Hypsiprymnus . . . 200

Skeleton of the Wombat 201

The Wombat— Lower Jaw of the Wombat . 202

Teeth of the Wombat 203

The Koala . . . . . . .204

The Cuscus 205

The Vulpine Phalanger 206

The Squirrel Flying Phalanger . . . .208

The Banded Perameles 210

The Dasyure 213

Teeth of the Dasyure— Brain of the Dasyure . .214
Upper and Under View of Skull of Dasyure . .215

The Dog-headed Thylacinus 216

Skeleton of the Dog-headed Thylacinus . . .217
The Brush-tailed Phascogale— The Antechinus .218
Opossum and Young . . . To face page 219

Teeth of the Opossum 219

Skeleton of the Crab-eating Opossum . . . 220

The Crab-eating Opossum 221

Merian's Opossum 222

The Yapock 223

Pelvic Arch of the Echidna . . . . .227
The Porcupine Echidna . , . . . .228
Mouth and Nose-snout of Echidna .... 229
Jaws of the Duck-billed Platypus . . , .231
Fore and Hind Foot of the Duck-billed Platypus—

Shoulder-girdle and Sternum of the Echidna . 232

The Duck-billed Platypus 233

The Imperial Eagle 235

Bones of Wing of Bird— Feathers of Wing of Bird 237

Parts of a Feather . 238

Skeleton of Eagle .... .241

Skull of Young Ostrich from above and from below 242
Sternum of Fregilupus varius— Pelvis of an Adult

Fowl, side view 243

Section of the Eye of the Common Buzzard . . 246
Digestive Organs of the Kingfisher . . .248

Front View and Section of Inferior Larynx of

Peregrine Falcon 251

Diagrammatic Section of a Fowl's Egg . 252

Head and Bill of Sea Eagle 255

Bill of Egyptian Vulture, to show form of Nostril-
Bill of Turkey Vulture, to show the perforated

Nostril 256

The Griffon Vulture 259

The Egyptian Vultuie 261

The Condor 262

The Brazilian Caracara 264

The Secretary Bird ...... 266

The Marsh Harrier .,,,,.. 269

The Goshawk .272

The Sparrow-Hawk , „ . , ,273

Hind View of Tarsus of Buzzard, showing the
plated arrangement of Scales — Hind View of
Tarsus of Serpent Eagle, showing the reticu-
lated arrangement of Scales . . . .274

The Common Buzzard 275

The Harpy 276

The Bearded Eagle, or Lammcrgeier . . . 279
Eye of Eagle, showing Crystalline Lens . . 280

The Golden Eagle 282

The Bateleur Eagle 285

The White-tailed Eagle . . . „ . .287

The Common Kite 289

The Peregrine Falcon 292

A Hooded.Falcon — Falcon's Hood .... 293

The Common Kestrel 295

The Osprey 296

Skull of Tengmalm's Owl ..... 297

The Little Owl 298

The Eagle Owl .... To face page 301

The Snowy Owl 303

The Short-eared Owl 304,

Face of the Barn Owl ...... 305

Breast-bone of the Barn Owl 307

Cockatoos To face page 309

The Amazon Parrot 311

Great Macaws .... To face page 313

The Grey Parrot . . . . . . .313

The Eose-ringed Parrakeet ..... 314

The Eosella 316

The Owl Parrot 317

The Lorikeet 319

Tongue of Nestor 320

The Kaka Parrot 321

Skull of the Grey Parrot 323

The Common Cuckoo . . . • . . . 326

The Great Spotted Cuckoo 328

The Honey Guide .329

The White-crested Plantain-eater . . . .331

Colies 333

"Hyoid" Bone of Adult Fowl— Side View of Dis-
section of Head of Common Green Wood-
pecker 334

Upper View of Skull of Green Woodpecker —
Dissection of Head of Green Woodpecker,
viewed from below ... . 335

The Wryneck 336

The Great Black Woodpecker and Great Spotted

Woodpecker .... To face page 337

The Green Woodpecker 337

The Toucan 340

Bill of Toucan 341

The Pearl-spotted Barbet 342

The Common Kingfisher 345

The Pied Kingfisher . . . . , .348

The Laughing Jackass , 350

The Great Hornbill . . . ' . . .352
The Ground Hornbills of Abyssinia . . . 355
The Common Hoopoe ...... 358

The Australian Bee-eater — Bill of Motmot „ . 361

The Motmot 362

Tail-feathers of Motmot 363

The Blue Eoller 365

The Long-tailed Trogon, or Quesal To face page 367
Mouth of Goatsucker— The Oil-bird . . .368

The Common Goatsucker 369

The Whip-poor-will . „ . . . .370

The Lyre-tailed Nightjar 371

Foot of the Common Goatsucker . . , .372

The Common Swift 373

The Tree Swift 374

The Edible-nest Swiftlets 375

The White-throated Spine-tailed Swift . . .376
The Sword-bill Humming Bird . . . .377
The White-booted Eacket Tail . . . .378
The Common Topaz Humming Bird . . . 379
The Crested Humming Bird . ' , , , , 380

, . * » ^ . -
• • I *«-t t I

25

CHAMOIS.

'- / '/•' J J- ' '

- : ' v

GASSELL'S NATURAL HISTORY

\VATEll DEEKLET, OR CHEVROTAIN.

CHAPTER I.

ARTIODACTYLA— RUMINANTIA : BOVIDJE— SHEEP, GOATS, AND GAZELLES.

Ruminantia — Chewing the Cud— Metaphorical Expression — The Complicated Stomach : Paunch, Honey-comb Bag, Manyplies,
Reed — Order of Events in Rumination — Feet and Dentition of Ruminants— Brain — Classification — HORNED RUMI-
NANTS— Divided into two Groups — Difference between them — BOVID.E — Horns — Aberrant Members — SHEEP AND
GOATS— General Characteristics — Sheep of South- Western Asia — Merino Sheep— Breeds of Great Britain — Dishley,
or Improved Leicesters — Mr. Bakewell's Description — Southdowns, Cheviots, Welsh, and other British Breeds —
Table of the Importation of Colonial and Foreign Wool into the United Kingdom— MARCO POLO'S SHEEP— OORIAL—
SHAPOO— MOUFLON— AMMON— BURHEL— AMERICAN ARGALI— WILD SHEEP OF BARBART— THE GOAT — Compared with
the Sheep — Descent — Cashmere Goat — IBEXES- PASENG — Their remarkable Horns — Old Theories as to the Use of the
Horns— MARKHOOR— TAHR— GAZELLES— General Characteristics— Sir Victor Brooke's Classification— THE GAZELLE—
Appearance— Habits— ARABIAN GAZELLE- PERSIAN GAZELLE— SOEMMERING'S GAZELLE— GRANT'S GAZELLE— SPRING-
BOK— SAIGA- CHIRU— THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA— THE INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK.

THE Swine, together with those animals which most nearly approach them, namely, the Peccaries
and Hippopotami, form but a small division of the cloven-hoofed order of the Mammalian
animals ; by far the greater number of the species of the Artiodactyla being included in a group
known familiarly as that of the Ruminantia, because, as part of the digestive process, they chew
the end.

This chewing the cud is a phenomenon restricted to the group of animals now under consideration,
although it may be mentioned that some naturalists have thought that the Kangaroos among the
Marsupials do the same to a certain extent.
95

NATURAL HISTORY.

As to the details of the process, the individual, a Cow, for instance, whilst grazing, nips off the
grass between the large cutting teeth in the front of the lower jaw, and the tough pad which replaces
in these creatures the similarly situated teeth of the upper jaw. After each mouthful it does not pro-
ceed to masticate the food, but swallows it forthwith, and continues thus to graze until it has satisfied
its appetite. Seeking a quiet and shaded spot, it then seats itself that it may ruminate, or chew the
cud, at leisure. If watched it will be seen that it commences shortly to perform a slight hiccough
action, in which some contraction of the flanks is to be noticed. Its mouth, which was previously
empty, is found to be full of what it is not difficult to recognise to be coarsely-masticated grass, which

has been forced up into it ; and
this it immediately proceeds to
chew between its back or grind-
ing teeth, in a slow and con-
tinuous manner, moving its
lower jaw uniformly from one
side to the other — from right to
left. When this chewing pro-
cess has lasted for a time suf-
ficient to convert the food into
a pulpy state, it is again
swallowed, after which another
bolus is brought up to undergo
a similar operation. And this
is repeated at frequent intervals
until most of the food swal-
lowed has been masticated.

A complicated stomach is
necessary for the operation of
this elaborate chewing process,
the undisturbed duration of
which has led to the word by
which it is designated being
applied metaphorically to a
brooding condition of mind.
Thus the poet of the "Night
Thoughts " says : —

" As when the traveller, a long day

past
In painful search of what he cannot

find,
At night's approach, content with

the next cot,
There ruminates awhile his labour

lost."

This complicated stomach is not identical in all the Euminantia. In the Camels arid the Llamas
it presents many points of difference from that of all the other members of the group, and in the
Chevrotains it has slight peculiarities of its own.

This organ, as found in the Ox— and it is almost identically the same in the Giraffes, the Ante-
lopes, the Sheep, and Deer — is seen to be divided into four well-defined compartments, as represented
in the accompanying figures. These are known as —

STOMACH OF A RUMINATING ANIMAL: (A) EXTERIOR, (B) INTERIOR.

1. The Rumen, or Paunch (b\.

2. The Reticulum, or Honey-comb Bag (c).

3. The Psalterium, or Manyplies (d).

4. The Abomasum, or Reed («).

The paunch (b) is a very capacious receptacle, shaped like a blunted cone bent partly upon
itself. Into its broader base opens the oesophagus, or gullet (a), at a spot not far removed from its

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE RUMINANTIA.

wide orifice of communication with the second stomach, or honey-comb bag (c). Its inner walls are
nearly uniformly covered with a pale skin (known as mucous membrane), which is beset with
innumerable close-set, short, and slender processes (known as villi), resembling very much the " pile "
on velvet. It is this oi'gan, together with its villi, which constitutes the well-known article of food
termed " tripe."

The honey-comb bag (c) is very much smaller than the paunch. It is nearly globose in shape,
and receives its name on account of the peculiar aiTangement of the ridges on the mucous membrane
which lines it, these being distributed so as to form shallow hexagonal cells all over its inner surface,
as seen in the figure on the previous page.

It is situated to the right of the paunch, with which, as well as with the manyplies (d), it com-
municates. Running along its upper wall there is a deep groove coursing from the first to the third
stomach. This groove plays an important part in the mechanism of rumination ; its nature must
therefore be fully understood.

Its walls are muscular, like those of the viscus with which it is associated, which allows its calibre
to be altered. Sometimes it completely closes round so as to become converted into a tube by the
apposition of its edges. At others it forms an open canal.

The manyplies (d) is a very peculiar organ. It is globular, but most of its interior is filled up
with folds, or laminae, running between its orifices of communication with the second and fourth
stomachs. These folds are arranged very much like the leaves of a book, and very close together. They
are, however, not of equal depth, but form series of greater or less breadth. Their surfaces are
roughened by the presence of small projections or papillae.

The reed (e) is the stomach proper, corresponding with the same organ in man. Its shape is
somewhat conical. The valve which partially obstructs its communication with the intestine is at the
left of the foregoing figure. Its walls are formed of a smooth
mucous membrane, which secretes gastric juice, and it is this
stomach that, in the manufacture of cheese, is employed to
curdle the milk.

Whilst grazing, the possessor of this complicated stomach
fills its paunch with the imperfectly masticated food, and it is
not until it commences to chew the cud that any of the other
parts are brought into play.

In the act of rumination, the following is the probable
order of events : — The paunch contracts, and in so doing forces
some of the food into the honey-comb bag, where it is formed
into a bolus by the movement of its walls, and then forced
into the gullet, from which, by a reverse action, it reaches the
mouth, where it is chewed and mixed with the saliva until it
becomes quite pulpy, whereupon it is again swallowed. But
now, because it is soft and semi-fluid, it does not divaricate
the walls of the groove communicating with the manyplies,
and so, continuing on along its tubular interior, it finds its
way direct into the third stomach, most of it filtering between
the numerous laminse on its way to the fourth stomach, where
it becomes acted on by the gastric juice. After the re-
masticated food has reached the manyplies, the groove in the
reticulum is pushed open by a fresh bolus; and so the
process is repeated until the food consumed has all passed on towards the abomasum, or true digestive
stomach.

There are other features also which are characteristic of the ruminating animals. Their sym-
metrical four-toed feet (in which the thumb on the fore and the great toe on the hind are entirely
absent) have the toes so proportioned that the axis of the limb runs down between the two middle
toes at the same time that both the inside and outside toes are much reduced in size, and lost entirely
in the Camel tribe, the Giraffe, and the Cabrit,

BRAIN OF A SHEEP.

4 NATURAL HISTORY.

Another peculiarity which exists in all ruminating animals is the absence of cutting-teeth in the
middle of the upper jaw ; and it is only in the Camels and their intimate allies, the Llamas, that there
are any upper cutting-teeth at all, they being replaced in all the others by a callous pad, on which the
lower cutting-teeth impinge in mastication.

The canine teeth, which correspond to the tusks of the Lion and Dog, also deserve attention.
Those of the lower jaw are always present, and are modified so as to appear like lateral cutting-
teeth. In the upper jaw they are most often absent, but are enormous, projecting far down oiitside
the lip, in the Musk, the Chinese Water Deer, and the Muntjacs. In some other Deer they are
present, but small, and generally they are wanting.

The grinders are six on each side of each jaw, and are so formed that their surfaces wear down
unevenly by the lateral movement to which they are subject during mastication. As in the Elephant,
this depends upon each tooth being made up of alternate layers of enamel, dentine, and cementum,
which, being of different degrees of hardness, are differently affected by the grinding action.

The ruminating animals exhibit a fair amount of intelligence, never, however, attaining that
power of perception and memory exhibited by the Carnivora and other higher forms. The
figure of the surface of the brain of the Sheep indicates that the convolutions of the brain are far
from inconsiderable in number, and its allies of the same size agree with it in this respect, whilst
larger species have more, and smaller less elaborate brain-markings, as is nearly always found to be the
case in every group.

The accompanying table gives an outline sketch of the classification of the ruminating animals
which has been adopted by zoologists : —

Sub-order. Section. Division. Group.

( Ox-tribe

HORNED RUMINANTS.
CHEVROTAINS OR DEER-

RUMTNANTIA.

• Deer-tribe

TRL-E RUMINANTS. •

LETS

(Tragtdid(i')

CAMEL TRIBE.
( Tylopoda] .

Tlio large sub-order of the Ruminantia is seen to be primarily divided into two sections, namely,
the typical Ruminants and the aberrant Ruminants (the Tylopoda). The typical Ruminants, in
which the stomach is formed upon the plan of that described above in the Oxen, fall into two
divisions, the smaller of which — that of the Chevrotains or Deerlets — possesses 110 psalterium, or
third stomach, except in a rudimentary condition. The Horned Ruminants, including the Deer,
Muntjacs, Elk, Oxen, and Antelopes, compose by far the largest number of the whole sub-order, and
will be first described.

HORNED RUMINANTS.

The Horned Ruminants — with which, anomalous as it may at first seem, have to be included
one or two hornless species, on account of their so closely resembling them in other respects —
have their cranial appendages developed after one or other of two principles. In one group, which,
from the fact that the Oxen are included with them, are named the Bovidce, the horns are hollow,
straight, or variously-twisted cones, supported upon bony prolongations from the forehead, resembling
them in shape upon a smaller scale. These horns are permanent, except in the American Antelope,
increasing in size each year, at the same time that they often exhibit transverse markings, which
indicate the annual increase. In the other group — the Cervidce, or Deer Tribe — the horns or antlers
are deciduoiis, being cast off each year, to be shortly replaced by others, which share the fate of their
predecessors. These antlers are entirely made of bone, and when fully grown are not covered with
any less dense investment.

To commence, then, with the fiovidce, or Oxen, and their allies.

SHEEP.

THE BOVID^, OK HOLLOW-HORNED RUMINANTS.

In these ruminating animals the permanent bone-cones on the forehead are covered with a
black horny coating, which is not shed during the whole life of their owners, and in which, as they
continue to grow until adult life at least, the tips are the oldest parts. The females in some species
have horns like their mates, but smaller, as in the Ox and Eland ; while in others — the Koodoo and
the Sing-Sing Antelope, for example — the males alone are horned. The most aberrant members
of this group are the Giraffe, the Cabrit, and the Musk, which will be considered after the less

MERINO SHEEP.

peculiar genera have been discussed. These include the Oxen, Bush-Bucks, Antelopes, Koodoos,
Goats, Sheep, ifec., which will be referred to more in detail.

THE SHEEP AND GOATS.*

Between the bearded Goat and the beardless Sheep there exist intermediate species, which so
completely fill up the gaps that it is almost impossible to separate the two into different genera.
With triangular, curved, and transversely-ridged horns in both sexes, a characteristic general appear-
ance, and feet formed for mountain climbing, the species present differences which are recognised
with facility.

With reference to the domestic Sheep, it is the opinion of most naturalists that it has descended
from several distinct species. "Abel was a keeper of Sheep," is a Biblical statement from which
the immense antiquity of a domestic breed may be inferred, whose origin cannot be better studied
than by a comparison of the different forms found wild in Asia, the head-quarters of the genus.
That no Sheep existed in Australia when that continent was first discovered is a well-known fact.

* The "enus Om.

6 NATURAL HISTORY.

" Endowed by nature," as Mr. Spooner, in his work on the Sheep aptly puts it, " with a
peaceable and patient disposition, and a constitution capable of enduring the extremes of tempera-
ture, adapting itself readily to different climates, thriving on a variety of pastures, economising
nutriment where pasturage is scarce, and advantageously availing itself of opportunities where
food is abundant," it is not to be wondered at that the animal has become the companion of man
from the earliest times.

The fleece of the wild species of Sheep is composed of hair with wool at its roots, in the same
way that in the Duck there is a covering of feathers and down. In the domesticated species the hair,
by selection, has been reduced to a minimum, so that the wool forms the only coat.

In the southern parts of Western Asia many of the Sheep have a curious tendency to the de-
position of fat on the tail rather than under the skin of the body generally, and this may occur to
such an extent that the thus loaded caudal appendage may contain a large part of the entire
weight of the body.

The Astracan breed, of small size, has a fine spiral black and white wool, sometimes entirely
black, which is obtained from the lamb when the finest furs are required.

Of all the breeds of Sheep the Merino of Spain is one of the most important, on account of
the excellence of its wool. In England the breed can hardly be said to exist, because the damp-
ness of the climate does not suit its constitution. It is extensively found in Germany, and is the
Sheep of Australia. The animal is small, flat-sided, and long-legged. The males have long horns,
these appendages being absent in the females. The face, ears, and legs are dark, and the forehead is
woolly, at the same time that the skin about the throat is lax. The body- wool is close-set, soft,
twisted in a spiral, and short.

In Great Britain the breeds of Sheep are very numerous, some of the best being of quite recent
origin. First among the heavy breeds are the Dishley, or Improved Leicester's, which, from their
early maturity, aptness to fatten, smallness of bone, and gentle disposition, well deserve the high
repute in which they stand. It is to the persevering energy and acuteness of Mr. Bakewell that we
are indebted for the present animal, which in origin is far from pure bred. His aim was entii-ely
in the direction of the carcass, and in his object he and his followers have quite succeeded, notwith-
standing an inherent delicacy in constitution and an inferiority of the wool. " The head of this
breed," we are told, " should be hornless, long, small, tapering towards the muzzle, and projecting
horizontally forwards ; the eyes prominent, and with a quiet expression ; the ears thin, rather long,
and directed backwards ; the neck full and broad at its base, where it proceeds from the chest, but
gradually tapering towards the head, and being particularly fine at the junction of the head and neck ;
the neck seeming to project straight from the chest, so that there is, with the slightest possible
deviation, one continuous horizontal line from the rump to the poll ; the breast broad and full ; the
shoulders also broad and round, and no uneven or angular formation where the shoulders join either
the neck or the back, particularly no rising of the withers or hollow behind the situation of these
bones ; the arm fleshy through its whole extent, and even down to the knee ; the bones of the leg
small, standing wide apart, no looseness of skin about them, and comparatively bare of wool ; the chest
and barrel at once deep and round ; the ribs forming a considerable arch fi-om the spine, so as in some
cases — and especially when the animal is in good condition— to make the apparent width of the chest
even greater than the depth ; the barrel ribbed well home ; no irregularity of line on the back or the
belly, but on the sides, the carcass very gradually diminishing in width towards the rump ; the
quarters long and full, and, as with the fore-legs, the muscles extending down to the hock ; the thighs
also wide and full ; the legs of a moderate length ; the pelt moderately thin, but soft and elastic,
and covered with a good quantity of white wool, not so long as in some breeds, but considerably
finer."

The large-sized Lincoln Sheep, with lengthy fleece, those of the Cotswold Hills, the Teeswater,
and Romney Marsh, are also heavy breeds, not equal in the totality of their points to the Improved
Leicesters, although excelling them either in quantity of wool or hardiness of constitution.

The Short- woolled Southdowns, with close-set fleece of fine wool, face and legs dusky brown,
curved neck, short limbs, and broad body, is one of the oldest and most valuable unmixed breeds
that we possess. Their mutton greatly excels that of the Improved Leicesters, which, taken in

MARCO POLO'S SHEEP.

association with their other good qualities, has caused them to extend to nearly every county. In
parts of Hampshire, Shropshire, and Dorsetshire there are local breeds of Short-woolled Sheep
which replace the Southdowns.

The Cheviot and the Black-faced, or Heath breed of our northern counties are mountain Sheep,
of small size and hardy constitution, the former horned, the latter hornless and with a white face.

Welsh mutton is obtained from the small, soft-woolled Sheep with a white nose and face. The
ratns alone have horns, wherein the breed differs from that of the higher mountains, in which the
ewes also are horned, at the same time that a ridge of hair is present along the top of the neck.

As wool forms so important an element of the mercantile transactions of Great Britain, and as
Sheep-farming has so rapidly increased in Australia and New Zealand, a few words with reference
to the statistics of the subject will not be out of place.

In 1788, when Governor Phillip landed at Port Jackson, there was not a Sheep in all Australia,
and it was not until 1793 that about thirty of the Indian breed reached Sydney, their number being
shortly augmented by the importation of breeding-stock from England and the Cape of Good Hope,
principally Merinos. The progeny soon spread towards the interior, where the growing of wool
became a lucrative pursuit. Sheep were first imported into New Zealand in 1840. It is estimated
there are now one hundred million sheep in Australia, and nearly thirty million in New Zealand.

The following table of the number of bales of wool imported into Great Britain at twenty-year
intervals, that is, in 1836, 1856, and 1876, gives a better idea than can be otherwise obtained as to
the changes in the sources of wool as well as to the richness of each colonial district : —

LUPOHTATION OP COLONIAL AND FOREIGN WOOL INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM (IN BALES).

1836.

1856.

1876.

New South Wales and Queensland

Victoria

Tasmania .

South Australia

West Australia

New Zealand

Total Austrnli»i\iin
Cape of Good Hope

Total Colonial

German ....
Spanish and Portuguese
East Indian and Persian .
Russian ....
Itiver Plate
Peru, Lima, and Chili
Alpaca ....
Mediterranean and Africa
Mohair .
Sundry .

Total Foreign

TOTAL IMPORTATION

19,066

59,342

169,874

None

64,843

306,803

15,449

17,951

20,480

None

16,618

102,067

None

1,267

7,510

None

6,840

162,154

34,515

166,861

768,888

1,740

50,607

169,908

36,255

217,468

938,796

90,426

22,272

29,580

20,451

8,106

7,906

1,981

45,236

86,678

15,072

4,181

34,511

5,151 \

16,653 )

52,477

14,714

13,665 f

118,593.

No returns

13,515 1

12,784

10,735 j

172,081

175,338

277,268

208,336

392,806

1,216,064

So much for the domestic Sheep ; of other species of the genus Ovis we have Marco Polo's Sheep.*
This splendid Sheep, one of the finest species of the genus, has horns, describing a spiral of about
a circle and a quarter when viewed from the side, pointing directly outwards, and sometimes measuring
as many as sixty- three inches from base to tip along their curve, and as much as four and a half
feet from tip to tip. At the shoulder the animal measures just under four feet. It inhabits the high
lands in the neighbourhood of the lofty Thian Shan mountains, north of Kashgar and Yarkand, not
descending below an elevation of 9,000 feet above the sea level, often ascending much higher. It is

* OvisPuIi.

8 NATURAL HISTORY.

on account of the rarefaction of the air in these regions that there is considerable difficulty in obtain-
ing specimens which have been wounded, because Horses at these heights are much distressed in their
breathing, whilst the Sheep are not so. Mr. N. A. Severtzoff, an eminent Russian naturalist, has
described three or four other species closely allied to Marco Polo's Sheep, which are smaller than
it, from Turkestan and the district east of it. In this Sheep, during the winter, the sides of the body
are of a light greyish-brown, changing to white below. There is a white mane all round the neck and
a white disc round the tail. A dark line runs the whole length of the middle of the back: In
summer the grev changes to dark brown.

O •/ O

The OORIAL and the SHAPOO are bearded Sheep, from Ladakh and the Suliman ran«e of the

Punjab respectively, with large horns, which form not more than half a circle in the Shapoo and nearly
a complete one in the Oorial. The colour of the Oorial is a reddish-brown above, paler beneath, the
abdomen being white. A lengthy dark beard, reaching to the knees, fringes the whole length of the
neck from the chin to the chest. The points of the horns are directed inwards. It is found at
altitudes of 2,000 feet. The Shapoo is brownish-grey, white below, with a short brown beard. Its
horns turn outwards at the tips. It is never found at altitudes lower than 12,000 feet.

The MOUFLOX at one time abounded in Spain, but is now restricted to the islands of Corsica and
Sardinia. The species is a small one, of a brownish-grey colour, with a dark streak along the middle
of the back, at the same time that there is a varying amount of white about the face and legs. The
horns, present in the males only, are proportionately not large, curve backwards anci then inwards at
the tips. The tail is very short, in which respect they differ strikingly from the domestic Sheep, to
which otherwise they are intimately related. The Mouflon frequents the summits of its native hills

THE WILD SHEEP OF BAEBARY.

'\

in small herds, headed by an old ram. Its skin is used by the mountaineers for making jackets. It
breeds freely with the domestic species.

The AMMO>T of Tibet has been known to measure as much as four feet and an inch at the
shoulder, and has a most imposing appearance on account of the erect attitude in which it holds its
head. Its horns attain a great size, being sometimes as much as four feet long and twenty-two inches in
circumference at their bases, forming a single sweep of about four-fifths of a circle, their points being
turned slightly outwards and ending bluntly. Its body colour is dark brown above, paler posteriorly
and below. A mane surrounds its neck, white in the male, dark brown in the female. The tail
measures only an inch in length. In the female the horns do not exceed twenty-two inches in length.

The BURHEL. or Himalayan " blue wild Sheep," stands three feet at the shoulder, and has horns
which, commencing very close together on the forehead, describe a half circle of two feet or so, and are
directed very much outwards and backwards. In the female the horns do not exceed eight inches in
length, and stand backward instead of diverging. The coarse fleece of winter is of an ashy-blue
colour, which, in summer, is replaced by one that is much darker. The abdomen is white, and a
black stripe runs along each side of the body, the front of the legs and the chest being also black. It
has no beard.

The AMERICAN ARGALI, or BIG-HORN, inhabits the range of the Rocky Mountains. Its height
is three and a half feet at the shoulder. The horns form a complete circle, and are nearly three feet
long in the male. They are said to come so far forward and downward that old rams find it impos-
sible to feed on level ground. Its flesh is peculiarly well flavoured.

The WILD SHEEP OF BARBARY, known also as the TRAGELAPHUS, is a large and handsome species,
with a comparatively lengthy tail, tufted at its end. The hair on the chin is short, whilst that along
the lower margin of the neck, as well as on the front of the knees, attains a great length. The horns
are not massive, and hardly exceed two feet in length. They are black, and are directed outward a&
well as backward.
96

10

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE GOATS*

Modem naturalists, as intermediate forms become more numerous, find much difficulty in
separating off the Goats (which constitute the genus Copra of earlier authors) from the Sheep (Ovis).
In the Goats the horns are flattened from side to side, and rough in front and arched backwards,
whilst in the Sheep they are more uniformly cylindrical, turned laterally, curling downwards, and

BARBARY WILD SHEEP.

often cork-screwed. A beard is a common addition to the former animal, and a most unpleasant
odour is emitted by them.

The domestic Goat is almost certainly descended from the Paseng, or Ibex, of the mountains of
Asia, with little or no admixture of other blood. In it, however, the female is bearded as well as the
male, which is not the case with the Paseng. It has been subjugated from time immemorial, when
the flesh of the kid was considered a delicacy. Its sure-footedness and its boldness are proverbial, as
is its unpleasant odour. The power possessed by the species of ascending precipitate heights is mar-
vellous. On more than one occasion it has been recorded — contrary to the teaching of ^Esop — that
whilst two individuals have met on a path too narrow for both to pass, one has lain down in order chat
the other might go over its back. With no great bulk of body ; coarse hair of different lengths and
tints, springing from out of a mass of much shorter wool ; horns of varying size, but always out-turned
&6 the tips ; narrow ears, an almost entirely hair-covered nose ; sight, hearing, and smell all acute ;
powerful thick-set legs, and a short tail naked below, it stands its own in mountainous and less civilised

* The genus Capra.

THE IBEX AXD PASENG.

11

districts. Varieties occur with large pendulous instead of upright ears ; others with extra horns,
occasionally spiral as in Nepaul, or none at all. In the Angora and Cashmere breeds the hair is white.

The Goat of Cashmere is famous on account of the long and very fine wool with which it is
covered, which is employed in the manufacture of Cashmere shawls. It is said that the wool of ten
of these Goats is required for the material of a single shawl.

The IBEX is found in the Alpine heights of Europe and of Western Asia, including the
Himalayas. The large scythe-blade-shaped horns of the male curve boldly upwards and backwards,
diverging all the way. Along the front of their convex surfaces there is a series of protuberances
or partial rings, which are only just indicated laterally. The largest specimens reach three feet

and a half in height at the shoulder, which is a little less than the length their horns sometimes attain.
The body colour is a yellowish-grey, white below, with a dark brown line along the middle of the
back. The soft and close-set hair hides an under-fur still finer. The beard is black. European
specimens are smaller than those from Asia, rarely exceeding two feet and a half in height, with
horns three feet in length. The species inhabits the most precipitous and dangerous parts of mountain
regions, and is wonderfully sure-footed.

The PASENG is the wild Goat of Western Asia ; it is also found on the northern side of the
Caucasus and in some of the islands of the ^Egean. In height the male measures two feet and
three-quarters at the withers, the female being nearly six inches less. In the male the horns may
measure as much as four feet in length. They are flattened, slender, curved backwards as part of a
large circle, having their points turned sometimes inwards, so much so as now and again to cross, whilst
at others they are directed outwards. Along their anterior edges are protuberances, separated by a
greater distance as they approach the tips, indicative of the age of the animal, as after the third year a

12

NATURAL HISTORY.

fresh knob is formed in each succeeding one. Mr. Danford, who has made a special study of the species,
remarks, with reference to the reputed use to which their owners turn their immense cranial append-
ages, that " regarding the use of the great horns carried by the Ibex family, the general idea among
the older authors was that they were employed to break the animal's fall in leaping from a height.
Pennant relates that Monardes was witness to the wild Goat saving itself in this way ; and Gesner
says : ' Cadens ab alto totum corpus inter coruua protegit a collisione et ictus lapidum magnorum
excipit cornibus !'* This view is confirmed by Mr. Hutton, whose tame Aegagrus [Paseng] repeatedly
used his horns for this purpose. I made many inquiries among the native hunters, and they all agreed

MAltKHOOK.

in saying that the horns were never so used, or for any purpose except fighting ; and the result of my
own observations is, that during the leap the head is carried as far back as possible, though it may be
that the situations in which I observed the animals did not necessitate the employment of the horns
in the way referred to." The horns of the female are not more than a foot long, the knobs being
almost obsolete. Unlike its consort, also, it has no beard. The general colour of the species is grey,
shaded with reddish-brown. A blackish-brown line extends from the similarly coloured forehead
along the spine.

The MARKHOOR, or " Serpent Eater," of North-east India and Cashmere, is a fine Goat of
larger size than the Ibex, with much-flattened triangular horns, which, while running upwards from
the head, are spiral and attain an immense size, sometimes as much as five feet along their curve.
The spiral twist is much more open in some specimens than in others, depending on the locality in
which they are found. The body colour is a dirty light blue-grey, the lengthy beard being of a darker
colour. It inhabits very similar localities to the Ibexes and is very shy.

The TAHR of the Himalayas is a not common Goat, with small horns curved directly backwards,

* "Falling from a height, it protects its whole body, between its horns, from shock, and receives upon its horns the
concussion of the huge stones."

CLASSIFICATION OF THE GAZELLES. 13

not much more than a foot in length, flattened from side to side, with a notched anterior margin. The
body colour is a fawn-brown ; the hair of the neck, chest, and shoulders being of great length and
reaching to the knees. In the female the horns are much smaller and of lighter colour. Accord-
ing to Captain Kinloch, " the Tahr is, like the Markhoor, a forest-loving animal, and although
it sometimes resorts to the rocky summits of the hills, it generally prefers the steep slopes
which are more or less clothed with trees. Female Tahr may be frequently found on open ground,
but old males hide a great deal in the thickest jungle, lying during the heat of the day under the
;shade of trees or overhanging rocks. Nearly perpendicular hills, with dangerous precipices, where the
forest consists of oak and ringall cane, are the favourite haunts of the old Tahr, who climb with
ease over ground where one would hardly imagine that any animal could find a footing. Tahr ground,
indeed, is about the worst walking I know, almost rivalling Markhoor ground ; the only advantage
being that, bad as it is, there are generally some bushes or grass to hold on to."

THE GAZELLES.*

Under the title of Gazelles are included several strikingly elegant, small, slender, sandy-coloured
species of ruminating animals, in which the males always, and the females in most cases, carry horns,
which are transversely ringed, and vary considerably in the direction which they take, many having
them curved in such a way that the two together form a lyre-shaped figure, at the same time that in
others they are nearly straight, turned slightly backwards or forwards, and diverging or converging at
the tips. Where present, the horns of the females are more slender than in the corresponding males.

The Gazelles inhabit Africa, Arabia, Persia, India, and Central Asia only. They rarely exceed
thirty inches in height at the shoulder ; the largest, the Swift Antelope of Pennant (Gazella mohr),
reaching nearly three feet. In all the Gazelles the face is marked with a white band running from the
outer side of the base of each horn nearly down to the upper end of each nostril, cutting off a dark
triangular central patch, and bordered externally by a diffused dark line. The under surface of the
abdomen is white, and there is a dark line traversing the flank which bounds this. The rump is also
white, which in many cases encroaches more or less upon the haunches.

Of the twenty species of Gazelles known to naturalists, only a few of the best known will be
specially mentioned here. By Sir Victor Brooke they have been thus arranged, in accordance with
certain easily ascertained distinctive features in coloration and shape of horn : —

I.— BACK UNSTRIPED.

A. The white colour of the rump not encroaching on the fawn colour of the haunches.

a. Both sexes bearing horns.
1. HORNS LYRATE OR SEMI-LYRATE.

The Gazelle (Arabia and N.E. Africa).
Isabelline Gazelle (Kordofan).
Korin (Senegal).

2. HORNS NOT LYRATE.

Sundevall's Gazelle (Sennaar).
Black-tailed Gazelle (Bogosland).

Cuvier's Gazelle (Morocco).
Small-horned Gazelle (Senaar).
Speke's Gazelle (Somali Country).
Muscat Gazelle (Muscat).

b. Females hornless.
Persian Gazelle.

Arabian Gazelle (S. Arabia).
Bennett's Gazelle (India).
Dusky-faced Gazelle (Persia).

Ladakh Gazelle.

Mongolian Gazelle.

B. The white colour of the rump projects forward in an angle into the fawn colour of the haunches.
Dama Antelope (S. Nubia). I Soemmerring's Antelope (E. Africa).

Swift Antelope (Senegal). Grant's Gazelle (Ugogo).

II.— BACK WITH A MEDIAN WHITE STRIPE.

Spring-bok (S. Africa).

The GAZELLE par excellence, from Syria, Egypt, and Arabia, stands scarcely two feet high. The
elegance of its proportions are too well known to need description. The beauty of its eyes is not to be

* The genus Gazella,
97

14- NATURAL HISTORY.

compared with that of some of the other ruminating animals, the whole face being far too sheep-like,
and this remark equally applies to all its near allies. The Dorcas Gazelle is a name by which it is also
known. Like many other members of the genus, it has a tuft of hair upon each knee. The tail is
long and tapering ; the body hair rather coarse and of a pale fawn colour. The hips, as well as the
breast and the abdomen, are white. As to their habits, Mr. Blanford, in his work on Abyssinia, tells us
that, so far as his observation went, " neither the Dorcas nor Bennett's Gazelle is ever seen in large
flocks, like the animals of the Spring-bok group. Usually both are seen solitary, or from two to five
together, inhabiting thin bushes generally on broken ground. They feed much upon the leaves of
bushes. The male has a peculiar habit, when surprised, of standing still and uttering a short, sharp
cry. Like most Antelopes, they keep much to the neighbourhood of some particular spot. After long
observation, I am convinced that Bennett's Gazelle never drinks ; and all that I could ascertain of the
Dorcas Gazelle leads to the same conclusion in its case."

Captain Baldwin says that, " like other Antelopes, the little Ravine Deer [by which is meant

DORCAS GAZELLE.

Bennett's Gazelle] has many enemies besides man. One day, when out with my rifle, I noticed an old
female Gazelle stamping her feet, and every now and then making that 'hiss' which is the alarm-note
of the animal. It was not I that was the cause of her terror, for I had passed close to her only a few
minutes before, and she seemed to understand by my manner that I meant no harm. No ; there was
something else, t turned back, and on looking down a ravine close by, saw a crafty "Wolf attempting
a stalk on the mother and young one. Another day, at Agra, a pair of Jackals joined in the chase of
a wounded Buck.

" The Chikarah [again another name for Bennett's Gazelle] is as easily tamed as the common
Antelope ; they are favourite pets, and become strongly attached to those who rear and feed them.
I have seen tame ones driven out with a herd of Goats to graze, and never attempt to make their
escape. It is not at all unusual to find the wild Gazelles feeding close to, sometimes almost mingling

with, herds of Goats, when the latter have been driven out to pasture Like all

Antelopes, the eyesight of the Chikarah is very acute, and the animal is perpetually on the watch
against danger. It, however, appears to be gifted with only a moderate sense of hearing, and still less
so of smell."

THE ARABIAN, OR ARID GAZELLE, is the same size as the preceding, difFeiing, as may be gathered
from the table given on page 13, in the shape of its horns, which, from being directed upwards and

TIIE SPRING-BOX. 15

•outwards, turn at their tips more outward and also forward. The speed of the Gazelle, like that
of most of its allies, is very great ; its eyes are large and lustrous, and its general colour a rich
yellowish-brown.

The PERSIAN GAZELLE stands twenty-six inches. Its body colour is grey fawn colour, the
breast and abdomen being white. Of its habits, Major St. John says that, " like the wild Ass, it
especially affects the neighbourhood of the salt deserts. It appears to retire generally to the valleys at
the base of hills to breed, and is most commonly seen in small parties of three to half a dozen. The
fleetest Greyhound cannot come up with the Gazelle when it gets a fair start ; but when suddenly
roused from a hollow, or when the ground is heavy after rain, good Dogs will often pull down males.
The does are more difficult to catch."

SOEMMERRING'S GAZELLE stands two feet and a half high. The body colour is sandy fawn above ;
the horns are massive and lyrate, more slender in the female. It lives in pairs, and is a powerful
species.

The horns of GRANT'S GAZELLE are larger than in any other of the species.

The SPRING-BOK derives its name from the habit it has of leaping straight up in the air for
•several feet when alarmed or whilst running. Its height is two feet and a half. The horns are
lyrate, being very small in the females. Its colour is yellow dun, with the under parts, as usual,
white. A peculiar white line along the middle of the back can be varied in extent within certain
limits by the animal at pleasure. Major C. Hamilton Smith, when writing of this species, tells us
that it assembles in South Africa in vast herds, " migrating from north to south and back
~with the monsoons. These migrations, which are said to take place in the most numerous form
only at the interval of several years, appear to come from the north-east, and in masses of many
thousands, devouring, like locusts, every green herb. The Lion has been seen to migrate and walk
in the midst of the compressed phalanx, with only as much room between him and his victims as

16

NATURAL SIS TOST.

the fears of those immediately around could procure by pressing outwards. The foremost of these-
vast columns are fat, and the rear exceedingly lean while the direction continues one way; but
with the change of the monsoon, when they return towards the north, the rear become the leaders,
fattening in their turn."

The SAIGA* and CHIRU t differ from the Gazelles but slightly, and approach the Sheep ; the
former belonging to Eastern Europe and Western Asia, the latter to Tibet.

The Saiga is as large as a Fallow Deer, tawny yellow in summer, light grey in winter ; being
specially peculiar about the nose which is much lengthened, at the same time that the nostrils are
expanded to such a degree that in feeding they have to walk backwards. The horns, found only

INDIAN ANTELOPE.

in the males, are not a foot long, slightly lyrate, and annulated. In its native haunts — which are-
barren, sandy, and salt — it assembles frequently in vast herds. It runs rapidly when pursued, but
is soon exhausted.

The CHIRU is slightly smaller, of a reddish fawn colour, with the face and front of the limbs
black. The slender jet-black horns, very small in the female, are ringed nearly to the tips, curved
forward, and about two feet long. From Captain Kinloch's account we learn that " in the early part
of the summer the Antelope appears to keep on the higher and more exposed plains and slopes where
snow does not lie ; as the season becomes warmer, the snow which has accumulated on the grassy
banks of the streams in the sheltered valleys begins to dissolve, and the Antelope then comes down to
feed on the grass which grows abundantly in such places, and then is the time that they may most
easily be stalked and shot. They usually feed only in the mornings and evenings, and in the day-time
seek more open and elevated situations, frequently excavating deep holes in the stony plains in which
they live, with only their heads and horns visible above the surface of the ground."

Saiga tartarica.

•{• Panthalops Hodgsoni.

THE PALL AH AND BLACK BUCK. It

THE PALLAH.*

THE PALLAH, OR IMPALLA, of South and South-east Africa, is anothei closely-allied form of large
size, being more than three feet high at the shoulder. Its colour is dark red above, yellow dun on the
sides, and white below. There are no false hoofs in the usual situation on the lengthy legs : a pecu-
liarity which it shares with the Cabrit and the Giraffe. The eyes are very large and liquid. The
horns, wanting in the female, are twenty inches long in the male, and lyrate ; they are ringed nearly
to their tips. They are abundant on or near to hills, and collect in herds of from twenty to thirty.
Mr. Drummond, vividly describing his South African experience, on an occasion whilst hunting
Buffalo, " saw something red moving among the trees, and stopped to watch it. It turned out to be a
troop of Impalla coming back from water and making for some of the grassy glades. There might
have been seventy or eighty of them, picking their way along in Indian file, nibbling here and there,
but always moving, and seeming like a troop of ghosts in the dim twilight and silence."

THE INDIAN AJSTELOPE.t

THE INDIAN ANTELOPE, OR BLACK BUCK. — This species differs but little from the Gazelles in
many respects, whilst its peculiarities are striking. Like the Nylghau, the male differs greatly from
the female in its colour. The female has no horns ; those in the male are black and of great size,
spirally twisted for three or four turns like a corkscrew, slightly divergent, and often reaching thirty
inches in length. It stands a little over two feet and a half at the shoulder. The colour of the males
is deep brown-black above, with an abrupt line of separation from the pure white of the belly. This
dark colour extends down the outer surface of each limb. The face is also black, with a white circle
round the eyes and nose. In the females and young of both sexes the black and brown are replaced
by a light fawn colour. The tail is very short and white below. At certain seasons of the year the
glands below the eyes are much enlarged and form a prominent feature in the face of the male.

The Black Buck is one of the swiftest of the Antelopes, no Greyhound having any chance
against it. Its flesh, being dry and unsavoury, is rarely eaten. The species falls a frequent prey to
the Tiger, and is generally found in herds, fifty does, or so, accompanied by a single buck. The
height to which they can bound is very great. According to Major C. Hamilton Smith, the native
Indians " have raised the common Antelope among the constellations, harnessed it to the chariot of the
moon, and represented it as the quarry of the gods. In the opinion of Hindoos the animal is sacred
to Chandra, female devotees and minstrels lead it, domesticated, by the harmony of their instruments,
or the power of their prayers, and holy Brahmins are directed to feed upon their flesh, under certain
circumstances prescribed by the Institutes of Menu."

CHAPTER II.

RTJMINANTIA : BOVID^E (continued)— ANTELOPES.

THE STEINBOKS : KLIPSPRINGER, OUBEBI, STEINBOK, GRYSBOK, MADOQUA— THE BUSH-BUCKS— Appearance— Distinctive
Marks — THE FOUR- HORNED ANTELOPES — Peculiarity in the Chikarah — THE WATER ANTELOPES : NAGOR, KEITBOK,.
LECHE, AEQUITOON, SING-SING, WATER-BUCK, POKU, REH-BOK— THE ELAND — Beef — Appearance — Captain Cornwallis.
Harris' Description — Hunting — Scarcity — THE KOODOO — Appearance— King of Antelopes — ANGAS' HARNESSED
ANTELOPE — THE HARNESSED ANTELOPES: GUIB— BUSH BUCK, OR UKOUKA — Appearance — Pluck— THE BOVINE
ANTELOPES — THE BUBALINE — HARTEBEEST — BLESBOK — BONTEBOK — SASSABT — THE GNU — Grotesque Appearance —
Habits— BRINDLED GND— THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES— SEROW— Ungainly Habits - GORAL— CAMBING-OUTAN— YAKIN
— MAZAMA— THE CHAMOIS— Distribution -Appearance— Voice— Hunted— THE ORYXES— BLAUBOK— SABLE ANTELOPE:
—BAKER'S ANTELOPE— ORYX— BEISA— BEATRIX— GEMSBOK ADDAX.

THE STEINBOKS.

THE KLIPSPRINGER, the OUREBI, the STEINBOK, and the GRYSBOK form a small section of the African
Antelopes, elegant and small, with horns only in the males, these being straight, or nearly so. Their
body hair is harsh. The Klipspringer stands a little under two feet high ; it is the heaviest in build

* jEpyccros melampus. t Antilope bezoartica.

18

NATURAL HISTORY.

of the four ; its horns are four inches long and curved a little forward. Its colour is olive. It lives
.singly or in pairs, in mountainous districts, and it was at one time so abundant in the neighbourhood
of the Cape of Good Hope that its hair was employed to stuff saddles with.

The Ourebi, in height and length of horn, resembles the last-mentioned species. Its build is very

delicate, its general colour being a tawny
yellow, white below. Its speed is very
great. According to Mr. Dmmmond, " its
peculiar colour so much resembles the soil
on which it lies that, trusting to remain
unobserved, it often allows you to get
within fifteen or twenty yards of where it
is squatting. It is a handsome and pecu-
liarly graceful Antelope, extremely good
eating, and well worth the hunter's atten-
tion. One thing he should bear in mind
is, that however slightly they may be
wounded, they will go and lie down within
a few hundred yards, if not chased by a
Dog, and will in such cases very generally
allow him to get within shot again." The
Steinbok is twenty inches high, with
straight horns four inches long, large ears,
and a mere stump of a tail. Its colour is
red-brown, white below.

HEAD OF FEMALE BUSH-BUCK. The Grysbok, with the same measure-

ment, is chocolate-red.

The MADOQUA of Abyssinia is not bigger than a Hare, standing fourteen inches high, the slender
legs being comparatively long. The horns, present only in the males, are not more than half the length
of the head, being nearly straight, and cui'ved a little forward. The tail is a mere stump. The back is
reddish-brown, the sides grey ; the face, together with a peculiar tuft between the horns, is red, as are
the legs. The under parts are white.

THE BUSH-BUCKS.*

The Bush-bucks form a clearly-defined group of small Antelopes peculiar to tropical and
Southern Africa. They are also known by sportsmen as Duykers, or Bush-goats. They are
characterised by the possession of horns in the male sex, which are short, straight, and simple
cones, very much depressed, or slanting backwards, and rising some distance behind the eyes ; at
the same time that there is a tuft of lengthy hair, directed backwards, which is arranged in a kind of
horseshoe shape between the ears. The crumen or gland in front of each eye is also peculiar. Instead
of it being a sac with a circular opening, it is spread out in the form of a curved line, and not con-
tracted to form an orifice at all. This feature, which is not observed in any other animal, may be
•seen in the drawing of the head of the female Bush-buck. The muffle, or extremity of the nose, is
much like that of the Ox, comparatively large and always moist. The tail is very short, whilst the
ears are of a fair size and oval in form. The legs are particularly slender and delicate, terminated by
minute hoofs. In most the forehead is strongly convex. The coloration of the many species is not
striking, being a uniform red-brown, dark bluish-grey, or sooty-black. The smallest of the species, the
Pigmy Bush-buck, is not bigger than a Rabbit, and might at first sight, especially the female, be mis-
taken for a Deerlet. According to Mr. Drummond, " it feeds principally on certain berries and shrubs
found growing in the jungles, and seems to be on the move, more or less, the whole day, though, in
common Avith the rest of the animal creation, it is most often to be seen at early morning and evening."

Of the Bush-bucks, the Philantomba, of West Africa, is grey-brown; the Blau-bok, of Southern
Africa, a bluish-grey ; the Duyker-bok, of South Africa, a yellowish-brown : the Coquetoon, a deep

* The genus Cephalophus,

THE FOUK-HORNED ANTELOPES.

WATEll-BUCK.

reddish-bay ; the Bay Antelope, of West Africa, a dark bay, whilst there are other species black,
brown, &c.

THE FOUR-HORNED ANTELOPES.*

In India and Tibet there are two peculiar species of small Antelopes, the true Four-horned and the
Brown Indian Antelope. In the former of these, known also as the Chikarah, different from what is
found as a natural condition in any other living animal, there are two pairs of well-developed horns ;
the hinder, which are the larger, being five inches long, in the usual situation ; the smaller, an inch
and a half long, are close together not far behind the eyes. In the Brown Indian Antelope the anterior
pair of horns are rudimentary, and nothing more than knobs. All these horns are straight and conical.
Neither species is common. Their size is about that of the Arabian Gazelle : their colour a reddish-
brown, becoming lighter below ; the hair is coarse ; the female is hornless. Captain Kinloch says of
them that "four-horned Antelopes are generally found alone, or frequently in pairs ; they conceal
themselves in long grass or among low bushes, and somewhat resemble hares in their habits. They
are seldom to be seen out feeding, but usually jump up at the feet of the hunter and bound away
at a great pace."

THE WATER ANTELOPES.f

The NAGOR, the REITBOK, the LECHE, the AEQUITOON, the SING-SING, and the WATER-BUCK
are closely allied African Antelopes, with good-sized horns (only present in the males), which are
transversely wrinkled, curved forwards, and a little inwards at the tips. Most of them are water-loving
animals, and abound in marshy districts on the banks of rivers.

The genus Tetraceros.

The genus Eleotragus and its allies.

20

NATURAL HISTORY.

The Nagor is a little more than two feet and a half in height at the shoulder, the horns being six
inches long, and the tail ten inches. The colour of the long, loose hair is fulvous-brown above, white
below. The Reitbok is of a grizzly ochreate colour. Its height is nearly three feet, the horns being
twelve inches long. According to Dr. Kirk, the species is " commonly found feeding in small herds ;
in the heat of the day it rests in long grass, and may be approached within fifty yards before starting.
It seldom runs far without stopping to look round. Before again making off it gives a shrill whistle,
as it does often when first started. Should the female have young unable to run far, and danger near,
she places her foot on the shoulder and presses it to the ground ; after which it never moves

until almost trodden upon, and is expected to remain in the same spot until the return of the
mother." The Leche is of a pale brown colour above and white below. Sir John Kirk says it "is
a water Antelope, frequenting damp, marshy places, and taking to impassable swamps, among reeds
and papyrus. It goes in considerable herds, accompanied by several males, mingling often with the
' Poku,' another Antelope peculiar to that region (the valley of the Zambesi). In the distance the
Leche may be known by the peculiar way in which it allows its horns to recline back, almost touching
the withers." The POKU, Vardon's Antelope of Livingstone, is smaller than the Leche, and thicker in
the neck ; otherwise it closely resembles it.

The Sing-sing Antelope and Water-buck are much alike, the former wanting a white elliptical
patch, which is found near the base of the tail in the latter. The body colour is a greyish-brown.
Long hair on the neck produces a mane. At the shoulder they stand four feet six inches, and the pale
horns are two feet and a half long. "The Wat-ar Antelope," says Mr. Drummond, "is an extremely
fine animal, and so plentiful that there are, perhaps, more of them shot than of any of the other large
Antelopes. The large ringed horns which, in the male, crown its brow, bear a strong resemblance to

THE ELAND. 21

those of the Keedbuck [Reitbok], while the habits and general appearance of both species are almost
identical. Both frequent thickets and reedy places near water, and are principally found in pairs or
small groups. The hair of the species [of Water-buck] inhabiting Eastern Africa is very long and
coarse, though that of the one found in Central Africa [the Sing-Sing] is remarkably soft, and is highly
prized bv the natives as being so." ^ n

The REH-BOK of South Africa, "though almost approaching a Fallow Deer in size, more nearly,
says Mr. Drummond, " resembles a Chamois in other particulars ; indeed, it has been called the
African Chamois, and so far deserves the title, that it certainly possesses many of the characteristics
and habits of the European species— decidedly more so than any other of the Antelope genus found
in South Africa, with the exception of the Klipspringer. Their colour is light grey, the hair being
somewhat long and coarse, and the horns are straight [bent forwards at the tips], and by no means
unusually large for the animal's size. They are never found but on the bare hills, among rocks and
stones, and their powers of springing are wonderful. It seems extraordinary how their delicate limbs
escape injury, when they take bound after bound like an indiarubber ball, in places that a Cat would
shudder at." According to Major C. H. Smith, « it is an animal of great swiftness, moving with won-
derful rapidity by lengthened stretches, close to the ground, so as to seem to glide over the desert like
a mist driven by the winds, and, favoured by the indistinct colours of the fur, is immediately out of
sight. The Bushmen and western tribes [of South Africa] make lance-heads, awls, and other tools of.
the horns, and occasionally cloaks of their skins for the women."

THE ELAND*

This fine species attains to the size of an Ox, the bull standing six feet and a half at the withers.
Attempts have within the last few years been made to breed it in England for the sake of its flesh,
which is as good as the best beef. It is, however, found to be impossible to get the price sufficiently
low for market purposes. Two varieties are known, one of a pale fawn colour from Central Africa?
the other, from South Africa, of a bright yellow tan colour, marked transversely with narrow white
lines, about fifteen in number, running from a black line which goes along the back, to the belly.
These marks are present in all young individuals, and disappear or fade considerably in the adults.
The full-grown bull has a broad tuft of lengthy slight brown hair on the forehead, between and in
front of the horns, which are situated some distance behind the eyes, being straight, a foot and a
half in length, and at their bases carrying a thick and conspicuous screw-like ridge which extends
in some cases nearly to their ends. In the females the horns are never quite so large as in the
males. A large dewlap hangs from the throats of the bulls, whilst a dark, short inane continues from
the forehead backwards. The tail is about two feet and a quarter in length, with a large tuft of
brown hair at its end.

According to Captain "W. Cornwallis Harris, " in size and shape the body of the male Eland resembles
that of a well-conditioned Guzerat Ox, not unfrequently attaining the height of nineteen hands, and
weighing two thousand pounds. The head is strictly that of an Antelope, light, graceful, and bony,
Avith a pair of magnificent straight horns, about two feet in length, spirally ringed, and pointed back-
wards. A broad and deep dewlap fringed with brown hair reaches to the knee. The colour varies
considerably with the age, being dun in some, in others an ashy blue with a tinge of ochre ; and in
many also sandy-grey approaching to white. The flesh is esteemed by all classes in Africa above
that of any other animal ; in grain and colour it resembles beef, but is better tasted and more
delicate, possessing a pure game flavour, and the quantity of fat with which it is interlarded is
surprising, greatly exceeding that of any other game quadruped with which I am acquainted. The
female is smaller and of slighter form, with less ponderous horns."

When writing on the hunting of these creatures, known in South Africa as the Impoqfo, the same
author remarks that, "notwithstanding the unwieldy shape of these animals, they had at first greatly
exceeded the speed of our jaded horses, but being pushed they soon separated ; their sleek coats
turned first blue and then white with froth ; the foam fell from their mouths and nostrils, and the
perspiration from their sides. Their pace gradually slackened, and with their full brilliant eyes
turned imploring towards us, at the end of a mile, each was laid low by a single bullet."

Oreas canna.

98

22

NATURAL HISTORY.

With reference to these animals, the Hon. W. H. Drummond tells us that " more Eland are
killed from horseback than on foot; for as it is utterly out of the question to make a practice of
running them down, and as they generally inhabit the treeless flats, where they cannot, except by
chance, be stalked, while the uncertainty of their movements and their keeping out of cover render
it impossible to find them, like the large animals, by the aid of their spoor, some more certain method
is needed than the chance meetings which occur to the hunter when in pursuit of other game,
more especially as their hide is held in great repute by the Dutch colonists, who make trek-tows
for their wagons, and reins for their oxen from it, even preferring it to that of a Buffalo. The
demand thus induced has so diminished their numbers as to have restricted this noble Antelope to a few-
favoured localities, even in which it is becoming more scarce every day, while not many years ago it
formed a component part of almost every landscape in the southern and eastern portions of Africa."

THE KOODOO.*

This is one of the handsomest of all the Antelopes. It is more slender in build and smaller than
the Eland, which it somewhat resembles. The horns are about four feet long, and form most graceful

open spirals like corkscrews, there being a ridge along their whole length. The females are horn-
less. The ear is large and trumpet-shaped, moved at the slightest noise towards its source. The
eyes are large and liquid. The body colour is slaty-grey, with transverse white markings, like those
on the striped variety of the Eland. A small mane extends along the neck and withers, and another
from the chin to the throat and breast. The tail is of moderate length, and hairy. This species is
most abundant in Southern Africa, but it extends as high as Abyssinia. It is able to travel
with very great speed, and makes prodigious bounds. It stands about five feet in height at the
shoulders.

" Majestic in its carriage," writes Captain Harris, with all the enthusiasm of a true sportsman,
" and brilliant in its colour, this species may with propriety be styled the king of the tribe. Other
Antelopes are stately, elegant, or curious, but the solitude-seeking Koodoo is absolutely regal ! The
ground colour is a lively French grey approaching to blue, with several transverse white bands passing
over the back and loins : a copious mane, and deeply fringed, tricoloured dewlap, setting off a pair of

* Strepsiceros kudu.

THE HARXESSED ANTELOPES. 23

ponderous yet symmetrical horns, spirally twisted, and exceeding three feet in length. These are
thrown along the back as the stately wearer dashes through the mazes of the forest or clambers the
mountain-side. The old bulls are invariably found apart from the females, which herd together in
small troops, and are destitute of horns."

AXGAS' HARXESSED ANTELOPE.*

This elegant animal, much like the Koodoo in its proportions, stands three feet four inches high
at the shoulders. In the male, which alone bears horns, these appendages are nearly two feet long,
twisted and sub-lyrate, having sharply-pointed tips of a pale straw colour, their other parts being of a
brownish-black, deeply ridged for half their length from their bases. The colour of the body is greyish-
black, tinned with purplish-brown and ochre, white transverse stripes, like those of the Koodoo, being
present on the neck, flanks, and cheeks. A black mane courses down the neck, whilst from the
neck and belly depends long shaggy hair in abundance, reaching to the knees. The ears are large,
and the face is of a bright sienna-brown. The tail is one foot eight inches long, black above,
with under side and tip white. The female is small, and of a bright rufous colour, with trans-
verse stripes more numerous than in the male.

This species is foxuid in troops of eight or ten together, feeding on the mimosa bushes in the
Zulu country. Closely allied to it is a second from Central Africa, which is of a dull bay, nearly
uniform, colour, the horns reaching thirty inches in length. It is known as Speke's Antelope.

THE HARXESSED AXTELOPES.f

The HARNESSED ANTELOPES proper are all of small size, the elegant GUIB not being larger than
a Goat, its proportions being infinitely more delicate. It is of a pale bay colour, and the distinct
transverse white streaks, running down from the middle of its back with connecting bands, have
given the origin to its name.

The BUSH BUCK differs in wanting any body stripes. It is also African. Writing of it, Mr.
Drummoncl remarks that the Bush Buck, " the male of whom is known as the ' Ukouka,' and the
female as the ' Umbabala,' and which differ so greatly that experience is necessary to teach one that
they are of the same species, is undoubtedly the finest in every way of all the Antelopes, whether
found in the [Cape] Colonies or interior, that are known to the hunter as ' small game.' In size it
resembles a full-grown Fallow Buck, weighing, according to age and condition, from nine to thirteen
stone ; its colour is a dark reddish-brown, often verging into black, and with indistinct markings
on the sides, haunches, and legs ; it has a great deal of hair, and a considerable mane, while the
neck, which is thick out of all proportion, is nearly bare. The last mentioned peculiarity detracts
from the otherwise graceful outlines of its body, the more so, perhaps, from the head being so finely
shaped and small. The horns are nearly straight, rough, and ringed for about three inches from their
base, and then taper away, smooth and polished, to an almost invisible point; they vary from nine
inches to a foot long, and from the way in which they are set on the skull, the immense strength in
the neck and shoulders of the animal, and their extreme sharpness, form about as formidable weapons
as could well be imagined, especially as their owner is the most plucky Antelope, without exception
or consideration of size, with which I have become acquainted in Africa. I do not think that in all
my experience ... I remember a single instance in which a Ukouka has not tried to charge
when wounded and brought to bay ; and no one, even after a very moderate experience, would ever
allow any Dog on which he placed any value to attack them."

THE BOYIXE AXTELOPES. +

Ihe BUBALINE ANTELOPE, together with the HARTEBEEST, has a peculiarly elongated and narrow
head, at the same time that the body is not elegant in its proportions, being triangular in form, heavy
in the shoulders, and falling away behind. The horns, which are smaller in the females, are turned
abruptly backwards at their tips after having been directed forwards and upwards in a lyrate manner.
The Bubaline of North Africa is of a uniform bay colour, and the much more recently discovered
* Euryceros Anyasii. t The genus Traydapnus. £ TH DamaUdtc.

24

NATURAL HISTORY.

TORA ANTELOPE of Eastern Africa resembles it in this respect, whilst its horns differ slightly in their
direction and size, being more divergent and slender. The Hartebeest is grey -brown, and black on
the outer sides of the limbs, with large, triangular white spots on the haunches ; a black line also
runs down the middle of the face from between the horns.

Mr. Pringle, when writing on the Hartebeest, says of it that it " is one of the largest and hand-
somest of the Antelope family. ... In the nooks of the narrow ravines, through which the game
are wont to descend from the steep and stony mountains, for change of pasturage, or to drink at
the fountains that ooze from their declivities, I have frequently found fresh skulls and horns of the
.Hartebeest, those slight relics being all that remained to indicate that there the Lion had surprised

BUBALIXE ANTELOPE.

and rent his prey, and that the ferocious Hysena had followed and feasted on the fragments, devouring
even the bones, except the skxill and a few other unmanageable portions."

The BLESBOK, BONTE-BOK, and SASSABY are about the size of a calf three months old. Their horns
are lyrate and ringed at their bases. The two former are of a purple-red colour, white faces and
white rumps. Of the Blesbok, Mr. C. J. Andersson remarks — " It is of a beautiful violet colour, and is
found in company with black wilde-beests and Spring-boks in countless thousands, on the vast green
plains of short, crisp, sour grass occupying a central position in South Africa. Cattle and Horses
refuse to pasture on the grassy products of these plains, which afford sustenance to myriads of this
Antelope, whose skin emits a most delicious and powerful perfume of flowers and sweet-smelling
herbs."

The Sassaby, or Bastard Hartebeest of the Cape colonists, stands four feet and a half in height.
It has strong horns a foot in length, crescentic, with the points directed inwards. Its body colour is a
dark purple-brown above, which changes into dusky-yellow underneath, a slate-coloured patch extend-
ing from the shoulder and the hip down to the knee and hock, at the same time that the rump is
fawn-coloured. The tail is nearly two feet long.

DESCRIPTION OF THE GNUS.

25

THE GNUS.*

The GNU and the BKINDLED GNU are two of the most grotesque of creatures. With the head not
unlike that of a small Cape Buffalo, it has the limbs and hind-quarters not unlike those of a pony, in
proportions as well as size. The nose is broad and flattened, with a bristly muzzle. The horns are
broad at the base, where they nearly meet, and after turning downward as well as forward, they again
turn up abruptly in a hook-like manner. They are found abundantly in Southern Africa, where, as
their flesh is worthless, they are not much hunted. They are extremely wild and fearless, and
remarkably tenacious of life. Their speed is great, and they have a habit of prancing about and
kicking out furiously when suspecting danger. Both species have a mane along the neck, and lengthy
hair between the forelegs. In both the tail is long, covered with a mass of hair not unlike that of
the Horse.

The Common Gnu is of a deep brown-black, the tail and mane being white, whilst the bushy
beard, running back to the chest and between the forelegs, is black. Lengthy black hairs, diverging

and ascending from a median line, cover the upper part of the nose, at the same time that other
smaller tufts under the eyes help to give a most ferocious aspect to the face. From Captain Harris's
description of the animals of South Africa, an excellent idea of the peculiarities of the creature may be
gained. " Of all quadrupeds," he writes, " the Gnoo is probably the most awkward and grotesque.
Nature doubtless formed him in one of her freaks, and it is scarcely possible to contemplate his un-
gainly figure without laughter. Wheeling and prancing in every direction, his shaggy and bearded
head arched between his slender and muscular legs, and his long white tail streaming in the wind,
this ever-wary animal has at once a ferocious and ludicrous appearance. Suddenly stopping, showing
an imposing front, and tossing his head in mock defiance, his wild red sinister eyes flash fire, and his
snort, resembling the roar of a Lion, is repeated with energy and effect. Then lashing his sides with
his floating tail, he plunges, bounds, kicks up his heels with a fantastic flourish, and in a moment is
off at speed, making the dust fly behind him as he sweeps across the plain."

In the Brindled Gnu the front of the face lacks the lengthy hair of its ally ; the tail is also black
instead of white. Its body colour is a dirty dun, variegated with obscure pale streaks. This species,
as well as the Common Gnu, is the constant companion of the equally abundant Quaggas of the same
region.

* The genus CatoUepas.

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE CAPRINE ANTELOPES.

The SEROW (sometimes written Surrow) of India, the CAMBIXG-OUTAN of Sumatra, with the GORAL
of North India, form a small group of strongly-built Goat-like Antelopes, with short, conical, upright
horns, ringed at the base, and of nearly equal size in both sexes. The feet are large, and the tapering
tail short.

Captain Kinloch gives us the following account of the Serow. He says it " is an ungainly-looking
animal, combining the characteristics of the Cow, the Donkey, the Pig, and the Goat ! It is a large
and powerful beast. . . . The body is covered with very coarse hair, which assumes the form of a
bristly mane on the neck and shoulders, and gives the beast a ferocious appearance, which does not
belie its disposition. The colour is a dull black on the back, bright red on the sides, and white under-
neath, the legs also being dirty white. The ears are very large ; the muzzle is coarse. . . . The

Serow has an awkward gait ; but in spite of this can go over the worst ground ; and it has, perhaps,
no superior in going down steep hills. It is a solitary animal, and is nowhere numerous ; two or
three may be found on one hill, four or five on another, and so on. It delights in the steepest and
most rocky hillsides, and its favourite resting-places are in caves, under the shelter of overhanging
rocks, or at the foot of shady trees."

Of the Goral, the same author remarks that it "is an active little beast, and much resembles a
small Goat, but the back is more arched. The prevailing colour is a brownish-grey, with a dark stripe
along the back, and dark markings on the legs. Underneath the throat is a large white spot, which
is very conspicuotis when the animal is standing above one, and often betrays its presence when it
would otherwise have escaped observation. The hair is soft but rather coarse, and about two inches
long." In the male the horns reach nine inches in length.

The Cambing-outan stands about two feet and a quarter at the shoulder. Its long, coarse hair is
brown-black in colour, the mane and throat alone being white. The horns are not more than six
inches in length, cylindrical, slightly annulated and curved backwards at their lips. Mountain forests,.
where it leads a particularly active life, are its haunts.

THE CHAMOIS.

27

Dr. J. Anderson remarks of the TAKIX, or BUDORCAS, another allied species, •' Major Stewart
informs me that it is found in all the high ranges of the north-east of Debrooghur, and is far from
uncommon. The Mislmees, with their very inferior appliances to shoot and catch them, are, never-
theless, frequently dressed in their skins, or have a part of a skin with the hair on as an ornament,
which would seem to indicate that they are numerous. . . . They are seen in pairs, and some-
times in herds of twenty or more. They are swift of foot and good climbers."

In Formosa and Japan there are also Goat-like Antelopes, that from the former locality being
named after Mr. Swinhoe, who discovered it. Its horns are short and conical, its brown fur harsh
and crisp. Both closely resemble the Cambing-outan. There is still another with a long tail
inhabiting Northern China.

The MAZAMA, or Mountain Goat of California and the Bockv Mountains, is an allied species,
with short, thick, conical, recurved horns,
and long, straight, soft hair of a white colour,
specially abundant in the region of the throat,
shoulders, sides, and tail. Its size is that of
a large Sheep, which it much resembles in phy-
siognomy. The flesh has an unpleasant musky
flavour, the skin is thick and spongy, at the same
time that the hair is considered of but little
value.

THE CHAMOIS.*

This well-known Goat-like Antelope in-
habits the snow-clad mountains of Europe,
from the Pyrenees to the Caucasus, ascending
during the summer, and in winter going below
the line of snow in search of food. Both sexes
possess horns — black, short, and cylindrical —
rising perpendicularly and parallel from the
forehead for some distance, then forming a
small hook directed backwards to their pointed
tips. These rarely exceed seven inches in
length. The female is slightly smaller than
the male, which stands a little over two feet, at
the shoulder. In winter the colour of the
lengthy, hairy coat is dark brown, which be-
comes a brownish-yellow in the summer, a
darker streak along the back alone remaining.
The head is pale yellow, darker from the nose upwards to between the ears and around the eyes.
Behind the horns and between the ears is a pair of peculiar glands, opening externally, the function
of which is unknown. The voice of the species is a rough bleat under all ordinary circumstances :
but when the one which watches whilst the others feed— and there is always found to be one such in
every herd— finds cause to fear, it gives a shrill whistle as a danger signal to its companions.

The senses of sight, hearing, and smell of the Chamois are developed to a maximum, and this fact,
taken in association with the animal's great sure-footedness among the lofty, snow-covered Alps, in
which it has its home, makes hunting it a task of no mean difficulty and danger. Dogs are of 110 ser-
vice on the rocky eminences to which the Chamois will retreat when it is pursued, and the sportsman
! to rely upon his own surefootedness and courage in climbing the steep and slippery precipices,
s tempted by the sight of game. If so hard pressed that it is driven to some height
beyond which it cannot go, it is said that it will precipitate itself upon its pursuer, sending him down
into the depths below. Besides man, the eagle is an enemy whose constant endeavour is to obtain the
kids from their watchful mothers. Its skin is much valued for its toughness combined with its
pliability. Its flesh is also greatly esteemed.

* Rupicapra traffus.

HEAD OF THE CHAMOIS.

28

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE ORYXES.*

Of the Antelopes there is a fairly well-marked section, distinguished by the possession of horns in
both sexes, at the same time that the body is peculiarly deep at the shoulder, whilst the lengthy tail
is cylindrical and tufted at the extremity. Among these there is a mane along the neck in three
closely-allied species, the BLAUBOK, or Equine Antelope of South Africa, the SABLE ANTELOPE of the
Transvaal and the eastern coast of Africa, and BAKER'S ANTELOPE, or the Maarif of Upper Nubia, as
well as in the ORYX, which is found in many parts of Africa, the BEISA of Abyssinia, the BEATRIX
ANTELOPE of Arabia, and the GEMSBOK of South Africa ; whilst in the not distant ADDAX ANTELOPE
of North Africa there is no nape-mane, but a slight one on the throat.

In the Blaubok, which stands more than four feet and a half at the shoulder, with a glaucous,
grey coat upon a black skin ; in the Sable Antelope, which stands four feet and a half, being black
except upon the abdomen, as well as in streaks upon the face, which are white ; and in Baker's Antelope,
which stands four feet eight inches, being of a pale fulvous liver colour, the horns are two feet and
more in length, and curved gently backwards, being ringed transversely except at the tips, where they
are smooth. In the Oryx, the Beisa, the Beatrix Antelope, and the Gemsbok, the lengthy conical
horns, although similarly ringed, are much more slender, starting backwards in a line with the face,
whilst in those previously mentioned they rise at an angle from it, being straight in the Gemsbok and
Beisa, very slightly curved backwards in the Beatrix, and more so in the Oryx. In the nearly allied
Addax the similarly-constructed horns are gently twisted in a corkscrew manner. All these last-
mentioned Antelopes are pale in colour, being almost white, with the throat protected by long
black hair.

Whilst speaking of the Beisa Antelope, Mr. Blanford remarks that " the appearance of a herd of
Oryx is very imposing. They are some of the most elegant and symmetrical of animals, the motions

* The genus Oryx.

THE NYL-GHAU, OR SLUE OX. 29

being those of a Wild Horse rather than of an Antelope. Their favourite pace appears to be either a
steady quick walk or a trot ; they rarely break into a gallop unless greatly alarmed. When frightened
they dash off, sometimes snorting and putting their heads down, as if charging, raising their long tails,
and looking very formidable. They are wary animals, though far less so than some other Antelopes.
It is said that they frequently attack when wounded, and their long, straight horns are most deadly
weapons. "

Of the Gemsbok, Captain Harris tells us that it "is about the size of an Ass, and nearly of the-
same ground colour, with a black list stripe down the back and on each dank, white legs variegated
with black bands, and a white face, marked with the figure of a black nose-band and head-stall, im-
parting altogether to the animal the appearance of being clad in half-mourning. Its copious black
tail literally sweeps the ground ; a mane reversed, and a tuft of flowing black hair on the breast, with
a pair of straight, slender horns (common to both sexes) three feet in length, and ringed at the base,
completing the portrait." The resemblance between the Gemsbok, when seen from the side view,,
and the Unicorn of heraldry, is sufficiently striking to make it more than probable that the con-
ception of the latter originated in the former.

The author just quoted says of the Blaubok, or Roan Antelope, by which name it is also known,,
that it "is an inhabitant of the elevated downs and ridges about the source of the river Limpopo [foui"
degrees to the west of Delagoa Bay, and a little north of it], and being utterly destitute of speed, may
be ridden to a standstill without difficulty. . . . It is heavily built, and has an upright mane,
long asinine ears, and robust scimitar-shaped horns."

CHAPTER III.

ARTIODACTYLA : RUMINANTIA— BOVID2E (Conclude^ .— OXEN, PRONGHORN ANTELOPE,

MUSK [DEEK], AND GIRAFFE.

THE NYL-GHAU— Description— Habits— THE MUSK Ox— Difficulties in associating it— Distribution— Habits— THE Ox
— Chillingham Wild Cattle— Their Habits— Domestic Cattle— The Ceilings, Booth, and Bates Strains— American
Breeding — Shorthorns, and other Breeds— Hungarian Oxen — Zebu — Gour — Gayal — Curious mode of Capturing
Gayals — Banting — THE BISONS — Description — European Bison, or Aurochs — Almost extinct — Caesar's description of
it— American Bison — Distribution — Mythical Notions regarding it — Their Ferocity and Stupidity — "Buffalo" Flesh
—THE YAK— Habits— THE BUFFALOES— Varieties— Description— Fight between two Bulls— THE ANOA— THE PROXG-
HORN ANTELOPE— Peculiarity as to its Horns and Skull— Professor Baird's and Mr. Bartlett's Independent Discovery
of the Annual Shedding of the Horns — Habits — Peculiarity about its Feet — Colour — Difficulties as to its Position
—THE MUSK [DEER]— Its Perfume— Where is it to be placed?— Description— Habits— Hunters for the Perfume —
Their Sufferings— THE GIRAFFE— Peculiarities— Skull processes— Its Neck— Habitat— Running power— Habits —
Hunting.

THE NYL-GHAU, OE BLUE OX.*

THIS is the largest of the Antelopine animals found in India, the adult male standing over four
feet in height at the shoulders, which are at a considerably higher level than the haunches. The
female is about one-third smaller than her consort, and without horns, which in the male are but short,
rarely exceeding nine inches in length, and rising perpendicularly from the head. Each horn is black,
smooth, angular, and turned slightly forward, ending in a sharp point.

The body colour of the male is a slate blue, darker about the head and under parts of the
body, whilst the legs are black ; the female is tawny-red ; the aged bull is nearly black. A short
mane runs along the neck and over the highest part of the shoulder, in which latter situation it
is of greater length. There is a considerable tuft of dark hair hanging from the middle of the front
of the neck, over six inches in length, which is situated just below a conspicuous white, anchor-shaped
throat-patch, the shank of which runs up between the two halves of the lower jaw almost to the
l:p. On each cheek also there is a circular white spot below and behind the eye. A transverse

* Portax picta,
99

30

NATURAL SIS TOUT.

white line above and below each fetlock stands out conspicuously also. The inner sides of the thighs
.are white, this colour extending for some distance upwards and inwards. There is a white patch
.also in front of each pastern joint. The tail is lengthy, and tufted at the end. The ears are
nearly of the same length as the horns. The limbs are elegantly shaped, though rather heavy, and
their proportions show a tendency towards those of the Giraffe, which animal it also resembles in
the employment of its tongue for seizing food, and not its lips.

The Nyl-Grhau is found only in continental India, where it abounds in parts, not being a favourite
with sportsmen, because its small horns are so insignificant a trophy, but more so with the larger
members of the Cat tribe — the Tiger and the Leopard — as well as the wild Dog, with whom it is a
frequent meal. Its temper is uncertain, which fact, when taken in connection with its powerful

build, makes it a dangerous pet. It
lives well in confinement. When
attacking, it drops on its knees, and
thus advances until it feels itself
within a sufficient distance of its foe
to make a sudden leap upon it, which
it can do with great velocity and
force. The leather manufactured
from its skin is valuable, but its flesh
is never eaten by the Hindoos, on
account of their belief that it belongs
to the Ox tribe, which it is not law-
ful to slay. With a good Horse in
open country, the Blue bull may be
hunted successfully with .spears. It
is very tenacious of life. The first
specimens introduced into England

were brought from Bombay by Lord
Olive in 1767.

NYL-GHAU.

THE MUSK OX*

is an animal whose exact affinities
it is not easy to determine. By

•some naturalists it has been thought to be intermediate between the Sheep and the Ox, whence
its scientific generic name, Ovibos. It is found only in Arctic America north of latitude 60°,
and exhales a strong musky odour at certain seasons of the year, an approach to which is recog-
nisable in several of the Bovidse. It is a heavy-built, but not large creature, with short legs,
and a very lengthy brown hairy coat, which almost reaches to the ground. Its horns are very
similar in form to those of the Cape Buffalo, and in the bulls they meet in the middle line of
the forehead. The tail is very short, being entirely hidden by the fur of the haunches. The nose
is not naked, as in the Oxen, but is almost entirely covered with hair, as in the Elk and Rein-
deer, both Arctic ruminants also. The spread of their feet is considerable, and they can cover
the ground at no little speed. Captain Franklin describes their habits as follows : — " The Musk
Oxen, like the Buffalo, herd together in bands, and generally frequent barren grounds during
the summer months, keeping near the rivers, but retire to the woods in winter. They seem to be
less watchful than most other wild animals, and when grazing are not difficult to approach,
provided the hunters go against the wind. When two or three men get so near a herd as to fire
at them from different points, these animals, instead of separating or running away, huddle closer
together, and several are generally killed ; but if the wound is not mortal they become enraged,
and dart in the most furious manner at the hunters, who must be very dexterous to evade them.
They can defend themselves with their powerful horns against Wolves and Bears, which, as the
Indians say, they not unfrequently kill. The Musk Oxen feed on the same substances as the

* Ovibos moschatus.

MUSK OXEN.

32

NATURAL HISTORY.

Reindeer j and the prints of the feet of these two animals are so much alike, that it requires the
eye of an experienced hunter to distinguish them. The largest killed by us did not exceed in
weight three hundred pounds."

THE OX.*

It being quite unnecessary to describe the general form and proportions of this animal, as seen
among us in a domesticated state — Shorthorns, Alderney, Highland, &c. — we will at once proceed
to notice the famous cattle of Chillingham Park, in Northumberland, which are known to have
been in existence in the thirteenth century. The wild cattle there are all cream white, with a
"brown muzzle, with the insides and tips of the ears reddish-brown, at the same time that the horns
-are white tipped with black, of which latter colour are the hoofs. Calves more or less coloured are

CHIM.1XGHAM CATTLE.

occasionally born, but these are promptly destroyed by the keepers. Some of the bulls have a thin,
short mane. Their habit, on strangers approaching them, is to " set off in a full gallop, and at
a distance of about two hundred yards make a wheel round and come boldly up again, tossing their
lieads in a menacing manner. On a sudden they make a full stop at the distance of forty or fifty yards,
looking wildly at the object of their surprise ; but upon the least motion being made, they all again
turn round and fly off with equal speed, but not to the same distance, forming a shorter circle ; and
again returning with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before, they approach much nearer,
probably within thirty yards, when they again make another stand, and then fly off. This they do
several times, shortening their distance, and advancing nearer and nearer, till they come within such
a short distance that most people think it proper to leave them, not choosing to provoke them further."
They differ from domestic cattle in that they feed at night, and generally sleep during the day. They
also hide their calves.

In all the so-called wild cattle of Great Britain the forehead is flat or slightly concave, the head
is small, the back is straight, and the legs are short.

* Bos taurus.

THE BOOTH AND BATES STRAINS.

33

It is now almost universally agreed that domestic cattle are descended from two or three species
of the gemis Bos, which existed in late geologic or prehistoric times, the remains being found in
Switzerland, Ireland, and other parts of Europe. The Zebu, Yak, Gayal, and Ami, to be referred to
immediately, have also been domesticated.

Cattle have been so distributed and mixed in breeding that any precise arrangement of the breeds
according to their ancestral affinities can scarcely be tabulated. Most important of the heavy breeds
are the well-known Shorthorns of the north of England, so carefully and successfully developed by
Charles and Robert Colling between 1780 and 1818, at Ketton and Barmpton, close to Darlington,
in Durham, by a process of in-and-in breeding — " Hubback," the " Duchess," " Lady Maynard,"

HUNGARIAN BULL.

"Young Strawberry," " Foljambe," and "Comet," the last bull of which, at Charles Colling's sale in
1810, fetched a thousand guineas.

Following close upon the Collings came the Booths — Richard, Thomas, and J. Booth — between
1814 and 1864, at Studley, Killerby, and Warlaby, where " Isabella," the twin sisters "Necklace" and
""Bracelet," were parents of goodly herds, " Commander-in-Chief " being one of the latest gems. On
one occasion, it is stated, Mr. Richard Booth, of Warlaby, refused the unique offer of fifteen hundred
guineas for a cow named " Queen of the May."

In 1810 Thomas Bates, of Ridley Hall, and afterwards of Kirkleavington, then a well-known
breeder of cattle, purchased at Charles Colling's sale " Young Duchess," daughter of " Comet," a
granddaughter of " Duchess " by " Daisy" bull, and she became the founder of the famous " Duchess"
tribe. In 1831, with the accession of the bull " Belvidere," a descendant of Robert Colling's
" Princess " tribe, the " Duchess " breed produced " Short Tail " and the renowned " Duke of North-
umberland." The "Matchem" cow, purchased at the same date, did much to improve the stock.
Mr. Bates died in 1849.

Several enterprising American breeders have, since 1817, introduced Shorthorns into the United

34 NATURAL HISTORY.

States and Canada, Colonel Lewis Sanders, of Kentucky, being the first who did so on anything like-
thorough principles. Others followed his example with success, especially about the year 1852, when
a fresh impulse was given to their production because of the rise of price in meat, as well as the foreign
demand for it. The Booth and Bates bloods predominate in these animals, and form the basis of
much of the beef now re-shipped to England.

The great advantage of the Shorthorn breed is that they, together with a good temper, combine
the advantages of great size and aptitude to fatten, rapidly reaching maturity. For dairy purposes
they are excelled by the Suffolk Duns and Ayrshire cattle, the latter, with their enormous udders,
broad hips, and deep flanks, being the best as milkers. Hereford, North Devon, and Scottish black
Shorthorns are inferior to those of the northern counties in their slowness of growth and power of
filling out. Those of North Devon are particularly symmetrical in form. The mountain cattle of
the western Highlands, otherwise known as the Kyloe breed, are best known from the hardiness
of their constitutions, protected as they are by their thick hides and shaggy coats. The Welsh and
Shetland cattle resemble them in many respects.

In Hungaiy, Turkey, and Western Asia there is a breed of large cattle with peculiarly long and
slender outward-spreading horns, black-tipped, and greyish throughout the rest of their length.

In India, the Sacred Cattle, or ZEBUS, with convex forehead, short horns, large drooping ears,
and a short head, possess a high hump upon the withers, as well as an ample dewlap falling in undu-
lating folds along the whole length of the neck. Their disposition is mild, as is indicated by their
expression, and the liberty they are allowed in India ia wonderful. They vary greatly in size, some
being not bigger than an average month-old calf. The breed has extended in times gone by through
Persia into Eastern Africa, where it is found with a narrower and flatter face, at the same time that
the hump is smaller.

The introduction of steam, as well as the extension in the employment of the Horse, has almost
entirely superseded the use of cattle as beasts of burden or draught in highly civilised nations.

The GOUR, the GAYAL, and the BANTING are three species of wild cattle found in the Oriental
world from India to Java, peculiar in possessing a ridge running along the middle of the back, and
horns which, after running outwards from the head, are directed upwards and not backwards. Of
these the Gour of Central India is the largest, measuring six feet at the withers, having also a convex
•profile, very high withers, and an arched back, which makes the line from the nose to the root of the
tail, along the spine, a fairly continuous curve. Its colour is a deep brown glossy black, excepting a
ring of white encircling the base of each hoof, and a white tuft on the forehead. There is not any
ti*ace of a dewlap in either sex. The horns are not more than two feet in length, strong, and curved
boldly upwards at their tips. The Gour is found abundantly in herds of twenty or so around the table-
lands, especially of South Bahar, feeding on the young leaves of the trees and shrubs. It appears
to have resisted all attempts at domestication. The Gayal is found in the hill-region east of the
Brahmaputra. It is much the size of English cattle. The bull is bold, and the cow easily domesti-
cated. Its home is the deep jungle, where it can obtain the young leaves and shoots of the brushwood.
According to Mr. Macrae the following is the method employed by the Kookies of the Chittagong
hill-region to catch the animal : — " On discovering a herd of wild Gayals in the jungle, they prepare
a number of balls, of the size of a man's head, composed of a particular kind of earth, salt, and cotton.
They then drive their tame Gayals towards the wild ones, when the two herds soon meet and assimilate
into one ; the males of the one attaching themselves to the females of the other, and vice versd. The
Kookies now scatter their balls over such parts of the jungle as they think the herd most likely to
pass, and watch its motions. The Gayals, on meeting these balls as they pass along, ai-e attracted by
their appearance and smell, and begin to lick them with their tongues ; and relishing the taste of the
salt, and the particular earth composing them, they never quit the place until all the balls are con-
sumed. The Kookies, having observed the Gayals to have once tasted their balls, prepare a sufficient
supply of them to answer the intended purpose, and as the Gayals lick them up they throw down more; and
it is to prevent their being so readily destroyed that the cotton is mixed with the earth and the salt. This
process generally goes on for three changes of the moon, or for a month and a half, during which time
the tame and the wild Gayals are always together, licking the decoy balls, and the Kookie, after the
first day or two of their being so, makes his appearance at such a distance as not to alarm the wild

THE BISONS. &

ones. By degrees he approaches nearer and nearer, until at length the sight of him has become so
familiar that he can advance to stroke his tame Gayals on the back and neck without frightening the
wild ones. He next extends his hand to them, and caresses them also, at the same time giving them
plenty of his decoy balls to lick. Thus, in the short space of time mentioned, he is able to drive them,
along with the tame ones, to his parrah, or village, without the least exertion of force ; and so attached
do the Gayals become to the parrah, that when the Kookies migrate from one place to another, they
always find it necessary to set fire to the huts they are about to abandon, lest the Gayals should return
to them from the new grounds."

The Gayal cai-ries its nose forwards, as a rule, like a Buffalo. Its ears are longer than those of
the Ox. It possesses a dewlap smaller than in the Zebu. The tail is short, not descending below the
hock. Its general colour is a varying and generally dark brown, the abdomen and the legs being white
in parts. Its cry is a shrill, insignificant lowing. Its horns are conical, turned directly outwards, and
a little upwards at their tips, not exceeding one foot and a half in length.

The Banting extends from Cochin China, through the Indo-Malay archipelago, to the islands of
Bali and Lombok. Its colour and proportions are almost exactly those of the Gour.

THE BISONS.*

Closely related to the Oxen are the Bisons of Europe and of North America, together with the
Tibetan Yak. The two species of Bison agree closely with one another in general appearance, the
American form being shorter and weaker in the hind-quarters, and a little smaller altogether.

The hair of the head and neck is very abundant and long, forming a mane of very dark colour,
at the same time that it nearly conceals the eyes and ears as well as the base of the short conical horns,
which are directed outwards and upwards. Under the chin there is a lengthy beard. A line of
lengthy hair also extends along the back nearly to the tail, which is itself only covered with short soft
hair, except at the end where there is a lengthy tuft. There is a hump developed on the shoulders, at
which spot the adult male is nearly six feet in height, the female being smaller.

The European Bison, or Aurochs, is on the verge of extinction, surviving only in the forests of
Lithuania, Moldavia, Wallachia, and the Caucasus, on account of the severe laws against its destruc-
tion. The horns are longer and more curved than in the American species. The females are less
hairy and smaller than their mates. Its strength is very great, and an old bull is said to be a
match for at least four Wolves. Its speed is considerable, and it raises its hoofs above the level
of its lowered head whilst galloping.

In his description of the Black Forest (Sylva H&rcynici) Caesar describes the species (the Urus)
thus : — " They are but little less than Elephants in size, and are of the appearance, colour, and
form of a Bull. Their strength as well as their speed is very great. They spare neither man
nor beast that they see. They cannot be brought to endure the sight of men, nor can they be
tamed, even when taken young. The people, who take them in pitfalls, assiduously destroy them ; and
young men harden themselves in this labour, and exercise themselves in this kind of chase ; and those
who have killed a great number, the horns being publicly exhibited in evidence of the fact,
obtain great honour. The horns, in magnitude, shape, and quality, differ much from the horns
of our Oxen. They are much sought for, and after having been edged with silver at their open ends,
are used for drinking vessels at great feasts."

According to some authorities, however, it is a mistake to identify the European Bison with the
Aurochs.

To all intents and purposes the American Bison is an extinct animal, killed off by the rifle and
the rail and the encroachment of man upon its haunts. A *few specimens are preserved witli what
may be described as laudably jealous care in the Yellowstone Park, and small herds may be found in
Montana, Texas, and Canada.

Huge herds, numbering millions of individuals, "so numerous as to blacken the plains as far as
they can reach," were once a common sight 011 the prairies, and repeatedly stopped the Kansas Pacific
Railway when first formed. Hunters spread false notions as to the organisation of these herds,

* The ceaus Bison.

"BUFFALOES."

37

which was of a most simple character, excellently explained by Mr. Allen, who says that the timidity
and watchfulness of the cows, accustomed as they were to the care of their offspring, led them to
take the initiative in the movements of the herd, and this kept them near the front, especially
when the herd was moving. The popular belief that the bulls kept the cows and the young in
the middle of the herd, and formed themselves, as it were, into a protecting phalanx, had some
apparent basis ; but the theory that the old bulls, the least watchful of all the members of the
herd, were sentinels posted on the outskirts to give notice of an approaching enemy, was wholly a
myth, as was also the supposition that the herd consisted of small harems.

These " Buffaloes," as they were generally called, were much like domestic cattle in their habits.

AMERICAN BISON.

They were, however, fond of wallowing in the mud, and so coating themselves with a protection

from their insect pests. Their ferocity of appearance was not evident in their true natures, for their

Imposition was sluggish and fearful. Colonel Dodge remarked of them that, "endowed with the

smallest possible amount of instinct, the little he has seems adapted rather for getting him into

tfficulties than out of them. If not alarmed at sight or smell of a foe, he will stand stupidly gazin-

at his companions in their death-throes, until the whole herd is shot down. He will walk uncon"

isly into a quicksand or quagmire already choked with struggling dying victims. Having made

5 mind to go a certain way it is almost impossible to swerve him from his purpose "

»h of the "Buffalo" was thought equal to the best beef if from the young animal, but
iry and insipid when from the adult. The tongue and hump were esteemed great delicacies Pemmi-
»n was made mostly from the dried flesh, pounded fine and mixed with an equal weight of tallow.

ffers from the Bisons mostly in the distribution of its long hair, which, instead of
i on its hump and neck, forms a lengthy fringe along the shoulders, flanks, and
hs, and completely invests the tail, which latter is much prized in India, where it is known as
Uiowry, and is employed as a fly-switch in great ceremonials.
100

38

NATURAL HISTORY.

The Yak is a native of the high ground of Tibet, where it is rigorously protected by the native
government against the foreign sportsman. Its colour is black, except some spots upon the face, which
are white or grey. Its tail is often white, as is frequently the long hair tuft on the top of the withers.
Its horns reach nearly a yard in length, and are directed outwards, forwards, and then upwards. Its
voice is much like that of a Pig, whence the name Grunting Ox, by which it sometimes goes.

As to the habits of the creature, Captain Kinloch tells us that " the Yak inhabits the wildest and
most desolate mountains ; it delights in extreme cold ; and is found, as a rule, at a greater elevation
than any other animal. Although so large a beast, it thrives upon the coarsest pasturage, and its
usual food consists of a rough, wiry grass, which grows in all the higher valleys of Tibet, up to an
elevation of nearly 20,000 feet. . . . Yak seem to wander about a good deal. In summer, the
cows are generally to be found in herds varying in number from ten to one hundred, while the old
bulls are for the most part solitary or in small parties of three or four. They feed at night or early

in the morning, and usually betake themselves to some steep and barren hillside during the day, lying
sometimes for hours in the same spot."

THE BUFFALOES.*

The BUFFALOES have the horns flattened and triangular in section, inclined outwards and back-
wards, turning up at the tips. The Common Buffalo is found in Southern Europe, North Africa, and
the Indian region. The huge Indian variety, with most lengthy horns, is also known as the
Ami. Its horns are elongated and narrow, sometimes reaching six feet and a half in length. It
stands nearly or quite six feet at the shoulder, its proportions are bulky, and its general colour dusky-
black. It lives in small herds numbering not more than twenty, and solitary bulls are often met
with which attack spoilsmen in a most vicious manner without provocation. The Cape Buffalo has
shorter horns, expanded at their bases, so that they almost meet in the middle line of the forehead. It
is found all over Central and South Africa, and is a formidable animal when wounded, as, quite regard-
less of the cloud of smoke which follows the shot aimed at it, it charges right through it, and so does

* The genus Bubal 'us.

THE CAPE BUFFALO.

frequent injury to the experienced hunter. Its general colour is blue-black, but in some cases it has a
reddish tinge. The Hon. W. H. Drummoiid gives the following account of a fight between two bulls
of which he was an eye-witness. After having had his attention attracted by a loud clattering
noise, he remarks that, " on looking through the edge of the last thicket which had concealed them,
I saw two Buffalo bulls standing facing each other with lowered heads, and, as I sat down to watch,
they rushed together with all their force, producing the loud crash I had before heard. Once the horns
were interlocked they kept them so, their straining quarters telling that each was doing his best to
force the other backwards. Several long white marks on their necks showed where they had received
scratches, and blood dripping over the withers of the one next me proved that he had received a more
severe wound. It was a magnificent sight to see the enormous animals, every muscle at its fullest
tension, striving for the mastery. Soon one, a very large and old bull, began to yield a little, going
backwards step by step ; but at last, as if determined to conquer or die, it dropped on to its knees.
The other, disengaging its horns for a second, so as to give an impetus, again rushed at him, but,
whether purposely or not I could not tell, it did not strike him on the forehead, but on the neck, under
the hump, and I could see that with a twist of his horns he inflicted a severe wound. However, instead
of following up his seeming advantage, he at once recoiled, and stood half facing his antagonist,
who, getting on his legs again, remained in the same position for several minutes, and then with a low
grunt of rage, rushed at him. This time he was not met, and his broad forehead struck full on his
rival's shoulder, almost knocking it over. The old bull then went a few yards off and stood watching
the other for fully a quarter of an hour, when he walked slowly away in the opposite direction."

The Cape Buffalo, which is found all over Africa south of the equator, is replaced in
the north-eastern portion of the continent by a smaller variety, of a browner colour, and with much
shorter horns, which are not closely approximated at their bases, at the same time that they spread
out almost horizontally instead of curving downwards and backwards.

In western and the western-equatorial parts of Africa there is again another still smaller variety;

40

NATURAL HIK1011Y.

in which the hair is yellowish-red instead of nearly black or brown, the short horns being, as well,
directed considerably upwards instead of directly outwards.

In the Island of Celebes the smallest species of Buffalo is found, which differs but little in appear-
ance from the young of the Cape species. It is known as the ANOA ; is black, with short, wavy hair,
and has short, parallel prismatic horns directed vip wards from the forehead.

THE PRONGHOEN ANTELOPE.*

This Antelope of North America, one of the few forms of the Hollow-horned Euminants which
inhabit the New "World, is different from all the other members of the group in two respects at least,
namely, that its horns are branched, as implied in the name, and that they are annually shed.

The accompanying figure is a side view of the skull of the animal, whose size is nearly that of
a Fallow Deer, although its build is not so heavy. It is there seen that
each horn-core forms a blade-shaped projection six inches long, with the pointed
end behind, situated above the eyes perpendicular to the line of the face,
rounded posteriorly and sharpened in front. Each horn itself is a foot or so in
its greatest length, is pointed and gently curved backwards, at the same
time that from the front of it, very slightly above the middle of its height, a
short branch arises which is directed forwards, the whole there dividing
into two. Each horn is flattened from side to side, is not annulated, and
in its structure scarcely differs from that of a Sheep or Goat.

For some years before it was certainly known to be the case, it had been
rumoured by the hunters of Fort Union that the Pronghorn Antelope shed

its horns each year; and in the year 1858 Dr.
C. A. Canfield, of Monterey, California, in writing
to Professor Baird, of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, Washington, informed him that in speci-
mens in his possession " their horns drop off
annually." This letter remained unprinted until
in England Mr. A. D. Bartlett, Superinten-
dent of the Zoological Gardens in .Regent's
Park, London, in 1865 drew attention to the
same fact, which was observed by him in a male
animal living in the Gardens at the time

The horns — not antlers, be it noticed —
are, it is now certain, detached each year from their supporting cores, and subsequently dropped, to
bs replaced by others which at the time of shedding have already advanced some way in growth,
although at first they are very pale and soft. In this respect the Pronghorn is not resembled by
any other Antelope, and differs entirely from the Deer.

Of the species Dr. Canfield, in the letter above referred to, gives several interesting details as
to its habits, from which we may infer that they are not so cunning or so fleet as their allies in
Africa and India :— " From the 1st of September to the 1st of March they run in bands, the bucks,
does, and kids all together," shortly after which time the young are born, upon which the bucks
separate and wander about alone until the following season. "A band of Pronghorn Antelopes, when
frightened, never run directly away from you, but cross over in front of you, running across your
path from one side to the other repeatedly, and keeping about a hundred yards ahead. On this
account it is sometimes easy, on a smart Horse, to run into a drove of them and catch one of them
with a noose. When one is alone, and is watched by a person or animal and becomes frightened, it
makes a sort of shrill blowing noise like a whistle, and then commences bounding off. On the neck
it has a heavy, thick, chestnut-coloured mane, five or six inches long, and on the rump a white patch
of coarse hair ; and when the animal is frightened it always erects the mane and the hair and this
white spot, thus giving it a very singular and characteristic appearance as it runs bounding away

SKULL OF THE PRONGHOKN ANTELOPE.

* Antilocapra americana.

42 NATURAL HISTORY.

from you. The Antelope lias a very peculiar odour, strong and, to some people, offensive. . . On
the whole, I consider the meat of the Pronghorn to be very excellent."

There is a peculiarity in the feet of the Pronghorn in which it resembles the Giraffe, a few
Antelopes, and the different members of the Camel tribe, namely, that the false hoofs, as well as their
supporting bones, are entirely absent, from which it may be inferred, as is the case, that the number
of digits in each foot is only two.

In the females of the species the horns are present, but they are much reduced in size, and
almost hidden in the hairy covering of the head. The end of the nose — in other words, the muffle —
is hairy, and not, therefore, damp at all times in any part, as is that of the Ox and most ruminants.
The tail is very short ; the fur is very short and close set, being stiff and wavy. Its colour is
a pale fawn above and on the limbs, whilst the breast as well as the abdomen are a yellowish-white,
at the same time that the tail and round about it are pure white, as is the inside of the ear.

Although the Pronghorn is here described after all the more ordinary hollow-horned Ruminantia,
it is far from impossible that it is much more intimately related to some one of the above-mentioned
families than to the others. It must either have originated direct from the earliest type of Bovine
Ruminant, and from that time continued isolated until the present day, or it may have been a
straggler from some already differentiated group, like the Gazelles, for instance, that, arriving in a land
so unlike the haunts of its progenitors, took on itself from altered circumstances peculiar modifications
in its horn-growth and foot-form which have resulted in its present characteristics.

THE MUSK [DEER].*

This interesting animal, from the male of which is obtained a powder contained in a pouch about
the size of an orange, on the surface of the abdomen, and which is one of the most fragrant of
perfumes, is generally included among the Cervidse. Nevertheless, there are many reasons in favour
of its being considered an Antelopine animal. Apart from the fact that it has a gall-bladder, which is
not found in any Deer, but in almost all Antelopes, its pale grey hair is peculiarly coarse and
Goat-like, and the absence of antlers or horns in both sexes tells in neither direction, for, as in the

Brockets of South America and the Chinese Muntjac, the
antlers are rudimentary, so are the horns in the Bush-bucks
of Africa, and in some domestic Sheep as well as Oxen.

The presence of enormous canine tusks, three inches
long, would at first sight seem to be in favour of its rela-
tions with the Deer, because in the Muntjacs they are also
found. Nevertheless there is no a priori reason why these
formidable weapons should not be developed in a hollow-
horned ruminant ; for, cropping up independently in genera
BK.ULL OF THE MUSK [DEEKl. " so distant as the Dceiiets, the Muntjacs, and the Water

Deer, why should they not do so in the Antelopes as well 1
The Musk is twenty inches in height, its ears large, and its tail rudimentary. Its hoofs are
small, but their spread is large, because of the yielding attachment of the false hoofs, as in the
Reindeer. The coarse and brittle hair is grey and slightly brindled. Its habitat is Central Asia,
from the Himalaya Mountains to Pekin, at elevations above 8,000 feet.

" The Musk Deer," according to Captain Kinloch, " is a solitary and retiring animal ; it is
nearly nocturnal in its habits, remaining concealed in some thick bush during the daytime, and only
coming out to feed in the mornings and evenings. It frequents the highest parts of the forest, pre-
ferring the birch, rhododendron, and juniper, and is almost always found alone, rarely in pairs, and
never in flocks. No animal seems more indifferent to cold, from which it is well protected by its thick
coat of hollow hair, which forms as it were a sort of cushion, which acts as an insulatoi , and enables
the Deer to lie even on snow without much loss of animal heat. It is amazingly active and sure-
footed, bounding along without hesitation over the steepest and most dangerous ground. Its usual
food seems to be leaves and flowers, but the natives say that it will kill and eat Snakes."

* Moschus moschiferus.

THE MUSK [DEER].

43

The value of the Musk perfume causes the animal to be persecuted beyond measure. From
Chardin we learn that the hunters are obliged to cover the nose and mouth with linen when removing
the scent-sac, to prevent pulmonary haemorrhage. "I have," says he, "gained accurate information
respecting this circumstance, and as I have heard the same thing talked of by some Armenians
who had been to Boutan, I think that it is true. The odour is so powerful in the East Indies

MUSK [DEEK].

that I could never support it, and when I trafficked for musk I always kept in the open air, with
a handkerchief over my face, and at a distance from those who handled the sacs ; and hence I know
by experience that this musk is very apt to give headaches, and is altogether insupportable when
quite recent. I add that no drug is so easily adulterated, or more apt to be so."

THE GIRAFFE.*

Apart from its unique proportions and its size, the Giraffe presents peculiarities in its
organisation which compel us to separate it from the Deer oil the one hand, and the hollow-horned
ruminants on the other. In both these groups the appendages on the head, whether developed as
antlers or as horns, are distinct prolongations from the forehead bones themselves. In the Giraffe, how-
ever, the three bony appendages, one median and two lateral, all covered with skin, instead of being
produced as outgrowths from any portion of the skull, are separate and independent conical bony
" processes " which stand upon the skull, capping roughened conical prominences destined to support
them. Neither are horns, like those of Sheep or Oxen, nor antlers like those of the Deer, ever found
upon these processes, a tuft of hair alone surmounting the lateral pair.

The neck of the Giraffe is longer than that of any other living animal, notwithstanding which it con-
forms to what, on account of its almost constant applicability, may be termed a law, namely, that there
are but seven vertebrae which go to form the neck of a mammalian animal. In this animal, such being
the case, each vertebra is very long, which makes the neck correspondingly awkward and inflexible ;
so that when the head is much carried to the side, the conformation and enumeration of the bones in
the cervical region is not a matter of any difficulty.

The Giraffe is a native of Africa south of the Sahara. Most of the specimens which reach Europe
in a living state are brought from Nubia and the north-east of the continent generally. The adult
male attains a height of sixteen feet, the female rarely exceeding fourteen feet. They live and have
bred well in captivity, although, as may be readily imagined, they are most delicate, and require much
special care, particularly to prevent the joints of their lengthy limbs from being injured.

* CamstvpardaJis giraffa.

•it

NATURAL HISTORY.

M. Thibaut, who, in 1836, obtained the first specimen of the Giraffe alive for the Zoological

Gardens in Regent's Park, tells us that " the first run of the Giraffe is exceedingly rapid. The

swiftest Hoz-se, if unaccustomed to the desert,

could not come up with it unless with extreme

difficulty. The Arabs accustom their coursers

to hunger and to fatigue ; milk generally serves

them for food, and gives them power to continue

their exertions during a very long run. If a

Giraffe reaches a mountain, it passes the height

with rapidity; its feet, which are like [not

exactly in structure] those of the Goat, endow

it with the dexterity of that animal ; it bounds

over ravines with incredible power ; Horses

cannot, in such situations, compete with it."

" The Giraffe eats with great delicacy, and

takes its food leaf by leaf, collecting them from

the trees by means of its long tongue. It rejects /^/df (rf" *ne thorns, and in this respect differs from

the Camel. . . . It is extremely fond
of society, and is very sensible. I have
observed one of them shed tears when it no
longer saw its companions or the persons
who were in the habit of attending it."

By Le Vaillaiit and other sportsmen
most graphic accounts have been given, of
the hunting of the Giraffe. Quoting from
Captain Harris, we learn that "the
rapidity with which the awkwardly-formed
animals can move is beyond all things sur-
prising, our best Horses being unable to
close with them under two miles. Their
gallop is a succession of jumping strides,
the fore and hind leg on the same side
moving together instead of diagonally, as
in most other quadrupeds ; the former
being kept close together, and the latter
so wide apart, that in riding by the ani-
mal's side the hoof may be seen striking
on the outside of the Hoi-se, threatening
momentarily to overthrow him. Their
motion, altogether, reminded me rather of
the pitching of a ship or rolling of a rock-
ing-horse, than of anything living ; and the
remarkable gait is rendered still more
automaton-like by the switching, at regular
intervals, of the long black tail, which is
invariably curled above the back, and by
the corresponding action of the neck,
swinging as it does like a pendulum, and
literally imparting to the animal the ap-
pearance of a piece of machinery in motion.
Naturally gentle, timid, and peaceable,
the unfortunate Giraffe has no means of protecting itself but with its heels ; but even when hemmed
into a corner, it seldom resorts to this mode of defence."

SKELETON* OF THE GIRAFFE.

GIRAFFES.

101

46

CHAPTER IV.
THE CERVID,£, OR ANTLERED RUMINANTS : THE ELK, ELAPHINE, SUB-ELAPHINE, AND KUSINE DEER.

The Deer Tribe— Distinguishing Characters— Exceptions to the rule— The Musk (Deer) and Chinese Water Deer— Other
Characters of the Cervidze— Antlers, their Nature, Growth, and Shedding— The Knob—" Velvet "—Getting rid of the
" Velvet " — Full equipment — Contests — Interlocking Antlers — Distribution — Classification — Development of Antlers
in the Common RED DEER — Explanation of the various stages — Splendid "Heads " — Simple and Complex Antlers —
Types of Antlers— THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER— Appearance— Antlers— Habits— Hunting— THE ELAPHINE DEER— THE
RED DEER — Distribution— Appearance — Hunting— THE WAPITI — Acting of the Fawns — THE PERSIAN DEER, OK
MAHAL— THE CASHMERLAN DEER, OR BAHASINGHA— Habits and General Appearance— BARBARY DEER— SUB-ELAPHINE
DEER— THE JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, AND MANTCHURIAN DEER— THE FALLOW DEER— Peculiarity of its Antlers— THE
PERSIAN FALLOW DEER— THE RUSINE DEER— THE SAMBUR, OR GEROW— Habits— Species of Java, Formosa, Sumatra,
Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and the Philippines— THE HOG DEER— THE Axis DEER— PRINCE ALFRED'S DEER— THE SWAMP
DEER— SCHOMBURGK'S DEER— ELD'S DEER, OR THE THAMTN — Description— Habits— Hunting— Shameful havoc.

THE Deer tribe, known scientifically as that of the CERVID.E, is more circumscribed, and therefore
better defined, than are the BOVID^E, or hollow-horned ruminants. Their best distinguishing

* o o

character is that in the males there is each year developed a pair of antlers which is shed at the end of
the season to be reproduced in the following spring. The females do not carry antlers, except in the
case of the Reindeer, in which, although these elegant appendages are of the same form as in their
mates, they are constructed upon a much smaller scale. There are, however, one or two Deer in which
not even the males carry antlers, and these are the only members of the family with reference to
which there is any serious doubt on the subject of affinity. The Musk (Moschus moschiferus) may
be taken as an example. In this pretty creature, which is more fully described on pages 42 — 3,
there are no antlers and no horns. Nevertheless, other peculiarities in its organisation have led
most naturalists to include it among the Cervidse, a position which is, however, so doubtful that it is
quite possible that it may be an aberrant member of the bovine section, as we have for several reasons
thought best to consider it.

A more certain Deer without antlers is the Water Deer of China, the flesh of which has formed

an article of food among the natives of
Shanghai for years. This small Deer
has lengthy tusks, as has the Musk
Deer, and nearly every member of the
family in which the antlers are diminu-
tive. Its very existence was not known
in Great Britain until the year 1862,
when Mr. Swinhoe, then our consul at
Shanghai, described it, which shows
how ignorant we still may be of the
creatures which inhabit the mighty
Celestial Empire.

In most other respects the Deer
closely resemble the hollow-horned
ruminants. Their complicated stomach
does not differ from that of the Ox, and
their other organs are constructed upon
the same plan, except the liver, which,
like that of the Giraffe, lacks a gall-
bladder, this reservoir being present in
nearly all the Bovidse. Their general
proportions are also much the same.
The Red Deer and the Fallow Deer are
those best known to most of us, as
both are to be found living in Great Britain, as is the Roebuck in the north of Scotland.

The nature, growth, and shedding of the antlers deserve special consideration. In the commence-
ment of the spiing a pair of knobs is to be seen upon the forehead of the adult male animal. This is

HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE GROWING ANTLEKS AKE SEEN
COVERED WITH " VELVET."

ANTLERS: THEIR NATURE AND GROWTH.

47

covered with a nearly smooth dark skin : and a soar can be detected in the middle of each, which is
that left by the antler of the year before, where it fell off.

As the weather becomes more propitious these knobs commence to grow, feel warm to the
touch, and are evidently filled with actively-circulating blood, supplied by special vessels which are
developed at the time. They do not increase regularly in all directions, for if they did the antler
would be a sphere, but they sprout out, as it may be termed, around the above-mentioned scar ; in
most cases there being one branch which takes a direction forward, whilst a second larger one makes
its way backward. These become, in the fully-formed antler, the brow antler and the main beam ;
and it is by other branches growing
upon the beam, according to definite
laws, different in different species, that
the elaborate complications of the fully-
developed structure are produced.

As long as the antler, which is
composed of genuine bone of very dense
texture, is increasing in size, it will be
found to be covered with the same
warm black skin as is the knob from
which it sprang ; and as this skin is
covered with short, fine, close-set hair,
it has received the name of the "velvet."
It is this " velvet " which secretes the
bony texture of the antler from its
inner surface, just in the same way that
the outer covering (the periosteum) of
any long bone of the body is mainly
concerned in the formation of the bone
itself. As, also, in the same way, if
we seriously graze our shins, and scrape
off this covering, the bone exposed is
very apt to die, so in the Deer any mis-
hap to the " velvet " injures the growth
of the antler in the part affected. The
animals, therefore, during the time they
are " in velvet " are more than usually
careful to protect their cranial appen-
dages, and are inoffensive even to
strangers.

When their antler-growth has
ceased their natures change. The
" velvet " has performed its function

and dries into a parchment-looking membrane, to get rid of which the Deer adopt a very simple
method. They rub their antlers against any neighbouring trees, and force them into the soft
earth until there is none left, and the bare bone, with scarcely any trace of hollow in the middle
of it, is completely exposed. Now, in the glory of their full equipment, they go in search of others
of their kind, having previously maintained a comparative solitude. They try their strength by
butting at imaginary enemies, and choose their wives, unless prevented by others of their species
mightier than themselves, with whom, if fairly matched, they enter into the most formidable con-
tests, to win or to be driven from the herd with ignominy. During these contests the sound oi
their battering antlers may be heard for considerable distances, whilst now and then, by accident,
they interlock themselves inextricably, and perish both, as is attested by skulls so found, and to
be seen in more than one museum.

Looking upon the Deer generally, we find them inhabiting many parts of the world — Europe,

HEAD OF RED DEER, IN WHICH THE ANTLER IS FULLY DEVELOPED
AXD THE " VELVET " HAS DISAPPEARED.

48 NATURAL HISTORY.

Asia, and America. In Africa none occur south of the Sahara, they being there replaced by
members of the Bovine section of the order. None are found in Australia, and in America they
are far less common than in Great Britain. To understand the peculiar features and the distribu-
tion of the various species, it is necessary to classify them in groups of kindred genera, most falling
into sections which are distinguishable without difficulty.

In arranging the different members of the Deer-tribe for description, there are peculiarities in
their outward conformation which agree with those internal differences upon which all correct notions
of relationship alone can be established. In classifying animals, naturalists must always be guided
by the totality of the structure of each member of each group ; but, as in describing them to those
who have not made the minute details of their organisation their special study it is impossible to
lay stress on all the various parts which have to be included by the student in arriving at the desired
result, those outward features only can be mentioned which are found to tally with their total
structure, namely, their osteology, their visceral anatomy, and their muscular arrangement. As an
example of the relative importance of different external structures, we may mention that the late
Dr. J. E. Gray, in his Catalogue of the Ruminant Mammalia in the British Museum, gives the fol-
lowing arrangement of the genera, in which the length of the tail suggests one distribution of them,
whilst the shape of the antlers is in favour of another, which is very different : —

2. — Tail elongate, with longer hair
1. — Tail very short or clubbed. at the end.

(Mantchurian Deer.
Japanese Beer.
Fallow Deer.
Eld's Deer.

Antlers rusine

Barasingha Deer.
Schomburgk's Deer.
Sambur and its near allies.

Eoebuck.

Chinese Elaphure. Antlers capreolme.

Spotted Axis.

This table is useful as a means of comparing the tails of the different genera ; but other points
of structure do not in the least support the classification suggested by that appendage, as a result
of which it has to be ignored in the consideration of distant affinities, although, where questions of
specific proximity are concerned, it is found to be of considerable value.

The antlers render much more trustworthy information in the determination and expression of
relationships ; and their characterising features can be most readily grasped by having an ideal type
in the mind wherewith to compare all aberrant and complicated specimens. This ideal type may
be derived in one or other of two ways. The first of these is from the study of the antlers as they
are each year developed in any given kind of Deer, commencing with its earliest age. For example,
in the Common Red Deer : in the spring of the year following its birth the antlers are nothing
more than straight, conical, and unbranched "beams," the animal being then known as a " Brocket."
In the following spring the antler has, besides the " beam," a small branch from its base, directed
forwards, known as the "brow antler;" it is then termed " Spayad." In the third year an extra
front branch is formed, known as the " tres," and the whole antler is larger. This " tres " is
sometimes seen in the smaller antler of the Spayad. In the fourth year the brow-antler is doubled,
to form the " brow " and " bez-tyne," at the same time that the top of the main beam divides into
the " stir-royals " of the " Staggard," or four-year male. In the fifth year the sur-royals become more
numerous, the whole antler of the " Stag " being heavier than previously, only to be exceeded in
weight by those of the fully adult " Great Hart," with ten or more " points," each being larger and
longer than the year before. In Great Britain the conditions of life and the food are not of the
quality which develops first-rate antlers, at the same time that it is — in Scotland, at least — the habit
to shoot those with the finest heads, and so leave the indifferent specimens to perpetuate their
species. In some of the ancient forests of Germany superb heads of the Red Deer are to be obtained,
whilst in several of the old castles of that country antler trophies are preserved as memorials of sport
in times gone by, with as many as six-and-sixty points. Lord Powerscourt has in his possession a
pair with five-and-f orty tynes.

The second way is from the study of the antlers of the species in which they are simple, in

TYPES OF AXTLERS.

comparison with those in which they are particularly complex, both methods as they ought to do,
leading to the same result. There are Deer — as, for example, the American Brockets, David's Deer,
and Reeves' Muntjac — in which the antler is never more than a simple dag, like that of the "Brocket"
stage in the Red Deer. There are others with never more than a single tyne besides the beam,
as instances of which may be mentioned the Indian Muntjac and the Huamel. Others, again — and
these form an important section of the family — are triply branched, as in the Spayad, the beam
bifurcating some distance above the brow-antler. As instances of these we find the Sambur Deer
of India, with its large and thus simple antlers ; the closely-allied Javan and Swinhoe's Deer ; the
Spotted Axis ; the Hog Deer, and the Roebuck.

We have now arrived at the stage in which the beam has bifurcated, and almost all the more
elaborate forms result from an excess in the development of both, or one or other, of the limbs of
this bifurcation. In the Deer known as Elaphine — because they more or less resemble the Red
Deer (Cervus elaphus) — the front of these two
branches (the " tres ") does not increase or be-
come complicated, whilst from the much-enlarged
hind one the numerous sur-royals spring in the
biggest species, such as the Wapiti, Cashmere,
Red, and Barbary Deer, as well as the Maral, of
Persia. In the smaller species which follow this
type of structure the sur-royals are less developed,
at the same time that the brow-antler does not
split in two to form a " bez " as well, examples of
which are to be seen in the Mantchurian, For-
mosan, and Japanese Deer, as well as in the
Fallow Deer and its newly-discovered ally from
Mesopotamia. These two last-named differ also
in the " palmation " of their antlers — a peculiarity
referred to further in the special description of the
species.

The accompanying outline diagram represents
the most important types of antlers, to one or
other of which those of almost every known Deer can be referred,
tion, they may be named as follows : —

4- 5 G

VARIOVS TYPES OF AXTLERS.

(From the Proceedings o/ the Zoological Society.)

To facilitate future descrip-

Fig. 1. — Riisine type.

2. — Normal Rucervine type.
3. — Intermediate Rucervine type.
(A) Brow-tyne.

Fig. 4. — Extreme Rucervine type.

5. — Sub-elaphine type.

6. — Elaphine type.
(B) Tres-tyne. (c) Royal-tyne.

The Rusine type (1), in which the brow-tyne (A) is simple, at the same time that the beam ends
in a simple bifurcation, is found in the Sambur Deer (Rusa Aristotelis) of India. The Rucervine
type, in which the bifurcate beam is further subdivided, tends to be prolonged in the direction
of the tres-tyne (B), at the same time that there is a corresponding reduction of the royal (c).
In Schomburgk's Deer (Rucervus Schomburgki) of Siam, both branches of the beam are equally
developed (2) ; in the Swamp Deer (Rucervus Duvaucelli) of India (3), the tres (B) is larger
than the royal (c); whilst in Eld's Deer (Rucervus Eldi] (4), of Burmah, there is but a small
snag (c) at the back of the enormous tres-tyne (B) to represent the royal. The Red Deer (Cervus
••/njjii'x) (6), besides having the brow-tyne (A) re-duplicated, has the royal (c) developed at the
expense of the tres (B), and much divided up in well-grown animals. In the Japanese Deer (Cervus
sika) (5) and its allies the relative proportions of the tynes are much the same, although the
brow-tyne (A) is simple.

THE ELK, OR MOOSE DEER.*

The Elk, the largest of the family of the Cervida;, is found in North America, Northern
Europe, and the coldest parts of Asia, thinly scattered in all but the first-named locality. At the

* Alecs machlis.

THE YOUNG ELK.

51

shoulder it may attain so great a height as eight feet when adult. The female is antler-less.
In the male these appendages possess quite a peculiar shape, the two together forming a kind of basin,

YOUNG ELK.

on account of their being developed into huge palmated concave sheets of bony tissue, which diverge
laterally from the skull.

At nine months old the antlers first appear, not being more than straight and rounded dags in the
first year. They reach their full length in the fifth year, from which period for many more years
they increase in breadth and weight, and add, it is said, a fresh point to their palmated margins
until the fourteenth, when the creature is considered quite adult.

52 NATURAL HISTORY.

The colour of the animal is a deep blackish-brown ; the neck is short and thick, with a peculiar
bob-shaped, pendulous, and hair-covered lap of skin hanging down from its middle, just behind the
angles of the jaw. The limbs, especially the front ones, are long ; the tail is rudimentary. The
coat is formed of close-set harsh angular hair, which breaks when bent, produced into a niaiie upon
the neck and shoulders. Sir John Richardson gives the following account of the habits and food of the
Elk, with the mode of hunting it : — " In the more northern parts the Moose Deer is quite a solitary
animal, more than one being very seldom seen at a time, unless during the rutting season or when
the female is accompanied by her fawns. It has the sense of hearing in very great perfection, and
is the most shy and wary of all the Deer species, and on this account the art of Moose-hunting is
looked upon as the greatest of an Indian's acquirements, particularly by the Crees, who take to them-
selves the credit of being able to instruct the hunters of every other tribe. The skill of a Moose
hunter is most tried in the early part of the winter ; for during the summer the Moose, as well as
other animals, are so much tormented by Mosquitoes that they become regardless of the approach of
man. In the winter the hunter tracks the Moose by its footmarks in the snow, and it is necessary
that he should keep constantly to leeward of the chase, and make his advance with the utmost caution,
for the rustling of a withered leaf or the cracking ot a rotten twig is sufficient to alarm the watchful
beast. The difficulty of approach is increased by a habit which the Moose Deer has of making daily
a sharp turn in its route, and choosing a place of repose so near some part of its path that it can
hear the least noise made by one that attempts to track it. To avoid this, the judicious hunter,
instead of walking in the animal's footsteps, forms his judgment from the appearance of the country
of the direction it is likely to have taken, and makes a circuit to leeward until he again finds the
track. This manoauvre is repeated until he discovers by the softness of the snow, in the footmarks
and other signs, that he is very near the chase. He then disencumbers himself of everything that
might embarrass his motions, and makes his approach in the most cautious manner. If he gets close
to the animal's lair without being seen, it is usiial for him to break a small twig, which, alarming the
Moose, it instantly starts up, but not fully aware of the danger, squats on. its hams and waits a minute
before setting oft'. In this posture it presents the fairest mark, and the hunter's shot seldom fails
to take effect in a mortal part. In the rutting season the bucks lay aside their timidity, and attack
every animal that comes in their way, and even conquer their fear of man himself. The hunter
then brings them within gunshot by scraping on the blade-bone of a Deer, and by whistling, which,
deceiving the male, he blindly hastens to the spot to assail his supposed rival. If the hunter fails
in giving it a mortal wound as it approaches, he shelters himself from its fury behind a tree, and
I have heard of several instances in which the enraged animal has completely stripped the bark from
the trunk of a large tree by striking with its foi'e-feet. In the spring time, when the snow is very
deep, the hunters frequently run down the Moose on snow-shoes, which give them immense advantage,
because the slender legs of the animal sink into the snow for their whole length each step they take,
which makes their progress very slow."

The usual pace of the Moose is a high shambling trot, and its strides are immense. On account
of their necks being short at the same time that their legs are long, they browse upon the bushes
rather than on the ground, which they find difficulty in reaching with their mouths.

THE ELAPHINE DEER.*

This group is characterised by the presence of a bez-tyne in all its members — except that
under the influence of protracted bad nutrition individuals resident in barren pai-ts may lose
it — whilst the tres-tyne is small, and the third main branch of the antler splits up into several
snags, sometimes arranged in the form of a cup. The deep brown coat is varied by a conspicuous
light, almost white patch upon the rump, in which the uncovered rudiment of a tail is included.
All the species are large, the best known to us being

THE RED DEER, f
This species is a native of the British Isles and many parts of Europe. Northern specimens

* The restricted genus Cervus. t Ccrrus claph us.

102

RED DEER.

NATURAL HISTORY.

are much the smaller, and carry far inferior antlers, those of South Germany and Hungary possessing
heads worthy of the species. In England they are still to be found wild in Exmoor Forest,
in Scotland north of the Forth and Clyde ; and in Ireland about Killarney, Connemara, and Erris.

A well-grown Stag stands over four feet at the withers, with a thickly-coated neck of a
greyish tint, a rich red-brown body-colour, uniformly curved symmetrical antlers, and head held

BED DEER AND FALLOW DEER IN WINTER.

high. The Stag in summer is a lordly creature. In winter its coat is longer and of a greyer
tint. As is the case in allied species, and all but a few of the Rusine Deer, the new-born calves
are brilliantly spotted with white.

The pairing season occupies the early part of October. The calves are born at the end of May or
the beginning of June ; whilst the Stags drop their antlers between the end of February and the earlier
days of April, the youngest latest. Up till the age of twelve the animal continues to increase in bulk
and strength, and it is highly probable that they do not ever much outlive twenty years, although
superstition ci-edits them with very many more.

THE WAPITI.

RED DEER FIGHTING.

It is towards the end of August or the beginning of September that the well-nourished Stags,
having already cleared their antlers of their " velvet," leave their retirement, and with swollen necks
as well as restless mien, seek out the hinds. During the rutting season, which lasts about three
weeks, they eat but little,
and lose weight rapidly,
to be regained in the
subsequent repose upon
the summer - developed
foliage. In the southern
counties of Great Britain
the hunting of the Stag
has degenerated into
the repeated chase of a
few individuals, de-
prived of their antlers,
and let out of boxes
shortly before the sports-
men put in an appear-
ance; whilst long-ranged
rifles have reduced the
difficulties of what not
many years ago — more
especially in Scotland —
was a form of sport
which very severely taxed the physical capacities of the most determined and courageous.

The WAPITI, the PERSIAN, the CASHMERIAN, and the BARBARY DEER resemble the Red
Deer in almost every detail except size, the first and second being considerably larger. Their antlers
all branch in the same manner, except that the proportionate sizes of some of the snags are apt
to vary. Superb heads of Wapiti are numerous in Great Britain, with their brown beams and white
burnished tips.

The Wapiti is kept in confinement without difficulty, although in autumn the stags become
savage. Its home is the woodlands and the mountains of North America, where it is generally
incorrectly called the " Elk." Stalking the species is a common sport, but there is not so much
interest associated with it as with Moose-stalking, because it is a more stupid creature, and its
senses are less acutely developed. When started, a herd will make off for a short distance, and
stop to recognise the source of danger before continuing its flight. Its food is mostly leaves of
trees and shrubs, though it frequently eats grass and weeds. Dr. J. D. Caton, of Ottawa, Illinois,
who has had much experience in the preserving of American Deer, has published many interesting
details with regard to this species. Among others he mentions, with reference to the young, that
" the most prominent instinct of the young fawn is that of deception. I have several times come
across fawns evidently but a few hours old, left by the mother in supposed security. They affect
death to perfection, only they forget to shut their eyes. They lie without a motion, and if you pick
them vip they are as limp as a wet rag, the head and limbs hanging down without the least muscular
action, the bright eye fairly sparkling all the time." The venison is excellent ; it is said to be more
nutritious than any other meat.

The Persian Deer, or Maral, differs from the Cashmerian Deer but little. Its head, however, is
longer and more pointed.

The Cashmerian Deer, or Barasingha, again, is hardly distinguishable from the Wapiti. Pro-
fessor Leith Adams remarks, with reference to it, that " the Cashmere forests seem the head-quarters
of this species on the western ranges, for it is seldom, if ever, met with between Mussouree and the
Vale of Cashmere. The dense forests and fertile valleys of the latter country are particularly inviting
to this species. In habits and general appearance the Cashmere Stag bears a striking resemblance
to the Red Deer. Although it is seldom, nowadays, that individuals of the latter species escape

56

NATURAL HISTORY.

the hunter so long as to attain the size and magnitude of the Barasingha [twelve points], yet I think
it will be found that the horns of those killed in the forests of Scotland in former years are equal in
size to any at present met with in Cashmere. It is in the dense pine forests on the Northern Piiijal,
and in the many beautiful valleys among these ranges, that we find the species most abundant.
There are very few on the southern ranges. In the secluded depths of these solitudes they lie all
day, to issue forth at dusk and feed on the grassy hill-sides, or descend even into the Valley of
Cashmere when forced by the snows of winter. An adult Stag averages thirteen hands in height.

iPf

Hr K5w $$i*fc

&W:*8g&$- . .\A1V.> *'^.

KiB-

,if|

^8 111

•vr^?
FALLOW DEER.

The colour of the coat varies but little in the sexes or the seasons of the year ; dark liver-colour, with
reddish patches on the inner sides of the hips ; belly and lower parts white, or a dirty white. The
male has the hair on the lower part of the neck long and shaggy (wanting in the female) ; the horns
large, and usually very massive, with from ten to fifteen or more points, according to age (the largest
pair of horns I have measured were four feet round the curves, with six and seven points). They are
shed in March ; and the new horn is not completely formed until the end of October, when the
rutting season commences, and the loud bellowings of the Stags are heard all over the mountains.
During vigorous winters they are frequently driven to seek for shelter and food around the villages in
the valleys, when many are destroyed by natives, who hunt them with Dogs. The Cheetahs, Wild
Dogs, and Bears are said to kill the young."

The very similar Barbary Deer is most interesting, in that it is the only member of the Cervine
group which is found in Africa.

THE FALLOW DEER.

THE SUB-ELAPHIXE DEER.*

The JAPANESE, FORMOSAN, and MAXTCHURIAN DEER are all species allied to those just described,
but differing in being smaller in size, at the same time that the antlers conform to the sub-elaphine
type, in which the bez-tyne is never present, and the sur-royals are but inconsiderably branched.
They are all strongly spotted in their summer dress, which, especially in the Mantchurian — the
largest of the species — is most brilliant. In the winter their coats are nearly uniform, and of a dark
brown colour. A fawn-red is the groundwork of the summer coat, the spots being yellowish- white,
whilst a black streak, in perfect contrast, runs the whole length of the middle of the back, continuing

SAMBUR DEER.

down the tail and expanding slightly at its base. The throat is white. The sombre winter coat
is a nearly uniform dark red-brown.

The FALLOW DEER (Dama vulgaris), so well known on account of its being preserved in a semi-
domesticated state in so many English parks, has antlers constructed upon the same plan as those of
the Mantchurian Deer (sub-elaphine). These, however, present special peculiarities found in none
of the allied species, for they are palmated in their upper parts, in the region of the sur-royals, the
digitations or terminal points being developed along the convex posterior margins of the palmated
surface. The buck is about three feet high at the shoulder. The head is short and broad, the tail
between seven and eight inches long. The colour of the wild animal, both buck and doe, is a rich
yellowish-brown in summer, spotted with white all over. In winter the tints are more sombre and
greyish. Domestic varieties vary immensely, both in the distinctness of the spotting and the general
colouration. Until six years of age the buck receives a separate name each year from sportsmen

* The genera Pseudaxis and Dama.

58

NATURAL HISTORY.

— -fawn, pricket, sorrel, soare, buck of the first lead, and buck complete, being the terms employed — >
the antlers not being developed at all in the fawn, being simple snags in the pricket, with two front
branches in the sorrel, with slight palmation of the extremity of the beam in" the soare, and the
whole antler larger and larger until the sixth year. The venison of the Fallow Deer is fatter than
that of the Rod Deer, and is preferred by most.

The species is not a native of Britain, having most certainly been introduced, although exactly

BORNEO RTJSINE DEER.

when is not known. The dark-coloured and more hardy breed was brought from Norway by James I.
Its true wild habitat was probably the shores of the Mediterranean Sea, both north and south.

The PERSIAN FALLOW DEER,* so closely related to the species just referred to that they breed
together was made known to us in 1875 by Sir Victor Brooke, who described it from speci-
mens sent to England by Mr. Robertson, the British Vice-Consul at Busrah. It resembles the
Common Fallow Deer in almost eveiy detail, except that it is slightly larger, and that the antlers
are not the same. As stated above, in the Common Fallow Deer the antlers, whilst developed on
the sub-elaphine type, are palmated in the region of the royals, with several snags projecting from
the upper margin, at the same time that the lower portion of the beam, the tres, and the brow-
tynes are cylindrical, as usually is the case in other species.

* Dama mesopotamica.

t ,..,._. . I

THE AXIS DEER. 59

In the Persian Fallow the palmatioii at the extremity of the antlers is much less conspicuous,
and scarcely exists, although many snags are present there, directed upwards. The palmation is at
the bases of the antlers instead, including the brow-tyne and the beam, so that the general appearance
of the antlers is quite peculiar to the species.

THE RUSINE DEER.*

The SAMBUR, OR GEROW (Rusa Aristotelis), of India, is found abundantly in all the hill-
districts of that country. It is nearly five feet high, of a deep brown colour, with the hair of the
neck developed almost into a mane. The tail is of fair length. Its build is massive, as are its antlers,
which present three powerful points, and reach over three feet in length. Above the considerable
brow-tyne the beam bifurcates high up into two fairly equal snags, and no more in well-grown antlers.
The hind is much less massive, and of a yellowish tint. Captain Kinloch says of the species that
" Sambur delight in stony hills, where there is plenty of cover, and where they can have easy
access to water. They browse more than graze, and are nearly nocturnal in their habits. During
the daytime they seek the most shady retreats, and old Stags especially are most difficult to find,
frequently betaking themselves to almost inaccessible places, where the uninitiated would never
dream of looking for them. The experienced hunter, indeed, has frequently to depend more upon
fortune than his own knowledge of woodcraft." In Java an almost identical species differs mostly
in having the hinder of the two branches of the beam of the antler longer than the one in front.
Swinhoe's Deer from Formosa is also almost indistinguishable, at the same time that Sumatran and
Bornean specimens agree with it in being particularly dark in colour.

Three smaller species, with antlers branched in exactly the same manner, are found in the islands
of Borneo, Timor, Ternate, and the Philippines.

The HOG DEER of India and Ceylon is not bigger than the Roebuck although the legs are
shorter and the body heavier. Its antlers consist of a brow-tyne and bifurcate beam, of which
the posterior tyne is short, and turned inwards ; they rarely exceed a foot and a half in length.
It is of a uniform dark brown colour, rarely spotted indistinctly with white. Their name is
derived fi-om the pig-like way in which they run, with their heads low, when pursued.

The SPOTTED HOG DEER is a rare species, of a slightly lighter colour, and with pale yellow spots.

The Axis DEER of India, sometimes called the Cheetal, resembles the Fallow Deer in size
and colouration most closely, although its antlers serve to show that its true relations are quite
different. These latter are not palmated at all, and are quite rusine in type, presenting the three
points characteristic of them, the front tyne of the bifurcate beam being of great length. There is
a beauty in the intensity of the spotting of the coat of this species which is unequalled by any
other member of the Cervidse, and it is interesting to know that according to the universal testi-
mony of sportsmen, the effect of sunlight through foliage so much resembles it that it is almost
impossible to recognise the animal in the woods. They have a reputation for being indolent, as they
feed during the night, and sleep throughout the day, frequenting the heavy grass jungles along the
banks of rivers. Their cry is a shrill bark at the approach of danger. The accompanying figure (see
Plate 26), drawn from a specimen in captivity, gives an excellent idea of the immense length attained
by the antlers, which in this particular case are blunf^tipped, because not quite fully grown. The
hinder tyne on the right side, it will be noticed, is almost entirely hidden in the hair of the flank.

PRINCE ALFRED'S DEER,t about the size of the Fallow Deer, was first described by Dr. Sclater
from a specimen brought from the Philippine Islands by the Duke of Edinburgh in 1870. Its glossy
coat is of a rich chocolate colour, covered with pale yellow spots ; a broad line along the back, as in
all spotted Deer, being uninterrupted ; the under parts are of a pale yellow. The antlers are only
nine inches in length, but comparatively thick, and simply branched upon the rusine type, with three
points. The legs are rather short, at the same time that the body is heavy.

The SWAMP DEER.| The name Barasingha, signifying "twelve points," is applied to two
very different species of Indian Deer, the Cashmerian Deer, previously mentioned, and the Swamp
Deer.

ihe Swamp Deer of India and Assam is slightly smaller than the Sambur, not exceeding four
* The geEus Rusa and its allies. f Rusa Alfrcdi. J Rucervus Dumucelli.

60

A Tl'RA L HISTOR Y.

SCHOMBVRGK 8 DEER.

feet in height. Its colour is a rich light yellow. As its name signifies it delights in moist situations,
where it congregates in herds of great numbers. Its antlers are large, and of the intermediate
rucervine type. The brow-tynes reach a foot in length, and are directed forwards with an upward
turn at their tips. The beam is long, and branches into an anterior, massive, and branched continu-
ation of itself, as well as a posterior smaller bifurcate tyne.

In Siam this species is replaced by the closely-allied SCHOMBURGK'S DEER, a little-known species,
in which the antlers are extremely elegant, the long brow-tyne being followed by a short beam which
bifurcates into two equal branches, these again, each of them, bifurcating in a similar manner.

ELD'S DEER, OR THE THAMYN.* This Deer, which differs from the Swamp Deer only in
its antlers, was discovered by Captain Eld, in 1838. It abounds in the swamp lands of Burmah,
and extends as far east as the Island of Hainan. Its form is slimmer than that of the Red Deer,
at the same time that it is somewhat smaller, attaining a height of over four feet. During the summer
months its body-colour is a light rufous brown, with a few faint indications of white spots. Its under
parts are nearly white, as are the insides of the hairy ears. Its tail is short, and black above. In
winter its lengthy hair takes on a darker tint.

Lieutenant R. C. Beavan has given an excellent account of the habits of Eld's Deer, from which
we learn that their food must consist almost entirely of grass and paddy, which grow both cultivated
and wild, in the swamps in which they dwell. " In habits they are very wary and difficult of
approach, especially the males. They are also very timid, and easily startled ; the males, however,
when wounded and brought to bay with Dogs, get very savage and charge vigorously. On being
disturbed they invariably make for the open, instead of resorting to the heavy jungle like Hog Deer
and Sambur. In fact the Thamyn is essentially a plain-loving species ; and, although it will fre-
quent tolerably open tree-jungle for the sake of its shade, it will never venture into dense or matted

* Rucerw.s Eldi.

THE HUNT JAGS. 61

underwood. . . . When first started the pace of the Thamyn is great. It commences by giving
three or four large bounds like the Axis or Spotted Deer, and afterwards settles down into a long
trot, which it will keep up for six or seven miles on end when frequently disturbed." As to the
means employed to hunt them, the same author informs us that " a large number of men would
assemble from the neighbouring villages, and gradually encircle three or four moderate-sized herds
with long strings, upon which plantain-leaves were tied so as to flutter in the wind. The circle,
originally formed at some distance, was gradually lessened as the Deer, afraid to pass the scarecrows,
got gradually driven together, until they were completely surrounded and at the mercy of the hunters.
The object was to get them into a corner near the heavy jungle, into which, if they attempted to run,
they either became entangled, or allowed their pursuers to get up quite close. As many as a hundred
and fifty to two hundred, my informant tells me, he has himself seen killed in one battue in former
years. To such a length was this [shameful] system earned, and such enormous havoc was thereby
created, that the Burmese Government, fearing the species would be utterly exterminated, wisely put
a stop to the practice."

CHAPTER V.

THE MUNTJACS— THE ROEBUCK— CHINESE DEER— REINDEER— AMERICAN DEER—
DEERLETS— CAMEL TRIBE— LLAMAS.

THE MUXTJACS— Distribution— Characters— THE INDIAN MUNTJAC, OR KIDANG— Hunting— THE CHINESE MUNTJAC—
Habits— DAVID'S MUNTJAC— "Shanyang"— THE ROEBUCK— THE CHINESE WATER DEER— Peculiarity— Chinese
Superstition regarding it— THE CHINESE ELAPHURE— Peculiarity of its Antlers— THE REINDEER— Distribution-
Character— Colouration— Antlers— Canadian Breeds— Food— THE AMERICAN DEER— THE VIRGINIAN DEER— THE
MULE DEER— THE BLACK-TAILED DEER— THE GUAZUS— THE BROCKETS— THE VENADA, OR PUDU DEER— THE
CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS— Antlerless— Their Position— Bones of their Feet— General Form and Proportions-
Species— THE MEMINNA, OR INDIAN DEERLET— THE JAVAN DEERLET— THE KANCHIL— THE STANLEYAN DEERLET
—THE WATER DEERLET— THE CAMEL TRIBE— Their Feet— Stomach— Its Peculiarity— The Water Cells— THE
(TRUE) CAMEL— Description— The Pads of Hardened Skin— Its Endurance— Its Disposition— Anecdote of its Revenge-
ful Nature— THE BACTRIAN CAMEL— THE LLAMAS— Description— Habits— Used as Beasts of Burden— Wild and
Domesticated Species— THE HUANACO— THE LLAMA— THE VICUNA— THE ALPACA— The Alpaca Industry— FOSSIL
RUMIXAXTIA— Strata in which they are io\mA.—ChceropotMmus—Hyopotamus—Dichobune--Xiphodon—Cainotherium
—Oreodon—Sivatherium— Fossil Deer, Oxen, Goats, Sheep, Camels, Llamas, Antelopes, Giraffes— The Irish Elk— Its
huge Antlers— Its Skeleton— Ally— Distribution.

THE MUNTJACS.*

THE Muntjacs form a group of small and elegant Deer found in India, Burmah, China, the
Malay Peninsula, and the large islands of the Indo-Malay Archipelago. They differ from all other
members of the family in that their diminutive antlers are supported on lengthy bony pedestals,
covered with a hairy skin much like the horn-processes of the Giraffe. Most, also, have a pair of
elongated longitudinal ridges between the eyes, within the folds of which small glands are situated,
at the same time that there is a dark crest of retroverted hair, tending to the shape of a horseshoe,
upon the forehead. In the males the upper canine teeth develop into tusks, which project ex-
ternally some way below the lip, though not so far as in the Musk, forming efficient instruments
of attack.

The INDIAN MUNTJAC, OR KIDAXG, is the best known species. Its antlers attain a larger size
than those of any of the others, although they are not more than four inches long, composed of an
undivided beam, at the base of which there is a diminutive brow-tyne. Its size is slightly less than
that of the Roebuck, its colour uniformly foxy red-brown, with the throat, hind part of abdomen, and
under surface of tail white. A black line runs up the inner side of each antler-pedestal of the male,
instead of forming the frontal horseshoe of the female.

Dr. Horsfielcl tells us that in Java, where it is much hunted, « the Muntjac selects for its ret

* The genus Cervulus.
103

62

NATURAL HISTORY.

certain districts, to which it forms a peculiar attachment, and which it never voluntarily deserts.
Many of these are known as the favourite resort of the animal for several generations. They consist
of moderately elevated grounds, diversified by ridges and valleys, tending towards the acclivities of

the more considerable mountains, or approaching the confines of extensive forests The

Muntjac has a strong scent, and is easily tracked by Dogs. When pursued it does not go off, like
the Stag, in any accidental direction ; its flight, indeed, is very swift at first, but it soon relaxes, and
taking a circular course, returns to the spot from which it was started. After several circular returns,
if the pursuit be continued, the Kidang thrusts its head into a thicket, and in this situation remains
fixed and motionless, as if in a place of security, and regardless of the approach of the sportsman."

In China the Muntjacs are smaller than those of India and Java ; their antlers are less

INDIAN MUNTJAC.

developed at the same time that the tint of their coats is less rufous, and the neck is not white.
They were first described by Mr. Ogilby under the name of Reeves' Muntjac, a larger form having
been more recently discovered by M. A. Milne-Edwards and Mr. Swinhoe. With reference to
its habits the last-named naturalist tells us that "this species affects the low ranges of hills
which are covered with long, coarse grass and tangled thicket. It is there usually found in small
herds, basking in the sun, or lying in hidden lairs. They are very seldom approached near, except
by stealth. The least noise startles them, and they dash away with bounds through the yielding
grass, occasionally showing their rounded backs above the herbage. They have, however, their
regular creeps and passes through the covert, near which the natives lie when stalking them, while
others drive them. The little startled creatures hurry from danger along these beaten tracks, and
are then picked off with the matchlock." In captivity they soon become very docile, even when taken
in the adult state. The flesh of this animal is very tender and palatable.

The enterprising missionary Pere David, among his numerous discoveries in Chinese zoology,
sent from Moupin, in Western China, to Paris, skins of a peculiar Muntjac, which is of special
interest. Having canine tusks, a black frontal hairy horseshoe, and the proportions of a Muntjac
generally, its antlers are not more than an inch long, at the same time that their pedestals are

THE ROEBUCK

63

correspondingly reduced in length as well as thickness. Its body-colour is mouse-brown, verging on
grey, whilst the hairy covering is coarse. It may be called DAVID'S MUNTJAC.

Very shortly after the above-mentioned skins arrived at Paris, Mr. Michie, of Shanghai, for-
warded to Mr. Swinhoe in England another specimen from Ningpo, which, although derived so far
east of Moupin, is almost indistinguishable from that belonging to the latter district. The animal is
there known as the " Shanyang," or Wild Goat. It is an undoubted Muntjac, although peculiar in
not possessing the glands on the forehead found in the more common species.

THE ROEBUCK*

This elegant, small, and almost tailless Deer is, like the Red Deer, a native of Great Britain,
as well as of all Northern Europe and Asia below the line of perpetual snow. In Asia the indi-
viduals attain a greater size than in Europe. The adult Roebuck stands a little over two feet high

ROEHUCK : MALE, FEMALE, AND YOl'XG.

at the shoulder. Its colour is a dark reddish-brown in summer, becoming yellowish-grey in the cold
weather. There is a large patch of white on the rump. The antlers, which are peculiarly near
together at their bases, rarely exceed a foot in length, possessing three points, the rugose unbranched
beam continuing from the considerable burr for half a foot unbranched ; then bifurcating fore and
aft, the posterior branch again bifurcating. The destruction of the forests throughout Britain has
driven the Roebuck farther north, till now it is most common in the north of Scotland, although it
still survives in the woods of Westmoreland and Cumberland. Its disposition is wild, shy, and
cautious. Its favourite resort is the thick underwood of forests, living singly or in small companies
of a pair with their young, which latter — contrary to what we find in the case of most other Deer
— are two or three in number. Its venison makes very indifferent food.

THE CHINESE WATER DEER.t

This is an entirely isolated small species, not bigger than an Indian Muntjac, discovered by
Mr. Swinhoe, in which there are no antlers, the canine teeth of the upper jaw being developed into
immense tusks which project downwards, as in the Musk and Muntjacs. The legs are short, and

Capreolus caprea.

Hydropotes inermis.

64 NATURAL HISTORY,

the body lengthy. The body-colour is a light red-brown all over. There is no tuft of hair on
the head as in the Muntjacs, to which by some it might be imagined to be allied. From Mr.
Swinhoe's account of the species we learn that " In the large riverine islands of the Yangtsze,
above Chinkiang, these animals occur in large numbers, living among the tall rushes that
are there grown for thatching and other purposes. The rushes are cut down in the spring; and
the Deer then swim away to the main shore and retire to the cover of the hills. . . . For-
tunately for the Deer, the Chinese have an extraordinary dislike for their flesh. I could not ascer-
tain why ; but it must be from some strange superstition, as the Celestials are otherwise pretty
omnivorous. The Deer are killed only for the European markets [of Shanghai], and sold at a low

price. Their venison is coarse, and without much taste The Chinese at Shanghai call

this animal the Ke, but at Chinkiang they are named Chang — the classical term for the Muntjac."

CHINESE WATER DEER.

THE CHINESE ELAPHURE*

This most interesting Deer was discovered in 1865 by the indefatigable French naturalist, M.
Armand David. In his account of the animal, Dr. Sclater f tells us that M. David first observed
it whilst looking over the wall of the Imperial Hunting-park at Pekin, to which no European is
allowed admission. There it is found in a semi-domesticated state, its native place probably being
Eastern Mantchuria. In 1869, Sir Rutherford Alcock succeeded in sending a living pair to
England, which were exhibited for some time in the London Zoological Gardens, and from which
much information has been obtained with reference to their habits. It resembles the Swamp Deer of
India (Rucervus Duvaucelli) in its proportions and size, standing nearly four feet at the shoulder.
The legs are somewhat heavy and the feet expanded, but it is in its antlers that the Elaphure is quite
different from any other Deer. They are represented in the accompanying engraving, from which
the abrupt ascent of the beam, with an enormous back-tyne arising from the lower end, and no
brow-tyne, may be most clearly seen. The beam branches higher up, but its furcations follow none
of the ordinary rules of cervine antler-growth.

The body-colour of the animal is light and rufous, paler on the under parts. A black
line runs some way down the back, being most conspicuous at the shoulders. The tail is not
longer than in the Fallow Deer, and is hairy at the tip. Mr. Swinhoe tells us that the Chinese
name is Sze-poo-seang, which signifies " like none of the four " — to wit, the Horse, the Cow, the Deer,
or the Goat.

* Elaphurus Davidianus. t Transactions of the Zoological Society, Vol. VII. p. 333.

CHINESE ELAPHURE.

66

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE REINDEER.*

The Reindeer, which differs from all its allies in that the females carry antlers as well as the
males, forms so important an element in the social economy of the Laplanders that more has been
written on its habits than of any other species of the family. It is found distributed throughout
the Arctic regions of Europe, Asia, and America, extending farther south in the last-named of these
in the same way as the isothermal line of 32° Fahr., as might be expected from the relation
borne by its economy to its temperature. In Spitzbergen, Finland, and Lapland it attains the

KEIXDEEH AT A LAPP ENCAMPMENT.

greatest size, being inferior in strength and stature in Norway and Sweden. In Iceland it has been
introduced and thrives. The Caribou is the name by which it goes in the New "World, where it
extends through Greenland, Canada, and Newfoundland. The horns of the American variety differ
from those of the Old World so much that it is not difficult to recognise their origin ; nevertheless,
attempts which have been made to establish the specific difference of the two forms have not found
much favour with natui'alists generally.

The animal, with a characteristic deer-like form, is powerfully built, with short limbs and heavy
neck. The feet have the false hoofs well developed, while the fissure between the median toes is
so much extended upwards, and the ligaments which bind them together are so loose, that their
hoofs spread out considerably when pressed upon the ground, and so increase the surface for
support upon the yielding snow — their most frequent foothold. Upon raising the limbs in rapid
action these hoofs make a sharp snap at the moment when they close together.

* Rangifer tarandus.

REINDEER.

08 NATURAL HISTORY.

Individuals vary much in tint as well as with the season. Some are entirely white, whilst in
winter the coat is always lighter than in summer. Deep brown is the prevailing tint, and there
is generally a band of white above each hoof. As in the Elk — another Arctic ruminating animal —
the muffle of the nose is covered with hair, and is not moist. The fur is of two sorts — an outer
covering of longer, harsh, brittle hair, and an under-coat of closely-matted and much finer, wool-like
texture, which serves as an excellent protection against the inclement temperature, and makes the
skins so valuable for articles of clothing in the Arctic regions.

The antlers are strikingly large for the size of their owners. Although they vary considerably
in detail, the general plan of their construction is always the same, agreeing with that of the Vir-
ginian Deer and the Barasingha. As in the Wapiti and Red Deer, the brow-antlers on each side are,
however, re-duplicated, so that a bez is present. This, as well as the brow-tyne, is branched, or
palmated, wherein it is peculiar ; and further, in the Caribous one of the brow-tynes is generally
aborted, in order to allow of the great development of its fellow of the opposite side into a palmated
triangle, flattened from side to side, directed straight forward in the middle line of the head, and
attached by its apex to the beam. The function of this share-like expansion in the economy of the
animal can hardly be other than to remove the snow which covers its favourite food, each move-
ment of the lowered head from side to side effecting this result. The beam is lengthy, curved boldly
upwards and forwards, with a small snag at the back, about half-way from each end. Its
extremity is branched and often palmated, much like the horns of the Fallow Deer. The beam may
reach a length not more than three inches less than five feet. In the females the same plan of
structure of the antlers exists as in the males. They are considerably smaller in every respect, more
slender, and scarcely palmated, if at all so.

The Woodland Caribou and the Barren-ground Caribou are the names given to a larger and
a smaller breed in Canada. Both are hunted by the Indians for their flesh as well as for their
hides, the venison obtained from the latter being held in high estimation. The pounded meat, when
mixed with melted fat, is known as pemmican. The tongue is esteemed a great delicacy.

The Reindeer, from the nature of the country it inhabits, is compelled to lead a migratory life,
in which the natives of Lapland, who have to depend entirely for their sustenance on the animal, have
to participate. Troops of them during the winter months reside in the woods, feeding on the
lichens that depend from boughs of the trees, as well as on those that grow upon the ground
beneath. In the spring they repair to the mountains in order to escape the swarms of stinging
Gnats and Gad-flies which infest the air, and inflict wounds in the skin of most serious severity.

THE AMERICAN DEER.

In America there are several species of Deer which differ considerably from those of the Old
World. In our remarks on these animals we will not include among them the Wapiti and the Elk :
the Wapiti, because it is nothing but a large representative of the Red Deer of Great Britain ;
the Elk, because it stands very much by itself, at the same time that it is found in the Arctic
Old World as well as in America. We ourselves think that the Reindeer conforms to the American
type of structure, and have therefore described it in relation with the New World Deer, although most
authors class it not far from the Elk.

None of the typical Deer of America attain any considerable size, and their antlers are decidedly
small when contrasted with those of the Old World. The species which will be first described is
the VIRGINIAN DEER, which is the " Common " Deer of North America, and is slightly smaller than
the Fallow Deer. Its colour is uniform, being of a reddish-yellow in summer and light grey in
winter. The individual members of the species are small in Mexico, and get larger as they live more
north. The antlers belong to the extreme rucervine type, their beams turning outwards and forwards
in a very characteristic manner, with several points directed upwards from their convex border. The
brow-tyne is short and pointed upwards instead of forwards. The tail is nearly a foot and a half in
length. In disposition it is timid and wild, and is therefore domesticated with difficulty. Its flesh
was in times gone by one of the staple articles of food of the aborigines. Audubon and other
authors have described in detail the various modes employed in capturing these Deer, including the
" still hunt," "jack hunt," " fire hunt," &c., according to the nature of the country.

THE AMERICAN DEER.

69

The MULE DEER and the BLACK-TAILED DEER are not far distantly related North American
species. The former is slightly larger than the Virginian and of a heavier build. Its tail is short,
tufted, and white ; its colour a dark grey in winter, dull yellow in summer. Its name was suggested
from its lengthy ears. The latter is smaller, and has shorter legs. Its colour is tawny grey, the
short tail black above and white below. Of both these species the antlers differ from the Virginian
Deer in detail, only the brow tyne of the Black-tailed species being rudimentary, at the same time
that the snags on the convex margin of the beam spring from a single stem instead of independently.
In the Mule Deer they are smaller and less branched. Lord Walsingham, in writing of them, remarks,
" They appear to frequent the thick willow clumps and other brushwood bordering the streams and
swamps. They were extremely difficult to distinguish among the foliage, and remarkably quick when
alarmed. As they bound off over logs and fallen trees, or dash through the thicket, they have a habit
of swinging their broad white tails with a conspicuous nourish, which becomes annoying to a sports-
man, to whom they never afford anything but a snap shot, which is very apt to fail."

GUAZUTI DEER.

The GUAZUS are small South American Deer with large ears and short tails, in which the antlers
want the brow tyne, and have the beam branched in almost exactly the same way as Schomburgk's Deer
when not quite full grown. The Guazuti, one of them, is not more than two feet six inches in height.

The BROCKETS are equally small, with minute antlers of a most simple form — whence the name —
they being unbranched and shelving backwards. The colour of the fur in the Guava Viva and Brazi-
lian Brocket is pale brown, and shining red-brown in the Red Brocket and the Eyebrowed Brocket.

The VENADA, OR PUDU DEER, is not bigger than Reeves' Muntjac or a Hare. Its colour is
red-brown, and it has minute antlers, not far separated from one another. It inhabits the western
coast of South America.

THE CHEVROTAINS, OR DEERLETS.*

It is not until within the last few years that naturalists have separated off from the true
Deer a group of diminutive animals which look like them in miniature, but are entirely destitute
of antlers. These little creatures, known as Chevrotains, for which we take the liberty of coining
the name Deerlets, were placed together with the Musk into a single section, characterised by the
fact that the males possess large tusks situated in the upper jaw, which project downwards, and
are conspicuous even when the mouth is fully closed, grooving the lower lip on each side. Now,

104

* Tragulidce.

70

NATURAL HISTORY.

however, they are entirely separated off from the Deer and Ox tribes, to constitute an independent
family, because of the peculiarities of many of their parts. They have a complex stomach composed
of paunch, honeycomb-bag, and reed, the manyplies being so much reduced in size, that it may prac-
tically be said not to be present.

From the bones of their feet it is evident, too, that they cannot be correctly classed with the
more ordinary Ruminants, and that they tend towards the other family of the Cloven-hoofed Ungu-
lata, namely, the Swine. Each foot of the common Pig possesses four toes, that corresponding to
our thumb in the fore-limb, and to our great toe in the hind being absent, as has been previously
explained. The bones of all these toes are quite separate from one another, as in those of man, at
the same time that those of the outer and inner digits in each limb are smaller than those which bear
the larger hoofs. In the true Ruminants and in the Camel tribe these larger toes are partly fused
together, the bones of digit three and digit four corresponding to those situated in the human palm
and sole, being joined from end to end to form the "cannon-bone;" whilst those of digit two and

JAVAN DEERLET.

digit five are reduced to mere imperfect splinters, or are sometimes altogether lost, as in the Gii'affe
and in the Camel. Now, in the Deerlets, these bones are not blended at all in the fore-limbs of the
"Water Deerlet of West Africa, in which, as in all the other species, digit two and digit five are
perfect from end to end. They therefore stand, in this respect, as in othei-s easily explained, inter-
mediate between the Swine and the true Ruminants.

All the Deerlets are particularly delicate, diminutive, and graceful animals, the slendemess and
clear-cut outline of their limbs being exceedingly striking. With bodies as big as that of a Hare or
Rabbit, their legs are not so thick as a cedar pen-holder or a clay pipe-stem. Their proportions
are very much those of the small Water Bucks of Africa, and of many of the kinds of Deer, espe-
cially the Hog Deer of India, in which the body, as in them, is not carried very high above the
ground. The want of antlers in both sexes makes them resemble Hinds rather than Stags at first
sight, whilst their elegantly-pointed noses, and large dark eyes, add to their general interesting
appearance.

Of the Deerlets there are five species — the Meminna, the Kanchil, the Javan, the Stanleyan,
.and the Water Deerlets. The first four are confined to India, Ceylon, Malacca, Java, and Sumatra,
the last being found in Sierra Leone and the Gambia district. These differ slightly in their size and
markings, the MEMINNA, or INDIAN DEERLET, being nearly eighteen inches long, and about eight
inches high at the shoulder, the tail being very short. As in its allies, the white spotting of the
surface is disturbed by two or more streaks of the same which run along the flanks.

The JAVAN DEERLET, known sometimes as the Napu, is smaller than the preceding. It is of

THE D EER LETS,

11

a rust-brown colour above and white beneath, three white stripes radiating backwards, one along
the middle line, and the other two laterally from the front of the neck. The short tail is •white-
ripped. The naked and moist muzzle is black. The Javan Deerlet is gentle in disposition, and some-
what uninteresting in captivity. Specimens are frequently brought to Great Britain, and live if
carefully protected from the cold.

The KANCHIL is still smaller in size, at the same time that it is darker in colour, especially
along the back. Its activity and cunning are remarkable, so much so that Sir Stamford Raffles, in
his original description of the creature, tells us that it is a common Malay expression, with reference
to a great rogue, that he is " as cunning as a Kanchil." Feigning to be dead when caught, its captor
incautiously releases his hold, when the animal is immediately up and away before any means can

STANLEYAX DEEULET.

be employed for its recapture. It is also said that when pursue! by Dogs it will jump up towards a
bough, and there hook itself by means of its lengthy tusks until its tormentors have passed under it.

The STAXLEYAN DEERLET was named after the grandfather of the present Earl of Derby, in
whose menagerie at Knowsley the species was first recognised.

The WATER DEERLET of West Africa is slightly larger than the Meminna. Its deep glossy
brown coat is also streaked with white lines, and is irregularly spotted.

THE CAMEL TRIBE, OR TYLOPODA.

The name Tylopoda, by which the Camels, together with the Llamas, are known to naturalists^

is derived from two Greek words (TV\OS, a knot or callus, and
TTOVS, a foot), signifying that the feet, instead of being protected
by hoofs, are covered with a hardened skin, enclosing the-
cushion-like soles of the feet, which are so constructed that
they spread out laterally when brought in contact with the
ground, an arrangement of evident advantage to desert-ranging
animals. The tips of each of the two toes are protected by nails,
as can be seen in the accompanying drawing.

There are also other points in which these creatures differ
from the more ordinary Ruminantia, In the front of the upper
jaw there are two teeth — one on each side, placed laterally —
FOOT OF CAMEL. which correspond to the side cutting teeth in man, and to

72

NATURAL HISTORY.

the similarly-situated " nippers " of the Horse. In the Deer, Ox, Sheep, and their allies there is not
a trace of these, as has been previously explained (page 4). As to the limbs, it may also be men-
tioned that the true
knee-joints — which in
animals like the Horse
are almost entirely hid-
den within the general
skin-covering of the body
—are much more con-
spicuous and free.

The stomach is pecu-
liar; it Avants the "many-
plies," or third compart-
ment, but possesses the
"paunch," "honeycomb-
bag," and "abomasum,"
the last-named of which
is of great length. In
t'ie walls of the paunch
Fig. A. — STOMACH OF THE LLAMA. there are present two

extensive collections of

" water- cells," which serve their owners in good stead whilst traversing the desert or residing in
regions where fresh water is not to be procured except with difficulty.

Fig. A is a view of the stomach from below (or, in other words, from the side farthest from
the backbone), in which it is seen that the clusters of water-cells (a and b) are arranged, one (a)
the larger, along part of the right border of the viscus, whilst the second (b) is transverse, the
remainder of the walls
being smooth. These /'I^WMiK!
water-cells, seen from
within in Fig. B, are
formed by the develop-
ment of septa, both
transverse and longi-
tudinal, in the sub-
stance of the paunch-
wall. They are deep
and narrow, much like
the cells of a honey-
comb, and have a
muscular membrane
covering their mouths,
in which there is an
oval orifice opposite
to each compartment
capable of being further
dilated or completely
closed, probably at the
will of the animal.
When fully distended,
these paunch-cells in Fig. B. — WATER CELLS OF THE CAMEL'S STOMACH.

the Arabian Camel are

capable of storing a gallon and a half of water. The second stomach, or reticulum, is also modified
in the same direction, the usually extremely shallow cells being deep, at the same time that food is

THE (TRUE] CAMEL.

73

never found in them after death. Of the last compartment, or " abomasum," it may be noted that
it is nearly cylindrical in shape, its walls being very muscular. It is in this stomach that true
digestion is carried on.

Of the Camels two species are known, differing in the number of the humps upon their backs.
Nothing is known of either variety in the wild state. We will commence with the descrip-
tion of

THE (TRUE) CAMEL.*
The One-humped Camel of Arabia is frequently termed the Dromedary, but this latter name

HEAD OF THE

is correctly applicable only to the swift variety of the species which is employed for riding, the
heavier-built One-humped Pack-Camel not being included under the designation.

It is the Arabian Camel — the Ship of the Desert — which is much more serviceable to man than its
Bactrian ally. Its distribution has extended westwards along North Africa, from which attempts have
been made to introduce it into Spain. Eastwards it is found as far as India.

In the Camel the limbs and neck are lengthy. A single bulky hump is present on the middle
of the back, composed of fatty cells held together by strong bands of fibrous tissue which cross
in all directions. Like all similar accumulations, it varies much in size according to the condition
of the animal, dwindling almost to nothing after protracted hard work and bad feeding, being firm
and full in times of ease and plenty. When on the point of commencing a long journey, there

* Camelus dromcd iriw.

74

NATURAL HISTORY

is nothing on. which an Arab lays so much stress as on the condition of his Camel's hump, which,
from what we have just said, must be considered to be nothing more or less than a reserved store
of food.

Upon the chest, the elbows, the fore-knees (true wrists), knees, and hocks, callous pads of har-
dened skin are found, upon which the creature supports its weight whilst kneeling down, a position
in which it always rests, and one which it assumes when being loaded. These pads are present
in the new-born Camel-calf, proving, contrary to the view maintained by some, that they are not
the direct result of pressure, but are special provisions in accordance with the requirements of the
species, arrived at by a process of natural selection, those individuals alone surviving in which
there is the power of resisting the injurious effects of protracted sti'ain upon a few spots of the
skin.

The coat is, in the summer, scanty ; in the winter, of considerable length, and matted into
lumps. The two-toed feet are very much expanded, and tipped with a pair of small hoofs. The
lips are covered with hair, the upper one being split up for some distance in the middle line. The
nostrils, when closed, are linear, and from their construction prevent sand from entering the air-
passages when the animal desires it. The tail is of fair length, reaching to the ankle-joint. There
is a fixity about its attitudes, and a formality about its paces, which is quite characteristic. Its
power of enduring fatigue upon its scanty fare, whilst carrying a weight as great as 600 Ibs., together
with its endurance, makes it invaluable in its desert home.

A stolid obstinacy is its usual disposition. Mr. Palgrave, criticising the reputation, that the
animal has for docility, remarks : — " If docile means stupid, well and good ; in such a case the Camel
is the very model of docility. But if the epithet is intended to designate an animal that takes an.
interest in its rider so far as a beast can ; that in some way understands his intentions, or shares them
in a subordinate fashion ; that obeys from a sort of submissive or half fellow-feeling with his master,

(TRUE) CAMEL.

THE (TKUE) CAMEL.

75

BACTKIAX CAMEL.

like the Horse or Elephant : then I say that the Camel is by no means docile— very much the contrary.
He takes no heed of his rider, pays no attention whether he be on his back or not, walks straight on
when once set agoing, merely because he is too stupid to turn aside ; and then, should some tempting-
thorn or green branch allure him out of the path, continues to walk on in the new direction simply
because he is too dull to turn back into the right road. In a word, he is from first to last an
undomesticated and savage animal rendered serviceable by stupidity alone, without much skill on his
master's part, and any co-operation on his own, save that of an extreme passiveness. Neither attach-
ment nor even habit impresses him ; never tame, though not wide awake enough to be exactly wild."

Nevertheless the animal gives indications of intelligence when badly treated, if we may judge
from its revengeful nature, well illustrated in the following account : —

" A valuable Camel, working in an oil-mill, was severely beaten by its driver. Perceiving that
the Camel had treasured up the injury, and was only waiting a favourable opportunity for revenge, he
kept a strict watch upon the animal. Time passed away ; the Camel, perceiving that it was watched,
was quiet and obedient, and the driver began to think that the beating was forgotten, when one night,
after the lapse of several months, the man was sleeping on a raised platform in the mill, whilst, as is
customary, the Camel was stabled in a corner. Happening to awake, the driver observed by the
bright moonlight that, when all was quiet, the animal looked cautiously around, rose softly, and
stealing towards a spot where a bundle of clothes and a bernous, thrown carelessly on the ground,
resembled a sleeping figure, cast itself with violence upon them, rolling with all its weight, and tearing
them most viciously with its teeth. Satisfied that its revenge was complete, the Camel was returning
to its corner, when the driver sat up and spoke. At the sound of his voice, and perceiving the mistake

76

NATURAL HISTORY.

it had made, the animal was so mortified at the failure and discovery of its scheme, that it dashed its
head against the wall and died on the spot."

THE BACTRIAN CAMEL.*

The Two-humped Camel is found in the regions to the east and north of the home of its One-
humped ally, extending as far as Pekin and Lake Baikal. It it a heavier, shorter-legged, and thicker-
coated species, at the same time that the feet are more adapted to a less yielding soil from their greater
callousness. The hair is specially abundant upon the top of the head, the arm, wrist, throat, and
humps. There is no variety of this species corresponding to the Dromedary One-humped Camel.

HUANACO ATTACKED BY A PUMA.

THE LLAMAS.f

The Llamas, when the term is employed in its wider sense, include the American representatives
of the Camel tribe, none of which have any trace of the dorsal hump or humps found in their Old
World allies. They are mountain animals, found in the Cordilleras of Peru and Chili, in this
respect also differing from the desert-loving Camels, with which they agree in all important structural
peculiarities, including the stomach, lips, nostrils, and coat. The feet are somewhat modified in
accordance with the rocky nature of the mountain regions which they inhabit, the sole-pads being
less considerable, and almost completely divided into two hard cushions, with a long and hooked nail
in the front of each.

Llamas were" found domesticated when South America was first discovered by the Spaniards,

* Camelus bactrianus.

t Aucftcnia.

THE LLAMAS.

77

and as there were then no Mules or Horses there, these creatui-es were employed exclusively as
beasts of burden, as well as for their flesh, their wool, and hides. Their disposition and their habits
also resemble those of the Camel. They have their own peculiar gait and speed, from which they
cannot well be made to vary. When irritated they foam at the mouth and spit, sulking and lying down
when overloaded. As beasts of draught their most important use is to convey the ores from the mines of
Potosi and elsewhere in the Andean range. From the account of Augustin de Zerate, who was a Peru-
vian Spanish Government official in the middle of the sixteenth century, we learn that " in places
where there is no snow the natives want water, and to supply this deficiency they fill the skins of
Sheep [Llamas being meant] with water, and make other living Sheep carry them, for it must be
remarked that these Slieep of Peru are large enough to serve as beasts of burden. They can carry
about one hundred pounds or more, and the Spaniards used to ride them, and they would g^ four

LLAMA.

or five leagues a day. "When they are weary they lie down upon the ground, and as there is no
means of making them get up, either by beating or assailing them, the load must of necessity be taken
off. When there is a man on one of them, if the beast is tired he turns his head round and discharges
his saliva, which has an offensive odour, into the rider's face. These animals are of great use and
service to their masters, for their wool is very good and fine, particularly that of the breed called
Pacas, which have very long fleeces ; and the expense of their food is trifling, as a handful of maize
suffices them, and they can go four or five days without water. Their flesh is as good as that of
the fat Sheep of Castile."

It is somewhat difficult to decide exactly the relations of the wild to the domesticated species
of the Llamas. It seems most probable that there are two true species, known as the Huanacos
(Lama huanacos) and the Vicuna (Lama vicugna), of the former of which the true Llama is a
domesticated variety, as the Alpaca is of the latter.

The HUANACO — or Guanaco, as it is sometimes written — has a more elongated head and more
slender legs than the Vicuna, at the same time that there are elongated warty tubercles upon the
hinder limbs not found in the latter species. Its height at the shoulder is three feet and a half.
The fur is uniformly brown, at the same time that it is rough and short. It can be domesticated
without difficulty. Its tail is short and hairy. Its native haunts are the highlands of Peru and
Chili, as well as farther south, where it lives in herds, which descend to the valleys in the winter
105

78 NATURAL HISTORY .

months. When hunted they have a habit of now and again facing their pursuers, after which they
gallop off afresh. When attacked at close quarters they defend themselves by striking with their
fore-feet. From Mr. Darwin's account of the animal in the " Voyage of the Beagle" we learn that
it " abounds over the whole of the temperate parts of South America, from the wooded islands of
Tierra del Fuego, the rough Patagonia, the hilly parts of the La Plata, Chili, even to the Cordillera
of Peru. Although preferring an elevated site, it yields in this respect to its near relative the
Vicuna ; on the plains of Southern Patagonia we saw them in greater numbers than, in any other
part. Generally they go in small herds, from half a dozen to thirty together, but on the banks of
the St. Cruz we saw one herd which must have contained at least five hundred. On the northeni
shores of the Strait of Magellan they are also very numerous. Generally the Guanacoes are wild
and extremely wary. The sportsman frequently receives the first intimation of their presence by
hearing from a distance the peculiar shrill neighing note of alarm. If he then looks attentively, he
will perhaps see the herd standing in a line on some distant hill. On approaching them, a few more
squeals are given, and then off they set at an apparently slow — but really quick — canter along some
narrow beaten track to a neighbouring hill. If, however, by chance he should abruptly meet a single
animal, or several together, they will generally stand motionless, and intently gaze at him ; then,
perhaps, move on a few yards, turn round, and look again. What is the cause of this difference
in their shyness 1 Do they mistake a man in the distance for their chief enemy, the Puma, or
does curiosity overcome their timidity 1 That they are curious is certain ; for if a person lies on
the ground and plays strange antics, such as throwing up his feet in the air, they will almost
always approach by degrees to reconnoitre him. . . . On the mountains of Tierra del Fuego,
and in other places, I have more than once seen a Guanaco, on being approached, not only neigh and
squeal, but prance and leap about in the most ridiculous manner, apparently in defiance as a chal-
lenge. . . . The Guanacoes readily take to the water; several times at Port Valdez they were
seen swimming from island to island. Byron, in his ' Voyage,' says he saw them drinking salt
water. Some of our officers likewise saw a herd drinking the briny fluid from Salina, near Cape
Blanca. I imagine, in several parts of the country, if they do not drink salt water they drink, none
at all. In the middle of the day they frequently roll in the dust in saucer-shaped hollows. . . .
The Guanacoes appear to have favourite spots for dying in. On the banks of the St. Cruz the
ground was actually white with bones in certain circumscribed places, which were generally bushy,
and all near the river. On one such spot I counted between ten and twenty heads, some gnawed, as
if by beasts of prey."

The Domestic Llama resembles its wild ancestor in most respects. Its colour may, however, be
variegated, or even white. Its woolly coat is longer, but not so fine, and when it is removed by
shearing the animal is conspicuously spotted.

The VICUNA is a smaller animal of a light lion-brown colour, with a short and hairy face ; its
neck is lengthy, as in its allies ; its height about two feet six inches. Its wool is particularly
fine, and has been much employed, undyed, as a material for clothing. It is active and spiteful,
inhabiting a region higher and therefore colder than the Huanaco.

The Alpaca is its domestic form, with thicker and much darker wool, as well as shorter limbs.
Its colour is often nearly black, or black varied with white or brown.

The manufacture of alpaca stuffs dates from the year 1836, when Mr. (afterwards Sir) Titus Salt
commenced weaving the unusually long-haired wool, which at the time found 110 sale in the markets
on account of its not being suited to the existing combing apparatus. Since that period alpaca
has been much employed as a fabric, possibly to be again replaced in great measure by the sheep wool
of the Australian and other British colonies.

FOSSIL RUMINANTIA.

The study of fossil fornis throws as much light upon the development of existing types of
Ruminantia as it does in the case of the Perissodactyla. Until the last of the three great geologic
epochs none have been found; whilst in the Tertiary strata from Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene
formations, numerous species are known, resembling existing types more closely as they are discovered
in the more recently deposited strata.

FOSSIL EUMINANTIA. 79

As might be anticipated from what has been said above, and as is indicated in the table of
classification of the Artiodactyla on page 336, Vol. II. , the oldest forms of cloven-hoofed Mammalia
must have been intermediate in structure between the Pigs and Ruminants. Such a creature existed
at the close of the Eocene period in Chcerapotamus, discovered first by the illustrious Cuvier in the
palteontologically most interesting gypsum beds at Montmartre. Another specimen has also been
found near Hyde, in the Isle of Wight. The creature was pig-like in size, and in the tuberculated
structure of its grinders, the parts, together with the lower jaw, alone discovered as yet.

Hyopotamus, Dichobune, Xiphodon, and Cainotherium were four-toed Upper Eocene transitional

SKELETON OF THE IRISH ELK.

forms approaching the Ruminants, but all possessing upper cutting-teeth, the last-named differing but
little from the Deerlets. Oreodon is a genus of small pig-like animals, appearing first in the Miocene
of North America, and evidently closely related to the Ruminantia. Sivatherium was a gigantic
Ruminant with four horns in pairs, and evidently a trunk. Its remains are found in the Miocene
deposits of the Sewalik hills of India, Deer, Oxen, Goats, and Sheep first appeared in the Pliocene
period, as did Camels and Llamas. Antelopes and Giraffes existed earlier, namely, in the Late
Miocene. It is a fact of interest that Camels are abundant in the Miocene and Pliocene of North
America, whilst they are only very scantily distributed in the same strata of the Old World, Arabia
and Asia being their sole living habitat.

Among the most interesting of the Pleistocene species which has been discovered in Great
Britain is the gigantic Irish deer, a species originally included with the Elk, on account of the pal-
mation and outward inclination of its huge antlers, in some specimens only a few inches less than

80

NATURAL HISTORY.

eleven feet in span, and each more than five feet long in a straight line from burr to tip. In general
form the antlers do not strikingly differ from those of the Common Fallow Deer. The brow-tyne is
quite simple at its base, and generally slightly bifid at its extremity, there being no true "bez." The
beam is cylindroid as far as the insignificant " trez," beyond which it is flattened out into a gigantic
triangular expansion, or " palm," with the free base developed into snags, usually about seven in
number, and a fairly independent posterior tyiie.

IRISH ELK. (Restored.)

At the withers the skeleton, which is quite cervine in eveiy detail, measures as much as six feet ;
its great peculiarity in the male being the large size of the cervical or neck vertebrae, necessarily extra
strong that they may support the massive antlers, about seventy pounds in weight. In the females,
which had no cranial appendages, the vertebrae of the neck were one-third smaller.

The accompanying figure is an attempt to represent the species under consideration, as it must
have appeared when living. It is worthy of note, however, that as the coat of the Fallow Deer,
which may be its nearest ally, is brilliantly spotted, the great Irish Deer may have resembled it in
that respect.

The first fairly complete skeleton of the species was found in the Isle of Man. Others have been
obtained from Waterford and elsewhere in Ireland.

A. H. GARROD.

PHAI1UE DOG.

ORDER RODENTIA.

CHAPTEE I.

INTRODUCTION— THE SQUIRREL, MARMOT, ANOMALURE, HAPLODONT, AND

BEAVER FAMILIES.

Character of the Order— A well-defined Group —Teeth Evidence — Kinds and Number of Teeth — The Incisors : their Growth,
Renewal, and Composition — The Molars —The Gnawing Process — Skeleton — Brain — Senses — Body — Insectivora
and Rodentia— Food of Rodents— Classification— THE SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS— Characteristics— THE
SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS — SciURiD^E — Distinctive Features — THE COMMON SQUIRREL — Form — Distribution —
Food— Bad Qualities— Habits— THE GREY SQUIRREL— THE Fox SQUIRREL— Flying Squirrels— Their Parachute
Membrane — THE TAGUAN — Appearance — Habits— Other Species — THE POLATOUCHE — THE ASSAPAN — The Genus Xerus
— THE GROUND SQUIRRELS — THE COMMON CHIPMUNK— THE MARMOTS— Distinguishing Features — THE SPERMOPHILES
— THE GOPHER — THE SISEL, OR SUSLIK — THE BARKING SQUIRRELS — THE PRAIRIE DOG — Description— Species —
Habits— Burrows— Fellow-inmates in their " Villages "—THE TRUE MARMOTS— THE BOBAC— THE ALPINE MARMOT
— THE WOODCHUCK — THE HOARY MARMOT, OR WHISTLER— ANOMALURIDJ5 — Tail Peculiarity — Distinctive
Features— HAPLODONTIDJE— Description— THE SEWELLEL— CASTORID^E— THE BEAVER— Skeletal Peculiarities
- General Form — Appe-i ranee — Distribution— The Beavers of the Old and New World — Habits — Wonderful Sagacity
— The Building Instinct — Their Method of Working — The various Stages — Their Lodges — Their Dams— Activity by
Night-Flesh— Hunted— The Castoreum.

WHILE the last few chapters have been devoted to orders which contain the largest and most powerful
of terrestrial mammalia, we have now to treat of a group, all the members of which are of com-
paratively small size. "Mice, rats, and such small deer," to use Shakspere's phrase, make up a
great proportion of the order Rodentia. The biggest of them is only about the size of a small
Pig; and perhaps the common House Rat, or, at any rate, the common Squirrel, may be taken
as showing the average dimensions of a Rodent. But, although from this point of view they

f2

NATURAL HISTORY.

6KULL OF THE TAGUAX, A FLYING SQUIRREL.

may be looked upon as " a feeble folk," their numerous species render them a most important
section of the mammalian fauna of nearly all countries, and this importance is greatly increased,,
practically, by the immense number of individuals by which each species is usually represented.

The Rodentia, or gnawing mammals — GLIRES, as Linnaeus and some modern zoologists call

them — notwithstanding the great number of the species,
and the immense variety of forms which they display, con-
stitute, perhaps, the most definitely circumscribed order of
the Mammalia. In most other groups of the same value,
we find that some types exhibit divergent characters,
which render it difficult to frame a general description of
the order which shall include them ; or else some species,
present a marked tendency towards some other order ;
but in the case of the Rodents, we never have any
difficulty, a cursory inspection of the dentition is always,
sufficient to decide whether a quadruped belongs to the
Rodentia or not; and in spite of an almost infinite variety

of form, the structure of the rest of the organism is most clearly in accordance with the evidence
derived from the teeth.

The teeth are only of two kinds — incisors and grinders (see the above figure of the skull of the
Taguan) — and the number of efficient teeth of the former kind is never more than two in each
jaw. Almost throughout the order, indeed, there are actually, even from the first, only two incisors
present; but in the Hares and Rabbits, and some allied forms, there are in "the upper jaw, in
addition to the working teeth, a pair of rudimentary incisors,* placed immediately behind the
large ones, but quite incapable of taking any part in the business of gnawing, for which the
latter are so admirably fitted. Their presence is, however, of interest, as indicating the direction
in which an alliance with other forms of Mammalia more abundantly supplied with teeth is to be
sought.

The great incisors, which are characteristic of the Rodents, exhibit the following peculiarities : —
They possess no roots, but spring from a permanent pulp, so that they continue growing during;
the whole life of the animal ; and their form, and
that of the cavity which constitutes their socket, is
always that of a segment of a circle,t in consequence
of which, they always protrude from the front of the
jaws in the same direction, and meet at the same angle.
By this means, as the teeth are worn away at their
summits by iise in gnawing, a fresh supply of tooth is
continually being pushed forward to take the place of
the portion thus removed, and, in fact, so intimately
are the two functions of use and growth correlated in
the teeth of these animals, that if by chance one of
the incisors should get broken, or the natural opposition
of these teeth should be disturbed in consequence of
injury to the jaw, the teeth, thus deprived of their
natural check, continue growing, and, following the
curve of their sockets, gradually form circular tusks, which must always be greatly in the way of the
animal when feeding, and sometimes, by actually penetrating again into the mouth, cause its death by
absolute starvation. The teeth themselves are composed of dentine, coated along the front surface with
a layer of hard enamel, which substance is wanting on the other surfaces of the teeth, except in the
Hares, Rabbits, and other forms with additional rudimentary incisors in the upper jaw, in which, as
further evidence of their relationship to the other Mammalia, the whole surface of the incisors is
encased in enamel, although this coat is excessively thin except on the front or outer face. The purpose

* In the young there are four of these small additional teeth, but the outer pair disappear after a short time.
. f The upper teeth always constitute a larger segment of a smaller circle than the lower ones.

DENTITION OF THE HAKE.

CHARACTERS OF THE RODEXT ORDER.

of this structure of the incisors is easily understood. In the action of gnawing, the dentine, which
forms the greater part of the tooth, is more easily abraded than the harder enamel, which is tln:s left
as a sharp front edge, to which the mass of dentine behind it, being worn away into a bevelled surface,
gives the necessary firmness and support, the whole forming a chisel-like instrument, constructed
precisely on the principle of those tools in. which a thin plate of hard steel forms the cutting edge, and
is stiffened by a thicker bevelled plate of softer iron.

The canine teeth are entirely deficient, and behind the incisors we find on each side a toothless gap
of considerable extent (see figures p. 82), beyond which come the gi-inding teeth. In these it is difficult
to recognise any distinction of molars and pre-molars; the whole series presents nearly the same structural
characters, and for all practical pui-poses we may speak of them as molars, although some zoologists
prefer to regard the three hindmost teeth on each side as true molars, and any others that may be
present as premolars. In one genus (Hydromys) the number of grinding teeth is reduced to two on
each side in each jaw ; in a great proportion of the species the number is three ; others have four or
five grinders on each side, either in one or both jaws (usually one more in the upper series) ; and the
largest number is possessed by the Hares and Rabbits, in which the upper jaw has six and the lower five
grinders.* The grinders are sometimes furnished with true roots, but are more commonly open belov/,
and provided, like the incisors, with a permanent pulp. They are sometimes tubercular, at least in
youth, but generally show a flat, worn surface with transverse bands, or re-entering folds, and sometimes
cylinders of enamel, which display a great variety of patterns. Sometimes the enamel is confined to
the surface of the tooth ; in other cases each tooth is, as it were, made up of two or more variously-
shaped tubular portions of enamel, filled up with dentine. Curiously enough, this structure of the
grinders, especially the arrangement of the transverse ridges and plates of enamel in these little animals,
reminds us strongly of the characters of the molars of the gigantic Proboscidea, in which, moreover,
the incisors also are represented by the permanently-growing tvisks.

The articulation of the lower jaw with the skull is peculiar, and in special relation to the armature
of teeth which we have described. Instead of articulating freely, as in man and many herbivorous
mammals, by which provision is made for a sort of rotatory action of the molars, or by a regular trans-
verse hinge-joint, as in the Carnivora, the articulating surfaces are elongated in a direction parallel to
the middle line of the skull, an ar-
rangement which, like that occurring in
Carnivora, has the effect of preventing
much lateral movement of the jaw ;
but, at the same time, the pits with
which the jaw articulates are open in
front, so that the jaw is allowed a
certain amount of play, backwards and
forwards. This motion greatly increases
the gnawing power of the large incisor
teeth.

The head in the Rodents is gene-
rally of small or moderate size in pro-
portion to the body, and the skull is
usually rather elongated, and flattened
on the upper surface. The tympanic
Imllae are generally of considerable size ;
the zygomatic arch is in nearly all cases
well developed; but the orbits of the
eyes are never closed behind, and only
in certain families is there even a small process of the zygomatic arch behind the orbits, as an
indication of possible closure. Of the vertebral column we need only say that the lumbar vertebrae
are remarkable for possessing large transverse processes directed forwards, and that the tail varies

* The genus Hdiophclius among the Mole Rats is described as having six molars on each side in both jaws ; but
the number in this genus appears to be variable, the sixth molar being often undeveloped.

SKELETON OP THE RABBIT.

84

NATURAL BISTORT.

I

greatly in length, being sometimes longer than the body, sometimes reduced to very small proportions,
whilst between these two extremes almost every grade of development may be met with.

The sternum, or breast-bone, is usually long and narrow. Collar-bones are nearly always present,
but in a few forms they become rudimentary, or even disappear altogether. The pelvis is long and
narrow. The limbs exhibit a very great variety in their development ; in many, the two pairs are

nearly equal in length, but in the majority the hind limbs are distinctly
longer and more powerful than their fellows, and in some groups they
attain a most disproportionate length, and serve almost exclusively as the
organs of locomotion. On the other hand, in the great majority of the
order, the fore limbs serve in a certain degree as hands, and are used for
holding the food to the mouth; and in these the radius and ulna, which are
always distinct bones, retain the power of rotation. The corresponding
bones in the hind limbs (tibia and fibula) are, on the contrary, firmly
anchylosed together in two great groups of the order. The feet have
usually five toes, but sometimes this number is reduced to four, or even
to three, in the hind feet. These toes are armed with claws, which,,
however, in one family, acquire more or less of the appearance of hoofs.

In point of intelligence the Rodentia do not stand high. The brain
is comparatively small, and the cerebral hemispheres show no traces of
those convolutions of the surface which are characteristic of most Mammals
(see figures). The Capybara alone is known to have a few convolutions.

BRAIN OF BEAVER (from above). * . /, . ". , , ,, , . , m, ,,

The cerebellum is entirely uncovered by the hemispheres. Ihe organs of

the senses are generally well developed, and the eyes and external ears, especially, are often of large
size. In the Mole Rats and some other burrowing forms, however, the external ears are entirely
wanting, and the eyes are very much reduced in size, and in some instances even concealed beneath the
skin. The intestinal canal is long, and in all but one family furnished with a distinct caecum.

The body in the Rodents is generally plump and short, and the head is borne upon a short neck.
The limbs also are usually short, so that the belly is close to the ground ; but in some cases all four
legs are of moderate length, or, as already stated, the hind legs are enormously developed, forming
powerful leaping organs. In general structure, as to a certain extent in habits, there is, in fact, a most
striking parallelism between the Rodentia and the Insectivora (see Vol. I., p. 343) ; in both we find
arboreal and terrestrial forms, and among the latter some specially organised for burrowing in the earth,
and others equally adapted for springing lightly over its surface ; a few, also, in both orders, are
aquatic. But here the parallel ceases. The dentition in
the two groups is widely divergent, and, as might be
anticipated from this circumstance, the food is very dif-
ferent ; for, although some Rodents, such as the common
Mouse and Rat, are omnivorous, there is no doubt that,
as a whole, the Rodents must be regarded as vegetarians.
Grass and the leaves of plants and trees furnish some of
them with nourishment ; whilst others feed upon fruits,
seeds, and nuts, in the consumption of which last the
powerful incisor teeth come into play. Many species lay
up stores of food for the winter season, of which they
pass more or less in a state of torpidity ; and some of these are provided with cheek-pouches, often
of considerable size, in which to convey their harvest into their store-houses.

As might be expected from the great number of species belonging to this order, and their general
uniformity of structure, their classification is a matter of some difficulty, and very different views as
to their relationships have prevailed at different times. Nowadays, however, zoologists have arrived
at something like uniformity of opinion in this matter, and except in some minor points they may be
said to be pretty nearly agreed. In the following sketch of the natural history of the Rodents
we shall follow the classification proposed by the late Mr. E. R. Alston in the Proceedings of the
Zoological Society. Mr. Alston accepted the division of the order into two primary groups (sub-orders),

BRAIN OF BEAVER. (Profile.)

THE SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.

85

proposed fifty years ago by Professor Gervais, and characterised by the number of incisor teeth.
The first of these sub-orders, which includes by far the majority of the Rodents, is formed by those
species which never at any period of their lives possess more than two incisors in the upper jaw,
and have the enamel on these strictly confined to the front surface of the teeth. These are
denominated SIHPLICIDENTATA, or SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS. In the second group, which includes
only the Hares, Rabbits, and Calling Hares, we have those species which in the adult state possess
four incisors in the upper jaw, namely, two large and efficient teeth, and behind these two small,
almost rudimentary incisors (see figure of the dentition of the Hare on p. 82). These are called
DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS, or DUPLICIDENTATA.

SUB-ORDER I.— SIMPLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.

Besides the characters derived from the number of incisor teeth above mentioned, several other
peculiarities of structure seem to show the existence of a decided difference between the Simple-toothed
and Double-toothed Rodents ; but most of these are of a rather abstruse nature, and need not be
noticed here, the most important additional distinctive characters of the former being that the
bony palate is well developed, and that the fibula does not articulate with the calcaneum, or heel-bone ;
whereas in the Double-toothed Rodents the palate is reduced to a mere bridge between the portions
of the upper jaw in which the teeth are inserted, and the fibula does articulate with the heel-bone.

The Simplicidentata include a great number of families, and various attempts have been made
to group these under larger heads ; but it must be confessed that, owing to the way in which the
families approach one another, it is difficult to bring them together in sections capable of being very
strictly defined. Certain broad principles of relationship are, however, generally recognised, and
Mr. Alston represented these by placing the Simple-toothed families under three great sections, the
first indicated by Mr. Waterhouse — the Squirrel-like, Mouse-like, and Porcupine-like Rodents.

The Squirrel-like Rodents have four molars on each side in the lower jaw, and either four or five
in the upper. When the latter number is present, the foremost tooth is smaller than the rest. The
fibula remains as a distinct bone through life, and is usually quite free, although sometimes attached
to the tibia at the extremity. The upper lip is usually cleft, the muffle is small and naked, and the
nostrils are comma-shaped, with the rounded part
above. The zygomatic arch is formed chiefly by the
process of the malar bone, which is not supported
below by a continuation of the zygomatic process of
the maxillary. The collar-bones are perfect. The
tail is usually cylindrical and hairy.

The Mouse-like Rodents agree with the pre-
ceding in the characters of the upper lip, muffle, and
nostrils, but they have the tibia and fibula completely
united for at least the last third of their length. The
zygomatic arch is slender, and the malar process rarely
extends so far forward as in the preceding group
and is generally supported below by a continuatio
of the maxillary process. The collar-bones are pel
feet, except in one very small family; and the tai
is cylindrical, and although sometimes hairy, more
commonly covered with scales arranged in rings.
The number of molar teeth in this section varies from
three to six * on each side in each jaw, but three is
the most usual number.

The Porcupine-like Rodents, with one exception,
have four molars on each side in both jaws; the fibula distinct throughout life; the upper lip
ft; the muffle clad with a velvety coat of fine hairs; and the nostrils either S-shaped or
The zygomatic arch is stout, and the malar process does not advance far forward, nor is it
supported below by the maxillary process.

* See Note on p. 83.

106

TEETH OF THE TAGUAN.

85

NATURAL HISTORY.

SECTION I.—(SCIUROMORPHA.) SQUIRREL-LIKE RODENTS.

FAMILY I.— SCIUKIIXaS.

This first family, which includes the true Squirrels and the Marmots, is distinguished from the
rest of the section by the possession of five rooted molars on each side of the upper jaw (see figure of

COMMON SQVIUREL.

the teeth on p. 85), the first being very small and sometimes deciduous, and four molars on each side of
the lower jaw, and by the presence on the skull and zygomatic arch of small processes, indicating
the posterior boundary of the orbits (see figure of the skull on p. 82). The molars are tubercular,
at least at first; but the summits of the tubercles are generally more or less worn down as the
animal increases in age.

THE SQUIRREL. 87

The true Squirrels, -which may be regarded as the types of this family, are distinguished by their
slender and graceful forms, and their long and generally bushy tails, the latter character having
originated their classical name of Sciurus, as a compound of two Greek words, indicating their
habit of carrying their tails thrown up, so as to shade the back. Our COMMOX SQUIRREL (Sciurus
vulgaris) may serve as a good example of this division of the family. It is too well known as a
pet to need any detailed description ; its elegant form and graceful movements, the rich brownish-
red colour of its upper surface, contrasting with the white of the belly, and the beautifully-pencilled
or tufted ears, which, combined with its bright black eye, give it such a lively appearance, must be
familiar to every one. "When full-grown, the Squirrel measures from eight to ten inches in length
of body, and has a tail seven or eight inches long. British specimens are generally smaller than
those from the Continent of Europe. It A-aries considerably in colour with the seasons, especially
in northern regions ; but even in Central Europe and in Britain the fur of the sides and back becomes
mixed with a certain quantity of greyish-white hairs in the winter, whilst in Lapland and Siberia the
whole upper surface acquires a grey tint at that season. In the summer also the ear-tufts diminish,
or altogether disappear. In the Alps and Pyrenees, there is a variety having the back of a dark
brown colour, speckled with yellowish-white. This has been described as a distinct species, under the
name of Sciurus alpinus.

The Common Squirrel is a widely-distributed species. It is abundant all over Europe, except,
according to Pallas, in the Crimea, and extends beyond the Ural Mountains through the whole length
of Southern Siberia to the Altai and the Amoor region. It occui's in the Caucasus, and probably in
Persia. Everywhere it haunts the woods and forests, living chiefly upon the trees, among the branches
of which it displays the most astonishing agility. On the ground — to which, however, it does not
often descend — it is equally quick in its movements. If alarmed under these circumstances, it dashes
off to the nearest ti-ee with lightning-like rapidity, and by the aid of its sharp claws rushes up the
trunk till it has reached what it considers a safe elevation, when the little sharp face and bright eyes
may be seen peeping at the intruder, apparently in triumph over his supposed disappointment.

The food of the Squirrel consists chiefly of nuts, beech-mast, acorns, and the young bark,
shoots, and buds of trees. In eating the former articles, they are held in the fore-paws, which thus
supply the place of hands, and the strong incisors soon make a way through the outer shells into
the contained kernels, which alone are eaten ; for in all cases in which the kernel is coated with a
coarse brown skin (as in the common hazel-nuts), the Squirrel carefully removes every particle of this
from the portions on which he feeds. The bark, buds, and young shoots of trees seem generally to
be attacked by the Squirrel when he finds a deficiency of other and more congenial nourishment ;
but this is so regulai-ly the case in the spring of the year, that these animals actually cause a great
amount of damage to the trees in forest regions. Hence, not unnaturally, the Squirrel is regarded
in forest countries as a most mischievous little animal, whose depredations are not to be condoned
on account of its elegant appearance and lively habits. As another unamiable quality, may be
mentioned its habit of plundering birds' nests and eating the eggs, which appears to be established
upon unquestionable evidence. In some northern regions the inhabitants turn their Squirrels to a
more profitable use than putting them, as we so often do, into a sort of treadmill. In Lapland and
some parts of Siberia, especially on the banks of the Lena, these animals are killed in great numbers
for the sake of their grey winter-coats, which, however, are not equal in beauty to those of the
North American Grey Squirrel.

The Squirrel passes the greater part of the winter in a torpid state, lying coiled up in some hole
of a tree, where its long bushy tail is of service in keeping it warm and comfortable. On fine and
warm days, however, it rouses itself from its slumbers ; and, as if foreseeing the occurrence of such
days, it lays up in the autumn stores of nuts, acorns, and beech-mast, upon which it can feed when
it wakes during the winter. This winter provision is not laid up all in one place, but stored away
in several different holes in trees surrounding the place of its own retreat.

Squirrels appear to be strictly monogamous, pairing for life, and constantly inhabiting the same
dwelling. The young, three or four in number, are produced in June, and for their reception the
parents prepare a very beautifully constructed nest, formed of interlaced moss, leaves, and vegetable
fibres, which is placed either in the hole of a tree, or in the fork between two branches. The young

88

NATURAL HISTORY.

Squirrels are very carefully attended by both parents, and the family remains united until the
following spring, when the young go out to find partners, and settle themselves in the world.

The Common Squirrel may serve as an example of the whole genus Sciurus, which includes
the ordinary Tree Squirrels, the species of which are very numerous, probably more than one
hundred, and distributed over nearly all parts of the world. The species are most numerous in the
warm Oriental regions, in India, and the countries and islands lying to the east of it, from which
nearly fifty species have been recorded. The northern parts of the Old World only possess half a
dozen species, but North America has about eighteen, many of which are considerably larger than,
the European Squirrel. The most striking of the North American species are the GREY SQUIRREL
(Sciurus carolinensis) and the Fox SQUIRREL (Sdurm niger), both of which are abundant in the
Atlantic States, and vary considerably in colour, presenting both grey and black individuals.

BLACK FOX SQUIRREL.

Besides the ordinary Squirrels, a considerable number of other species are arboreal in their habits,
and, indeed, even more strictly so than the true Squirrels. These are the Flying Squirrels, as they
are called, which may be at once distinguished from the others by the presence of a large fold of skin,
extending along the sides of the body, and including the limbs as far as the wrists and heels (see
figure on next page). In the case of the Common Squirrels, it is observed that in performing leaps
of any considerable extent the limbs are stretched out, and the long, bushy tail extended, so as to-
give the animal as large a surface as possible ; but in the Flying Squirrels, as in the Flying Lemur
(Yol. I., p. 344), when the limbs are extended laterally the folds of skin (patagia) become tightly
stretched, and form a regular parachute, which seems to give the animal essential support in its.
most extensive leaps. The extent of this membrane is increased by means of a sort of bony spur,,
which articulates with the wrist.

The TAGUAN (Pteromys petaurista) is a large species, indeed, the largest of the whole family
Sciuridse. It measures about two feet long, and has a bushy tail of nearly equal length. Its ears'
are pointed, but not tufted, and its eyes are large and prominent. Its colour above is greyish-black,
produced by a mixture of entirely black hairs with others having the tips greyish-white ; beneath it is
greyish- white. About the head and on the limbs the fur is tinged with brown or chestnut brown,
and the lateral folds are sometimes of the latter colour, sometimes blackish-brown above and grey
beneath. The tail is rounded in ts form,

THE FLYING SQUIRRELS. 89

This species inhabits the peninsula of India and Ceylon, Malacca and Siam, where it is found
only in the forests, living in trees, either singly or in pairs. Its activity is chiefly nocturnal, in which,
respect it differs from the ordinary Squirrels. During the day it sleeps in the holes of trees, but at
night it comes forth, climbing and leaping with the greatest rapidity about the trees on which it
lives. While thus engaged the lateral membranes are loosely folded at the sides of the body; but
from time to time the Squirrel wishes to pass from one tree to another at some distance, and then it
ascends to a considerable elevation and springs off, at the same time extending all four limbs as much
as possible, when the tightly-stretched folds of skin lend the body a support, which enables it to glide
through the air to some distance, although it seems always to alight at a lower level than that from

which it started. During these aerial excursions the long bushy tail serves as a sort of rudder, and
enables the animal even to change its coui'se during flight. Of the habits of the Taguan very little
is known. It appears to feed upon fruits, and is exceedingly shy and fearful. Of a nearly-allied
species which he observed in China, Mr. Swinhoe says that the nest, which was placed high up in a,
large tree, measured about three feet in diameter, and was composed of interlaced twigs, and lined
with dry grass. It contained only a single young Squirrel ; but this might be exceptional.

Some nine or ten additional species of the genus Pteromys, which includes the Flying Squirrels
with cylindrical tails, are found in the forest regions of India and of the countries to the east of that
peninsula, including China, Formosa, and Japan. The same region also harbours three or four species
of another kind of Flying Squirrel, in which the long hairs of the tail are arranged in two rows, and
the tail is flat instead of cylindrical. These animals, to which the name of Sduropterus has been
given, are, however, more numerous in the north, where their distribution extends from Lapland and
Finland, through Siberia, to Northern China and Japan. Squirrels of this genus also occur over the
whole continent of North America and as far south as Guatemala. The best known of the Old
World species is the POLATOUCHE (Sduropterus volans), which inhabits the north-eastern parts of

00

NATURAL HISTORY.

Europe and nearly the whole of Siberia. It is an elegant little creature, about six inches in length,
and with a broad, flat tail, rather shorter than the body: as, indeed, is the case in all the Sciuropteri.
Its silky coat is in summer of a tawny brown on the upper surface, darker on the flying membrane and
the outsides of the limbs, beneath pure white; whilst the tail is greyish above and light rusty red beneath.
In winter the fur becomes longer and thicker, and appears of a silver grey colour on the upper surface.
The Polatouche lives in the birch woods, or in places where pines, firs, and birches grow intermingled ;
but the presence of the birch seems to be a necessity of its existence. It is met with singly or in
pairs, but always 011 the trees, sleeping during the day in its nest or in the hole of a tree, and coming
forth at dusk to climb and leap about the branches with great agility. In going from tree to tree
by the aid of its lateral membranes, it is said to cover distances of twenty or thirty yards with ease,
always, however, taking its leap from the highest branches of the tree it starts from, and alighting at
a considerably lower level. Its food consists of nuts, seeds, berries, the buds, young shoots, and

POLATOUCHE.

catkins of the birch, and the young shoots of pines and firs. The nest is made in the hole of a tree,
carefully lined with soft moss and herbage. Like the Common Squirrel, the Polatouche sleeps through
the cold weather, but wakes up from time to time and goes out in search of food.

This group of Flying Squirrels is also represented on the North American continent. The
number of species seems rather uncertain, some authors making it two, others four; while Mr. J. A.
Allen regards all the North American Flying Squirrels as belonging to a single species, which
varies greatly in size in different localities. This species is the ASSAPAN (Sciuropterus votucella),
one of the smallest of its family, the length of its head and body being only from four and three-
quarters to seven and a half inches ; the smaller specimens (var. volucella) being found in the more
southern States, and even as far south as Guatemala ; and the larger ones (var. hudsonius) in more
northern localities. In its habits this elegant little Squirrel resembles the Polatouche, but appears
to be more sociable. It thrives well in confinement.

Besides these Tree Squirrels, a few species of the Sciurine sub-family live upon the ground. In
Abyssinia and in other parts of Africa some curious animals, forming the genus Xerus, are found,
distinguished by their very small ears, longish limbs, and the singular texture of their hair, which
scantily clothes the skin and generally takes the form of flattened spines. They have a slender body,
a pointed head, and a longish tail. These animals live in elevated forest regions, and even upon
comparatively barren steppes, where they burrow in the ground under rocks, or among the roots of

THE GROUXD SQUIRRELS. SI

trees and bushes. They are diurnal, and feed chiefly upon buds and herbage, but also devour small
birds, eggs, and insects. The best known species (Xerus rutilans) is about twenty inches long, of
which the tail makes about nine inches. Its colour is reddish-yellow above, becoming paler on the
sides, and whitish below.

The true GROUND SQUIRRELS (Tamias) are distinguished from the rest of the Squirrels (Sciurina),
and approach the Marmots, which form a second sub-family of Sciuridae. Like some of the latter, they
possess large cheek-pouches opening into the mouth. The ears in this genus are short ; the fourth
toe of the fore feet Ls longer than the rest, as in all the Sciurinse; the limbs are short, and
nearly equal in length ; and the tail is shorter than in the true Squirrels. In general form and
appearance, however, the Ground Squirrels greatly resemble the latter, except that they are
rather stouter in the body. Four species of this group inhabit the continent of North America,
where they are known as Chipmunks ; and one of these, according to Mr. J. A. Allen, is identical with

COMMON* CHIPMUNK.

the only known Old "World species (Tamias asiaticus), which is found in North-eastern Europe and
across Northern Asia, as far as the mouth of the Amoor, North China, and Japan. This species,
which goes by different names in the different localities which it inhabits, and the COMMON
CHIPMUNK (Tamias striatus) of the United States, agree very closely in all respects, and are
exceedingly pretty little animals, with light-coloured fur adorned with darker stripes, varied
in the case of the Chipmunk with streaks of white. They are from eight to ten inches long, in-
cluding the tail. These animals live in burrows in the ground, and feed upon nuts, acorns, grain,
and other seeds of various kinds, of which they lay up great stores in the autumn, carrying home
their provisions in their cheek-pouches, which they stuff as full as they can hold. In this way they
do no small damage to cultivated grounds near their haunts, plundering the corn and maize fields
very freely; over eight pounds of corn in the ear are often found in the granaries of the Siberian form.
The burrow is made deep enough to protect the animals from frost in winter, and the sleeping
chamber contains a large nest of leaves and grass, in which several individuals, probably the parents
with their grown-up family, sleep through the cold weather ; but it must be remarked that their
torpidity is very imperfect, and that they have frequent recourse to the supplies of food which they
have stored up during the summer and autumn in separate chambers at the ends of lateral passages.
These stores are so large that they genei-ally greatly exceed the wants of the provident little animals,

NATURAL HISTORY.

and in the spring the residue is greedily devoured by Wild Pigs and Bears. Even the poorer human
inhabitants of the countries frequented by the Ground Squirrels do not disdain to eke out their scanty

means of subsistence by plundering the hoards of these animals.
Many of them perish in severe winters, great numbers are destroyed
by man, by the smaller Carnivora, and by birds of prey, but, neverthe-
less, they manage to hold their own, in consequence of the great fertility
of the females, which produce several young twice in the year, namely
in May and August. At pairing time the males fight violently.

From the Ground Squirrels we pass, by a perfectly natural transi-
tion, to the MARMOTS (Arctomyinai), the second sub-family of Sciuridse.
These animals differ from the preceding forms by their broader
incisors, shorter tail, and stouter form of body, and by having the
third finger longer than the rest. The first upper molar, also, is larger
and more persistent than in the Squirrels, and the other molai-s
The Marmots are all terrestrial animals, living and storing provisions
in burrows, which they dig in the ground, and they are strictly confined to the northern parts of
the two hemispheres.

The nearest approach to the Squirrels is made by the SPERMOPHILES (Spermophilus), several
species of which occur in North America from Mexico to the Arctic regions, but never to the east of the
great central prairie region ; whilst in the Old World their domain extends from Silesia, through
Russia, and across Asia, to the Amoor and Kamstchatka. The Spermophiles are Squirrel -like in form
and have rather short tails, but in the American species this organ is generally longer than in those of
the Eastern continent. On the thumb the claw is either very small or altogether wanting ; the two
series of molars are nearly parallel, and the mouth is furnished with large cheek-pouches. The
ears are very small. These animals live in society, and prefer a dry, sandy, or loamy soil, in
which they can easily make their burrows, which terminate in a chamber lined with grass and
herbage, and have, besides, side-chambers, in which provisions can be stored for winter use. Like
the other species of the family, the Spermophiles pass the winter in a state of partial torpidity.
In the summer they are exceedingly lively and playful. Their food consists of roots, berries, and
seeds of various kinds, and their winter stores of these articles are carried into the burrows in

MOLAB TEETH OF THE MARMOT.

differ in structure (see figure).

STRIPED SPERMOFHILE, OR GOPHER.

THE SPERMOPH1LES.

93

their large cheek-pouches. The females are very prolific, producing from four to eight young at
a birth, and in some cases even as many as ten have been found. The commonest and most
widely distributed of the North American species is the STRIPED SPERMOPHILE, or GOPHER (Spernio-
philus tredecimlineatus), a pretty little creature of from six to eight inches long, usually of a

BURROWS OF THE PRAIRIE DOG.

chestnut brown colour with seven yellowish-white lines running along the back and between these
six rows of small squarish spots of the same colour. This species extends its range from the Red River
in Canada southwards as far as Texas, and is common on the prairies east of the Mississippi. This
and some other species of the genus are said to be very carnivorous in their habits, preying upon small
birds and mammals ; and the Gopher was even described as feeding upon the flesh of Bisons, which it
found lying dead on the prairies. The other American species are more local in their distribution ; four
of them occur in Mexico, and one of these is only known from that country. Of the Old World species
the best known is the SISEL, or SUSLIK (Spermophilus citillus), which is abundant in Central and
107

94 NATURAL UlSTOXT.

Eastern Europe and in Siberia. Several other species are known from Asia Minor Siberia, and
Central Asia.

The BARKING SQUIRRELS, or PRAIRIE DOGS, of which two species (Cynomys ludovicianus, see figure
on p. 81, and C. columbianus) are found in the United States of America, are of a stouter form than the
Spermophiles, and have the ears and tail short. The claAvs are well developed on all the toes of the fore
feet, the cheek-pouches are shallow, and the two rows of grinding teeth converge towards the back of the
mouth. These animals are peculiar to North America, where the former inhabits the prairies east of the
Rocky Mountains, and the latter is found on the plains of the Columbia river, and in other parts of the
western territories as far south as New Mexico. The best known of the two species is the Cynomys
ludoviciamis, to which the name of the PRAIRIE DOG was first applied: this name being given to it
from a fancied resemblance of its voice to the barking of a small Dog. It measures about a foot in
length, and its tail is about four inches long. Its colour on the upper surface is reddish-brown,
variegated with grey, and with a few scattered black hairs ; the tail is flattened, and brownish-black
towards the end, and the lower surface is brownish or yellowish-white. These animals live together
in great societies, especially upon those portions of the prairies where the so-called buffalo-grass
(Sesleria dactyloides) grows most luxuriantly, this grass and succulent roots constituting their chief
food. They live in burrows, which they dig in the ground at a distance of twelve or fifteen feet apart ;
a hard-beaten path runs from burrow to burrow, and would seem to give evidence of the sociable dis-
position of the animals ; and at the mouth of every burrow there is a little hillock, formed by the earth
thrown out of it, which serves the occupant as a watch-tower. These burrows are usually so numerous
upon favourable pieces of ground that the space occupied by them is quite populous, and presents a
scene of considerable animation when the inhabitants are out in the pursuit of their business or their
pleasure, and hence they are in common parlance spoken of as " towns " or " villages." Their curious
appearance is heightened by the almost constant presence in them of numerous small Owls, of
the species known as the Burrowing Owl (Athene cunicularia), a widely -spread species, which in. some
places digs its own subterranean habitation, but on these prairies saves itself the trouble by taking
possession of the deserted abodes of the Prairie Dogs. These birds are diurnal in their habits, and are
to be seen mixed up with the Prairie Dogs in their settlements. Another inhabitant of the burrows
is the Rattlesnake ; and some of the earlier observers thought that the Prairie Dogs, Owls, Rattle-
snakes, and some other animals, such as Horned Frogs and an occasional Tortoise, occupied the
same burrow, and lived there on the most amicable footing. Unfortunately, this paradisaic picture is
an imaginary one. It is true that the Rattlesnake does take up his abode in the Prairie Dog's burrows,
but he either selects a deserted one, or dispossesses, and perhaps devours, the rightful owner ; and his
object in his residence among the lively little Marmots is anything rather than peaceful, as they con-
stitute his favourite food. The little Burrowing Owl has also been said by some writers to feed on
the young Prairie Dogs ; but this is not proved, and the food of the Owls is known to consist chiefly
of Grasshoppers and Crayfish. According to the latitude in which they live, the Prairie Dogs seem to
be more or less subject to torpidity during the winter.

The true MARMOTS (Arctomys) are nearly related to the Prairie Dogs. They are stout in the
body, have a short tail, and a rudimentary thumb with a flat nail; and are either entirely
destitute of cheek-pouches or have mere indications of those organs. The rows of molar teeth
are placed nearly parallel to each other in each jaw. The skull is broad and flat above, with a
depression between the orbits ; and the post-orbital processes are larger than in any other Sciuridse.
The Marmots are confined to the Northern hemisphere, but over it they are widely distributed
in both continents. Of the Old World species, the best known are the BOBAC (Arctomys Bobac}
and the ALPINE MARMOT (A. Marmota), of which the former extends from the south of
Poland and Galicia over the whole of Southern Russia and Siberia to the Amoor region and
Kamstchatka, whilst it is found in elevated situations as far southward as Cashmere, Tibet, and
the Himalayas ; and the latter inhabits only the higher regions of the Alps, Pyrenees, and Car-
pathians. In North America the common species is the WOODCHUCK (Arctomys Monax), the
distribution of which is from the Carolinas northward to Hudson's Bay, and westward from the
Atlantic coast to Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota; the Rocky Mountain region is inhabited by a
distinct species (A. flaviventer) ; and a third very large species, the HOARY MARMOT, or WHISTLER

THE MARMOTS.

95

r*

ALYISE MA11.MOT.

(A. pruino'Acs), which measures from twenty-three to twenty -five inches in length of body, appears
to be most abundant in the north-western parts of the continent, and is said to range northward
as far as the Arctic Circle. The Marmots live usually in large societies in extensive burrows,
which they form underground ; and in some localities, as on the great plains of Russia and
Siberia, their dwelling-places are described as producing a remarkable effect, owing to the multitude
of little hillocks forruei by the earth thrown out of their burrows. During the summer they arc
in a state of constant activity, playing and running about in search of food in the neighbourhood
of their dwellings. The winter they pass in a state of torpidity, in a comfortable chamber lined
with soft herbage, and protected from the outside cold by the closure of the main passage leading
into their abode. For a time after their retirement for the winter they continue active in their
domicile, and feed upon the stores of food which they have laid up during the summer ; and as a
preparation for their winter sleep, they become exceedingly fat during the autumn. The Marmots
are the largest members of their family, and, indeed, some of them may be reckoned among the
larger Rodents. The Alpine Marmot measures more than twenty inches in length, and the Bobac
about fifteen inches, exclusive of the tail.

FAMILY II.— AXOMALURID^.

Some curious African animals, closely resembling the Flying Squirrels, and at first regarded as
belonging to that group, were formed by Mr. Waterhouse into a distinct genus, which he called
Anomalurus, in allusion to the peculiar characters presented by their tail. This organ, which is long
and well clothed with hair, although not so bushy as in the true Squirrels, has on the lower surface
of its basal portion a double series of horny scales, which project from the skin, and probably serve to
assist the animal in climbing upon the branches of trees.

Besides this peculiarity, these animals exhibit certain other characters which have induced modern

96

NATURAL HISTORY.

zoologists to separate them from the Squirrels as a distinct family. Thus, the post-orbital processes
are wanting, or nearly so ; the infra-orbital openings are large ; the molar teeth are four in number on

each side, above and below,
nearly equal in size, and not
tubercular, but with a flal
surface, crossed by trans-
verse loops of enamel ; and
the palate is contracted in
front and deeply notched
behind. In the skeleton
we find sixteen pairs of ribs,
whereas in the Squirrels
there are only twelve or
thirteen pairs ; and the
internal anatomy, first de-
scribed by Mr. Alston, is
very peculiar. The fly-
ing membrane is quite as
largely developed as in
the Flying Squirrels, and
is in the same manner ex-
tended from the wrists to
the heels, and further sup-
ported by cartilaginous
spurs starting from the

fore limbs ; but, whilst in the Flying Squirrels this spur springs from the wrist itself, in the
Anomalures it projects from the elbow, and thus produces a still greater extension of the mem-
brane. The ears are well developed, the eyes large,
and the general aspect both of head and body com-
pletely squirrel-like. Six species of this family have
been described, all from the West Coast of Africa. One
of them occurs in the island of Fernando Po. The
species figured (Anomalurus fulgens) is from the Gaboon.
It is a handsome little creature, of a bright reddish colour,
paler below, and having a small white spot between the
ears. Its length is fourteen inches, and its tail is seven
inches long. In some of the other species the tail is as
long as the body. Of the habits of these animals little
is positively known, but they are said to feed upon fruits.
They probably resemble the Flying Squirrels in their
general mode of life.

FULGENT AXOMALURE (From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society).

MOLAR TEETH OF THE ANOMALURE.

FAMILY III.— HAPLODONTIDJE.

This is another small family, smaller even than
the preceding one, for it includes only a single known
species, limited in its range to the western coast of North America. This is the Sewellel, a
little Rodent, first observed by the American travellers, Lewis and Clarke, in 1805 or 1806, described
in 1814 by Rafinesque under the name of Anisonyx nifa, and afterwards, in 1829, by Sir John
Richardson, as the type of a new genus, as Aplodontia leporinn. This generic name has been corrected,
in accordance with its derivation, by more recent writers, to Haplodon, from which the name of the
family has been formed.

In this animal there are five molars in the upper and four in the lower jaw ; the first upper molar

THE BEAVER.

97

is very small, and all these teeth are rootless, simple, and prismatic, the surface of each tooth being
surrounded by a mere border of enamel. The skull is very flat, very wide behind, and furnished with
large zygomatic arches ; between the orbits and in front it is much contracted, and there are no
post-orbital processes. In the lower jaw the angular portion is twisted so as to form a horizontal ridge.
The body is stout and clumsy, the tail very short, and the claws of the fore feet (which are five-toed,
as well as the hind ones) are very powerful ; in fact, as Dr. Coues says, " The whole organisation,
viewed exteraally, indicates terrestrial and highly fossorial habits."

The SEWELLEL (Haplodon nifus) is about a foot long, with a tail of an inch or an inch and a half ;
its colour is brownish, with an intermixture of black hairs, lighter and more greyish below. The whiskers,
claws, and upper surface of the feet are whitish, and the incisor teeth yellow. It inhabits the Washing-
ton and Oregon territories, from the Rocky Mountains to the shores of the Pacific, and extends also
into the southern portions of Biitish Columbia and the upper parts of California.

The Sewellel is described as having very much the same habits as the Prairie Dog, living in
society, burrowing very readily in the ground, and feeding on roots and berries. Their companies,
however, seem to be much smaller than those of the Prairie Dog, and they are said chiefly to frequent
spring-heads in rich, moist places. They are described as having the curious habit of neatly cutting
off some herb or plant, which, when packed in bundles, they lay out and expose to the sun to dry ;
this is probably for the purpose of storing for winter consumption. It seems to be uncertain whether
the Sewellel is torpid during the winter, but probably in this respect it varies according to local con-
ditions or the coldness of the seasons. Dr. Suchley believes that the Sewellel has several litters of
young during the season. The Indians trap them, and esteem them very highly as food. Cloaks or
blankets are made of their skins, which are sewn together with fibres derived from the sinews of the
Elk and Deer. A robe described by Sir John Richardson was composed of twenty-seven skins.

FAMILY IV.— CASTORID^E.

Unlike as the Beaver may be to a Squirrel, it yet presents many characters which prove that its
nearest affinity is to the animals which compose the group Sciuromorpha. This relationship has indeed
been overlooked by many zoologists, but Mr. Alston and
Mr. Allen have clearly shown that Professor Gervais was
right in placing the Castoridse in close juxtaposition with
the Squirrels. The peculiarities which make the apparent
discrepancy so striking are indeed chiefly those by which
the Beaver is adapted to an aquatic life.

The Beaver, which is the sole living representative of
this family, is a more powerful animal than any of the pre-
ceding, and his incisor teeth and the means of working them
are especially well developed. The head is large and the
skull massive, and furnished with a distinct median
(sagittal) crest for the insertion of the strong muscles
which move the lower jaw. There are no post-orbital pro-
cesses. There are four molars on each side in each jaw,
and these are nearly similar in size and structure ; but,
contrary to what we have seen in the preceding groups, the first molar is the largest, and the others
diminish in size towards the hinder end of the row. The series of teeth in the two sides of the mouth
converge toward the front ; and the teeth themselves, which are for a long time rootless, and only
close up to form a simple root when the animal grows old, show three folds or loops of enamel on
one side, and a single fold on the other: the three folds entering from the outer surface of the tooth
in the upper jaw, and from its inner surface in the lower.

The general form is stout and heavy, especially in the hinder parts; the tail is ,of
moderate length, broad, flattened, and covered with a scaly skin ; the feet are all five-toed, the fore
pair considerably smaller than the hinder, but all well furnished with claws, and the hinder pair fully
webbed to the extremities of the toes. The wrist has a large ossicle, in addition, to those usually

MOLAR TEETH OF THE BEAVER.

93 NATURAL HISTORY.

composing that part of the body. The eyes are small, have the pupil vertical, and are furnished with
a nictitating membrane ; the ears are small and short, and their antitragus can be so applied to the
head as almost entirely to close the auditory aperture ; and the nostrils are also so arranged as to
be capable of closing.

The Beaver is usually about two feet and a half long, and is, therefore, one of the largest of the
Hodentia, except the Capybara. The tail, which is flattened above and below, and of an elongated oval
form, measures about ten inches. The muffle is naked ; the ears scaly ; the soles of all the feet are

•naked, and their upper surfaces clothed with hairs ; and the second toe of the hind feet is usually
furnished with a double claw, the additional one being placed beneath the other. The general colour
of the fur is reddish-brown on the upper surface, lighter and greyish below. The colour varies a little
in different individuals, and appears to become darker, or even blackish, in northern localities. "White
or pied individuals are not uncommon. The Beaver appears to increase in size for some years after
rfc has attained maturity. Mr. Allen says that in America " two-year-old Beavers generally weigh
about thirty-five to forty pounds, while very old ones occasionally attain a weight of upwards of sixty."
The size of the skull seems to increase throughout life ; the thickness and density of the bones also
increase, and the ridges for the attachment of the muscles become stronger in old individuals.

The Beaver is, or has been, distributed generally over all the northern parts of the Northern
ftuemisphere, especially in the forest regions. Formerly it ranged over the whole of Europe, including

THE HEAVER. . 9S»

the British islands, where there is historical evidence of its former existence, besides the skulls
and bones which have been found in various places, but especially in the Fen lands. At present the
animal appears to be completely exterminated in the southern parts of Europe from France south-
wards, with the exception of a small colony on the Rhone, which we believe is still in existence ; and
only a very few individuals survive in Germany, where they are found on a tributary of the Elbey
and in one or two other places. In some parts of Poland, Russia, and Austria, and in the Scan-
dinavian peninsula, they still, to a greater or less extent, hold their ground ; and in Asia they abound
about the rivers of Siberia, and in the streams which flow into the Caspian Sea. In North America
Beavers formerly abounded from Texas, and, according to manuscript evidence cited by Mr. Allen,
even from Mexico, northward to the extreme limit of forest growth, and from the Atlantic to the-
Pacific coast. The constant pursuit to which the animals were subjected, in consequence of the-
demand for their skins, greatly diminished their numbers, and in many localities altogether
exterminated them ; but they still occur over a very large extent of the North American continent,
especially in the western territories, where they are even abundant in some of the wilder parts.

In the preceding statements we have spoken of the Beaver as forming a single species ; but it
has long been a moot question with zoologists whether the Beavers of the Old and New Worlds were
or were not specifically identical. The external differences are very slight, and those observed in the
skull, upon which most stress has been laid, do not appear to be of sufficient importanc3 for the
separation of the animals as distinct species. They consist chiefly in the greater breadth of the
anterior portion of the skull, including the inter-orbital space; the extension farther back of the nasal
bones, the greater size and depth of the basilar cavity and the moi-e anterior position of the auditory
bulke, in the European Beaver ; but the examination of large series of specimens has proved that
the skulls from both hemispheres present many exceptions, in which one or more of the peculiarities
which they ought to exhibit do not occur : a circumstance which of necessity greatly invalidates the-
distinction founded upon such characters. Dr. Ely sums up the results of an extended investigation
in the following words : — " The extremes of difference, in their aggregate, on the one side and on the-
other, are sufficiently striking to justify us in regarding them as varieties of one and the same species;
while the want of constancy in these peculiarities suggests the inference that these variations are-
due to long separation of the races, and to accidental causes, rather than to original diversity of the-
stock." The Beaver may thus be regai-ded as a species with two geographical forms (varieties or sul>~
species), viz., Castor fiber, var. europceus, and Castor fiber, var. canadensis.

So much has been written upon the habits of the Beaver, that the following short statement
will suffice to give the leading facts in the natural histoiy of the animal, the accounts of the marvel-
lous sagacity of which, given by the older writers, have, perhaps, invested it with an exaggerated
interest.

In populous countries the Beaver is contented, like the Otter, with a long burrow for his
residence ; but in the wilder regions of Siberia and North America his dwelling-place is a much more
complicated affair. But even in these regions, according to some authorities, a cei-tain number of
Beavers — ahvays males — show a lazy unwillingness to take part in the common labours of the colony;
and these, as idlers, are expelled from the community, often with rather severe treatment, and then
take up their abode by themselves in holes, which they dig out in the banks of rivers, whence they
are called " terriers." On the other hand, it would appear that the bxiilding instinct which is so
remarkably manifested by the Beaver is not always extinct even in those which inhabit populous
countries, for we have a most interesting account from M. Meyerinck of the construction of a lodge,
and even of a dam, by the colony of Beavers on a tributary of the Elbe.

In North America, from which we have the fullest accounts of the habits of the Beavers, these
animals select for their habitation some small stream running through a locality well covered with
trees, especially willows, birches, and poplars, upon the bark of which they chiefly feed. These tree*
they cut down with their powerful incisor teeth, usually selecting those from the thickness of a man'*
arm to that of his thigh, but sometimes even felling trunks eighteen inches in diameter. The*
operation, which at first sight would seem to be a rather difficult one for an animal like the Beaver
to perform, is effected by gnawing all round the trunk for a certain distance, and gradually working;
deeper and deeper into its substance in the middle of the part attacked, until at length the tree stands

100 NATURAL HISTORY.

upon quite a slender piece of wood, with the trunk both above and below this tapered off into the
form of two cones, united by their apices. The work is done as sharply and neatly as if the wood had
been cut away by a chisel ; and the animals are said to have the sagacity to weaken the trunk more
on the side that looks towards the water than on the opposite side, by which means, when it falls, it
will generally do so in the direction of the water, which materially facilitates the further operations
of the Beavers. The quantity of trees cut down by them in this way is very great, so that in the
neighbourhood of a Beaver encampment the ground is everywhere full of the stumps which they
have left.

These tree trunks are then cut up into lengths of five or six feet, which, after their bark has
been stripped off and eaten, are employed in the formation of a lodge, to serve as a shelter for the
company of Beavers forming it. Access to the lodge is obtained by means of several subterranean
passages, which always open under water, and lead up into the chamber occupying the interior of the
lodge. The lodge is usually of an oven-like shape, and is built close to the edge of the water ; its walls
are very thick, and composed of the above-mentioned trunks of trees, plastered over with mud, clay,
&c., mixed with grasses and moss, until the whole fabric measures from twelve to twenty feet in
diameter, and forms a hill some six or eight feet high. The larger lodges are in the interior about
seven feet in diameter, and between two and three feet high ; and the floor of this spacious chamber
is covered with fine chips of wood, grasses, and the soft bark of trees, which serve to form the beds
of the occupants. Occasionally the lodges are said to contain store-rooms. In front of the lodge,
according to Audubon, the Beavers scratch away the mud of the bottom until they make the water
deep enough to enable them to float their pieces of timber to this point, even when the water is
frozen : and, communicating with this, a ditch surrounds the lodge, which is also made so deep that
it will not readily freeze to the bottom. Into this ditch, and the deep water in front of the lodge,
the passages by which access to the water is obtained always open, and thus the inhabitants can
at any time make 'their way out when their business requires them to do so. In the neighbourhood
of the lodge the timber cut into lengths, as above described, is piled up, so as to furnish a supply of
food as it is required ; and the pieces of timber, after being stripped of their bark, are usually
employed by the Beavers either in repairing their lodges or in constructing or strengthening the
dams which they very frequently throw across the streams haunted by them. These dams, which
are destined to keep the water of variable streams up to the necessary height for the convenience of
the Beaver, are wonderful pieces of work, and almost justify the marvellous stories told of its intelli-
gence and sagacity by the older writers. They are often of great length — sometimes 150 or 200
yards and more — and run across the course of the brook inhabited by the Beavers — sometimes
in a straight line, sometimes in a curved form, according to peculiarities in the ground or the stream,
and the exigencies of the engineers. They are composed, like the lodges, of lengths cut from the
trunks and branches of trees, filled in with smaller sticks, roots, grasses, and moss, and all plastered
with mud and clay in a most workmanlike manner, until the whole structure becomes quite water-
tight. Their height is from six to ten feet, and their thickness at the bottom sometimes as much as

o o r

double this, but diminishing upwards by the slope of the sides until the top is only from three to five
feet wide. These dams convert even small rivulets into large pools of water, often many acres in
extent ; and in districts where Beavers abound these pools may occupy nearly the whole course of a
stream, one above the other, almost to its source. Their use to the Beavers, as constantly furnishing
them with a sufficiency of water in which to carry on their business, and especially to float to their
lodges the tree trunks necessary for their subsistence, is easily iinderstood ; but it is a more remark-
able circumstance that by this means the Beavers exercise a considerable influence upon the external
appearance of the locality inhabited by them, which may persist even long after they have themselves
disappeared. In and about the pools the constant attacks of the Beavers upon the trees produce
clearings in the forest, often many acres in extent ; at the margins of the pools the formation of peat
commences, and under favourable circumstances proceeds until the greater part of the cleared space
becomes converted into a peat-moss. These peaty clearings are known as Beaver-meadows, and they
have been detected in various countries where the Beaver is now extinct.

As in the case of the majority of Rodents, the cliief activity of the Beaver is nocturnal ; and it is
only when driven from its lodge by a high flood, or in the wildest and most sequestered localities, that

THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS. 101

it goes about during the day. It swims quickly, but entirely by the agency of the hind feet, the fore
feet being used chiefly for carrying and building operations, and for conveying the food to the mouth.
Before diving, it is said to slap the surface of the water with its tail, producing a sound that may be
heard at a considerable distance. On land it sometimes travels a good way in the warm season, and
is then stated to indulge in a change of diet, feeding upon roots and fruits, and sometimes upon corn.
The roots of the water-lily (JVuphar) are also said to constitute part of its food. The Beaver is hunted
— but less now than in former years — for the sake of its skin, the soft under fur of which was much
used in the manufacture of hats. It is asserted that the flesh is very good, but according to some
authorities, only certain parts of it are palatable ; and Audubon declares that the tail, which is regarded
as a peculiarly choice morsel, closely resembles marrow, and is so rich that only those whose stomachs
are incapable of being upset by greasy food can eat more than a very little of it.

The Beaver has been hunted not only for its fur, but also, and from time immemorial, for the
sake of a peculiar secretion produced by it, which, under the name of Castoreum, has been for many
centuries a highly-esteemed medicament. This substance is secreted in a pair of glandular pouches,
situated in the inguinal region of the male Beaver ; and it would seem that it was almost entirely in.
oi-der to procure these that the ancients hunted this animal. Even in connection with this they had
wonderful tales to tell of its sagacity : as how that, when it was pursued and found itself unable to
escape, it would throw itself upon its back, as if to invite the hunter to take what he wanted
and spare its life. Nay, some ancient writers seem to have believed that the Beaver would go the
length of biting off" its own castoreum glands, and leaving them for the hunter to pick up ! Castoreum
contains some volatile oil and resin, and a peculiar crystallisable substance called castorine ; it is
used in medicine as a stimulant, and seems to act especially on the nervous system, but is not much
employed nowadays. Its odour, which appeal's to spread over a considerable space, is described as
being very attractive to other Beavers. Audubon states that it is used for this reason as a lure by the
American trappers.

CHAPTER II.
THE DOBMOUSE, LOPHIOMYS, EAT, AND MOUSE FAMILIES.

THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS— MYOXID.S:— Characteristics— THE DORMOUSE— Description— Habits— Activity— Food— Winter
Condition — THE LOIR — THE GARDEN DORMOUSE — LOPHIOMYID.E — How the Family came to be Founded — THE
LOPHIOMYS — Milne-Edwards' Opinion — Skull — General Form — Habits— MURID^E — Number of Species — Characteristics
—Variety of Forms— Distribution — The Murine Sub-Family — THE BROWN EAT — History — Fecundity and Ferocity —
Diet — At the Horse Slaughter-houses of Montfaucon — Shipwrecked on Islands — Story of their Killing a Man in a
Coal-pit — In the Sewers of Paris and London — THE BLACK KAT — THE EGYPTIAN RAT — THE COMMON MOUSE — Habits
— Destructiveness — Colours— THE LONG-TAILED FIELD MOUSE — Description — Food — THE HARVEST MOUSE — Descrip-
tion— Habits — In Winter — Agility — Their Nest— THE BANDICOOT RAT — THE TREE RAT — THE STRIPED MOUSE —
Allied Genera — THE WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE — The American Murines — THE WHITE-FOOTED, OR DEER MOUSE — THE
GOLDEN, OR RED MOUSE— THE RICE-FIELD MOUSE— THE AMERICAN HARVEST MOUSE— THE FLORIDA RAT— Description
—Their Nest— Food— Mother and Young— THE BUSHY-TAILED WOOD RAT— THE COTTON RAT— THE RABBIT-LIKE
REITHRODON— THE HAMSTERS— Characteristics — Appearance — Distribution— Burrows — Disposition — Food — Habits —
THE TREE MICE — THE BLACK-STREAKED TREE MICE — THE GERBILLES — Characteristics — Habits — Other Genera —
THE WATER MICE— Characteristics — Species — THE SMINTHUS — THE VOLES — Characteristics — THE WATER VOLE —
Appearance— Distribution— Food— THE FIELD VOLE— THE BANK VOLE— THE SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE— THE SNOW
MOUSE— THE ROOT VOLE— THE MEADOW MOUSE— THE PINE MOUSE— THE MUSQUASH, 'MusK RAT, OR ONDATRA—
Distinguishing Features —Habits — His House — THE LEMMING — Description — Food —Habits — Disposition — Their
Extraordinary Migrations — Other Lemmings — THE ZOKOR.

SECTION II.— MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS (MYOMORPHA).

THE Myomorphic, or Mouse-like group of Rodents, includes a much greater variety of forms than
the preceding, and the number of species is also very great. We find in it arboreal, teirestrial,
and aquatic species ; and in the second of these categories some presenting almost every vai-iety of
habit which the Rodent type is capable of assuming. Naturally the families and sub-families into
which it is divided are rather numerous. Mr. Alston distinguished seven family groups, the first
of which is the Myoxidse.
103

102

NATURAL HISTORY.

FAMILY V.— MYOXIDJE.

The Dormice, which constitute this family, have generally been regarded as nearly related to the
Squirrels ; and certainly, although they fall under the definition of the Myomorphic section, they have

a plain affinity to the Sciuridse. In form they are Squirrel-like, and the
tail is long and hairy, although not so bushy as in the true Squirrels.
They have four molars on each side in each jaw (see figure), the front one
in each series being smaller than the rest. All these teeth are rooted,
and their crowns show transverse folds of enamel. The frontal bones are
much narrowed ; the fore limbs are small, with the thumbs rudimentary
and furnished with a small flat nail ; and the hind feet have five toes. The
Dormice differ from all other Rodents by having the intestine entirely
destitute of a caecum. They are confined to the Eastern hemisphere, and
chiefly to its temperate and colder regions ; although a species of Myoxus,
and some forms on which a special genus (Grapkiurus) has been founded,
inhabit Africa. The number of known species is only about a dozen.

The common DORMOUSE (Myoxus avellanarius) is an elegant little
creature, about three inches long, with a somewhat bushy, cylindrical
tail, two inches and a half in length. Its fur is of a light reddish-tawny colour above, becoming
paler and yellowish on the lower surface. On the throat there is a small whitish mark. It is

MOLAR TEETH OF THE DOR-
MOUSE.

DORMOUSE.

widely distributed in Europe, ranging from Britain and Sweden in the north to Tuscany and
Northern Turkey in the south. Generally it is more abundant in southern than in northern
countries, but in the south of France it is less common than either of the other two European
species. Eastwards it does not extend beyond Galicia, Hungary, and Transylvania.

The Dormouse is nocturnal in its habits. During the day it sleeps in its nest or in some snug
retreat, and at night comes forth in search of its food, which consists of nuts, acorns, seeds, berries,
and the buds of trees and shrubs. It is particularly fond of the nuts of the common hazel, whence its
specific name, and the name of " Haselmaus," which it bears in Germany ; these nuts it is said to
pierce and empty without plucking them or taking them out of their cups. The Dormouse lives in
small societies in thickets and hedgerows, where it is as active in its way amongst the bushes and
undergrowth as its cousin the Squin-el upon the larger trees. Among the small twigs and branches

THE DOHJ10U1SE.

103

of the shrubs and small trees the Dormice climb with wonderful adroitness, often, indeed, hanging by
their hind feet from a twig in order to reach and operate on a fruit or a nut which is otherwise inacces-
sible, and running along the lower surface of a branch with the activity and certainty of a Monkey.
Detached articles of food are held up to the mouth by the fore paws, after the fashion of a Squirrel.
Towards the winter the Dormouse becomes exceedingly fat, and having collected a small store of food,
makes for itself a little globular nest, composed of small twigs, leaves, pine-needles, moss, and grass,
and within this, coiled up into a ball, passes into a torpid state.

Nevertheless, the winter sleep is not wholly uninterrupted ; on mild days the Dormouse wakes up
for a time and takes a little of its stored-up food. The female produces usually about four young, in
the spring according to Professor Bell, in August according to Brehm ; but the former writer thinks
that in some cases two broods are produced in the year, as he has received from the same locality in
September a half-grown Dormouse and three very young ones, evidently not more than a fortnight
or three weeks old.

Of the other common European species, the LOIR (Myoxus glis) is found only in southern
regions, its range extending from Spain to Southern Russia, and passing into the neighbouring parts
of Asia. It is considerably larger than the Dormouse, measuring rather more than six inches in

.GARDEN DOKMOUSE.

length, and has a bushy tail, in which the hairs are arranged in two rows, as in that of the Squirrel.
The habits of this species are like those of the Dormouse. Fruit constitutes a portion of its diet, and
it is said also to destroy and devour small birds and other animals. The Loir is a very voracious
feeder, and becomes exceedingly fat in the autumn. By the ancient Roman epicures it was regarded
as a dainty morsel, and they spared no pains to fatten it for the table. It sleeps during the day, and
hibernates in some hole in a tree or in the ground, and the nest is formed in the former situation.
The female usually produces about six young.

The GARDEX DORMOUSE, or LEROT of the French (Myoxus nitela), is common all over the
southern and western parts of the Continent, extending northwards through Germany into
the Baltic provinces of Russia. It is a little smaller than the preceding species, which, however, it
resembles in its general habits ; but it dwells commonly in gardens, and feeds on fruits, often
doing much damage to the choicer varieties. It is a lighter and more active animal than the Loir,
and is said to be even more predaceous in its habits. The female produces from four to six young,
sometimes in a beautifully-made nest of her own, sometimes in the deserted or usm-ped nest of a Black-
bird or Thrush, or in that of a Squirrel.

FAMILY VI.— LOPHIOMYID^E.

The importance of an animal in the zoological system by no means depends either upon its size
•or on its abundance in the world ; its rank in the classification is decided solely by peculiarities of

104

NATURAL HISTORY.

SKULL OF LOPHIOMYS.

organisation which distinguish it more or less from its fellows ; and in many cases the creatures which
are regarded with the most interest by the naturalist are those which seem most to withdraw them-
selves from general observation. A single genus, perhaps containing only one or two species, may, by
a singular combination of characters, be so completely isolated from all the recognised allied groups
that it cannot be placed in any of them, and accordingly a distinct family, possibly even an order,
has to be established for its reception. Sometimes subsequent discoveries add to the number of species

forming the group thus set up, and in this way the prescience
of its founder is confirmed. Sometimes the group remains in
its original condition, leaving us, according to circumstances,
to regard the anomalous creatures of which it is composed
either as a special development of their general type, or as the
residue of a group which may have presented a greater variety
of forms at some past period of the earth's history.

The latter is perhaps the case with the curious little
Rodent which alone forms the present family, of which its

original describer, M. Alphonse Milne • Edwards, writes as follows : — " In its general aspect it
somewhat resembles certain Opossums, and like these it is pedimanous ;* but these are the
only analogies it presents to the Marsupials, and in its dental system, as also in the rest of its
organisation, we easily see that it belongs to the order Rodentia. It differs, however, from all the
members of this group by characters of considerable importance ; I may even say that, by some
peculiarities of structure it departs from all other Mammals, and that we find in it anatomical arrange-
ments of which we have hitherto had examples only in the class of Reptiles." After an exhaustive
discussion of the characters of this curious little animal, M. Milne-Edwards comes to the conclusion
that it is most nearly related to the members of the following family, and especially to the Hamsters,
although he found it impossible to unite it with them. In this course he has been followed by other
writers.

The general construction of the skull is the same as in the Muridee, but from the temporal ridges
thin plates are developed, which bend downwards, and articulate with similar plates springing from
the malar bones, and thus com-
pletely arch over the temporal
fossae after a fashion only met
with in certain reptiles, and
especially in the Hawksbill
Turtle (Chelone caretta). The
whole upper surface of the
skull is covered with minute
but perfectly definite granules,
arranged with much regularity,
and these, which occur in no
other Mammal, give the skull
a very peculiar aspect, such as
may be seen in some fishes.
As in the Muridse, there are
three molars on each side in
each jaw, and these are rooted
and strongly tubercular ; the
foremost in each series having
three and the others each two
ridges. Without entering in

detail into the peculiarities described at great length by M. Milne-Edwards, we may say that in its
general structure, and especially in that of the skeleton, the animal is murine, but with a very impor-
tant distinction, namely, that the collar bones, which are well developed in the Rats and their allies,

* Having the hind feet hand-like.

LOPHIOMYS.

THE MOUSE FAMILY.

105

are here reduced, as in the Hares and Rabbits, so as to form only two small bony styles freely
suspended among the muscles, and that the first toe in the hind feet, although not very long, is so
attached as to be opposite to the rest, thus converting the organ into a prehensile hand which the
animal uses freely in climbing. The csecum is small.

In its external characters this animal is as remarkable as in its anatomical structure. In
general appearance, as stated by its describer, it has much resemblance to a small Opossum, but the
bxishy tail and the peculiar arrangement of the hair on the body are met with in no Marsupials. The
head is small ; the general form stout ; the limbs short, and the hind ones not much longer than their
fellows ; and the ears are of moderate size and sparingly clothed with hair. The prevailing colour is
blackish-brown, but a triangular spot on the forehead, a streak under each eye, and the tip of the tail,
are white ; and the long hairs which clothe the body and tail are dark only in the middle, the base
and tip being white, as are also a great quantity of finer and shorter hairs which form a sort of under
fur. But the chief peculiarity of the coat is to be found in the arrangement of the hairs of the body.
The long hairs of the middle of the back and tail, some of which are nearly three inches in length, are
capable of being raised into a nearly upright position, forming a sort of crest which gives the animal a
very peculiar aspect, and this crest is separated from the pendulous hair of the flanks by a sort of
furrow clothed with very peculiar hair of a greyish-tawny colour. These hairs are unlike any others
known to occur among Mammals. The apical part is of the ordinary construction ; but the following
portion down to the base is " very rugose, and presents a spongy aspect, due to the interlacing, and,
so to speak, felting of a multitude of epidermic filaments emanating from radiate cells, which con-
stitute a perfect network of irregular meshes. Within the sort of sheath thus formed longitudinal
filaments which break up into bundles of fibrils are to be seen."

Very little is known as to the habitat of this animal, which M. Milne-Edwards has named
Lophiomys Imhausi, the former name referring to the crested character of the back, the second com-
memorating the person who first brought the creature to the notice of naturalists. M. Imhaus,
stopping for a few hours at Aden on his way home from Reunion, saw a living specimen of this Rodent
in the possession of a negro from whom he bought it, but could learn nothing as to its origin. He
inferred, however, that it had not been brought very far, and that its native country was either
Southern Arabia, or some region in Abyssinia, or Nubia, on the other side of the Red Sea. This
specimen was brought to France, and lived for about a year and a half in the Garden of Acclimatiza-
tion in the Bois de Boulogne, where it fed upon maize, vegetables, and bread, slept during the day?
and climbed with ease upon chairs and other convenient objects by the aid of its hinder hands. It
never took its food in the fore-paws to carry it to the mouth as so many Rodents do. When irritated
it elevated the crest right down to the end of the tail, and defended itself by biting vigorously.

It is doubtful whether the Lophiomys inhabits Arabia, but it is found in the neighbouring parts
of Africa. Professor Peters described the skull of the
animal as representing a new generic type under the name
of Phractomys mthiops. His specimen was obtained by Dr.
Schweinfurth from the tombs of Maman, north of Kassala,
in Upper Nubia. A third specimen has been brought from
Keren in the Bogos country, and a fourth from the
Erkanid mountains between Suakim and Singat.

FAMILY VII.— MURID^E.

We come now to the largest and most typical family of
the Rodents : that, namely, which includes the Rats and Mice
and their numerous allies. Mr. Wallace estimates the
number of known species at 330, which is probably within
the mark. All these forms agree in. the following charac-
ters : — The lower incisors are compressed ; the molars are

usually three in number on each side in each jaw, in one genus only two in the lower or in both
jaws, and in another four in both jaws. They are rooted or rootless, tubercular or flat, with folds of

MOLAB TEETH OF THE BLACK RAT.

106

NATURAL HI STOUT.

enamel ; the malar bone is short and slender, generally reduced to a mere splint between the
maxillary and squamosal processes of the zygomatic arch ; the thumb is rudimentary, but often
furnished with a small nail ; and the tail is generally scaly, with a few scattered hairs, densely hairy
only in a few species.

As might be expected in so lai'ge an assemblage of species, the variety of forms is very great
among the Muridse, but broadly, the common Rats and Mice, which are only too well known to
most of us, may serve as characteristic types of the whole series. The family, however, includes
jumping forms, swimming forms, arboreal forms, and burrowing forms, in which the peculiarities
of the life-habits are very distinctly indicated by the extei-nal appearance of the creatures. In
their distribution the Muridse are almost absolutely cosmopolitan, the family being represented in.

BROWN RAT.

every part of the world, with the sole exception of the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Australia
possesses about thirty species of the family. New Zealand, at the time of its discovery, harboured a
Rat, known as the Forest Rat, or Maori Rat, which was a favourite article of food with the natives,
and is now almost extinct. It was proved by Capt. Hutton to be identical with the Black Rat (Mus
rattus), and was probably introduced by the ancestors of the Maoris. Certain species also, such as
the common Brown Rat and Mouse, are now perfectly cosmopolitan in their distribution, having
accompanied man in all his migrations on the surface of the globe.

The Rat and Mouse form the types of a great sub-family, MURIX.E, which have the molars rooted
and tuberculate when young, the infra-orbital opening high and perpendicular, widest above, and the lower
root of the zygomatic maxillary process flattened into a perpendicular plate. They possess no cheek-
pouches, have the fore and hind limbs approximately equal in length, the thumb rudimentary, and the
tail nearly naked, covered with scaly rings. The genus Mus, to which our household pests belong,
includes upwards of one hundred species, scattered over most parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, and
living sometimes chiefly in the neighbourhood of human habitations, granaries, &c., where they often
feed indifferently upon animal and vegetable substances, sometimes in the open country, and feeding

THE BROWS' RAT.

107

almost exclusively upon tiie latter. The common BROWX EAT (Mus decumanus), sometimes called
the Norway Rat, which is almost too well known to need description, is not a native of Great
Britain, but was certainly introduced there by commerce, probably from some southern or
eastern country — perhaps, as Pennant thinks, from the East Indies. Haunting ships in great numbers,
it has now been introduced into all parts of the world, and it is quite impossible to ascertain its
original habitat. It was known in Asia long before it made its appearance in Europe; and its passage
into Russia is fixed by Pallas in the year 1727, when, he says, after an earthquake it swam across
the Volga from the countries bordering the Caspian. Its first appearance in France and England is
said to have occurred about the middle of the last century.

From its great fecundity and determined ferocity of disposition, the Brown Rat has become a
great pest wherever it has taken up its abode. " It digs," says Professor Bell, " with great facility and

BLACK RAT.

vigour, making its way with rapidity beneath the floors of our houses, between the stones and bricks
of walls, and often excavating the foundations of dwellings to a dangerous extent. There are many
instances of their fatally undermining the most solid mason-work, or burrowing through dams which
had for ages served to confine the waters of rivers and canals." It is almost impossible to keep them
out of our houses, and, once in, there is no end to the mischief they do. Their ferocity is very great ;
and although they will, if possible, retreat from a powerful enemy, they will fight in the most savage
fashion when they cannot escape.

Although not averse to a vegetable diet — as those who have to do with corn and seeds, whether
in the field or the store-house, know to their cost — the Brown Rat evinces a decided preference for
animal food, which he consumes of all kinds and in all states. The case of the horse slaughter-houses
of Montfaucon, near Paris, is well known ; here, the carcases of all the Horses killed during the day,
sometimes to the number of thirty- five, would be picked to the bone by the next morning ; and one
main argument against the removal of the establishment to a greater distance from the city was that
these swarms of ferocious vermin would be left without means of support, and would become a complete
pest in the neighbourhood. That such an apprehension was not unfounded is proved by several
instances recorded of the escape of Rats from wrecked ships upon small islands. In the course of

JOS NATURAL HISTORY.

a few years they exterminated every other living tiling. Professor Bell, on the authority of
the late Mr. Robert Stephenson, relates the following instance of the extreme ferocity of the
Rat when driven by hunger : — " In a coal-pit," he says, " in which many Horses were employed,
the Rats, which fed upon the fodder provided for the Horses, had accumulated in great multitudes. It
was customary in holiday times to bring to the surface the Horses and the fodder, and to close the pit
for the time. On one occasion, when the holiday had extended to ten days or a fortnight, during which
the Rats had been deprived of food, on re-opening the pit, the first man who descended was attacked
by the starving multitude, and speedily killed and devoured." Stories are also told, with what truth
we do not know, of the occurrence of similar catastrophes in the sewers of Paris and London, where,
as is well known, Rats abound.

The Brown Rat breeds several times during the year, and produces as many as ten, twelve, or
fourteen young ones in a litter. Its general length is about nine inches. It may be distinguished
from the old English Rat, which it has displaced in most localities, by its greyish-brown colour and
by the comparative shortness of its ears, which, when pressed down, do not reach the eye.

The BLACK RAT (Mus rattus), or old English Rat, as it is sometimes called, agrees closely
in its habits with the Brown Rat. It is smaller than the Brown Rat, measuring only about seven
inches in length, but has a comparatively much longer tail and larger ears, which, when pressed
forward, cover the eyes. Its colour above is greyish or brownish-black, and the lower parts are
dark ash colour. Although the Black Rat has generally been compelled to give way before its larger
and more vigorous competitor, it is still widely dispersed, but not in such numbers as formerly, in
Europe. Its native country was probably Southern Asia. Nearly allied to it, if indeed specifically
distinct, is the EGYPTIAN RAT (Mus alexandrinus). Both these Rats are said to keep more to the
upper parts of houses than the Brown Rat.

Although the true Mice are very nearly allied to the Rats, of which they are copies on a small
scale (and some of them, at any rate, are as destructive in their way as their larger relatives), they do
not excite by any means the same sentiments of disgust with which Rats are generally regarded ;
ladies, indeed, will sometimes scream at the mere sight of a Mouse, but most of them will admit that,
apart from its predatory habits, it is an elegant little creature. The COMMON MOUSE (Mus musculus)
seems to be as completely associated with man as the Rat, and has accompanied him in his wanderings
to all parts of the world. It is, however, said not to occur in the Sunda Islands. Of its general
appearance and habits we need say nothing ; they are too familiar to need description. But besides
haunting our houses, the Mouse takes up its abode in the rick-yard, and here its devastations are often
very serious. The Mice live in the ricks, through which they make passages in every direction, and
their fecundity is so great that several bushels of Mice are often destroyed during the removal of a
single rick. The Mouse breeds all the year round, and usually produces five or six young at a birth,
so that its rapid increase under favourable circumstances is easily understood. Several varieties of
the species are well known, especially the Albino form, or White Mouse, which is such a favourite pet
with boys. The Common Mouse in England is sometimes patched with white, and we sometimes
see in the shops Pied Mice, which are said to be of Indian origin. A pale buff variety is also
sometimes met with ; and during the removal of a rick some years ago, it was found to be infested
by a breed of Mice with a naked wrinkled skin, to which the name of Rhinoceros Mice was given at
the time.

Besides these more or less domestic species, there are in Britain two other representatives of
the genus Mus, which do not generally frequent hoiises. One of these is the LONG-TAILED FIELD
MOUSE (Mus sylvaticus), sometimes called the Wood Mouse, an exceedingly pretty little creature,
rather larger than the Common Mouse, and having a proportionally longer tail. It measures about
four inches in length, and the tail is about as long as the body : its colour is yellowish or yellowish-
brown on the upper sui*face, whitish beneath ; and the tail is brown above and white beneath. This
species is found all over the temperate parts of Europe and Asia, living in the fields and gardens,
where it takes up its abode, either in some small cavity under the root of a tree, in the deserted runs
of the Mole, or less commonly in a little burrow excavated by its own labour. It feeds chiefly xipon
grain and seeds, of which it lays up a considerable store for winter use in its subterranean dwelling,
and in this way does considerable damage to the crops. The Field Mouse does not, however, strictly

HARVEST MICE.

109

110 NATURAL HISTORY.

confine itself to a vegetable diet, but under circumstances of privation will attack and devour smaller
and weaker animals, not even sparing its own species. It breeds more than once in the year, and
produces from seven to ten young in each litter. It is easily tamed, and soon becomes familiar.

The remaining British species, the HARVEST MOUSE (Mus minutus), is the smallest of the British
quadrupeds, with the exception of the Lesser Shrew (Sorex pygmceus). The Harvest Mouse is to
be found in most parts of England. It also occurs in Scotland as far north as Aberdeenshire ; and in
Ireland, but very rarely. On the Continent its range extends over nearly the whole of Europe,
from Russia in the north to Italy in the south. It is well known in Siberia, and occurs abundantly
in the steppes near the Caucasus.

The total length of this pretty little Mouse is about five inches, of which nearly one-half is made
up of the tail. In it the eyes are less prominent than in the common Field Mouse, and the ears
considerably shorter in proportion. Its colour on the upper surface is bright reddish- brown, and below
pure white, the two colours being sharply separated. During the summer, the Harvest Mouse
associates with the other Field Mice in corn-fields, and with them is very frequently carried in
the sheaves of corn to rick-yards and barns, where it then takes up its abode for the autumn
and winter, and, like other Mice, multiplies very rapidly, and no doubt does a good deal of mischief.
The less fortunate individuals who are left behind in the fields retreat to little burrows for protection
from the inclemency of the winter, which they pass in a state of at least partial torpidity ; and to
provide against exigencies they lay up in their dwellings a small store of food, to which they can have
recourse when a fine day recalls them for a time to activity. Those which have been introduced into
ricks and barns are, of course, liberally provided for, and they show their gratitude by remaining
awake all the winter, as if on purpose to consume their abundant provender. In the open field their
food consists of corn and the seeds of grasses and other plants, but also to a considerable extent of
small insects.

In its movements the Harvest Mouse is wonderfully agile. On the ground it runs very rapidly;
and it climbs upon shrubs and plants as cleverly as a Monkey, running out upon the thinnest twigs
with the greatest confidence, and climbing up stalks of grasses so thin that they bend neai-ly to the
ground with its weight. In these operations the long slender tail comes into use, as its extremity is
prehensile, and can be twisted neatly round the small stalks and branches over which the little climber
is making its way. From its lively habits, and the elegance of its form, the Harvest Mouse is a very
interesting pet.

The Harvest Mouse breeds several times during the year, producing from five to eight or nine
young at a birth, and provides for them one of the prettiest cradles formed by any Mammal. It is
placed, according to the locality, upon several grass-leaves split and interwoven with the other
materials, or suspended at a height of from eighteen inches to three feet above the ground, upon
the twigs of some shrub or between several stalks of corn or strong grasses. It is egg-shaped,
or nearly round, about the size of the egg of a Goose, and is composed externally of slit leaves of
the reeds or grasses among which it is formed, each leaf being carefully divided longitudinally by
the sharp teeth of the little architect into six or eight thread-like portions, which are then all woven
together, so as to produce a firm structure. The interior is lined, or rather stuffed, with all sorts of
soft vegetable substances, so that it has been a question with many observers how the mother could
get at all the members of her family to suckle them, and how the nest could contain them all as they
began to increase in bulk. The young usually remain in the nest until they can see ; but as soon as
they are able to provide for themselves, the mother takes them out, gives them some practical instruc-
tions iii the art of living, and then leaves them to their own devices. According to Brehm, as these
Mice increase in age they improve in the art of nest-building.

Besides these few species, a multitude of Rats and Mice, belonging to the same genus, occur as
natives of nearly all parts of the world, but in their habits they agree in general with the British
species. India harbours a considerable number, among which we may mention the BANDICOOT RAT
(Mus bandicota), a large species, which inhabits the Indian and Malayan peninsulas, and is very
destructive in plantations ; and the TREE RAT ( J/vs arboreus), a native of Bengal, seven or eight
inches in length, which lives partly on grain, of which it lays up stores in its nests, and partly on
young cocoa-nuts, which constitute its favourite food, and in search of which it climbs the trees. This

THE AMERICAN M URINES.

Ill

MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAPALOTE

species builds a nest on cocoa-nut trees and bamboos, and occasionally makes predatory visits to the
houses. The STRIPED MOUSE (JIus barbarus) is remarkable for its coloration, its ground colour being
a bright yellowish-brown or reddish-yellow, adorned with
several longitudinal blackish-brown, streaks. This elegant
Mouse inhabits Northern Africa, especially in stony places.
It is very abundant in Algeria.

Nearly allied to the true Mice are numerous forms
more restricted in their distribution, which have been
formed into distinct genera. Thus Pelomys fallax, in which
the incisors are grooved, the tail short, and the first and
fifth toes of all the feet shorter than the three middle ones,
is peculiar to Mozambique; Acanthomys, in which the fur
is mixed with flattened spines, is an African genus ; whilst
Echinothrix, which has a somewhat similar coat, is Austra-
lian. Madagascar possesses two peculiar genera, Nesomys
and Brachytarsomys, the former having some relation to the
American Murinse, the latter remarkable for the shortness
of the hind feet; and in Australia, besides the genus
already mentioned, and one or two species of true Mus,

we find the genus Hapalotis represented by about thirteen exclusively Australian species. These
animals have the hind limbs rather long, the ears large, and the tail long and hairy, terminating
in a tuft. The molar teeth also exhibit a peculiar pattern. The best known species is the
WHITE-FOOTED HAPALOTE (Hapalotis albipes}, an animal about the size of the Brown Eat, of a
smoky brown colour, with the belly and the feet white. It inhabits New South Wales, especially
in the mountainous parts. The animals of this genus were formerly regarded as allied to the South
American Chinchillas and Viscachas.

The American Murines all belong to a group to which the name of Sigmodontes has been given,
because their molar teeth, which in the young state have two tubercles in each transverse row (instead
of three, which is the usual number in the preceding forms), when ground down by use, show some
S-like patterns in the enamel folds in place of transverse ridges. The greater number of the species
belong to the genus Hesperomys (Western Mouse), which is represented in both divisions of the
American continent, and has been divided by authors into several sub-genera. The WHITE-FOOTED, or
DEER MOUSE (Hesperomys leucopus) is perhaps the best known of all the species, and its varieties,
or rather local permanent races, are distributed all over the continent of North America. The fur
shows various brownish or greyish tints above ; and the lower surface, with the feet up to the
wrist and ankle, is snow-white. What Dr. Coues gives as the normal colour of typical specimens is
a rich fawn, with a darker streak along the back : but he says that this is shown by not more than
one example in six. The tail is generally white beneath. The length of the head and body is about
three inches ; the tail varies considerably in length. The White-footed Mouse is nocturnal in its
habits, and feeds to a great extent upon corn, of which, with acorns and other nuts, it lays up stores
for winter use. It lives a good deal upon trees, taking up its abode in the deserted nest of a Squirrel
or of some small bird. When it constructs its own nest the little fabric is placed in a bush at
from five to fifteen feet from the ground, and is very neatly constructed, usually of fine moss and
strips of bark. In some localities it burrows in the ground. The GOLDEN or RED MOUSE (ff.
aureolus), which resembles the preceding species in form and size, has the fur of the upper sur-
face golden-cinnamon colour, and the lower parts yellowish-white. It inhabits the Centi-al and
Southern States of the North American Union. The RICE-FIELD MOUSE (H. palustris}, which has
been placed in a distinct genus (Oryzomys), is a larger species, sometimes attaining the size of a
small Rat. This is found in the Southern States, chiefly along the coast, and in rice-fields,
where it is exceedingly abundant and does considerable damage. It is eminently aquatic in
its habits. The AMERICAN HARVEST MOUSE (Ochelodon humilis] closely resembles the preceding
species, but differs from them in a rather remarkable character. It has the upper incisor teeth
grooved, a peculiarity which occurs also in the South American Rats of the genus Reithrodon.

112 NATURAL HISTORY.

The American Harvest Mouse inhabits the Southern States, and extends northwards as far as Iowa
and Nebraska.

The FLORIDA RAT, or Wood Rat (Neotomn floridana), is a widely distributed species in the
United States, inhabiting especially the southern portion, but extending northsvarcig as far as New
York and Massachusetts. It measures from six to nine inches in length, with a tail from four to
six inches long. In its coloration it presents a general resemblance to the common Brown Rat, but
is brighter, especially on the sides; the lower surface is white. According to Audubon and Bachmann,
the habits of this species vary considerably in different localities. These authors say that "in Florida
they burrow under stones and the ruins of dilapidated buildings. In Georgia and South Carolina
they prefer remaining in the woods. In some swampy situations, in the vicinity of sluggish streams,
amid tangled vines interspersed with leaves and long moss, they gather a heap of dry sticks, which
they pile up into a conical shape, and which, with grasses, mud, and dead leaves, mixed in by the
wind and rain, form, as they proceed, a structure impervious to rain, and inaccessible to the Wild
Cat, Raccoon, or Fox. At other times their nest, composed of somewhat lighter materials, is placed
in the fork of a tree." This species is very active and Squirrel-like in its habits. It feeds on grain,
seeds, and fruits, and sometimes makes a meal of a Crayfish or a Frog. There are from three to six
young in each litter, and two litters in the year. The young animals in very early days continue to
adhere to the teats of their mother, even when she is walking about outside the nest, and even at a
later period they will cling to her sides and back, after the manner of some Opossums. The female
seems but little inconvenienced by this burden, and shows great affection for her family, defending
them even at the risk of her own life. A nearly-allied, but smaller species, the BUSHY-TAILED WOOD
RAT (AT. cinerea), inhabits the western and north-western parts of America, also extending eastward
to Hudson's Bay, and southward to New Mexico and California. The COTTON RAT (Siymodon
hispidus), another inhabitant of the Southern States and Mexico, ranges southwards to Vera Cruz
and Guatemala.

Besides several species of Hesperomys, South America possesses various Murine animals, which
have been placed in special genera. Among these the most remarkable are those of which Mr.
Waterhouse formed his genus Reithrodon, as these, although true Murines, have a very Rabbit-like
character, and further present the peculiarity of having the upper incisors grooved. They have

the profile much arched, the eyes large, the ears hairy,
and the first and fifth toes of the hind feet very short.
The tail is well clothed with hair. The RABBIT-LIKE
REITHRODON (R. cuniculoides) inhabits Patagonia, where it
was discovered by Mr. Darwin. It is of a yellowish-grey
colour, mixed with black, with the throat and belly pale
yellow, and the rump and feet white. The tail is about
half the length of the head and body, dusky above, white
beneath. The length of the head and body is six inches and
a half. Two other species are described: one (R. tijpicus)

HEAD OF THE RABBIT-LIKE REITHRODON. fl'0m the La Plata > tllg °tller (R' cMncMUoides) from the

Strait of Magellan.

The HAMSTERS, forming the sub-family CRICETIN^E, are very nearly related to the true Mice
and Rats, but differ from them at the first glance by their possession of large internal cheek-pouches,
those organs being entirely wanting or very small in the Murinse. Their molars, three in number
in each series, are also tuberculate when young and regularly rooted. As age advances they become
more and more worn away, so as to exhibit folds of enamel. They are stoutly-built rat-like animals,
generally with short tails, with the upper lip cleft, and with short limbs, of which the hinder have
five, and the anterior four, toes, the thumb being represented by a small wart. The Hamsters are
confined to the Old World, and chiefly inhabit the temperate parts of Europe and Asia j two or three
species occur in Africa. They live generally in corn-fields, where they dig deep burrows with
numerous chambers, into which they can retreat to take their repose, and in which they pass the
winter, previously, however, taking care to lay up a good store of provisions in some of the chambers
of their domicile.

00
(N

THE HAMSTERS AXL THE TREE MICE.

113

MOLAR TEETH OF THE HAMSTER.

The best known species is the HAMSTER (Cricetus frumentarius, see Plate 28), a rather pretty
little beast, of about ten inches long, with bright, prominent, black eyes, short, membranous ears,
and a tapering hairy tail, about two inches and a half in length.
The fur, which is thick and somewhat lustrous, is usually of a
light yellowish-brown colour above, with the snout, the neigh-
bourhood of the eyes, and a band on the neck reddish-brown,
and a yellow spot on each cheek ; the lower surface, the
greater part of the legs, and a band on the forehead are black,
and the feet white. Many varieties occur. This Hamster is
widely distributed, ranging from the Rhine, through Europe
and Siberia, to the Obi ; and in most localities where it occurs
it appears in great numbers, and causes great injury to the
crops. Its burrows are exceedingly spacious, and consist of
numerous passages and chambers. In its temper it is ex-
ceedingly irascible, and at the same time very courageous,
defending itself bravely against its enemies, and standing
boldly on the defensive the moment any danger appears to

threaten it. Its diet is by no means of a purely vegetable nature, but it will destroy and devour
all sorts of small animals that come in its way. Besides the corn, which forms its chief winter
provender, green herbage, peas and beans, and roots and fruits of various kinds, are welcome articles
of diet, and in confinement it will eat almost anything.

The Hamsters pass the winter in their burrows in a torpid state, but waken up very early in the
spring, generally in March, but frequently in February. At first they do not open the mouths of
their burrows, but remain for a time subsisting on the stores laid up during the preceding autumn.
The old males make their appearance first, the females about a fortnight after them, the latter about
the beginning of April. They then set about making their summer burrows, which are not so deep
or so complicated as the winter dwellings ; and shortly afterwards the sexes pair. The young are
produced twice in the year, in May and July ; their number varies from six to eighteen. They have
teeth when first born, and their development as babies is very rapid. Their eyes open in little more
than a week after birth, and in another week they begin to burrow in the ground, and then their
hard-hearted parent drives them off to take care of themselves.

The other species of this sub-family generally very closely resemble the Hamster, both in
appearance and manners. Most of them are found in Central Asia and Siberia, extending southwards
as far as Persia and South Tartary. Cricetus songarus has been obtained at Kumaon. The recorded
African species belong to two peculiar genera : they are Saccostomus lapidarius and fuscus, and
< ' ricetomys gambianus.

Other African forms constitute the small sub-family of the TREE MICE (Dendromyince), which
are entirely confined to the southern portion of the continent. They are characterised by having
the incisors rounded and grooved in front, the infra-orbital opening not narrow below, and the
coronoid process of the lower jaw very small. The ears are clothed with hairs; and the feet,
which are five-toed, are furnished with long claws, which are serviceable to the little rat-like animals
in climbing up the trunks of trees. The BLACK-STREAKED TREE MOUSE (Dendromys mesomelas)
is a rather pretty little species, of a greyish colour, with a black line down the middle of the
back. It is slender in form, with a long, scaly tail, rounded ears, and the two outer toes in each
foot shorter than the rest. Steatomys jwatensis, from Mozambique, is stouter in form than the
preceding, and has a short, densely hairy tail; and in Loplmromys ater, from the same locality,
the incisors are not grooved, and the fur is developed into fine flattened bristles.

The GERBILLES (GerbUlirue) are distinguished from all other Muridse (although approached by
Hapalotis) by the great length of the hind limbs, which are converted into powerful leaping organs,
somewhat as in the Jerboas and Kangaroos, although not quite to the same extent. Like all the pre-
ceding forms, they have the molars furnished with roots, but not with tuberculate crowns, these being
divided into transverse plates formed by separate elliptical or rhomboidal coats of enamel. The
incisor teeth are narrow, the infra-orbital opening as in the Murinae, and the tail long and hairy.

114

NATURAL HISTORY.

MOLAR TEETH OF THE GERBILLE.

The Gerbilles are plump little animals, with a short neck, a broad head, and a pointed muzzle.
The feet are five-toed, but the thumb on the fore feet is reduced to a mere wart-like process with

a flat nail. They are confined to the Eastern hemi-
sphere, and, indeed, to the African continent, the south
of Asia, as far as India, and the south-east of Europe,
where they live both in. cultivated districts and in the
driest deserts, and often occur in great numbers, when
they may cause considerable damage to the neighbouring
crops. They shelter themselves during the day in shal-
low burrows, and come forth in the evening in search
of their food, which consists chiefly of grain and roots.
They store up great quantities of the ears of corn in
their subterranean dwellings, and in many places the
poorer inhabitants search after these stores, and by
digging them out procure a good supply of grain. They
are very prolific, the females producing large families
several times in the year.

Several other forms of Muridse, with rooted molars, have been distinguished, and all are
inhabitants of the Eastern hemisphere. The genera Phlceomys and Nesokia, each including a single
species, form the group PHL^EOMYIN^E, characterised by 'having broad incisors and the molars divided
by transverse plates of enamel. The characters of the skull are as in the Murinse. Phlceomys
Cumingii is from the Philippine Islands ; Nesokia Griffithii inhabits Northern India. Platacanthomys
lasiurus, the only known species of the group PLATACANTHOMYIN^E, resembles a Dormouse in its form,
and is nearly allied to the preceding species, but has the fur of its back mixed with long, flattened,
bristle-like spines. It is a native of the Malabar coast.

The WATER MICE (Hydromyince) are of particular interest, as being a small group, exclusively
confined to the Australian region, and presenting the
exceptional character among the Rodents of having only
two molars on each side in each jaw. These teeth, are
rooted, and divided into transverse lobes by ovate enamel
lobes ; the front tooth is much larger than its fellow. The
Hydromys are small rat-like animals of slender form, with
long tails, rather densely clothed with short hairs, and short
limbs. The hind feet have much stronger claws than the
fore feet, and their toes are partially webbed. Five species
of this group are known from Australia and Van Diemen's
Land, where they inhabit the banks of the streams. The

l>est known are the Yellow-bellied and the White-bellied Water Mice (Hydromys chrysogaster and
leucogaster), both of which inhabit New South Wales, and the latter is also found in Van Diemen's
Land. The Sooty Water Mouse (H. fuliginosus) is an inhabitant of Western Australia.

In the SMINTHIN^E — a group which includes only the genus Sminthus, founded for the reception of
a rat-like Rodent (S. vagus) first discovered in the Crimea, but now known to range from Hungary,

Finland, and Sweden, through Russia to the banks of the Irtisch
and Yenisei, and into Tartary (Bokhara) — we find another excep-
tional character of the molar teeth. There are four of these teeth on
each side both above and below, the first and fourth of which are much
smaller than the intervening ones. In this animal the ears are rather
long and pointed, the legs are rather short, and the tail is about as
long as the body, and clothed with short hairs.

In the remainder of the Muridse, the molars, which are again only three in number on each side,
are generally rootless, although occasionally the growth of the teeth stops and they close up below.
The molars are composed of triangular prisms placed alternately. Two groups are thus characterised,
namely, the Voles and the Zokors.

SKULL OF THE WATER- MO I' SE.

TEETH OF SMINTHUS.

THE VOLES.

115

The VOLES (Arvicolince), which, next to the true Hats and Mice, form the most important group
of Muriclse, are represented in the northern parts of both hemispheres. The brain-case in these
animals is rhomboidal when looked at from above, the frontal region of the skull is much contracted,
and the zygomatic arch stands out very far. The infra-orbital opening is as in the Murinse. The
molars are so constructed of alternating triangular prisms that the whole margin is enclosed by deep
angular folds of enamel. These are mouse- and rat-like Rodents of a rather stout build, with the
limbs and tail of moderate length, or short, and the latter more hairy than in the true Murines. The
ears are short, often nearly concealed beneath the fur.

The true Voles (genus Arvicola) number about fifty known species, which have been arranged by
various writers under a considerable number of sub-genera, generally corresponding to differences in
mode of life. Three species, representing three of these groups, are found in. Britain, and may serve
to illustrate the natural history of the Voles. The largest of these is the well-known WATER VOLE, or
Water Rat, as it is more commonly called (Arvicola amphibius), an animal rather smaller than the
Common Rat, and having, like all the Voles, the muzzle considerably blunter, and the tail a good deal
shorter and more hairy. Although thoroughly aquatic in its habits, the feet of the Water Vole are
not webbed ; they have five toes, but the thumb in the fore feet is very short. The general colour of
the fur is reddish-brown, mixed with grey on the upper surface, and yellowish-grey beneath ; the ears
are nearly concealed in the fur ; and the incisor teeth are deep yellow in front, and very strong, pre-
senting a considerable resemblance to those of the Beaver, to which great Rodent the Voles were
formerly considered to be related. It is very widely distributed, being found in all parts of Europe,
and stretching right across Central and Northern Asia, to China, the Amoor region, and the
Sea of Okhotsk. In Ireland, however, it is not found. Its habits vary a little in different
localities, but in general it "haunts the banks of rivers, in which it burrows to a considerable dis-
tance. In the water it is very active, swimming and diving with the greatest facility, and it is
here that it seeks its food, which appears to consist exclusively of vegetable substances. Professor
Bell says: — "A decided preference is shown, during the summer months, for the inner or concealed part
of some species of sword-flags, which is very succulent and sweet-tasted. As this portion is usually
below water, the animal gnaws the plant in two near its root, when it rises to the surface, and
being conveyed to some sound footing, is consumed at leisure. In default of its more favourite food, it
will make a satisfactory meal on the common duckweed. Only the green, and fleshy leaf is eaten, the
roots and other fibrous parts being rejected. While feeding on this plant, the creature sits like a
Squirrel on its haunches near the water's edge, and taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking
mass in its fore paws, eats a small part only, and letting
the remainder fall, takes up some more in the same
manner." The accusation sometimes brought against the
Water Vole of eating worms and insects, and even of
destroying fish - spawn, young fishes, and even young
ducks, seems to be entii*ely unfounded. In the winter
the Water Voles will feed on turnips, mangel-wurzel,
and other roots, and also upon the bark of osiers and
willows, to which they do considerable damage ; and in
some localities they appear to frequent gardens at all
seasons of the year, burrowing in the ground, and
feeding luxuriously upon the produce of the gardener's
labour. Their greatest activity is in the twilight, but in
quiet situations they are to be seen abroad during the day. The female produces from two to six
young at a litter : twice in the year in Britain, according to Professor Bell ; three or four times in the
course of the summer, according to Brehm and other Continental naturalists.

A second British species is the FIELD VOLE, or Short-tailed Field Mouse (Arvicola agrestis),
which is less than half the size of the Water Vole, and has the tail only about one-third the length of
the body, instead of half that length. In the general form of the head and body the two species are
a good deal alike, but the ears project farther beyond the fur in the Field Vole. The general
colour of this species is greyish-brown, becoming tinged with reddish or yellowish on the sides ; the

ETH OF THE WATER RAT.

116

NATURAL HISTORY.

lower surface is pale grey or dirty white, and the tail is brown, above and greyish beneath. The
Field Vole is a very abundant species in the northern and central parts of Europe, but is wanting in
Ireland and south of the Alps and Pyrenees. It is usually found in damp places, especially in meadows
in the neighbourhood of woods and copses, where it forms burrows of considerable extent. Its food
consists almost exclusively of vegetable substances, such as roots and herbage, and in times of
scarcity it will climb up trees and bushes to feed on the tender parts of the bark. In case of necessity,
however, it does not disdain animal food, but will eat insects and meat, and even sometimes kill and
devour smaller individuals of its own species. It breeds three or four times in the year, producing
from four to six young at a birth, in a small round nest made of moss and leaves, among the roots of
the herbage in some hollow of the ground. Their increase, which would otherwise be very formidable, is
checked by the smaller predaceous beasts and birds, such as the Weasel, the Kestrel, and the Owls,

SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE.

which destroy them in great numbers. The BANK VOLE (Arvicola ylareolv.s*), the third British species,
which is chestnut-coloured, with white feet and with a longish tail, closely resembles the preceding
species in its habits, but feeds rather on fruits and roots than on herbage, and is far more addicted to a
diet of animal food, freely devouring insects, worms, snails, and even young birds and carrion. It is
pretty generally distributed over Europe, but not so uniformly as the Field Vole, which it even
exceeds in fecundity, the females producing from four to eight young three or four times in the
year, in a nest constructed of grass and moss placed in a hollow of the surface of the ground among
dense hei'bage.

The Continent of Europe is inhabited by several other species of Voles, among which we may
notice the little SOUTHERN FIELD VOLE (Arvicola arvalis), which more or less completely takes
the place of our common Field Vole in Southern Europe, but also extends over the whole of
Central Europe, and into Western Asia. Several of these species, and others to which we cannot
specially refer, ascend to considerable elevations on the mountain-sides, but at least one species,

* See An-icola rutilus, p. 117.

THE MUSQUASH. 117

the SNOW MOUSE (Arvicola nivalis), lives on the Alps and Pyrenees, at elevations of 4,000 feet and
upwards, being most abundant about the limit of perpetual snow, where it not only resides during
the short period of summer, when some portion of the surface is freed from its snowy covering,
but actually throughout the winter, buried under the snow, through which it makes its way in search
of the roots of plants. The ROOT VOLE (Arvicola ceconomus) is a large and abundant Siberian
species, the range of which extends from the Obi to Kamstchatka. This and some other northern
species often migrate in great bodies, after the fashion to which we shall have to refer when speaking
of the Lemmings.

In North America, it would appear from Dr. Coues' monograph, there are about a dozen distinct
species of Yoles. One of them, confined to the northern parts of the Continent, he identifies with
the Arvicola rutilus of the Old World, which he regards as a circumpolar species. South of a line
running from sea to sea, a little north of the boundary of the United States, comes another
form, A. Gapperi, which is regarded as a sub-species of A. rutilus, to which A. glareolus
(see p. 116) is considered to stand in a similar relation. The most abundant North American
species is the MEADOW MOUSE (A. riparius), which is distributed, apparently, over the greater part of
the Continent, and takes the place of the Field Vole. On the prairies there is a peculiar species (A.
austerns'), a sub-species of which (A . curtatus) is found in the Western territories as far as California ;
the PINE MOUSE (A. pinetorurn) inhabits the country east of the Mississippi ; and the genus is repre-
sented in Mexico by one species (A. quas later). The Voles are most numerous and abundai:.t in the.
northern and north-western parts of North America.

Another American species is the MUSQUASH, MUSK-RAT, or ONDATRA (Fiber zibethicus)^
which constitutes a genus distinguished from the true Voles by having the tail compressed and nearly
naked, the hinder toes united by short webs, and fringed with long hairs, and the enamel folds of the
molars united by a line running down the middle of the tooth. The form of the animal is thickset,
and in this respect, as in its aquatic habits, it resembles the Beaver, to which it was formerly supposed
to be nearly allied. The head is short and broad, the ears project very little beyond the fur, the hind
limbs are longer than the fore legs, and terminate in five toes with strong claws, while the fore limbs
have only four toes and a wart-like thumb ; the fur is very thick and shiny, and the colour is usually
brown above and grey below, with the tail, which is nearly as long as the body, black. The fur is
well known in commerce. The length of the head and body of a full-grown male is aboxit twelve
inches. The name Musk-rat, often given to this species, refers to the musky odour diffused by the
secretion of a large gland situated in the inguinal region.

The Musquash, which may be described as a large Water Rat, inhabits all the suitable parts of
North America, from the thirteenth to the sixty-ninth degree of north latitude, and is most abundant
in the Canadian region, which offers it peculiarly favourable conditions of life in the multitude of
rivers and lakes, upon the banks of which the Musquash always takes up its abode. It is a nocturnal
animal, passing the day in concealment, and coming forth with the twilight to seek its nourishment,
and amuse itself with its fellows. In the water it displays wonderful activity, and, in many respects,
presents much resemblance to the Beaver. Curiously enough, the parallelism of habits holds good to a
certain extent, even in the construction of their dwellings. The Musquash generally lives in a burrow
dug out of the bank of the stream in which he disports himself, and consisting of a chamber with
numerous passages, all of which open under the surface of the water. But, under certain conditions,
especially in the north, he builds himself a house of a rounded or dome-like form, composed of sedges,
grasses, and similar materials, plastered together with mud, and supported upon a mound of mud
of sufficient height to raise it above the water. The house contains a single chamber from sixteen
inches to two feet in diameter, and is entered by a passage which opens at the bottom of the water.
Other passages are said to issue from this, and to lead down into the ground under the bottom of the
water ; these are made by the animal in his search for the roots of watei'-lilies and other aquatic plants,
which constitute a great part of his nourishment. The Musquash also seeks provisions on land, and
in this way often does much mischief in gardens. Fresh-water mussels also form a part of its diet. It
passes the winter in its house, which it then furnishes with a soft bed of leaves, grasses, and sedges,
and, according to Audubon, ventilates by covering the middle of the dome only with a layer of similar
materials, through which the air can pass. Of the propagation of the Musquash very little seems to
110

118

NATURAL HISTORY.

MUSQUASH.

"be known with certainty. They pair in April and May, and the female produces from three to six
young at a birth ; but whether this takes place once or several times in the course of the summer is a
matter of doubt. They are captured in fall-traps baited with apples, or by traps set at the mouth of
their burrows. The Indians sometimes spear them in their houses.

The LEMMING (Myodes lemmus) is one of the most remarkable of the MuricUe, on account
of the great migrations which it performs, apparently with no special object. In Norway, where
it is best known, they make their appearance in the cultivated districts in such enormous numbers,
and so suddenly, that the peasants have always believed them to fall from the cloiids. The Lemming
is a Vole-like animal, about six inches long, of which the tail makes up about half an inch. It varies
considerably in colour, but is usually brownish-yellow, with dark spots above, and with a yellow streak
enclosing the eye on each side of the face ; the under surface is yellowish. The ears are very short,
scarcely projecting beyond the fur ; the eyes are small, black, and bead-like ; the soles of the feet are
hairy, and the claws of the fore feet much stronger than those on the hinder extremities. The
Norwegian Lemmings live and breed among the peat mosses of the mountains. They are lively
and active little creatures both by day and night, and feed upon the scanty vegetation of their
Alpine home — grasses, lichens, the catkins of the dwarf birch, and roots. They are active even
through the winter, when they make passages for themselves under the thick covering of snow
which then veils the whole country, and thus are enabled to go in search of their ordinary food.
They also make their way up to the surface, upon which they may occasionally be seen running,
even in the depth of winter. They breed in their burrows and under stones, and must be very
prolific, seeing that every predaceous animal in the country destroys and devours them. The Lem-
ming is, in one sense, an exceedingly timid little creature, the slightest disturbance of its quietude, or
even the passing over-head of a cloud, being sufficient to alarm it ; but when attacked it displays the

THE LEMMING. 119

most dauntless courage, standing on the defensive against both men and animals, and biting very
sharply at anything that comes within its reach. From time to time, from some unexplained
cause, the Lemmings start in vast swarms from their mountain fastnesses, and make their way
in a straight line in some definite direction. Nothing seems to turn them from their course ;
they go straight on, over hill and dale, and, although said at other times to have an aversion to
water, they now swim across any lakes or rivers that come in their way. In this operation
many of them lose their lives, for they require smooth water for their navigation, and the least
breeze ruffling the surface suffices to send hundreds of them to the bottom. In this way they
gradually arrive at the cultivated regions, where they do so much damage to vegetation, that
in olden times a special form of prayer and exorcism was in use against them. Their march is

accompanied by great numbers of carnivorous beasts and birds of all sorts. Wolves, Foxes, and Wild
Cats, and the smaller quadrupeds of the family Mustelida?, Eagles, Hawks, and Owls, all prey upon
them with avidity — even the Reindeer is said to stamp them to death ; and the story of his eating
them, long discredited, has been confirmed on good authority, while man, with his Dogs and Cats, is
not behindhand in the work of destruction. Nevertheless, a great multitude survives all these
dangers, and, strange to say, the termination of this painful migration is always the sea, into
which the survivors of the march plunge, and, apparently, voluntarily commit suicide. Mr. Crotch,
who has published several papers on the Lemming and its migrations, says that in Norway
these animals always proceed from the central backbone of the country in an east or -west direc-
tion, and that in either case the survivors of the march drown themselves, those that go westward
in the Atlantic, those that go eastward in the Gulf of Bothnia. His notion is that the migration
is in obedience to an inherited instinct acquired at a time when there was land where the sea now
rolls ; but there are many difficulties in the way of such a hypothesis.

Besides the Scandinavian Lemming above noticed, several other species occur in the northern
parts of the world. Three species (Myodes lagurus, obcnsis, and torquatus) inhabit Siberia ; the latter

120 NATURAL HISTORY.

two are found in North America, the last also in Greenland. In this species, which has been
placed in a distinct genus under the name of Cuniculus torquatus, the third and fourth toes of the
fore feet are much larger than the second and fifth (the thumb being rudimentary), and their claws
become periodically enlarged to double their ordinary size by an enormous growth during winter
of horny matter on the lower surface.

The transition from this to the next family is effected by two genera, which to such an extent
combine the characters of the two as to have led different zoologists to place them sometimes in the
one, sometimes in the other. Externally they have all the characters of the Mole-rats of the
follow ing family ; in the characters of the skull and teeth they more resemble the Voles. The ZOKOR
(Siphneus aspalax), which may be taken as an example of these forms, is an inhabitant of the Altai
Mountains, has the eyes very small, the external ears reduced to mere rudiments, the body cylindrical,
as in the true Mole-rats, and the fore-feet armed with very long and strong claws, of which that on
the fifth toe is longer than the toe itself. This animal lives in subterranean runs something like
those of the Mole, but of much greater extent, and in burrowing in the earth makes use of its strong
incisors to cut through the roots it meets with, and when necessary to loosen the earth. The runs
pass very near the surface, and are no doubt made for the purpose of feeding on the tender roots of
grasses. A species of Siphneus is said to occur in North China. The other genus (Ettobius) includes
two species ; one (E. luteus) from the country about the Sea of Aral ; the other (E. talpinus) from
south-eastern Russia and the west of Asia. The latter abounds in the Crimea. These animals form
the sub-family Siphneinae.

CHAPTER III.

MOLE RATS, POUCHED RATS, POUCHED MICE, JERBOAS, AND OCTODONTID^E.

SPALACID./E, OR MOLE RATS— Characteristics of the Family— Habits— Food— THE MOLE RAT— Distribution— Descrip-
tion—THE CHESTNUT MOLE RAT— THE NAKED MOLE RAT— THE STRAND MOLE RAT— Description— Habits— THE
CAPE MOLE RAT— GEOMYID^E, OR POUCHED RATS— Characteristics of the Family— The Cheek-pouches— THE
COMMON POCKET GOPHER — Distribution — Description — Burrowing— Runs — Subterranean Dwelling — THE NORTHERN
POCKET GOPHER — HETEROMYINJE, OR POUCHED MICE — Difficulties as to Position — Characteristics — PHILLIPS'
POCKET MOUSE— "Where Found -Description— THE YELLOW POCKET MOUSE— THE LEAST POCKET MOUSE— DIPO-
DID^E, OR JERBOAS— Organisation for Jumping— Characteristics— Distribution— THE AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE
Description— Characters peculiar to Itself— Habits— THE TRUE JERBOAS— Characters— THE JERBOA— Distribution-
Habits— Mode of Locomotion— THE ALACTAGA— THE CAPE JUMPING HARE— THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS—
OCTODONTIDJ2— Characteristics— Sub-Family, CTENODACTYLIN^E— THE GUNDI— THE DEGU— Description— Habits—
THE BROWN SCHIZODON— THE TUKOTUKO— THE CURURO— THE ROCK RAT— Sub-Family, ECHINOMYIN.E— THE COYPU
—One of the Largest Rodents— Description— Burrows— Habits— Mother and Young— THE HUTIA CONGA— THE
HUTIA CARABALI— THE GROUND RAT.

FAMILY VIII.— SPALACID^E (MOLE RATS).

ALTHOUGH the Zokor and its allies in the preceding family have to a certain extent prepared us for
the peculiar characters presented by the Mole-rats, these are exhibited by the latter in a much more
extreme form. They have a very large broad head, which is usually flattened above, and forms
an appropriate anterior termination to a clumsy, cylindrical body, supported upon short stout limbs ;
their incisor teeth are large and broad, and are most formidably exposed in front of the mouth ;
their eyes are exceedingly small, hidden in the fur, and sometimes quite rudimentary ; the external ears
ai-e reduced to the smallest possible size, or altogether wanting ; and their tails are either so short as to
be concealed within the hair of the hinder part of the body, or altogether wanting externally, although
the skeleton still shows some caudal vertebrae. The molar teeth are rooted, and not tuberculate ;
their surface shows re-entering folds of enamel. The feet have five toes, but the thumb is generally
very small, although furnished with a nail. The number of molars varies from three to six on each
side in each jaw.

In their mode of life, as in their form and the condition of the organs of sight and hearing,
these animals present a considei'able resemblance to the Moles; but as their food is exclusively of a
vegetable nature, the object of their burrowing is not exactly the same. They all inhabit the eastern
hemisphere, and are generally met with in dry sandy plains, the soil of which lends itself readily to

THE MOLE EATS.

121

SKULL OF MOLE-RAT.

mining operations. They seldom quit their burrows, and usually work in these only at night, when

they make their way rapidly through the ground, and, like the Mole, can run either backwards or

forwards in their subterranean galleries with equal facility. They feed chiefly on roots, and especially

on the bulbs and tubers which so many plants possess in the dry

districts which they frequent ; but some of them also eat nuts,

seeds, the young bark of trees, and herbage. None of them fall

into a state of torpidity during the winter — indeed, only two

species inhabit northern i^egions ; but these, although active in

the winter season, are said not to take the precaution to lay

up a store of provisions.

Most zoologists distinguish two groups of Spalacidse. In the
SPALACIN^E, the representatives of which range from south-eastern
Europe to further India and the south of China, and also occur
in Africa in the countries of Abyssinia and Shoa, the palate between the molar teeth is broader than
one of the sockets of the molars, and the angular portion of the lower jaw springs from the lower edge
of the bony case of the incisor. To this group belongs the MOLE-RAT (Spalax typhlus), which
inhabits Hungary and Galicia, and the south-east of Europe generally, and ranges eastwards into
Asia as far as the Caucasus and Ekaterinoslav. It possesses only three molars on each side in each
jaw, and has the eyes rudimentary and covered by the skin, so that the animal is quite blind ; the
upper incisors are placed perpendicularly ; and the tail reduced to a sort of wart. The toes, especially
those of the fore-feet, are furnished with very powerful claws, which are vigorously employed by the
animal in the digging operations above described. The general covering of the body is a soft fur of a
yellowish-brown colour, tinged with ashy-grey ; the head lighter, but becoming brownish behind ; and
the lower surface ashy-grey, with some white streaks and spots. The muzzle, chin, and feet are
whitish, and along each side of the face there runs a sort of ridge of stiff bristle-like hairs. This

species is particularly abun-

dant in the Ukraine and the
country about the Volga
and the Don.

The genus Rhizomys,
of which there are an East
Indian and two African
species known, has the eyes
uncovered, though very
small, short naked ears, and
a short partially hairy tail.
The upper incisors are
arched forward. The CHEST-
NUT MOLE-RAT (Rhizomys
badius) lives in Northern
India, Siam, and Arracan ;
and, according to Mr.
Finlayson, the food of a
specimen in confinement
consisted of unhusked rice
and other grain, but he
showed himself fond of
MOLE-KAT. yams and pumpkins. The

NAKED MOLE-RAT (Hetero-

cephalus glaber), which has no external ears amd a short tail, has the body almost entirely naked.

It is a native of Shoa.

The other section of the Mole rat family, the BATH VERGING, is entirely confined to Africa, and,

indeed, almost exclusively to the southern extremity of that continent, only a single species being

122

NATURAL HISTORY.

found elsewhere — at Mozambique. They show a resemblance to the Hystricine Rodents in the
structure of the lower jaw, the angular portion of which springs from the side of the bony case of
the lower incisor ; and the palate between the molars is narrower than in the Spalacinte. The best
known of the six species inhabiting the Cape of Good Hope is the STRAND MOLE-EAT (Bathyergus
maritimus), which is nearly as large as a small Rabbit, its length being about ten inches, witli a
tail two inches in length. In general form it resembles the species last described ; it has small but
uncovered eyes, a broad nose, no external ears; very long, compressed, and powerful claws on all the
toes, except the thumb of the fore-feet, which has a crooked nail ; four molars on each side, and long
white incisors, of which the upper ones are strongly grooved in front. The colour of the fur is
greyish-white, with a yellowish tint on the upper surface. The tail has a sort of radiating tuft of
hairs at the end. The Strand Mole-rat lives entirely in sandy localities near the sea-shore, and
especially in the sand-hills or dunes which fringe the coast of the Cape of Good Hope in some parts.
Here it burrows freely in all directions, its galleries generally radiating from several central points,
and joining in various places. It avoids the light as much as possible, and if by chance it is exposed
on the surface it is exceedingly helpless. Very little is known of the habits of this species, which
probably feeds chiefly on roots like the other members of the family. It is regarded as mischievous,
as it undermines the ground so much as to make it unsafe to ride over. The colonists, therefore, often
destroy it by various means. The enamel folds of the teeth become effaced with use.

The Georychi, five species of which inhabit Cape Colony, resemble the preceding species, but
are smaller and weaker. The claws of the fore-feet are shorter and weaker, and the upper incisors,
which are long and arched forward, are not grooved. The best-known species is the so-called CAPE
MOLE-EAT (Georychus capensis). In the Mozambique species (Hell&phobius argenteo-cinereus) there
are six molars on each side above and below, and the second toe of the hind feet is the longest. In
most other characters it resembles Georychus.

FAMILY IX.— GEOMYIDJE, OR POUCHED RATS.

The Pouched Rats, or Pocket Gophers, and the Pouched Mice of North America, constitute a
family distinguished from all the preceding forms by the presence of a pair of great cheek-pouches,
opening outside and not inside the mouth (see figure). These
cheek-pouches are haiiy inside throughout. The angular

portion of the lower jaw is
strongly twisted, the molars are
four in number on each side in
each jaw, and the squamosal bone
is very large. In external cha-
racters the animals of this family
present considerable diversity,
which has led to their being
divided into two well-marked
sub-families, the distinctive pecu-
liarities of which are of such
importance that Dr. Coues has
raised them to the rank of dis-
tinct families. The GEOMYIN^E,
or Pouched Rats, are more or less
Rat-like animals, in which the feet are five-toed, and all the toes furnished with claws, those of the
fore feet being very strongly developed ; and the tail is short. Certain other characters are presented
by the skull. The outline of this part, including the zygomatic arches, is almost quadrangular; the
infra-orbital opening is far in front of the jugal process ; the malar bone extends forward to the
lachrymal.

Of the animals thus characterised, the Continent of North America possesses, according to Dr.
Coues, seven species, and they are met with from Hudson's Bay and the Columbia River in the
north, as far south as Mexico. The best-known species, the COMMON POCKET GOPHEE (Geomys

MOLAR TEETH OF THE MEXICAN
POUCHED RAT.

UNDER SURFACE OF THE HEAD OF
HETEROMYS.

THE POUCHED RATS. 123

bursarius), inhabits the whole valley of the Mississippi, and extends northwards into Canada. It
reaches the foot of the Rocky Mountains in Colorado, but is not known to occur west of that
range. It is also found in Texas. This Pouched Rat, like the rest of its genus, has the incisors
broad and the upper ones deeply grooved ; but in addition to the ordinary deep groove it has a
fine line close to the inner margin of each of these teeth. Its form is stout and clumsy, but its
coat is beautifully soft and velvety, like that of the Mole, but of a dull reddish-brown colour, with
the feet and tail white. The average length of an adult specimen is from seven to eight inches,
and the tail is two or three inches long. This organ is clothed with hair nearly to the tip.

Like the Mole, this animal lives in burrows, which it makes in all directions in the ground,
throwing out as it proceeds heaps of earth, which exactly resemble ordinary mole-hills. To enable
it to perform these labours the claws of the fore feet are exceedingly powerful ; and to adapt it the
better to its subterranean existence, the eyes are very small, and the external ears are wanting. Its
digging operations have generally the same object as
those of the Mole — namely, the search for food. The
tunnel is carried along not far from the surface of the
ground, and the roots of any plants that lie in its
covirse are bitten off and devoured by the little miner.
Besides the runs, the Pouched Rat digs himself a con-
venient dwelling in the shape of a chamber hollowed
out xmder the roots of a tree, access to which is
gained by a somewhat spiral descending passage.
This chamber, which is usually at a depth of four or
five feet, is comfortably lined with soft grass, and the
nest in which the female brings forth her young is a
cavity of the same kind, but surrounded by circular SKULL OF THE MEXICAN POUCHED HAT.

passages, from which, like that of the Mole, other pas-
sages branch off. One of these, according to Gesner, leads from the nest to a large store-chamber filled
with nuts, seeds, and roots, among which the potato was found to play an important part. These pro-
visions are carried to the store-house in the great cheek-pouches, which the animal is said to fill by the
aid of its tongue, and to empty with the fore paws. This Pouched Rat does much damage in
cultivated ground by attacking the roots of both plants and trees, sometimes destroying a great
number of the latter in a few days. The female produces from five to seven young at the end
of March or the beginning of April. The other species of Geomys closely resemble this in their
habits.

Of the second genus belonging to this sub-family (TJiomomys) Dr. Coues admits only two
species, one of which, however, occurs under three named forms. They may be distinguished from
the species of Geomys by their having the upper incisors plain, without grooves.

The NORTHERN POCKET GOPHER (Thomomys talpoides), with its sub-species, ranges over nearly the
whole of North America from the Hudson's Bay Territory to California and New Mexico. The three
forms are for the most part in accordance with geographical distribution. A small species (Thomomys
clusius) has been obtained in the Rocky Mountains.

The HETEROMYIN^E (forming the family Saccomyidse of Dr. Coues, although he does not accept
the genus Saccomys) are more slender and delicate in form than the Geomyinse, and have the hind
limbs and tail elongated, the former, indeed, being converted into leaping organs like those of
the Jerboas and Kangaroos. The eyes and ears are larger, and the animals are in every respect
adapted to life in the open, while the Geomyinse, on the contrary, are subterranean in their
habits. The hair in the present family is coarse and harsh, sometimes even spiny. In skeletal
characters we find a similar alteration. The incisors are narrow ; the skull is delicate, with its angles
rounded off, and the mastoid bones form a considerable part of the roof of the cranial cavity ; the
zygomatic arches are slender ; and, the lower root of the maxillary process being undeveloped, the
infra-orbital opening is not defined. As in the Jerboas, the cervical vertebrae are sometimes anchylosed.
Like the Geomyinse, these animals are confined to America, and chiefly limited to the Southern
United States and Central America, although some of the species occur as far north as the Columbia

124 NATURAL HISTORY.

River and Hudson's Bay, and one is found in Trinidad. By American writers they are called
" Pocket Mice."

PHILLIPS'S POCKET MOUSE, also known as the Kangaroo Rat (Dipodomys Phittipsii), is one of the
best known species of this group. It is an elegantly formed little creature, about four inches long,
with a slender tail nearly six inches in length. Its colour above is mouse-brown, white beneath ; the
sides of the body have some white streaks, especially one from the ear towards the shoulder, and one
on the thigh running towards the root of the tail ; the tip of the tail is also white. This is a Cali-
fornian species, but extends throughout the Pacific region of the United States. It is represented
in the Rocky Mountains by a rather larger and stouter form, with smaller ears and a shorter tail
(Dipodomys Ordii), which is generally regarded as distinct, but is placed by Dr. Coues as a sub-
species. The habits of the species are comparatively little known, but they appear to live in the
most desert places they can find, the barren spots on which the only plants that seem to flourish are
the great mis-shapen cactuses. They dwell in holes under rocks and stones, from which they emerge
at sunset, and hop about gaily after the fashion of little Kangaroos. The places in which these
Pocket Mice are found are so bare of vegetation and destitute of water, that it is difficult to
imagine how they contrive to exist. In all probability they pick up a scanty living in the shape
of roots and grasses, especially seeds, carrying a supply for the day into their holes in their great
cheek-pouches.

The YELLOW POCKET MOUSE and the LEAST POCKET MOUSE (Cricetodipus flavus and parvus) are
very minute creatures, only about two inches long in the head and body. The tail is longer than the
head and body in the latter, shorter in the former species, and the colour of the fur in both is a pale
buff. These species are found in the Rocky Mountains and the region west of that range to the
Pacific, the latter being inhabited by the second of the above species. Several species of the genus
Heteromys inhabit Central America, and one is found in the island of Trinidad. Nothing appears
to be known of their habits.

From these we pass as by a natural transition to

FAMILY X.— DIPODID^ (THE JERBOAS).

The JERBOAS are a more extensive and much more widely distributed family of hopping Rodents.
In these we find the organisation for jumping brought to greater perfection than in any other group.
The body is light and slender, the hind limbs much elongated, the fore limbs veiy small, and the tail long
and usually tufted at the end. The number of toes on the hind feet varies from three to five, and the
metatarsal bones are very often united so as to form what is called a " cannon bone " in the Horse. The
incisor teeth are compressed ; the molars sometimes four, but usually three in each series, rooted or root-
less, not tuberculate ; the infra-orbital opening is rounded and
very large, and the zygomatic arch slender. The great home
of these animals is the vast steppe region which stretches
from South-eastern Europe across the greater part of Central
Asia, but they extend southwards round the eastern extremity
of the Mediterranean, through Syria and Arabia to Egypt
and Africa, over a great part of which they are found, and
eastward to India, Afghanistan, and Ceylon. A single species
occurs at the Cape of Good Hope ; and another is found in
North America. We may commence by noticing this last

SKULL OF THE CAPE JUMPING HARE. species, as it not only makes the nearest approach to those

of preceding families, especially the Muridae, but differs from

the rest of the Jerboas in characters of such importance, that Dr. Coues maintains its right to form a
separate family (Zapodidce).

The AMERICAN JUMPING MOUSE (Zapus* hudsonius) has a wide range, extending across

* Dr. Coues has proposed this generic name for the American Jumping Mouse, as the names Jaculus and Mer tones,
given to the genus by various authors, had been previously used for other groups.

THE POUCHED MICE.

125

the continent of North America from sea to sea, and from Labrador, Hudson's Bay, and the GIT ,t
Slave Lake in the north, to Virginia and the elevated portions of Arizona and New Mexico in the
south. It is an elegant little mouse-like ci-eature, rather more than three inches long, and furnished
with a cylindrical tail, which exceeds the head and body in length by about two inches. Its hind
limbs are not quite so disproportionately developed as in the other members of the family. Its fur in
summer is of a brown colour above, becoming yellowish on the sides and white below ; in the winter
the brown tint covers the whole surface. The ears, which are not very large, are black, with a light-
coloured rim ; the hind feet are greyish, and the fore feet whitish on the upper surface ; and the tail,
which tapers to an exceedingly fine point, where there is a fine pencil of hairs, is ringed and nearly
naked.

The characters in which this animal differs from its nearest relatives are as follows : — In the upper
jaw there are four rooted molars on each side, the first being very small, the second the largest, and
the rest gradually diminishing in size ; the fore feet have the thumbs rudimentary, and the hind feet

AMEKICAN JUMPING MOUSE.

have five toes, all of which touch the ground ; the metatarsal bones are separate ; and the soles of the
feet naked, with granules and small horny shields.

The American Jumping Mouse is found in meadows in the neighbourhood of woods and copses.
It is nocturnal in its activity, sleeping during the day in its burrow, which is usually about two feet
deep, and coming forth at night. It is sociable in its habits, and excessively active, covering from
three to five feet of ground at each leap, so that it
is a matter of no little difficulty to capture a speci-
men in the open. In the woods it is worse, as the
little creature will bound over bushes, and get out of
sight in a moment. Its food consists of seeds of various
kinds, and it is exceedingly fond of beech-mast. For
protection from the cold of winter the Jumping Mouse
makes a little hollow clay ball, within which it coils
itself up, and goes comfortably to sleep. The nest is
made about six inches under the surface of the ground,
and is composed of fine grass, sometimes mixed with
feathers, wool, and hair ; and in this the female produces

trom two to four young, probably several times in the course of the summer, as the nests and
young are to be found from May to August.

If we regard the American Jumping Mouse as constituting a peculiar section of the family,
ZAPODIN.E, a second group, DIPODIN^;, is formed by the TRUE JERBOAS, which make up the greater

MOLAll TliETII 01' THE JKKI.UA.

126

NATURAL HISTORY,

part of the family. These either possess only three molars, or a very small additional tooth exists in
front of each series in the upper jaw. The molars are rooted, and diminish in size backwards in each
series. The cervical vertebrae are anchylosed ; the fore feet have the thumbs rudimentary, but
sometimes furnished with a small nail ; the hind feet have only three toes fully developed, and the
metatarsals are united into a single bone of great length ; the soles are furnished with elastic balls ; and
the tail is very long, well-clothed with hair, and tufted at the end.

Of these pretty little creatures, which are in some respects singularly bird- like, about twenty
species have been recorded, and these occupy the whole of the Old World area of the family, except

South Africa. The JERBOA (Dipus cegyptius) may serve as an example of this section of the
family. This is a most lively and active little creature, which inhabits the deserts of north-eastern
Africa as far south as Nubia, and extends its range into Arabia and south-western Asia. On these
arid plains, so scantily clothed with a few grasses and dry shrubs that it is difficult to conceive how
any animal can find a living on them, the Jerboa lives, often in numerous societies, and in company
with the few birds and lizards which enliven the wilderness. These animals dwell in subterranean
abodes consisting of many branched galleries, which they dig out in the hard soil not far from the
surface. The Arabs assert that these habitations are produced by the joint labour of the whole society.
They retreat into their burrows at the least alarm. The females are said to produce from two to
four young at a birth in a nest made in the deeper part of the burrow, and lined with hair pulled from
the under surface of her own body. When going along quietly, the Jerboa walks and runs by alternate
steps of the hind feet, but when there is occasion for rapid motion it springs from both feet at the same
time, covering so much ground at each leap, and touching the ground so momentarily between them,

THE ALACTAGA.

127

that its motion is more like that of a bird skimming close to the surface of the ground than that of a
four-footed beast.

The Jerboa is about six inches long, with a tail about eight inches in length exclusive of the tuft
with which its tip is adorned. Its upper surface is of a greyish sand-colour, like that of many other
desert animals ; the lower surface is white ; and the tail pale-yellowish above and white beneath, with
the tuft white, with an arrow-shaped black mark on its upper surface.

Several other species of Jerboas are known, some from the deserts of North Africa, others from
the steppes of Central Asia. The latter region harbours some forms, which differ from the preceding,
among other characters, by having five toes in the hind feet, whereas the true Jerboas have only three,
but of the five toes only three are sufficiently developed to take part in the animal's progression.
The best known of them is the ALACTAGA (Alaetaga jaculas), a rather larger species than the Jerboa,

and with a still longer tail, reddish-yellow with a greyish tinge above, white beneath and on the hind
legs. Its range extends from the Crimea and the steppes of the Don across Central Asia to the borders
of China. It walks upon all-fours, and when advancing quickly springs along after the fashion of the
Jerboa. Its food consists of all sorts of vegetable substances,
but it is especially fond of the bulbs of plants, and does not
refuse occasionally to eat insects, or even the eggs and young
of the birds which inhabit the steppes with it. The Alactagas
live in very complicated burrows, with many passages and
branches, and they are said always to make one passage from
the central chamber of their residence, which terminates close
to the surface of the earth at some distance, but is only
opened in case of danger, when the inhabitants escape through
it, the position of its intended aperture being previously un-
recognisable. In cold weather they sleep in their nests. The
female produces from five or six to eight young, in a nest lined

with her own hair. Species of Alactaga occur not only in MOLAR TEETH OF THE JUMPING HARE.
Central Asia, but also in Arabia and North Africa.

South Africa produces one species, the CAPE JUMPIXG HARE (Pedetes caffer), which constitutes a
distinct subfamily, PEDETIN^E, having four rootless molars on each side in each jaw, the metatarsal bones

128

NA TURAL HISTOR Y.

CAPE JUMPING HAKE.

sepai-ate, the tail bushy, and the hind feet furnished with four toes having broad, hoof like nails. This
is a much larger animal than any of the preceding, being about the size of the common Hare, which it
also resembles in its colours. The Jumping Hare inhabits a considerable portion of South Africa,
extending on the west coast at least as far as Angola. It is abundant at the Cape of Good Hope,
both in the mountains and in the plains. Great numbers of the animals often live together, and
their burrows, which, like those of other Dipodidse, are inhabited by numerous individuals as a
common residence, consist of many-branched galleries made at no great depth from the surface,
but leading into a more deeply-seated habitation. They generally go about slowly upon all-
fours, but can advance with extraordinary rapidity by Kangaroo-like springs, in each of which, when
pressed, they will cover a space of twenty or thirty feet. Their food consists of roots, seeds, and
herbage. The female produces three or four young at a birth.

SECTION III.— POECUPINE-LIKE RODENTS (HYSTRICOMORPHA}.

FAMILY XI.— OCTODONTID^E.

This first family of the Porcupine alliance consists of a number of rat-like animals, nearly
all of which are inhabitants of South America, three species only being peculiar to the large
West Indian Islands, whilst, singularly enough, four more ai-e known from different parts of the
African continent. Except in one of these last, all the members of the family have four molars
on each side in each jaw, and the crowns of these teeth show internal and external folds of
enamel. The malar portion of the zygomatic arch has an angular process at its lower margin.

THE DEGU.

129

The hind limbs are not disproportionately developed, and both they and the fore feet are nearly
always furnished with five toe$, armed with curved claws ; and the clavicles are perfect. The ears
are generally short and sparingly hairy, and the tail, which is of various lengths, is either clad
with short hairs, or naked and scaly.

We may begin with two African species of this generally American family, which have the
two inner claws of the hind feet furnished with comb-like fringes of horny bristles, whence the
name of Ctenodact ylus has been applied to the best known species. These two species, which
exhibit strong affinities to the Jerboas, form the sub-family CTEXODACTYLIN.E. The GUNDI (Cteno-
dactylus Massoni) has only three molars on each side in each jaw, and only four toes upon each foot.
It is an animal about the size of the Water Rat, but with a mere stump of a tail, very small ears,
very long whiskers, and the hind limbs rather longer than their fellows. It lives in North Africa,
chiefly on the borders of the Sahara, where it takes up its abode in the rocky hills, and descends
therefrom to the cultivated grounds to feast upon the growing corn. It is diurnal in its habits, but
exceedingly shy and watchful, making off to its fastnesses at the least appearance of danger.
Pectinator Spekei, a species named after its discoverer, the celebrated African traveller, is nearly
related to the preceding, but has a small additional molar in each series. The tail is of moderate
length, and bushy, and the ears have a small antitragus. It inhabits the Somali land in the interior
of North-eastern Africa.

The DEGU (Octodon Cumingi'i), a very abundant species in Chili, which also extends into
Peru, may be taken as a typical example of the whole family, and also of its typical sub-family
OCTODONTIN^E, in which the molars are simply indented on each side. The fur is soft, and the
tail is short. The Degu is a rat-like animal, rather smaller than the Water Vole, the head and
body measuring from seven and a half to eight inches in length, and the tail, exclusive of its
terminal tuft, rather more than half that length. The general colour of the animal is brownish-
yellow, pencilled with black on the back ; the lower surface is yellowish, the feet white, and the
tail dusky above, whitish beneath, with the tufted tip dusky or blackish. In the central parts of
Chili, according to various travellers, the Degu is exceedingly abundant, living in large societies
about hedges and thickets, and running about
boldly, even on the high roads. The animals
make their burrows in the hedge-banks and
similar places, and when alarmed rush into
them with their tails elevated, very much
after the manner of Rabbits. As the bur-
rows communicate freely with each other, the
Degus can easily escape pursuit, going in at
one opening and coming out at another at
some considerable distance. They sometimes
climb up into the bushes among which they
live. Their ordinary food consists of the her-
bage which grows about their dwelling-places,
but they also invade gardens and fields, where
they may do considerable damage. In the
winter they will feed upon the tender bark of
certain trees, but they are said by some authors
to lay up a store of food against this season.
They do not become torpid. The female is
believed to produce two broods in the year,
each consisting of from four to six young.

Two other species of Octodon are known from Chili and Bolivia, -which region is also inhabited by
two species of Habrocoma, a genus distinguished by the large size of the ears, and the extreme
softness of the fur. In these animals the molar teeth differ in the two jaws, the upper ones being
as simple as in the preceding species, while the lower ones show a complication of the enamel folds
like what we shall meet with in the third sub-family.

130

NATURAL HISTORY.

The BROWN SCHIZODON (Schizodonfuscus), which inhabits certain elevated spots in the southern
part of the Andes (75° S. lat.), has the enamel folds of the molar teeth meeting in the middle. It
is about the size of the common Rat (seven and a half to nine inches long), and has a shortish tail
clothed throughout with short hairs. Its fur is dark brown above, dirty yellowish beneath. This
animal inhabits grassy places near mountain streams, where the ground is sometimes so undermined
by its burrows as to render travelling on horseback very uncomfortable. It is a nocturnal animal,
and passes most of its life underground. The valleys it inhabits are covered with snow for at least
four months in the year.

In the TUKOTUKO (Ctenomys brasiliensis) and its congeners, about four of which are
known from different parts of South America, one of them extending as far south as the Strait of
Magellan, the eyes and ears are very small, and the animal seems to be still more specially adapted
to a subterranean mode of life. In these animals the claws are longer than the toes, and those of the
hind feet are fringed with a sort of comb formed of bristles. The incisor teeth are very broad. The
Tukotuko is about the size of a large Eat, namely, from eight and a half to nine and a half inches long,
with the tail from two and a half to three and a half inches. Its name is in imitation of the sound which
it constantly emits — a sound which rather surprises a stranger when he first hears it, seeing that the
animal uttering it is concealed underground. In many places, as in the Argentine Republic, this
animal is exceedingly numerous, living generally in sandy soil, but sometimes in damp situations. It
makes long burrows not far from the surface, and thus in some places completely undermines the
ground. In making these galleries the Tukotuko is engaged in the search for its food, which consists

chiefly of the roots of plants. According to Azara, it
lays up stores of food in its burrows. Its activity is
nocturnal.

The CURURO (Spalacopus Poppigii) has the
ears quite rudimentary, and is also organised for a
subterranean existence. This and another species in-
habit Chili, where they make extensive burrows in the
ground, and feed upon the bulboxis and tuberous roots of
various plants, large stores of which they collect in their
subterranean abodes. These magazines are sought out by
the poorer people, and their contents used as food.

The ROCK RAT (Petromys typicus), although most
nearly allied to the preceding species, lives on the opposite
side of the Atlantic in the rocky hills of South Africa,
especially towards the mouth of the Orange River. It
differs from the preceding forms in the harshness of its fur, in which it resembles another sub-
family of Octodontidae, in the shortness of its thumbs, which are furnished with a small nail, and
in its rather bushy tail. The molars are semi-rooted, with the
enamel folds nearly meeting in the middle. The whiskers
are of great length, and entirely black. The general colour is
reddish-brown, with the head and fore parts greyish, the throat
whitish, and the belly pale yellow. The tail is of the colour
of the body at the root, with the remainder black. The length
of the animal is about seven and a half inches, of the tail
from five to five and a half inches. It feeds upon various
vegetable substances, and appears to be very fond of the
flowers of syngenesious plants, especially a species of groundsel,
which it eagerly devours. It forms its retreat among loose
stones, or in crevices of the rocks.

While the Octodontinse may be regarded as specially
characteristic of the region of the Andes, the other great

group of this family is almost exclusively confined to the country east of that great chain, and
to some of the West Indian islands. Curiously enough this sub-family also has a single

DENTITION OF THE ROCK RAT.

TEETH OF THE SPINY RAT.

THE COY PIT.

131

representative in Africa. Its members are distinguished at once by the complicated enamel folds of
their molar teeth in both jaws, by these teeth being generally rooted, and by the texture of the
fur, which is harsh and frequently mixed with fine spines. Hence the name of Echinomys (Spiny, or
rather Hedgehog, Rat), applied to the typical genus, from which the sub-family is named ECHINOJOIN^E.
The tail in these animals is usually long.

The Rodents belonging to this sub-family are generally of considerable size, as large as Rats, or
larger, stoutly built, with the hinder part of the body larger than the fore-quarters, with limbs of
moderate length, the hinder larger than the anterior, the former furnished with five toes, the latter
with four complete digits and a rudimentary thumb, and the toes armed with strong curved claws.
The tail is scaly, with scattered hairs. In their habits these animals appear to be strictly vegetable-
feeders, but in other respects they present some variety. The majority live in and upon the ground;
but one or two are arboreal, and one aquatic, in their mode of life.

The last species alluded to is the well - known COYPU (Myopotamus Coypus), one of the
largest of Rodents, which occurs in nearly all parts of South America and on both sides of the Andes,
from the tropic of Capricorn to about 15° N. lat. It is usually about twenty inches long, but often
attains still greater dimensions. The tail, which is about two-thirds the length of the head and body,
is scaly, with hairs about as thickly scattered as in the common Rat. The ears are of moderate size ;
the incisor teeth very large and powerful ; the molars, the hindmost of which are the largest, have
two internal and two external enamel-folds in the upper, and three internal folds and one external in
the lower, jaw ; the hind feet are webbed. The general colour of the upper surface is brown,
produced by dusky and brownish-yellow pencilling ; the sides and under parts are brownish-yellow,
and the front of the muzzle and the chin white.

The Coypus live upon the shores of the rivers and lakes of South America, generally, according
to Rengger, in pairs, each pair digging for themselves a burrow in the bank, which extends to a depth
of three or four feet, and widens out into a cavity eighteen inches or two feet in diameter. Here they
pass the night, and take refuge when necessary during the day. They select for their dwelling-places
the stiller parts of the water, where the aquatic plants on which they chiefly feed grow freely. They
are said to swim well, but not to be expert in diving. On land they are slow and awkward in their
movements. They feed chiefly on the roots of plants, but in the Chonos Archipelago, where the
Coypus frequent the sea and make their burrows at some little distance from the beach, they are said

132

NATURAL HISTORY.

HUTIA COXGA.

occasionally to eat shell-fish. The female produces from four to five young once in the year. The
little animals very early accompany their mother into the water, when she swims with them on her
back, until they have acquired the art of swimming. Mr. Waterhouse thinks that this habit may
"explain the singular position of the nipples noticed in the female Coypu. Of these four were found
by Mr. ^.ereboullet on each side of the body, and situated rather above the mesial line of the flanks,
the foremost being placed behind the shoulder, and the hindermost in front of the thigh." The
Coypu is hunted for the sake of its flesh, which is described as white and of good flavour, and of its

TEETH OF PLAGIODON.

MOLAR TEETH OF LONCHEEES.

skin, which is well known in the fur trade under the name of " Nutria," signifying Otter. Great
quantities of these skins are annually exported from Buenos Ayres. It is said to be a courageous
animal, fighting bravely with the dogs engaged in chasing it.

The HUTIA CONGA (Capromys pilorides) is another large Rodent, measuring from twenty
to twenty-two inches in length, with a stout rat-like tail about half as long as the head and body.
It is an inhabitant of Cuba. The incisors are considerably smaller and weaker than in the Coypu ;
the upper molars have one internal and two external folds; the lower ones are similar but reversed.
The fur, which is long, is very harsh, and consists of a mixture of black and yellow hairs, becoming
rusty on the hinder part of the body. The belly is rusty yellow. This animal lives in the dense

THE PORCUPINES. 133

forests of Cuba, where it resides either upon the trees or in the thick underwood. It is a nocturnal

or crepuscular animal, and is tolerably active when going about on the branches of trees, but is less

at home on the ground. Its food consists of fruits, leaves, and the bark of trees, but, according to

M. Ramon de la Sagra, it does not disdain animal food, and is especially fond of a species of Lizard

belonging to the genus Anolis. On the other hand, the negroes are very partial to the flesh of the

Hutia, and they capture the animal either by snaring it on the branches of trees, or by sending Dogs

after it Like the Coypu, it is said to fight courageously against its pursuers. Another Cuban

species, the HUTIA CARABALI (C. jsrehensilis), has a slightly

longer tail, which is prehensile at the tip. It is described as

keeping chiefly to the highest branches of the trees. In St.

Domingo there is an allied form, Plagiodon cedium, in which

the enamel folds of the molars are singularly complex (see

figure on p. 132), This animal frequents the neighbourhood

of human habitations, and approaches them at night in search

of its food, which consists of fruit and roots. In most of the SKULL OF LOXCHEKES.

other members of this sub-family, which appear to be terrestrial

in their habits, the intermixture of spines with the fur of the back is a striking character. In

the genus Echinomys itself, and in Loncheres, which together include about a dozen species found

chiefly in Guiana and Brazil, the spines frequently form the principal outer covering of the back.

Side by side with these hedgehog-like species, however, others occur in which the fur is soft.

The GROUND RAT (Aulacodus Swinderianus), of Western and Southern Africa, is remarkable as
being the sole representative of this group outside the South American province. It has very
broad incisors, and those of the upper jaw exhibit three deep grooves ; the molars show the same
arrangement of folds as in Capromys ; the fur is harsh and bristly, and of a general brown tint ; and
the tail is of moderate length, sparingly haired, dusky above, and whitish below. The fore feet have
the thumb rudimentary and the outer toe very short ; and the hind feet have only four toes, of which
the outer one is rudimentary. This curious animal, which is nearly two feet long, is known to
be an inhabitant of Sierra Leone and the Gambia, and also of South Africa (Port Natal) ; in all
probability it occurs at many intermediate localities. In Sierra Leone it is known as the Ground
Rat, or Ground Pig, and is said to feed upon ground nuts, and cassada and other roots in search
of which it digs into the ground, where it also forms large burrows for its residence.

CHAPTER IV.

PORCUPINES— CHINCHILLAS— AGOUTIS— CA VIES- H AEES AND RABBITS— PIKAS.

HYSTRICIDJE, THE PORCUPINES— Conversion of Hairs into Spines— Skull— Dentition— Tail— Sub-families— The True
Porcupines— The Tree Porcupines— THE COMMON PORCUPINE— Distribution— Description— The Crest of Bristles-
Nature of the Spines— Habits— Young— Flesh— On the Defensive— Other Species— Species of Tree Porcupines— THE
COUENDOU — THE COUIT — Description — Habits — THE URSON, OR CANADA PORCUPINE — Description — Habits — Food
— CHINCHILLID^E, THE CHINCHILLAS— Characteristics— THE VISCACHA— Description— Life on the Pampas— Their
Burrows— Habits— The Chinchillas of the Andes— THE CHINCHILLA— THE SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA— CUVIER'S
CHINCHILLA— THE PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA— DASYPROCTIDJE, THE AGOUTIS— Characters— THE AGOUTI— Distri-
bution— Appearance — Habits — AZARA'S AGOUTI — THE ACOUCHY — THE PACA — Appearance — Distribution — Habits —
DINOMYIDJ2 — Founded for a Single Species — Description — Rarity — CAVIIDJE, THE CAVIES — Characteristics — THE
RESTLESS CAVY— Appearance— Habits— The Guinea-Pig Controversy— THE BOLIVIAN CAVY— THE ROCK CAVY— THE
SOUTHERN CAVY— THE PATAGONIAN CAVY, OR MARA— Peculiar Features— Its Burrows— Mode of Running— THE
CAPYBARA— Its Teeth— Where Found— Habits— THE DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS— Characteristics— LEPO
RID^E, THE HARES AND RABBITS— Structural Peculiarities— Distribution— Disposition— THE COMMON HARE— Hind
Legs — Speed — Its "Doubles " — Other Artifices — Its "Form " — Habits — Food — Pet Hares — THE RABBIT — Distribution —
Habits— Domesticated— THE MOUNTAIN HARE — LAGOMYID JS, THE PIKAS — Characteristics— Distribution — THE
ALPINE PIKA — THE ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA.

FAMILY XII.— HYSTRICID.E (PORCUPINES).

THIS second family of the section Hystricomorpha exhibits the conversion of the hairs into
spines in perfection, the whole upper part of the body being in several instances completely
112

134

NATURAL HISTORY.

covered with long, hollow, pointed quills, whilst in all cases great numbers of spines and stift
bristles are mixed with the hair. The form of the skull in these animals is distinctive.

It is ovate, the cranial portion being more or less inflated
by air-cavities in the bones, and the facial portion short, but
the occipital or hinder surface is usually nearly perpendicular ;
the malar portion of the zygoma has no angular process as in
the preceding family ; the molar teeth are four in number on
each side in each jaw ; and the limbs are about equal in
development. The incisor teeth are large and powerful. With
regard to the development of the tail there are considerable
differences, some species having that organ quite short, while
in others it is of moderate length, or long and sometimes pre-
hensile.

The Porcupines fall readily into two distinct groups (sub-
families) characterised by structure, habits, and geographical
distribution. In the strictly terrestrial species, or True Por-
cupines (HYSTRICIN.E), which inhabit the warmer parts of the eastern hemisphere, the skull is rather
more elongated than in the others ; the front margin of the orbit is over the third molar ; the molars are

SKULL OF THE PORCUPINE.

COMMON PORCUPINE.

rootless when young, but become closed after a time, and the clavicles are imperfect. The upper lip
is furrowed ; the tail, which may be either long or short, is never prehensile ; the soles of the feet are
smooth ; and the female has six teats.

The arboreal species (SPHINGURIN.E), which are all American, have the skull peculiarly short, the
front margin of the oi*bit over the first molar, the molars always rooted, and the clavicles perfect. The
upper lip is not furrowed ; the tail is moderate or long, and generally prehensile ; the soles of the feet
are covered with wart-like tubercles ; and the female has only four teats.

The COMMON PORCUPINE (Hystrix cristata) may serve as a characteristic and well - known
example of the first of these two groups. It is an inhabitant of the Mediterranean region, occurring
in most parts of North Africa, and extending as far southwards as the Gambia and Soudan; in Southern
Europe it is abundant in Italy, Sicily, and Greece. It measures about twenty-seven or twenty-eight
inches in length to the root of the tail, which is about four inches long. The head, shoulders, limbs,
and under parts are clothed with short spines intermixed with hairs usually of a dusky or brownish-

THE PORCUPINES. 135

black hue ; the neck is marked with a whitish collar ; from the back of the head and neck there rises a
great crest of long bristles, many of them fifteen or sixteen inches in length, which can be elevated and
depressed at the pleasure of the animal, are gently curved backwards, and are either dusky with the
extremities white, or whitish throughout ; the hinder portion of the body is entirely covered by a great
number of long, sharp spines, ringed with black and white, but always having the extremities white.
These spines vary considerably in size, some of them being very long (fifteen or sixteen inches), com-
paratively slender and flexible ; others shorter (from six to twelve inches), but mush stouter. They are
all hollow, or filled only with a sort of spongy tissue, but from their structure are exceedingly resistant,
and when the animal erects them, which he is able to do by contracting the muscles of the skin in
which their roots are imbedded, they constitute a most formidable armature. They appear to be but
loosely attached to the skin, and readily fall out, a circumstance which no doubt gave rise to the belief
prevalent among the ancients (and many moderns) that the Porcupine was able to shoot his spines at
an approaching enemy, or even to project them behind him at a pursuer when he was rushing away in
search of a place of safety. The tail of the animal bears at its tip about twenty spines of very curious
construction ; they are about two inches long, hollow, open, and cut off square at the end, and about
a quarter of an inch in diameter for the greater part of their length, but they are inserted into the skin
by the extremity of a thin stalk half an inch long.

The Poixmpine lives in holes among the rocks, or in a burrow, which he makes for himself in
ordinary ground. In this retreat he passes the day in sleep, coming forth in the evening in search of
food, which consists of herbage of various kinds, fruits, roots, and the bark and leaves of trees and
bushes. He is slow in his movements, and does not even display much activity in burrowing. His
habits are solitary except during the pairing season ; and during the winter he passes most of his time
in his habitation, without, however, falling into a torpid state. The pairing takes place early in the
year, but varies in this respect according to the climate of the locality ; and in the spring or early
summer the female produces from two to four young, in a nest carefully lined with leaves, grasses,
roots, and other vegetable substances. The young Porcupines are born with their eyes open, and their
bodies are covered with short, soft spines, which are pressed closely to the body. These speedily harden
and grow longer, and the young do not appear to remain very long with their mother. The flesh of
the Porcupine, like that of most purely vegetable-feeding Rodents, is very good, and is eaten in the
countries where the animal occurs. When pursued or irritated, he stands on the defensive, erects his
formidable quills and crest, stamps on the ground with his hind feet after the manner of a Hare, jerks
himself towards the object of his dread, as if to wound it with his spines, and at the same time produces
a curious noise by rattling the open quills of the tip of his tail. But all these mano3uvres are
generally in vain, and the Porcupine, in spite of his defensive armour, is pi*etty easily captured by
those who know how to set about it. The Leopard is said to manage the business at once by a single
blow of his paw on the head.

A very similar Porcupine (Hystrix hirsutirostris) takes the place of this species in Syria and
Asia Minor, and extends thence eastward to India; another (H. javanica) inhabits the Sunda
Islands ; and the district of Nepaul has a peculiar species of its own. In Siam and Malacca, and on the
west coast of Africa, we find two species of an allied genus, in which the spines of the body are com-
paratively short and depressed, and the tail is elongated, scaly, with a few scattered bristles in the
middle, and with a large tuft of long flat bristles at the tip. The Malayan species (AtJierura fasciculata)
is about eighteen inches long, the African one (A. africami) about fourteen inches. Both are
somewhat rat-like in their form.

The Tree Porcupines, forming the second sub-family, several species with prehensile tails, range
over the continent of South America, east of the Andes, and one of them, the Mexican Tree Porcupine
(Sp/nnyurus mexicanus), is found as far north as Guatemala and Southern Mexico. The most
abundant and widely-distributed species in the Brazilian region are the COUENDOU (Spliingurus
preliensilis) and the COUIY (S. vUlosus), inhabiting Guiana, Brazil, and Bolivia, the latter being found
throughout the forest region of Brazil and as far south as Paraguay.

These animals are of considerable size, visually measuring from sixteen to twenty inches in length
without the tail, which is about one-third the length of the head and body. By the aid of the pre-
hensile tip of this organ they climb with great facility and security upon the branches of the trees, but

136

NATURAL HISTORY.

TREE PORCUPINE.

their feet are also specially adapted for this particular mode of activity, and they are said even to climb
the palm-trees in order to feed upon their fruit. They are nocturnal in their habits, passing the day
in sleep concealed in the fork of a branch, and going abroad at night in search of their food, which
consists of fruits of various kinds, and the buds, leaves, and even flowers, of the trees on which they
live. Roots also form a part of their nourishment, probably when they reside rather among thickets
than in the high forest. Their spines, although short when compared with those of the Common
Porcupine, are formidable defensive weapons when the animal erects them ; in some species, as especi-
ally in the Couiy, they are concealed, when depressed, by the long hair, and, according to Hensel, this
serves as a protection to the animal from rapacious birds, for, when it sits in a heap, sleeping away
the daylight, these soft grey hairs give it a most deceptive resemblance to a mass of the beard-moss
which so commonly grows on the trees in the Brazilian forests.

The URSON, or CANADA PORCUPINE (Erythizon dorsatus), the only North American species of the
family, according to Mr. Allen, although other writers distinguish two or three such forms, is about
two feet or more in length when full grown, and is covered with woolly hair, and with long coarse
hair of a dark brown colour, with the points white or yellowish, this difference in the colour of the
tips of the hairs being the chief distinction between the two varieties which Mr. Allen recognises.
The spines in both forms are white, with the points usually dusky or brown. The Canada
Porcupine is distributed through the whole of the Eastern United States, except on the sea-
board, from New York to Virginia, and north of the States through Canada, as far as the limit of
trees. The Western Porcupine, whicli has the tips of the long hairs yellowish (whence it has received
the name E. epixantkus), occurs west of the Missouri river, extending to the Pacific shores and going
southward along the mountains to Arizona and New Mexico, and northwards at least as far as Alaska
and Sitka.

Although a heavy and clumsy-looking beast, and destitute of the prehensile tail of its South
American cousins, this Porcupine is a good climber, and passes nearly the whole of its life upon trees ;
nevertheless, according to Mr. Allen, it may be met with travelling upon the prairies, probably on its way
from one suitable residence to another. On the ground it moves slowly, but its armature of spines is
a protection against most of its enemies, and it has the art of striking very forcible and judicious blows
with its spiny tail. Audubon and Bachmann mention many cases in whicli Dogs, Wolves, and even
a Puma were found dead or dying in consequence of the severe inflammation caused by the spines of
this animal sticking about their mouths ; and the former gives an interesting account of a lesson in

TEE CANADA PORCUPINE.

137

urbanity given by a captive Urson to a Mastiff that attacked him. The food of the Urson consists
of various vegetable substances, fruits, buds, and the young shoots and leaves of trees. In the winter it

MEXICAN TREE PORCUPINES.

subsists chiefly upon the bark, which it strips off the upper branches of the trees, and when it hf.s taken
up its abode upon a tree it stays there until the suitable bark has been consumed. As it prefers young
trees this operation is generally effected pretty quickly, and in this way it is estimated that a single

138 NATURAL HISTORY.

Porcupine may destroy hundreds of trees in the course of a winter. The Urson resides in the holes
of trees, and in such situations, or in crevices among the rocks, the female prepares her nest, in which
she brings forth usually two, but occasionally three or four, young in April or May.

FAMILY XIII.— CHINCHILLIDJE (THE CHINCHILLAS).

In the Chinchillas, which form a small family peculiar to South America, the incisor teeth are short ;
the molars are rootless, divided by continuous folds of enamel into transverse plates, and the two
series in each jaw converge towards the front ; the zygomatic arch has no angular process on the
lower margin ; the clavicles are slender but perfect ; the fore limbs are small, the hind limbs long ; the
tail of moderate length or long, and turned up at the end ; and the fur is very fine and soft. They are
Rodents of moderate size and more or less of Rabbit-like appearance, except that the tail is always
elongated and bushy. Of the five known species, four are inhabitants of the mountain regions, and
one lives in the plains of the region of La Plata.

The latter, the VISCACHA (Layostomus trichodactylus), is a stout-built and almost Marmot-like
creature, from eighteen inches to two feet long, exclusive of the tail, which measures from six to eight
inches. It has four toes on the fore limbs, and three on the hind feet, the latter furnished with long,
compressed, and pointed nails ; the muffle is broad and covered with a velvet-like coat of brown hair ;
the fur, which is soft and moderately long, is of a mottled grey colour above, and white or yellowish-
white beneath ; on each cheek there is a dark band ; a white band crosses the muzzle and runs back on
each side almost as far as the eye ; the tail is dusky-brown or black.

The Viscacha lives on the Pampas from Buenos Ayres to the borders of Patagonia, and where it
occurs is generally to be found in great numbers, residing in extensive burrows which it digs for itself
in the ground, generally in the neighbourhood of copses, and, if possible, near cultivated fields. Each
burrow has a great number of passages leading down to several chambers, in which the Viscachas
live in family parties to the number of eight or ten. The Burrowing Owl already mentioned as an
associate of the Prairie Dogs of North America, is found about the settlements of the Viscachas,
living in their burrows, but it is said that the intrusion of these birds immediately drives out the real
owners of the dwelling, as the Owls will not observe those rules of cleanliness which are characteristic
of their unwilling hosts. Of course the expelled family has to make itself a new residence, and in
this way great stretches of country come to be so undermined that they are dangerous to ride over.
According to Mr. Darwin, the most favourite resort of the Viscachas in the neighbourhood of Buenos
Ayres are those parts of the plain which, during half the year, are covered with great thistles.

They are nocturnal in their habits, passing the day sleeping in the recesses of their burrows,
and coming forth in the twilight one by one, until a large and lively company is to be seen
playing about the neighbourhood of their holes. When all is quiet they go in search of their
food, which consists of grasses and other herbage and roots, and sometimes of the bark of trees
and shrubs. In cultivated fields they may do considerable damage. While engaged in feeding,
one or other of the party is perpetually on the watch, and the moment anything occurs to cause
alarm, the whole of them scamper away with their tails elevated, to take refuge in their holes.
In their movements they are very like Rabbits, but less active.

The Viscacha has the very singular habit of dragging all sorts of hard objects to the mouth
of its burrow, where bones, stones, thistle-stalks, hard lumps of earth, dry cow-dung, and other
chance articles may be found collected into a heap, frequently, according to Mr. Darwin, amount-
ing to as much as a wheelbarrow would contain. Mr. Darwin says that he was informed that
" a gentleman riding on a dark night dropped his watch ; he returned in the morning, and by search-
ing in the neighbourhood of every Viscacha hole on the line of road, as he expected, soon found it."
The purpose of this accumulation, of apparently useless articles by the Viscacha has never been
ascertained. It has been compared to the habit of some of the Australian Bower-birds, which adorn
their playing-places with bright and glittering objects.

The Chinchillas of the Andes, or Alpine Chinchillas, are much lighter and more elegant animals
than their cousins of the plains ; in form they more resemble Squirrels or large Dormice. Their fur
is excessively soft, perhaps the softest that clothes any animal, and in all the species it is of a grey

0)

THE CHINCHILLA.

139

MOLAU TEETH OF THE CHINCHILLA.

colour, mottled or clouded with darker and lighter tints. The ears are of large size. They are
confined to the Andes of Chili, Bolivia, and Peru, where they live among the bare rocks at a consider-
able elevation, seeking refuge in natural clefts and
cavities, sleeping in their holes during the day, and
coming forth at twilight in search of food. They
are exceedingly lively and active in their movements,
and very shy.

The COMMON CHINCHILLA (Chinchilla lanigera), the
skins of which are well known as furs, is a squirrel-like
animal, nine or ten inches long, with a tail more than
half this length. It has lai-ge rounded eai-s ; its fore
feet have five, and its hind four, toes. Its fur on
the upper part is grey, elegantly marbled with dusky
or black, on the lower surface yellowish-white ; the
tail is black above, and dirty white at the sides and
beneath. The incisors are of a bright orange colour in
front. The SHORT-TAILED CHINCHILLA (C. brevicau-
data), a larger species, has the tail only three inches
long. Its fur is of a general silvery-grey hue, tinged
with black, especially along the back, and the tail has

two dark bands on its upper surface. Both these animals inhabit Peru, and the former is also found
in Bolivia and Chili. They are exceedingly abundant, notwithstanding the constant persecution to
which they ai-e subjected for the sake of their skins. They come out of their holes even in the day-
time, but then always keep on the shady side of the rocks. Their activity is described as wonderful,
and they will run with great rapidity up perpendicular walls of rock which seem to offer no hold for
their feet. On the ground they are said to run very much after the fashion of our common Mice.

The Chinchilla seems to breed
nearly all the year round, and
the female is said to produce
from four to six young at a
birth.

The other two species of
Alpine Chinchillas are placed in
a separate genus, characterised by
a more hare-like form, longer ears,
and the presence of only four
toes on both fore and hind feet.
CUVIER'S CHINCHILLA (Lagidium
Cuvieri) is about eighteen or
twenty inches long, of an ashy-
grey colour with a yellowish
tinge above, and pale yellow
beneath ; the tail, which, with
the hair, is nearly as long as the
body is clothed beneath with
short black hairs, and above with
much longer bushy hairs, gradu-
ally increasing in length towards
the tip, where they are black ; a
black line passes down the middle
of the tail, and its sides are dirty white. The PALE-FOOTED CHINCHILLA (Lagidium pallipes), which
is about the same size as the preceding, but has a shorter tail, is ashy grey, with a brownish tinge,
becoming yellowish fawn colour beneath, The range of these animals seems to be the same as that

CHIXCHILLA.

140

NATURAL HISTOKI.

of the true Chinchilla, but the second of them passes northwards into the mountains of Ecuador,
their habits they agree with the Chinchillas.

In

MOLAR, TEETH OF THE AGOUTI.

FAMILY XIV.— DASYPROCTTD^E (AGOUTIS).

In the Agoutis we have the first of three more or less pig-like families, furnished with hoof-like
nails on the toes, all the members of which are inhabitants of South America. The Agoutis especially

may be compared to small slender-limbed Pigs, but they bear
a still closer resemblance in external form to the little Musk
Deer. The Dasyproctidae have the incisors long ; the molars,
which are at first rootless, and afterwards close up, have enamel
folds from both surfaces ; the clavicles are rudimentary ; the
upper lip entire ; the ears short; the tail short and naked, or
quite rudimentary; and the fore feet have five toes.

Of these animals eight or nine species are known. They
inhabit South America, from Mexico southwards to Paraguay
and Bolivia, and some of them also occur in the larger West
Indian Islands. They frequent the forest region, and especially
haunt the banks of rivers.

The AGOUTI (Dasyprocta agut'i), the most abundant and
best-known species, is found chiefly in Guiana, Brazil, and
eastern Peru, where it is to be found plentifully in the primeval
forests. Like the other true Agoutis, it has only three toes

on the hind foot ; its ears are of moderate size and rounded ; its form compact, and supported

upon slender limbs ; its tail rudimentary ; and the hair of its back is coarse and harsh, and

longer towards the hinder

parts, which thus obtain a

somewhat truncated appear-
ance. Its general colour is

olive brown, produced by

a mixture of black and

yellow ; but the long hairs

covering the hinder portion

of the back are usually of

an orange colour, and the

middle line of the abdomen

is whitish or yellow. This

animal is from eighteen to

twenty inches long.

Although inhabiting the

forests, the Agouti is not

unfrequently seen on the

neighbouring grassy plains,

but its residence is among

the trees, in the hollows of

which, or in cavities at their

roots, it takes up its abode,

generally lying concealed in

its retreat during the day.

It is very quick in its

movements, runs well, and springs with almost the agility of an Antelope. The food of the Agouti

consists of almost any vegetable substances that come in its way. It will eat grass and herbage, the

roots of plants, their flowers and fruit, and when it lives in the neighbourhood of sugar plantations

AZARA'S AGOUTI. (From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.)

THE PACA.

141

and gardens its inroads may give rise to considerable injury. The animal is, however, rather solitary
in its habits, living by itself in its cell, in its departxire from and return to which it appears
generally to follow exactly the same roads, by which means a narrow but very distinct footpath
is in course of time produced. This naturally often leads to the discovery and capture of the little
recluse.

The Agouti appears to breed all the year round, usually producing two young ones at a
birth. The female prepares her dwelling for the reception of her family by lining it comfortably
with leaves, fine roots, and hair.

In the southern parts of Brazil, in Paraguay and Bolivia, the place of this species is taken by
AZARA'S AGOUTI (Dasyprocta Azarce). A smaller species, the
ACOUCHY (D. acouchy), is found not only in Guiana and the
north of Brazil, but also in several of the West India
Islands. The last-named species has a well-developed tail
about two inches long.

Besides the Agoutis, this family includes an allied
animal, the PACA (Ccdogenys paca), which differs generically
from the Agoutis by having five toes on the hind feet. It
has a broader head and a blunter muzzle, and is altogether
a rather stouter animal than the Agoutis ; but, like most of
them, it has a mere tubercle instead of a tail. One of the
most remarkable characters presented by this animal, how-
ever, is the enormous development of the zygomatic arches, which are enlarged and inflated in
the most extraordinary manner, the maxillary portion, which occupies the anterior two-thirds being
hollowed out beneath into a great chamber, lined with nrncous membrane, and opening into the
mouth by a rather small aperture. The function of these remarkable cavities is at present quite un-
known. Food is not to be found in them, and, indeed, as they are enclosed by solid bone, it would
seem impossible that they could act as cheek-pouches.

The Paca, which inhabits Central and South America from Guatemala to Paraguay, is about
two feet long, and is clothed with short rather coarse hair of a brown or yellowish-brown colour
above, white beneath, with from three to five bands of white streaks and spots upon each side

SKULL OF THE PACA.

142

NATURAL HISTORY.

of the body. In its habits the Paca very much resembles the Agouti. It usually lives singly, or
sometimes in pairs, on the borders of the forests, or near the banks of rivers, taking up its abode
during the day either in a hole at the root of some tree, or in a burrow excavated by its own
labour, which is generally carried to a depth of four or five feet. Its food consists of the
leaves, fruits, and flowers of various plants, and, like the Agouti, it occasionally does mischief in
the corn-fields and gardens. The female produces only one, or at most two, young at a birth,
The Paca swims well, and can cross even a broad river in this way. Its flesh, like that of the
Agouti, is very well flavoured, and is consumed both by natives and Europeans.

FAMILY XV.— DINOilYIDJE.

This family has been founded for the reception of a single species, of which only a single
specimen has hitherto been obtained. It is described by Professor Peters under the name of Dinomys
BranicJcii. In its external appearance it closely resembles the Paca (Cvelogenys paca), but
may at once be distinguished from that animal by its possession of only four toes both before and
behind. The ears are short and rounded ; the upper lip deeply cleft ; the incisors very broad ;
the molars four on each side, and divided into transverse plates by folds of enamel ; the clavicles are
imperfect ; and the tail of moderate length and well clothed with hair. The animal, which inhabits
the high mountain regions of Peru, is of the size of the Paca, or about two feet long, exclusive
of the tail, which measures rather more than nine inches. Its general colour is grey, produced
by the sprinkling of white among nearly black hairs ; and on each side of the body are numerous
large white spots, of which the upper ones nearly run together, so as to form two longitudinal bands.
The extremity of the tail is black.

The only known example of this Rodent was obtained by M. Constantin Jelski at the Colonie
Amable Maria, on the Montana de Vitoc, in Peru, having been found at daybreak walking about the

yard. It showed no fear of man,
and was easily killed by a sword
cut or two on the head. The
species would appear to be rare,
as the inhabitants of the neigh-

O

bourhood were not acquainted
with it. Of course nothing is
known of its habits.

The chief interest at present
attaching to this animal, there-
fore, consists in its peculiar
combination of characters. Ex-
ternally, as already stated, it re-
sembles the Paca, with which it
also agrees in the S-like form of
the nostrils, and in the structure
of the limbs (except the number
of toes). In the lamellar struc-
ture of the molar teeth, in the
structure of the skull, and of the
skeleton generally, and especially
in the flattened form of the front
of the sternum and the develop-
ment of clavicles, it differs from

the Paca and all other Rodents with hoof-like nails. In some minor particulars it resembles
the Capybara. By the structure of the molar teeth and certain osteological characters, it is most
nearly allied to the Chinchillas ; while it approaches the genus Capromys among the Octodontidse in

THE DIXOMYS. (After Peters.)

THE RESTLESS CAVY. 143

the structure of the limbs and of some other parts of the skeleton. Professor Peters is evidently
inclined to regard it as most nearly related to the Chinchillidfe. but as constituting a group establishing
a closer union than previously existed between the families Chinchillidee, Octodontidse, Dasyproctidse,
and Caviidse.

FAMILY XVL— CAVIID.E (CAVIES).

This family, the last of the simple-toothed Rodents, includes a small number of species, of
which the Common Guinea-pig may serve as a sort of type. The Guinea-pig is, however, one
of the smaller species of the family, and is shorter in the limbs than most of its relatives. They
have the incisor teeth short, that is to say, not extending far back in the jaw ; the molars are
rootless, variously divided by folds of enamel into lobes, the angles of which are acute ; the palate
is narrow in front, so that the upper series of molars approach each other rather closely in front;
the clavicles are rudimentary or wanting ; the fore limbs have four and the hind feet only three
toes, all armed with hoof-like nails ; the upper lip is not cleft ; and the tail is rudimentary or,
wanting. They are stout, more or less rabbit-like animals, with a soft coat, and the ears variable
in length ; and they are confined to the continent of South America, where they chiefly inhabit
the plains.

The RESTLESS CAVY (Cavia aperea), which is commonly regarded as the wild original of the so-
called Guinea-pig (Cavia cobaya of some authors), is abundant on the banks of the Rio de la Plata,
and extends thence northwards through Paraguay into Bolivia and Brazil. It is usually about nine
inches long, with the fur of the upper part and sides of the body composed of a mixture of black and
dingy yellow hairs, the chest greyish-brown, and the throat and belly pale dingy-yellow or brownish-
grey. The incisor teeth are white. The genus to which this animal belongs may be at once dis-
tinguished from the other two genera constituting the family by the shortness of the limbs ; the ears
also are short ; the feet are naked beneath ; the hind toes are not webbed ; and the molar teeth are
nearly equal in size, and each composed of two angular lobes.

The specific name of the Restless Cavy seems to be derived from its popular name in the country
whei'e it occurs. According to Mr. Darwin, it is very common about the banks of the La Plata, some-
times frequenting sandy hillocks, and the hedge-rows formed of the agave and the prickly pear, but
apparently preferring marshy places covered with aquatic plants. In dry places it makes a burrow ;
but when it frequents wet localities contents itself with the concealment afforded to it by the herbage.
Rengger describes it also as generally haunting moist situations in Paraguay, and he adds that it keeps
near the borders of forests, but is never found either in the forests or in the open fields. It lives in
small societies of from six to fifteen individuals, in the impenetrable thickets of Bromelias, where its
pi-esence is revealed by the numerous beaten paths which it produces by going to and fro. In Bolivia,
according to Mr. Bridges, it is peculiar to the low lands, and there takes shelter among the loose stones
of the walls enclosing the fields. It is active in search of food early in the morning and in the
evening, but will also come forth on gloomy days. Rengger and Azara both agree in the state-
ment that the female produces only one or two young at a time ; but the former says that this takes
place only once in the year, whilst the latter describes the animal as breeding all the year round, and,
indeed, in this way accounts for its abundance, notwithstanding its being preyed upon so extensively
by rapacious birds and quadrupeds.

The question whether our common Guinea-pig is really the domesticated descendant of the animal
just described can hardly be regarded as finally settled, and, indeed, independently of colour, there are
sufficient differences between them to justify some doubt on the subject. The name Guinea-pig may,
as Mr. Waterhouse suggests, be a mistake for Guiana-pig, and the first specimens may very probably
have come from that part of America. Its prevalent colours, as is well known, are combinations of
white, black, and yellow, and as these colours are shown in the drawings of Aldrovandus, dating
back to within fifty years of the discoveiy of South America, there seems every reason to believe
that the animal must have been long domesticated in America prior to its introduction into Europe.
On the other hand, Dr. Rengger says that he saw fourteen Apereas representing the fifth or sixth
generation from a single couple domesticated about seven years before, and that these exhibited no

144

NATURAL HISTORY.

difference of colouring from the wild animal. Sevei'al allied species inhabit the great plains of South
America.

The BOLIVIAN CAVY (Cavia boliviensis), which is grey in colour, with a faint yellowish tinge,
with the throat and belly white, the feet whitish, and the incisor teeth orange yellow, inhabits the
elevated parts of Bolivia, generally at a height of 10,000 or 12,000 feet. The ROCK CAVY (Cavia
rupestris) is found in rocky districts in Brazil, where it shelters itself in holes and crevices. It is
always found near the upper waters of rivers, and is a large species, measuring thirteen or fourteen
inches in length. The SOUTHERN CAVY (Cavia australis), on the other hand, is a small species which
inhabits Patagonia, where it ranges from 39° S. lat. to the Strait of Magellan.

This part of the world is also the abode of another and much larger species of the family, the

PATAGONIAN CAVY or MARA (Dolichotis
patachonica], an animal which some-
what resembles the Agouti in the
length and comparative slenderness of
its legs, and differs from all other
Cavies in having tolerably long, pointed
eai-s. It also possesses a very short
tail. The molar teeth are rather small,
and resemble those of the Guinea-pig in
being formed of two nearly equal angu-
lar lobes, but the last molar in the upper
jaw, and the first in the lower jaw, have
three such lobes. The animal is some-
what Hare-like in its appearance, and
has been mistaken for a Hare by super-
ficial observers. It is, however, a
much larger animal, measuring from
thirty to thirty-six inches in length,
and weighing from twenty to thirty- six
pounds.

The Patagonian Cavy is clothed
with a dense crisp fur of a grey colour
on the upper part of the head and body,
rusty yellow on the flanks, and white on
the chin, throat, and belly ; the rump is

black, with a broad white band crossing it immediately above the tail. It inhabits Patagonia about as
far south as 48°, and extends northwards into the La Plata territory as far as Mendoza. It is found only
in the sterile desert part of the country, where the gravelly plains are thinly covered with a few
stunted thorny bushes and a scanty herbage. The northern limit of the species, according to Mr.
Darwin, is at the point where the vegetation of the plains becomes rather more luxuriant. The
Patagonian Cavy usually burrows in the ground, but where it lives in the same region as the Viscacha,
it will take advantage of the excavations made by that animal. It wanders to considerable distances
from its home, and on these excursions two or three are usually seen together. Mr. Darwin says : —
" It is a common feature in the landscape of Patagonia to see in the distance two or three of these
Cavies hopping one after the other over the gravelly plains." Their mode of running, on the same
authority, more nearly resembles that of the Rabbit than of the Hare ; though their limbs are long,
they do not run very fast. They rarely squat like a Hare, but are very shy and watchful, and feed by
day, in connection with which it is to be observed that the eyes are defended from the direct rays of
the sun by well-developed eyelashes, which do not occur in the other Cavies. The female produces
generally two young at a birth, which are brought forth and suckled in the burrow.

The CAPYBARA (Hydrochcerus capybara), the only other member of the present family, is
the largest of all existing Rodents, large specimens measuring over four feet in length. It is a stout-
built and massive animal, with limbs of moderate length, a large head with a very blunt muzzle, small

PATAGOXIAN CAVY.

THE CAPYBARA,

145

eyes and ears, no tail, and both the fore and hind feet webbed. The upper incisor teeth have a
broad and shallow groove down the front, and the molars present very remarkable characters. In the
upper jaw the first three molars are each composed of two lobes united by cement, and on the outside
of each of these lobes there is a fold of enamel which passes deeply into the tooth. The last molar
consists of one lobe similar to those of the preceding teeth, but in place of the second there are ten or
a dozen transverse plates. The first
two molars of the lower jaw exhibit
complex lobes and folds of enamel ;
the third and fourth a combination
of folded lobes and transverse plates.

In its general form the Capy-
bara is more pig-like than any of
its relatives, and, indeed, its generic
name, Hydrochoeras, Water-pig, re-
calls this resemblance, and at the
same time intimates its aquatic
habits. Its coat is composed of long
and coarse hairs, often five or six
inches long on the hinder parts, of
a reddish-brown colour above, and
a dirty brownish - yellow beneath.
It is distributed OArer the whole
eastern part of South America,
from Guiana southwards to the
Rio de la Plata, and ranges west-
wards into the lower parts of Peru
and Bolivia.

The Capybaras frequent the bordej-s of the lakes and rivers, with which all this part of the
South American continent abounds, and, according to Mr. Darwin, they used to frequent the islands
in the mouth of the La Plata, where the water is quite salt. In this part of America they are called
" Carpinchos." They never wander far from the watei--side, and show a marked preference for the
larger rivers, among the reeds and other plants fringing which they take up their abode. In populous
districts they seem to pass the day in concealment, coming forth in search of food only at morning and
evening, but where they are less in danger of pursuit they come out freely in the day-time. Seen
from a little distance when walking they have much the appearance of Pigs, but they lose this when
they sit, like the other Cavies, on their haunches. When danger threatens they emit a short, sharp
bark, and immediately plunge into the water, where they swim about with little more than the nostrils
above the surface ; but under pressing circumstances they can dive and swim for a considerable distance
under water. When swimming, the female is said to take her young ones 011 her back. About
Maldonado Mr. Darwin observed that the Capybaras were usually to be seen only three or four
together, but they are more numerous and go in larger companies more in the interior of the country.
They constitute the ordinary food of the Jaguar, and are also eaten by the Indians, although their flesh
is said not to be very good. The female produces five or six young at a birth, but has only one litter
in the year. The young follow their mother about at a very early age.

MOLARS OF THE CAPYBAKA.

SUB-ORDER II— DOUBLE-TOOTHED RODENTS.

With the Cavies concludes the long series of simple-toothed Rodents, and some of them, as we
have seen, present no small resemblance to the Hares and Rabbits which constitute the greater part
of the second great group into which we have divided the order. The chief peculiarity of this section,
as has been already stated, consists in the presence in the upper jaw of a pair of minute incisor
teeth, placed immediately behind the large effective incisors ; and in the newly-born animal the
number of these teeth is even greater, there being six incisors in the upper jaw, two of which fall

148

NATURAL HISTORY.

out at an early period. Though the number of species included in this section is very considerable
(about fifty, according to Mr. Wallace's estimate), it includes only two families, and each of these
contains only a single genus. We will commence with that which includes the best-known forms, the
Hares and Rabbits.

FAMILY XYII.— LEPORID^E (HARES AND RABBITS).

The general appearance of these animals hardly needs to be described, and we may, therefore, indi-
cate mei'ely the structural peculiarities which serve to define the family. These consist in the presence
of six rootless molars on each side in the upper, and five in the lower jaw (see figure on p. 82), each
molar being divided into lobes by transverse folds of enamel; in the compressed form of the skull and
the presence of wing-like post-orbital processes of the frontal bones ; in the imperfect condition of the
clavicles ; the greater development of the hind limbs ; and the presence of a short, bushy, upturned
tail. The ears are long ; the inner surface of the cheeks is more or less clothed with shoi"t hairs ; the
fore-limbs have five, and the hind-limbs only four toes; and the soles of the feet are hairy throughout.
In all these characters, however they may differ in some respects, all the true Hares and Rabbits
agree. The representatives of this family occur in nearly all parts of the world, but chiefly in the
northern hemisphere, and the few species which pass down within the tropics are generally found
only in mountainous regions. In the north they reach the Arctic regions in both continents. In
the Old World a few species are scattered over India and Further India, and four or five occur in
Africa, but chiefly in the southern part of the continent. In North America the species are
numerous, and some of them range southward into Central America ; but South America has only
a single species, which occurs in the mountains of Brazil and upon the Andes.

THE HARE. 147

As the whole of the family consists of animals to which in common parlance the names of
Hares and Rabbits are given, we may take as examples of it the Hares and Rabbits which are so
abundant in Great Britain, the other species agreeing generally with one or other of them in
character and habits.

They may all be characterised as animals destitute of any means of defence against their
enemies, except the rapidity of their movements, and as exceedingly shy and timid. Their general
colour is a mixture of grey and brown, sometimes quite tawny, sometimes almost pure grey, and, as
Mr. Bell remarks, " The admirable wisdom which has assigned such colours to a group of defenceless
animals which conceal themselves amidst the brown sombre vegetation of woods and heaths, will
appear more striking when it is recollected that certain species inhabiting the snowy regions of the
north become wholly white in winter. All the members of the genus," he adds, " are remarkable
for their timidity, and their whole structure is such as at once to announce to them the presence
of danger, and to enable them to escape from it. The eyes and ears are so formed and situate as to
become instantly cognisant of even distant warnings of peril, and the limbs are admirably adapted for
the most rapid flight."

This last statement applies in a special manner to the COMMON HARE (Lepus europwus),
which is singularly well adapted for getting over the ground rapidly by the great length and powerful
development of its hind legs. These organs are nearly twice as long as the fore limbs, and, as most
of us are well aware, the bones composing them are set in motion by an enormous mass of solid
muscle. Owing to their great preponderance the Hare, when moving slowly in search of food, goes
with a sort of lolloping gait ; but the moment there is occasion for him to move with rapidity, the
disproportionate hind limbs stand him in good stead, and he shoots along over the ground by a series
of long leaps, and with great swiftness. At the same time, it is observed that the length of its hind
legs causes the Hai-e to run with much greater facility up hill than down, and, in fact, it is said that
in descending steep inclines the animal is obliged to run obliquely in order to escape over-balancing
itself. When pursued, the Hare has the art of making sudden turns in its course, known as
" doubles " or " wrenches," by which the Dogs in chase of it are thrown out, for although most
Greyhounds are swifter of foot than a Hare, they are incapable of changing their course so sharply,
and thus, while they are carried some distance onwards by their own impetus, their intended victim
is making off in a different direction. They adopt other cunning artifices in order to escape from
their pursuers, and some of these indicate a considerable amount of intelligence. Under such
circumstances, and also in search of a more plentiful supply of food, the Hare will take to the water
readily, and swim across rivers. Mr. Yarrell observed a Hare even swimming across an arm of the
sea about a mile broad.

The Hare lives chiefly in cultivated fields, where it resides in a small depression of the sur-
face, which is called its "form." It shifts the situation of this simple residence according to the
season, selecting a shady spot in summer, and a sunny one in winter, and going into cover in wet
weather. It is rather a nocturnal or crepuscular than a day-feeding animal, although it may not
ur,frequeiitly be seen abroad in the day. In the evening and early in the morning it is most active,
passing the brighter hours at rest in its form. When out in the field in search of food it goes hopping
along among the herbage and cultivated plants, every now and then sitting upright on its haunches
and listening with erected ears for the slightest sound indicative of approaching danger. Its food
is exclusively of a vegetable nature, but it seems to embrace pretty nearly the whole round of
cultivated plants. Cruciferous plants appear to be amongst its favourite articles of diet, but it also
does much damage to fields of young wheat. In the winter, when the open fields are covered with
snow frozen hard, and, indeed, sometimes in the summer, the Hare will make his way into gardens
in search of food, or, if this resource is not at hand, into plantations of young trees, where it will
gnaw off and feed upon the bark, thus destroying great numbers of the trees. Mr. S. Mawson has
recoixled finding the stomach of a Hare killed in winter filled with hawthorn berries. After its
wanderings the Hare always returns to its own form.

Hares pair when they are about a year old, and from that time produce several broods every
year, each consisting of from two to five young, which are born covered with hair and with their
eyes open. From Mr. Bell's statement, these animals would appear to breed almost all the year

148

NATURAL HISTORY.

round : he says that in mild winters young Hares have been found in January, and that he has
known breeding continue till the middle of November. When captured young, the Hare may be
easily tamed, and become an amusing pet, as, indeed, will be familiar to almost every one, through
Cowper's account of his Hares. Formerly the Hare used to be trained by jugglers to perform various
tricks, one of which was the beating of a tambourine with its fore-feet, with which the animal will
of its own accord drum upon the back of an offending companion. A relic of this practice is to be
recognised in a common toy, which shows a small Hare sitting and beating a tambourine, its fore
limbs being set in motion by the turning of the wheels of its stand.

The Common Hare is found spread over the greater part of Europe, from the south of Sweden
and northern Russia to the Mediterranean and the Caucasus. It does not occur in Ireland. It
varies somewhat in colour in different localities, and although it does not become white in winter,
the northern forms show a tendency in that direction, and the others acquire a greyish tint at the
approach of the cold weather.

THE RABBIT, or CONY (Lepus cuniculus), differs from the Hare in various characters ; its colour
is a tawny brownish-grey, the disproportion between the fore and hind limbs is not so great, and the
ears are shorter, not exceeding the head in length. Although the Wild Rabbit is so plentiful in
England as to become a pest to the farmers in many places, it is supposed not to be a native of north-
western and central Europe, but to have been naturalised in Britain, its original home being in
the countries bordering the Mediterranean. It is, and always was, very abundant in Spain, the name
of which country (Hispania) has been supposed to mean the "country of Conies," from the Phoenician
and Hebrew word Scliaplian, the name of the Hyrax or Cony of the Bible. Even in the present

COMMON HAKE.

THE PIKAS. H9

clay it is very local in its distribution north of the Alps, and is not found at all in eastern and
northern Europe. Tn Australia it has proved to be a veritable scourge.

In its habits the Rabbit differs from the Hare more than in its form and structure. Instead of
contenting itself with a shallow depression as a resting-place on the surface of the ground, it digs deep
holes ill the ground, into which it may retire to sleep or at the approach of danger. It prefers light
sandy soils for its residence, as these present great facilities for burrowing, and wherever particularly
favourable conditions exist the Rabbits are to be found living together in very large societies. Furzy
heaths are favourite places with them, as the ground is easily worked, and the furze bushes not only
serve as a protection to the burrows, but furnish the Rabbit with an abundant supply of food, the
young shoots being eaten off as high as the animals can reach when standing on their hind feet. In
wet moors the Rabbits avoid burrowing, and live in runs and galleries formed in the matted heather
and long herbage. Mr. Bell says that in more than one instance he has known a family to take
possession of a hollow tree, ascending its inclined and decayed trunk for some distance.

Like the Hare, the Rabbit is generally quiet during the day, although it will not unfrequently be
abroad at all hours. The evening, however, is its principal time for activity, and then the inhabitants
of the warren may be seen playing about near their abodes, or wandering to greater distances in search
of the green vegetables on which they feed. The moment there is the smallest suspicion of danger,
the whole company scamper off at once to seek safety in their burrows. As they go, their white tails
are the most conspicuous objects to be seen, and the spectacle of some hundreds of them rushing along
at full speed, vanishing one after the other down the burrows, is lively and amusing enough.

The Rabbit begins breeding at six months old, and has several litters in each year. The young
are usually from five to eight in number, sometimes even more ; they are born blind and naked, and are
produced in a separate burrow which the female digs for their reception, and lines with fur pulled from
her own body. This brood-chamber has usually only a single entrance, and this the mother closes with
earth after visiting and suckling her yoiing family, which she is said to do only at night.

"When domesticated, the Rabbit, as is well known, differs materially from its wild state. It is
larger, and its colours are usually white, black, brown, or fawn colour, sometimes alone, sometimes
mixed in patches. Albinoes are common, and form a permanent race. The Angora Rabbit, which is
usually albino, has the hairs very long ; and the so-called " fancy Rabbits " have the ears more or less
pendent at the sides of the head, and often so long as to touch the ground.

A third British species is the MOUNTAIN HARE (Lepus variabilis), or Northern Hare, an inhabi-
tant of all the northern parts of both hemispheres, which occurs in most parts of Scotland, and in
Ireland, where, indeed, it takes the place of the common Hare. In its summer coat it is of a light
fulvous grey colour, and is further distinguished from the common Hare by the shortness of the ears
and tail, the former being shorter than the head, and the latter little more than half its length. In
cold climates this animal becomes pure white in the winter. This Hare is absent from Central
Europe, but reappears on the chain of the Alps.

It will be unnecessary to enter into details with regard to the other species of this family,
all of which more or less resemble those just described, both in appearance and habits. They
are distributed over nearly the whole world except the Australian region, but they are most
numerous in Ncrth America, where a great many species have been described, which are reduced
by Mr. Allen to twelve. Four of these, however, present well-marked local races, which double
the number of recognised permanent forms.

FAMILY XVIIL— LAGOMYIDJE (PIKAS;.

In many respects the Pikas closely resemble the Hares, but they are distinguished by having
only five molars on each side in each jaw, a depressed skull, with contracted frontal bones desti-
tute of the wing-like process seen in the Hares, complete clavicles, short ears, limbs nearly
equal in length, and no tail visible externally. They are much smaller than any of the Leporidse,
the largest being no larger than a Guinea-pig, to which the animals have some resemblance;
while in their habits they somewhat resemble the Marmots. When feeding they often produce a
chirping or whistling noise, whence the name of Piping Hares, or Calling Hares, has been applied
to them. Ten or a dozen supposed species of these animals have been described, most of them
114

150

NATURAL HISTORY.

inhabiting the northern and mountainous parts of Asia, and one of these is also found in Europe,
about the southern part of the Volga. In Asia species have been found as far south as the
Himalayas and Nepaul. In North America a single species (Layomys princeps) inhabits the
Rocky Mountains, where it was first discovered by Sir John Richardson.

The ALPINE PIKA (Layomys alpinus), which inhabits Siberia from the Irtish eastwards
into Kamtchatka, is a little animal from nine to nine and a half inches long, of a greyish-
brown colour above, yellowish-
grey beneath ; the feet ai-e pale,
and the ears dirty yellowish-
white within, becoming dusky to-
wards the margin, which is white.
This animal occurs in considerable
numbers in the Alpine and sub-
Alpine parts of Siberia, where it
either burrows in the ground, or
shelters itself in crevices of rocks
~~sf\ or among loose stones. The Pikas
generally come out only at night,
although they sometimes venture
forth on a cloudy day. Their food
consists of the scanty herbage to
be found in their elevated abode,
and as this would be impossible
to procure during the winter Avhen
the ground is thickly covered with
snow, the Pikas take care in the
autumn to collect a large supply
of dried grasses and other herbage,
which they pile up near their habi-
tations like little haystacks. They
are, however, sometimes deprived
of the fruits of their labour by the
Sable-hunters, who plunder the Pikas' stacks to feed their Horses. The female produces about six
naked young early in the summer.

The ROCKY MOUNTAIN PIKA (Lagomys princeps) is a small species from six inches to seven
and a half inches long, of a greyish-brown colour above, yellowish-brown on the sides, and greyish
below. It received its specific name from its discoverer, Sir J. Richardson, in allusion to the name
of " Little Chief Hare " given to it by the Indians. It inhabits the summits of the Rocky
Mountains from Colorado northwards far within British America, and also occurs in the moun-
tains of Utah, California, and Oregon. Mr. Allen describes its habits as follows : — " The animals
are everywhere found in communities, living among the loose rocks from a little below timber-
line nearly up to the snow-line. They appear to rarely wander many yards from their homes;
are timid, yet easily become familiar. Though retreating to their homes when first alarmed, they
soon come cautiously out one after another, till one may hear their sharp little cries in every
direction. Their colour so nearly resembles that of the rocks they live among, that they are not
easily seen, and their cry is of such a character as easily to mislead one in respect to the point
from which it proceeds, seeming to be far away when only a few feet distant. They sit erect,
like little Marmots. . . . They carry into fissures of the rocks large quantities of grass, which
they lay up for winter consumption."

ALPINE PIKA.

FOSSIL RODENTS. 151

CHAPTER V.

FOSSIL RODENTIA.

Families of Rodent, represented by Fossil Remains— State of the " Record of the Rocks " — THE SCIURID^E — Sciurine Genera
now Extinct- -No Fossil ANOMALURID.E and HAPLODONTIDJE — ISCHYROJIYIDJE — Pseudotomas hians — Gymnoptychus —
CASTORID.E— Mr. Allen's CASTOROIDID.E--THE MYOXID.E— No Fossil LOPHIOMYIDJE— THE MURID.E— THE SPALACIDJE
—THE GEOMYID^E— THE DIPODID.E— THE THERIDOSIYID.E— THE OCTODONTID.E— THE HYSTRICID.E— THE CHIN-
CHILLIDJE — THE DASYPROCTID.E — THE CAVIID.E — THE LEPORID^E— THE LAGOMYID.E — Mesotherium o-istatum—
Difficulties concerning it — Mr. Alston's Suggestion — THE HEBETIDENTATA — Teeth— Skull — Skeleton — Conclusions
regarding it — Table of Rodent Families — Concluding Remarks.

THE majority of the preceding families are more or less clearly represented by fossil remains,
either in the younger strata of the earth's crust, or in those cave-deposits of comparatively recent date
which have furnished so many interesting relics of the Mammals of former days. It must be
remarked, however, that while a considerable number of fossil Rodents have been named and
described by palaeontologists, the materials upon which many of them have been established are very
imperfect ; in a great number of cases isolated molar or even incisor teeth furnish the sole evidence
of the existence of creatures which were manifestly Rodents, but of which the other characters are
rather difficult to divine from such scanty material. Still, imperfect as may be " the record of the
rocks " in this as in other instances, it is in some parts sufficiently complete to enable vis to trace
back the existence of many forms of gnawing Mammals through a long period of geological time.

Of the SCIURIDJE a considerable number of fossil species have been recorded. Species of the genera
iSciiirus, Arctomys, and Spermophilus, some of them identical with those still existing, have left their
remains in Post-Tertiary deposits and in bone-caves in various parts of Europe ; while species be-
longing to the first two genera, and to the American genus Tamias, have been detected in similar
situations in North America. A few forms referred to the same genera go down still lower in the
series of geological formations. True Squirrels are recorded from Miocene and Upper Eocene deposits
in France, and a single species from the Tertiaries (probably Miocene) of Colorado ; Marmots from
Pliocene and Miocene beds in the South of France, and from a Pliocene deposit in Nebraska ; and
a Spermophile from the Miocene of Weisenau in Germany.

Besides these examples of known types, several fossils have been obtained both in Europe and
America, which are regarded as indicating genera distinct from any now living. Plesiarctomys Gervaisii
is founded on a fragment of jaw with four molars, obtained from Upper Eocene beds near Apt,
Vaucluse. In its characters it appears to be intermediate between Squirrels and Mannots. Pseudo-
sciurus suevicus, from the Upper Eocene (Bohnerz) of Wiirtemberg, seems to differ from all other
Sciuridte in the form of the molar teeth of the lower jaw, which are somewhat elongated, and
have four tubercles arranged in two pairs, each pair being connected by a ridge. From the Tertiary
deposits of the western territories of the United States, Professors Cope, Marsh, and Leidy have
described several Sciurine Rodents as belonging to genera now extinct : thus Paramys has five
species ; Sciuravus (perhaps identical with the preceding), three ; Heliscomys, Myaops, Colonymys
Taxyrnijs, and Tillomys, one or two species each.

Of the ANOMALUsnXA and HAPLODOXTiD^E no fossil remains are known. On the other hand,
a North American fossil Rodent, described by Dr. Leidy under the name of Ischyromys typus,
is regarded by Mr. Alston as the type of a distinct family, the ISCHYROMYID.E, nearly allied
to the Sciuridse, but also showing an affinity to the Beaver in some of its characters. The
specimen described and figured by Dr. Leidy was obtained by Dr. Hayden from Miocene deposits
in the " Bad Lands " of Wyoming. It was originally referred to the Sciuridse, with which it agrees
in its dentition, but is distinguished by its large infra-orbital opening, the presence of a sagittal crest,
and the absence of post-orbital processes. The parietal region of the skull is much narrowed, and
in this, as in the large size of the infra-orbital opening, Ischyromys resembles the Musk Rat.

Two other forms must be referred to here. Under the name of Pseudotomus hians, Professor Cope
has described the remains of an animal which he believed to have been about the size of an Agouti,
and originally thought to belong to the order Edentata. Subsequently he referred it to the Sciuridse ;
but both Mr. Alston and Mr. Allen think that it may belong to the family Ischyromyidae. In some

152 NATURAL HISTORY.

respects the skull resembles that of Arctomys, but it has the same contraction between the orbits
as Ischyromys and Fiber. The incisor teeth are separated, and Professor Cope believes that the animal
had only three molars on each side in each jaw. A still more doubtful member of the family is
Professor Cope's genus Grymnoptycbtu, which includes four species, all said to be from the " Tertiary
of the Plains." In this genus there are five molars above and four below on each side, as in Ischyromys
and the Sciuridse ; but these teeth show two crescents on the inner side in the upper, on the outer
side in the lower jaw, and each crescent gives origin to a cross-ridge running to the opposite margin of
the tooth.

The CASTORID.E, including at present only a single species common to the northern parts of both
hemispheres, are represented by several peculiar fossil forms. Remains of the Common Beaver
(Castor fiber} are not uncommon in peat bogs and other late superficial deposits both in Europe and
America ; and, according to Sir R. Owen, in association with those of the Rhinoceros, Mammoth,
and Mastodon, even in the Fluvio-marine Crag (Newer Pliocene) of Norfolk. In Belgium its bones
have been found in caves. Among the Mammals from the Upper Tertiaries of the Sivalik Hills,
Messrs. Falconer and Cautley record a Beaver distinct from the existing species, although nearly allied
to it. The skull of a great Beaver, one-fifth larger than that of the living species, was obtained many
years ago by M. Fischer from sandy deposits on the shores of the Sea of Azov, and, as it differed in
some peculiarities of the teeth from Castor fiber, was described by him as constituting a distinct genus
under the name of Troyontfterium Cuvieri. It is now regarded as a true Beaver, and named Ctutpr
Trogontlwrium. The British species, described and figured by Sir R. Owen from the Norfolk
Forest bed under the name of Trogontherium C^(v^er^, is, however, quite distinct, and belongs to the
genus Diobroticus, characterised by having the third upper and first lower molar teeth with four
enamel folds, and the rest only with two, most of the folds soon becoming isolated as the teeth
wear down. This animal must have been nearly twice the size of the European Beaver.

At a still earlier period — namely, in the Miocene — the family Castoridse was represented, both
in Europe and America, by some small species, nearly agreeing with the Beavers in dentition, but
differing in the characters of certain bones of the skull. These form the genus Steneofiber. The
largest (S. viciacensis), from the Miocene of the Allier, was about half the size of the Beaver ; another
(S. sansaniensis), from the fresh-water limestone of Sansan, was about as large as a Rat; an
American species (S. nebrascensis), from the " Bad Lands " of Dakota, was rather smaller than a
Marmot, and presented some resemblance to the Agoutis in the characters of the teeth ; and a fourth
species (S. pansus) occurs in the Santa Fe marls. Eucastor tortus, a species rather smaller than a
Marmot, is described by Dr. Leidy as very nearly related to the Beaver. Its remains were found in
loose sands of the Niobrara River, Wyoming. Chalicomys and Palceomys are genera doubtfully placed
here. Their species occur in the Miocene and Pliocene of Europe.

Some bones of a gigantic Rodent, indicating an animal as large as a full-grown Black Bear,
obtained from Quaternary and Alluvial deposits of various parts of the United States, have been
described under the name of Castoroides ohioensis, Mr. J. W. Foster, its first describer, having an
idea that it was a great Beaver. It has generally been known as the " Fossil Beaver " of North
America, but several authors have entertained doubts of the coi-rectness of this designation, and Mr. Allen
has lately made it the type of a special family, CASTOROIDID.E, which he regards as most nearly related
to the Chinchillidse. In the general aspect of the skull it resembles the Beaver, but in several
details of structure approaches the Viscacha ; while the structure of the molar teeth, which consist
of a series of plates of dentine, completely e»closed by enamel, and held together by a thin coating of
cement, occurs elsewhere only in the Chinchillidse, and in the last molar of the Capybara.

Dormice as well as Squirrels disported themselves in the Tertiary woods and thickets of Europe,
and remains of several species of MYOXID^E occur in various deposits in France, Switzerland, and
elsewhere, from the Upper Eocene onwards. Myoxus glis, the Garden Dormouse, has been identified
with some doubt from the caves of Lunel Viel ; and this is also probably the species occurring in the
Belgian bone-caves, and described as Myoxus prisons by Dr. Schmerling. A species a little larger
than the Dormouse occurs in Russian caves, and has received the name of Myoxus fossilis from
M. Fischer ; and the most striking species of all is also a Post- Pliocene form, namely, the gigantic
Dormouse of Malta (M. melitensis). This animal, which seems to have been about the size of a

FOSSIL RODENTS. 153

Guinea-pig, must have been excessively abundant in Malta, for its desciiber, Professor Leith Adams,
says that " its remains are met with in abundance throughout the cavern and fissure deposits, up
even. to the superficial alluvium now in course of formation." From older times we have evidence of
the existence of a Dormouse, about the size of the common species, at the time of the deposition of
the gypsum of Montmartre (Upper Eocene), in which a well-preserved skeleton of the animal has
been found. The same deposit has furnished traces of a second rather larger species. The Miocene of
Switzerland and of Sansan has also yielded species of Myoxus; and Professor Hermann von Meyer
has recorded a Dormouse from the Miocene of Weisenau, under the name of Brachymys ornatus.

No fossil LOPHIOMYID^E have yet been detected, but the gi^eat family MURID.E has left abundant
evidence of its former existence. Species of the genera JJus, Arvicola, Mi/odes, and Cricetus, identical
in many cases with those now living, have been obtained frequently in Post-Pliocene deposits and in bone,
caves in Europe. Lemmings (Myodes lemmus and torquatus) are recorded from English caves. The
genus Mus is also represented by several species in the Miocene deposits of France, and in the Sivalik
beds investigated by Falconer and Cautley. The Miocene of Sansan has furnished a form which
has been doubtfully regarded as a Gerbille, and named M&riones Laurillardi. In the same and other
deposits of the same age in South-eastern France several species of an extinct genus (Cricetodon) have
been obtained. Their dentition resembles that of the Hamster, but the first molars in both jaws have a
tubercle less ; the largest species (G. sansaniensis) rather exceeded the Hamster in size, while the
smallest was less than a Mouse. Associated with some of these are two doubtful forms, Decticus and
JHomys, the latter considered by M. Aymard, its describer, to be allied to Hydromys. The American
fossil Muridse are for the most part either species of the genus Hesperomys, or nearly related to it.
Twelve species of that genus were obtained by Dr. Lund from the Brazilian, bone-caves, but of these
eight were identified by him with species still existing. In North America two species of a nearly-
allied genus (Eumys) have been obtained from Miocene deposits; and the bone-caves of Pennsylvania
furnish the remains of a species of Neotoma (N. magister], hardly distinguishable from the Florida Rat.

A Rhizomys from the Sivalik deposits of North-western India is the only recorded fossil represen-
tative of the SPALACID^E ; and of the GEOMYID^E the only known species are a Geomys from the
Pliocene of Nebraska, nearly allied to, if not identical with, the living G. bursarius ; and one from the
" Tertiaries of the Plains," described by Professor Cope as Colotaxis cristatus, which, however, has
only three molars in the lower jaw.

The DIPODID.E are still more scantily represented. A Jerboa described by M. Fischer from
Post-Pliocene deposits, probably of Tartary, is very nearly allied to the living Dipus platurus, but has
shorter toes and broader cannon-bones. The genus Dipoides, from the " Bohnerz" of Wiirtemberg,
is founded on a single tooth, and its position in this family is very doubtful.

On the other hand, some fossil allies of the Dipodidae and Geomyidse constitute a distinct family,
for which Mr. Alston proposed the name of THERIDOMYID^E, from that of one of its genera, Theridomys.
In this genus, of which six species are recorded from the Eocene and Miocene deposits of France,
there are four rooted molars in each series, and each of these has several enamel folds, some of which
are converted into isolated loops as the crown is worn away. The best known species is Theridomys
platiceps, from the Miocene of Caylus. In Archceomys chinchilloides there are still four molars, but
these present a very different structure ; they are rootless, and have the enamel folds extending dia-
gonally across the crown, so that they are composed of a series of plates, thus presenting a certain
amount of resemblance to the Chinchillas, which American family Archceomys was at one time
supposed to represent in Europe. In fact, in the structure of their molar teeth, both the above
genera approach American types ; but in other characters, especially the form of the lower jaw,
they appear to have been decidedly Mouse-like, and Mr. Alston regards them as most nearly
related to the Dipodidse, with which they are joined by a third form referred to the family Jssio-
doromys, a genus sometimes placed with the Jerboas. The teeth in this genus are of the same
number as in the preceding, but the molars are much simpler, each of them exhibiting one large
re-entering fold of enamel, which causes the surface of the tooth to present two heart-shaped lobes.
This structure is not dissimilar to that prevailing in some Dipodidfe, and especially in Pedetes, but
it was formerly thought to indicate a relationship to the Cavies, and accordingly the best-known
.species has received the name of Issiodoromys pseudancema (Ancema being a sub-genus of Cavies).

1.54 NATURAL HISTOKY.

This species occurs abundantly in the Miocene lacustrine limestone near Issoire. A second species
(/. minor} has been detected in the Upper Eocene of Lamaiidine-haute.

Of the OCTODONTID.E. an essentially American family at the present day, nearly all the recorded
fossil forms are also American. Species of Echinomys, Loncheres, and Phyllomys were obtained by Dr.
Lund from the Brazilian bone-caves, which also furnished him with the remains of a Coypu (Myopotamus
antiquus), and of an allied form, Carterodon sulcidens, distinguished by its having broad incisors with
longitudinal furrows and raised ridges. The latter has since been found living in South America.
Another species, allied to Eckinomys, is named by Lund LoncUopliorus foss'dis. The superficial deposits
of South America have yielded the remains of two species of Ctetwmys, one of which is believed to be
identical with a recent species. As several species of this family now live in Africa, the occurrence
in the eastern hemisphere of fossil forms belonging to it would not be surprising, but the few that have
been referred to it are of very doubtful nature. M. Lartet obtained some isolated teeth from the
Miocene of Sansan, which he described under the name of Myopotamus sansaniensis ; and one or two
other types (Aulacodon, Adelomys), from Upper Eocene and Miocene beds, are of very uncertain position.

Of the HYSTRICID.E, or Porcupines, remains have been obtained in both hemispheres. In the
Old World traces of true Porcupines (Hystrix) are recorded from the Valley of the Arno, from the
Sivaliks, the Pliocene deposits of the Auvergne, from Pikermi, and, on very doubtful evidence, from
the Upper Eocene of Lamandine-basse ; whilst Dr. Leidy has described two teeth from the Pliocene
deposits of Dakota, as belonging to a species (Hystrix venustus) allied to the European Porcupine.
This determination, if confirmed, would be of great interest, as no true Porcupine now occurs in
America. Of the American type, two species of Sphingurus have been obtained from the Brazilian
bone-caves ; and Professor Cope records a species of the North American genus Erythizon from a
similar cave in Pennsylvania.

The CHIXCHILLID.E have left but scanty traces of their former existence. Lagostomus brasiliensis
is from the Brazilian bone-caves ; and Megamys patagoniensis from the Eocene sandstone of Patagonia.
The latter species is founded upon a tibia and rotula, which on comparison seemed to approach most
nearly to those of the Rodents of this family, and if the determination, be correct it was probably
one of the largest species of the order, as the tibia measures about a foot long. AmUyrkiza and
Loxomylus, are two genera described by Professor Cope from bone-caves in Anguilla Island, West
Indies.

The DASYPROCTID/E have but few fossil representatives, and the undoubted ones are all from the
bone-caves of Brazil, which furnished Dr. Lund with two Agoutis and two Pacas. Of the former,
one is described as Dasyprocta capreolus ; the second is allied to the living D. caudata. The two
species of Ccelogenys are extinct. Some teeth, found in Tertiary deposits of the Puy-de-D6me, have
been referred to Dasyprocta, but this determination is excessively doubtful. Diobroticus schmerlingi
from Belgian caves has been placed with the Castoridse.

Of the CAVIID.E, Dr. Lund obtained three species of the genus Cavia, and two of Hydrockcerus,
from Brazilian bone-caves. Of the latter, one was allied to the existing Capybara ; the other was a
gigantic species, measuring about five feet in length. Dr. Leidy has described a species (Hydrochoerus
cesopi) from teeth found in Post-Pliocene deposits in South Carolina ; and the Pampean deposits of the
same age furnished M. D'Orbigny with the remains of a Cavy (Cavia antiqua) which, however, is
doubtfully distinct from the Patagonian species.

The remains of species of the family LEPORINE are very abundant in some Post-Pliocene cave
deposits on both sides of the Atlantic, and in several cases the species are evidently identical with
those now living. Besides these, species of the genus Leims have been found in Pliocene and Miocene
beds in France. In North America three extinct Leporine genera have been recognised, differing from
Lepus in certain peculiarities of the molar teeth : — PalcKolagus, with three species, from the Miocene of
Dakota and Colorado ; Panolax, from the Pliocene marls of Santa Fe ; and Praot/terium, from a bone-
cave in Pennsylvania. The last-named genus has the crowns of the molars transversely oval, and
without the enamel-band or crest which is seen on the surface of the teeth of other Hares.

The LAGOMYID.E are known in a fossil state chiefly from Post-Pliocene deposits, and the bone
breccias of caves in various parts of Europe. In Post- Pliocene times the genus Lagomys seems to have
been very generally distributed over the South of Europe ; and the earliest appearance of the genus

FOSSIL RODENTS.

155

SIDE VIEW OF SKULL AXD LOWER JAW OF MESOTHEIU'JM CRISTATUK.

is in the Pliocene, three species having been described from deposits of that age at CEningen and
Montpellier. The family is, however, carried further back in time by the genus Titanomys, in which
the molars differ but slightly in structure from those of Lagomys, but there are only four of them in
each series, both above and below.
Two species of this genus have been
lecorded from Miocene deposits in
France and Germany.

"

We have thus passed very briefly

in review the fossil Rodents belonging

to the two great sections of the order

to which all its living species are to

be referred ; and it will be seen that

while a knowledge of their existence

is necessary to complete the history of

the order, they present none of those

peculiar characters which lend such

interest to the fossil members of

many other orders. There is, however,

one fossil South American type to

which we have yet to refer, as, by the

curious combination of characters which

it presents, it has long been somewhat

of a puzzle to palaeontologists, and

although generally placed among the

Rodents, its peculiarities are such

that Mr. Alston found himself com-
pelled to establish a third primary section of the order for its reception. According to M. Bravard,

the first discoverer of this peculiar type, the Pliocene deposits of the Pampas of La Plata contain

the remains of three species belonging to it; but the bones which have been sent to Europe, and

which represent most parts of the skeleton, seem all to
belong to a single species, which has been very fully
described by M. Serres under the name of Mesotherium
cristattim.* What distinguishes it at once from all
other known Rodents is the presence in the lower jaw of
four incisor teeth, the second pair being very small and
placed immediate!}7 behind the outer edge of the broad
middle pair. The latter are peculiarly widened and com-
pressed from front to back in both jaws, and their
summits, instead of being worn to a sharp chisel-like
edge as in ordinary Rodents, show an elongated ring of
enamel surrounding a slightly depressed surface. Hence
Mr. Alston denominated this section HEBETIDENTATA,
or BLUNT-TOOTHED RODENTS. The enamel in all the
incisors is continuous round the tooth. The molar teeth
are rootless and curved, the convex side being directed
outwards, contrary to what occurs in other Rodents.
They are surrounded by enamel, and show re-entering
folds which differ in the two jaws. Their number on
each side is five in the upper and four in the lower
jaw. The skull is massive, with enormously-developed

sagittal and occipital crests, the latter of which run forward so far as to join the zygomatic arches; and

these crests rise so high that the upper surface of the actual brain-case is entirely concealed by them
* Described almost at the same time by M. Bravard under the name of Typotherium. We here employ M. Serres' name.

DENTITIOX OF MESOTHERIUM CRISTATUM.

(A) Upper Jaw ; (B) Lower Jaw ; (c) Incisors.

156 NATURAL HISTORY.

when the skull is looked at from the side. The lower jaw in its characters presents some resemblance
to the same part in the Leporidse ; but it has the condyle for its articulation with the skull trans-
verse, and fitting into a cavity of corresponding direction, a character which occurs in no other
Rodent. Of the remainder of the skeleton we need only state that the animal possessed perfect
clavicles ; that the shoulder-blade and humerus somewhat resemble those of the Beaver ; that the
fibula articulated with the heel-bone ; and that both front and hind limbs possessed five toes, some of
which, judging from the form of the terminal joint, were probably furnished with hoof-like claws.

Thus, as regards its affinities in the order Rodentia, Mesotherium presents resemblances in its
lower jaw (as also in some peculiarities of the skull), and in the articulation of the heel with the
shank, to the Hares ; while in the shortness of the incisors and some other cranial peculiarities, the
form of the shoulder-blades, and the probably hoof-like character of the claws, we may notice an
approach to the Cavies, which are also South American forms, and especially to the Capybara, which
it probably resembled in its habits, although, if the evidence of the Beaver-like shoulder-blade and
humerus be taken into account, it would appear to have been still more aquatic.

On the other hand, the resemblance to certain other Mammalia, and especially to some aberrant
Ungulates, is unmistakable. The number of incisor teeth is the same as in Hyrax, and in these
teeth there is also a certain amount of resemblance to the curious genus Toxodon, in which the
incisors are four in the upper and six in the lower jaw, and worn away in somewhat the same fashion.
In Toxodon also, the convexity of the curve of the molars is turned outwards. Certain other
characters of Mesotherium — such as the mode of articulation of the lower jaw, and the peculiar
connection of some of the caudal vertebrse with the ischiatic bones — present resemblances to the
Edentata. As Mr. Alston says, " It appears to have been a survivor, to Pliocene times, of a much
earlier type, which represented an era at which the Rodents were not yet clearly marked off from
their allies. In fact, Mesotherium seems to continue into the order Glires that line of affinity which
Professor Flower has pointed out as extending from the typical Ungulates through Hyracodon,
HomalodontotJierium, Nesodon, and Toxodon."

The general relationships of Mesotherium to the other Rodents, and of these among themselves,
are represented by Mr. Alston in a diagrammatic form, from which the following scheme, which will
serve also as a table of the families, is derived : —

<« 4. Haplodontida;.

EH 1. SCIUROMORPHA. 1. Anomaluridcc. \ <j3

^ 5. Castoridce. 2. Sc'mridce.

2; 3. Ischyromyidce.

y*

6. Myoxidce. 7. Lophiomyidce.

8. Mitridcc.
10. Geomyidce. 11. Theridomyida.

2. MYOMORPHA.
9. Spalacida. 12. Dipodidcc,

14. Hystricida. 13. Octodontidcc.

3. HYSTRICOMORPHA.

16. Dasyproctida. 15. Chinchillidce.

20. Leporidce.

17. Dinomyidce.
19 Lagomyidce. 18. Caviidte. I t-5

III.— RODENTIA HEBETIDENTATA.

21. Mesotheriidce.

It seems quite clear, even from the above brief sketch of the history of the Rodentia in time,
that, except in the case of Mesotherium, the fossil remains of animals belonging to this order
furnish us with no important information bearing upon their alliances and possible origin. They
make their earliest appearances, so far as we know, in deposits of Eocene age ; and the earliest
forms the remains of which are sufficient to give us a clear insight into their nature, are manifestly
members of families, and often nearly allied to species still extant in the regions where their traces
are now found. Thus in Eocene and Miocene deposits,, we have representatives of the families
SciuridcK, Castoridce, Myoxidce, Muridce, Geomyidce, Chinchillidce, and Leporidce, already differen-

IOSS I L RODENTS. 157

tiated as at the present day, so far as the evidence goes ; and it is clear that we must go much
further back in time to seek the earliest appearance of the Rodent type, whether it branched off
directly from the Marsupial series, or passed, as would seem to be indicated by Mesotherium,
through a sequence of forms more or less related to the Ungulates.

Nor does the geographical distribution of the animals lead to any more definite conclusions.
Certain families and even sub-families are of very wide range, the Muridae and Sciuridse especially
being represented nearly all over the world, while the Hystricidse and Leporidae are also spread over
very large areas, occurring in both hemispheres. Certain groups, such as the Sciuridse of both
sub-families, the Castoridse, the Murine, and Arvicoline sub-families of Muridae, the Leporidae, and the
Lagomyidse, may be said to have a circumpolar distribution in the northern hemisphere, nearly allied
and sometimes identical species being found in the more northern parts of both the Old and the New
World, but mixed with other forms peculiar to the regions, especially as we advance southwards. On
the other hand, the Myoxidae are peculiar to the eastern hemisphere, as are also the Spalacidae and the
Dipodidae (with the exception of Zapus, which is considered by Dr. Coues to form a distinct family),
and all the sub-families of Muridae, except those above mentioned as having a cinnimpolar range. The
Myomorpha may in fact be looked upon as an Old World group, the Geomyidae being the only
exclusively American family ; while the Hystriconiorpha as a whole may be regarded as American,
certain aberrant forms of the Octodontidae inhabiting various parts of Africa and the Old World
Porcupines being the sole representatives of that great section outside the western continent. Con-
sidering these facts, we may regard the Sciuromorpha and the Duplicidentata as originally polar
types, or at all events as having an equal claim to an origin in the northern regions of either continent ;
while the Myomorpha, with their multitudinous forms spreading over all parts of the Old World, and
having a much scantier representation in America, probably originated in the eastern hemisphere, and
spread by a northern passage into the New World ; and the Hystriconiorpha would seem to have
originated in South America, where they display the greatest variety of forms.

W. S. DALLAS.

115

GKOUP OF SLOTHS (Arctopithecus grtsews).

ORDER EDENTATA, OR BRUTA (ANIMALS WITHOUT FRONT TEETH).

CHAPTER Li

TARDIGRADA, OR SLOTHS.

The South American Forests— Discovery of the Sloth— How it derived its Name— Peculiarities of Dentition— Food— Fore
Limbs and Fingers— Hind Limbs and Heel— Other Modifications of Structure— Kinds of Sloth— Waterton's Captive
Sloth— Habits of the Animal— Burchell's Tame Sloths— Manner of Climbing Trees— Disposition— Activity among Trees
— Naturalists' Debate about Anatomy — Probable Conclusion regarding it — Skeleton — Vertebras — the Rudimentary
Tail— Most Distinctive Skeletal Characters— Arm, Wrist, Hand, Fingers, Claws- -Mode of Walking— Great Utility of
the Claws— Face of Sloth— Skull— Teeth— Classification— TARDIGRADA— E&KDIP^T>ID&— Genus BEADYPUS—
Characteristics— Genus ABCTOPITHECUS— Characteristics— CHOLCEPODID^E— THE COLLARED SLOTH— Description—
Skull Bones— Habits— Circulation of the Blood— Rete Mirahile—TiiE Ai— THE UNAU— Appearance— Skull and
Teeth— Skeleton— Interesting Anatomical Features— Stomach— HOFFMANN'S SLOTH— Description— Habits.

WHEN the 'dense forests of the northern parts of South America were first explored t>y Europeans,
it was observed that active Spider Monkeys, Howlers, and their Quadrumanous allies, were not the
only climbing animals which frequented the trees. For every now and then, hunters came in sight of
creatures about the size of a large Monkey, but whose sluggish movements, long hair, short heads,
small ears and tail, and very long claws, enabled them to be distinguished at once from their very
lively companions. It was noticed that these new creatures, instead of climbing quickly and swing-
ing from branch to branch and running along the boughs, moved very slowly, by hanging head and
body downwards and grasping the branches with their long claws. During the daytime, these quiet
animals were constantly found asleep, huddled up in the fork of a branch, and looking like great
balls of tow, or else hanging by two legs, the rest of the body being curled \ip. Now and then,
one was seen at the foot of a tree, and it appeared to run along the ground with great difficulty ;
for the arms were so long that it walked on the elbows, and the hind feet were turned in, so

DESCRIPTION OF SLOTHS. 153

that it supported itself on the sides of its great hind claws. Naturally, the animal took its time
in moving, and as it was never seen to be lively, it received the name of Sloth. Interesting
from being so different in its habits from other arboreal animals, it became much more so, to
naturalists, when, its remarkable construction was ascertained ; but still the hairy creature with a
short face, small head, long neck, hardly any tail, and very long front limbs, retained its popular
name.

A very slight examination of one of the Sloths showed that it had no front teeth, that is to say,
neither incisors nor true canine teeth, and that the hinder teeth — the false and true molars — were not
like those of any other mammal. The back teeth, few in number, have since been ascertained to be
exceptionally simple in their structure, and evidently the masticating process is very simple.
But when it was noticed that the Sloth fed upon leaves and young twigs, the absence of the
necessity for more elaborate teeth was acknowledged. Then it was observed that they had very
long arms, or rather fore limbs, for the fore-arm bones and the humerus are all unusually long, and
also that they had great power of movement. Moreover, it was seen that the fingers were reduced
to three in number in some kinds, and to two in others, and that they were furnished with long
and strong claws, which did not interfere with a great amount of mobility in the wrist. The
length of limb, the mobility of the wrist, and the great claws, enable the Sloth to bring the
leaves to its mouth, to hang on, and to walk, as it were, beneath the branches. An examination of
the hind limbs showed that they were shorter than the others, and always furnished, in all kinds of
Sloths, with three great claws. But the ankle seemed to be turned in, as if there was a state of
" club-foot." This condition would enable the toes to clasp a bough without effort, but it would
prevent the sole from being placed flat on the ground. As the knowledge of the anatomy of these-
constant tree-livers progressed, other modifications of structure, equally important in relation to the
peculiar arboreal life and food, were gradually discovered. For instance, a remarkable flexibility of
the neck, produced by the peculiar arrangement of the vertebrae ; a rete mirabile, to a certain extent,
in the' limbs, resembling somewhat that in the Lemurs (Vol. I., pages 213, 245), and a complicated
stomach suited for the digestion of leaves, and foreshadowing that of the Ruminants.

Two different kinds of Sloths were described in the first instance, and subsequently, several
others. The first kinds known were the Ai, a Sloth with three claws on the fore limb, and the Two-toed
Sloth, with two claws on the fore limb. The Ai was called Brady pus tridactylus, and the other the
Unau, or BradypiM didactylus, names which have been changed somewhat, as will be seen further on.

Sloths are caught without much difficulty, and their habits, in captivity, have been observed
in South America, and also after their removal to Europe. Waterton writes 'f on the subject : —

" Some years ago I kept a Sloth for several months. I often took him out of the house and placed
him on the ground, in order to have an opportunity of observing his motions. If the ground were rough
he would pull himself forward by means of his fore-legs, at a pretty good pace, and he invariably
shaped his course towards the nearest tree : but if I put him upon a smooth and well-trodden part of the
road, he appeared to be in trouble and distress. His favourite abode was the back of a chair, and often
getting all his legs in a line upon the topmost part of it, he would hang there for hours together. The
Sloth, in its wild state, spends its whole life upon trees, not upon the branches, but under them; he
moves suspended from the branch, he rests suspended from it, and he sleeps suspended from it ; hence
his seemingly bungled conformation is at once accounted for. One day, crossing the Essequibo,
I saw a large Two-toed Sloth on the ground upon the bank, and although the trees were not twenty
yards from him, he could not make his way through the sand in time enough to make his escape
before we landed. He threw himself on his back and defended himself with his fore-legs. I took
a long stick and held it for him to hook on, and then conveyed him to a high and stately Mora.
He ascended with wonderful rapidity, and in about a minute he was almost at the top of the tree. He
now went off in a side direction, and caught hold of the branch of a neighbouring tree, and then proceeded
towards the heart of the forest."

At Santos, in Brazil, in 1826, Mr. Burchell kept a tame Sloth, a Bradijpus tridactylus, which at the
end of two months pined and died. It fed exclusively on the buds and leaves of a species of Cecropia,
a tree having a slender stem of thirty or forty feet long, with horizontal branches, hollow internally-

* AVaterton's "Wanderinjcs," PP. 161, 284.

160 NATURAL HISTORY.

and naked, except at the extremities. It ate only the young shoots and terminal buds of the tin-
expanded leaves, rejecting the old leaves on the boughs, which were brought to it daily. It was always
perfectly silent, and its countenance and manners were most expressive of melancholy. It fed by day,
and slept much ; being kept in a room, it sat upright upon its short tail, embracing the legs of a chair
with its arms and legs.

When resident at Para, near the mouth of the Amazons, Mr. Burchell also kept two full-grown
Sloths, and a young one of a three-toed species (not Eradyjms tridactylus, but of nearly similar form
and habits), in a garden enclosed with strong stockades. They were kept tied up to the pillars of a
verandah, to prevent their escape. Against these pillars they always placed themselves in an erect
position, embracing the pillar with all four legs ; when not tied to the~veranclah, they got up into trees
in the garden. They slept both by day and night, always fixing their arms round something or other.
Their food, consisting of branches, was brought to them in the verandah. They appeared extremely
stupid, and would never come to the food. They would eat no leaves but those of the Cecropia.

They did not mount very large trees, and they ascended with their breasts pressing the trunk of
the tree, advancing the hind-leg beyond the fore-leg. On the ground, they could neither stand
nor walk, but lay sprawling on their belly, and dragged, or rather warped, themselves along,
laying hold of a bunch of grass or stone with their three claws, which operated like grappling-
irons, or, rather, pincers. All these died in a month or two. In their wild state they are seldom
seen, from their colour mingling with the grey foliage of the trees, and from their being so extremely
quiet and slow. The tame Sloths never willingly remained on the ground, except to pass from one
tree to another. All the movements of the animal are slow. It moves its claws slowly. In
eating it chews slowly ; it also climbs slowly. The moisture of the leaves it eats suffices it for drink,
without descending to obtain water. None of those kept by Mr. Burchell were ever seen to drink.
The full-grown animals were never heard to utter any sound, but the young one occasionally, though
rarely, gave a short cry or whistling squeak, of a single note.

They showed no indication of fear, and seemed to give attention only with their eyes. They took
no notice of the boy who often carried them across the garden to their place in the verandah, with
their long arms sprawling; the only objects of their regard were trees. They fight on their backs, and
grapple their enemy to strangulation. The use of the long wool that covers the body, and even the
face, seems to be to guard them from the annoyance of insects. Possibly it may preserve them from
the attacks of Snakes, which are, doubtless, their greatest enemies.

The Sloth spends nearly the whole of its life in the trees, and travels along the branches
body downwards. It rarely comes to the ground, on which it walks with difficulty, and it occa-
sionally takes to the water and swims. It looks slothful enough when asleep, for it then resembles a
bunch of rough hair, and a jumble of limbs close together, hanging to a branch ; but when awake,
it is industrious in its search for nice twigs and leaves, and moves along the under side of the
branches of the trees with some activity. It seizes the ends of adjoining branches, clinging to
the leafy mass, and moves from tree to tree quickly enough, when it is requisite, and it has a
very singular power of moving the head and neck backwards in seeking food. When the atmo-
sphere is still, the Sloth keeps to its tree, feeding on the leaves and twigs, but when there is
wind, and the branches of neighbouring trees come in contact, the opportunity is seized, and the
animal moves along the forest, under the shady cover of the boughs. The Indians have a saying
that "when the wind blows the Sloths begin to crawl," and the reason is thus evident
enough — the animal cannot jump, but it can hang, swing, and crawl suspended. Mr. Waterton
states, however, that " the Sloth travels at a good round pace, and were you to see him passing
from tree to tree you would never think of calling him a Sloth. Being born up in a tree, living
amongst the branches, feeding on leaves, and finally dying amidst the foliage, and enjoying life as
much as any other animal, its structure and conformation are, of course, admirably suited for this
arboreal existence. Its power of grasp is great, and is assisted by the great bent claws as it hangs
by its feet when asleep, and also often when it is dead. One which was much frightened by being
taken from the forest had a pole placed near it at a little distance from 1,he ground, on two
supports. It clung directly to the pole and hung on. A Dog was then made to attack the Sloth,
which seized it in its long claws, and did not let go until the enemy died."

4 y ATOMY OF THE SLOTHS. 161

Leading thus a very unusual kind of life, up amongst the dense foliage, and having some very
unusual peculiarities of construction, much debate occurred many years since regarding the general
conformation as well as the .special anatomy of the Sloths. One school of anatomists considered the
Sloths incomplete and abnormal animals, moving with " pain " on the ground, and another regarded
their unusual and peculiar anatomy as singularly beneficent.

But whilst it is perfectly evident that the long limbs and their joints, and the peculiar turning in
of the ankles, and the structure of the clawed hands and feet, are all admirably adapted for the
peculiar life which the animal leads, it appears to be consistent with anatomical reasoning to believe
that the Sloth is an instance of retrograde development ; that, in fact, the peculiar formation of the
skull, neck, wrists, and ankles, is the result of the laws of disuse and adaptation operating on ancestral
animals, which once had their anatomy more consistent with a perfect mammalian type.

When the Sloths were first carefully watched and studied, their length of neck and their ability
to turn the head, so as to look at a person standing directly behind or beneath them, without swerving
the body, struck Mr. Burchell especially. This curious peculiarity led to a careful examination of the
skeleton of the different kinds, and much discussion followed, for it was found that in the Sloth

SKELETON OF THE SLOTH.

examined (the Three-clawed Ai) there were more neck bones (vertebrae of the cervical region) than in
other Mammalia. Instead of the common number of seven neck bones, there were nine. This elonga-
tion of the neck of course permitted a greater amount of twisting than could occur in an animal with
fewer neck bones. But there are other reasons why the head can be so much twisted round, for the
spines on the neck bones are small, and the joint between the skull and the first vertebra is so fashioned
that this remarkable motion is possible. There was a great deal of discussion about the extra neck
bones, and as the last two had rib-like projections fi'om their sides, some anatomists considered them
to belong to the time rib-bearing vertebrae, or those of the back (the dorsal). But when the other
Sloths were examined it was found that the number of the bones of the neck in all the two-fingered
kinds was not as great as in other animals. There are only six neck vertebrae in one well-known
species (Cholcepus Ho/manni, for instance), whilst there are seven in another two-toed Sloth.

Eating largely and of bulky substances, the Sloths require a large digestive cavity, and the ribs
are numerous, and the body is long and broad. There is much variation, however, in the number of
the back bones in the dorsal and lumbar regions. Thus in the Ai there are sixteen dorsal and three
lumbar vertebrae, whilst in the Two-fingered Sloth there may be twenty-three or twenty-four dorsal bones,
and two, three, or four lumbar vertebrae. The ribs are close together and are broad. As the hind limbs
require strong muscles, for the animal hangs on by them whilst it is feeding itself with the fore hands,
the pelvis is large and is strengthened by having the hip and haunch bones (ilia and ischia) united to
the conjoined sacral vertebrae, which may be six, seven, or eight in number. Moreover, all the strength
of the pelvis is behind, the fore part or pubic bones being slender and united in front

162 NATURAL HISTORY.

Some small tail bones exist, for that organ is rudimentary in all the Sloths, there being a stump
in the Ai, and eleven very small bones ; but in the Two-fingered Sloths the tail is not visible, and there
are four little ossicles. There are no long and very prominent spines to any of the back bones, and the
whole bony column of the spine is readily curved and bent. The animals so constantly bring the
hands and feet close together, when hanging, that a ready bending of the spine is absolutely necessary.
Moreover, in sleeping they often rest in the fork of a tree, or on a branch, and place the head
between the hind legs, rolling the body up as it were in a ball, and this is facilitated by the peculiar
construction of the long chain of back bones with small spines.

The most distinctive character of the skeleton of the Sloth is the excess of length of the fore
limb over the hind one. An examination of the slender bones of the arm shows that they are more
solid than those of most Mammals. The arm bone (humerus) has a hole through it in the inner
expanded part, just above the elbow (inner condyle), in the Ai ; but this is not found in the two-toed
kinds. The wrist and hand are long and naiTOw, and this is produced by the union of some bones-
which are separate in other Mammalia, and the slight development of others. Thus there are six

bones in the wrist instead of eight (the scaphoid and trapezium, and
the os magnum and trapezoid have coalesced). In the Ai there are
three clawed fingers, and the bones of the thumb and of the little
finger are absent, and their corresponding hand bones (metacafpals)
are very small, and are joined on to the next, that is, to the metacarpal
of the index and third finger.

The three fingers are, moreover, strengthened for their peculiar
uses, the first two joints being united, and the tip or last joint being
very long, and supporting the claw. Moreover, as the long claws are
constantly half closed in the hand, and they are never required to be
widely open, the tip of the finger is so made that flexion is possible,
but not unclasping widely. The skin comes up to the base of the claws,
and encloses the fingers, and the base of each claw is protected by a
bony sheath. They form capital hooks ; they grasp, and although there
is no opposable thumb, they hold the food : and a tame Sloth may be

BONES OF HAXD OF TKHEE-TOEI) i i i • v i \ i .1 j ,1 • ,

SLOTH- seen holding a carrot very firmly between them and the wrist. In the

case of the Unau Sloth, the outer claw is the longer.

The Sloths walk on the outside of the extremities of the fore and hind limbs, and their claws
are always curved in, and, as it were, retracted. Consequently, the animal cannot place the soles flat
on the ground, and it cannot open its foot-claws to a great extent. This fixing of the claws assists
in the clasping and hanging, which are the usual and commonest attitudes. The claws surpass the
foot in length, and are so sharp and crooked that they readily seize upon the smallest inequalities in
the bark of the ti'ees and branches upon which the animals habitually reside. They and those of the
fore limb are no mean weapons of offence and defence, for, situated at the end of long and muscular
arms, they can drag, cling, and hold with great tenacity. The thigh bone (femur) of the Sloth is
straight, and is thicker and shorter than the arm bone (humerus) : it has no ligament to unite it to
the joint (no ligamentum teres). On examining the lower bones of the leg (the tibia and fibula), they
will be found to be bent, so as to leave a space between them, and they are shorter than tho
bones of the fore arm. The bones of the ankle joint, are united together immovably- — that is to say,
the usual bones seen in other Mammalia are there, but are united by bone. Moreover, this union
includes the complete and ill-developed feet bones (metatarsals), and the first bones of the second,
third, and fourth fingers. One bone is not included in this strange union. It is the astragalus, or
the bone immediately jointed with the ends of the bones of the legs. The outer or small bone of the
leg (fibula) fits into a pit in the outer part of the upper surface of this bone, and thus prevents any
movement of the foot like a twisting outwards, and favours, but does not produce, the usual position
of twisting inwards. Moreover, there are two powerful muscles in the front of the leg which are not
opposed by others as strong, and they, by their contraction, keep the foot twisted inwards, as in club-
foot (the anterior tibial and the long extensor of the great toe).

In the Unau, or Two-fingered Sloth, there is the same general arrangement of the bones and

ANATOMY OF THE SLOTHS.

163

muscles, with some important differences, which result in there being a greater amount of bending
and extending of the foot, although the foot rests 011 its outer edge.

A Sloth's face is short, and there is a broad snub nose, with round nostrils, which are widely
open. The cheeks become wide suddenly, and the forehead slopes rapidly backwards, the eyes being
wide apart and small, but looking forwards. The head is small and round, and as it is covered
with hair behind, it cannot be distinguished well from the upper part of the back of the neck. The
expression of the face is always the same, and the method of masticating and eating is disagreeable
to observe. The animal having no front teeth, and moving its jaws usually only upwards and down-
wards, and not from side to side, places the morsel, such as lettuce leaf or carrot, well into its
mouth, and chews at it, dragging out the food every now and then, when it is covered with moisture.
On examining the skull, the short cut off or truncated appearance of the face is very evident, and it will
be observed that the teeth are wanting in the front bones of the face (the pre-maxillaries), and that only
the palatal part of these bones exists. The lower jaw is strongly jointed to the upper, and the back part
is large : there are teeth at the sides, but there are none in the front part of it. A very singular-looking
cheek bone (zygoma) exists on either side. It is not attached behind to the ear bone, so as to cover
the jaw muscles, but it has two processes behind
— an upper and a lower — which differ in shape
and size according to the species. The central
bone of the nose does not reach to the nasal out-
let, and there is a system of air-cavities which is
continued from the nose into the forehead bone.
In some kinds, the lower jaw ends abruptly in
front, as in the Ai ; but in the Unau Sloths it
is slightly angular, and projects.

The back teeth of the Sloths are very simple,
and consist of three structures, oalled vaso -dentine,
hard dentine, and cement, there being no proper
«namel. The vase-dentine is a kind of bony sub-
stance in the centre of the tooth, in which there
are the passages and tubes of blood-vessels. The
dentine is outside this, and consists of more earthy
particles than the vaso-dentine, and of fewer
tubes ; it is all the denser and more resistant.
Wearing away more slowly than the vaso-dentine,
it forms a ridge which grinds easily. The cement is a kind of bony structure on the outside of the
tooth. The teeth of the Sloth continue to grow from below as they are worn above, and there is no
•entire milk set which are replaced by those of a permanent kind.

The term Sloth is commonly applied to all the kinds of animals whose general shape and habits
have just been noticed. It is evident, however, that this union of several species under one term is
not correct in zoology, and it is necessary to distinguish them by peculiarities which are permanent.
A very ready method of distinction is to separate the Sloths into two families, one containing
those which have three claws on the fore limbs and the same number on the hind limbs, and the
second including those which have only two claws on the fore feet and three on the hinder.

The first family is called the BRADYPODID./E, from ppadvs (slow), and irovs (foot), and the second
OHOLCEPODID^E, from xu*6* (halting, lame), and irovs (foot), and both are included in the group
TARDIGRADA, or slow-moving JZdentata.

The BRADYPODIDJE include two genera, but many naturalists only acknowledge one. The first
is Bradypus. This includes the Sloths with three-clawed fingers on the fore limbs, whose males and
females are alike in their fur, and which have the cheek bone (malar bone) with two processes.
The upper one is long and dilated at the end, and the lower is long and triangular, and neither of the
processes reaches the ear bone. There are in these Sloths, when full grown, five molar teeth on each
side in both jaws, and the first is very short. There are two mammte on the chest.

* Arctopithecus castaniceps.

SKULL OP SLOTH.*

(From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.)

164

NATURAL HISTORY.

The second genus is Arctopitkecus (Gray), and it contains species which have the males and females
dissimilar in their colour and ornamentation, and the malar bone has a thin and narrow upper process.

The second family of the Sloths (the CHOIXEPODID.E) contains but one genus, Chcloepua (the
Unau), whose species have two claws on the fore limbs and three on the hind ones. The front
of the lower jaw is stuck out, and not cut short, and the first molar teeth are long.

The genus Bradypus probably contains several species, but it is only necessary to mention one,
which is called

THE COLLARED SLOTH, OR THE HAIRY SLOTH.*

This Sloth lives in the densest forests of Brazil, Peru, and Para, and is found not far from
Rio Janeiro.

It is a kind of the Three-clawed Sloths, in which there is little or no difference between the fur of
the males and females. The neck is surrounded by a large collar of long black hair, and underneath
this is a fur of a dark-brown colour. The face is naked, and is of a black colour, and the hair of the

body is not veiy flattened, but is
withered-looking to a certain extent.
The forehead, temples, chin, throat,
and breast are covered with reddish
or rust-coloured hair, slightly griz-
zled. On the crown of the head it
is long and yellow, and pale orange
on the rest of the body. This Sloth
produces one at a birth.

The lower jaw has a kind of
blunted lobe in front, and the angle
of this jaw is broad, triangular, with
a rounded lower edge, and it projects
backwards beyond the joint which
connects the bone with the skull.
The cheek bone has those peculiari-
ties which have already been men-
tioned. The teeth are peculiar, for
the first or foremost grinders are
smaller than the others, and the
second upper grinder is the largest
of all. The first grinder on the
lower jaw is broader than the rest,
and the hinder are the largest, being
also cylindrical.

It has the general method of
living of the Sloths, being perhaps
not quite so lively or active as the
Unau, and feeds mainly on Cecro-
pia leaves, finishing those of one tree
as far as it can before commencing
those of another. Like all the Sloths,
it has the power of long and sus-

COLLARED SLOTH. (From Prince Maximilian of Neuwied's Animals of Brazil.) tained muscular action, and can ding

on, or grasp, for a very long time

without perceptible fatigue, and this gift is associated with a structure of the blood-vessels which supply
the muscles, resembling, as we have said, that noticed in some of the Lemurs. The main artery
which supplies each of the fore limbs is the axillary, so called from its being found in the armpit or

* Bradypus torquatus, or Bradypus crinitus.

THE AI.

166

axilla. In quickly-moving animals this vessel reaches into the upper arm, and divides into a few
rather large ones lower down, and these give off others, so that a certain quantity of blood is supplied
and removed quickly. But in the Sloths the axillary artery divides at once into a number of
cylindrical vessels nearly
as large as it is, and they
are united here and there.
These unusual arteries are
found in contact with the
surface of the muscles,
and their branches go in
and amongst the muscular
bundles. As many as
forty-two of these iai'ge
vessels were counted by
Sir A. Carlisle, on the
surface of the muscles on
the front of the arm, and
probably about twenty
were inside. These arte-
ries thus carry an im-
mense supply of blood
to the muscles, but blood
which, although it is
finally removed by the
veins, does not move
very rapidly. In fact,
the muscles are turgid
with blood. The same
arterial structure is seen
in the hinder limbs, and
the arteries of the thigh
form as numerous a set
as those of the arm.

It seems to be in
accordance with careful

investigation, to State AI- (From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.)

that the species of Sloth

called Bradypus tridactylus (the Three-toed Sloth, or Ai) has too large a meaning, and that it really
refers to the Collared Sloth, as well as to others which have been placed in the next genus. It is as
well to remark here, that although there are three clawed fingers to the fore limb, there are vestiges
of two other ones by their side in the form of two rudimentary metacarpal bones.

GENUS ARCTOPITHECUS.— THE AT*

Several kinds of three-clawed Sloths have been called Ai ; for instance, the Yellow-throated Ai,
and De Blainville's Ai, and all have been named Bradypus tridactylus. Dr. Gray, however, satisfied
himself that the kind which was first described by Cuvier as the Ai, and which is figured in
Prince Maximilian of Neuwied's " Animals of Brazil," is the same as one which has since been called
Arctopithecus Ai, or Arctopithecus flaccidus. The word Ai is taken from the noise made by the animal,
and the term flaccidus relates to its long hair. The true Ai inhabits Venezuela and Peru, and has
very long flaccid grey hair mottled with white. There is an abundant under-fur of a blackish brown
colour, which has white and black in spots and blotches.

A rctopithecus flaccidus. — Arctopithecus A i.

116

166 NATURAL HISTORY.

There is a small spot between the shoulders on the back, where the fur is soft and woolly, and a
broad, short, blackish streak there, with a white or orange ring around it. The claws are coloured
brown. The head has a curiously-cut short and turned-up nose appearance, and is furnished with
coarse shaggy hair, disposed on the crown in a diverging manner. The short hair of the face contrasts
with the long, shaggy, shrivelled, dry, hay-looking hair of the body. This hair is coarse and flattened

at the ends, but it is exceptionally fine at the roots*
and it greatly resembles in colour and texture some
of the vegetation of the trees on which it lives. The
eyes are bright, and are surrounded by a dark ring.
Several species of the genus Arctopithecus have been
described which live in Guiana, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru,
and Venezuela.

The next genus of the Sloths is represented by

THE TWO-FINGERED SLOTH (THE TJNAU).*

There are several kinds of Sloths with two
" toes," or rather with two fingers ending in claws
SKVLL OF AI. on the fore limb, but the differences between the

species are not very readily appreciated. They are

differences which can be recognised, but it is doubtful whether the possession of dark brown or pale
brown hair is sufficient to decide that there are more than one species.

The common Unau Sloth is usually of a darker tint than the others, but there is no doubt that
the specimens in museums of all these Sloths vary much in the colour and length of the hair. Thus
the hair may be generally dark, and the hairs of the crest on the back of the head may be white, and
more or less tinted with bright green ; or the hair may be short, of a dark brown colour, paler on the
rump, much paler on the head, cheeks, and chin ; a band may be across the nose, and the orbits dark
brown. Others of the same species have very long hair, of an uniform dark tint, paler 011 the head
and redder beneath, whilst one from Juan de Fuca has short hair, without any indication of a crest.
From Brazil there are specimens with long paler hair and a crest. All these specimens, however,
have pale whitish claws.

A Unau from Columbia is of a pale and whitey-brown paper colour, darker at the root of the
hairs, and it has pale fawn-coloured claws.

In all these animals with different kinds of furs, the two-clawed condition is peculiar to the fore
limbs only, for on the hinder there are three claws, and it is to be remarked that the hair and skin unite
the fingers and toes close up to the base of the claws. The skull of the Unau is rather projecting in front,
and not, as it were, quite cut off close ; and there is a great gap in. the upper and lower gums in front,
the incisor teeth being absent, of course. But at the side of the mouth there is a longish tooth above
and below, looking like a canine, but really it is the front molar, which in both jaws and on both sides
is longer and larger than the othei-s. The under teeth belonging to the lower molar set are placed
behind the corresponding upper ones when the mouth is shut.

The cheek or malar bone is seen, on looking at the skull, to be separated from the ear bone, and
to have a forked end posteriorly, the lower part of the fork extending downwards and backwards.

The lower jaw is very straight : it projects a little, in front and behind, where it is jointed with
the upper jaw, there is no upright portion or branch, or ascending ramus. The last back tooth is just
in front of a curved piece of bone called the coronoid process, the base of which is on a level with the
line of the teeth.

This Sloth has seven neck bones (cervical vertebrfe), and the last one has a very small and
rudimentary rib attached to it on either side. There are no less than twenty-three dorsal vertebrae
found to be with ribs. The Unau has a clavicle which is much smaller in the other group. It has no
tail. The structure of the ankle joint enables it to turn in, oven more than that of the Three-clawed
Sloth. As the habits of the Unau Sloth are the same as those with three claws, and all live in the same

* Cholcepus didactylus.

THE U.NAU. 167

great district, these anatomical distinctions ai*e very interesting, and relate to their remote ancestors,
being hereditary legacies, which are of little or no importance in assisting the creature merely to
live. One of the differences between the Sloths is singular. The Unaus have a very remarkably
formed stomach, which may be said to be double. The first stomach is large and rounded, but it is
contracted behind, and then formed into a kind of conical appendix. This appendix is doubled
from left to right, and its cavity has a fold at its opening into the stomach. It forms a
special pai-t of the first stomach. Then it is to be noticed, that where the food enters the
stomach, or at the opening, which is called the cardia, there
is a pouch, looking like a bag at the end of the tube which
runs down from the gullet to the stomach. This is the
second part of the first stomach : and the third is a tube-
like space which connects the cardia with the stomach far-
away to the left. These three cavities form the first
stomach. The second stomach is of a slender form,
and is very much smaller than the other. Its walls are
thin for the first half of its length, but towards the spot
where the gut commences (the pylorus) they are thick and
muscular. A small fold occurs midway. There is a fold STOMACH OF SLOTH.

in the body of the smaller or second stomach, and there
is a little hollow there with glands in it, and it is called the appendix to the second stomach.

The stomach is thus rather complicated, and its internal mucous membrane is so thrown into
folds, and made into hollow spaces, that it occupies much more space than if it were a simple bag.
This plan is also well seen in those ruminating animals which, like the Ox, live entirely upon vege-
table substances ; and it is evident that the diet of the Sloth beai-s some relation to the complicated
stomach.

In the Ai, the appendix to the second stomach is larger than that of the Unau Sloth, and is
more complicated.

HOFFMANN'S SLOTH.*

This is a Sloth with two clawed fingers on the fore, and with three claws on the hinder
extremities. Living specimens are occasionally brought to Europe, especially from Porto Rico,
so that its general appearance may now and then be studied at the Zoological Gardens, in the Regent's
Park. If it be looked at there in the day-time, it certainly merits the name of Sloth, for it resembles
a bundle of long, light, brown hair, fixed on the top of a bar of wood close to an upright branch,
or huddled up in a corner on the ground ; but in the morning, and also late in the evening, the
creature begins to move slowly, and to look out for the food put for its use on the floor of the den.
All the Hoffmann's Sloths have pale brown hair, whiter at the tips, and a white face, showing a
brown band across the nose, extending to a ring round each eye. They have also a long and full
crest of hair on the neck, and the hair on the limbs is darker than that of the rest of the animal.
Dr. Peters, who discovered this Sloth, examined the skeleton, and found only six vertebrae in the
neck, and in this it differs from the Cholcepus just noticed.

When its food, consisting of carrots and lettuce, and bread-aiid-milk, is put down in the
morning it is soon in movement, and enjoys its meal hanging down from a bar with its hind legs,
and resting its back on the floor of the cage. It seizes the food between the claws and the long
straight palm of the fore-foot, and passes it into its mouth, chewing actively with the molar teeth?
especially with the first, which are shai-p. It cares little for the spectators, and when it has finished,
slowly mounts up into a corner of its little den and settles down to sleep. In the evening it becomes
lively, for it is, and, indeed, all Sloths are, nocturnal in habit. The hairless snout, of a light red
tint, the absence of " smellers," the little eyes with a few hairs around them, and the broad forehead,
give the animal a curious appearance. The hair is brushed back on the forehead, and comes
around the very small eai-s on to the cheeks, and is whitey-brown, and this same tint is seen over the
whole of the back in long slender hairs. But the under hair is light red or red-brown. The long and

* Choloepus HoffmannL

168

NATURAL HISTORY.

slender hand, with its two claws, contrasts with the rather bulky upper part of the limbs, and the
flesh-coloured palms are very remarkable.

The whole of the Sloths lead very monotonous lives ; their food is ever within their reach, and it
is abundant, and they do not appear to have to compete much or at all in the struggle for existence

HOFFMANN 8 SLOTH.

with other animals. Their enemies are Snakes and the Carnivora, but it is evident that they are much,
more readily preserved by their habits from the latter than from the former. Leading such an
uneventful existence, there is no great call upon their nervous energies or intelligence, and these are
at a low pitch. The brain conseqxiently is very simple in regard to convolutions, which are few in
number and shallow.

THE ANT-EATERS. 169

CHAPTER IL

THE ANT-EATERS.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER — The Cage at "the Zoo." — Appearance of the Animal— Its Prey — The Ant-hills— How the Oryctero-
pus obtains its Food — Place in the Order — Teeth — Skull — Tongue — Interesting Questions concerning the Ant-eater
— THE PANGOLINS, OK SCALY ANT-EATERS — THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS — Differences between the Pangolins
and Cape Ant-eaters— Their Habitat — Description — TEMMINCK'S PANGOLIN — Habits— Food — How it Feeds — Super-
btitious Regard for it shown by the Natives — Scarcity — Appearance— THE LONG-TAILED, OR FOUR-FINGERED PANGO-
LIN—THE GREAT MANIS — THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS — THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN — The
Species of Manis — Skull — Stomach — Claws fitted for Digging — Other Skeletal Peculiarities — THE AMERICAN ANT-
EATERS — General Appearance — Genera — THE GREAT ANT-BEAR — Habits — Diet — How it Procures its Food — Distribu-
tion— Mode and Rate of Locomotion — Stupidity — Manner of Assault and Defence — Stories of its Contests with other
Animals — Appearance — THE TAMANDUA — Description — Where Found — Habits — Odour — THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER —
Appearance — Two-clawed Hand — Habits —Von Sach's Account of his Specimen.

THE CAPE ANT-EATER *— THE AARD-VARK.

IN one of the cages in the house, close to where the Kangaroos are kept, in the Zoological Gardens
of London, there is usually a heap of straw to be seen and an empty dish. Outside the cage is placed
the name of an animal, " The Cape Ant-eater." People look and wait, and as neither the animal nor
the Ants it eats are to be seen, they go away, supposing that the absence of the last-named insects has
caused the destruction of the animal, whose straw alone remains.

But in the evening, and sometimes in the morning, when the food is placed in the cage — not Ants,
however — a long pair of stuck-up ears, looking like those of a gigantic Hare with a white skin and
little fur, may be seen poked up above the straw ; and, soon after, a long white muzzle, with small
sharp eyes between it and the long ears, comes into view.

Then a very fat and rather short-bodied animal with a long head and short neck, low fore and
large hind quarters, with a bowed back, comes forth, and finally a moderately long fleshy tail is seen.
It is very pig-like in the look of its skin, which is light-coloured and has a few hairs on it. Moreover,
the snout is somewhat like that of a Pig, but the mouth has a small opening only, and to make the
difference between the animals decided, out comes a worm-shaped long tongue covered with mucus.
The animal has to content itself with other fare than Ants in England, but it seems to thrive, and
ay it walks slowly on the flat of its feet and hands to its food, they are seen to be armed with very
powerful claws.

In Southern Africa, whence this animal came, it is as rarely seen by ordinary observers as in
England, for there it burrows into the earth with its claws, and makes an underground place to live
in, arid is nocturnal in its habits, sleeping by day.

The Orycteropus, which means digging-up foot, from opva-a-w (to dig up), and wovs (foot), is the deadly
foe of the Ants of all kinds, and especially of those which, like the White Ants, live in large colonies
and build nests.

These nest-building Ants abound in certain districts, but not in the region of the downs or karoos,
nor where it is very dry and woody. They choose the country which is covered with a poor and so-
called " sour" grass, and there they dig galleries in the ground, fetch earth from far and wide, and erect
large rounded mounds of an elliptical figure, and often from three to seven feet in height. Apparently
fond of company, the Ants congregate, and these gigantic hills of theirs are often crowded together and
occupy the plains, as far as the eye can reach. The nests, or hills, are solidly built, and contain innu-
merable ants. This is the favourite resort of the Orycteropus, and the insects are his sole food then.
Wherever ant-hills are found, there is a good chance of finding one of these Aard-varks, or Innagus, or
Ant-Bears, as the Dutch and natives call them, leading a sort of mole-like life. But he is not easy to
catch if the stories told be true. It is stated that the long strong flattened claws and short
extremities, worked by their strong muscles, enable the animal to burrow in the soft soil as quickly as
the hunters can dig, and that in a few minutes it will get out of the way ; moreover, its strength is
sufficient to resist the efforts of two or three men to drag it out of the hole. But when fairly
caught, the Ant-eater does not resist much ; it has no front teeth or eye teeth to do any harm with, and

* Orycteropus capensis (Geoffrey).

170

NATURAL HISTORY.

it can he killed easily by a blow on the head. The Ant-eater runs slowly, and never moves far from
the entrance of its burrow, being seen to do so only at night-time. The burrows are often two feet in
diameter and three or four feet deep before they branch off. Night is the time for Ant-eating, for the
active and industrious insects are then all at home and within their solid nests. Then the Orycteropus
sallies forth, finds a fresh nest, sprawls over it, and scratches a hole in its side, using his strong claws,
and then introduces his long snout. Having satisfied himself that there is no danger at hand, the animal
protrudes its long slimy tongue into the galleries and body of the nest, and it is at once covered with
enraged Ants, which stick to it, and are finally returned with it into the mouth. This goes on over
and over again, until the appetite is satisfied ; and apparently the diet is excellent, for the Ant-eater is

CAPE ANT-EATEE.

generally fat, and indeed his hams are appreciated as a delicacy for their peculiar flavour, into which
that of formic acid is said to enter.

Although without an armour to its body, and provided with only a thick skin and bristles, the
Orycteropus has a great resemblance in many points of its anatomy to the Armadillos of America. It
is more closely allied to them than to the other Edentata. It is one of the order of Edentata, for there
are no front teeth in the jaws, the incisors and canines being absent. The teeth are found in the
back part of the mouth, and there are five on each side and in the upper and lower jaws, or twenty in
all ; there are also some small teeth which fall out during the growth of the animal. As might be
expected from the very simple nature of the diet, the teeth are not at all complicated in their structure.
They increase in size from before backwards, the last tooth but one being the largest, and all are
peculiar in their minute construction. The first permanent tooth, which may be called a molar, is
cylindrical in shape, and consists of a -centre of very remarkable substance, for the body of the tooth
is composed of a great number of vertical canals placed side by side, and running up the tooth. It
was this interesting structure, so different to that of other animals, which led Cuvier to compare the
teeth to pieces of cane. Outside this part of the tooth is a hard and more solid substance. When

THE CAPE ANT-EATER. 171

the teeth are unworn, this outer covering covers their top, but as it wears off the tubular appearance
is seen, and the ends of the tubes become exposed. The teeth have no fangs like those of such
orders of Mammalia as the Carnivora and Insectivora, and they increase in length by growth from
below, so that the wear above is continually compensated for. The second tooth resembles the first
in its minute construction, but appears like two cylinders fixed together, a longitudinal groove indi-
cating the junction, and this is the appearance presented by most of the others. The hindermost
teeth resemble the first molars. The dental
number varies according to age, and the pre-
sence or absence of the teeth which are not
pei'manent. The jaws, in which the teeth are
fixed, are long, and the lower one is low, but
there is an ascending back part, or ramus ;
consequently, the face is long and low. The
eye is placed far from the ear, and is small.

Its bony case, or orbit, and its surrounding SKrLL OF THE CAPE ANT_EATER.

bones, are somewhat remarkable for an Eden-
tate, for there is a lachrymal bone, and the tear canal is open on the bony face. Moreover,
the malar bone is united to the ear bone by a complete arch, the zygoma, and the deficiency so
remarkable in some other Edentates is thus not observed. The pre -maxillary bones are also to be
seen, in front of the face. In this completeness of the bones of the face this animal is a true
mammal, but in the nature and extent of the ear bones, the Orycteropus has some resemblance to
reptiles and birds.

The tongue is long, narrow, and flat, and can be protruded considerably beyond the mouth, but
not so far as those of the other insect-eating Edentata ; and in order to keep up a supply of thick mucus,
the glands under and at its side, or the sub-maxillary, are very large and active in their functions.
The stomach is moderately bulky and not simple, for the portion towards the right has very thick
muscular walls, and the rest is thin. The intestine has a blind gut, or caecum.* In fact, the stomach
and blind gut might belong to an animal which eats something more bulky and less nutritious than
Ants, and would be of use to the creature, did it eat vegetable matters. All these structures, the
simple teeth, the tear bones, the size of the ear bones, the Sloth-like teeth, with tubes, however, and
the peculiarities about the intestinal canal are, it must be remembered, associated with the life of
a purely insectivorous animal. Why has it not the kind of teeth of the Insectivora and their stomach?
and why should it combine high and low characters in its skull ? These are questions which, when
attempted to be answered, show that in the great philosophy of nature causes and effects are not
everything, and that the same definite methods of life may be followed by animals very differently
constituted.

The claws of the Orycteropus and the limbs are admirably suited for its kind of life. There are
five claws on the hind limbs and four on the front, and they are long, slightly curved, flat, and
scooped out below. The burrowing is facilitated by the arrangement of the claws as regards length,
and they diminish in size from within outwards. There is a collar bone. The foot rests evenly
on the ground and not on its outside, and the body is supported either by the whole foot or by
the palm surface of the claws. The fore arm can be rotated more or less, and the pronator quadratus t
muscle enables this necessary action to be carried out. The Orycteropus capensis lives over a wide
extent of country in South Africa, in Caffraria, and in the western districts. A closely-allied species
lives in Senegal (Orycteropus senegalensis, Less.) ; and a third is found in Southern Nubia, near the
White Nile (Orycteropus cetkiopicus, Sund.).

* The uterus is double, and the placenta is disc-shaped, and is cast off (deciduate). There are chest and inguina'
teats. The vertebrae are — seven cervical, thirteen dorsal, eight lumbar, six sacral, twenty-five caudal.

t The muscle called pronator quadratus is a fleshy band, four-sided in shape more or less. One side is attached to one
of the bones of the fore-arm, the ulna in front above the wrist ; and the other and opposite side adheres to the radius. The
ulna being motionless, the muscle contracts and pulls the radius over, so as to turn the back of the wrist forwards, or
upwards. The prone position is thus produced, and hence the name of the muscle. The other muscle which produces this
movement is fixed to the fore-arm in front, near the inner elbow, and it is long, having a tendon which is implanted on the
radius. As this muscle contracts, it pulls the radius over the ulna, and makes the wrist take up a prone position. It is called
the pronator teres.

172

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE PANGOLINS, OR SCALY ANT-EATERS.*

THE AFRICAN SCALY ANT-EATERS.

An animal living in the same country, on the same kind of food, and having many of the habits
of the Cape Ant-eater, especially as it belongs to the same order of the animal kingdom, might be
expected to resemble it in. shape and in most of the important parts of its construction. But the
comparison between, the Ant-eater, just described, and the Scaly Ant-eater, shows that these animals
have some very remarkable differences. The Scaly Ant-eater is toothless, and covered with scales.

Formerly, the Scaly Ant-eaters roamed far south in Africa, but now they are rare animals in.
South Africa, in the west of the continent, and across to Sennaar. They are found in Zanzibar,
and as far south as the latitude of Mozambique. They are small animals, of from two to nearly
five feet in length, with long tails ; and their body, limbs, and tail are covered with numerous large,
somewhat angular, and sharp-edged scales, as with armour. The scales overlap each other like

TEMMIXCK S PANGOLIN.

tiles, and the free part pointing backwards is bluntly angular or rounded at the tip. When the
animal is on its feet walking, they form a very close and impenetrable covering, being doubtless
of great use to the creature, for it must trust entirely to its defences, having no weapon of offence.
But when the Scaly Ant-eater is alarmed or threatened with danger, or positively attacked, it
rolls itself up like a ball, places the snout between the legs, and the tail underneath, and then
sticks up its scales, offering their sharp edges to the enemy. Thei-e are several kinds of them, and
one in particular was noticed by Dr. Smith, the African traveller, and was named after the zoologist
Teinminck, MAXIS TEMMINCKII. He observed that it was rarely seen, but that when it was discovered,
instead of burrowing, it did not attempt to escape, but rolled itself up instantly in the shape of a
ball, taking especial care of its head, which is the only part unarmoured and likely to be injured.
He states that Ants form its chief and favourite food, and that it secures them by extending its
projectable tongue into holes which may exist in the habitations of those insects, or which it may
itself form. The tongue having made an entry, it is soon covered with a multitude of insects, and as
it is well lubricated with saliva, they are held fast, and when a full load is ready, the retracting muscles
act on the tongue and the whole is carried back into the mouth, after which the Ants are swallowed.
The same traveller accounts for the scarcity of the Scaly Ant-eaters, partly from the disinclination of
the natives to discover them for sti'angers, and partly because they are environed with supernatural

* Genus Man is.

THE PANGOLINS.

173

gifts in their eyes. They are carefully sought for, by the natives, for their own use and supposed
advantage, for they believe the animal to have some influence on cattle, and that certain treatment
to which they are exposed produces this. Whenever a specimen is secured by the natives, it is sub-
mitted to fire in some cattle-pen, apparently as a burnt offering for the increase of the health and
fertility of all cattle which may henceforward enter the fold. " Here," writes Dr. Smith, " we have
another cause for the obliteration of a species. Intolerance of their aggression has wrought up the
shepherd or agriculturist to the destruction of some; but in this case, a species is probably dying out
under the influence of a superstition."

FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.

They burrow even in rather hard ground, and feed at night time. It has been noticed that the
mother sits upright when enticing the young to suckle.

This Manis has rather a short head, and a wide body, and the tail is as long as the trunk : it
is rather less in width near the body, and does not diminish much near the end. In a specimen
which is twenty-five inches and a half long, the back of the animal is eight inches across, and the
tail at its root is five inches broad. The scales are large, and are in about eleven rows. The body is
of a pale yellowish-brown colour, the scales being lightest in tint near their points, and they are often
streaked with yellow. Where the scales are wanting the skin is dusky brown. The eyes are
reddish-brown, and the muzzle is black. The nails of the fore feet are bent under, so that the animal
walks on their upper part. The scales are composed of hairs placed side by side and agglutinated
together, and when first formed, and for some little time after, they are soft. They cover the upper
part of the fore and hind extremities besides the body, and are striated. This kind lives in Eastern
Africa, Sennaar, Caffraria, Kordofan, and Latakoo.
117

174 NA TVKA L HIS TOR T.

THE LONG-TAILED, OK FOUR-FINGERED PANGOLIN.*
This Ant-eater is from two to three feet in length, and the tail is twice as long as the body. It

inhabits the Guinea Coast and the Gaboon, and probably Senegal. It is a dark brown animal, with

the hair of the face and under sides black in tint. There are eleven series of scales, with the end

rounded, and a central prominence.

Buffon described a pale brown or horn-coloured, very scaly, long-tailed Ant-eater as a Phatagin,

but it is correctly called Manis tricuspis, from the scales having three projections on them. It lives

in Western Africa, Fernando Po, Guinea, and Sierra Leone.

THE GREAT MANIS.t

This scaled Ant-eater is thirty inches long in the body, and its tail measures twenty-five inches
in length. The great tail lessens to the end, and the scales are striated at the base, the whole colour
being pale brown. It is an interesting animal from its likeness to one of the Asiatic species, the
Manis pentadactyla (Linn.) ; but the difference in the length of tail is remarkable. It has been
found in West Africa, Guinea, and in the Cape Coast Castle district.

THE ASIATIC SCALY ANT-EATERS.

There is one point of great interest about the genus Manis, and it is that it is not restricted to
Africa, for some species are found over a wide extent of country in India. They live there in a region
from the Himalayan Mountains to Ceylon, and eastward to Sumatra and Java, and in Southern China
as far as Amoy, Hainan, and Formosa. They afford an instance of closely-allied animals now living
in large districts which are separated by seas, deserts, mountains, and rivers, and other impassable
barriers. The Javanese are said to have called the animal, from the fact of its rolling itself up,
Pangolin, and the Bengalese termed it the Reptile of Stone. The first to be noticed is —

THE SHORT-TAILED, OR FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.}

This is supposed to be the Phattage of ^Elian, and much resembles Temminck's Manis from
South Africa. It has a small head, which is pointed and long at the muzzle ; the body is rather
stout, and the tail is short, broad at the root. The back scales are in longitudinal rows, eleven in
number, and they are smaller than those of the African kind. It has the under part of the body,
head, and feet naked, and more or less hairy, and some long, fair-coloured hairs spring from between
the scales. The middle claw of the fore-foot exceeds the others in size. They feed on white Ants
especially. They are found in Bengal, Madras, and Assam.

A Manis with a tail as long as the body, and with the scales of the hind feet acutely pointed,
and the front and hind claws nearly equal in size, is found in Sumatra and in Java. Finally, the
other Asiatic kind, Manis Dalmannii, is found in the Himalayas, China, and possibly in Java.

All the species of the genus Manis, whether from Africa or Asia, are absolutely toothless, and
the Edentate peculiarity is perfect, for there are no back teeth. The tongue is worm-like, round, very
long, and can be stuck out far from the mouth, and it supplies the want of the teeth, but from having
this long organ and no back teeth, the palate and the skull are very long and conical. Being with-
out masticating teeth, the lower jaw is very flat and simple, and there is no ascending ramus. The
muscles of the lower jaw being of secondary importance, the arch (zygoma) of bona between the face
and the ear is incomplete, and the outside ear is very small. But the organ of hearing is somewhat
complicated, and there is a large space in the temporal bone which communicates with the internal
ear, so that one tympanum is in communication with the other.

Much saliva is required to moisten the tongue, and the sub-maxillary glands are therefore very
large, and reach down under the skin of the neck on to the chest. The stomach is usually, if not
always, found to contain stones which the creature has swallowed. Of course it can hardly tell what
may be on its tongue in the dark Ants' nest, and earth and stones are likely to rest on it and be
swallowed, but the constant presence of these hard things may have something to do with the absence

* Manis tetradactyla (Linn.). t Manis gigantea (Illiger).

J Manis brachyura. — Manis pentadactyla (Linn.).

THE PANGOLINS.

175

of the teeth, and the necessity of having a crushing material somewhere or other. The walls of the
stomach are thin near the entry of the gullet tube, but towards the pylorus, or the right side end, the
nmscles are well developed, and the mucous membrane is very dense.

These animals use their claws for the purpose of digging holes in the ground, or in the Ants' nests,
for the sake of food, and the position in walking is with the front claws bent under, so that the whole
weight of the front of the body is felt on the back (or upper part) of the claws. The hind feet are
placed flat, and the sole and under part of the claws sustain the hinder quarters. The joints of the
five fingers of the fore feet are so arranged that they can bend downwards only, and indeed they are
more or less permanently bent, being kept in that position by strong ligaments. This assists the
digging powers of the claws, which are, moreover, forked at their points in some species, and the wrist
is rendered very strong by having the joints between two of its bones abolished, and they are united
by bone, as in the carnivorous animals. The bones thus united are the scaphoid and semi-lunar bones.
Every structure in the creature's fore limbs tends to the promotion of easy and powerful digging,

FIVE-FINGERED PANGOLIN.

and as the motion of scratching the ground is directly downwards and backwards, the power of moving
the wrist half round, and presenting the palm more or less upwards, as in the Sloths and in man, does
not exist. In order to prevent this pronation and stipulation, the part of the fore -arm bone, the
radius, next to the elbow, is not rounded, but forms part of a hinge joint. Finally, it is necessary
to observe, that the middle claw is the longest of the five on all the extremities, and that as the
animal does not require to reach over its head, there is no collar bone.

The long tail of the Pangolins, stumpy at the end in some kinds, has a considerable number of
bones, usually twenty-six ; and the first of them joins on to the last of the back bones of the pelvis.
This last, or sacral vertebra, unites on each side with the haunch bones (ischium), and there is no
notch in the bone for the passages of the great nerves of the back of the leg, but a hole.

The thigh bone is flattened from before backwards, and the bones of the leg are wide apart, and
all this gives extra powers to the nmscles which have to direct the scraping and digging by the hind
feet. The feet are solid and strong, and have not any of the inside turning and club-foot appearance
of the Sloths, and the heel bone projects backwards.

There is an interesting peculiarity about the chest of the Pangolins, for the breast bone is very
long, and the cartilage at its end is large, and has two long projections resembling those of the Lizards.
The neck consists of seven vertebrae, and the back of thirteen, and there are three or four in the sacrum.

176 NATURAL HISTOMY,

THE AMERICAN ANT-EATERS.

The adjective '•' long " may be applied to nearly all the structures of these animals. The tail,
body, neck, head, snout, and tongue, and the hair are all very long, and the only things which are
short are the ears. The observer is immediately struck with the curiously-shaped head, so narrow,
low, and ending in a flexible and very slender snout, especially if the round tongue happens to be
projecting out of the mouth, for it is longer even than the head, and is like a gigantic worm. The
snout appears bent, and is made to look all the longer, by the eye being placed not far from the
small ear. Then the huge bushy tail, flattened from side to side, as long as the body, has a fringe of
very long and strong hair. The body itself moves on four powerful limbs, well clawed, and looks
bulky from the quantity of hair on it, but usually it is thin. The animal, when it stands still, is higher
at the shoulders than behind, and it rests on the sides of the fore-feet, where there is a callous pad,
the claws being bent inwards and under, and not touching the ground with their tips. The under
part of the hind feet bears the weight of the hind limbs. It is about four feet and a half in length
from the snout to the tail, the tail being rather more than three feet in length, and the height is
about three feet and a half. So long is the head, that it measures thirteen inches and a half from the
ear to the snout, and the tongue can be projected for sixteen or eighteen inches, and is, when brought
back into the mouth, bent so that its tip looks backwards towards the throat.

The animal belongs to a group of the Edentata (for it is toothless) which has the following
genera : — One genus, which is now being considered, is Myrmecophaga—^p^s (an Ant), and <£aye<V (to
eat) — a second is Tamandua, and the third is Cyclothurus, from KvKXwrfc (rounded). The animals of
this group represent in South America the Pangolins and Cape Ant-eaters of the Old "World.

The species of the genus Myrmecophaga, which has been thus slightly alluded to, is called
the Maned Ant-eater.

THE GREAT ANT-BEAR.*

The habits of this animal, which has been named Great Ant-Bear by the English and Spaniards,
have been described as follows : — " The habits of the Great Ant-Bear are slothful and solitary ; the
greater part of his life is consumed in sleeping, notwithstanding which he is never fat, and
rarely even in good condition. When about to sleep he lies on one side, conceals his long
snout in the fur of the breast, locks the hind and fore claws into one another, so as to cover
the head and belly, and turns his long, bushy tail over the whole body in such a manner as to
protect it from the too powerful rays of the sun. The female bears but a single young one at a
birth, which attaches itself to her back, and is carried about with her wherever she goes, rarely
quitting her, even for a year after it has acquired sufficient strength to walk and provide for
itself. This unprolific constitution, and the tardy growth of the young, account for the com-
parative rarity of these animals, which are said to be seldom seen, even in their native regions.
The female has only two mammae, situated on the breast, like those of Monkeys, Apes, and Bats.
In his natural state the Ant-Bear lives exclusively upon Ants, to procure which he opens their hills
with his powerful crooked claws, and at the moment that the insects, according to their nature, flock
from all quarters to defend their dwellings, draws over them his long, flexible tongue covered with
glutinous saliva, to which they consequently adhere ; and so quickly does he repeat this operation,
that we are assured he will thus exsert his tongue and draw it in again covered with insects twice in a
second. He never actually introduces it into the holes or breaches which he makes in the hills them-
selves, but only draws it lightly over the swarms of insects which will issue forth, alarmed by his
attack. ' It seems almost incredible,' says D'Azara, ' that so robust and powerful an animal can pro-
cure sufficient sustenance from Ants alone ; but this circumstance has nothing strange in it to those
who are acquainted with the tropical parts of America, and who have seen the enormous multitudes of
these insects, which swarm in all parts of the country to that degree that their hills often almost touch
one another for miles together.' The same author informs us that domestic Ant-Bears were
occasionally kept by different persons in Paraguay, and that they had even been sent alive to Spain,
being fed upon bread-and-milk mixed with morsels of flesh minced very small. Like all animals which

* Myrmecophaga jubata.

THE GREAT ANT-BEAR.

177

GREAT ANT-BEAR.

live upon insects, they are capable of sustaining a total deprivation of nourishment for an almost
incredible time."

The Great Ant-Bear is found in all the warm and tropical parts of South America, from Colombia
to Paraguay, and from the shores of the Atlantic to the foot of the Andes. His favourite resorts
are the low, swampy savannahs, along the banks of rivers and stagnant ponds. He is found also
frequenting the humid forests, but never climbing trees, as falsely reported by Buffon, on the
authority of La Borde. His pace is slow, heavy, and hesitating ; his head is carried low, as if
he smelled the ground at every step, whilst his long, shaggy tail, drooping behind him, sweeps the
ground on each side, and readily indicates his path to the hunter ; though, when hard pressed, he
increases his pace to a slow gallop, yet his greatest velocity never half equals the ordinary run-
ning of a man. So great is his stupidity, that those who encounter him in the woods or plains
may drive him before them by merely pushing him with a stick, so long, at least, as he is not
compelled to proceed beyond a moderate gallop ; but if pressed too hard, or urged to extremity, he
turns obstinate, sits up on his hind quarters like a Bear, and defends himself with his powerful claws.
Like that animal, his usual, and indeed only, mode of assault is by seizing his adversary with his fore
paws, wrapping his arms round him, and endeavouring by this means to squeeze him to death. His
great strength and powerful muscles would easily enable him to accomplish his purpose in this respect,
even against the largest animals of his native forests, were it but guided by ordinary intelligence,
or accompanied with a common degree of activity. But in these qualities there are few animals,
indeed, which do not greatly surpass the Ant-Bear, so that the different stories handed down by
writers on natural history from one to another, and copied, without question, into the histories and
descriptions of this animal, may be regarded as pure fiction. For this statement we have the express
authority of Don Felix d'Azara, an excellent observer and credible writer, from whose "Natural

178 NATURAL HISTORY.

History of the Quadrupeds of Paraguay " we have derived the greater portion of the preceding account
of the habits and economy of this extraordinary animal. " It is supposed," says Don Felix, " that the
Jaguar himself dares not attack the Ant-Bear, and that if, pressed by hunger, or under some other
excitement, he does so, the Ant-Bear hugs him and embraces him so tightly, as very soon to deprive
him of life, not even relaxing his hold for hours after life has been extinguished by his assailant. It
is very certain that such is the manner in which the Ant-eater defends himself ; but it is not to be
believed that his utmost efforts could prevail against the Jaguar, which, by a single bite or blow of
his paw, could kill the Ant-eater before he was prepared for resistance ; for even in so extreme a case,
his motions are so slow and so heavy, that he takes some time to get himself ready, and besides being
unable to leap, or to turn with even ordinary rapidity, he is necessarily forced to act solely on the
defensive." The flesh of the Ant-eater is esteemed a delicacy by the Indians and negro slaves, and,
though black, and of a strong musky flavour, is sometimes even met with at the tables of Europeans.

This large Ant-eater, grey in colour, with a black-coloured throat and a triangular spot, black in
tint, ascending obliquely over each shoulder, has four claws on the fore limb and five on the hinder
extremity. The claws are grooved underneath, and are not split or foi-ked as in the Manis, and they,
and especially the great middle claw, are protected by an expansion of bone from the last joint of the
digits, or toes. This envelopes the base of the claw, except quite underneath, leaving the tip free
to perform its office without endangering the tender base. The tips are protected, moreover, in the
fore limbs by the position assumed during standing and walking, for they are then turned in and
do not touch the ground ; but this is not the case in the feet, for the Great Ant-Bears rest on their soles.
Without teeth, and having an incomplete arch of bone between the cheek and ear bones, they possess
a long palate, so long, indeed, that when the long nose cavity opens into the throat in the skeleton
certain bones called pterygoid, or wing-shaped, form part of its boundary. This is unusual amongst the
Mammalia, and Huxley observes that it is only found in some of the Whale tribe (Getacea). Moreover,
it is not noticed in any other vertebrate animals except the Crocodiles. The skull is very IOAV and
long, and the framework of the tongue is as important as that of the jaws. This kind of Ant-eater
has imperfect collar bones. As in the other Ant-eaters there is in this one a very muscular condition
of the right side of the stomach.*

THE TAMANDUA.f

The Tamaiidua is much smaller than the Great Ant-eater, and is, were it not for its long snout
and tail, somewhat like a Sloth. It is nearly as large as one of these animals, and has -a long head, small
rounded ears, and small mouth. The body, some two feet in length, is rather short, and is covered
with short, silky, or woolly shining hair, of almost uniform length. The fore limbs are very stout,
especially above the elbow, and the hind ones rest on the rather long sole. The tail is about
a foot and a half in length ; it is stout- at its root, and round and tapering to the blunt end, is
minutely scaled, and covered in some places with short hairs. The fore claws are bent on the hand,
and the animal walks on their outer and upper surface, using them also to clasp and to hang on in
climbing. The tail is more or less prehensile. The colour of the hair and the markings varies much
in the species, and in captivity the rusty straw-colour of the body becomes whiter ; but there is a
line of black on the upper part of the chest reaching over the shoulders and between them and the neck
on to the back, and also several black patches over the tail and on the flanks.

The Tamandua is an inhabitant of the thick primeval forests of tropical America, and lives in
Brazil and Paraguay. It is rarely found on the ground, but resides almost exclusively on trees, where
it lives upon termites, honey, and even, according to the report of D'Azara, bees, which in those
countries form their hives among the loftiest branches of the forest, and, having no sting, are more
readily despoiled of their honey than their congeners of Great Britain. When about to sleep, it
hides its muzzle in the fur of its breast, falls on its belly, letting its fore feet hang down on each side,
and wrapping the whole tightly round with its tail. The female, as in the case of the Great Ant-eater,
has but two pectoral mammae, and produces but a single cub at a birth, which she carries about with

* It is certainly remarkable that the brain of this animal should present numerous convolutions, whilst the brain of the
Sloth has barely any. The commissures of the brain are large, especially that of the centre, or corpus callosum, and also
the anterior. The uterus is simple, the os is double, and the placenta is said to be discoidal.

t Tamandua tetradactyla.

THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER. 179

her on her shoulders for the first three or four months. The young are at first exceedingly deformed
and ugly, and of an uniform straw-colour.

The animal is called Cagouare by the Guaranis, on account of the noxious and infected vapours
of the forests in which alone it is found, the word literally signifying, in the language of those Indians,
"the inhabitants of a stinking wood or marsh." Such at least is D'Azara's interpretation of the term,
though it appears more probable that it may refer to the strong disagreeable odour of the animal itself,
which, this very author informs us, is so powerful that it may be perceived at a very great distance,
particularly when the animal is irritated. Tamandua is the name by which it is known to the
Portuguese of Brazil ; the French and the English call it Fourmilier and Little Ant-Bear.

THE TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.*

These little animals appear, at first sight, to resemble Sloths with tails; and their round
heads, furry bodies, and two claws on the fore limb, add to the resemblance. They are essentially
arboreal animals also, but they have long and useful tails, and live on insects. They hunt their insect
prey in the forests of Costa Rica, Honduras, and Brazil. Their two-clawed hands are remarkable, for
the rudiments of the thumb and little finger are hidden beneath the skin, and the claws are placed
on the first and second digits. The third digit has no claw. There are four claws on the feet, so that
in this arrangement the animal is peculiar amongst the Ant-eaters. It is not larger than a common
Squirrel, and the general shape of the body is like that of a Tamandua on a small scale. Its whole
length, from the snout to the origin of the tail, is but six inches, and of the tail, seven inches and a
quarter. This is consequently rather longer than the body; it is- thick at the root, and covered
with short fur, but tapers suddenly towards the point, where it is naked and strongly prehensile.
The muzzle is not so long, in proportion, as in the other two species ; the tongue also is shorter, and
has a flatter form ; the mouth opens further back in the jaws, and has a much larger gape, the eye
being situated close to its posterior angle ; the ears are short, rather drooping, and concealed among
the long fur which covers the head and cheeks ; the legs are short and stout ; and the hair, very soft
and fine to the touch, is three-quarters of an inch in length on the body, but much shorter on the head,
legs, and tail. The general colour is that of straw, more or less tinged with maroon on the shoulders,
and particularly along the median line of the back, which usually exhibits a deep line of this shade.
The feet and tail are grey.

This species is said to have four mammae, two pectoral, as in those already described, and two
others on the abdomen. It is reported, nevertheless, to have but a single cub at birth, which it
conceals in the hollow of some decayed tree. The habits and manners of this little animal, hitherto
very imperfectly known to naturalists, are well described by Von Sach, in his "Narrative of a
Voyage to Surinam."

"I have had two little Ant-eaters, or Fourmiliers, which were not larger than a Squirrel.
One was of a bright-yellow colour, with a brown stripe on the back, the other was a silvery-
grey, and darker on the back. The hair of each was very soft and silky, a little crisped ; the
head was small and round, the nose long, gradually bending downwards to a point ; it had no
teeth, but a very long round tongue: the eyes were very small, round, and black; the legs rather
short ; the fore-feet had only two claws on each, the exterior being much larger and stronger
than the interior, which exactly filled the curve or hollow of the large one ; the hind feet had
four claws of a moderate size ; the tail was prehensile, longer than the body, thick at the base
and tapering to the end, which, for some inches on the under side, was bare. This little animal
is called in Surinam ' Kissing-hand,' as the inhabitants pretend that it will never eat, at least when
caught, but that it only licks its paws, in the same manner as the Bear ; that all trials to make
it eat have proved in vain, and that it soon dies in confinement. When I got the first, I sent to
the forest for a nest of Ants, and during the interim I put into its cage some eggs, honey, milk, and
meat ; but it refused to touch any of them. At length the Ants' nest arrived, but the animal did not
pay the slighest attention to it either. By the shape of its fore-paws, which resemble nippers, and
differ very much from those of all the other different species of Ant-eaters, I thought that this little
creature might perhaps live on the nymphse of Wasps, &c. I therefore brought it a Wasps' nest, and

* Cyclothurus didactylus.

180

NATURAL HISTORY.

then it pulled out, with its nippers, the nymphse from the nest, and began to eat them with the greatest
eagerness, sitting in the posture of a Squirrel. I showed this phenomenon to many of the inhabitants,
who all assured me that it was the first time they had ever known that species of animal take any
nourishment. The Ants which I tried it with were the large white termites upon which fowls are fed
here. As the natural history of this pretty little animal is not much known, I thought of trying
if they would breed in a cage ; but when I returned from my excursion into the country I found
them both dead, perhaps occasioned by the trouble given to procure the Wasps' nest for them, though
they are here very plentiful; wherefore I can give no further description of them, than that they slept

TWO-TOED ANT-EATER.

all the day long, curled together, and fastened by their prehensile tails to one of the perches of the
cage. When touched they erected themselves on their hind legs, and struck with the fore-paws at the
object which disturbed them, like the hammer of a clock striking the bell, with both paws at the same
time, and with a great deal of strength. They never attempted to run away, but were always ready
for defence when attacked. As soon as evening came, they awoke, and with the greatest activity
walked on the wire of the cage, though they never jumped, nor did I ever hear their voice."

All these Ant-eaters have great glands (sub-maxillary) for the purpose of secreting the sticky
saliva, and the tongue is most movable, and wriggles like an eel in feeding on milk. The Little
Ant-eater has a rete mirabile of blood-vessels.

Another Cyclothurus lives in Costa Rica, which is golden-yellow in colour, and silky in its hair.
It has a broad black stripe on the back.

TEE ARMADILLOS. 181

CHAPTER III.

THE ARMADILLO FAMILY.

The Armour-plates — How the Shields are formed — Their connection with the Body — Description of the Animals — Mode of
Walking — Diet — Skeleton — Adaptation of their Limbs for Burrowing— Classification — THE GREAT ARMADILLO —
Appearance— Great Burrower — THE TATOUAY— THE POYOU, OH YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO — THE PELUDO, OR
HAIRY ARMADILLO — THE PICHIY — THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOO — THE MULE ARMADILLO — THE BALL ARMADILLO —
Dr. Murie's Account of its Habits— Description— The Muscles by which it Rolls itself up and Unrolls itself — THE
PICHICIAGO — Concluding Remarks : Classification of the Order, Fossil Edentates, the Allied Species of Manis in South
Africa and Hindostan.

THESE South American animals are more or less covered with a hard bony crust, separated into
shields and bands, which are more or less movable, owing to the presence of special skin-muscles.
In the most perfectly ai-moured there are four distinct shields and a set of bands, a certain
amount of motion being possible between their edges. Of the shields, one covers the head, another
the back of the neck, a third protects the shoulders like a great cape, and the fourth arches
over the rump like a half dome, and is, in some, attached by its deep structure to the bones of
the hip and haunch. The movable bands cover the back and loins, and are between the third
and fourth shields. The tail may further be invested by incomplete bony rings, and scattered
scales, and others are distributed over the limbs. This covering is, according to Professor Huxley,
strictly comparable to part of the armour of the Crocodile ; and the Armadillos are the only
Mammals possessing such structure. The shields and bands are formed of many scales, or scutes,
which are ossifications of the skin, and they may be of many kinds of shape — four, or many-sided —
being united by sutures, and they are incapable of separate motion. The shields and bands, however,
vary much in their number, size, and perfectness in the different animals, which, being armoured, the
Spaniards called Armadillos ; and, indeed, the number of bands in the back and loin division varies in
individuals of the same species. These bands cover the flanks, and, with the shields fore and aft,
protect the limbs, which are often more or less hidden by a growth of hair. The bands, moreover, by
being movable one on the other, enable the rest of the armour to accommodate itself to the motions
of the body, so that some roll themselves up, as in a ball shape. There may be few or many bands
present, and the extreme numbers are three and thirteen. The Armadillos are of different sizes, and
whilst the smallest may be only ten inches in length without the tail, the largest are more than three feet
long. The head is long, and broad at the neck, the ears are usually long, the neck is short, the body is
long, round, and low, and the length of tail varies much in different kinds. Where the head shield
joins that of the shoulders, there is a space for the movement of the short neck ; but this is protected
by a backward projection from the head shield. The throat, under parts, and thighs are not pro-
tected by armour, except here and there by small plates in the skin, or by a granulated state of it ; and
they are naked or hairy. Even between the bands on the back there are often long hairs, and the
tail fits into a kind of notch in the last shield of the body, and its plates are close in almost all Arma-
dillos, but not united. So that much more motion is given to it and to the body than might be
expected by the muscles during their action beneath the more or less soldered bony skin. The flat top
to the head, and the long muzzle, are useful to the Armadillos in their burrowing, and this is assisted
by short and strong limbs armed with powerful claws. Some of the Armadillos are even capable of
running with some speed ; and the little Six-banded Armadillo, or
Poyou, and the Matico, are very restless and active in captivity.
With one exception, these animals move with the flat of their feet
and hands on the ground ; all have five hind claws, but there is
some variation in the number of the fore claws, which may be
four or five. They have simple cylindrical molar teeth, which,
according to the species, are from seven or eight to twentv-five

, . , ,, . . BOXES OF CLAW OF GREAT ARMADILLO.

on each side of each jaw, and they are separate, standing apart

from one another. Moreover, they are so arranged that when the mouth is closed, the upper
teeth fit into the spaces between the under ones, and the under teeth into those of the upper, so that
their grinding surfaces wear down into ridges. In one kind, there are some teeth in the pre-maxillary
118

182

NATURAL HISTORY.

bones ; but all the others have only molar teeth, which do not, however, go very far back, for there are
none on the ascending ratnus of the lower jaw. They are not, therefore, animals which prey upon
their fellows, but are vegetable, insect, and probably carrion eaters. They dig and burrow, and their
sense of smell is acute. This is assisted by the position of the nostrils in the long muzzle, for they
are not at its tip, but rather underneath, so that they open downwards. In fact, the ends of the
bones of the nose project in front of the pre-maxillary bones. The armour is doubtless useful against
the attacks of their many carnivorous and reptile enemies ; it assists them in burrowing, keeps off
pressxire, and may protect those which live in forests against a falling bough. They are passive
creatures, mostly nocturnal in their habits, and their skeleton is strengthened in some parts in relation
to its armour and its office.

Thus the spine of the second vertebra is tall and compressed, and reaches backwards over those of

SKELETON OF THE ARMADILLO.

the third and fourth vertebrae, and it coalesces with them. The bodies of these vertebrae also join more
or less solidly, and there are no (or very minute) spines on the last three cervical vertebrae. This gives
a strange appearance to the skeleton, which is increased by the length of the spine of the first vertebra
of the back (dorsal). In order to support the back shield, the projections from the back bones are
greatly developed, and two side processes stand out on either side of the spinous one. Moreover, there
is much fixity between the last dorsal and lumbar vertebrae, and the strong and long sacrum beneath
the last shield is formed by the junction of the back bones of the root of the tail with the true sacral
vertebrae. Finally, the transverse processes of some of the upper tail vertebrae are united to the pelvic
bones. There is a corresponding strengthening of the chest, and a broad flat first rib accompanies an
expanded condition of the upper part of the breast bone ; and this bone is jointed with bony sternal
ribs, which unite on the side of the chest with the ordinary ribs of the spine.

As they are rapid burrowers, the limbs are fashioned with a view of favouring this kind of
life, the general skeletal peculiarities of the Edentata being more or less preserved at the same time.
They have a collar bone, and the blade bone is long, rather narrow, and has a tall, long spine, and a
kind of offshoot from the back edge. The humerus of the arm is short and robust, strongly marked
by ridges and depressions for the great muscles of the shoulder and chest, and the fore-arm is charac-
terised by the disproportionate size of its two bones. The ulna has a very long and stout elbow
process (olecranon) for the attachment of the mxiscles, which can force the hand strongly on to and into
the earth, and drag it out, and its length makes the whole bone twice as long as the radius. The

thigh bone has a strong crest, arising from the great trochanter,
and extending downwards neai'ly the whole length of the bone ;
moreover, the great trochanter has a large process on the
middle of its outer edge. The bones of the leg are broad,
arched, and united at both ends, and the heel bone reaches
far back, in order to give strength to the squatting position
SKULL or THE ARMADILLO. taken up when the animal is burrowing. The eye is placed

rather high in the head, is protected above by the outer edge of

the head armour, and by some small surrounding scales. It looks as a rule outwards. The lower jaw is
long, and has a back angle, sometimes of some size j the cheek bone unites to the temporal bone, and

THE GREAT ARMADILLO.

183

GREAT ARMADILLO.

the arch is complete. In the face the intermaxillary bone is well developed, and there is often a
crest of bone passing over the top of the skull from side to side over the occiput, which is in relation
to the head armour. The brain is small ; the back or little brain is not covered by the brain proper,
whose convolutions and processes are few and simple. The olfactory lobes project.

These armoured, round-bodied, short-legged, great-clawed animals are
mimerous, and there are several species, which need not, however, be collected
into more than two genera. But it is by no means easy to arrange those of
the first genus — the True Armadillos, genus Dasypus — in any other than an
arbitrary and very artificial classification. Usually they are grouped and sepa-
rated by the relative number of digits or claws on the fore and hinder extremi-
ties ; by the presence or absence of teeth in the intermaxillary bones ; by their
ability to roll up ; and by the excessive or the small number of their teeth. The
method of walking, whether on the sole or on the tips of the claws, and the
number of the bands, have been partly employed in classification, but their
number is often variable in individuals of the same species.

The Priodontes have but one species, which is readily distinguished by its
superior size, besides by its great number of teeth, of which there are from
twenty-two to twenty-four small ones on each jaw on each side, making from
eighty- eight to ninety-six in all.

THE GREAT ARMADILLO.*

This is an inhabitant of Brazil, and of the northern parts of Paraguay and of Surinam, and is
a dweller in the forest, being never found far out on the plains. The head is seven inches and a half
long, and the ears, usually pointed and laid backwards, are not quite two inches in length. The head
and body, without the tail, measure three feet and some inches, whilst the thickly-rooted but rapidly-

* Dasypus gigas (Cuvier).

BRAIN OF THE
ARMADILLO.

184 NATURAL HISTORY.

tapering tail is about a foot and a half in length. Hence the head is small for the body in this
Armadillo, and the forehead is protuberant, and the face is very tubular and cylindrical-looking. The
shoulder and crovip shields are not expanded and solid, but consist of nine and eighteen rows of
plates respectively, and the intermediate part of the body has twelve or thirteen movable bands, each
of which is made up of rectangular scales, or scutes, about half an inch square. The circumference of
the root of the tail is upwards of ten inches, and the organ is covered with plates, disposed in rings at
the root, and not farther down, but forming spiral or crescent-shaped lines throughout the rest of its
length.

The Great Armadillo is a persevering and most rapid burrower, and the fore limb and
hand are singularly modified for the purpose of enabling rapid digging and removal of the soil.
The olecranon process of the ulna is enormous, and the muscle of the deep flexor or tendon of
the claws is ossified and turned into a hand bone. The metacarpal bones of the thumb and first
finger are small, and so are the slender digits, but that of the middle finger is irregularly rect-
angular, and is broader than long, and the digit which it supports is extraordinarily short, stout,
strong, and broad. Its corresponding bones of the fourth finger are similarly formed, but are
somewhat smaller, and the fifth finger is very small. The nail phalanx of the middle finger is
large and strong, being curved outwards, and having a large horny hood, or core, at its base, for
the lodgment of the claw. There are five claws on the hands and feet, and the Armadillo
moves on the flat of its feet, being plantigrade. There is no doubt that, aided by these digging
weapons, and being of considerable stoutness, the animal makes long and deep burrows. It feeds
on roots, fallen fruit, and insects, and there is a story that it seeks carrion, and it used to be said
that the collectors of Cinchona bark in the dense forests, when they lost a companion by death, were
obliged to bury the body in a grave surrounded with a double row of stout planks, to prevent its being
scratched up and devoured by the Great Armadillo. Planks must be scarce, however, in those
localities, and difficult to carry ; and probably there are other inhabitants of the woods besides the
Armadillos which would discover and drag out a corpse. To assist the scratching and digging, the
soles of the feet are partly covered with flat scales.

The Kabassous have the fore and hind extremities furnished with an equal number of (five) fingers
and toes respectively, but the number of teeth is, altogether, from thirty to forty.

THE TATOUAY.*

This Kabassou has the five fingers disposed obliquely ; and the great middle and fourth claws
resemble those of the gigantic Armadillo. It is named in allusion to its tail, which is more or less
naked, and nearly uncovered with rings or plates, so that it has not the usual tube-like protection, or
beautifully ornamented crust seen in some Armadillos. The tail is about seven inches and a half long,
and is round and pointed, having only a few hard crusts beneath, near the outer third, where it often
trails on the ground. The rest of its root is covered with soft brown fur, interspersed with a few stiff
short hairs on the upper surface. The ears are large, being nearly two inches in length, and they form
a segment of a circle in figure. The body is round, and the shields of the shoulder and croup have
seven and ten rows of scales respectively, each scale forming an oblong rectangle, those near the root
of the tail being the largest. The movable bands are thirteen in number, and are composed of much
smaller scales than those of the shields, and they have a nearly square outline. The head is long and
larger in proportion than that of the Great Armadillo, and it has not the very cylindi-ical appearance
noticed in that and some other species. The arrangement of the claws resembles that of the Great
Armadillo, whose they almost equal in size. The female has two pectoral mammae.

It inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, Paraguay, and Surinam, and but little is known of the habits of
these Armadillos. They burrow easily and rapidly, and their great claws enable them to grasp the
earth, and fix themselves so thoroughly that a great amount of exertion is required to pull them out
of a burrow. They live on insects and on vegetable matters.

The Encouberts of Cuvier have five toes on the fore and hinder extremities, and nine or ten teeth

* Dasypus Tabouay (Desmarest).

THE YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO.

185

on each side of the jaws, and there are two teeth in the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw,
representing the incisor teeth of ordinary Mammals, and thus forming an exception, not only to the
other Armadillos, but even to the order of Edentata, as represented in the recent period.

THE POYOU, OE YELLOW-FOOTED ARMADILLO.*

This little Armadillo, which in captivity and in the natural state is remarkable for its boldness
and restlessness, is a native of Brazil and especially of Paraguay, where it is common. It has a large,
flat, nearly triangular top to its head, the face is short, the muzzle obtuse, and the ears erect and of
moderate size. It has sharp little eyes. It measures about sixteen inches from the nose to the tail,
and this is about seven or eight inches long. The number of movable bands is often six, but this is
not the invariable number, for there may be seven or eight. The tail is surrounded, at its base, with
three or four bony rings, and throughout the rest of its length is nearly covered with regular tuberculous

scales, the separations between the bands showing some long bristly grey hairs. The body is flat and
broad, and has short legs, and the creature runs with a very active and determined gait. It is a sti^ong
little thing, and it is said that when it is chased, it will often get away from a man by sheer speed and
activity. When, any noise is made at the entrance of its burrow, or if it is teased by spectators around
its cage, it comes forth and grunts like a Pig, and looks at the disturber with a bold inquiring look.
When it is attacked it is powerless, and seems incapable of making any defence, but it retreats to its
burrow, and getting to the bottom of it, digs deeper still. Its power of burrowing does not seem to
be much diminished by the limited rotation of the fore-arm, to which there is no pronator quadratus,
but a well- developed pronator teres.

The Poyou feeds much on carrion, and for this reason its flesh, though fat, is never eaten by the
inhabitants of European origin, though the Indians make no distinction in this respect between it and
other Armadillos. When it stops or rests, it has a custom of squatting close to the ground like a Hare
on her form, and in this position the great breadth of the body becomes apparent.

The hinder shield has two hairs on the hinder side of each of its dorsal scales, and the under part
of the body has scattered bristles on it. The female has two pectoral mammae.

* Dasypus sexcintus (Linn. ).

186 NATURAL HISTORY.

The next two Armadillos to be noticed were formerly included in the same group as the Poyou,
but as they have not the incisor teeth on the intermaxillary bones, they are placed in the sub-division
Euphractes.

THE PELUDO, OR HAIRY ARMADILLO.*

The long, silky, half bristly, abundant black hairs of this little Armadillo are the principal
characteristics, which separate it, so far as its external construction is concerned, from the Poyou just
noticed. It is smaller, however, the head measuring nearly four inches in length, and the whole
body about two inches less than Dasypus sexcintus. The ears are long, large, and elliptical, and are
pointed outwards, and the muzzle is broad. The forehead is broad and covered with rugged
scales. The bands are six or seven in number, and the border of the shield, as well as that of the
movable bands below, is indented in a remarkable manner, and forms sharp, regular points. There
are eight teeth on each side, above and below, and the body, hairy as it is, is much scaled in-
teriorly and on the limbs. The tail is long and slender, and only hairy at the root. This species
does not inhabit Paraguay, nor probably is it found in the Brazils, but it exists in multitudes in the
Pampas north of the Rio Plata, and Mr. Darwin noticed it in Chili. Its habits, according to that
most accurate observer, are nocturnal, but D'Azara, to whom natural history owes very careful descrip-
tions, states that " in an expedition which I made into the interior, between the parallels of 35" and
36° south latitude, I met with vast multitudes of this species of Armadillo, so that there was scarcely
an individual of the party who did not daily capture one or two at least ; for, unlike the Poyou, which
moves abroad only at night, this animal is to be found at all times, and if alarmed, promptly con-
ceals himself, if not intercepted. In March and April, when I saw them, they were so extremely fat
that their flesh surfeited and palled the appetite ; notwithstanding which, the pioneers and soldiers ate
them roasted, and preferred them to beef and veal. This Hairy Armadillo, like others of the genus,
has undoubtedly a very acute sense of smell, since it scents the carcases of dead Horses from
a great distance, and runs to devour them ; but as it is unable to penetrate the hide, it burrows
under the body until it finds a place which the moisture of the soil has already begun to render
soft and puti-id. Here it makes an entrance with its claws, and eats its way into the interior,
where it continues feasting on the putrid flesh, till nothing remains but the hide and bones, and
so perfectly do these preserve their position, that it is impossible, from a mere external view, to
anticipate the operations which the Armadillos have been carrying on within." The same author
states that this species never constructs burrows to reside in, that it avoids low, damp situations, and
is found only on the dry upland plains. Probably there is more than one Hairy Armadillo.

THE PICHIY.t

This little Armadillo is only fourteen inches long, tail included ; its scaling is very handsome, and
there are six or seven bands according to the individual and age. The head is covered with close scales,
which are elliptical behind, and concealed under the others in front, and the whole top has a triangular
outline, hiding the eye much. The scales on the front shield are large, and are hexagonal or pentagonal,
and the croup shield has the angular endings noticed in the last species. The scales of the bands and
of the shields generally are beautifully ornamented with lines, depressions, and little tubercles, which
are more or less concentric. There is some hair on the long neck, and on the legs and tail. The five
digits and claws on the fore limbs are moderately developed, for the thumb is very small, and the fourth
finger only a little longer. But the index is long, with a short claw, and the second has a stouter and
longer claw, and the third is shorter. It has a slender snout and small ears.

Mr. Darwin writes that it "prefers a very dry soil and the sandy dunes of the coast of Chili, where
for many months it can never taste water. In soft soil, the animal burrows so quickly that its hind
quarters would almost disappear before one could alight from one's horse." It also inhabits the Pampas
to the south of Buenos Ayres, and extends from 36° lat. southward to the confines of Patagonia. It
inhabits burrows, to which, however, it does not confine itself during the day. Its flesh is said to be
remarkably tender and well tasting. It is a hardy species, and can live in the dreary solitudes of Port
Desire on the east coast.

* Dasypus villosus (Desmarest). f Dasypus minutus (Desmarest).

THE BALL ARMADILLO. 187

The Cachicames, another group of Armadillos, were so called after the Indian name for a black
kind, which has a very long tail, and which is the type of it.

The two kinds included in the group have four fingers, and five toes, which ave separate, and the
backs of the feet are round and covered with scales. The claws are conical, and the animal walks, as
it were, on the toes more than on the sole, being thus digitigrade. The teeth number about eight on
each side above and below.

THE PEBA, OR BLACK TATOU.*

This Armadillo has a very wide geographical range, extending from Texas, through Central
America to Guiana, Brazil, and Paraguay, and a variety called Dasypus Kappleri inhabits Surinam.
It has great ears, which are long and placed very close together, and the muzzle at the end of the long,
tapering face is not unlike that of the snout of a Hog in shape. The head is small, long, and straight,
but the mouth is large. There are eight teeth on both sides of both jaws. The body is hairy below
the shields and bands, which are largely developed. Then the neck and shoulder shield extends far
back and comes as low as the elbow, and is composed of numerous scales disposed in many concen-
tric rings, having the concavity in front, the first embracing the neck in its curve. The croup shield
extends from the back to the origin of the tail, and reaches as low as the knees, and the concavity of
its rings is turned towards the rear, the last embracing the tail. These scales are hexagons. Between
the shields the bands are marked with zigzag lines forming very acute angles, and in some degree
gliding over one another according to the movements of the animal. Out of fourteen specimens,
two had six, one had seven, seven had eight, and there were four with nine bands ; the full-
grown ones have the greatest number. The head shield descends from the ears to the muzzle, and
covers the cheeks as far down as the eyes, and there are small, interspersed, detached scales over
the throat, the under jaw, the legs, and feet. The body is sixteen inches long, and the tail is
nearly as long — fourteen inches — and is stout at the root. One variety of the species has some of the
rings of the tail soldered into a case, which is used as a horn by the Indians. It is a timid,
nocturnal animal, tolerably swift-footed and very expert in bun-owing. It is never found in the
woods, but delights in the open plains and cultivated fields, and is much hunted on account of
the delicacy of the flesh, which, when roasted in the shell, is fat, and something better than
Sucking-pig in taste. These long-tailed Armadillos bury garbage and flesh in their burrows, and
eat it at their leisure.

Another species of this group is the Mule Armadillo (Dasypus kybridus, Desmarest), which has
long, straight ears and a short tail. It roams farther north than the other kind, and is common
on the Pampas, and is not nocturnal, nor does it burrow very easily. The female has from eight
to twelve young at a birth, and the individuals of a litter are often of one sex.

The Armadillos of all kinds, it is said, only have one litter a year, and then the young are
numerous, but the mother has never more than four teats, and many have only two.

The last group of the Armadillos, the Tolypeutes, contains some remarkable species, which have
the power of rolling themselves up as in a ball-shape, and they walk in a most extraordinary manner
on the tip of long and powerful front claws, and also on the flat and tip of the hind ones.

THE BALL ARMADILLO.f

This is a small and very beautifully ornamented Armadillo, which has three free central
bands and a short tail, with large fore and aft shields. It rolls itself up on the slightest alarm,
so that the great shoulder and croup shields meet, the head and tail fitting in exactly, in front, so as
to close up the body very safely. The little animal, which is rarely more than fifteen inches long,
.and has a tail of a couple of inches in length, is found in Brazil, Paraguay, and Buenos Ayres,
and its walking on the long, stout claws of the fore legs gives it a very curious and unsteady
appearance.

It is an active, sprightly, light-footed little thing, according to Dr. Murie, and is constantly on
the move, going here and there with much vivacity. Poising itself on tiptoe, it trots backwards and
forwards as if on some urgent errand. In captivity the food was raw meat, boiled eggs, and bread-
* Dasypus Peba (Desmarest). f Dasi/pus (Tolypeutes) apar (Geoffrey).

188

NATURAL HISTORY.

BALL AKMADILLO.

and-milk. In the forest land, where it dwells along with its fellow armoured creatures, it has the
advantage of being able to curl itself up, and to present no tangible part of its body to the host of
mischievous Monkeys of its locality. The other Armadillos, when retiring to their holes, are often set
upon by their lively quadrumanous neighbours, and are dragged out by the tail with great gusto ; but
the little Tolypeutes curls himself up and laughs at the disappointed Monkeys, who can find nothing
to pull at about him.

The shoulder shield comes down like a flap, far in front, and the croup extends behind in the
same way, and they and the bands have large scales, which are very pretty in shape and ornament.
The shields are very stout, and so is the skeleton within. The fore foot has three large clawed
toes, on the tips of which the animal walks. The thumb of the fore extremity is to be seen in the
skeleton, but is not always visible in the skin, and it is very small and high up ; the index is long,
and the claw also, and it is slightly bent, but sharp at the tip. The next claw is the largest and
longest, and has a cutting edge at the back and outer part, and the point is sharp. The next digit is
smaller. In the hind foot there are five toes, one being high up and rudimentary, and the second and
third having broad, flat, curved, short nails, the third being the greatest. The fourth nail is smaller,
and they are all placed more or less flatly on the ground.

The shell of this Armadillo is blackish-brown, and the skin between the central bands is bald and
smooth. There are nine back teeth on each side in both jaws, and there are none in front. The
muscles which enable this Armadillo to bring its tail and nose together and to form a ball shape, are
not simply expansions of the common muscular tissue, which exists deeply in the skin in so many
animals, but are special structures. The most important are in relation to the position of the head, neck
limbs, tail, and the shields and bands, when the body is about to be and while it is being rolled up ; and
these roller-up muscles are so arranged as to permit of the large liver and other internal organs not
suffering pressure during their natural or temporary displacement. On the other hand, the unrollers
act when the body and bones are in the rolled- up condition. The muscles of the back are very
tendinous, and to a degree they unroll the animal, but this is also performed by muscles which are
attached underneath the first movable band of armour, and to the front part of the spine of the blade

THE PICHICIAGO.

189

bone ; this will tend, when it contracts, to pull out the legs and protrude the fore part of the body, the
centre being still rigid. Another drawer-back of the bladebone assists in this action, and it is inserted
into the front or chest shield. The rolling up is done by the action of muscles which draw the nose
down, so as to make the long head at right angles to the neck ; then the fore-legs and bladebones
are drawn in and up. At the same time, the muscles which pull down the tail act on the hind shield,
and draw it down and forwards. The legs are pulled up, and then a great muscle, which is largely
attached to the front and hind shields, and has a tendon-like expansion in the middle of its course
beneath the movable bands, contracts and pulls front and stern together. The muscles of the loins,
which in jumping animals bring the spine to a curve, do not act, and indeed are excessively small.
The chief bend in the back is between the second and third lumbar vertebrae. (Murie.)

GENUS CHLAMYDOPHORUS.-THE PICHICIAGO.*

This is an Edentate animal, resembling the Armadillos more than any others, and is about six
inches in length. It has a conical-shaped head, a large full chest, short clumsy powerful fore limbs,

PICHICIAGO.

with four great nails rising gradually one above the other, the external shortest, and broadest ; and
the whole so arranged as to form a sharp-cutting instrument, rather scooped, and veiy convenient for
progression under ground. The back and croup are broad and high, and the tail is small. The hind legs
are weak and short, the feet being long and narrow, and there is a well-defined heel. The foot is
arched, the toes are separate, and the nails are strong. The whole surface of the body is covered with
fine silk-like hair, which covers over the limbs on to the palms. But the most striking peculiarity is the
long-banded shell, which is loose as it were throughout, being attached to the back immediately above
the spine by cellular tissue. It rests on two knobs on the frontal bones, and these are the great attach-
ments of this important covering. There are twenty-four bands and no separate shields, and their
consistence is somewhat more dense than leather of the same thickness. They are composed of
scales or plates of geometrical form, and the bands are separated by skin. There is a notch in the
last band for the tail, and the free inferior edges of the bands are everywhere fringed with silky hair.
This elongated band structure is moved, to a certain extent, by two broad thin muscles, which are
beneath it, on the back, and each of which divides, on approaching the shoulder, into two portions, one
being attached to the bladebone, and the other to the occiput.

The ear is hidden by hair, and is small ; so also is the eye, which is black. The nostrils open

downwards, at the inferior border of a large cartilage. The mouth is small, and there are eight teeth

on both sides in both jaws. They are simple molars, and are separate and cylindrical. The head

is large behind, and the jaws come almost to a point, and the lower has a long ascending ramus. A

•,Q * Chla,mydophorus truncatus (Harlan).

190 NATURAL HISTORY.

great passage for the spinal cord, and the two processes on the frontal bone, add to the curious
appearance of this " bumpy " skull. The pelvis is remarkable in its structure, and is open in front.

Some of these animals have the bands of the armour not attached, as has been mentioned,
to the muscles of the back and to the head, but have them adherent to the skin of the back to the
edge ; and the sides and under part of the body are then covered with woolly hair. These are the
largest animals of the two, and are found in Bolivia. The others are from Mendoza and Chili
These curious animals live, partly, mole-like lives.

From what may be gleaned by reading the previous pages about the Edentates, it will appear that
the order is a very remarkable one, and that it is interesting on account of the different external
appearance of the species, their diverse modes of life, and singularly restricted localities. Evidently,
there has been much degeneration in some of the anatomical characters of many of the species, and
especially in those whose foot bones and neck vertebrae have joined more or less. The singular
resemblance which some species present, in various points of their anatomy, to the lower animals, is
very interesting, as is also their wonderful relation, in points of structure, with a number of extinct
Edentata, most of which were gigantic.

The Edentata, called also Bruta by Linnaeus, form an order, the characters of which are, that there
are teeth of one or two kinds all very similar, and often wanting. The incisors are not developed
except in one group, and the rest have either molars which are separate, and numerous and simple,
or there are none. The extremities are clawed, and the tongue is more or less elongated. The great
groups of this order are the Tardigrada, or slow movers, which have a short face, long limbs, and
small tail, and the body is covered with crisp hair; and the Effodientia, or diggers, which have long
faces and worm-like tongues, with short limbs.

The Sloths form the only family of the Tardigrada, and the Effodientia are divided into the
genera Manis, the scaly Ant-eaters ; Dasypus, the Armadillos ; Cldamydophorus, the Pichiciagos ; Oryc-
terop'tcs, the Ant-Bears ; and Myrmecophaya, the American Ant-eaters. The Sloths form three genera
— Cholcepus, Bradypus, and Arctojnthecus. Amongst the Ant-eaters, the genus Manis may stand alone.
The genus Dasypus may be divided, for the sake of convenience, into the subdivisions Priodontes,
Kabassous, Euphractes, Cachicames, and Tolypeutes. The other genera need no subdivision.

The fossil Edentata are mostly gigantic, and formerly lived in Europe and in the Americas.
The European kinds would, were they now living, belong probably to the group of Pangolins, and
they are placed in the extinct genera Pervatherium, Macrotkerium, and Ancylotherium. In the
Pliocene deposits of North America, there are large Edentates belonging to the genus Morotherium,
and the previous Miocene deposits contain Moropus. The later, or Post- Pliocene strata of North and
South America, contain species of Mylodon and Megalonyx, Megatherium, Scelidotherium, Ccelodon,
and Sphenodon ; they constitute a group of Terrestrial Sloths — the Gravigrada. In Cuba, the fossil
huge Gravigrade Sloths are of the genera Megalocnus and Myomorphus. The Armadillo group are
found fossil in South America, and the genera are Chlamydotherium, Euryodon, Heterodon, Pachy-
therium, and Schistopleuron. The modern genera are found with these, and the gigantic Armadillo-
like animal, the Glyptodon, lived contemporaneously with the others, and possessed many strange
peculiarities in its skeleton. The Ant-eaters are represented by a fossil form called Glossotherium.
The oldest Edentates of the American Continent are found in North America, unless there is a
Miocene group of them in South America, which is by no means an improbable supposition. The
European Ant-eaters now found fossil lived in the Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene ages.

With regard to the discovery of recent and closely-allied species of Manis, in South Africa and Hin-
dostan, it may be said that they are relics of the old forms of the intermediate and now sunken land,
between Eastern Africa and India, which existed before the last upheaval of the Himalayas. The evident
structural affinity between the Effodient Edentata of South America and Africa, although the genera
are different, adds to the interest of the corresponding, and in some instances greater, resemblance of
many African and South American fresh-water fish and plants. The geologist looks back in the
remote ages of the globe, when the great land sxirfaces and seas of the world were rather across the
earth than in their present longitudinal position, in order to explain this remarkable similarity.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN.

(JRKAT KANGAROO.

30

THE KANGAROOS. 191

ORDER MARSUPIALIA, MARSUPIAL OR POUCHED ANIMALS.

CHAPTER I.
SUB-OEDER MARSUPIATA.— THE KANGAROO AND WOMBAT FAMILIES.

THE GREAT KANGAROO— Captain Cook and the Great Kangaroo— Habitat— Appearance of the Animal— Marsupials separated
from the other Mammalian Orders, and why (Footnote)— Gestation and Birth of Young (Footnote)— Mode of Running
—The Short Fore Limbs— The Marsupium, or Pouch— Head— Dentition— Peculiarities in the Teeth— Hind Extremi-
ties— Foot — Great Claw— How the Erect Position is maintained — Whence their Jumping Power is derived — Other
Skeletal Peculiarities — Kangaroo Hunts — Becoming Rarer — Mode of Attack and Defence — Hands— Bones of the
Fore Limbs— Skull— Stomach— Circulation of Blood— Peculiarity in Young— Nervous System not fully developed —
Brain— The Baby Kangaroo in the Pouch— THE HARE KANGAROO— THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO— THE RED
KANGAROO— THE BRUSH KANGAROO— THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO— THE COMMON TREE KANGAROO— THE
KANGAROO-RATS- -Characteristics— THE RA:-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS— Description— THE WOMBAT FAMILY— THE
WOMBAT — Peculiarities — Description— Habits — Teeth — Skeleton.

I. THE KANGAROO FAMILY.*— THE GREAT KANGAROO.f

IN the year A.D. 1770, the great circumnavigator, Captain Cook, was on the coast of New South Wales
repairing his ship, and a party of sailors were sent on land, to procure food for the sick. They saw an
animal whose description tempted Cook himself, and also Mr. Banks (afterwards Sir Joseph Banks),
to land and go in pursuit of it the next day. The animal was seen in company with others of its
kind, and its short front limbs, great hind legs, and huge tail, and the tremendous hops it made in its
very fleet course, quite bore out the statements of the astonished crew. They had seen, for the first
time, the Great Kangaroo in its wild condition and on its own ground. Soon afterwards a specimen
was shot, and notes were made about the creature, and some skins were brought over to Europe.

The animal has now become familiar to the civilised world. It is, however, gradually receding
before the Australian colonist and squatter ; but formerly it roamed all over the plains of New South
Wales, Southern and Western Australia, Queensland, and Van Diemen's Land, with only the abori-
gines for its enemies. It is called Bundaary and Bullucur by the natives of the Liverpool range and
Murray, and the name Kangaroo is a mistaken native one.

On looking at one of the Great Kangaroos in some menagerie or zoological garden, the first
peculiarities that strike the eye are its small fore limbs, its very large and long hind ones,
and the great and thick tail. The smallness of the head, which has rather long ears, and a long
dusky brown muzzle, the length of the body, and the comfortable grey-brown, thick, shortish fur, are
then noticed. But the principal fact which impresses all these things upon the visitor, is that the
female may have a little Kangaroo with its head poked out of a kind of pouch in the under part of
the body. Sometimes the little one jumps out and gets in again if it is frightened, and the old one
moves, hops, and jumps about, with its portable nursery, with the greatest ease. J

Sometimes the Kangai-oos may be seen feeding, and then the awkwardness of their gait becomes

* The Macropodidce. t Macropus giganteus (Shaw).

I The presence of the pouch, or marsupium, containing the teats, involves many structural and physiological pecu-
liarities which separate the Marsupialia, in a classificatory sense, from the rest of the Mammalia. The Great Kangaroo,
which may be considered a fair example of the Marsupials, has in the female a set of skin muscles, around the pouch, beneath
the skin, which close it. The milk, or mammary gland, has four long, slender teats in the pouch, and beneath the skin
of it is a muscle called the cremaster, which is largely developed. It spreads over the surface of the gland, and its action is
to squeeze it and to force out the milk through the teat. There is thus protection for the young, and milk is given forth,
without the effort of the young in sucking. The reason for this is obvious. The Great Kangaroo, which is often as tall as a
man, is pregnant for about thirty-nine days only, and then a little one, not bigger than a thumb, is born ; it is not completely
formed, and is blind and cannot move itself. The mother places it in her pouch, and it fixes on to a teat, where it hangs for
about eight months, and then it begins to look out of the pouch. The duration of the life of the young in the womb is thus
very small, and it has no placenta there, which in the other and non-marsupial Mammalia forms the life-union between the
mother and the offspring before its birth. Thus, the Marsupials form one great group of Mammalia which are "implacen-
talia," without placentas or " after-births," and all the other Mammalia are "placentalia," and have this link between
mother and young. In all the Mammalia hitherto described the young come into the world by a single passage. In those
now under consideration (the Marsupialia) there is a double passage, and the womb is separated into two portions, being
double ; so they are termed Didelphia. The marsupium has two remarkable bones more or less in relation to it, and all animals
thus furnished are termed Marsupialia, and they form two sections or sub-orders — (1) The Marsupiata proper, with marsupial
bones, mostly with pouches, and with inflected lower jaws. (2) The Monotremata, which have marsupial bones, depressions
in the skin, when suckling, like ill-developed pouches, and beak -like jaws in front, which are not inflected.

192 NATURAL HISTORY.

evident ; for the small fore legs and curious paws are on or very close to the ground, whilst the back
part of the body is raised up by the long hind legs., and, as it were, balanced by the great tail.
These hind legs seem to do nearly all the running, or rather jumping, both being used together;
and the tail is of use in supporting the long body when the animal suddenly raises itself up straight,
and squats on its hind quarters. The small front legs then appear quite stunted, and the ears stick
up, and the small head is held straight. But in slow walking, the fore feet are placed on the ground,
and the animal rests on them whilst it brings the long hind
quarters forward and outside them. Evidently the senses of
hearing and sight are very acute ; but they are used to warn the
animal of danger, rather than to urge it to attack, for it is a
feeder on herbs, leaves, and grass, and often may be seen reclining
and moving its jaws, as if it were chewing the cud after a fashion.

When moving with great velocity, the Kangaroo depends
upon the hind limbs alone, bounding along with
great ease, over ten, fifteen, or more feet at a jump.
Its body is then carried almost horizontally, and
the tail is stuck out as if to balance it.

If the short fore limbs are examined, they will
be noticed to be able to do a great deal in the way
of holding, clasping, and turning things about, and
they are used in patting the little ones, and in
embracing and cleaning them. The five digits, or
fingers, have a very free movement, and the fore
arm can twist and turn like that of the higher
animals ; that is to say, it is capable of pronation
and supination. The first digit, or thumb, has two
joints (phalanges), and the other four have three ;
and the five curved claws (the third and fourth
being large) are useful weapons of offence. But
they and the fingers are often used for very different
purposes, and they have, in the female, to open the
curious pouch for the young ones, and to place
them there. There is an evident relation between
the arrangement of the bones of the wrist and this
nece s sary
office or func-
tion. The
marsuj)ium,

or pouch, is SKELETON OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.

a kind of

inbending of the skin of the lower part of the belly, and is moist and naked inside. In it, in the
females, are the nipples of the mammary glands, and to these the very young Kangaroos* hang on
for a long time, before they see the outer world. They are put in there bjr the mother, when they are
just born, and when very small and not perfectly formed. They grow there, and after a while, leave
the nipple when they think fit. As this pouch, with its contents, would drag upon the mother, it is
kept from doing so, more or less, by two bones which are found amongst the muscles of the lower
part of the body, and which are attached to the front or pubic bones of the pelvis. They are called
marsupial bones. They exist also in the males, but they have no open pouch, for it is, as it were,
turned outwards, and contains part of the reproductive organs.

The head is long, and is remarkable for the long nose, and large full eyes, with eyelashes, for the
Kangaroo is not nocturnal in its habits, like most of the Marsupials. The upper lip is split, the end
of the nose or muffle is naked or hairy according to the kind, and the brain-case is small. The nostrils

* See Footnote (J) on previous page.

ANATOMY OF THE KANGAROOS.

193

TEETH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.
(A) Upper and Lower Jaw; (B) Upper Molar ; (c) Lower Molar.

are at the side of the end of the muzzle, and are slit-like and oblique, and there are bristly "smellers"
to the fleshy lips and chin. A slender tongue is sometimes seen for an instant whilst the Kangaroo
is feeding, and if the bones of the jaws be examined, the angle, or lower part of the back of the lower
jaw, will be found to be turned inwards.

The long jaws have not very many teeth, and there are two large lower front ones, or lower
incisors, which project in a line with the lower jaw ; they are horizontal and more or less pointed, but
have an outer and inner cutting edge. The upper incisors, six in number, or three on each side of
the middle line, are placed on the pre-maxillary bone, and they work up and down. They are
broad and have the cutting edge below, and the outer one, on each side, is broad, grooved, and
complicated by one or two folds of its enamel, which are continued from the outer side of the tooth
obliquely forward and inward. There is a space or diastema behind the incisors. There are four pre-
molars, one on each side of both jaws, and then follow four molar teeth above and below and on both
sides of the mouth. The dental formula is thus — Incisors, jEf ; premolars, J-Ej ; molars, |_^ = 28.

There are no canine teeth in the

\

A

adults, but their germs may be

found in the very young Kangaroos.

As the Kangaroo is a vegetable

feeder, and delights in grass, leaves,

and herbs, its teeth are eminently

of a non-carnivorous kind. It may

be remarked that when the mouth

is closed, the cutting edges of the

upper incisors come against the

outer cutting edge of the long front

teeth of the lower jaw. The true

molars increase in size from front

backwards ; and the crown of each

molar is squarish, but is longer than broad, and it has two principal cross ridges, which, when not

worn, are tall, and have sharp edges. Besides these, there are two other transverse ridges which are

smaller and not so tall. One of these is on the front part of the tooth, and the other on the hinder (in

the upper molars only). Then there is a long ridge which connects the cross ones. They are all

covered with enamel. When the tooth is worn, we find it presenting, according to Mr. Waterhouse,*

two powerful loops or folds. On comparing these teeth with those of the herbivorous mammalia

already noticed, a remarkable difference will be seen.

The hinder extremities consist of a nearly straight, long, cylindrical bone, the femur, which
has a hemispherical joint head, and a large trochanter, which reaches above the joint ; of two
leg bones — the tibia, which is prismatic above and cylindrical below, but with only a slight
inner ankle projection, and the fibula, which is distinct but thinned and concave in its lower half,
where it is close and attached to the other bone, and forms the outer ankle projection. To these are
added the bones of the ankle-joint and the clawed toes. The Kangaroo being a great jumper, and
having a great tendon, the analogue of the tendo achillis of man, has a powerful projecting process of the
hinder ankle bone for its attachment. But the great length of the foot is produced by the size of the
fourth and fifth or two outer toes, and especially of the fourth, which often reaches a foot in length,
including the metatarsal bone behind, and the pointed claw in front. The great claw looks like a long
hoof, is three-sided and sharp-pointed like a bayonet, and with it the animal stabs and rips open the
body of its opponent.t The outer claw is very small, and there is no great toe (or first), but the second
and third are long and slender, and are united in a common skin, so as to look like a single toe with
a double nail, the hair coming to the roots of it. The long narrow foot is nearly as long as
the leg bones, and is admirably adapted for jumping forwards, as well as sideways, and for sup-
porting, when the legs are widely separated, the weight of the erect body. The body in that

* "Water-house's " Natural History of the Mammalia," order Marsupiata, from which much of this description of the
order has been taken.

t R. Owen, " Marsupialia ;" " Todd's Cyclopaedia of Anatomy and Physiology."

194 NATURAL HISTORY.

position has the leg bones straight, the thigh bones oblique, and the pelvis and spine erect, the great
tail being a prop behind. Owen remarks that in man it is the massive and expanded muscles of
the back of the pelvis and upper part of the thigh, or the gluteal muscles,* which are the chief struc-
tures in maintaining the erect posture. But in the Kangaroo, the narrow bones of the haunch could
not afford attachment to great gluteal muscles ; so a muscle which is but slightly formed in man. and is
called the little psoas, is greatly developed in the Kangaroo, and has evidently the power of main-
taining the erect posture, although it is situate within the body and in front of the spine. The great
jumping power is due to the leverage of the ankle and long toes, and the muscles which supply the
tendon already mentioned, and others which have the same office. These are of great strength and size,
and there are some accessory muscles to the thigh and leg. The long spine of the back has powerful
processes, and the jar of the great jumps is received by two vertebrae which, anchylosed or united
together, form the sacrum. The tail is made up of many vertebrae, and covered with muscles. The
great blood-vessels running underneath it have many chevron, or V-shaped, bones, to protect
them from pressure. The marsupial bones, one on each side, are long, and broad below ; they are
movable on the pubis, and afford attachment to muscular fibres, act as a pulley for others, and
strengthen the walls of ftie abdomen. Formed within nuiscles and tendons, they are rather bony
growths than parts of the true skeleton, and hence they may be absent in some of the order, although
they are always present in the Kangaroos.

Although well provided with strong limbs and muscles, and acute senses, the Kangaroos
living the life of the deer and cattle of other regions than Australia, are subject to the attacks of
beasts of prey and hunters. In Australia the great Camivora do not exist, but there is a native dog,
the Dingo, aborigines, and trained dogs and colonists, who enjoy a Kangaroo hunt. The native
dogs stalk and run them down, the natives spear them after sometimes forming a great circle and
closing in and yelling and shouting. But the rifle and trained hounds have dislodged many more than
the natives, and the animals are becoming scarcer near the settlements than in former years. Dogs
which run by sight afford many an exciting hunt, and the Kangaroo starts off, bounding at a great
rate, and clearing all sorts of impediments with ease. It is hard riding to keep up with the chase,
and especially in hot weather, when the Kangaroo often escapes, thanks to its greater powers of
endurance. Sometimes the Kangaroo will stand at bay, and will rip up a solitary Dog with its
claws, or will kill with a single blow of the leg and tail. Three or more Dogs are usually laid on, one
more fleet than the others, to "pull" the Kangai-oo, while the others rush in and kill it. Mr. Gould t
says that it sometimes adopts a singular mode of defending itself, by clasping its short, powerful
fore limbs round its antagonist, leaping away with it to the nearest water hole, and then keeping
it beneath the water until drowned.

Mr. R. Foulerton, who has paid some attention to the habits of the Marsupials, writes that the
Great Kangaroo, although its numbers have been greatly diminished in some pastoral districts, still
is numerous enough to render some runs almost worthless for pastoral purposes. They may be seen
there in thousands, eating off all the best grass, and in the bad seasons reducing the cattle to starving
point. They have few enemies but man, as even the native Dog will never attack them, unless they
are very young. An " old man " Kangaroo is a formidable opponent ; he will severely wound and
even kill a man, unless approached cautiously. Their mode of attack is to " hug " him bear fashion,
and then rip him with the hind foot. When pursued, they generally take to the water, and there
stand at bay, and the luckless man or dog who gets within their grasp is forced under the water, and
held there until drowned. The middle-aged Kangaroos, or Flyers, easily outstrip the hunting Dogs
at the start, but they are gradually gained upon. When caught, the Kangaroo fights to the last.

The diminutive fore limbs are separated by narrow shoulders, and although the upper arm is short
and well furnished with muscles, the fore arm is long, slender, but very movable. The hand is short
and broad, and there are four curved, sharp claws, the first 'one, or thumb, being the smallest, and
the third and fourth the largest. The hair covers over the fingers to the claws, which can
separate widely, grasp and hold, and be bent on the palm. The movements of the wrists and fore
arms are considerable, and a large and long upward-turning muscle is in the space between the ulna

* See also Vol. I., page 58, Note. t Mr. Gould's works on Australian animals, occasionally quoted by me.

ANATOMY OF THE KANGAROOS. 195

and radius (the bones of the arm). Moreover, the ulna joints with a cavity in the cuneiform bone
of the wrist ; and the first row of wrist bones has three in it, and the second has four. The first
phalanges, or those of the thumb, are not placed as a thumb in relation to the wrist bones, and
it is the outer fingers that grasp with their claws. As the Kangaroo has to lift up its arm,
there is a collar-bone, and the arm bone (hunierus) is perforated on the inner side of the end above the
elbow; and the olecranon is long.

The bladebone has a curved ridge, and the muscles of the upper part are less than those
which are attached to the part below it. There are thirteen pairs of ribs to the chest.

The skull is long and comparatively smooth, and even the ridges for the temporal muscles are
only slightly raised ; and in old Kangaroos the bones do not unite or anchylose as they do in the
other Mammalia hitherto noticed. The teeth are not used as weapons of offence, but simply to graze
with, and the lower jaw is not quite solid at the chin, but only so below, so that the lower incisors
can be slightly separated. The ear-bone is remarkable for being separated into three parts, namely,
the temporal or squamous, the petrosal, and the tympanic ; and this is rather a reptilian character.
Moreover, the air-chambers of the side of the under part of the skull are in the form of rounded
prominences, or " bullse." They are situated in the lower part of the ear-bone, called squamosal.
The zygoma, or process between the cheek (malar) bone and the ear, is hollow, complete, and arched,
its front part being, moreover, extended downwards in a projection which reaches below the grinding
teeth, and resembles that of the Sloths somewhat. The lower jaw has its back part, or angle, bent
inwards (or inflected) strongly, and this is, except in one set, a characteristic of the Marsupiata.

The Kangaroo, being a vegetable feeder, lias a stomach suited for the diet, which also permits
of a certain amount of regurgitation of food up again into the mouth, when a kind of chewing of the
cud occasionally is indulged in. The stomach is large and long, resembling the colon or large intestine
of the highest Mammalia in its general shape. It measured, in one instance, according to Owen, no
less than three feet six inches, the measurement following its bends or curvatures. It consists of a
left, middle, and right or pyloric division. The left ends in two round sacs, and these are really con-
tinuations of the stomach sepai-ated to a certain extent by a peculiar arrangement of the three bands
of muscular fibres which pass separately along the organ. Numerous clusters of secreting glands are
found in the mucous membrane of the stomach in its middle part, and they disappear near the pylorus
where the tissues are thick and corrugated. The animal has a small intestine, a caecum, and a large
gut, but this last is not much larger than the first part of the stomach. The organs of the
circulation of the blood resemble those of the other Mammalia, but there is a distinction which relates
to the short period during which the young Kangaroo is a portion of the maternal being. So soon is
it born, and so soon therefore must it breathe, that before
the heart has grown much, it has the blood from the lungs
and the rest of the body running through it. The young
Kangaroo breathes when its heart is not fully developed,
yet it has the perfect double circulation set up. The
auricles of the heart communicate as in other Mammals
until birth, but the duration of this communication is very
short in the Marsupial, and its traces so evident in the
other Mammals are wanting in it. The arteries of the
body are simpler than in those Mammals which have a
more complicated intestinal arrangement, and Owen, in his
great work on the Marsupials, has pointed out that the
hind limbs and tail are supplied with arterial blood by
vessels which have an arrangement not without its simi-
larity to that of birds. Leading a very simple life, and STOMACH OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.
one of great sameness, moving in a manner which does («) oesophagus; <m) intestine,
not require much complexity of muscular action, the nervous system of the Kangaroo could not
be expected to be highly organised or fully developed. The brain is small for the body of the animal.
It is simple in form, and does not cover the cerebellum, which is visible behind, and has a little lobe
on each side. The surface of the brain proper has a few convolutions on it, and more perhaps than

19G

NATURAL HISTORY.

the Rodent Mammalia have. The commissures of the brain, which relate to the complexity of the
method of life, are unequally developed. The central one, or the corpus callosum, is small, and the
front one is veiy large. Finally, the part of the brain which refers to the sense of smell is large,

but hidden by the brain proper, and its nerves supply a large
surface in the nose, at its Tipper part at the base of its skull.

The young Kangaroo, when very small, and almost trans-
parent, comes down from the womb into a canal, and gets into
the uro-genital sac, as it is termed. Thence it is taken by the
mother, and put into the marsupium, or pouch, where it fixes
on to a nipple, and holds on. As the little one is ever " at
the breast," it might have any quantity of milk go the wrong
way, but this is provided for by the upper part of the organ
of voice (the larynx) being prolonged at the back of the nose,
above the level of the long nipple. Breathing goes on through
the nose, and swallowing safely through the gullet.

THE HAEE KANGAROO.*— THE TURATT.
There are many kinds of Kangaroos, and one of them,
which is solitary and nocturnal in its habits, is called the Hare
Kangaroo, of which Mr. Gould writes : — " The name of Hare
Kangaroo has been given to this species as much from its
similarity of form and size to the common Hare as from its
similarity of habits. I usually found it solitary, and sitting
alone on a well-formed seat under the stalk of a tuft of grass

on the open plains. For a short distance, its fleetness is beyond that of all others of its gi'oup
that I have had an opportunity of coursing. Its powers of leaping are also equally extraordinary.
While out on the plains in South Australia, I started a Hare Kangaroo before two fleet Dogs.
After running to the distance of a quarter of a mile, it suddenly doubled and came back to me,
the Dogs following close to its heels. I stood perfectly still, and the animal had arrived within
twenty feet before it observed me, when, to my astonishment, instead of branching off to the right or
to the left, it bounded clear over my head, and, on descending to the ground, I was able to make a
successful shot, by which it was procured. It has the end of the nose covered with a fine set of hairs.
The fur is long and soft and very hare-like, and it has small limbs and sharply-pointed nails."

BRAIN OF THE GREAT KANGAROO.

THE GREAT ROCK KANGAROO.

This is very different from its timid congener just described. It inhabits the sterile and
rocky mountains in the south-eastern part of Australia. It scampers about the rocks, and readily
escapes Dogs, and it is a dangerous and formidable animal to approach, for it will, if closely pressed,
turn on its enemy, and force him over the rocks. It bites, and uses its strong fore-arms very effi-
ciently. It is called Macropus robustus, and is often found in companies of four or six ; and it has
more powerful fore-limbs than the Great Kangaroo, which is even sometimes the smaller of the two.
It has the part of the nose called the muffle without hair.

THE RED KANGAROot is so called from the red tint of the male, which is sometimes marked under
the neck and elsewhere. It was found in the plains near the Darling and Murrumbidgee rivers, and
is celebrated for its great fleetness; and the female is often called the "Flying Doe." It is as fast
as the Agile Kangaroo, | which is long-haired, and is found in Northern and Eastern Australia.

Van Diemen's Land has a Kangai'oo with a long, deep-grey fur, with red on the back of the ears,
neck, and shoulders ; and it is called the Brush Kangaroo by the settlers. It is eaten and highly
esteemed, and its skin is exported for leather. Liking the dense and damp forests of the island,
it finds a safe retreat therein, and probably this is what keeps them from extinction, for they have
been killed by the thousand, in order to supply contracts for boot-leather. The young of this Kangaroo,

* Macropus leporoides (Gould).

Macropus rufus (Desm.).

Macropus agilis (Gould, sp.).

THE BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.

197

which is also called after Bennett the naturalist (Macropus Bennetti), does not leave the pouch of its
mother permanently, vintil it is as large as a Rabbit.

In the north of Australia, in the region of King George's Sound, there is a small Kangaroo which
is not larger than a common Rabbit, and it is a very interesting example of how species may differ
from the type of a genus. It has a slender and rather short tail, which is rather scaly, and has but a
few hairs on it, but it is not very short. The ears are short and round, and the hind feet are short.
The departure from the configuration of the Great and Brush Kangaroo shape is therefore great. It
is called the Short-tailed Kangaroo. The last four kinds mentioned are grouped together with others
under a sub-genus, Halinaturus (H\na, a leap, and ovpd, a tail).

BRUSH-TAILED ROCK KANGAROO.

THE BRUSH-TAILED EOCK KANGAROO.

Almost as strange as the slender-tailed Kangaroo are those which are called the " brush-tailed,"
and which inhabit rocky situations (Macropus penicillatus). Mr. Waterhouse thus notices them : —

" Whilst the Kangaroos of the plain have the fore part of the body slender and light, great
strength in the hinder parts, combined with a long leg and foot, adapting them to fleetness, the tail
powerful, and assisting in the support of the long body, we perceive certain modifications in the form
and structure of these parts in the Rock Kangaroos which adapt them to their particular habitats.
The body, more compact in form, requires but little assistance from the tail for its support, the leverage
being less ; and the feet are, though powerful, comparatively short, and remarkably rough beneath,
being thickly covered over this part with hard tubercles, which no doubt prevent the foot from
slipping. The nails of the two larger toes are shorter than usual, and, indeed, in some of the
species, scarcely project beyond the fleshy pads with which the toes are terminated, and on the
upper surface of which the nails are placed. A long and slender foot, with long nails, as in the
typical Kangaroos, it is obvious, would be ill-adapted to an animal which has to leap to and balance
itself upon the small ledges of the rocks. The tail is large, but not thickened at the root, as in the
plain Kangaroos ; and, unlike the tail in those animals, it is clothed with long hairs, which, gradually
increasing in length from the base of the tail, become very long and bushy at the opposite extremity.
It serves to steady the animal in its leaps, and to balance the body when perched in situations which.
120

198

NATURAL HISTORY.

require it, but is of little assistance in supporting tlie weight of the trunk. Its muffle, that is to say,
the end of the nose, is naked, as in the scrub-inhabiting Kangaroos just noticed, and it forms the type
of the sub-genus Heteropiis " (eVepos, altered, irovs, foot).

One of these was hunted and shot amongst the woods of Liverpool plains, New South Wales, by
Sir Edward Parry, who wrote that they appear to be gregarious, and seem to prefer the neighbourhood
of rocky ground, in which they had holes, and to which, when, hunted, they retreated. They swarm
along in groups one after the other, and jump from side to side, alighting on ledges so slightly prominent
that their resting thereon appears to be an impossibility. They go into caves and holes in the rocks
during the day, and they enjoy the night, and gambol and feed by moonlight.

A Rock Kangaroo, with white and black bands on it, inhabits Western Australia, and a short-
eared kind enjoys the hot sands and high rocks of Hanover Bay. There is a Kangaroo in the island
of New Guinea (Macropus Brunii), and it was the first seen by Europeans.

THE COMMON TREE KANGAROO.*

This is an inhabitant of New Guinea, and instead of frequenting the brush and scrub, which are
not physical features found in the island, or the rocks, it lives in the forests, and is no mean but rather
a good climber of trees. There is a Kangaroo look about the animal, even when it is seated on a thick
branch, but the fur is very different to that of its fellows of Australia. The fur looks coarse and
harsh, and is not very unlike that of a Bear. There is no soft under fur, but all the hairs are long and
resemble the long ones of the Kangaroos, and the ears are quite clothed with it. Then, as the animal

glides down the stem of a
tree, the shortness of the
hind legs becomes apparent;
moreover, the claws on the
foot do not resemble those of
the Kangaroo. The feet are
stout but rather short, and
the toes are more equal in
size than in the other
Kangaroos. The claw of
the outer toe is often on a
line with the middle of the
longest one (the fourth),
whilst the nails of the
double inner toe extend
slightly beyond its base.
The nail of this large fourth
toe is about an inch in
length. Then the fore limbs
are nearly as large as the
hind ones, and are very
strongly made, and so are
the hands, the claw of the
middle finger being three-
quarters of an inch in
length. It has a clumsy-

COMMOX THEE KANGAROO. looking head, with a high

muzzle and small lower

jaw. The upper lip is straight. It has a large face and small ears, and the colour of the fur is
brown-black and yellow-brown. The tail is very long, tapers slightly, and is considerably of use in
steadying the climber, and it is carried very much after the fashion of the other Kangaroos when

Dendrolagus ursinus (Mull.).

THE KANGAROO-RAT.

199

the animal has come down from its tree and hops oft to its retreat. A specimen in the Zoological
Gardens of London had grizzled-grey fur, whiter underneath the jaws and on the neck and limbs, and
the ears were wide apart, and the powerful fore limbs ended in five claws. The tail tapered but
very little. This was pro-
bably a second species called
the Brown Tree Kangaroo
(Dendrolagus inustus).

These Tree Kangaroos
have a small superior canine
tooth on each side, and
the hinder incisor is not
grooved. Hence they form
a sub-genus, which is called
Dendrolagus (SfvSpov, a tree,
AoyJs, a hare), Tree Hare.

THE KANGAROO-RATS.*
These are also called

Potoroos, and are of small

size, being about that of a

Hare or Rabbit. They

have a compact body, the

neck being short, and the

ears are rather rounded, so

that their shape is unlike

that of the Great Kangaroo,

but it resembles that of the

smaller kinds somewhat.

They have a rat-like shape,

both hind feet like the

Kangaroos, a long tail, and

peculiar teeth. The head

is very like that of a Rodent, and the incisor teeth in the upper jaw have the front ones the longest. The

canine teeth exist in the upper jaw, and the premolar is large, and has numerous distinct vertical

grooves on the outer and inner sides ; and the front molars are the largest, the smallest being in the

rear. The toes of the fore foot are unevenly developed ; the three central ones are large, and those

at the side are small. The nails are solid, broadest above, and much compressed. The foot is

long, and the fourth toe and nail are greatly developed.
The fifth toe is next in size, and the small second and third
are coupled together by skin, and form a projection, with
two small nails, which are useful in combing and scratching
the fur. The first toe is absent. The Rufous Kangaroo-
Rat inhabits New South Wales, and is very common, t Its
nest is made up of grasses, and is frequently placed under
the shelter of a fallen tree, or at the foot of some low shrub.
During the day the little animal lies curled up in its nest,
but it occasionally reposes in a " seat " like the Hare Kan-
garoo ; but it never sits in the open plains. On being
pursued it jumps like a Jerboa, with great swiftness for a

short distance, and seeks shelter in hollow logs and holes. Its food consists of roots and grasses.

Another is a native of Van Diemen's Land, and keeps to the open, sandy, or stony forest land,

rather than to the thick and humid bushes. It is called Hypsiprymnus cuniculus.
* Sub-genus Hypsiprymnus. f Hypsipnjmmis rufescens.

KANGAROO-RAT.

TEETH OF THE KANGAKOO-RAT.

200

NATURAL HISTORY.

None of the animals hitherto desci'ibed as Kangaroos have any prehensile power in the tail ; but
in one group of the Kangaroo-Rats, the tip of the tail has a brush of long hairs above, and is clothed
beneath with short hairs, which are closely applied to the skin. This structure, and the motion
of the muscles beneath, give the Tufted-tailed Kangaroo-Rat* of New South "Wales a power of
encircling and holding objects, especially for seizing grasses with which to make its nest. This is
placed in a hollow in the ground, excavated for its reception, and its opening being on a level
with the surrounding herbage, the practised eye of the native is required to discern it. After the little
things creep in, they drag some grass after them, and close up the place. In the evening, they sally
forth and scratch and dig up roots with their strong fore-claws.

B

THE SAT-TAILED HYPSIPRYMNUS.f

The Rat-tailed Kangaroo-Rat is about fifteen inches and a half long, and the tail measures, in
addition, more than nine inches. It has a long head and rather short hind feet, and the rat-like tail

has short stiff hairs on it which do not quite hide the scaly skin beneath.
The body fur is long and loose, and dusky brown, more or less tinted
with black and pale yellowish-brown. The end of the nose or muzzle
is spotted, and the ears are short and rounded. This little animal lives
in New South Wales, and was that which was first described by Hunter
under the name of Potoroo, or Poto Roo, being the " Bettong " of the
natives of New South Wales. The stomach of the Kangaroo-Rats is
less sacculated than that of the Kangaroos, but its left-hand portion
is enormously developed in proportion to the rest, and may be compared
with that of the Ruminantia in point of relative size. It may be noticed
that the lower jaws of the Potoroos, which are largely inflected at the
angle, articulate with the skull rather differently to those of the
Kangaroos. In these last, the cavity at the base of the zygomatic
process which receives the lower jaw is broad and slightly convex,
permitting considerable side-to-side movement which is useful in the
occasional "cud chewing." But in the others the cavity barely deserves
the name, it being a nearly flat surface, and, therefore, not much
motion, except that of an up-and-down kind, is possible to the jaw.
The organ of hearing has been slightly noticed in the Great Kangaroo
in a former page, and it is necessary to observe that the tympanic bone
does not form a perfect tube in the Potoroos as in the Kangaroos, and
that the surface of the auditory cavity is also increased by a " bulla,"
or bony cavity, bulging out at the under part of the skull. Corre-
sponding " bullse " were noticed in the Rodentia, but in their case the
swelling is in the temporal bone, whilst in the Marsupials, with the
exception of the Wombat, they are formed out of the sphenoid bone (the
great ala). Moreover, the Potoroos, like the Kangaroos, and some of
the other Marsupials (the Ph.alangers and Koalas), have the ear
chamber prolonged, by a number of cells, into the zygomatic process of
the temporal bone. The Kangaroo-Rats are numerous, and there are

many species. They are distributed in New South Wales, Western Australia, Yan Diemen's Land,
and South Australia, and to the north-east.

Sir R. Owen investigated the anatomy of a small Kangaroo-Rat which had been described by
Mr. Ramsay in Australia, and which was remarkable for its musky smell. It is a long and slender-
bodied little animal, measuring about one foot three inches and a half from the snout to the end of the
tail, which is five inches and nine lines in the female, and rather less in the male. Its hinder legs are
shorter, and the head is more slender and pointed than in the Kangaroo-Rats just described. The
fur is of moderate length, pretty closely applied, and has numerous rather long hairs scattered here

* Hypsiprymnus penicillatus. f Hypsiprymnus murinus.

FORE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT
OF HYPSIPRYMNUS.

THE WOMBAT.

201

and there, the visible portions being black or blackish, or pointed. These are relieved by the dark
and light-barred colour of the visible part of the shorter hairs, all the hairs being of a leaden-greyish
tint at the skin. The upper surface of the body has a close and stiff fur of rich golden colour, mixed
with black ; the head, face, and lower parts of the legs are dark brownish-grey ; and there are a few
patches of white along the centre of the throat and chest. The fur covers the tail for half an inch or
more, and then the rest is naked, and covered with a network of scales about three to a line in length.
The scales are black above, and a few minute and very short hairs project from the interstices of the
scales. The animal has a naked muffle and rounded ears. The hind foot is remarkable, for whilst
the skull and dentition of the creature would associate it more with the Kangaroo-Rats, the position
of the first toe (wanting in the Kangaroo- Rats) resembles somewhat that of the Phalangista group, or
the Phalangers, which will be noticed further on. The sole of the foot is long, and there is a nailless
projecting first toe, like a thumb ; next come the second and third toes — small, united by skin, and
leaving the two cornbing-nails visible ; and then the largest, or fourth toe, is followed by a smaller
fifth. Sir R. Owen judged that this animal was an occasional climber of trees, but that its usual
locality was 011 the ground. Mr. Ramsay states that it lives in the Rockingham Bay district, and that
it frequents the dense and damp positions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the sides
of the coast range. Its habits are diurnal, and its movements are graceful. It procures its food by
turning over the rubbish in search of insects, worms, and tuberous roots, frequently eating the
palm-berries, which it holds with its fore paws, after the manner of the Phalangers, sitting up on its
haunches, or sometimes digging. They have a pouch, and two young ones have been found in
it. Considering the importance of the great toe to the animal, and its linking together the climbing
and jumping Marsupials, Sir R. Owen acknowledged the necessity of recognising Mr. Ramsay's
name of Hypsiprymnodon moschatus, and of thus bringing in a new genus into a new family in the
Kangaroo series with two large front teeth in the lower jaw.*

IT.— THE WOMBAT FAMILY.— THE PHASCOLOMYID^.

THE WOMBAT, t

On looking at a picture of a Wombat, the outside distinctions between it and all the Kangaroo
family may be seen at a glance, and an examination of its anatomy affords still greater evidence of
differences which, to a certain extent, relate to the fact that the animal now under consideration is a
burrower and gnawer. About two to three feet in length, the Wombat has only a small stump of a

SKELETON OF THE WOMBAT.

tail, a low body, small feet, and strong limbs, ending in broad extremities, well provided with claws.
It has moderately long and coarse fur of a grey-brown colour, and there is some white about the short
ears, and the feet are black. It is usually a plump animal, with a bare black muzzle, and feet naked
beneath, and covered with little tubercles of flesh. The claws are large, and those of the fore feet (five

* Description by E. P. Ramsay, F.L.S., and communication from Sir R. Owen to Linnean Society, London.
t Phascolomys Wombat (Peron and Lesson). <jmo-/cuAos, a pouch, and ^vs, a mouse.

202

NATURAL HISTORY.

in number) are solid and but little curved, whilst the four on the hind feet are curved and concave
beneath. It has long moustache hairs, and plenty of them. Sir Everard Home had one, and he found
that its principal desire was to get into the ground, and to do this it worked with great skill and
rapidity, covering itself with earth with surprising quickness. It was very quiet during the day, but was
in constant motion during the night; was very sensible of cold ; ate all vegetables, and was particularly
fond of new hay, which it ate stalk by stalk, taking it into its mouth like a Bear, in small bits at a time.
It was not wanting in intelligence, and appeared attached to those to whom it was accustomed, and

who were kind to it. When it saw them, it would put up its fore-paws on their knees, and when taken
up would sleep on the lap. It allowed children to pull and carry it about, and when it bit them it
did not appear to do so in anger or with violence. When wild, the Wombat hides up during the day,
and quits its retreat at night, to dig and get grass and roots. It is by no means an active animal, and

shuffles along like a Bear. The Wombat has a slit-like, imperfect
marsupium, and the special peculiarities of its order, such as mar-
supial bones, the inflected lower jaw, and double uterus. On the hind
foot the innermost or first toe is very small, nailless, and placed at
right angles to the foot, and the second, third, and fourth toes are
joined by skin, and have larger claws than the small fifth toe. The
stomach is simple, and has a peculiar glandular apparatus, and the
caecum is short, and has an appendage as in man and some monkeys.
The teeth are remarkable for their number in relation to those of the
Kangaroos, and for having no rootlets. The incisor teeth greatly resemble those of a Rodent, like
the Rat. They are two in number in each jaw, and are widely separated from the other teeth. The
molars are long, curved, and, like the incisors, have no true fangs, but persistent pulps. They are
divided into two nearly equal parts by a fold of the enamel entering deeply into the body of the
tooth on one side, and a slight indentation on the opposite side.

The number of the persistent teeth is as follows : — Incisors, f ; true molars, |Ei It is the only

LOWER JAW OF THE WOMBAT.

THE PHALANGER FAMILY.

203

B

Marsupial which has an equal number of incisors in both jaws. There are no canines. As the
Wombat uses much force in gnawing, the muscles of the jaws and their bony attachments are large;
consequently the temporal ridges are strongly
marked. There is a deep and strong zygomatic
arch, and in the lower jaw the turned-in angle is
of great size. The chin is also large, and the joint
of the jaw also. The sutures of the bones of the
skull are scarcely ever obliterated, and the auditory
" bullse " are formed in the tempoi-al bone. With
regai'd to the marsupial bones, they are long, flat,
curved, and, moreover, less expanded near their
attachment to the pubis. The ribs are fifteen in
number on each side, and the collar-bones are
large and stout. There is a curious power of move-
ment of the ankle, so that the foot can imitate the
turning movements of the wrist and fore-arm of
man. This pronation and supination is because
the small bone of the leg, the fibula, is free and
not attached to the other bone (tibia), and because
there is a muscle whose action is to move the
fibula after the fashion of the corresponding
muscle in the fore limb. The stomach is smaller TEETH OF THE WOMBAT.

, i • , r T7- 11111 •*• Upper Jaw; B, Lower Jaw ; c, Molar.

than in the Kangaroos, and has a large gland.

The Wombat has been found in South Australia, Van Diemen's Land, Bass Strait, and in New
South Wales.

CHAPTER II.
THE PHALANGER, POUCHED BADGER, AND DASYURE FAMILIES.

THE PHALANGER FAMILY— THE KOALA— Habits— Characteristics— THE Cuscus— THE VULPINE PHALANGER— THE
DOKMOUSE PHALANGER— Habits— Remarkable Characters— THE FLYING PHALANGERS— Its Flying Machine— Habits—
THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGERS — Habits — The Parachute-like Membrane — Exciting Scene ou board a Vessel —
Characteristics — THE OPOSSUM MOUSE — THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT — A Curiosity among Marsupials — Distinctive
Features— THE POUCHED BADGER FAMILY— Characteristics— THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES— THE BANDICOOT
— THE BANDED PERAMELES — THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES — Discussion regarding it — Characteristics — THE
DASYURUS FAMILY— Characteristics— THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS— THE BANDED MYRMECOBIUS— Description-
Great number of Teeth — History — Food— Habits— Range — THE URSINE DASYURE — Appearance — "Native Devil" —
Ferocity — Havoc among the Sheep of the Settlers — Trap to Catch them — Its Teeth — A True Marsupial, though
strikingly like the Carnivora— Skeletal Characters peculiar to itself— MAUGE'S DASYURE — THE DOG-HEADED
THYLACINUS — Description — Resemblance to the Dog — Habits— Peculiarities — THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE —
Description— Other Varieties.

III.— THE PHALANGER FAMILY.— THE PHALANGISTID^E.

THE loftiest of the gum-trees of the country from Moreton Bay to Port Phillip, and even more
widely than this, were often the familiar haunt of a small Marsupial animal, not unlike a little Bear,
about two feet in length, and without a tail. It is a famous tree-climber, and its stout body, small
head, short limbs, and well-developed feet, are all cased in an ash-grey fur. It has moderate-sized
ears, which are hidden by the long hair of the head, and it has a short and nearly naked black muzzle.
The eye is large and without eyelashes. The natives climb up the trees after it, according to
Mr. Gould, with as much ease and expertness as an European would get up a long ladder, and
having reached the branch, perhaps forty or fifty feet from the ground, they follow the animal to the
extremity of a bough, and either kill it or take it alive. This animal is called the KOALA, and it feeds

204

NATURAL HISTORJ.

on the tender shoots of the blue gum in preference to those of any others, and it rests and feeds in the
boughs. At night it descends and prowls about, scratching up the ground in search of some peculiar
roots, and it seems to creep rather than to walk. When angry it utters a long, shrill yell, and assumes
a fierce and menacing look; They are found in pairs, and the young soon learn to perch on the mother's
shoulders. Mr. Gould says that, unlike most quadrupeds, the Koala does not flee upon the approach
of man, and that it is very tenacious of life. Even when severely wounded it will not quit its hold
of the branch upon which it may be. The animal has a nice thick fur, which nearly hides the ears, and
the pouch is large. A careful examination of the animal shows that it differs from the Kangaroos and
Wombats ; it is more like the latter than the former, but it is sufficiently distinct to be placed in
another family, the Phalangers, in which the incisors are six above and two below, and there
are two canines in the upper jaw, and in some, two in the lower jaw, but not in all. There are
two premolars above and below, and either six or eight molars in the upper and lower jaws.

The head is rather small, and the face is short, the upper lip being cleft. The limbs are equal ; the
fore feet have five well-made toes with compressed and curved claws ; the hind feet have five toes,
of which the first or inner one is large, nailless, and at right angles to the rest, and opposable to
them. The second and third toes are shorter than the others, and are united in a common skin, and
they have nails. The fourth and fifth toes are curved and have compressed claws. The name
Phalangista is derived from this union by skin of the phalanges of the foot. The tail may be absent,
or long, and more or less prehensile, but sometimes not.

There is a well-developed pouch, and the stomach is simple, and the caecum is usually very long
and large. One young one is produced at a birth.

The Koala, or Native Bear,* may be taken as the type of the tailless group, and it belongs
to the genus FJiascolarctus.

The Cuscus, or Ursine Phalanger,t belongs to a second division, for it has a prehensile tail. They
are common animals in the dense woods of the Island of Celebes. They squat on the branches half asleep
by day, but are lively enough at night, and it is said that they have a fancy for flesh as well as fruit.
A pretty spotted Cuscus inhabits the islands of Amboyna, Waigeoe, Banda, and New Guinea, as well
as Cape York. * They are dull in captivity, but when placed together they fight with fury, growling

* Phascolarctus (pouched-bear) cinereus. t Phalangista ursina. J Phalangista (Cuscus) maculatus.

THE VULPINE PHALANGER.

205

like Cats, and biting. They have small red eyes with a vertical pupil, short ears, and a very stupid
look. They are all nocturnal in their habits, and feed on fruit, buds, leaves, meat, and eggs.

One of the Phalangers, called Cuscus albus, is abundant in New Ireland, Amboyna, Banda, and
Timor, and is remarkable for its peculiar odour. The male is white, and the female reddish-brown in
colour, both being about the size of a common Rabbit. It is slow in its movements, lives in trees, and
takes good care to conceal itself, but its scent discovers it. The naturalists Lesson and Garnet stated
that when they traversed the forests of the island the odour of the Cuscus was distinctly perceptible.
It is stated that if these animals see any one, they suspend themselves at once by the tail, and if they
are looked at steadfastly, they will drop by-and-by from fatigue, and are then easily caught ; in fact,
they pretend to be dead.

THE VULPINE PHALANGER.*— THE BRUSH-TAILED "OPOSSUM."

Waterhouse describes this Marsupial to be about the size of a Cat, but in shape it is somewhat
between a Squirrel and a Marten. It has long and somewhat pointed ears ; and the tail, clothed
with bushy, harsh, black fur, except beneath, near the end, where it is naked, is about as long as the
body. The limbs are rather short, the muzzle is moderately long and foxy-looking, and the whole
body and head, except the naked muzzle, are covered with a grey and black fur. The moustaches ar«
long, numerous, and black, and the feet are yellowish- white, and the naked soles are flesh-coloured,
the nails being dusky. The pupil of the eye is round and intensely dark in colour. They
sleep during the day, and become active during the evening, and on the alert for their food,
which consists, in the Zoological Gardens, of bread and milk, fruit and vegetables. They hold
up the solid food between the hands as a Squirrel holds a nut, and nibble very much in the same
manner. Their native haunts are New South Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia.
They inhabit the large trees, usually the Eucalypti, selecting such as have the heart of the branches
or trunk decayed, and they take refuge there during the daylight. At night they leave their nests
and climb the branches of the trees which yield them buds and fruit. They descend to the ground
for food, and doubtless now and then eat snails and small birds. When climbing they use the tail to
hold by, and carefully grasp every support with it before they let go with their feet or hands. A
brown-black species, closely allied, lives in Yan Diemen's Land, f

121

Phalangista vulpina.

+ Phalangista fuliginosa.

206

NATURAL HISTORY.

VULPINE PHALANGER.

THE DORMOUSE PHALANGER.*

This is a very small Marsupial animal, about six inches in length, including the tail, which
measures nearly, if not quite, one-half. It is like a little Dormouse, with its soft fur, ashy-grey in
colour, large ears, and thick tail. They are broader, not so long in the leg, and usually larger than
the Dormouse, and the eyes are larger, and the upper jaw overhangs the lower. But they look just as
fat and sleepy in the daytime. The habits of these animals, moreover, are much the same, for the
Phalangista living in Van Diemen's Land feeds on nuts and other similar food, which they hold in their
fore paws, using them as hands. They are nocturnal, remaining asleep during the whole day, or, if dis-
turbed, are not easily roused into a state of activity. They come forth in the evening, and are then more
easy and rapid in their movements. Some of these were kept in the Zoological Gardens of London, and
it was noticed that they made great use of their tail, which is prehensile, and thus not like that of the
Dormouse. They ran about a small tree, using their paws and tail to hang on by, and using the tail
as a suspender when they descended. Sometimes the tail is thrown in a reverse direction, and is
turned over the back, and at other times, when the weather is cold, it is rolled closely up towards the
under part, and coiled up almost between the thighs. They are like little balls of fur, and are very
gentle and harmless.

Mr. Gould states that another kind of these Dormouse-looking creatures is veiy abundant in the
northern portion of Van Diemen's Land, and that of all trees it appears to prefer the Baiiksia, whose
numerous blossoms supply it with a never-ceasing store of food, both of insects and sweets. It under-
goes a kind of hibernation somewhat similar to but not to the extent of that of the Dormouse.

These pretty little marsupials are remarkable by having only three true molar teeth in each
jaw on both sides; but they have the usual two narrow, long, and pointed incisors in the lower jaw.
The auditory bullse on the base of the skull are large, and the hard palate has four openings in it.
The lower jaw is slender behind, and the angular process is inflected, the process of bone being,
however, slender and pointed. Their mouse-like shape is evident, but they have a large eye, and
the ears are often more or less crumpled and pendent, but they start up and are erect at the least
noise. There are three species of these Phalangistidse, and they are included in a sub-genus,
Dromicia. They live in Van Diemen's Land, Western Australia, and South Australia. Some which
were found in King George's Sound district live in retreats under the dead bark of trees, and
in holes in trees which have been burnt out.

* Phalangista Nana.

THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER. 207

THE FLYING PHALANGERS.

The next genus of the family Phalangistidae contains the Flying Phalangers, which form the genus
Petaurus. They have all the peculiarities of the Phalangers, and also a skin on the flank of the body,
which is extended between the fore and hind legs, which serves to sustain the animal in the air,
when descending from a height. They have a long hairy tail. The Yellow-bellied Flying Phalanger
(Petaurus australis, Shaw) may be taken as the type of the genus, and is fourteen indies long
in the body, and nineteen in the tail. The peculiar fold of fur, which is its flying machine,
is attached to the fore leg as far as the elbow, and all down the legs to the great toe. It
is common in all the brushes of New South Wales, particularly those along the coast from Port
Phillip to Moreton Bay. Mr. Gould states, in addition to this, " In these vast forests, trees of one
kind or other are perpetually flowering, and thus offer a never-failing supply of blossoms, upon which
the animal feeds. The flowers of the gum-trees, some of which are of great magnitude, are the
principal favourites, and, like the rest of the genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes
of trees and in the hollows of branches during the day, and displaying the greatest activity at night,
while running over the small leafy branches, sometimes even to their very extremities, in seai'ch of
insects and the honey of the newly-opened blossoms. Its structure being ill-adapted for terrestrial
habits, it seldom descends to the ground, except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be
attained by springing from the one it wishes to leave. The tops of the trees are traversed at a pace
and with as much ease as if it were on the ground. If chased, it ascends to the highest branches, and
performs enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address."

A slight elevation gives its body an impetus, which, with the expansion of its membrane, enables
it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap. By this
ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock which it would otherwise sustain.

THE SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER.*

This little creature, called the Sugar Squirrel by the colonists, is very generally dispersed over
the whole of New South Wales, where, in common with other Phalangers, it inhabits the magnificent
gum-trees. Mi*. Gould states that it is noctui'nal in its habits, and that it conceals itself during the
day in the hollows of trees, where it early falls a prey to the natives, who capture it both for the sake
of its flesh and skin, which latter, in some parts of the colony, they dispose of to the colonists, who
occasionally apply it to the same purposes as those to which the fur of the Chinchilla and other
animals is applied in Europe. At night it becomes extremely active in its motions. It prefers those
forests which adorn the more open and grassy portions of the country rather than the thick brush
near the coast. By expanding the membrane attached to the sides of its body it has the power of
performing enormous leaps. They have the power of changing their course to a certain extent when
descending, parachute-like, from a height. It is stated that a ship sailing off the coast had a Squirrel
Petaurus on board which was permitted to roam at large. On one occasion it reached the mast-head,
and as the sailor who was sent to bring it down approached, it made a spring from aloft to avoid
him. At this moment the ship gave a lurch, which, if the original .direction of the little creature's
course had been continued, must have plunged it in the sea. All who witnessed the scene were iu
pain for its safety ; but it suddenly appeared to check itself, and so to modify its career that it
alighted safely on deck. This kind is not more than eight or nine inches in length, and its bushy
tail is as long as the body. The soft fur of the tail, like that of the body, is a delicate ashy-
grey. There is a long stripe of black fur from the naked tip of the nose to the root of the tail,
and the cheeks are white with a black patch ; the flank membrane is edged with white, and this is the
colour of the underneath part of the body ; the ears are long, and of a brownish flesh colour.

Another kind, with a yellow flank membrane, is short-headed, and it inhabits Port Essington,
North Australia,! whilst the true Short-headed Flying Phalanger is found in New South Wales.:}: Pro-
bably it is the first of these which is found in New Guinea, and which has been called the Squirrel
Flying Phalanger by mistake. These Flying Phalangers all have long and nearly naked ears,

* Petaurus sciureus (Shaw). f Petaurus ariel. J Petaurus breviceps.

208

NA TUSAL ITISTOR Y.

SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGEK.

and the side membrane extends to the outer finger. They have the outer two fingers of the hand
long and equal to each other, or very nearly so ; the second and third fingers are distinctly shorter
than these ; and the inner finger is very short. Their dentition is — Incisors, J ; canines, i=? ; pre-
molars, ?=? ; true molars, ^ = 40. The incisors of the lower jaw are, as usual, long and pointed, and
almost horizontal, whilst the upper incisors are large and dilated, so far as the anterior ones are
concerned, and the next is smaller than the hindmost. The canine is large, and separated from the
first premolar, which is large and compressed, and all the molars have rounded tubercles on them.

The OPOSSUM MOUSE * of the colonists of New South Wales used to be common in. the neighbour-
hood of Port Jackson. It is about the size of a common Mouse, and of an ashy brown and grey colour
on the upper parts and on the flank membrane ; the rest is white. It belongs to the Flying Phalangers,
but its side membrane scarcely extends to the wrist, and the thumb of the hind foot is large. It has
only three true molars in each jaw on both sides, and the canine is close to the incisors. It forms
part of the sub-genus Acrobata, whilst those already mentioned constitute the sub-genus Belideus
(0eAos, a dart). Finally, the short-eared, white-bellied Taguan Phalanger of the scrub of New South
Wales is the type of the sub-genus Petaurus.

GENUS TARSIPES.— THE NOOLBENGER, OR TAIT.f

This is an Australian curiosity amongst the Marsupials, and is a small, mouse-like thing, with
a long muzzle, small ears, long tongue, and very few teeth. Its dental formula is — Incisors,
2=? ; canines, ^ ; molars, |=j|. The fore and hind extremities have toes something like those of the
Lemur, called Tarsius (Vol. I., page 248). The fore feet have five smallish toes, each thickened at
the end, and a minute scale-like nail, which reaches neither the end nor sides of the toe. The hind
feet have five toes on each, and the innermost has the formation of a thumb, and is slender and
nailless. The second and third toes are veiy short, and are joined to the end and furnished with
small pointed nails, which are directed upwards almost at right angles to the plane of the toe ; and
the fourth toe is twice as long as the second and third. The fifth is shorter than the fourth, and

Petaurus pyym&us.

t Tarsij)es restrains.

THE POUCHED BADGERS. 209

has a scale-like nail on the upper surface. This is the case with the fourth also. There is a long,
slender tail. The small bones of this little honey -sucker are very thin, and the lower jaw has two
slender and almost straight sides, and the inflection is wanting.

This little animal is rare, but it is to be found in West Australia, from Swan River to
King George's Sound. It is nocturnal in its habits, and catches flies in captivity with great ease.
But its food is honey, which it gets like a moth, with its tongue. The tail is prehensile, and the little
pouch contains four mammae in the female.

The little Tarsipes, with its honey and insect diet, has a very long intestine and no caecum,
whilst the Koala has a caecum more than three times the length of its body. The pigmy Acrobata has
this organ disposed in a spiral curve in the left lumbar region. The marsupial bones are large in the
Koala, and are long, broad, and flat, almost equalling the iliac bone in size. Finally, with regard to
the parachute-fold of skin on the flanks of the Petaurists, it is a simple fold with very elastic tissues
within, which draw it up to the body, more or less, when the animal is walking or standing. When,
however, the limbs are extended after a jump, the membrane becomes very tense, and acts by
increasing the surface of the body so as to oppose gravitation by the supporting power of the air.

IV.— FAMILY PER AMELIDJE.— POUCHED BADGERS.

This group of Marsupials embraces two genera, Perameles and Chceropus, the first having several
species and the last but one. They have all long, slender heads ; large, long ears, with fleshy lobes ;
longer hind than fore limbs ; the tail short in some, long in others, and hairy ; and the pouch is
directed backwards. They have a considerable number of teeth, there being ten incisors in the upper
jaw and six in the lower ; there are two canines in each jaw, three premolars in each jaw on either
side, and four true molars behind them, making forty-eight teeth in all. The teeth have fangs, the
premolars are compressed and pointed, and the molars have tubercles on them. The stomach is
simple.

GENUS PERAMELES (BANDICOOTS).— THE RABBIT-EARED PERAMELES.*
The so-called native Rabbit of the Swan River district of Western Australia is abundant
in the grassy country in the interior; and it frequents, in pairs, places where the soil will permit
of burrowing. It is about the size of a common Rabbit, and has a long and pointed muzzle, which is
naked at the tip. It has long, oval ears, which are tubular at the base. The eye is small, and
the tail is a little shorter than the body. The legs are longish, and the fur is well grown.

This sharp-looking animal lives upon insects, and its favourite food is a large grub, probably the
larvae of a species of Buprestis beetle which infest the roots of the acacia trees. In order to
obtain this peculiar food, it has to compete with the natives, who like it also, and often enough it has
to rush to its long and deep burrows for safety. Its flesh is sweet, and is much sought after by the
aborigines. One which was kept at the Zoological Gardens was very active in the evening, but
usually slept during the day-time, when, sitting upon its haunches, with its head thrust between its
hind legs, it appeared like a ball of fur. It was a very savage animal, and bit severely, holding on,
moreover, if it could, with its teeth. It waddled on its hind legs alone, which were straddled, and the
tail assisted in supporting the body. They have five toes to the fore-foot, of which the two outermost
are rudimentary and nailless, the remaining three are well developed, and are furnished with strong
solid nails, which cover the last phalanges which are cleft above in the longitudinal direction almost
to the root. The hind feet have a rudimentary inner toe, the second and third are joined and
are slender, and have two hollow nails, and the fourth is large and, like the fifth, which is well
developed, has a solid nail sheathed on the end bone.

GUNN'S PERAMELES.— THE BANDICOOT.f

This is the animal which has given the native name to the genus, and Mr. Gunn, who discovered
the species, informed Mr. Waterhouse that it is common in many parts of Van Diemen's Land, going
by the name of Bandicoot. It is a burrower, and lives principally upon roots, and it likes the bulbs

* Perameles layotis. t Perameles Ounnii.

210

NATURAL HISTORY.

which are introduced from the Cape and elsewhere into gardens. It is about sixteen inches long, and
has a slender muzzle, moderate-sized ears, and the under parts of the body are white, the rest being
grey and pencilled with black and yellow, except behind, where it is blacker. There are four broadish
white bands on this part.

THE BANDED PERAMELES.*

This is a pretty little Perameles with a body about a foot in length, and a tail of about four
inches long. It has rather a sharp and long snout, rather large ears, which are broad at the base, and
long and pointed at the tip. The fur is longish and harsh, and is pencilled with black and yellow in about
equal proportions on the upper part of the body, there being a black ground colour on the hinder part
of the back. There, however, there are three broad yellow- white bands, the foremost of which crosses
the back. The feet and under parts are white, and the tail is of the same colour underneath, but

BANDED PERAMELES.

black on the top. The feet are slender, and the hind ones have a rudimentary inner toe, naked
beneath, in front, and at the heel. In the skeleton this inner Loe has one or two phalanges, and a
small tubercle without a nail is visible before the flesh is removed. It inhabits Southern Australia
from east to west. This kind resembles the Bandicoot of Van Diemen's Land on the other side of
Bass Strait, and may be considered its representative. It is smaller than the Van Diemen's Land
species, but its tail is longer ; moreover, the ear exceeds those of the insular forms in size. Like
the other Perameles, the pouch for the young opens backwards. " Though provided with strong claws
it rarely burrows," says Mr. Krefft, "and it is a great enemy to little Rodents. It tumbles the Mice
about with its fore paws, breaks their hind legs, and eats the head."

New Guinea contains a short-legged Perameles, f which appears to be deficient in the usual
number of upper incisor teeth ; and another \ resembling the common Bandicoot.

GENTJS CH(EROPUS.— THE PIG-FOOTED PERAMELES. §

A very rare little, large-eared, small-legged animal was found by Sir Thomas Mitchell on the
banks of the River Murray, and its appearance was so remarkable that much attention was paid to its

Peraineles fasciala.

t Perameles doreyanus.

§ Chceropus castanotis—xolpos, a hog ; and TTOI/'S, a foot.

Perameles moresbyensis (Rams. ).

THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS. 211

anatomy, whilst unfortunately nothing particular was learned regarding its natural history and habits.
Subsequently the little creature, whose body is about nine inches and a half long, the tail measuring
in addition about four inches, was found in the interior of the country near the Swan River. It is an
active little animal, and a hunter of insects, but it will feed upon vegetable substances also. Mr.
Gould states that, like the Perameles, to which it is allied in many parts of its construction,
it forms a nest composed of leaves and other substances. The pouch is deep and runs upwards)
and not like that of the Kangaroo, and there are eight teats. At first there was much dis-
cussion whether the animal had a tail, but there is no doubt about its possessing one when in
the perfect condition. The slender fore limbs, no thicker than goose-quills, end in two very small
digits, and they are provided with small, compressed, and but little curved nails. They have a small
fleshy pad on their under surface, behind which is a smaller one. The hind legs are longer than the
front ones, and are almost as slender. The foot is long, and at first sight appears to have only one
large toe, for the others are very small and far removed from the end of the foot. The outer little toe
has a small nail, and the inner toes, joined, are almost as small, but they have hollow nails. The
greatly-developed toe has a conical and compressed nail, but beneath there is a large fleshy pad ; the
rest of the foot is hairy. Hence it appears that the heel is not put to the ground. The colour of the
long, loose, soft fur is brown-grey above, and yellowish-white beneath, the limbs and the fore feet
have a whitish tint, and the large toe is of a dirty white colour. So far as the skull and teeth are
concerned, the little Chceropus greatly resembles the other kinds of Marsupials which are classified
under the genus Perameles. Sir Thomas Mitchell noticed the broad head and very slender snout,
which, he stated, resembled the narrow neck of a wide bottle, in the specimen which the natives took
from a hollow tree after chasing it on the ground. In the construction of the skull and in the number
of the teeth, this long-eared creature resembles the rest of the genus Perameles. In the upper jaw
there are five incisor teeth on each side, and they are close, and the canine is small, and resembles a
premolar, and is slightly distant from the incisors. The first premolar is separated from the canine by
a space of one line and a half, and slightly from the second premolar ; and the second and third pre-
molars and the four molars form a continuous line.

V.— THE DASYURUS FAMILY.— DAS YURID^E.

These animals are all carnivoroiis, and prey upon small quadrupeds and the young of large ones,
as well as upon birds and insects. They are of different shapes and sizes, according to the genera to
which they may belong ; and whilst some resemble the Shrew Mice somewhat in outward appearance,
others are like the Marten, and one important group may be compared with Short-legged Wolves, or
Jackals. Varying in size from that of a Mouse to a small Wolf, the members of the different
genera of this family are equally variable in the number of the teeth, of the claws, and in the develop-
ment of the marsupial pouch and its bones. They all have rather long muzzles and furry tails,
which, however, are not prehensile. The second and third toes of the hind feet are disunited and well
developed, and the thumb-toe is small or absent. There are eight incisors in the upper jaw, and six
in the lower.

GENUS MYRMECOBIUS.— THE POUCHED ANT-EATERS.*

The BANDED MYRMECOBIUS may be taken as an example of this genus. It is about the size of a
Rat, but it is more Squirrel-like in shape, and has a long and pointed muzzle. The tail is long and furry,
with long hairs also ; and the prevailing colour of the body is reddish, but posteriorly it becomes dark
or black. There are nine bands of light or white colour on the sides of the body, from the back over
the flanks, and the crupper is also marked with a band. The head is long, the ears are moderately
long, narrow, and pointed, the gape is considerable, and the small pointed snout has some rather long
smellers ; there are also some long hairs under the eye, A black mai'k runs on the cheek to the ear,
and has white hairs above and below it. The fur is somewhat remarkable. The under hair is scanty
and whitish-grey, and the upper hair is rather coarse, short, and depressed on the fore parts of the
body. It is long on the hind and under parts, and the hairs on the fore part of the back are black near
the skin and reddish at the tip. The fur of the head is short and brownish above, being composed of

* Mi/rniecobiusfasciatus-fj.vf>fjin?,&ni; /3<ot, life.

212 NATURAL HISTORY.

a mixture of black, fulvous, and a few white hairs. The fore legs are rather stout and strongly made,
and the five curved and compressed claws are admirably adapted for its method of life, which consists
of insect-hunting by digging. The hind limbs are suited to support the weight of the animal, as it
scratches with the fore feet, but they are deficient in the first toes. The whole animal is about
seventeen inches long, seven inches being included in the tail This animal has a greater number of
teeth than any other Marsupial, and, indeed, they are only surpassed by some Cetacea and Edentate
Ant-eaters amongst the other Mammalia. There are fifty-two teeth in the mouth — namely, eight
upper and six lower incisors, four canines, six compressed false molars behind the canines above and
below, and ten small true molars above, and twelve below. The canines of the lower jaw are incurved,
and the last lower molars are worn in ridges internally. The number of teeth appears, however, to be
variable, and some have fifty-four and others less than fifty.

The Myrmecobius, although it has the inflected condition of the lower jawbone and small
marsupial bones, not more than half an inch in length, has no pouch. The young adhere to the
mother's nipples, and are protected by the comfortable fur and long hair of her body.

The Banded Myrmecobius was first discovered by Lieutenant Dale, who procured a specimen
whilst on an exploring expedition into the interior of the Swan River Settlement, about ninety miles
to the south-east of the mouth of the river. Two specimens of this very elegant little animal were
seen by Lieutenant Dale, both of which fled to hollow trees for shelter upon being pursued. The
district in which they were found abounded in decayed trees and ant-hills ; and, from some peculiari-
ties in the dentition of the animal, combined with its extremely long and slender tongue, it became
evident that its food was insects, and the softer and smaller species, for procuring which, by scratching
up the earth, the strong fore feet and claws appeared to be adapted. Indeed, the peculiarities of
structur-e, combined with the fact that the animal was found in the vicinity of ant-hills, suggested
that its food, in all probability, consisted chiefly of Ants : and hence the generic name. As yet, how-
ever, we have no direct evidence that Ants form the chief food of the Myrmecobius, though it is stated,
in Mr. Gould's " Mammals of Australia," that wherever this animal takes up its abode, there Ants are
found to be very abundant. In the same work the following particulars of the habits of the animal
are given from the pen of Mr. Gilbert : —

" I have seen a good deal of this little animal. It appears very much like a Squirrel when
running on the ground, which it does in successive leaps, with its tail a little elevated, every now and
then raising its body and resting on its hind feet. When alarmed, it generally takes to a dead tree
lying on the ground, and before entering the hollow, invariably raises itself on its hind feet to
ascertain the reality of approaching danger. In this kind of retreat it is easily captured ; and when
caught, is so harmless and tame as scarcely to make any resistance, and never attempts to bite. When
it has no chance of escaping from its place of refuge, it utters a sort of half-smothered grunt,
apparently produced by a succession of hard breathings.

" The female is said to bring forth her young in a hole in the ground or in a fallen tree, and to
produce from five to nine in a litter. I have not myself observed more than seven young attached to
the nipples." It is not nocturnal in its habits.

With regard to the range of the genus Myrmecobius, Mr. Gould states that it is very generally
dispersed over the interior of the Swan River Settlement, from King George's Sound on the south to
the neighbourhood of Moor's River on the north, and as far westward as civilised man has yet been
able to penetrate. Its species are also found near the Murray and Darling.

This many -toothed Ant-eating Marsupial has always been interesting to geologists, for in the
Stonesfield slates of the Oolitic formation of England, which lie low down in the Great Oolite, the
lower jaws of an animal have been found greatly resembling those of Myrmecobius. The fossil
Amphitherium has the jaws but slightly inflected, and is not without resemblance to insectivorous
creatures ; but, nevertheless, its similarity to Myrmecobius struck Owen and Lyell many years since.

GENUS DASYURUS.— THE URSINE DASYURE.*

Being a great enemy of the poultry and tender rearlings of the colonists of Van Diemen's Land,
this small creature has earned the name of the " Native Devil." It may be compared to a Bear, with

* Dasyurus ursinus.

THE DASfVSE.

213

a body about two feet in length, and the resemblance is tolerably correct in the fur, general propor-
tions of the body and limbs, and also in its gait and its actions. The Dasyure, however, has a longer
tail than the Bear, and never grows larger than a Badger. It is a short animal, with a round broad
head and rather a long snout, and the coarse black fur (brown-black on the head, tail, and beneath)
is marked by one broad white band across the chest and by another over the back, close to the tail.
The tail Is about half the length of the head and trunk. Harris notices that these animals were very
common on the British first settling at Hobart Town, and were particularly destructive to poultry,
and Mr. Gunn states that they commit great havoc among Sheep, and that notwithstanding their
comparatively small size, they are so fierce that they are a match for any ordinary Dog.

As the settlements increased in Tasmania, and the ground became cleared, the animals were
driven from their haxints near the town to the deeper recesses of the forests yet unexplored. They
were easily procured by setting a trap in the most unfrequented parts of the woods, baited with raw

flesh, all kinds of which they will eat indiscriminately and voraciously. They also, it is probable,
prey on dead fish and blubber, as their tracks are frequently found on the sands of the sea-shore. In a
state of confinement they appear to be untamably savage, biting severely, and uttering at the same
time a low yelling growl. A male and female which Mr. Harris kept for a couple of months, chained
together in an empty cask, were continually fighting. Their quarrels began as soon as it was dark,
as they slept all day, and continued throughout the night almost without intermission, accom-
panied by a kind of hollow barking, not unlike that of a Dog, and sometimes a sudden kind of
snorting, as if the breath were restrained a considerable time and then suddenly expelled. They
frequently sat on their hind parts, and used their fore paws to convey food to their mouths. The
muscles of the jaws were strong, and they crushed the largest bones asunder with ease.

This Dasyure, like the others of the genus, has the incisor teeth equal, and there are eight of them
in the upper jaw and six in the lower. The four canines are large, and there are two powerful
premolars in each jaw and on each side. These are succeeded by four molars above and below, and
on both sides of the mouth.

The incisor teeth, equal in size, are arranged in a semicircle in the upper jaw, and those of the
lower jaw have a corresponding direction, but they are rather the stoutei*. The canines are well
developed, and those of the lower jaw bite in front of those of the upper. They look eminently
122

214

NATURAL BISTORT.

TEETH OF THE DASYURE.

adapted for stopping and seizing prey, and their carnivorous character is surpassed by that of the
premolars and true molars. These last have a triangular grinding surface : the first has four sharp
cusps, the second and third have five, and the last, which is the smallest in the upper jaw, has only
three. In the lower jaw the last molar is of the same size as the last but one, and has four cusps ;
and the other molars have much resemblance to those in the upper jaw.

The hind feet have the toes separate and not united by a fold of skin, and there is a rudimentary
great toe in this species. The condyle of the humerus is not perforated — as in the Kangaroos, for

instance — for the passage of the blood vessels, but is
whole, and the outside of the bone is marked by a
groove, along which they pass.

Although this Dasyure has the lower jaw inflected,
and is a true Marsupial, the resemblance in shape, and
in dental and other characters, as well as in its habits,
to the Carnivora is striking. Its fierce character and
the nocturnal habits add to the similarity ; but there
are some very peculiar anatomical distinctions. The
wrist bones, called scaphoid and lunar, those which are
nearest the radius along the first row of carpal bones,

are separate in the Dasyure, but in the Carnivora they are united to form one bone. And in the
foot there is a peculiarity : for whilst in the Carnivora there is a groove between the heel bone and
the astragalus, this is absent in the Marsupial Carnivore, and the articular surface of the bones is
continuous.

The Dasyures have a small crest of bone on the top of the skull, which is also seen on a grander
scale in the Carnivora. They have, moreover, the zygoma well developed and strong ; it bulges
outwards and curves upwards, but not to the amount seen in the true Carnivora. The occipital bone
is developed as in the non-Marsupial mammals, but its parts, instead of joining together and forming
one with age, often remain separate ; but this does not appear to occur in all the species of the genus,
for Owen, in his wonderful article on the Marsupials in the "Cyclopaedia of
Anatomy and Physiology," notices that in the little Dasyurus Maugei the
occipital bone presents the usual state of bony confluence. He notices that the
Dasyure, in common with some other Marsupials, has the temporal bone per-
manently divided into its several parts, there being separate sqxiamous, petrous,
and tympanic bones ; but the petrous and mastoid parts are usually united.
This is a reptilian peculiarity, but the tympanic bone of the Dasyure is not
without its resemblances to those of birds. The surface on which the lower
jaw moves or is hinged, is not composed entirely by the temporal bone, but the
malar bone is slightly included, and even the sphenoid comes into the joint.

Another marked character of the Dasyures is, that their hard palates are
not whole, but have spaces and perforations, and this denotes a low organisa-
tion. This absence of a perfect hard palate is seen in other Marsupials, and
especially in the Bandicoots (Perameles).

The angular process of the lower jaw, where inflected or bent in, is
triangular and directed upwards, with a blunt point ; and the condyle of the
jaw is low, being on a level with the molar teeth.

It is remarkable that the Dasyures should have the bones of the leg, the tibia and fibula, so
connected together as to allow of a certain degree of rotation on each other, after the fashion of the
fore-arm bones. The muscles of the leg are modified for the purpose. This interesting anatomical
point recalls one of the great distinctions between the fixed leg bones of man and those of the
hand-footed Ape. It is not found, however, in the non-Marsupial mammals, whose habits of life are
simulated by the Dasyure ; but it is found in the Wombat, a burrower, and in the Koala, Phalangers,
and Opossums, which are climbers. In examining the stomachs of the Marsupials, Owen noticed
that differences in food and habit are not met by alteration in the shape of the organ, as they are in
the higher Mammalia. Thus, the common Dasyure, the insectivorous Bandicoot, and the leaf-eating

BRAIN OF THE DASYURE.

THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.

215

UPPER (A) AND VNDER (B) VIEW OF SKULL OF DASYUIIE.

Phalangers, have a full round, oval, or sub-triangulai--shaped stomach, with the right extremity

projecting beyond and below the pylorus. The length of the stomach seldom exceeds the height by

more than one-third. No caecum is found in the carnivorous Marsupial, and the intestine is short

and Avide, being continued, like the intestine of

a reptile, along the margin of a single and

simple mesentery, from the pylorus to the

rectum (Owen). The liver has a gall-bladder in

the Dasyure, and there is a pancreas as well as

a spleen. The heart is contained in a slight

pericardium, as in the other Mammalia. The

Ursine Dasyure is found in Yan Diernen's Land

only.

There are several kinds of Dasyure, which
have been carefully noticed and described. One
is called the Long-tailed or Spotted Dasyure,*
and is about the size of a Cat. The fur is
reddish-brown, pencilled with yellow, and is
spotted with white both on the body and on the
tail. It has a tail as long as the head and body
together, and the under parts of the body and
the fore-legs and feet are of a dirty yellow

tinge. It lives in Van Diemen's Land, and was, from its shape, at first called a Marten. The
teats are six in number, three on each side, and seated within a slight fold only of the skin, so that
there is no true pouch.

MAUGE'S DASYURE.f

This is a small animal, not larger than a half-grown Cat. It has a longish bushy tail, a broad
head, and is somewhat of greyish-yellow colour. There are white spots on the sides of the body and
tail. In confinement this little creature is torpid by day, but lively as evening comes on, and it
rushes about, with its tail extended, with great rapidity. It is very injurious to the poultry when in
a wild state, and is called the Wild Cat in Van Diemen's Land. A variety of it is the Viverrine
Dasyure, which has the head and body spotted with white, the general colour being brown, black, or
grey, tinted with yellow, the under parts being white. It has long hairs to its tail; rather large ears,
the flesh of which is of a pale pink, as is that of the naked lips, the tip of the nose, and the soles
of the feet, the latter being hairless, but covered with small fleshy tubercles. There is no trace of
an inner toe to the hind foot, unless it be a slight swelling of the flesh, marking the situation of
the rudimentary bone beneath. Both of these animals are to be found in New South Wales and
Van Diemen's Land.

The rest of the Dasyures are widely spread over the continent. The smallest kind is the North
Australian Dasyure. Geoffrey's Dasyure, which has a thin tail and an inner toe to the hind foot, in-
habits Western and Southern Australia and New South Wales, is a great killer of the Yellow-crested
Cockatoo, and they hunt and kill Mice or Hats as well as any Cat. They have not a pouch.

GENUS THYLACINUS. t— THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS. §

This is a Dog-like, slim, narrow-muzzled animal, with clean and rather short limbs, a foxy head,
and a tail about half as long as the body, which in males is forty-five inches in length. It is about
the size of a Jackal, and the fur is short, but rather woolly and greyish-brown, faintly suffused with
yellow in colour. The fur on the back is deep brown near the skin, and yellowish-brown towards the
tip. It has from twelve to fourteen black bands on the body, and the tail has long hairs at the tip
only. The eyes are keen, large, and full, and they are black and have a nictitating membrane.

* Dasyurus macrurus, or maculatus.
J (WAaxos, a pouch.

t Dasyurus Maugei (Geoffrey).
§ Thylatinus cynocephalus.

216

NATURAL HISTORY.

The animal walks half on its toes and half on its soles or palms, and thus is a semi-plantigrade, the
body being brought nearer the ground than that of the Wolf in running. There, is a marsupial
pouch, but the bones are mere cartilages. The Dog-headed Thylacinus, or the Zebra- Wolf of the
colonists of Van Diemen's Land, thus described, has often been taken for one of the Garni vora, and
certainly thei-e are great i-esemblances between it and the Dogs. The canine teeth are of large size,
but they are recurved at the top, and in the upper jaw are separated from the incisors by a space,
into which the point of the lower canine fits when the jaws are closed. This is different in the Dogs,

DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.

whose lower canine passes on the outer side of the upper one when the mouth is closed. The pre-
molar of the Thylacinus has a small cusp behind, but in the lower jaw the premolars are isolated,
and do not form a continuous cutting and masticating ridge. It is also to be remembered that this
animal has a peculiar lower jaw, as it is one of the Marsupials, and the angle is inflected. It is a
Marsupial, with some structures which foreshadow those of the more highly-developed Dog.

Mr. Harris, who was the first to make this animal known, states that it lives among caverns
and rocks, in the deep and almost impenetrable glens, in the neighbourhood of the highest mountains
of Van Diemen's Land. The specimen from which his description was taken was caught in a trap
baited with Kangaroo's flesh ; it remained alive but a few hours, having received some internal hurt
whilst being secured. From time to time it uttered a short guttural cry, and it appeared exceedingly
inactive and stupid, and, like the Owl, had an almost continual motion of the nictitant membrane
of the eye. Remains of an. Echidna were found in the stomach of the animal. Waterhouse states,

THE POUCHED WEASELS. 217

on the authority of Mr. Gunn, that these animals are common only in the remoter parts of the colony,
and used to be frequently caught at Woolnooth and the Hampshire Hills. They attack the Sheep
at night, but are occasionally seen during the daytime, upon which occasions, perhaps from imperfect
vision, their pace is very slow. Mr. Gunn also observes that the Thylacinus sometimes attains so
large and formidable a size, that a number of Dogs will not face it. That gentleman denies that the

SKELETON OF THE DOG-HEADED THYLACINUS.

tail of the animal is compressed, as has been stated by some authors, and his observations do not
confirm the aquatic habits which have been attributed to it. There are cartilages in the place of the
marsupial bones ; but the pouch is well developed in the female Thylacine, and there are four well
developed teats, each four inches long, indicating that it may contain four young ones at a time.
The marsupium, or pouch, opens backwards, not, as in the Kangaroos and most others, forwards.

GENUS PHASCOGALE (POUCHED WEASELS).— THE BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.*

This genus includes many species of small Weasel- or Rat-like Marsupials. They are small,
insectivorous, and climb shrubs and trees in pursuit of their prey. The largest known is about
the size of a common Rat. The brush-tailed kind inhabits New South Wales, South Australia,
and Western Axistralia, and is a pretty little animal, having a long and soft fur, of a grey colour
above and white or yellow- white under the body. The eyes are encircled with black, and there is
a pale spot above and below the eye, and the hairs are blackest along the middle of the head. The
ear is rather large and not furry ; the tail is about equal to the body in length, or seven inches to nine
inches, and there is a portion near its end of about two inches in length, which is clothed with short,
stiff hairs, and the rest has long and glossy hairs, sometimes an inch or two long. An insectivorous
little creature, its teeth are modified to meet its diet, and they are less carnivorous than the other
Dasyurids. They have the two foremost incisors of the upper and lower jaw larger than the others.
There are three premolars in each jaw on each side, and eight molars above and below, which are
studded with prickly tubercles, those of the upper jaw having triangular crowns. There are five toes to
the fore and hinder extremities, and the inner toe of the latter is in the form of a small nailless pre-
hensile thumb. The brain-case is large and the skull comparatively smooth. The species just noticed
is said to enter the stores of the settlers, and it makes a nest in the hollows of the trunks of trees or in
the branches. The female has no pouch, but ten teats covered with hair. It is the Tapoa Tafa of
White, according to Krefft.

Another species, about six inches long, not including a tail of three inches — the Freckled Phasco-
gale — lives in the Swan River district and at King George's Sound, being generally distributed over
Western Australia. It has the fur freckled with black and white on the head and fore parts of the
body. Mr. Gilbert found insect remains in its stomach, and he obtained a female specimen having

* Phascogale penicillata..

218

NA TURAL HISTOR Y.

BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOGALE.

seven young attached. They were little more than half an inch in length, and quite blind and naked.
Above the teats of the mother is a very small fold of skin, from which the long hairs of the under sur-
face spread downwards, and effectually cover and protect the young. This fold is the only approxima-
tion to a pouch which has been found in any species of this genus. The young are very tenacious of
life, and those just mentioned lived nearly two days attached to the mammae of the dead mother.

The Yellow-footed Phascogale is a kind which inhabits New South Wales and South Australia,
and the White-footed Phascogale and a closely-allied kind live in South Australia and Yan Diemen's
Land. In New Guinea, which constitutes a part of the Australian natural history province, there is
a black, short-eared, and short-furred kind, about the size of a Rat, called Phascogale melas.

ANTECHINUS.

31

OPOSSUM AND YOUNG.

THE OPOSSUMS. 219

There is a little kind, measuring only three inches in length, with white fur everywhere, except on
the upper parts, which are ashy grey ; and in Western and Southern Australia there is one which has
great ears, very slender limbs, and a short and thick fat tail. It looks like a large-eared, fat-tailed
Mouse, and is under four inches in length. All these kinds of Phascogale, except the brush-tailed one,
belong to a group with very short hairs on the tail, and are sometimes classified under the name
Antechinus, the thick-tailed one being termed Podabrus ; and they all have shallow pouches.

CHAPTER III.

THE OPOSSUMS.

Prehistoric Opossums— Description of the Animal— Their Teeth— Habits— THE COMMON OPOSSUM— D'AZAKA'S OPOSSUM—
THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM— THE THICK-TAILED OPOSSUM— MERIAN'S OPOSSUM— Pouchless Opossums— Their Young
— THE MURINA OPOSSUM — THE ELEGANT OPOSSUM — THE YAPOCK— Classification of Marsupial Animals — Geographical
Distribution of the Sub-Order — Ancestry of the Marsupials — Fossil Remains.

VI.— THE OPOSSUM FAMILY.— DIDELPHID^}.

THE Marsupial animals included in this family are not found in Australia or in Yan Diemen's
Land, or in any part of the natural history province to which those countries belong. They are
numerous, however, and are now living on the American continent ; but formerly some inhabited
Europe during that geological period which is called the Eocene. The Opossums are very rat-like in
form, the largest species being about the size of a large Cat, but they have the snout more elongated ;
and in some species in which the individuals are large the body is proportionately stout, and on most
there is a comfoi-table fur, with short and long hair. The tail is almost always very long, nearly
destitute of hair, excepting at the root, and is covered with a scaly skin, there being a few scattered
hairs. It is a useful organ, for the Opossums hang by it, and it assists them in climbing and descending
trees, and in holding on, when they are young, to their parent. The ears are rather large and round,
the eyes are placed rather high up in the face, and the long muzzle ends in a naked snout. The
legs look short for the body. The feet are naked
beneath ; there are five toes, and the great toe is
more or less opposable to the foot, and acts like a
grasping thumb. Each toe is furnished with
moderate-sized claws, excepting the inner toe of
the hind foot, which is clawless. The Opossums
are remarkable for the great number of their
incisor teeth, there being ten in the upper and

eight in the lower jaw, and they are arranged in TEETH OF THE OPOSSUM.

a semicircular manner. The upper and two fore-
most incisors are rather longer than the rest, and are generally separated from them by a narrow
space. They are nearly cylindrical and expanded at the tip. The canines are well developed, the
upper ones being the largest. There are three premolars on each side of both jaws, and they have
two roots, and are compressed and pointed. There is a posterior talon to them. The molars, eight
in each jaw, have three roots, and those of the upper jaw have the crown of a triangular form and
tubercular, whilst those of the lower jaw are longer than broad, and each has the appearance of five
prickly cusps on its upper surface.

Some of the Didelphidae have no marsupium, or pouch, or it is very slightly developed, and in
these particular kinds the young, after having left the nipples, are carried on the back of the mother,
retaining their position by twining their tails around here. The mammae are numerous : there may
be as many as thirteen, an odd one being found in the centre of the ring of the other nipples.

The Opossums are active, sly, and very intelligent in certain things, and their food consists of
insects, small reptiles, birds, and eggs. Living for the most part in trees, they secrete themselves in

220 NATURAL HISTORY.

the hollows of the branches and trunks during the daytime and sally forth in the night. They have a
moderate-sized csecum. It must be noticed that the great toe of the hind foot is well developed, has
no nail, and enables the creature to grasp, and is thus very useful ; and that they walk plantigrade.
The ankle and leg have the same movements as in the Wombats, and the same general anatomy. If the
members of the family are compared with those of the families which live in the Australian province,
it will be found that they most resemble the Perameles and Dasyures. The Opossums may be
divided into three groups : those whose pouch is well developed, those in which it is a mere fold, and
those which have webbed feet and live in the water, like Otters.

SKELETON OF THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSfM.

THE COMMON OPOSSUM.*

This is a large kind, and is about the size of a common Cat, and its long, large, pointed head, ending
in a naked snout, and having eyes encircled in dusky brown fur amongst the white hair and fur
of the head, gives it a very cunning and thoughtful appearance. The ears are black. The tail is long
and prehensile, the end being white and the rest black, and the legs and feet are brownish. It is a
great climber, and uses its tail almost as much as some of its Monkey companions. Running along the
branches, it will often suspend itself by its tail, and give a swing and let go, thus launching its body
to a distance, and then it catches at the boughs with its feet and unclawed but prehensile hind toe-
thumb. In coming down trees it uses the tail to steady itself, and to prevent too rapid a fall ; and in
climbing, the ever-ready tail prevents mishaps, should the clawed toes not grasp sufficiently. The
natural food of this Opossum is probably vegetarian, but it is a great birds'-nester ; it will eat roots
and fruits, but the early settlers found it very destructive to their poultry, for it catches the birds
and sucks their blood, not eating the flesh : consequently, it has been much hunted, and as the fur
and skin are sometimes used, the destruction of the Opossum has been great. It is a curious creature,
and seems to have gained experience in its struggle with man, and as many stories are told of its
cleverness as there are about Reynard the Fox and the Indian Jackal. It will sham death in a most
persevering manner, and is at the same time very tenacious of life.

The skull has strong temporal ridges, which form a sagittal crest, and the arch of the zygoma is
well grown. The animal has a longer facial part of the skull and a smaller brain-case than the other
Dasyures, and the brain has large olfactory or front lobes. The cerebral hemispheres are small, and
there are no convolutions. This is essentially a North American animal, and is found from Mexico
to the Southern States inclusive.

The female brings forth from twelve to sixteen young at a time, and her nest, which is formed of
dry grass, is usually at the root of a tree or bush. When first born, the young are said not to be

* Didelphys virginianum.

THE OPOSSUM.

221

more than a grain in weight, and blind, naked, and shapeless. They find the teats in the mother's
pouch, unless she places them on to them with her mouth, and they cling on so as not to be
separated except by violence. In about five days, so rapid is their growth, they have reached the size
of a Mouse, and all their parts are developed. They then leave the pouch, and return to suckle and
when danger appears. During this time the female shows great attachment to her young ; and Mr.
Waterhouse, from whose work these descriptions are taken, states that she will suffer any torture
rather than permit the pouch to be opened.

CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.

AZARA'S OPOSSUM.*

This is a smaller animal than the common or Virginian Opossum, but its tail is long in proportion
to its body. It is the South American representative of its larger fellow species, and is found over
a very wide extent of country. It was noticed by the celebrated naturalist D'Azara in Paraguay ;
Mr. Darwin found it at Maldonado, La Plata ; and specimens have been obtained from the Brazils,
Santa Fe de Bogota, and Bolivia. This is because it is not entirely a forest animal, but is
found occasionally in the open country. It may be distinguished from the common Opossum by three
distinct black marks on its head, by its large tail, one-third of which is covered with fur like that on
the body. The rest of this important member is scaly, with small hairs springing from between, the

123

Didelphys D'Azarce.

222

NATURAL HISTORY.

scales being black in the second third, and white at the tip in colour. The habits of this Opossum are
nocturnal, and it lies concealed by day in burrows in the ground or in thickets. At night it climbs
trees to feed upon fruits and birds' eggs. It will chase and catch sleeping birds, and suck their blood
like a Weasel.

THE CRAB-EATING OPOSSUM.*

A small Opossum, with a long black tail tipped with white, and a dull-coloured fur to its body,
lives in Brazil and Guiana, and has a very omnivorous disposition. Preferring swampy situations,
it lives mostly on the trees, hunts small birds and insects, and even catches a reptile now and then,
but its fondness for the Crustacea of the swamps is proverbial, and hence its name of Crab-eater.

Another species is interesting from being found in the part of California which adjoins Mexico.
The Short-headed Opossum also belongs to this group, and is from the same locality. Besides these,
there are several smaller pouch-bearing Opossums, without the long hair of those just mentioned, and
they are from Brazil, Guiana, and Surinam — for instance, the Quica, the Naked-tailed, and the Four
Spotted kinds. The Philander Opossum is a bird-hunter, and lives in Surinam.

The next group of Opossums have no pouch, but there may be folds of the skin protecting the
mammae.

THE THIOK-TAILED OPOSSUM, t

As its name implies, this pouchless Opossum has a very thick tail. Moreover, it has smaller
ears than the other Opossums, and has a short head and short legs. The fur is made up of harsh
hairs, which are close to the body, and there is but little under fur. Its colour is yellow-brown, but
the eye and muzzle are brownish, and the tail, with the terminal two-thirds, is black, with the
exception of a small white spot at the end. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay, and extends south-
wards to the River Plate. One of the Opossums was kept by D'Azara, who found it quiet, tame,
and stupid ; but having been fed on raw meat, and a parrot happening to come too close, it killed
the bird in a moment. There are folds of skin in the lower part of the abdomen, but no pouch, and
there are six mammae.

Another of the Opossums is called Merian's Opossum, or Didelphys dorsigera, and it inhabits
Surinam. It was described by Madame Merian in 1717, who represented it in her great book on

MERIAN'S OPOSSUM.

insects with its young clustered on its back and hanging on to the mother's tail, which was curved
over its back, with their little tails.

* Didelphys cancrivora, t Didelphys crassicaudatus.

THE YJ.POCK. IL*

It is very curious that the young of these pouchless Opossums should resemble those of the whole
order in being comparatively little advanced in their development at the time of their birth. The
young are at first strongly attached to the teats of the mother, and when they are sufficiently strong
and grown to leave them, occasionally she takes them off from the nipples and places them on her
back° Here they cling on with their tails to hers. Hence the name of back-bearing, or Dorsigera,
which is given to this kind.

It was at first supposed that this method of carrying the young was restricted to this species, but
subsequent experience has shown that several kinds do the same thing.

Two or three other species of Opossum are interesting from their small size and habits. Thus the
Murina Opossum (Didelphys murina), with a very long tail, inhabits Guiana, Brazil, Peru, and Mexico.
The body is about five inches in length, and the tail is either slightly longer or about the same. Yet this
little thing attacks birds and insects ; it burrows in the ground, and climbs trees to get its insect food.

The Elegant Opossxim (Dldelphys elegans), of Chili, is still smaller than the last, and frequents
the thickets growing on the rocky hills near Valparaiso. They are numerous, or were so when
Mr. Darwin observed them, and are easily caught in traps baited with cheese or meat. The tail
appeared to be rarely, if at all, used as a prehensile organ ; yet they could run up trees with some
degree of facility. It is an interesting fact that some of the smallest Opossums prey upon Lizards and
Snakes as large, and even heavier, than themselves.

The last section of the Opossums contains the Water Opossum,

THE YAPOCK.*

This animal has a perfect pouch, and has large hind feet, the toes of which are united by a web.
The fore feet are moderate-sized, and the pisiform bone is unusually long. Its habits are aquatic.

* Chironectes variegatus.

224

NATURAL HISTORY.

The Yapock has large naked ears, and a long, almost naked, tail, and is altogether rather larger than
the common Rat. Its method of life is very much the same as that of the Otter. It is a good diver,
and feeds upon crustaceous and other aquatic animals. It is a native of Guiana and Brazil.

The Marsupial animals assume the general shape and habits of many orders of Mammalia which
have no marsupium, and which live in the other great natural history provinces. Thus there are
Marsupial animals like Dogs, Rats, Squirrels, Flying Squirrels, Deer, &c. They have, therefore,
many methods of life as a group, and, as might be expected, the brain and nervous system present
many differences in them. In all, the front lobes of the brain which deal with the sense of smell are
very large, and in some, such as in the Carnivorous Marsupials, they are exposed, and not covered by
the main mass of the brain. In the Kangaroos, however, these olfactory lobes are hidden more or less.
These last also have well-marked convolutions on the brain which are nearly wanting in those fii-st
mentioned.

The Marsupial animals just considered have been classified to a certain extent during their
descriptions, but it is necessary to recapitulate. They are arranged in groups of genera or species, or
into families. They are as follows : —

ORDER MARSUPIALIA.— SUB-ORDER MARSUPIATA.

Family MACROPODIDJE

PHASCOLOMYID^E

PHALANGISTID.K

PERAMELID.*:

DASYURIDJE

DIDELPHID^E

The Macropodidse, Phalangistidae, Peramelidse, and Dasyuridse are found living somewhere or
other in the Australian distributional province, which includes the mainland, Tasmania to the
south, and the Molucca and Arru Islands to the north, bounded by the Straits of Lombok, and
Celebes, New Guinea, New Ireland, Timor, Amboyna, Banda, and Waigeoe. Each family is not
represented fully, however, in all the remarkably separated divisions of the province. Thus the
genera Macropus and Dendrolagus of the first family, Petaurus and Phalangista of the third, Pera-
meles of the fourth, and Phascogale of the Dasyuridse have been found in New Guinea ; but in other
islands, such as Celebes, and in those from Lombok to Timor, the genus Cuscus alone is represented.
In the Moluccas, Cuscus and the genus Petaurus are found. In Van Diemen's Land about one-half of
the species are peculiar to the island, and the remainder are found also on the eastern districts of the
mainland. It has Kangaroos, Potoroos, Wombats, Phalangers, Bandicoots, and three out of the four
genera of Dasyurida?. Western Australia, which is such a remarkable botanical province, and is so
separated by desert and sand from the east, has numerous Kangaroos, Potoroos, Phalangers, Bandicoots,

* The sub-genera Halmaturus and Heteropus, Osphranter, Lagorchestes, and Petrogale, are included in Macropus,
and many other sub-genera relating to the other families merely complicate the classification. Bettongia, Potoroiis, are
sub-genera or artificial groups of the genus Hypsiprymnus ; Cuscus, Trichosurus, Pseudochirus, and Dromicia, are groups
of Phalangistidae ; Petaurista, Belideus, and Acrobata are divisions of the genus Petaurus ; Macrotis is a sub-genus of Pera-
meles ; Antechinus is a division of the genus Phascogale ; Sarcophilus is a sub-genus of Dasyuvus. These are unnecessary
sub-divisions.

- Genus Macropus .

Kangaroos.*

„ Dendrolagus

Tree Kangaroos.

„ Hypsiprymnus .

Potoroos.

„ Hypsiprymnodon

The Hypsiprymnodon.

„ Phascolomys

The Wombat.

,, Phascolarctus

The Koala.

' The Cuscus.

Dormouse Phalanger.

Phalangers.

„ Petaurus .

Flying Phalangers.

„ Tarsipes

Tarsipes.

„ Perameles .

Bandicoots.

„ Choeropus .

Choeropus.

1,, Mynnecobius

Ant-eaters.

„ Phascogale .

Phascogale.

,, Dasyurus .

Dasyures.

„ Thylacinua'.

Dog-headed Thylacinus.

,, Didelphys .

Opossum.

„ Chironectes

Yapock.

FOSSIL MARSUPIALS. 225

Phascogales, Dasyures ; and, in common with South Australia, a Chceropus, whilst the genus Tarsipes
is peculiar to it. The Wombat is found in Van Diemen's Land and some of the islands in Bass
Strait. It is found in the south and east of the mainland of Australia, but not to the west and north.
Mr. Waterhouse notices that the Marsupials of the eastern districts are for the most part distinct from
those of the opposite side of the continent, there being, when his great work, which has been so
constantly referred to in this description, was written, but eight species out of upwards of sixty
inhabiting the two provinces. South Australia is the habitat of more common species than else-
where. The northern part of Australia has more species peculiar to it than the other divisions,
and some of its Dasynridee especially, and species of Cuscus also, are found in the Arm and other
islands to the north. The metropolis of the sub-genus Cuscus is in the Moluccas, where two species are
widely distributed, or one is restricted to certain islands.

The other divisions of the genus are i-epresented by the Vulpine Phalanger, an animal with long loose
fur, which inhabits New South Wales, Western Australia, and North Australia ; by Cook's Phalanger, of
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. The genus Perameles, the Bandicoots, has species in
Van Diemen's Land, Australia, New Guinea, and in the Arm Islands, and the genus Petaurus has a
corresponding distribution. The Didelphidse are found in the United States, California, Mexico, Peru,
Guiana, Brazil, Paraguay, Banda Oriental, and Chili ; and Brazil is the country where they abound
the most in species and individuals, the number diminishing to the north and south.

The Marsupials have a great ancestry, and some of them lived when the continents and oceans
of the earth were in very different relative positions to those they now occupy. Indeed, it is most
probable that the fossil remains of the most ancient mammal belong to this order. There is a small
double-fanged molar tooth of a mammal which was found by Plieninger, in 1847, contained in a jumble of
shells and of the remains of reptiles and fishes in strata beneath the Lias formation of Diegerloch, near
Stuttgart. It and another which was discovered close by, by the same professor, belonged to animals
which were dead when this topmost stratum of the Trias, immediately beneath the Lias, was being formed.
They are Triassic in age, therefore, and they somewhat resemble the back teeth of a fossil which was
found subsequently in the Purbeck strata of England, and which evidently belonged to a Marsupial more
or less resembling the existing Kangaroo-Rats or Potoroos, of the genus Hypsiprymnus. Later
on, Professor W. Boyd Dawkins, F.R.S., discovered a small tooth belonging to the same extinct genus
as that which included Plieninger's fossil, namely, Microlestes ; and its resemblance to one of Hypsi-
prymnus is even greater. Its position was high up in the Trias of Watchet in Somersetshire. Mr. Charles
Moore, of Bath, had previously found many specimens of teeth of the same family in a fissure, down
which they had been washed by the Triassic sea.

A lower jaw of a small Mammal was found in the Trias of North America by Emmons ; and it
has on one side three incisors, one long canine, then a diastema, three premolars, and seven molars
with three points. It is therefore one of the Myrmecobius group.

After the age of the Trias, when there was much continuous land surface, Europe was broken up
into a coral island tract, during the age of the collection of the Jurassic deposits. The islands were
tenanted by many small Marsupials, four species of which have been discovered in the deposits of
Stonesfield slate at the bottom of the Great Oolite. They belong to the extinct genera Amphithe-
rium, Phascolotherium, and Stereognathus, and the first somewhat resembled the Myrmecobius of
recent times ; but all that can be said is that they belonged to Marsupial animals. Piled on the Stones-
field slates are many hundred feet of strata, and high up amongst them, in the Swanage and Purbeck
districts, are deposits in which Messrs. Brodie and Beckles have found portions of the skeletons of
numerous insectivorous Marsupials, of which the genera Spalacotherium, Plagiaulax, Triconodon, and
Galestes are the most important. They were small, as a ride, and there has been much debate regard-
ing their affinities with modern insectivorous forms, and they are still surrounded with doubt.

The appearance of the Mammalia without pouches took place in the Eocene age, and in the Old
and New World, and contemporaneously with them lived in France a kind of Opossum, some of whose
bones were found in the strata of Montmartre, near Paris ; and in later Tertiary strata other relics
have been found. These are the only instances of a fossil Didelphid occurring out of the New World ;
and there, where the Opossums are now characteristic animals, they were present in the last geological
age, for in the Brazilian. latest deposits remains of several species of Didelphys have been found.

226 NATURAL HISTORY.

Remains of these fossil Opossums have been found in the North American Pliocene deposits. The
more ancient deposits of Australia have not yielded the remains of any of the animals which are
now so peculiar to the province, but in the bone caves of the Wellington Valley, some two hundred
and ten miles west of Sydney, Sir Thomas Mitchell discovered a mass of bones, forming a breccia
with limestone, which contained numerous and most interesting Marsupial remains. In deposits
of the same late age, and in bogs and gravels in Queensland, other remains were found. They
were described by Sir R. Owen in one of his greatest works, and they belong to the Australian
families of Marsupials, and not to the American Didelphidse. As was usual elsewhere before the
appearance of man on the earth, and contemporaneously with him for awhile, many of the kinds
which resemble more or less those now living, or would be classified in the same family, and perhaps in
the same genus, are gigantic. Owen distinguished among the bones those of large fossil Marsupials
which belong to the Macropodidee, and which may be arranged as subdivisions of the genus Macropus
or Kangaroos, and of a powerful creature called Thylacoleo, or Pouched Lion, which must be admitted
as a new section of the Macropodidae, and whose habits were probably carnivorous, although there is
much diversity of opinion on the subject, some of the most distinguished anatomists believing the
creature to have been of an innocent disposition, although appearances are much against it. It is
more closely allied to Plagiaulax, of the English Purbeck beds, than to any other form, and they well
fit in between the genera Macropus and Hypsipiymnus.

A huge Marsupial, with a skull three feet in length, with teeth, in front especially, on the
Kangaroo plan, and with longer fore limbs and shorter hind ones than the last-named animal, was
described by Owen. The pelvis, however, has but two sacral vertebrae, and its ilio-pubic process
would ally it with the Macropodidse. This Diprotodon was an herbivorous animal, and was of the
size of a Rhinoceros. This great Marsupial had fore limbs which possessed the power of rotation, and
it was not without some characters which are seen amongst the Wombats. It appears to have
had a great range, for its remains have been found in the caverns in the Wellington Valley, at
Welcome Springs, South Australia, Hergolt's Springs, 500 miles north of Adelaide, near Melbourne,
in the valley of the Condamine River, and widely over Queensland. A slightly smaller animal, called
the Nototherium, also existed with the larger one.

The species of this genus have no lower incisive tusks, and a very short chin ; the angle of the
jaw is curved inwards, and there were only four molar teeth on each side in both jaws, and they
were with two strong roots or fangs. It was probably one of the Macropodidse. Others of this
family are allied to Dendrolagus, and form the genera Protemnodon and Sthenurus. The Wombat
was represented in the age of the great Marsupials; and both large and small species, one being of
the size of the Tapir, have been described from bones and teeth which were found in the cave deposits
of Australia. Remains of a Marsupial animal, probably of the Vulpine Phalanger, were found in
the same caves, as were also some referable to the genus Perameles, or Bandicoots, and to the
Potoroos. Several fossil species of the family Dasyuridse have been found in the Australian caves,
and one of them is referable to a section of the genus Dasyurus, which at present is restricted to Van
Diemen's Land, it being somewhat like Dasyurus iirsimw; moreover, probably, there was a species of
Thylacinus present also. So far as is known from the researches of Owen amongst this wonder-
ful cave fauna, no members of the family Didelphidse occur there. They were American then, as
they are now.

227

CHAPTER IV
SUB-OKDEK— MONOTBEMATA.*

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA AND DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.f

Why the Monotremata are formed into a Sub-order— The lowest of the Mammalian Class— THE PORCUPINE OK LONG-SPINED
ECHIDNA — An Ant-eater, but not an Edentate — Its Correct Name — Description of the Animal — Habits and Disposition
— Manner of Using the Tongue — Where it is Found —Anatomical Features: Skull, Brain, Marsupial Bones — The
Young — Species of Van Diemen's Land and New Guinea — THE WATER MOLE, OR DDCK-BILLED PLATYPUS — The most
Bird-like Mammal — Various Names— Description — Their Appearance and Movements hi Water — Their Burrows^
Habits of an Individual kept in Confinement — Used by Natives as Food — How they are Captured — The Young — A
Family in Captivity— the Snout — Jaws — Teeth — Tongue — Fore and Hind Feet — Heel — Spur — The Shoulder Girdle-
Breastbone — Concluding Remarks on the Sub-orders — Postscript on the Monotremes.

THE PORCUPINE OR LONG-SPINED ECHIDNA.

THIS animal is the first example of some Marsupial beasts which are separated into a sub-order,
because, in addition to the marsupial bones, there are some internal points of construction which are
more bird- and lizard-like than those of the Kangaroo tribes. It contains animals which are the
lowest of the Mammalian class, and are found only in the Australian natural history province. The
Porcupine Ant-eater, as its name implies, has somewhat the shape of a Hedgehog or Porcupine, and it
is fond of burrowing with its peculiar limbs, as well as of eating Ants with the assistance of its long
tongue. But its internal anatomy and the construction of the skeleton differ from those of the true
Ant-eaters, which belong to the order Edentata. It was called Ant-eater by its first describer (Shaw)
in 1792, but a few years afterwards it was decided to belong to the same group as an animal about to
be described — the Duck-billed Platypus, or Water Mole — and Cuvier, whilst believing that they both
belonged to a peculiar order, separated this false Ant-eater from the Water Mole as a species and
genus. He called this Hedgehog-like creature Echidna, from the presence of a spur on the heel,
which is perforated, and which was erroneously supposed to be poisonous, like the fang of a Viper
C'ExiSj'a). The correct name is the Long-spined Echidna, or the Porcupine Echidna (Echidna hystrix).
The creature greatly resembles a Hedgehog with a very long snout, at first sight, but a slight
examination will show that it differs much from the insect -eating and spiny little Hystrix. The
Echidna is about a foot in length, and the upper part of its short body is covered with strong spines,
and the rest is hairy, the front of the head, and the long, slender, and
•capering snout being naked. The legs are short and strong, and the five
toes of the fore leg have large and strong claws. This is in order to pennit
the creature to bury itself in sand and soft earth quickly, and this operation
is assisted by a broad and rounded nail on the inner toe of the hind foot and
by large claws on the other toes, and especially by a long nail to the second
toe. A very long and flexible tongue enables the creature to catch prey.
There are no teeth. The skull, when the skin and flesh have been removed,
has a very pear-like appearance. It is a great burrower, and manages to
get out of the way of observers as soon as is possible, for working actively
with its strong limbs and claws, it pokes its snout into the earth and soon
gets out of view. Ants are its favourite food, and they are captured in the PELVIC ARCH OF THE
same way as by the Great Ant-eaters belonging to the Edentata : for in both

J J _ (a a) Marsupial Bones.

there is a long slimy tongue, which can be poked far out of the mouth into

Ants' nests. The saliva required to make the tongue sticky comes from large glands under the lower
jaw from the ear on to the fore part of the chest. When the Ants have collected on the sticky
tongue it is taken into the mouth, and they are swallowed. The absence of teeth is made up by the
presence of horny spines on the palate and tongue, which look backwards, and these crush and direct

* fjiovof, one ; Tpjj^ii, opening.

+ Echidna hystrix (Cuvier). Much confusion has been produced by Illiger, who changed the generic title to Tachyglossus,
Taxv's, quick, and iMaa-aa, tongue ; but the name given by Cuvier must stand, except in the minds of those zoologists who
delight in novelties, and believe that the use of long words carries wisdom. Lately more confusion has been produced by
the introduction of the generic term Acanthoylossus, which we do not admit or use.

228

NATURAL HISTORY.

the food to the throat. It is an apathetic and stupid animal, and usually tries to get out of the lio-ht,
and it will lie and roll itself up, but not so successfully as a Hedgehog. One of the first which was
seen was attacked by the Dogs of two of the travellers, Bass and Flinders, whose names are so familiar
from places having been named after them in Australia. The Dogs did not come off victorious for
the new animal burrowed in the loose sand, but not head foremost ; it sank itself directly downwards,
and left its prickly back just on a level with the surface.

An Echidna was watched, so that the manner in which it could use its tongue was observed.
Ants could not be had, but a diet of chopped-up eggs, liver, and meat was readily received, and it was
noticed that the tongue was used in the same manner as that of the Chameleon, by simple protrusion

PORCUPINE ECHIDNA. (After Gervais.)

and bringing in, and also as a mower moves his scythe, it being curved sideways, and the food swept
into the mouth. The Echidna is fond of water and milk, which are licked up by a rapid putting out
and drawing in of the long tongue.

Gerard Krefft says that they are usually found in mountain ranges, and among rocks in the Lower
Murray district. He failed to feed them on Ants and their eggs. On hen's eggs they fed for a time,
and liked bread-and-milk. He has reason to believe that they live on grass also, as those whose
stomachs and intestines he examined had fed on herbs and grasses. The spur on the heel is not used
as a weapon of offence.

It inhabits Australia, and has been found as far north as the Bellenden Plains, Queensland,
about 18° south latitude. A specimen has also been captured at Cape York, and others at Plain
Creek, Queensland. It is not found in Yan Diemen's Land.

With regard to the anatomy of the Echidna, it may be said that the long muzzle and the
very slender lower jaw give the skull a bird-like look which is increased by the swollen and
ball shape of the brain-case. The bones of the skull remain imperfectly united for some time, and

THE ECHIDNA.

229

MOUTH (A) AND NOSE-
SNOUT (B) OF ECHIDNA.

then they are united by plain lines of junction, and not by jagged sutures. The shoulder and the
bones of the upper part of the chest resemble those of the Water Mole, and will be noticed in its
description. The brain of the Echidna weighs about one-fiftieth of the whole body, and the hemi-
spheres do not conceal the cerebellum. There are three convohitions behind, and in front of them is a
large one bent on itself, and on its outside are some oblique folds. The sense of smell, evidently acute
in the Echidna, is assisted by a large development of the olfactory lobes of the brain and their nei'ves.

The Echidnas have large marsupial bones. They have not a true pouch, but only a rudimentary
one, or rather an infolding of the skin, during the breeding season, in the female. The orifices of the
teats are situated beneath the level of the skin, and inverted ; and as the surrounding parts swell under
the influence of suckling, there is a little cavity made, at the bottom of which
are the so-called nipples. They are really little depressions with hair around
them. The young Echidnas are placed in this temporary cavity by the mother,
and help themselves by placing their snouts in the small depressions leading
to the milk gland. Captain Armit says that some force is required to get the
young out of the pouch, and that there is probably a muscular ring to it.
They are at first very small. When about a month or so old, the hinder
pai-ts of the young may be seen sticking out of the region of the fold, and at
three months the body may be observed, the animal still adhering by its
snout. When the prickles of the young begin to harden, the old one turns
them out into the world. (But see Postscript, p. 234.)

A short-spined Echidna (Echidna setosa) inhabits Van Diemen's Land,
whose hah" is sufficiently long to hide most of the spines, but little is known
regarding its habits. Quoy and Gaimard, two French naturalists, kept one
for a month, and it took no food, but after that time it began to lap and to
eat a mixture of flour, sugar, and water. It burrowed very rapidly, and got
to the bottom of a large can full of earth and plants in the course of a few minutes, and it was assisted
in this by its snout.

A species of Echidna has been found in the north of the Island of New Guinea, at the Mont
des Karons and Mount Arfak, at an altitude in the first place of 1,150 yards. It likes the rocky
broken ground, and is unknown on the sea coast. The natives call it " Nokdiak," and hunt it for the
flesh. As the animal burrows well, the natives dig down about a yard in different places, and gene-
i-ally cut across one of the underground runs. It has been described, and has been named after the
explorer, M. Brujn. It is more robust and larger than the species from Australia and Yan Diemen's
Land, has a very long snout — three times the length of the head — a short tail, and is black in colour
with white points. The fur is plentiful, and like velvet, whilst the spines are scanty, and about mid-
v-jiy in strength between those of the two Australian kinds. The number of nails on the fore and
hind feet is singular in this New Guinea Echidna, for there are three on each instead of five. The
tongue of the species is longer and more spiny ; moreover, the number of vertebrae differs in this new
kind. There are seventeen dorsal instead of fifteen, and there is one caudal more than in the others.
The spiny pimples on the tongue and palate, so well developed in this Echidna, have tempted Professor
Gervais to include it in a new genus, Acanthoglossus ; but it is as well to retain the old name, so that
the creatiire is called Echidna Brujiiii. Another species has been found in the south of New Guinea,
at Port Moresby, which is distinguished chiefly by the long, thin, cylindrical form of the quills, and
the stiff, flat, hair-like bristles on the face. The tint of the flattish bristles covering all the body and
limbs, except the back, is bi-own ; on the back are long cylindrical spines, some white and others black.
There are five claws to each foot, and the second hind toe is said to be the largest. The fore limbs are
short, stout, and strong. It has been named Echidna La wesii (Ramsay), after its discoverer. All these
animals can roll themselves up.

THE WATER MOLE, OR DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.*

Like most of the other objects of natural history found in Australia and the neighbouring islands,
the Water Mole is veiy singular in its consti-uction, nature, and habits. It is of all animals that

* Ornithorhynchus anatinus.

230 NATURAL R1S>TORY.

suckle their young the most like a bird, and it really deserves the title, from its external appearance
of half beast, half bird. As its shape and method of life are peculiar, it has received several names,,
such as the Water Mole, the Flat-footed, Duck-billed Platypus, the Bird-beaked quadruped, and
the Paradoxical Bird-beaked animal. It is very fond of the water and also of burrowing in the
ground, and, of course, is admirably adapted for these pursuits : hence its construction relates to>
them to a certain extent, and also to that of the animals of which it was, as it were, a contkmation in
the scheme of nature.

The Ornithorhynchus anatinus has a rather flat body of about eighteen inches in length, and the
head and snout greatly resemble those of a Duck, whilst the tail is short, broad, and flat, and resembles,
that of a small Beaver, but is shorter. The feet are webbed and flat, and the greater part of the
creature is covered with a short dense fur of a diisky brown colour, darker on the upper and paler
on the under parts of the body. A slight examination of the habits of the animal will explain the-
necessity for observing it a little more closely. Mr. Bennett describes his first interview with
one shortly after his arrival in Australia. He writes : " We soon came to a tranqxiil part of
the river, such as the colonists call a ' pond,' on the surface of which numerous aquatic plants
grew. It is in places of this description that the Water Moles are most commonly seen, seeking
their food among the aquatic plants, whilst the steep and shaded banks afford them excellent
situations for excavating their burrows. We remained stationary on the banks, waiting their
appearance with some degree of impatience, and it was not long before my companion quietly directed
my attention to one of these animals, paddling on the surface of the water, not far distant
from the bank on which we were then standing. In such circumstances they may be readily recog-
nised by their dark bodies, just seen level with the surface, above which the head is slightly raised,
and by the circles made in the water round them by their paddling action. On seeing them, the
spectator must remain perfectly stationary, as the slightest noise or movement of his body would
cause their instant disappearance, so acute are they in sight or hearing, or perhaps both ; and
they seldom appear when they have been frightened." On ordinary occasions they do not remain,
more than a minute or two at a time on the surface of the water.

A burrow of an Ornithorhynchus, which Mr. Bennett opened, had its entrance on a steep part of
a bank, situated about one foot from the water's edge, and concealed among the long grass and other
plants. " This burrow ran up the bank in a serpentine course, approaching nearer to the surface
of the earth towards its termination, at which part the nest is situated. No nest had yet been made
in the termination of the burrow, for that appears to be formed about the time of bringing forth
the young, and consists merely of dried grass, weeds, &c., strewed over the floor of this part of the
habitation." The expanded termination measured one foot in length and six inches in breadth,
and the whole length of the burrow was twenty feet. Besides the entrance before alluded to, it
appears there is usually a second opening into the burrows below the surface of the water, communi-
cating with the interior, just within the upper aperture. A burrow subsequently examined by Mr.
Bennett terminated at a distance of thirty-five feet from the entrance ; and that gentleman stated
that they have been found fifty feet in length.

From the burrow first opened by Mr. Bennett a living female was taken, and placed in a cask,
with grass, mud, water, &c., and in this situation it soon became tranquil, and apparently reconciled
to its confinement. On his return home to Sydney, Mr. Bennett determined to indulge it with a
bathe ; and with this view, when he arrived in the vicinity of some ponds, he tied a long cord to
its leg. " When placed on the bank, it soon found its way into the water, and travelled up the stream,
apparently delighting in those places which most abounded in aquatic weeds. When diving in deep
and clear water, its motions were distinctly seen : it sank speedily to the bottom, swam there for
a short distance, and then rose again to the surface. It appeared, however, to prefer keeping close to
the bank, occasionally thrusting its beak into the mud, from whence it evidently procured food, as, on
raising the head, after withdrawing the beak, the mandibles were seen in lateral motion, as is
usual when the animal masticates. The motions of the mandibles were similar to those of a Duck
under the same circumstances. After feeding, it would lie sometimes on the grassy bank, and at
others partly in and partly out of the water, combing and cleaning its coat with the claws of the hind
feet. This process occupied a considerable time, and greatly improved its sleek and glossy appearance."

1HE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.

231

The Water Moles are said to have a peculiarly fishy smell, more especially when wet, which pro-
bably proceeds from an oily secretion. They are used by the aborigines for food ; " but it is no
particular recommendation of them," Mr. Bennett remarks, " to say they are eaten by the native
Australian, as nothing in the shape of provender comes amiss to him, whether it be Snakes, Rats,
Frogs, Grubs, or the more delicate Opossum, Bandicoot, and Flying Squirrel."

The Ornithorhynchus is captured by the natives when in its burrow. They first examine the
neighbourhood of the burrow, to ascertain, by the presence of recent footmarks on the soil, whether it
is inhabited, and if the examination proves satisfactory, they proceed to dig holes with pieces of
sticks from the surface of the ground into the burrow, at distances from each other, until they dis-
•cover its termination, when the Australians consider themselves exceedingly fortunate should they find
the young, since they are regarded as a great delicacy.

The young have been found in their nests by Mr. Bennett about one inch and seven-eighths in
length, in the early part of December, and near the end of the same month he found young Water
Moles of ten inches in length. These latter were kept alive for nearly five weeks, and their habits
whilst in captivity are described in detail in his paper, which is illustrated by some admirable figures,
.showing their various attitudes, &c. The young were allowed to run about the room ; but an old Orni-
thorhynchus in the possession of our author was so restless, and damaged the walls of the room so
much by her attempts at burrowing, that it was found necessary to confine her to the box. " During
the day she would remain quiet, huddled up with her young ones ; but at night she became very
i-estless, and eager to escape. The little ones were as frolicsome as puppies, and apparently as fond
of play ; and many of their actions were not a little ludicrous. During the day they seemed to prefer
si dark corner for repose, and generally resorted to the spot to which they had been accustomed, although
they would change it on a sudden, apparently from mere caprice. They did not appear to like deep
\vater, but enjoyed exceedingly a bathe in shallow water, with a turf of grass placed in one corner of
the pan ; they seldom remained longer than ten or fifteen minutes in the water at one time. Though
•apparently nocturnal, or at least preferring the cool and dusky evening to the glare and heat of noon,
their movements in this respect were so irregular as to furnish no grounds for a definite conclusion.
They slept much ; and it frequently happened that one slept whilst the other was running about ;
and this occurred at almost all periods of the day. They climbed with great readiness to the summit
of a book-case, and thus, by means of their strong cutaneous muscles and of their claws, mounting
with much expedition to the top. Their food consisted of bread soaked in water, chopped eggs, and
meat minced very small, and they did not seem to prefer milk to water."

Mr. Foulerton states that the natives are seldom successful in catching the Water Moles alive,
although in some places in the rivers and creeks of New England they are so numerous that from
iifteen to eighteen have been shot in an afternoon. In the dark, rocky, shady rivers they may be
seen at any time of the day, but in more open places seldom before sunset. He failed to see any young
ones, and believes that they keep them concealed until near their maturity. They are very active in
the water, and are more frequently under than above the surface. He never saw one leave the water,
and states that they made very poor progress on land. As
a, rule they are to be found in good fellowship with the
Australian Water Rat (Hydromys chrysogaster).

The young Water Moles are naked, and have a short
beak with fleshy and smooth edges, and this conformation
•enables them to seize the space on the mother whence
the milk comes, for there are no nipples. Their tongue
is large and assists in the sucking also.

The most curious feature in the Ornithorhynchus is
the snout in the form of a beak. This is flat and broadest
in front where it is rounded. It is hard, and is covered
with a skin full of pores, and on each side this skin
overlaps the sides to form a kind of fringe or flexible
cheek, and this free membrane is carried round the front. Where this skin comes to the head, it
forms a wide fold, which flaps over the front of the head and throat, and is a capital protection

JAWS OF THE DUCK-BILLED PLATYPUS.
(After Waterhouse.)

(Al Upper, (B) Lower Jaw: la) Molar Teeth ; (6) Narrow Anterior
Teeth: (c) Tongue: !<£> Integument projecting from Jaw,
(e) Transverse Hidges on Covering of Beak.

NA TVRAL HISTOR Y.

v hen the creature is grubbing in the wet banks or burrowing, and evidently protects the face and the
eyes from injiiry. The nostrils are close to the extremity of the snout. In the lower jaw, or part

of the beak-like snout, there are some ridges, which mark it cross-
wise from the mouth to the outside, and corresponding structures
may be noticed in a Duck, their use being to provide grooves or
spaces through which water may pour out of the mouth when the
creature is feeding on soft mud and wet substances. Inside the
mouth there is a pouch in the cheek, one on each side, and this is
to retain food. It has four teeth in the upper and four in the
lower jaw, but they are horny and made up of tubes ; the front
ones are long and narrow, and the others are oblong and oval in
form, with a hollow crown. Moreover, the tongue, as in some
reptiles, has horny teeth on it. The eyes of the creature are small
and brown, and are situated close to the Leak, and they look
upwards. The ear is hidden by the fur, but it is none the less
sharp of hearing. As may be gleaned from the notice of its habits,
the animal has great power of swimming but not much of running,
although the limbs are short. The fore-feet have five toes, nearly
equal in length, the first being rather the shortest, and all have
solid and rounded claws. The toes are webbed, and the fold of
skin even extends in front of the claws when swimming is going
on, but is folded back in digging. In the hind-feet the web does
not extend farther than the base of the claws, and there is a spur
on the heel, which is movable and sharp. It is found on the adult

_ _ males in perfection, and it may be usetul as well as ornamental.

POKE (A) AND HIND (B) FOOT OF THE Qii carefully examining the under and lower part of the body, the

DUCK-HILLED PLATYPUS. .., J '

(After Wa'erhouse.) vaiik or mammary glands are to be seen, and there is no proper

nipple ; but when suckling, the swelling of the gland produces an

eminence, which can be grasped by the wide, open,

and soft beak of the young.

It was thought that this bird-like creature laid
eggs, but the point was not easy to determine. (See
Postscript, page 234.) It has a double uterus, leading
to the common canal, called urogenital, and this
ends in the common outlet. The Ornithorhynchus
and Echidna have an arrangement of the bones of
the shoulder .and chest, which resembles to a certain
extent that of the Lizards and of the Ichthyosaurus,
and the annexed engraving will explain the posi-
tion of the bones. Indeed, the most important pecu-
liarity in the skeleton of the Monotremes is that of
the shoulder-girdle and upper part of the chest; for a
bone, the merest vestiges of which are noticed in some
of the Mammalia, occurs, that is of some importance
in the great groups of birds and reptiles, which are
lower in the animal scale than the Vertebrata already
described. In all the animals described hitherto, and
including the Marsupiata, the large arm bone (humerus)

SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND STERNUM OF
THE ECHIDNA.

(a) T-Bliapcd interclavirle ; (61 Mamibrinm ; fc) Ensiforra end of

sternum; (d) Cartilages of ribs; (e) Scapula; m Coracoid; (<•<)
}-l>icoracold.

is jointed at the shoulder with the blade bone, or

scapula. The socket in this bone, which receives the

somewhat ball-shaped top of the humerus, in order to

permit of very general motion, is a part of the scapula, and is called the glenoid cavity; but

in the Monotremes a bone called the coracoid joins with the scapula, and forms part of the socket ;

AX ATOMY Of THE

moreover, this coracoid is long enough to reach the breast bone, or sternum. The breast bone in the
Mammalia hitherto noticed consists of an expanded part at its fore end (in the usual position of
quadrupeds), or at its top in man, called the manubrium, and of some smaller pieces, which form the
front bone of the chest and reach to the belly, having ribs attached to them on each side. This is
the state of things in the Monotremes ; and the coracoids are attached to the manubrium, one on each

IlVCK-BILLEl) PLATYPUS.

side. In other Mammalia it is the collar bone which is jointed there. In addition te these breast
bones in the Monotremes, there are other bones in front, or between the neck and the top of the
manubrium. Firstly, there is a bone in the shape of a T : the lower point is on the breast bone, and
the cross-bar supports a collar bone on each side, which reaches outwards to the blade bone.
xxmdly, there is a bone 011 each side iu front of the coracoid, reaching forwards towards the neck.
This is called the epicoracoid. Some of these bones, now noticed for the first time, are more or less
common to birds, reptiles, and amphibians.

There are some other anatomical points which ally the Monotremes to the reptiles. For instance

the peg on the second, or axis vertebra of the neck, is not fixed to the bone by true bony matter, and

the ribs which exist in the neck in the Monotremes are separate from the vertebra until late

234 NATURAL HISTORY.

in life, or altogether. And the cavity for jointing of the thigh bone with the pelvis (the acetabulum)
is not perfect, there being a part of it not filled with bony matter.

The ear is singularly simple in its construction in this sub-order, and the cochlea is not coiled into
a spiral ; moreover, there is no external ear.

The hemispheres of the brain, which are convoluted in the Echidnas, are smooth in the Orni-
thorhynchus, and in both the central commissure, or corpus callosum, just exists, whilst the anterior
one is large. The Ornithorhynchus inhabits Van Diemen's Land and Australia, as far north as
Queensland inclusive.

The Echidna and the Ornithorhynchus belong to a sub-order of the Marsupialia which, whilst it
has some structures resembling those of the sub-order of Marsupiata, possesses others which link it
with the birds and reptiles. This sub-order is the lowest amongst the Mammalia, and the animals
which are included in it have the following peculiarities : — The marsupial bones are present, the
uterus is double, and the young are not nourished when within the parent by a placenta ; there
is no inflection of the lower jaw ; the shoulder-girdle has additional bones ; there are no true
nipples ; the teeth are either absent or horny ; the extei-nal ear is not present, and there is not a true
pouch. The excretion of the kidneys and the contents of the bowels fall into one receptacle, through
which the young also pass. It is called a cloaca, and receives the outlets of the rectum and
urogenital canal. The presence of the spur on the heel is also a peculiarity.

A fossil Echidna has been discovered in deposits on the Darling Downs.

The Echidnas form one genus and the Ornithorhynchus another, and the classification of the
whole is as follows : —

ORDER MARSUPIALIA.

SUB-ORDER . . . MONOTREMATA.
Genus .... Echidna.
Genus .... Ornithorhynchus.

In concluding this Natural History of the Marsupiata and Monotremata, it is necessary to direct
attention to the fact that they are less well defined than the o.^er great groups of the Mammalia. As
sub-orders, they are very artificial, for some of their most important structural peculiarities are deficient
in some of the genera. The inflected lower jaw is not invariably found, the marsupium does not
always exist, and the marsupial bones differ in shape and size, and are occasionally absent. With
regard to these bones or cartilages, they are not connected with the pouch, but with the muscular
system of the belly. They have been shown by Huxley to be present in Crocodiles, and in the
amphibian called the Salamander. Hence these structures are relics of a remote ancestry, and have
but slight functional importance. The authorities whence I have derived most of this Natural History
are Waterhouse, Owen, Huxley, Bennett, Gould, and Kreeft, to whom I am under great obligations.

P. MARTIN DUNCAN.

Postscript. — Mr. W. H. Caldwell has discovered that the Monotremes lay eggs as has been sus-
pected, and he has traced the development of the animal during the hatching. The eggs resemble
those of a Reptile more than a Mammal, and the yolk is in such excess that it is not all sub-
divided during the early stages of the embryo of the Monotreme, but some remains over and above,
upon which it is nourished in the early stages within the egg. The heart of Ornithorhynchus
paradoxus is interesting because Meckel, and, subsequently, Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S., have
shown that it differs from that of the higher Mammalia, and is not without considerable resemblance
in some of the valvular structures to the hearts of Birds and Crocodiles. The last-named naturalist
states that the reflux of blood into the right auricle on contraction of the ventricle, is not pre-
vented by the presence of the special structure seen in Mammals, but by an arrangement which is
observed in Reptiles and Birds. The mitral valve is with three divisions instead of two, as in the
higher Mammalia, but the tendinous structures seen in this last group, to terminate the muscular
structures, do not exist in the Monotreme. This increase of the muscular structure is not so palpable
in Echidna. It is interesting to know that the special structures of the right side of the heart in the
adult Ornithorhynchus are seen in the embryonic condition of the higher Mammalia.

IMPERIAL EAGLE.

THE CLASS AVES.— THE BIEDS.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTION — WING-STRUCTURE AND FEATHERS — DISTRIBUTION.

Introduction — Distinctive Characters of the Class Aves— Power of Flight — The Wing — Its Structure— The Six Zoo-geogra-
phical Regions of the Earth — Birds peculiar to these Regions.

THE study of birds is almost an instinct in an Englishman : from peasant to noble, an innate
affection for the feathered songsters seems to pi-evail ; so that whether it be in a stately aviary or in s
little cage outside a cottage door, birds are found to be the constant companions of man throughout
the length and breadth of the land. And it is possible that no other country in the world possesses
such a number of birds, in proportion to its size, as does Great Britain. Any one travelling on the
continent of Europe cannot fail to notice how few birds meet his eye ; and although they
may be there, and may be found by a little searching for, they do not form such a prominent
feature of a walk as they do in England or Scotland. Even the toiler in large towns has but
to get a little way into the nearest fields to hear the cheering song of the Skylark or the Thrush,
or to be amused with the bustling and active habits of the Starling, or those of the more sedate
and cautious Rook. Tt is certain that a study of the habits of birds will always repay the
student, who may see in the feathered favourites which are around him many a little bright example

235 NATURAL HISTORY.

to be followed, if lie read the lesson aright. Birds teach us many things —perseverance, fidelity,
parental affection, thrift, cleanliness, and many other domestic virtues, which are to be seen carried out
in their life in the greatest perfection. In the following pages the birds will be passed in review, and
the habits of some of the most striking and important forms will be detailed. But, although every
species and genus cannot be noticed here, it is necessary to assure the student that in every
country — even in England, where so much has been done for Ornithology — he will find an ample
reward in the- study of all birds ; and that even the commonest species cannot be neglected,
for there is always something new to learn and to record in their life-history. To quote
Dr. A. E. Brehm, one of the most accomplished observers of nature, who, carefully trained by his
father, a true naturalist also, has studied the feathered tribes in many climes : —

" He who is only half at home with nature on this earth of ours will be able to approxi-
mately to appreciate the feelings with which the naturalist wanders and travels from place to
place : wherever he may be he finds friendly forms. For years he has silently watched the interior
economy and household arrangements of animated nature, and yet he has not seen all ; and on this
account he is never in want of employment. Eveiy bird is a personal friend : the old ones he knows
almost as well as he knows himself, and the new ones must be studied. How much more is there yet
to observe ! Rich as he may be in experiences, every fresh ramble brings him fresh mental treasure.
The relations existing between him and the bird become each day more and more intimate ; he knows
the lives and habits of each : when each arrives, or takes its departure : where is its abode : how it is
made : when it is occupied by a happy troop of nestlings : when deserted. The naturalist knows his
friends by their notes, flight, and bearing. In his eye the bird never ceases to exist : alive or dead it
is always interesting in his eyes, for in either case the bird is associated with a poesy of feeling in
creative nature which he would put into words. Every new bird raises his spirits a step higher ; every
fresh discovery is a step onward in the knowledge of the ways and means of all things. He is indebted
to his friends for many a happy hour ; their lives are a pattern worthy of imitation."*

Here, then, we may ask — What is a bird ] How can a bird be told from all other Vertebrate
animals 1 The chief character which distinguishes the class of birds is undoubtedly the clothing of the
body with feathers. Other characters they also possess, but not exclusively. For instance, they have the
power of flight developed in the greatest degree : but there are some birds, such as the Apteryx, the
Ostrich, and the Cassowary, which cannot fly at all ; while, on the other hand, there are flying mammals,
such as Bats, Flying Squirrels, and there are flying reptiles, which can progress through the air by
means of flight. Again, birds lay the eggs from which they produce their young ; but so do many
reptiles and fish : so that this cannot be considered a prerogative of the class of birds. Their bill is
hard and sheathed in horn; but so is that of the Duck-billed Platypus (page 231), an animal belonging
to the Monotreme Mammals ; and Turtles also have beaks. Most, but not all, birds build nests ;
and in this they stand almost alone among the higher animals; but nest-building propensities are
developed in many of the Mammalia — in the Lemurs and Mice, for instance — while it cannot be
assigned as a habit peculiar to birds, as the wonderful nests made by some fish conclusively prove.

All birds, whether they fly or not, are clothed with feathers, and this distinguishes the class Aves
in the existing state of nature. The majority are specially adapted for flight : and as this is
undoubtedly the most vigorous form of locomotion, the greatest muscular efforts being required to
raise and sustain a body above the ground and to propel it rapidly through the air, a large
development of muscular energy is necessary. The great strain on the circulation of the blood
is met by a heart not only as complete as in the Mammalia, but with stronger and a peculiar
valvular mechanism for propelling that fluid vigorously through the body. Moreover, in addition
to their lungs, birds possess a singular provision of air-receptacles within the body, and these
are connected with a series of cavities, also filled with air, which occupy the interior of most of the
bones. These cavities serve not only to give lightness to the bird's body, but they also assist the lungs
in aerating the blood, so that birds may be said to enjoy a double respiration. As birds exceed mam-
mals in the activity of their breathing and circulatory system, so also they possess a higher degree of
animal heat, their temperature ranging from 106° to 112° Fahr. This high temperature, which exceeds

* Dr. Brehm : " Bird-life," pp. 503, 504.

STRUCTURE OF THE WING OF A BIRD.

237

BOXES OF WING OF BIRD.

(After Sundevall.)
(a) Humerus: (B) Cubitus ; (<:) Ulna;
(d) Radius ; (E) Manus, or hand ;
(/) Carpus; (g, ft, i) Metacarpus:
(*) Pollex, or thumb; (I) Second
digit ; (HJ) Third digit.

that of the Mammalia by from 8° to 14°, is maintained by its admirable feather-clothing, which, being
a non-conductor, effectually serves to guard against any sudden variations of temperature in the air
to which its body is exposed, during its rapid and extensive flights, as well as tempering the usual
radiation from the body.

As one might expect in the fore-limb of a creature specially organised for suspension in, and pro-
gression through, the air, it is found that the muscles, as well as the bones and joints, of the bird's
wing become much modified as compared with the corresponding parts of
other animals. With all our scientific knowledge and mechanical contri-
vances, no one has yet succeeded in constructing a flying machine. It
is a significant fact that Nature has not only long ago solved this problem,
but that she has done so in several ways. The flight of an insect, of a
bird, of a bat, is equally perfect in its way : but in each case the result
is attained by very different modifications in the skeletal and muscular
apparatus. The principal resistance that a flying animal has to work
against is its weight : that is, the force of gravity which, proportionately
to its mass, tends to draw it down vertically towai-ds the earth • hence the
muscles which are largest and strongest in a bird are those which pull
down the wing against the air, thereby raising the body and overcoming its
weight.

The chief muscle thus employed is the " great pectoral," attached to
the large keel (or ridge) on the breast-bone, and inserted into the " hurnerus," or " arm-bone." This
" great pectoral " is generally the largest muscle in the bird's body, and in fact often equals in bulk
all the other muscles put together.

The wing is opened out by straightening the elbow and the wrist-joints. The former process
is effected by the contraction of the triceps ; the latter chiefly by the action of the so-called " radial
extensors," and by the elasticity of the long " tensor," or ligament, which comes from the shoulder

muscles along the front border of the anterior
wing-membrane, and is attached to the base of the
thumb, at the front side of the wrist.

The wing is folded by the bending of the elbow
and the adduction of the wrist-joints. The elbow
is bent principally by the contraction of the "biceps"
and the "internal brachial," the wrist-joint chiefly
by the contraction of the "hand-adductor," and of
the " ulnar wrist-flexor."

As already stated, the possession of feathers is
one of the most characteristic features in a bird.
These beautiful structures are modifications of the
skin, just as are the scales of the feet and the claws
of the toes. Feathers and hairs, scales and claws,
are all produced out of, and are modifications of, the cells of the upper skin, or epidermis, and of the
under, or true skin, or cutis. The feathers differ much in their minute construction in some birds ;
and all those of a bird are of course not of the same size and shape, but they have the following
parts in common.

A feather consists of a quill, a shaft, barbs, and barbules : moreover, there may be a kind of
accessory part, often in the shape of a downy tuft, close to the junction of the shaft and the quill-
The shaft (scapus) or axis of every perfect feather (penna) is divided into the quill (calamus), the
hollow cylinder (d), which is partly embedded in a sac of the skin, and the true shaft (rachis, a),
which bears on each side the lateral processes called barbs (rami or radii). The rachis and the barbs
together are known as the vane (vexilhtm), and, in fact, form what is commonly known as the
"feather" in contradistinction to the "quill." The barbs (c, c, c, c) are narrow plates, or laminae,
" tapering to points at their free ends, and attached by their bases on each side of the rachis. The edges
of these barbs are directed upwards and downwards, when the vexillum of the feather is horizontal
125

FEATHERS OF WING OF BIRD. (After Sv.ndeva.ll.)

(Al Feathers of the manus, or primary quills: (B) Feathers of the
cu'>i'n->, or secondary quills; (c| Coverts of the matins, or primary-
coverts; (D) Lesser primary-coverts; (E) Coverts of the cvititus, or
secondary-coverts; (p) Median coverts; (o) Lesser coverts; (H)
Feathers of the thumb, or bastard wing.

238

NATURAL HISTORY.

The interstices between the barbs are filled up by the barbules, pointed processes, which stand in the
same relation to the barbs as the barbs do to the rachis. The barbules themselves may be laterally
serrated and terminated by little hooks, which interlock with the hooks of the opposed barbules. In
very many birds each quill bears two vexilla ; the second, called the after -shaft (6) (hyporachis), being
attached on the under side of the first,"* close to the junction of the shaft with the quills.

In all the feathers of the Ratitse, and in the case of all but the contour feathers in other birds,
there are no barbules to the barbs. The pennse are ordinarily arranged in definite patches, or areas on
the bird, and the shape and size of these, and their relation to one another, differ in many birds.

The qftershaft (b) is ordinarily a smaller vexillum, which is attached to the under side of the larger
one at about the point where the rounded quill passes into the stem.

It is not necessary to notice these important characteristic structures more fully now, as they
will have to be considered in explaining the distinctions between the great groups of birds, and we pass
on to notice that the same kinds of birds are not found everywhere, but that they have, as groups, a
remarkable geographical distribution.

In the following pages the distribution of birds is often alluded to, although it will naturally be
impossible to discuss, within these limits, all the various phases of the study which the geographical

distribution of the feathered tribes opens up to us. At the
same time sufficient evidence will be given to show that
birds are not scattered without order over the earth, but are
more or less restricted to certain spots.

The six natural history or distributional provinces into
which the world is ordinarily divided by modern naturalists
were determined, first of all, from the study of the birds ;
and in fixing the boundaries of each division the wading
birds and many swimming birds must be left out of the
question, as they are creatures of such very extensive flight,
and wander almost from pole to pole. A natural region,
therefore, can be marked only by its resident forms of bird
life, or at the most by the birds which breed within its
limits; and the six regions alluded to provide us with many
excellent reasons for believing that they possess well-defined
physical boundaries. No Capercailzie, for instance, was ever
found out of the Palcearctic^ region, which comprises
Europe and the greater part of Asia above the line of the
Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang River in China. This
region is also characterised by a large number of Buntings,
Warblers, Grouse, &c. In the Nearctic\ region there is
a certain similarity to the European and Siberian Avifauna,
Grouse, Ptarmigan, Wax wings, Magpies, Ravens, &c.,
being commonly found throughout the two regions. North

America possesses, however, several forms peculiar to itself, though it is by no means so rich in
species as is the Neotropical^ region, which commences south of a line drawn through Northern
Mexico, and includes the whole of Central and Southern America. Within this large area are contained
whole families of birds, such as Toucans, Mot-mote, the vast majority of the Humming-birds, Trogons^
besides innumerable genera of Tanagers and other forms, so that this region is by far the richest in the
world as regards bird life. The Ethiopian region embi'aces all Africa below the Sahara Desert and
Madagascar : Plaintain-eaters, &c., are characteristic of this region. The Indian region skirts the
Palsearctic, and includes the remainder of Asia below the Himalayas and the Yangtze-kiang ; the
Malayan Peninsula, the Sunda Islands, and the Philippines, belong to this region, which contains all the

* Huxley, "Anatomy of Vertebrates," p. 274.

f TroAatds, old ; ap/cros, north : i.e., the northern division of the Old "World.
J ve'os, new ; apxros, north : i.e., the northern division of the New World.
§ vios, new ; Tponx/cds, tropical : i.e., the tropical division of the New World.

PARTS OF A FEATHER. (After Nitzsch.)

DIVISIONS OF THE CLASS AYES. 239

finest Pheasants in the world, the Impeyan Pheasant from the Himalayas, the Tragopans, and the
Lobed Pheasant of Borneo being most beautiful creatures. Lastly, between the islands of Bali and
Lombok passes a deep sea boundary called " Wallace's line," which divides the Australian region from
the Indian, and although these islands lie so close together, the great depth of the channel between
them seems to mark them out as frontier lines of two ancient continents. Certain it is that the birds
and animals on each side of Wallace's line differ remarkably; and the Australian region, which
includes all the Moluccas, New Guinea, and Oceania, in addition to the Australian continent
and New Zealand, presents us with forms not found elsewhere, such as Birds of Paradise, Casso-
waries, Lyre-birds, and a large variety of peculiar types. Many smaller divisions of the globe are
now recognised, but the above are the main ones, which may occasionally be referred to in these
pages.*

Many birds migrate, and the student of migration alone would find sufficient material there for
the work of a lifetime ; and it seems almost impossible to account for the instinct or other causes
which bring birds regularly year by year to breed in the same haunts, and which drive them
away at the same change of season. Why is it, for instance, that species of similar habits and
form, and both visiting Europe in equal abundance, should occupy such different winter quarters?
Yet the common Red-backed Shrike, or Butcher-bird (Lanius collyrio), when he is said to
leave Europe, passes by the Nile Valley along the east coast of Africa down to the Cape, where he
brings up a second brood of nestlings ; while the Wood-Chat Shrike (Lanius auriculatus), a bird of
about the same size and of precisely similar habits, proceeds down the Nile Valley and invades Abys-
sinia in the winter, and also occupies Senegambia, where a Red-backed Shrike has never been found
yet by a naturalist. Nothing whatever is known by which route the bird gets to the Gambia:
whether he follows the same one as his red-backed relation as far as Abyssinia, and then skirts the
southern edge of the Sahara, or whether he reaches north-western Africa by a direct flight across the
Great Desert. Many other such problems in the economy of our most familiar species are still
awaiting further scientific research.

CHAPTER II.
THE ANATOMY OF A BIRD.f

The Three Divisions of the Class Aves — ANATOMY OF A BIRD — The Skeleton — Distinctive Features - Peculiar Bone Character
— The Skull - Difference between the Skull of Birds and that of Mammals — The Jawbones — Vertebral Column —
Sternum — Fore limbs — Hind limbs — Toes — The Muscular System— How a Bird remains Fixed when Asleep- The Oil-
gland — The Nervous System — The Brain — The Eye — The Ear — The Digestive System— The Dental papillae — The
Beak— Tongue - Gullet — Crop — Stomach — Uses of the Gizzard — Intestine — The Liver, Pancreas, and Spleen— The Blood
and Circulatory System — Temperature of Blood of a Bird — Blood Corpuscles — The Heart — The Kespiratory System —
Lungs — Air-sacs — The Organs of Voice — The Egg — Classification of the Class Aves.

BIRDS may be separated into three great divisions : the Carinatce, or birds with a keeled sternum, the
Ratitce, or birds having a raft-like sternum, and the Saururce, or lizard-like birds. The last of
these orders links the birds with the reptiles, and does not concern us here, as it contains only one
genus, and that a fossil one, the Archwopteryx lithographica, respecting which a few words will be
found at the end of this article (Vol. IV, pp. 236-8). The other two divisions are of great
importance, and are easily recognisable, although the characters which separate them are chiefly
anatomical. The principal point of difference lies in the sternum, or breast-bone, and the name
Carinatce is given to all those which have a keel (carina) or sternal ridge largely developed, as in the
common fowl ; and this is present in the great majority of birds. The Ratitce have not got this keel,
and in this division are found the Struthious birds— Ostriches, Cassowaries, <fcc. They are all species
which cannot fly ; and although the number at present existing is small, the fact of their being found

* Dr. Sclater, F.R S., originated, in 1858, this scheme of the six zoogeographical divisions of the globe,
f In the preparation of this chapter, the author begs to acknowledge the assistance he has received from his friend
Professor F. Jeffrey Bell, B.A.

240 NATURAL HISTORY.

at widely distant pails of the earth — in South America, in Africa, and again in Australia — would seem
to indicate that they were once more plentifully distributed, and that they are remains of what was
formerly a large and important group. To these Ratite birds belonged also the extinct gigantic Moas
of New Zealand, and the JEpyornis of Madagascar.

Before proceeding further, it will be necessary to give a brief outline of the principal anatomical
features of a bird's body. On examining either the general features of the skeleton, or the minute
characters of many of the bones of which it is made up, in such a bird as a Hawk, for example, we
are arrested by those remarkable arrangements by which this part of the body is adapted to the mode
of life of its possessor. Here, however, as in so many instances, we have to distinguish between what
is characteristic of the bird as a flying animal, and what is more or less common to it and other
vertebrate animals, and does not especially relate to peculiar habits. We may well be struck by
the marvellous power which birds have, and which man has not, and it is curious to notice how
man's aspirations have ever been associated with it. Without pausing to observe that painters always
endow spirits with wings, or that the imaginative genius of the French has emboldened them to
form a " Societe d'Encouragement pour la Locomotion Aerienne," we may find in the words of Faust
definite expression of what man feels with regard to the law by which lie is held down to earth : —

" Ich cile fort, ihr ew'ges Licht zn trinken,
Vor mir den Tag und hinter mir die Nacht,
Den Himmel iiber mir, und unter mir die Wellen.
Ein schiiner Traum, indessen sie entweicht.
Ach ! zu des Geistes Fliigeln wird so leicht
Kein korperlicher Fliigel sich gesellen.
Doch ist es jedem eingeboren,
Dass sein Gefiihl hinauf und vorwarts dringt,
Wenn iiber uns, im blauen Eaum verloren,
Ihr schmetternd Lied die Lerche singt,
Wenn iiber scbroffen Fichtenhohen
Der Adler ausgebreitet schwebt,
Und iiber Flachen, iiber Seen
Der Kranicb nacb der Hcimat strebt. "*

Inspired by feelings such as those so powerfully expi-essed in Goethe's lines, numerous naturalists
have treated of the bird as though the powers of flight were confined to it, and were not shared by
Bees and Bats in the present, and by Pterodactyles in the past. With this word of comment, which
it is even still necessary to insist upon, attention should be given to the following avian characters : —
The anterior limbs do not touch the ground, and the bones which compose them are adapted for
carrying the feathers of the wing ; the breast-bone is not only elongated, but has its central portion
developed (except in the Eatitfe) into a strong keel, the better to permit insertion of the muscles by
which the fore-limb is moved ; the small bones (vertebrae) in the region of the back are fixed firmly
together, and are not, as in man or in the Ostrich, movable on one another ; while those which succeed
them are often welded into one mass with the greatly-developed upper bones (ilia) of the pelvic girdle ;
and the hinder vertebrae develop an upstanding plate (ploughshare bone) which gives support to the
rectrices, or so-called steering feathers of the tail. It will have been seen that the ordinary seizing
organ of man (the hand) has in birds been modified to serve another purpose ; but this is made up
for, not only by the character of the beak, but by the long and flexible neck, and in some by the
grasping toes.

Before describing in detail the characters of the different parts of the skeleton, it is to be noted
that many of the bones are not, as in the Mammalia, filled with marrow, but with air ; a large cavity
may, for example, be seen in the upper bone (humerus) of the wing of the common fowl. It is obvious
that the specific gravity, or weight of the bird, is thus largely reduced, while the connection between

* These lines are thus translated by Mr. Hay ward : — " I hurry on to drink his everlasting light — the day before me
and the night behind — the heavens above, and under me the waves. A glorious dream ! as it is passing, he is gone. Alas!
no bodily wing will so easily keep pace with the wings of the mind ! Yet it is the inborn tendency of our being for feeling to
strive upwards and onwards ; when, over us, lost in the blue expanse the lark sings its thrilling lay ; when, over rugged pine-
covered heights, the out-spread eagle soars ; and, over marsh and sea, the crane struggles onward to her home."

ANATOMY OF A BIRD.

241

d'

these air-spaces and those which are derived from the lungs enables the contained air to undergo the
necessary exchanges with the surrounding medium.

It was long ago observed by the famous German anatomist, Johannes Miiller, that " it has often
been a subject for complaint that the anatomical characters of birds are so constant that they are of but
slight assistance in the labours of the
zoologist." The truth of this will very
forcibly strike any one who comes to the
study of the skulls of birds, after having
examined a series of skulls in mammals,
so that the seemingly trivial variations
to which anatomists have directed at-
tention are in truth those which are, in
birds, often of the most importance.

The skull, then, is, as compared
with the rest of the body, small ; but
that portion which contains the brain is
relatively larger to the face than it is in
any living mammal. The orbits, or
cavities in which lie the eyes, are very
deep, in consequence of the small ex-
tent to which the walls of the brain-
case extend forwards. The cavities of
each side are separated by a partition
(inter-orbital septum), which is more or
less bony ; the nasal bones are short, so
that the nasal orifices (anterior iwres)
are placed near to where the beak joins
the face. Of the four bones which
bound the great opening at the back
of the skull for the passage of the
spinal cord, three take part in the
formation of the single ball-like pro-
jection, or condyle, by which the skull
is hinged on the vertebral column. In
this point, the skull of birds offers a
striking point of dissimilarity to that
of mammals, in which there are two
condyles, one on each side of the great
opening (of). Another point in which
birds do not resemble mammals is in the
mode by which the lower jaw is hinged
on the skull. This is in the case of birds

. SKELETON OF EAGLE. (Reduced. After Milne-Edwards.)

effected by a bone, which, being more

i •] -i j ,1

Or leSS Square 111 Sliape, naS gamed the

..
nailie Ol the OUddrate (O). In mammals

the skull proper and the lower jaw are
directly connected. This quadrate bone is connected by a long narrow bar (quadrato-jugal) with the
bones which go to form the " beak," and also, by a narrow bone directed inwards, with the bones which
lie in the middle line of the base of the skull, and form the hard palate. The connections between
these bones are often of such a kind as to allow of the upper jaw, or upper half of the beak, being
movable on the rest of the skull, the upper bones of which are so completely united together as to
form a very firm point of support. In the Parrots this arrangement is carried to an extreme, for
the slender bones (nasals and processes of the pre-maxillaries) which connect the upper jaw with the

) pelvis: (O Coracoid; (drl Dorsal ribs; (so Sternal ribs: (»P> Uncinate processes;
(co) Coccyx ; (r) Radius; (u> Ulna: (d) first phalanx of chief digit of the wing: (d') secord
phnlanx of chief digit of the wing; (d"> Phalanges of lower digit; W") Pollex: (ca)
Carpus; (/) Femur; <fu] Furcula; (A) Hunierug; ippi Postorbital process; «»«) Tarso-
metatarsus; (»t> Metatarsus; (ma) Lower jaw; irn--) Metacarpus; (s) Scapula; (pal Pha-
langes of foot; (fi) Fibula; (pt) Patella; (st) Sternum ; (tij Tibia-

242

NATURAL HISTORY.

bones of the brain-case form with them a distinct joint, and so allow of that large amount of vertical
movement which will have been observed in these birds. The pre-maxillary bones (/>m), which are
so small in mammals, are very largely developed in birds, giving off, as they do, three processes : one
to the frontal bone (or fore-bone of the brain-case), one along the hard palate, and another externally
to form the margin of the beak. The parts that vary most in this bone-group are the bones which
make up the hard palate. Of these, the chief are the so-called palatines (p) and the maxillaries ; the
former are united by an articular surface with the bone which forms the anterior part of the base of
the brain-case, while there is in the middle a narrow bone, which, from its shape in man, has received

the name of the vomer (plough-
share, v). The maxillary bones de-
velop hoi-izontal plates, which have
the palate below and the nasal
chamber above them.*

The lower jaw (ma) is com-
posed of six pieces of bone on each
side — the dentary, angular, sur-
angular, coronoid, splenial, and
articular. The upper part of the
joint is concave.

The tongue is in relation, as
regards its support and movements,
to the hyoid bones, which will be
especially noticed in describing the
Woodpecker.

Turning to the vertebral column,
we find a number of small bones,
complicated in form, and more or
less movable on one another. For
convenience of description they may
be divided into those which belong
to the neck (cervical vertebrae), to
the trunk (dorsal vertebrae), to the
sacrum (so-called because it was
SKULL OF YOUNG OSTRICH FROM ABOVE (A) AND FROM BELOW (B). offered in sacrifices !), or to the tail

(After Owen.)

(of) Occipital foramen; (so) Supraoccipital; (eo) Exocclpital; (q) Quadrate; (pa) Parietal
(»ip) Pti-rygold process; (/) Frontal; (e) Ethmoid; (n) Nasal ; (pin) Premaxillary ; (m) Malar

(p) Palatine ; (») Vomer; (im) Intermaxillary; (I) Lachrymal bones.

(caudal vertebra}). As has been
observed already, the first of these,
or the region of the neck, is very
long, and is always long enough for the beak to be able to reach to the base of the tail. In birds,
unlike mammals, the number of these cervical vertebrae may be as low as nine, or as high as
twenty-four. The first of them, which is known as the atlas, has on its front face a rounded
cavity into which fits the single projecting condyle, which was spoken of as being found at the back
of the skull ; and this condyle, being well rounded, is easily able to turn in the cavity which it fits,
and the head is thereby capable of a large amount of movement. In the succeeding vertebrae it is
possible to make out a body, an upper arch, through which passes the spinal cord, which meets above
in the middle line, and is produced into a more or less long spinous process set horizontally to the

* These plates may become united with one another in the middle line, and the birds that possess this arrangement have
been called Desmognathce (de<r/io<;, ''a, bond ;" luiOos, "jaw") ; or they may be separated by a more or less narrow cleft, in
which case the birds in which this is found are called Schizognathce (<rx<?<», "I cleave"). As a matter of fact, the term
Schizognathous is confined to those birds in which the above-mentioned vomer is pointed in front, while where it is truncated
the birds are called jEgithognalhce (a«V0o«, "a sparrow, "as the character is seen in these birds). In these groups, however,
the Ostriches, or running birds, which are distinguished by having no keel to their sternum, are not included ; nor in them is
the vomer narrow behind. This broad character of the hinder end of the vomer is seen also in one group of birds with a keeled
sternum — the Tinamous— which are consequently distinguished from other " Carinate "birds by the term Drcmceognathce
s, the Emu).

A \ATOMY OF A BIRD.

243

STERNUM OF FREGILUPUS

VARIUS. (After Mum.)

(c!l Clavicle : (SB) Scapula : (co>
Coracoid ; (cs) Keel of Sternum.

"body," and others directed forwards and backwards, so as to connect each vertebra with its neigh-
bours ; and lastly, a lower arch, the two halves of which are not connected below, but are converted
into the more or less long ribs. As these vertebrae are so small it is clear that if their spines were
long the free movement of the neck would be greatly impeded, and they are therefore in many cases
little more than projecting processes. This free movement is further greatly aided by the characters
of the two faces of the body (or centrum] of each vertebra ; the face of each is
saddle-shaped, that is to say, the anterior face is concave from side to side,
and convex from above downwards, while the reverse of this is seen on the
posterior face ; in addition to this the vertebrae are separated by a disc of
cartilage from one another. The region of the neck is, broadly speaking,
distinguished from that which succeeds it by the fact that the ribs connected
with its vertebrae do not reach to the sternum, or breast-bone. In all birds
which are capable of flight this dorsal region has its parts firmly united
together, and the same holds for the parts which follow, till we reach the region
of the tail, where the more anterior vertebrae are movable on one another,
so as, perhaps, to serve in aid of the steering organ formed by the rectrices, or
feathers (co). In all living birds the caudal vertebrae are a good deal shorter
than the body, but in the fossil Archcaopteryx they are longer.

The only important point to note with regard to the ribs, is the presence
on some of them of backwardly directed hooked processes (up. fig. on p. 241),
which aid in giving firmness to the thoracic region. The number of ribs is
variable, but there is never a large number connected with the dorsal vertebrae,
as there are in some Carnivora, in Hyrax, and in the Horse.

The fore and hind limbs are connected to the body by a series of bones,
which form the breast and hip girdles respectively ; with the former series is also connected that large,
long bone with its sharply-projecting ridge (is), which is known as the breast-bone, or sternum, and in
the depressions on which so much muscle is collected. This sharply-projecting ridge to the sternum,
which is known as the carina, or " keel" (cs), is found only in the flying birds, though here and there, as
in the Parrot of New Zealand (Strigops), it is very rudimentary. The lower edge of the bone is often
imperfect, so that, as in the fowl, there are two deep clefts on each side, or there may be but a single
cleft, and this again may be converted into a rounded space ; in all cases these clefts or holes are

covered, or filled by membrane, during the
life of the animal. Projecting in front of
the sternum, and often intimately connected
with it, are the two clavicles (cl), which unite
in the middle line to form the bone of child-
hood's delight — the furcula, or "merry-
thought." Above, this bone is connected
with two bones, one of which, ' called the
coracoid (c), descends on each side to fit
into a depression on the upper edge of the
sternum, while the other, known as the sca-
pula, or shoulder-blade (sc), is set at an
angle to the coracoid. The scapula has a
backward and downward direction ; while it
may be noted that among mammals the coracoid is well developed only in Echidna and Ornitho-
rhynchus. These two last bones form, at their point of junction, a cavity into which is fitted the
head of the long bone of the arm (wing). In the Ratitse, it must be observed, these two bones are
not set at an angle to one another, and they become more firmly united together.

As in all the vertebrate animals except fishes, the fore-limb may be divided into three parts
(fig. on p. 237) — upper arm, in which there is one bone, the humerus (a); fore arm, in which there are
two, radius (d) and ulna (c) ; and hand (E), which can again be divided into three parts, which in man
would be called wrist, palm, and fingers. Now, in some animals the wrist-bones may be ten in

PELVIS OF AN ADULT FOWL, SIDE VIEW.

(After W. K. Parker.)

(.Reduced.)

(iJ) Ilium; (is) Ischium ; (p&) Pubos; (<«) Dorso-Iumbar vertebrae; (cd) Caudal
vertebrae; (am) Acetabulum.

214 NATURAL HISTORY.

number, and the palm-boues five, while the number of small bones in the fingers varies a good deal, but
the number of fingers is five. In most birds all these numbers are reduced. Just beyond the fore
arm, the larger bone of which has often small projections indicating the points at which the secondary
feathers have been attached, there are two small bones (f), then comes a longer bone (y k i), as it
seems, in which there is an elongated space. Now, this bone consists of three metacarpals and one
wrist-bone ; the two outer metacarpals are absent, the two innermost ones have completely united
with one another, and with the (true) middle metacarpal bone at their upper end ; while the second
and third metacarpals are also united at the other — or finger — end. The inner digit (k), or that which
corresponds to man's thumb, has two joints (j)halanges), and may be clawed ; the next has three joints,
and may also be clawed ; while the third finger, which has never more than two joints, is never
known to carry a claw. In the Archceopteryx the metacai-pal bones are well developed, and are
not, as in recent birds, united together. No idea of a bird's flying powers can be fairly gathered
from the length of the hand, for it is long in Swifts and short in Albatrosses, for example ; although
it is to be noted that in the former the single bone (humerus) of the arm is short, and in the latter
long.

As in the breast-girdle, the bones of the hinder or hip-girdle, by which the hind-limbs are con-
nected with the body, are three in number ; of these the upper one is greatly flattened out and projects
very far forwards, thus aiding in the formation of the firm back of flying birds ; the other two bones
are much more slender, and are directed backwards and downwards. It is a curious circumstance that
it is in one bird only, in either case, that these bones are directly connected at their lower ends with
their fellow on the opposite side ; those which are known as the j)ubes (pb) are so in the African Ostrich,
and those which are known as the ischia (is) in the Rhea of South America. These two bones, with
the large, flat ilia (il), take part in forming the cavity in which the head of the thigh-bone plays ; the
outer of the two bones (ft) which are found in the leg is rarely as long as, and is always much more
slender than the other (ti), which has a strong ridge on its front face. There is yet another very remark-
able point of resemblance between birds and reptiles, in that the " ankle-joint " is in both cases
situated between the two rows of bones which make up the " ankle " (tarsus). In birds this arrange-
ment is carried to a still further extent, for the single bone of the upper row is early united with the
shin-bone, as may be seen under those unfortunate circumstances in which the poulterer has provided
an aged fowl (aged, that is, for eating) ; in more fortunate cases it will be found possible to separate a
small bone from the lower end of the shin-bone of the leg.

In no case does any bird, even A rchceopteryx, possess a fifth toe. Unlike mammals, the number of
joints in the toes varies greatly in birds. In those which possess four toes we find the following
number of joints : in the first, two ; in the second, three ; in the third, four ; and in the fourth, five.
This rule holds for nearly all birds, but the Swifts have never more than three joints, and in the
Goat-sucker and the Sand Grouse there are two less than ordinary on the fourth toe. In a number
of birds the inner toe (big toe of man) disappears, and in the Ostrich proper the next division of the
"typically" five-toed foot, or second toe, has no toe-joints.

In dealing with the muscular system of birds, we need here concern ourselves with only those
special muscles which are modified in accordance with the necessities of the bird's habits, and
those other muscles which have been brought into special notice by valuable investigations.

That great fleshy mass which is found on the breast of a bird, and which is not unknown
to those who are fond of a good " dish," consists of three separate muscles, two of which depress,
while the other elevates the wing. The presence of the elevator muscle on the lower side of the
sternum is a curious arrangement by which the centre of gravity of the animal is lowered— a
most necessary condition in flight ; the tendon from this muscle passes through a pulley-like canal
to be inserted into the upper side of the head of the bone, which, as has already been explained,
is known as the humerus, so that when it contracts it draws this bone up. The ability of the
wings to resist the pressure of the air is clearly dependent on the power possessed by these muscles.
Borelli has calculated that the " pectoral muscles " of the bird exceed in weight all the other muscles
taken together, whilst in man the pectoral muscles are but a seventieth part of the mass of the
muscles.

The large and important muscles, which in the Mammalia constitute the diaphragm, or

ANATOMY OF A BIRD. 245

midriff, are ordinarily said to be absent in birds, and, indeed, in most cases are but feebly represented.
In the Ratitre, and especially in the New Zealand form (Apteryx) of this group, the diaphragm
may attain to a very fair degree of completeness, though even here the apex of the heart is
allowed to pass into the abdominal cavity. The muscles of the back are feebly developed, as might
be imagined from the firm character of the spinal column ; and as the fore limb exhibits but slight
power of varying its movements, its muscles are not well developed. Those muscles which are found in
the skin are, on the contrary, expanded into broad pieces ; and special bundles are sent to the larger
feathers of the wings and of the tail, and to those folds of skin which connect the upper arm with the
trunk, and with the fore arm, respectively. Borelli thus explains the arrangement by which a
perching bird remains fixed when asleep : A muscle which arises from the pubes bone of the hip-
girdle passes over the knee, and then takes a backward direction so as to pass behind the ankle ; it
thus becomes one of the flexor muscles, by the contraction of which the toes are flexed, or bent.
When the perching bird, which, as we know, has one of its toes directed backwards, is seated on a
bough, the thigh has its upper end directed backwards, while the upper joint of the leg is turned for-
wards, or in other words, the two parts of the leg have opposite directions. This arrangement acts
as a contracting influence on this muscle and its tendons, while the weight of the bird is sufficient to
preserve this condition and the consequent flexion of the toes.

To turn to those muscles the arrangement of which hap been made the basis of a suggested classi-
fication. In the leg of the bird there are, among others, four muscles, the names of which &refemoro-
caudal, accessory femoro-caudal, semi-tendinosus, and accessory semi-tendinosus, any of which may be
absent, but in those cases where a single muscle only is found the first is always present; again, there
is a muscle which, from its course, is known as the ambiens, and this, too, may be present or may
be absent. As the presence or absence of any of these muscles is a very constant phenomenon
in any given section of birds, it has been proposed to divide the class into those which do, and
those which do not, possess the above-named ambiens muscle. In the latter group the second of the
four above-named muscles — the accessory femoro-caudal — is never present. *

Of all the muscles, those which act in aid of the vocal organs are of the greatest interest,
but they will be considered a little later on.

A valuable suggestion has been made, which, if followed out, may lead us to understand
how it is that the brain of the bird, which is so simple as compared with that of man, is
nevertheless capable of so much intelligent activity. Bearing in mind the axiom that it is quality
not quantity that tells, and looking at the fact that the brain of the most highly intelligent
man is, after death, supposed to be similar to that of the foolish and of the unwise of our
race, it is obvious that the essential difference must lie elsewhere than in the coarser, or more
evident, characters of that organ which is known as the brain. The suggestion, then, that was made,
was to the effect, that the possessors of aviaries, in which it was possible to study the characters of
birds, should submit the brains of their deceased favourites to that more thorough investigation which
the microscope allows of. The brains of birds vary but little in their anatomy. The optic lobes are
rounded, paired, and tubercular in the bird, and are not divided into four, as in mammals ; they
are found at the lower part and sides, and not in the upper part of the brain. The cerebellum is not
continued at the sides into distinct lobes ; nor are the two lobea of the brain (or cerebral hetnispJieres]

* The presence or absence of it, or of the other muscles, is used as a means for arranging the smaller divisions of the
larger groups into which the two first-named sub-classes are, by the aid of other anatomical facts, divided. One striking
advantage of this system, as suggested by the late Prof. A. H. Garrod, is that the characters of the airibitns have been
observed to go hand in hand with certain other characters. Thus, the caeca found at the end of the small intestine are
always present in the Homalogonatae, or birds having the normal arrangement of knee-muscles ; but in this connection there is
another structure to be mentioned, namely, the so-called oil-gland, or gland by the secretion of which the bird "preens" its
feathers, and which is always set in the skin in the region of the tail. Now this " uropygial," or oil-gland, may or may not be
provided with a tuft of feathers, and as there may or may not be cseca to the intestine, it follows that —(1) the gland may be
tufted and there may be cseca, or (2) the gland may have no feathers and caeca may be present, or (3) there may be no cseca
and a tufted gland, or (4) there may be no caeca and no tufts (the possible arrangement of neither being present is found in a
few Pigeons). But this is not the place to follow out the details of this classification.

With regard to the proposition made by a French observer, M. Alix, that birds should be divided into the Homoco-
myarii, Entomyarii, and Ectomyarii, according to the character of certain of the flexor muscles at the back of the leg, it
seems only necessary to remark that so far anatomical investigations have not supported his views, while his system would
separate birds which seem to be closely allied.
126

24f> NATURAL HISTORY.

provided with those convolutions which, iu mammals, seem to increase in complexity of character as
the animal rises in the scale of intelligence. The cerebrum does not cover the cerebellum. Small as
is the brain, of birds, it is found that, in many, its weight is, as compared with that of the body,
much greater than it is in man.

With reference to the spinal cord, or the continuation of the central part of the nervous system
through the vertebral column, it is only necessary to remark that it is much increased in width at the
two regions, in which the nerves for the fore and hind limbs are respectively given off; that there is a
narrow canal running along its centre, and that at the lower end there is a large space. In regard
to the cerebral nerves, those for the eyes are of great size.

Coming now to consider the organs of the senses, and beginning with the eye, it is interesting to
note that there are no blind birds, and, indeed, the eyes are of a large size as compared with the
brain. They are generally placed at the sides, though the nocturnal birds of prey (in which they are
directed forwards) are an exception to this rule. It is in very rare cases that eyelashes are present,
and although they seem to exist in the group just mentioned, it is probably more correct to look upon
them as slightly modified feathers.

If the eye be regarded as having on its front face, a part which would, if completed, form part of
a smaller circle than the rest of the eye, it is clear that this cornea, or front part, would be more
convex than the rest, and that it would consequently be a " more powerful glass," inasmuch as it
would exert a greater bending (refracting) influence on the rays of light which pass through it, while,
further, it is clear that the more convex it is the better "glass" would it be. Now this is just what
happens in birds : the cornea is very convex ; in addition to this, the long axis of the eye, on the length
of which it seems that, in many cases, the condition known as that of being " short-sighted " depends,
is very long in some birds, and notably in the Owls.

The eye is covered in by a firm and strong membrane, which is known as the " sclerotic;" this,
in its front part, develops a number of bony plates ; of these there may be as many as twenty, and
they are capable of a certain amount of free movement on one another. What is known as the power
of accommodation depends upon the extent to which the front face of the somewhat lens-shaped
body which helps to separate the eye into two chambers is capable of being rendered more or less
flat ; this front face is covered by a membrane which is found to be more or less taut, according to the
state of contraction of the muscles (ciliary muscles) connected with it. A very little reflection is sufficient
to show that a swiftly moving animal has the focus of its eye, or the point at which clear vision is alone
possible, changed much more rapidly than an animal which moves more slowly. So much on the one
side. On the other, it is to be observed that muscles vary in structure ; they are either " smooth " or

" striated," and it is the latter that contract the more rapidly. Putting
these two series of observations together, it is easy to arrive at the result
that a bird should have striated muscular fibre in its ciliary muscles, and a
more slowly moving animal like man, smooth muscular fibres ; and this we
find to be the case ! The iris is an arrangement by which the quantity of
light admitted into the eye is enabled to be varied, and the small hole in
the centre, through which the rays of light pass, is known as the pupil;
this is always rounded in birds, and is never elongated as it is in some
mammals — the Cats, for example.*

But the most peculiar arrangement in the bird's eye is the presence, pro-

SECTION OF THE EYE , . . , .. , . , , . .. , • i_ • i 11 J 1

OF THE COMMON BUZZARD. Jecting mto «™ hinder chamber, of a membrane in which run blood-vessels ;

(After MacgiUivray.) this, which is known as the pecten (comb), or marsuj)ium (pouch), enters the

^pi^H^T^^fciiiarT^lr^Td! vitreous humour, which tills up this hinder chamber by the same cleft as

bi^xeSe^f'pe&n.0™0*' w the optic nerve. It is folded, and is generally of a quadrangular shape;

it is not found in the eye of the Wingless Bird of New Zealand (Apteryx).

A third eyelid is well developed in this class ; it is an elastic membrane (membrana nictitans,
or winking membrane), which has not, like the other two, a vertical movement, but is drawn
obliquely over the eye from the inner to the outer side. This movement is effected by two special
muscles, one of which arises on the inside, and below the eyeball, and has therefore to pass over to the

* Compare Vol. I., p. 213.

ANATOMY OF A BIRD. 247

outer side. In contracting, it would press on the optic nerve, were it not for the other one, which,
however, is so disposed that by its contraction it draws away the tendon of the pyramidalis muscle
from pressing on the nerve. As in ourselves, there are six special muscles for moving the orbit or
ball of the eye, but the one which in man is well enough known as the trochlear, has no pulley-
arrangements in birds. Lachrymal glands are present.

With regard to the organ of hearing, one particular part, which in man is in the form of a snail's
s'.iell, and is known as the cochlea, is not coiled into this shape in birds, being very slightly bent, though
holding in other respects the same general relations. Nor is there any external ear, as in mammals,
far collecting the waves of sound ; there is, however, in the nocturnal birds of prey a crescent-shaped
valve on which are set tufts of short feathers, and it is possible that this may aid in hearing. Nor,
again, are there in the interior of the ear those three small bones, which are known generally as the
auditory ossicles ; of the two that are absent, one is thought by many anatomists to be represented by the
quadrate bone, which, as has already been mentioned, connects the lower jaw of the bird with the
skull. The single bone which is present, and which is, perhaps, most generally known as the
" columella," is connected by two or three cartilaginous processes with the drum of the ear, and by the
other end — at which it has a small oval plate — with the more internal parts of the organ of hearing.
In man there is a curious arrangement of rods, which vary in so remarkable a way as to have led to
the supposition that each was adapted to a distinct note ; these rods, which constitute the organ of Corti,
are not present in birds, affording thereby a striking example of the law that physiological inferences
are often well examined by the aid of comparative anatomy, no physiologist being hardy enough to
deny to birds the power of appreciating those delicate modulations of sound which go to make up the
chief charm of music. With regard to the organ of smell, it is only necessary to note the absence of
those muscles by which, in man and other mammals, the nostrils are contracted or dilated.

The first point which attracts us on examining the digestive tract of birds is the absence
of lips and of teeth ; but with regard to these latter we must note that it is a character which
has only become distinct since the time when birds were first developed. This statement is borne
out by two series of facts, each taken from one of the two great aids to a correct apprehension of
fie real importance of structural characters — that is, from embryology, or the study of the developing
individual ; and from palaeontology, or the natural history of the past. The young of certain Parrots
have been observed to possess, at an early stage of their development, those uprisings on the mucous
membrane of the jaw which go by the name of " dental papillae," and these papillae have been
seen to be covered with a cap of dentine. On the other hand, the researches of Owen and of some
American palaeontologists have brought to light bird-like forms which were provided with teeth
(Odontornithes : Ichthyornis, ffesperornis).

The beak, or horny covering of the jaws, varies very greatly in form, and in the degree of its
sensibility. This tactile sense is dependent on the extent to which the beak is supplied by nerves
(from the fifth cerebral nerve). In the Woodpecker, for example, there is a large branch ex-
tending along the inside of the lower jaw, which, as it approaches the extremity, breaks up into
finer nerves that perforate the bone by a mimber of small canals and so give to the beak a power of
discovering what lies hid in the crevices of the wood and under the bark. Being an external structure,
the beak is naturally adapted to the habits of its possessors, so that it may be hooked, as in many
flesh-eating forms, or trenchant, and fit to cut and break, or provided with transversely-set fine plates
by which the water taken in with the food can be filtered off, or provided with bristles, the better
to hold a living prey. Finally, in many cases the hardness of the bill is made up for by a patch of
naked skin at the base of the upper mandibles, which is known by the name of the " cere " and seems
to have a tactile function.

In many birds, the tongue is either feebly developed, or is encased in horn, so that it can hardly
be as useful an organ of taste as is our tongue : in the Pelicans it is obsolete. In some, however, as
in the Woodpecker, the tongue is a very powerful seizing organ, as it is protruded with great rapidity
by means of a special muscle, and is well provided with a sticky secretion, which is given off from a
large gland (the sub-lingual), which, lying below the nmscle above referred to, is compressed when
this muscle contracts ; so that in the Woodpecker, just as in the mammal called the Great Ant-eater
(Myrmecophaga^), the insect prey is easily captured.

218

NATURAL HISTORY.

The region of the mouth is not separated from that which follows it (the pharynx) by an
epiglottis, which in ourselves protects the entrance into the air-passages, nor is there any uvula
to guard the posterior orifice of the nose by which the air reaches the throat. The succeeding por-
tion of the gullet (the oesophagus) is very long, as might be supposed from the length of the neck in
most birds, and it is very frequently either dilated at one side, or produced into a caacal pouch (crop,
iitgluvies), which may, or may not, be separated by a narrow connection, from the rest of the gullet,
and which may be divided into two compartments. This crop serves for the detention of the food,
which cannot have undergone any complete process of mastication, and it is here treated to a process
of maceration by the fluid secreted from the walls of this organ. Passing from this receptacle,
the food becomes subject to the action of the stomach proper, which differs, however, from our
ordinary conception of a stomach, as seen in man, by being divided into two distinct portions. The
anterior one is known as the jyroventriculus, and it is in this that the gastric juice is brought to bear
upon the food, and its walls are consequently thickened by a glandular layer ; the hinder division,
which is known as the gizzard, forms an elongated sac, with two orifices — one from the proventriculus,
the other leading to the small intestine — in its iipper portion. The characters of its walls are very
different in those birds which live on animal, as compared with those that live on vegetable (grains)
food ; in the former they are membranous and thin, but in the latter they are enormously thick and
very muscular. On examination, it is seen that the dark colour of the muscles is on each side of the
gizzard relieved by a shining spot of tendinous material, and the walls of the gizzard have conse-
quently been compared to a double-bellied (digastric) muscle. The internal cavity of the gizzard is
lined with a dense and rough coat, and is ordinarily found to contain small stones, and occasionally
other hard materials. These obviously take the place of the absent teeth, when the muscles of the
gizzard set up that (grinding or compressing) action by which the ingested seeds are broken down. The
wall of the gizzard may itself also act as a rasping organ, being, as it often is, provided with a firm
glandular layer, the secretion of which is converted into a hard lining, the structure of which has been
observed in some cases to be due to interlaced filaments secreted from and continuous
with the glands in the wall of the gizzard.

Notwithstanding the differences in the character of the gizzard in carnivorous
and graminivorous birds, it has been shown by the ever-famous John Hunter that
carnivorous birds can be brought to live on grains, and grain-eating birds
on meat.

It is interesting, further, to note, with regard to the opening into the small
intestine, that in a mtmber of grain- or fruit-eating birds there is no valvular
arrangement to detain the food in the gizzard till it is completely triturated, for it
is thus that many plants have their area of distribution increased, the escaped
seeds passing uninjured from the intestine to find, perhaps, a suitable soil in a new
district. In those that swallow large stones a valve is often to be observed. The
difference which we have already had so frequently to notice, as obtaining between
the carnivorous and '•' vegetarian " birds, is seen to be continued into their small
intestine ; just as in mammals, this portion of the tract is longer in the latter than
in the former birds. The anterior, or duodenal portion, is always characterised by
forming a loop, within which lies the gland known as i\\e pancreas, and the succeeding
portion is, as compared with most mammals, short. A slight elevation, hardly ever
of any great size, may at times be observed on the course of the short intestine.
This represents all that remains of the duct by which the hatching bird was con-
nected with the yolk. The short and straight large intestine is ordinarily separated
KING- fr°m the preceding by a caecum ; this is generally paired (in the Herons and some
others it is single), and varies in length ; in many cases these csecal tubes are hardly
more than papillae. In the Parrot, as in the "Woodpecker and some others, these
caeca are absent. In the desert-dwelling Ostrich (Struthio) they are said to be as
much as two feet long ; but in the Emu they do not exceed six inches in length.
The intestine ends in a cavity, which is common to it, and to the other organs that open to the
exteiior in this region. This cloaca (sewer) is found in reptiles also, and in one division of the

IMGESTIVE ORGANS
OF THE
FISHER.

(After Macgilllvray.)

(n) Tongue ; (6, c, <J| O3sn-
pbafrat; (rf, e,f) 8tn-
nmcli : (/, g, h, i, j, k)
Intestine; 0,fc) Cloaca.

AX ATOMY OF A BIRD. 249

Mammalia, the Monotremata. In birds it is provided with a special glandular appendage on its
upper (or dorsal) aspect, which goes by the name of the Bursa Fabricii. Neither the history nor the
functions of this peculiar organ can be said to be thoroughly understood.

Of the organs which are appended to the intestine, the lungs will be described elsewhere ; of
the rest we have to consider the liver, the pancreas, and the spleen. The first-named organ is large,
and covers over the pancreas, the proventriculus, the spleen, part of the gizzard, and part of the small
intestine. It is ordinarily divided into two " lobes," between which, on the upper edge, is placed the
tip of the heart. In the common fowl the left lobe is often divided into two ; but this organ is never
broken up into so large a number of parts as it is in many mammals, from which animals birds also
differ in always having more than one duct to carry off the secretion of the liver (bile) to the small
intestine, except in the Ostrich ; in this, as in some other birds, there is no gall-bladder in which the
bile may be collected, so that in such this secretion passes directly into the intestine.

As has been already pointed out, the commencement of the small intestine forms a loop, in
which is set the organ known as pancreas, which may for simplicity be described as the salivary
gland of this region, although in truth the fluid secreted from it is a much moi-e powerful aid to the
digestion of food than that of any known salivary gland. It has always two, and in a number of cases
three ducts, which do not unite with the bile ducts, but open separately from, though near them, into
the end of the "duodenal loop." The spleen, which is a small oval body, and is placed to the
right of the proventriculus, has no ducts ; in birds of prey it is more cylindrical in shape.

The temperature of the blood of the bird is, in requirement with the conditions of
its existence, hot — that is to say, it is ordinarily hotter than the temperatui'e of the surrounding
air, and is found to register between. 100° (Gull) and 112° (Swallow) on Fahrenheit's scale,
or from two to fourteen degrees more than does that of man. Birds and mammals, are,
speaking broadly, the only hot-blooded animals now existing, and it has consequently beeiv
suggested that they should be grouped together as such, in opposition to the rest of the Ver-
tebi-ata. But it is obvious that this character of the temperature is merely dependent on
physiological conditions ; and were this a treatise on the anatomy of birds rather than one on their
natural history, the statement of this fact would not receive the prominence here given to it. The
high temperatm-e of any body may be preserved from cooling influences by two methods : thus, tea
in a well-polished silver teapot keeps hot because the rays of heat are but slightly radiated from its
surface ; or a less costly teapot may be kept hot by covering it with a loosely-fitting " cosy," which,
being made of badly -conducting materials, " keeps the heat in." It is, then, clear that the heat of
a body is best preserved when it is covered by a bad radiator and a bad conductor of heat ; and this
is just the case with birds : the polished feathers are bad radiators, and the air entangled among them
forms a bad conductor.

The blood corpuscles are, broadly speaking, about twice as large as in man ; those which are
coloured red are oval in shape, as they are in nearly all of the lower Vertebrates and in the Camels
among mammals. Like the white ones, they are "nucleated." The heart is, as in mammals,
divided into four chambers. It is a condition of the circulation in hot-blooded and rapidly -breathing
animals that the current of arterial blood from the heart, and the current of venous blood to it,
.should be kept as much as possible separate ; no reflection is needed to show that the blood freshly
purified by contact with the air in the lungs must be kept as distinct as can be from the blood which
has lost its purity in passing through the body ; in other words, it is required that there should be a
similar result in birds and in mammals.

Birds, like all warm-blooded creatures, have the heart divided into four cavities — two ventricles
and two auricles — those of the right side being completely separated from those of the left. The
whole is enclosed in a pericardium, a thin, but strong, membrane. The right ventricle has thin
muscular walls, and almost completely envelopes the left. The right auricle has a remarkable valve
in the shape of a fleshy leaflet, which appears almost to be a portion of the inside of the ventricle
that has become detached from the partition between the two ventricles. The blood, under certain
circumstances, passes between this septum, or partition, and the leaflet, into the auricle ; but when
the beat of the heart takes place (the systole), the septum, being convex, is forced against the leaflet
on the other side of the auricolo -ventricular opening, and the passage of the blood, through this, is

250 NATURAL HISTORY.

prevented. The valve between the stout-chambered left ventricle and auricle does not present this
structure, but is divided into two or three lobes attached to tendinous processes. At the origin of the
great vessels — the pulmonary artery and the aorta — there are three valves, semi-lunar in shape and
by name. And this last vessel, often having given off the coronary artery to the heart itself, is
curved to the right, and then passes, backwards to go down the body. The blood from the body is
collected into three large veins — two anterior venae cavce and one posterior.

The lymphatic system is well developed, and of the so-called "lymphatic hearts," which are well
known in the Frog, the posterior ones have been observed in some, and especially in the Ratite birds.

The lungs, or organs in which the blood effects an exchange of its gases with the outer air,
are paired, and set on either side of the heart. As is elsewhere mentioned, the nostrils are not
provided with muscles, and there is no epiglottis sufficiently well developed to cover the entrance
into the long tube, or tracliea, which runs down the neck. This tube, which does not always
take a straight course, is essentially made up of a number of rings of cartilage, which are for the
greater part perfect, and not, as in man, imperfect rings. The bronchi which are given off from this
tube, to the right and left, have their rings imperfect, and they do not show that two-forked mode of
division which is so characteristic of mammals. The lungs are of a rosy colour, and of a compara-
tively small volume ; they are marked externally by depressions corresponding to the characters of the
vertebrae and ribs, to which latter they are firmly attached, and they are not divided into lobes ; in their
texture they are spongy ; the air-tubes are given off from them at right angles to the main air-passage ;
these run nearly parallel to one another, and contain in their walls the true tissue of the respiratory
organ. The air-tubes are also connected with the air-cells, which are arranged in so remarkable
a manner as to deserve a full account.

They are found in all birds with the exception of the Apteryx, according to Professor
Owen. Our knowledge of . their existence is primarily due to the illustrious William Harvey,
while it is to the distinguished anatomist, John Hunter, that we owe our knowledge of
the very curious fact that these air-passages and sacs communicate also with the cavities of
some of the bones of the skeleton. Though these sacs are not by any means highly vascular,
or supplied with vessels to the same rich extent as are the lungs, they are nevertheless of
enormous importance to the bird ; thus, they diminish the specific gravity of the animal. For
example, taking a bird which weighs 1,600 grammes, and has a volume of 1,230 cubic centimetres
— or a specific gravity of 1'30 (j~j) it has been calculated (Bert) that 200 cubic centimetres of air can
be introduced ; now these centimetres would weigh '22 of a gramme, so that the specific gravity of the
animal would be reduced to 1 -05 (j^±^±?) or (J-^p). Again, the air which is taken into the lungs is, in
high-flying birds, often of an extremely low temperature ; but this air is not only brought into contact with
that of the lungs, but also with that which has been warmed in the abdominal cavity. And again, the
air is often very dry — as it is for the Ostrich on the desert plains of Africa — but the air from the air-
sacs contains a large amount of moisture. Of the proper air-sacs there are nine ; of these, four — the
two anterior and the two posterior thoracic — lie in the thorax (breast) proper ; three — the right and
left cervical, and the sac between the clavicles — lie in front of the thorax ; while the last two are found
behind it and in the abdomen. From all of these, with the exception of those within the thorax, com-
munications are, or may be, given off to the bones of the vertebral column, to the humerus, to the
bones of the thigh, and to the sternum and the ribs ; but there is no communication between these
sacs and the air-spaces which are so constantly found in the bones of the skull, and which are in con-
nection with the air-cavities of the ear and of the nose. The inter-clavicular sac has been observed to
be covered with a thick layer of muscle in those birds, at any rate, which perform somersaults, and
it has been suggested that this layer of muscle is capable of driving the air in the sac backwards. It
is obvious that such an operation would send the centre of gravity of the animal nearer the head, and
would, so far, be of assistance in the execution of the curious movement alluded to.

It has been suggested that the air-sacs are of assistance in increasing the resonance of the bird's
voice. Be this as it may, attention must now be turned to the organ of voice. This organ may
take one of three forms, or, if absence is to be counted, four. There is no organ of voice in.
the Ratitse, or in the American Vultures (Cathartid(v). It is, when present, remarkable for being
developed at the lower, and not at the upper, end of the trachea ; while the true vocal cords, which,

ANATOMY OF A BIRD. 251

by their vibration produce the notes of the human voice, are altogether and always absent from the
larynx ; in other words, the vocal organ is not the larynx, but an organ seated at a lower level, and
known as the syrinx. This instrument may, further, be formed in the trachea alone (as in some
American Passerines), or in the bronchi alone (as in Steatornis), or at the point at which the tracheal
and bronchial tubes pass into one another (as in the majority of singing birds).

The last-mentioned, or bronchio-tracheal syrinx, consists of the following parts; (i.) a tympanic
chamber formed by the union of some of the lower rings of the trachea ; (ii.) a membranous septum
separating from one another the tracheal orifices of the two bronchi ; (iii.) on either side a tympaniform
membrane, formed on the inner side of the uppermost bronchial rings ; in consequence of this these
bronchial rings are not complete circles ; their mucous membrane is developed into a fold which bounds
one side of a cleft which is formed by the presence on the other side of the above-mentioned tympani-
form membrane. The air which passes through these bronchial clefts sets in vibration the membranes
which bound them, while the character of the note is affected by the position of the bronchial half-rings,
and the length of the column of air in the trachea. These rings have their positions changed by five
lateral muscles, which act on their ends, and so rotate, them. The principle variations in the characters
of the muscular supply of the organ of the voice were long ago worked out by Johannes Miiller, the
famous German anatomist and physiologist.

It is also to this observer that we owe our first information with regard to the bronchial syrinx
of Steatornis ; the anatomy of this animal was also investigated by the late Prof. Garrod, who gave
the following account of its vocal apparatus : — " Each semi-syrinx, as it
may be termed, is formed on the same principle as that of the combined
organ in most of the non-singing birds. Taking for description that of
the left side, it is found that the thirteenth bronchial ring is complete,
though considerably flattened from side to side ; the fourteenth is not
complete in the middle of its upper surface ; it is a little longer from
before backwards than the one above, and not so long as the one
following it. The fifteenth is only a half ring, its inner portion being
deficient ; it is slightly convex upwards, and articulates, both at its
anterior and posterior ends, with the fourteenth incomplete ring and the
sixteenth half-ring. The sixteenth half-ring is concave upwards, and so
forms an oval figure in combination with the one above, which is filled
with a thin membrane to form part of the outer wall of the bronchus.
There is a membrane also between the ends of these and the succeeding
half-rings, which completes the tube of the bronchus internally." (After

The ducts from the urinary organs open to the exterior through the

cloaca, into which, as already mentioned, the digestive tube also opens. The chief point with regard
to the urinary secretion of birds is the fact that it is semi-solid, and that it contains a quantity of the
substance known as uric acid. The kidneys are placed some way back and near the cloaca ; they
are set on either side of the spinal column, between the transverse processes of the sacral vertebrae,
and are generally divided into three portions of greatly varying size. On their inner edge are given
off the ureters, which pass on each side to enter separately into the before-mentioned cloaca.

The right ovary of birds is always atrophied, and it is in rare cases only that rudiments of it are
found (namely, in the diurnal Raptores). The oviduct is a coiled canal, the lower portion of which
has strong, muscular walls, while internally the characters of its surface vary according to the
substance which the glands of different regions add to the descending egg. The right oviduct is not so
completely atrophied as is the ovary of the same side. This duct opens into the cloaca through
which the egg passes to reach the outer world ; as further development is so largely independent of
the mother, the female organs offer no peculiarities of arrangement, or complexities of structure.

All birds lay eggs, or, in other words, the bom young are not carried about by the mother
till the time of birth. The advantage of this to a flying animal is so obvious that we may pass
at once to describe the egg of a common fowl The shell, which consists of organic matter and lime-
salts, is found to be formed of two layers; it is in the outer one only that pigment is found.
Both layers are traversed by canals, through which air can pass only when the shell is dry;

NATURAL HISTORY.

DIAGRAMMATIC SECTION OF A FOAVL 8 EGG.

dbl) Blastoderm ;

Shell Membrane; («») ExtWnaf Layer of ditto ; (.e) Shell.

that is to say, the outer pores of the shell are closed under the influence of moisture. This may be seen
by removing the outer layers, when air or water Avill pass in quite easily. These canals are said to be
branched in the Ratite birds, and to be simple in the Carinatse. The shell is lined by the shell-mem-
brane, which, again, is made up of two layers.
At the broad end of the egg these two layers
are separated from one another, and so give rise
to that air-chamber which is found in stale eggs,
and increases in size as the egg grows older and
the yolk evaporates.

The shell-membrane is in direct contact with
the white of the egg (albumen). This, in its fresh
state, consists of fluid albumen, arranged in
layers, which are separated from one another by
networks of fibres, in the meshes of which,
however, fluid albumen is also to be found.
There are. further, two special sets of fibrous
cords in the white of the egg; these extend
somewhat along the long axis of the egg, though
they do not reach to the shell-membrane. From
their bead-like character they are known as
chalazce (hailstones), but their more common English name is that of the " tread."

The " white " is separated from the yolk by the so-called vitelline (or yolk) membrane ; the greater
part of this yolk is known as the yellow yolk, and is made up of minute albuminous granules, but its
outermost part is formed of a thin layer of a somewhat different substance, which goes by the name of
the white yolk. The spheres of this latter are still smaller than those of the yellow yolk, and they
are also found to form layers at various levels in it. At one point the white yolk becomes
a good deal thicker, and forms, as it were, a pad for a small white disc, which, in ordinary circum-
stances, is always found uppermost when an egg is opened. This disc is formed of an encircling
white rim, and within it there is a rounded transparent region, the centre of which is more opaque.

This region is known as the blastoderm, and is that part of the egg from which the chick, with its
organs and complicated vessels, muscles and bones is soon to be developed. In the laid egg, this
blastoderm consists of two layers of cells, as do at a certain stage the eggs of all but the very simplest
of animals. The dissection of a laying fowl will probably reveal the presence of eggs at an earlier
stage, and from their study the following history has been made out : the ellipse-shaped eggr
when about to leave the ovary, is a yellow body enclosed in a fine membrane, and possessing at one
pole a small (germinal) disc ; this disc contains a smaller germinal vesicle, and a still smaller germinal
spot ; when this body is ripe, it escapes from its enclosing capsule, and the germinal vesicle disappears.
As the egg passes down the oviduct the albumen becomes deposited around it, and part of it is con-
verted into the shell-membrane. The egg now becomes subjected to a thick, white fluid, which is
gradually converted into the shell.

While these additions to the substance of the egg are going on, the germinal disc undergoes
the remarkable process known as segmentation, in which it becomes divided into two, four, eight,
sixteen, thirty-two (and so on) masses, which arrange themselves in two distinct layers, the presence
of which has been already noted in the laid ess.

v OO

This is not the place in which it is possible to follow out the various future changes undergone,
but the condition of the young birds on escaping from the egg is widely different in some of the
larger groups of birds. Some young birds, on their exclusion from the egg, are able to shift for them-
selves, and are covered with down ; while others are born naked and helpless, and require food
from their parents for some time after they are hatched. Of the first section, an ordinary chicken
is a familiar example, while a young Thrush or a Sparrow illustrates the second. There are, however,
manifest exceptions to this rule, as in the Herons, for instance, where the young are densely clothed
with feathery down, but are helpless for a long time after they are hatched.

Finally, it must be stated that all birds possess an oil-gland (known as the uropygial), situated

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CLASS AVES.

253

near the tail, with which they clean and dress their feathers. Attention has already been called to
this gland in the foot-note on p. 245.

Before commencing the special part of the present article, it may be useful to give a slight sketch
of the classification which it is proposed to follow throughout its course.

CLASS AVES.
DIVISION I.— CARINATJE : CARIXATE BIRDS.

ORDER I.-ACCIPITRE3 : BIRDS OF PREY.
SUB-ORDER I. — FALCO.NES : FALCONS.

GRODP II. — CICHLOMORPH.E : THRUSH-LIKE PASSERES.

Family I. — Vulturidae - - -

,, II. — Faleonidae - - -

Sub-Family I. — Polyborinaj

,, II. — Accipicrimt?

,, III. — Buteonirue

,, IV. — Aquilinai -

,, V. — Falconinae -

Vultures.

Hawks.

Caracaras.

Long-legged Hawks.

Buzzards.

Eagles.

Falcons.

, , VI. — Trichoglossinre

Family II.— Cuculidse - - -
,, III. — Indicatoridae - -
. , IV. — Musophagidw
„ V.— Picidae -
,, VI. — Rhamphastidae - -
,, VII. — Capitonidae - - -

SUB-ORDER II. — FISSIROSTRES ;

Family I. — Galbulidae - - -

,, II. — Bucconidse - - -

,, III. — Alcedinidae -

,, IV. — Bucerotidae -
,, V. — Upupidae
,, VI. — Meropidae
,, VII. — Momotidae

,, VIII. — Coraciadae - - -

,, IX. — Trogonidae - - -
,, X. — Caprimulgidse - -

., XI. — Cypselidae ...

, XII.— Trochilidae - - -

SUB-ORDER II. — PANDIOSES : OSPREYS.

SUB-ORDER III. -STRIGES : OWLS.
Family I. — Bubonidae ----- Owls proper.

„ II.--Strigidae Barn Owls.

ORDER II.-PICARLE: PICARIAN BIRDS.
SUB-ORDER I.— ZYGODACTYL.E : CLIMBING BIRDS.
Family I.— Psittaci - - ... Parrots.

a. — Psittaci proprii.
Sub-Family I.— Camptolophinas - Cockatoos.

,, II.— Androglossiuae - Fleshy-tongued Parrots.
,, III. — Conurinae - - - Conures.
,, IV.— Platycercinse - - Parrakeets.
,, V.— Strigopiuse - - Owl Parrots,
b. — Psittaci orthognathi.

( Brush - tongued Par
I rots.

- Cuckoos .

- Honey-guides.

- Touracoes.
Woodpeckers.

- Toucans .

- Barbets.

"\VIDE-GAPING BIRDS.

- Jacamars.

- Puff Birds.

- Kingfishers.

- Hornbills.

- Hoopoes .

- Bee-eaters.

- Motmots.

- Rollers.

- Trogons.

- Goatsuckers.

- Swifts.

- Humming-birds.

ORDER III.-PASSERIFORMES : PERCHING BIRDS.

SECTION A.— ACROMYODI : SINGING BIRDS.
SUB-ORDER I.— TURDIFORMES : THRUSH-LIKE BIRDS.

GROUP I. — COLIOMORPH^E : CROW-LIKE PASSERES.

Family I. — Corvidae - -
Sub-Family I. — Corvinre
„ II. — Fregilime
Family II. — Paradisiidae -
„ III.— Orioliidae -
,, IV. — Dicruridse
„ V. — Prionopidae -
127

Crows.

Crows proper.

Choughs.

Birds of Paradise.

Orioles.

Drongos.

"Wood-shrikes.

Family VI. — Campophagidae - -

,, VII. — Muscicapidae - -

„ VIIL-Turdidse - - - -

Sub-Family I. — Turdinas - -

„ II. — Sylviinae - -

Family IX. — Timeliidae - - -

Sub-Family I. — Troglodytinas

, , II . — Brachy podin je

,, III. — TimelLnae- -

,, IV. — Cisticolinas

,, V. — Miminoe - -

Family X. — Laniidae - - - -

,, XI. — Vireonidae - - -

„ XII.— Paridae - - - -

Cuckoo-shrikes .

Flycatchers.

True Thrushes.

Thrushes.

Warblers.

Babbling Thrushes.

Wrens.

Bulbuls.

Babblers.

Grass-warblers .

American Babblers.

Butcher-birds.

Greenlets.

Titmice.

GRODP III.— CERTHIIMOKPH.E : CREEPERS.

GROUP IV.— ClXNYRIMORPH.E : HONEY SUCKERS.

SUB-ORDER II. — FRIXGILLIFORMES : FINCH-LIKE BIRDS.

Family I. — MotacilliJie - - -

„ II.— Mniotiltidae - - -

„ III.— Caerebida? - - - -

„ IV.— Diceidae - - - -

„ V. — Ampelidaj - - -

„ VI. — Hirundinidae - - -

,, VII. — Tanagiidae - - -
„ VIII.— Fringillidae - -

„ IX.— Icteridse - - - -

SUB-ORDER III. — STCRNIFORMES

Family I. — Ploceidae - - - -

,, II. — Sturnidae - - - -

,, III. — Artamidse - - - -

,, IV. — Alaudidae - - - -

SECTION B.— MESOMYODI :

Family I. — Menuridae- - - -

,, II. — Pteroptochiilre - -

., III. — Dendrocolap'idas -

IV. — Formicariidie - -

V— Pittida

,, VI.— Tyrannidse -
„ VII.— Cotingidae -
„ VIII.— Pipridae - -
„ IX.— Eurylaemiidaa
,, X. — Phytotomidae

- Wagtails.

- American Warblers.

- American Creepers.

- Flower-peckers.

- Chatterers.

- Swallows.

- Tanagers.

- Finches.

- Hang-nests.

STARLING-LIKE BIRDS.

- Weavers.

- Starlings .

- Wood -swallows.

- Larks.

SOXGLESS BIRDS.

- Lyre-birds.

- Bush- wrens.

- Spine-tails.
(American A n t -
( thrushes.

\ Old-World Ant-
( thrushes.

- Tyrant-birds.

- American Chatterers.

- Manakins.

- Broadbills.

- Plant-cutters.

ORDER IV.— COLUMBJE : PIGEONS.
ORDER V.— GALLESLE: GAME-BIRDS.

- Curassows.

- Hoatzins.

- Pheasants.

- Turkeys.

- Grouse .

- Sand-grouse.

- Hemipodes .

- Megapodes.

Family I. — Cracidae - - -

,, II. — Opisthocomidaa -

,, III. — Phasianidaj - -

„ IV. — Meleagridae - -

,, V. — Tetraonidas - -

„ VI. — Pteroclidae - -

„ VII.— Turnicidae - -

„ VIII. — Megapodidae - -

251

NATURAL HISTORY.

ORDER VI.-GRALL^l: WADING BIRDS.

.Family I. — Rallidse - -
II. — Scolopacidas -
III.— Charadriidae -
IV.— Otididae - -
V. — Gruidae - -
VI. — Psophiidae

Rails.

Snipes.

Plovers.

Bustards.

Cranes.

Trumpeters.

ORDER VII.— HERODIONES : HERONS.

Family I. — Ardeidae - - -
„ II.— Ciconiidse - - -
„ III.— Plataleidae - -
,, IV. — Phaenicopteridae

Herons proper.
Storks.
Spoonbills.
Flamingoes .

ORDER VIII.-ANSERES: GEESE.
Family I. — Palamedeidae - - - - Screamers.
„ II.— Anatidae ----- Ducks.

ORDER IX.— STEGANOPODES : PELICANS.

Family I. — Fregatidae Frigate-birds.

,, II.— Pkaethontidite - - - - Tropic-birds.
,, III.— Pelecanida; .... Pelicans.

ORDER X.— GAVLE: SEA-BIRDS.

Family I. — Laridae Gulls.

„ II. — Procellariidae - - - - Petrels.

ORDER XI.— PYGOPODES : GREBES.
ORDER XII.— IMPENNES : PENGUINS.
ORDER XIII.— CRYPTURI : TINAMOUS.

DIVISION II.—RATIT^E : STRUTHIOUS BIEDS.
DIVISION III.— SAURUR2E : LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS.

It has been already stated that birds are divisible into three great sections, and attention is
now directed to those which have a keel to the sternum, and which are good flyers — the Carinate Birds
(CARINATJE).

CHAPTER III.

DIVISION I— THE CARINATE BIRDS (CARINATvE).

THE ACCIPITRINE ORDER— BIRDS OF PREY.

VULTURES AND CARACARAS.

The Birds of Prey — Distinctive Characters — The Cere — How the Birds of Prey are Divided — Difference between a Hawk,
an Owl, and an Osprey — The three Sub-orders of the Accipitres — Sub-order FALCONES — Difference between the Vultures
of the Old World and the Vultures of the New World— THE OLD WORLD VULTURES— Controversy as to how
the Vultures reach their Prey — Waterton on the Faculty of Scent — Mr. Andersson's, Dr. Kirk's, and Canon Tristram's
Views in Favour of Sight — THE BLACK VULTURE — THE GRIFFON VULTURE — Its Capacity for Feeding while on the Wing
— THE EARED VULTURE— One of the Largest of the Birds of Prey— Whence it gets its Name— THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE
—A Foul Feeder— THE NEW WORLD VULTURES— THE CONDOR— Its Appearance— Power of Flight— Habits—
THE KING VULTURE— THE TURKEY VULTURE— THE CARACARAS— Distinctive Characters— Habits— THE SECRETARY
BIRD — How it attacks Snakes — Habits — Appearance — THE CARIAMA.

THE first order of birds to be considered is the birds of prey (Accipitres}. They are all remark-
able for strong and sharply-hooked bills, and most of them have sharp and powerful talons. In
the Eagles and Falcons these characters are developed in the highest degree, although many modifica-
tions of their structure take place in the order — the Vultures, for instance, and other carrion-feeding
birds, not having such a hooked bill as the true Falcons and Eagles, while their feet are larger and
more adapted for holding their prey than for striking it down in full career, as the Falcons do. In
most of the birds of prey the female is larger than the male, and is much the more powerful bird. This
fact is always recognised in falconry, especially in the short-winged Hawks, such as Sparrow-Hawks
or Goshawks, whose females are always preferred, as possessing the greater power for holding ground
game, such as Rabbits, Hares, &c. The difference in size is not very noticeable in the Vultures,
but is unmistakable in the long-legged Sparrow-Hawks, Eagles, and Falcons. The form of the
breast-bone, which plays such an important part in the classification of other bii'ds, is a character of
less value in the birds of prey, as it varies to a great extent even in those species which, by their
liabits and general structure, are most closely allied. Another character possessed by these birds is the
distinct cere, which is present in all, though much hidden by bristles in the Owls : it is a waxy
covering to the base of the bill, often hard, but generally fleshy in substance.

Birds of prey are of three kinds : Hawks, Ospreys, and Owls. Under the first name is in-
cluded every rapacious bird which . is not an Osprey or an Owl, and, therefore, the first thing to find

THE BIRDS OF PREY.

255

HEAD AND BILL OF SEA EAGLE. (After Keulemans.)
(a) bony eye-sbelf ; (6) cere.

out is — how to tell an Owl from a Hawk. At one time it was supposed that all Owls came out by
night and all Hawks by day, and so they were separated into two great divisions, which were called
diurnal birds of prey* and nocturnal birds of prey.f Now,
however, that the habits of birds are getting better ob-
served, these divisions have to be abandoned as not being
entirely true, for there are Owls which are quite at home
in the daylight, when they hunt for their food like any
other bird of prey, and at least one kind of Hawk is
known, whose habit it is to feed on Bats in the evening.
This is Andersson's Pern, J a kind of Kite, allied to
the Honey-kite of England. It is found only in the
Damara Country, in South - western Africa, and in
Madagascar. A far better way to distinguish Hawks
from Owls is seen in the foot, as the latter have the outer toe reversible — that is to say, they
can turn their outer toe backwards or forwards as they please. This is easily observed in the living;
birds; and any one examining a caged Owl in the Zoological Gardens will see that it sits with its toes
in pairs — two in front and two behind. A Hawk cannot do this, all his toes being arranged as in a
little perching bird, such as a Sparrow or a Canary, three in front and one behind. Then, again, Owls
have no " after-shaft " to the feathers, a structure which most Hawks possess. The " after-shaft " is.
the small accessory plume, which springs from the under-side of the main feather. In some birds it
is very large, in others small. It occurs on the body feathers only, and is never found in the
quills or tail feathers (see p.. 238). Lastly, in addition to the reversible outer toe, and the
absence of an accessory plume or after-shaft, Owls may be distinguished from all other birds of prey,
save one, by the proportions of their leg-bones. In the skeleton figured on p. 241 the three principal
leg-bones are pointed out ; and it is the length which the tarsus bears in proportion to the tibia,
that is here insisted on. In the Owls the tarsus is only about half the length of the tibia ; this
is never the case in a Hawk, in which these two bones bear different proportions the one to the
other, according to the sub-family. Thus in Sparrow-Hawks and Harriers § the tibia and the tarsus
are equal in length. In Eagles and Buzzards, Kites and true Falcons, the tibia is always much
longer than the tarsus, but is never double its length, as it is in the Owls. The term " Hawk," which
has been employed throughout the foregoing sentences, is intended to apply to every bird of prey
excepting the Owls, with the sole exception of the Osprey. The habits of the Osprey are noticed
later on, but they may be briefly stated to be similar to those of a Sea-Eagle, its prey consisting-
entirely of fish, while its plumage and general appearance are also those of an Eagle, so that in many
places it is popularly known as the " Fish Hawk," or "Fishing Eagle;" but here the resemblance of
the Osprey to the Eagle ends, and in its other characters it is very like an Owl. The tibia is more
than double the length of the tarsus, as in the Owls ; the feathers of the body have no after-shaft, as
in the Owls, and the outer toe is reversible, as in the Owls. Possessing, therefore, as it does, some of
the most prominent features of the Eagles, as well as some of the most striking peculiarities of the
Owls, the Osprey holds an intermediate position between these two sub-orders of birds.
The birds of prey, then, may be separated into three sub-orders : —

(«). Outer toe not reversible ; tibia varying in lengtb in proportion to the tarsus, sometimes equal to it, but never
double the length of the latter ; body feathers with an after-shaft or accessory plume. (American Vultures
excepted.)

I. Hawks (Falcones}.\\

(b). Outer toe reversible ; tibia double the length of tarsus ; body feathers without an after-shaft or accessory plume;
plumage compact, as in an Eagle ; no facial disk.

II. Ospreys (Pandiones),^

(c). Outer toe reversible; tibia double the length of tarsus; body feathers without an after-shaft ; plumage soft and
fluffy ; a facial disk.

III. Striges;** Owls.

Accoutres diurni of authors.
|| Falco, a Falcon.

f Accip'tres nocturni of authors. J Machcerhampkus Anderssoni. § Accipitrince
^[ flav&uav, a Greek mythological name. ** o-rpt'-yf, an Owl.

•256 NATURAL HIS TOUT.

The Falcones, or Hawks, include in their number more kinds of rapacious birds than the other
two sub-orders. All the Vultures, the Caracaras, the Harriers, the Sparrow-Hawks, the Buzzards,
Eagles, Kites, and Falcons, together numbering some four hundred different species, are classified as
Falcones. Only one species of Osprey is known, which is found nearly all over the world ; and about
two hundred different kinds of Owls remain to represent the STRIGES.

ORDER ACCIPITRES.— SUB-ORDER FALCONES.

The first sub-order is divided into two families, the first to be noticed being the Vultures
(Vulturidcv), which is again sub-divided into two sections, the Vultures of the Old World (Vulturinc?)
and the Vultures of the New World (Sarcorhamphince).

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURID.E.— THE OLD WORLD VULTURES (Vulturitue).

These Vultures are neither to be recommended for their habits nor for their personal appearance.

In fact, in both these respects they are rather repulsive birds, but useful withal in hot climates,

where they act as scavengers, and clear away much putrid matter and decaying substances, which but

for their intervention would prove most offensive. They are all

inhabitants of tropical, or at least of warm, countries ; and it is

only on rare occasions that they wander into the North of

Europe or occur in the British Islands. Both the Old and the

New Worlds have their Vultures, but the naturalist has no

difficulty in telling at a glance to which hemisphere the bird he

is looking at belongs, for all the Vultures of the New World WLL OF EGYI>TIAX VULTURE, TO SHOW

have a hole through t/teir nose — or, in other words, want the FORM OF NOSTRIL. (After Keuiemans.)

wall of bone which divides one nostril from the other; in the

Vultures of the Old World this bony wall is present so that the nostrils resemble those of other

ordinary birds.

Besides their perforated nostril, the American. Vultures differ from the Old World species in

having no after-shaft to the feathers, therein resembling the Owls. This character has led some

naturalists to consider the New World Vultures as constituting a separate family, which bears the

name of Cathartidce; but although the absence of an after-shaft is
a striking feature, yet the habits of the birds so closely resemble
those of their Old World cousins, that it seems unnatural to
separate them widely in any scheme of classification. The head
of a Vulture, whatever locality he may be from, proclaims the
nature of the bird at once, as it is always bare of feathers, 01-
nearly so : sometimes a few scattered tufts of down are seen on
the head and neck, but never any true feathers, as in the case of

BILL OF TURKEY VULTURE, TO SHOW . ' ^

THE PERFORATED NOSTRIL. the other birds of prey. Ihe Vultures feed on the ground, where

they walk with comparative ease, their large feet being fitted for

progression on the earth, and their toes not being prehensile or capable of bending to the same extent
as in the other Hawks. This formation of the foot prevents them from striking down or snatching
their prey, as an Eagle or a Hawk would do ; and they do not carry food to their young, but devour
the carcase or carrion where it falls, and then feed the nestlings by throwing up food from their crop.
They are all birds of powerful flight, and are capable of sustaining a prolonged soar in the air
without any apparent motion of the wings.

As to the way in which Vultures discover their prey, the opinion of naturalists has for a long
time been divided, and controversy has waxed hot upon the subject, the question being whether the
Vulture possesses a more than usually keen sense of sight, or whether his sense of smell is so
powerful as to enable him to scent a decaying carcase at a greater distance than other birds can do.
The experiments of various travellei'S seem to prove that both the senses of sight and smell are
possessed by the Vulture in no ordinary degree ; but the balance of evidence seems to prove that it

HOW DO VULTURES DISCOVER THEIR PREY' 2c7

is "by their keen sight that they generally find their food. Supposing that an animal is wounded,
and escapes from the hunter, his course is marked by a Vulture soaring high in the air ; another
circling far awav on the horizon sees the first bird fly down, and follows in his track; and so on,
until a large company is feeding on the carcase. This action of the Vultures is well described by
Longfellow : —

" Never stoops the soaring Vulture
On his quarry in the desert,
On the sick or wounded Bison,
But another Vulture, watching
From his high aerial look-out,

Sees the downward plunge, and follows ;
And a third pursues the second,
Coming from the invisible ether,
First a speck, and then a Vulture,
Till the air is dark with pinions."*

The power of the Vulture's sight was long disputed by the former generation of naturalists,
and the celebrated Waterton wrote an article on the " Faculty of Scent in the Vulture," f to prove
that it was more by this means than by sight that the bird was able to discover a carcase. Waterton
was well acquainted with Vultures in Demarara and in Southern Spain, and he sums up his argument
as follows : — " After the repeated observations I have made in the country where it abounds, I am
quite satisfied that it is directed to its food by means of its olfactory nerves coming in contact with
putrid effluvium, which rises from corrupted substances through the heavier air. Those are deceived
who imagine that this effluvium would always be driven to one quarter in the tropics, where the trade-
winds prevail. Often, at the very time that the clouds are driving from the north-east up above,
there is a lower current of air coming from the quarter directly opposite. This takes place most
frequently during the night-time, in or near the woods ; and it often occurs early in the morning,
from sunrise till near ten o'clock, when the regular trade-wind begins to blow. Sometimes it is
noticed in the evening, after sunset ; and now and then during the best part of the day in the rainy
season. . . . Vultures, as far as I have been able to observe, do not keep together in a large flock
when they are soaring up and down in quest of a tainted current. Now, suppose a Mule has just
expired behind a high wall, under the dense foliage of evergreen tropical trees ; fifty Vultures, we will
say, roost in a tree a mile from this dead Mule. When morning comes, off they go in quest of food.
Ten fly, by mei'e chance, to the wood where the Mule lies, and manage to spy it through the trees ;
the rest go quite in a different direction. How are the last-mentioned birds to find the Mule 1 Every
minute carries them farther from it. Now reverse the statement ; and instead of a Mule nearly dead,
let us suppose a Mule in an offensive state of decomposition. I would stake my life upon it that not
only the fifty Vultures would be at the carcase next morning, but also that every Vulture in the
adjacent forest would manage to get there in time to partake of the repast." It will be seen from the
above that Mr. Waterton allowed the keen sight of the Vultures to play, on some occasions, a part in
their discovering food. Another observation 011 this subject is contained in the late Mr. C. J. Andersson's
work on the ornithology of South-western Africa. Writing on the Sociable Vulture (Otogyps auricularis),
lie says : — " I believe naturalists are not quite agreed as to whether Vultures hunt by sight, by scent,
or by both faculties combined. I have myself no doubt that they employ the one sense as well as the
other in finding their prey, though I feel inclined to give sight the preference ; and I once had a very
striking proof of how they employ their vision in guiding them to carrion — in this instance, however,
not so much by the actual sight of the can-ion (though the first discovery probably originated in that
way) as by another singular contrivance. Early one morning, as I was toiling up the ascent of a
somewhat elevated ridge of hills, with the view of obtaining bearings for my travelling map, and
before arriving at the summit, I observed several Vultures descending near me : but thinking I had
merely disturbed them from their lofty perch, I did not take any particular notice of their appearance,
as the event was one of usual occurrence ; but on gaining my destination, I found that the birds were
not coming merely from the hill summit, but from an indefinite distance on the other side. This
circumstance, coupled with the fact that I had wounded a Zebra on the preceding day in the direction
towards which the Vultures were winging their way, caused me to pay more attention. The flight of
die Vultures was low — at least five hundred to a thousand feet below the summit of the mountain ;
and on arriving near the base, they would abruptly rise without deviating from their direct course;

* "Song of Hiawatha," Book XIX. f "Essays on Natural History," 1866. p. 17.

258 NATURAL HISTORY.

and no sooner was the obstacle in their way thus surmounted than they again depressed their flight,.
Those Viiltures which I saw could not have themselves seen the carrion, but simply hunted in direct
sight of one another. There was a numerous arrival ; and although I could not always detect the next
bird as soon as I had lost sight of the previous one, yet, when at length it did come into view, it never-
seemed uncertain about its course. Having finished my observations, I descended, and proceeded in,
the direction which the Vultures had pursued ; and after aboiit half an hour's rapid walking, I found,,
as I anticipated, the carcase of a Zebra, with a numerous company of Vultures busily discussing it."*

Dr. Kirk, the companion of Livingstone, in his paper on the " Birds of the Zambesi Region of
Eastern Tropical Africa,"t says that to the inexperienced hunter the Griffon is "a great annoyance.
If game be left for an hour in the open plain while the men come to carry it off, the birds will descend,
and in a very short time completely devour it. This is not so if it be covered over with a little
grass or with branches, clearly proving that sight alone is the sense by which the birds discover their
prey. If part of the animal be exposed it matters not — probably owing to its being mistaken for
one asleep ; nor does the presence of blood seem to guide the birds if the carcase be concealed
from view."

Lastly, to quote from Canon Tristram's interesting essay on the " Ornithology of the Sahara : " £
" As, happily for the traveller, Camels do not die every day under the weight of their water-skins, the
Griffon does not habitually visit the desert. Still, he occasionally gives it a passing call, though, if
his meal be deposited near an oasis, he is usually forestalled by the Hysena (' Dubba,' Arab.), who
lurks in the ' weds.' On one occasion a Camel in our caravan having become footsore had to be
slaughtered on the spot. Our attendants selected the tenderest morsels for ' kouskous,' the Arab
broth ; and it was not until the next morning that a Vulture scented, or rather descried, his prey.
That the Vulture uses the organ of sight rather than that of smell, seems to be certain from the
immense height at which he soars and gyrates in the air. In this instance one solitary bird
descended, and half an hour afterwards was joined by a second. A short time elapsed, and the
Nubian Vulture (Otogyps nubicus) appeared, self-invited, at the feast ; and before the bones were
left to the Hysena no less than nine Griffons and two Nubians had bi-oken their fast. I should
hesitate to assert that they had satisfied their appetites. I have observed the same regular succession
of diners out on other occasions. May we not conjecture that the process is as follows ] The Griffon
who first descries his quarry descends from his elevation at once ; another, sweeping the horizon
at a still greater distance, observes his neighbour's movements and follows his course ; a third, still
fai-ther removed, follows the flight of the second ; he is traced by another ; and so a perpetual
succession is kept up as long as a morsel of flesh remains over which to consort. I can conceive no>
other way of accounting for the numbers of Vultures which in the course of a few hours will gather
over a carcase, when previously the horizon might have been scanned in vain for more than one, or at the
most two, in sight. Does not this explain the immense number of Vultures who were congregated!
in the Crimea during the siege of Sebastopol, where the bird was comparatively scarce before ? May
not this habit of watching the movements of their neighbours have collected the whole race from the
Caucasus and Asia Minor to enjoy so unwonted an abundance 1 The Ai*abs believe that the Vultures
from all North Africa were gathered to feed on Russian Horses in the Crimea, and declare that,
during the war very few ' Nissr ' were to be seen in their accustomed haunts."

The above extracts from authentic works have been made at some length, as exhibiting the
general habits of the Vultures. It remains now to notice some of the most striking forms of these
birds.

THE BLACK VULTURE §

This is an inhabitant of Southern Europe, whence it extends on both sides of the Mediterranean
to North-western India, where it is a cold weather visitant, and even to China. In its habits this bird
is rather unsociable, and keeps more to the wooded districts, seldom venturing into the open country,,
except when attracted by the presence of some carcase, on which it feasts in company with the
Griffon Vulture. It breeds on trees, constructing a large bulky nest, and only selects a rock for its

* " Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and the adjacent countries of Soiith-west Africa," 1872, p. 3.
t 1864, p. 307. J 1859, p. 277. § Vultm- monachus.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE.

259

breeding home when there are no trees to be found in the neighbourhood. It lays one egg, of a
richly mottled red colour, two eggs being an extremely rare occurrence. In appearance they are very
Jike those of the Golden Eagle. A story is told of the rescue by a pair of old birds of their young
ones, which were in danger from the felling of the tree on which the nest was situated. It is thus
related by Count von Tshusi Schmidthofen : — "The royal forester, A. Fikker, found in 1860, on the
top of a giant beech in the valley of Dobi-abach, in the Sinnaer district, the nest of this Vulture.
When the young birds were large enough to be able to save themselves as the tree fell, orders were
given to cut the beech down. The wood-cutters had worked at the tree some time, when the old
birds appeared, uttering loud cries, and suddenly pounced on the nest, caught hold of the young ones

GRIFFON VULTURE.

in their claws and disappeared like lightning, carrying off the young (who loudly complained of the
unusual mode of locomotion) before the gaze of the astonished spectators."

The Black Vulture measures three feet and a half in length, and is entirely black, the bare
places on the head and neck being of a livid flesh colour when the bird is alive.

THE GRIFFON VULTURE*

. The Griffon, or Fulvous Vulture (so called from its colour), is found all over Southern Europe,
and occurs occasionally at different points in Central Europe, having once been taken in the British
islands off Cork Harbour ; it therefore figures in the list of British birds. It ranges all over North-
eastern Africa, and extends eastwards into Turkestan, Central Asia, and North-western India. As
it goes eastwards the Griffon becomes a more rufous bird, and is by some naturalists considered to be
a different species. In the British Museum is a very interesting specimen of this Vulture, collected
by Major Denham in Bornou during his travels across Africa, being one of the comparatively few birds
that have been brought from Central Africa, about the ornithology of which we do not even yet know

* Gyps fuh-us.

2CO NATURAL HISTORY.

much. Like other Vultures, the Griffon feeds on carrion, but is also stated to frequent the sea-shore
in search of Crustacea and dead fish; while the South African Griffon is said to feed on Locusts and
small Tortoises, the latter of which it swallows whole.*

This bird's capacity for feeding is illustrated in a most amusing anecdote of Canon
Tristram's : — " For some months we possessed two Griffons taken from the nest, who at length
arrived safely in England. They never attempted to leave us, differing in this respect from our
Lammergeiers, but remained contentedly about the tents or perched on the backs of the baggage-
camels en route. They took a peculiar interest in taxidermy, scrutinising, head on one side, the
whole operation of bird-skinning, and perfectly aware of the moment when a morsel would be ready,
exhibiting a more than ordinary excitement when they saw the skin drawn back over the head,.,
and knew that the whole carcase would soon be cut off for them. One of these birds was of a
desponding, querulous disposition, the other of a very different natural temperament, always contented
and cheerful, a universal favourite in the camp, while his fellow received, I fear, many a sly kick
for his complaints. They were able to fast for days ; but, whenever such an opportunity as a Camel's
carcase presented itself, would be revenged on their Lent. I have seen our pet, ' Musha Pasha,'
attack the entrails of a Camel, and, as his crop became distended, sink upon his breast, unable to stand,
till at length, even this position being too much for him, he lay on his side, still eating, until, over-
powered and helpless, he fell asleep. This enormous capacity for food, combined with the power of
long abstinence, is a wonderful provision of creative wisdom for carrion-feeders, whose supply is
so uncertain, while the necessity for the immediate removal of offensive matter is so urgent. The
strength of the Vulture's stomach is eqxial to its capacity, for on one occasion one of our Griffons
devoured a half pound pot of arsenical soap, with no further inconvenience than a violent fit of
vomiting."

The Griffon nests on rocks, sometimes several building in company in the same neighbourhood.
Its flight is majestic, and Mr. Salvin says that it is a fine sight to watch the ease with which the
Griffon sails through the air ; the apparently effortless extension of the wing seems amply sufficient to
.sustain its huge body ; no flapping motion is necessary to enable it to mount to a great height. It is
only on leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to attain the necessary impulse, after which, with
primaries bent upwards by the force of the air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only.
In alighting, the bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing to within a few yards, it
checks its velocity by two or three heavy strokes of the wing.

Among the ancient Egyptians the Griffon appears to have been a sacred bird, and its remains
have been found embalmed. It is also figured on their monuments, sometimes in its natural form,
sometimes with the head of a Snake. In size the European Griffon stands about three feet and a
half high, and is of a general ashy fulvous colour, with black quills and tail ; the under surface is creamy-
brown, with a darker brown mark on the crop ; the head and neck are bare, or with loosely scattered
tufts of white down ; and round the neck there is a white ruff.

Besides the Griffon Vulture of Europe there are four others, which seem to be distinct species, the
Himalayan Griffon, the South African Griffon, Ruppell's Griffon from Abyssinia, and the Long-billed
Griffon from India. In addition to these there are the two White-backed Griffon Vultures, which
have only fourteen tail-feathers, and belong to the genus Pseudoyyps.

THE EARED VULTURE (Otogyps t atiricularis J).

This is one of the largest species of the birds of prey found in the Old World, being exceeded
in size only by the Great Condor of the Andes. It is an inhabitant of Africa, being plentifully
spread over the southern portion of the Continent, and also occurring in North-Eastern Africa, whence
it ranges in small numbers to Lower Nubia and the Sahara, and has even been said to occur
accidentally in Europe. It has received the name of Eared Vulture on account of the folds of skin
on the sides of the neck, which are found only in one other species, the Indian Vulture (0. cnlvus).
These two kinds of Eared Vultures appear to play the pai't of the King Vulture of South America,

* J. H. Gurney •. " Descriptive Catalogue of the Raptorial Binls in the Norfolk and Norwich Museum."
•J- ovs, tiros, an ear; yv^, a vulture. + Auricularis, having ears.

THE EGYPTIAN VULTURE.

261

the smaller Vultures, such as the Neophrons, always giving place to them, and allowing them to finish
their feast before venturing to approach.

The Egyptian Vulture (Neophron* percnopterus^} is also familiarly known as Phai-aoh's Chicken.
It is a small bird about two feet and a half in length, white in plumage, with black wings. A great part
of the face is bare and of a yellow colour. The young birds are brown. In Europe the Egyptian
Vulture is a migratory bird, but it breeds in many localities in the Mediterranean region, and has
even occurred once or twice on the shores of the British islands. In winter it takes itself to the Cape

EGYPTIAN VULTURE.

of Good Hope. It is much valued in certain places as a scavenger, as it devours excrementary
matter, but Mr. Gumey states that its food also consists of can-ion of various descriptions, and in
default of such food it occasionally preys upon rats, field mice, small lizards, snakes, insects, and even
earthworms. Colonel Irby observes that it is probably the foulest-feeding bird that lives, and that it is
very omnivorous, devouring any animal substance, even all sorts of excrement ; nothing comes amiss
to it, and he has sometimes seen them feeding on the sea-shore on dead fish thrown up by the tide.
The same gentleman^ says that on their migrations they pass Gibraltar, which is one of their lines of
passage, about the end of February, and they breed in the neighbourhood of that place, beginning to
lay about the 1st of Api'il. The nest is composed of a few dead sticks, always lined with wool, rags,

A mythological name.
128

t •ntpK.vos, dark coloured ; irrtpov, a wing ; so called from the colour of its wings.
J "Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar," p. 31.

262

NATURAL HISTORY.

or rubbish : and Colonel Irby states that he found about a pound of tow in one nest, and the sleeve of
an old coat ; while another observer says that on a foundation of branches Pharaoh's Hen heaps rags,
patches, old slippers, and whole basketfuls of camels' hair and wool for the comfort of its offspring.
The Egyptians frequently represented this species on their monuments, but do not appear to have
attached any particular significance to it.

In India the place of the present species is taken by the Indian Scavenger Vulture (Neophron
ginginianus), and in Africa the Pileated Vulture (Ar. pileatus), an entirely brown bird, occurs nearly
all over the continent.

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE VULTURID^E.— THE AMERICAN VULTDRES (Sarcorhamphinee).

THE CONDOR (Sarcorhamphm* gryphm f).

As before mentioned, all the American Vultures can be readily distinguished by the perforation of
their nostrils. The Condor is a very unmistakable species, being the largest of all the Vultures, and
the male has a large comb on the head which is not developed in the female. The hind toe also is

* crap? , flesh ; pan </><«, a bill ; so called on account of the fleshy wattles on the base of the bill,
f Gryphus, a mythological name, a Griffon.

THE TURKEY VULTURE. 263

extremely small, scarcely touching the earth, and on this account the foot is less prehensile
than in any other Vulture. The home of this magnificent bird is the chain of the Andes in South
America, and the neighbouring countries to the west, and it is found inhabiting these mountains
from Ecuador and Colombia, down to the Strait of Magellan, and again extending on the east coast
as far as the mouth of the Rio Negro in Patagonia. It bears confinement well, examples being
generally to be seen living in the Zoological Gardens; and some idea of the extent of wing in the
Condor can occasionally be obtained when the birds are sunning themselves on their perch. The
expanse in large individuals is said to reach as much as eight or nine feet. All observers agree that
when seen in a wild state the flight of the Condor is truly majestic, and it is capable of ascending
to an immense height, at which a man could not breathe on account of the rarefaction of the air, a
state of things which does not seem to affect the Condor, who is often lost to sight amidst the
clouds. The most exaggerated stories of the strength and prowess of this Vulture were circulated
by the old authors, and it was even said to attack full-grown oxen. The careful observations,
however, of recent travellers, have dispelled many of the fabulous stories respecting it, and it is now a
well ascertained fact that the Condor does not attack full-grown, animals of any size, but will
devour newly-born and helpless offspring, and several of them will unite to kill the mother should she
appear in a weak and sickly condition. The supposed habit, attributed to these birds, of carrying off
prey in their feet, is disproved by the weakness of the last-named organs, and their utter incapacity
for grasping anything : in fact the feet play a very insignificant part in the bird's economy, the
powerful bill being the chief factor in tearing a carcase to pieces. The Condor measures about
three feet and a half in length, the closed wing being about twenty-nine inches. The general colour
of the bird is black, the secondary quills and most of the wing-coverts being externally grey.
Round the neck is a ruff of soft white down. The bare parts of the head and neck are not
remarkable for any bright colour, but are blackish with traces of livid flesh colour here and there.
That the Condor lays sometimes in confinement is shown by a specimen in the British Museum, which
was hatched by a common hen, who sat on the egg for six weeks and two days. The nestlings are
usually covered with white down.

THE KING VULTUEE (Cat/iartea* papa\).

This is by far the handsomest of the whole family, its head and neck being covered with caruncles,
which in life are orange, purple, and crimson in colour ; the general plumage of the bird, too, is a
delicate fawn or cream colour. It is an inhabitant of Central and Southern America, from
Mexico southwards to Brazil, where it is found a little below the twentieth degree of south latitude.
It appears to be rather a cleaner feeder than the Condor or other American Vultures, and fre-
quents wooded countries instead of those rocky places in which the Condor delights. It is rarer
than the last-named bird, and from its forest-loving habits is less easily observed, and it is alto-
gether a more active and lively species. It is shy and suspicious, and is most difficult to obtain, from
its habit of sitting on the tops of trees, whence it scans with ease the country around. On this
account it is seldom shot, and D'Orbigny, from whose works much of the above information is
derived, says that it is only captured by attracting it to a carcase, and then shooting it from an
ambush. Another mode of capture, which he says is followed by the natives of Santa Cruz de la
Sierra,| is by finding out the tree on which the King Vulture roosts, and to which it returns night
after night, and then to climb up and capture the bird with gloved hands. The same observer-
says that it is not from any innate respect, but from fear of its powerful bill, that the Turkey
Vultures pay such deference to this present bird, not venturing to commence their repast until he is
satisfied, whereby he is popularly known as the "King" of the Vultures.

THE TURKEY VULTURE (Rhinogryphm § aura).

This is an inhabitant of North America, whence it ranges throughout Central America and the
West Indian Islands down the Andean chain to the Strait of Magellan. Their habits vary somewhat

a scavenger. f Papa, a pope. J D'Orbigny, " Voyage dans 1'Amerique Meridionale," p. 30.

§ piV (pi's), PIKJS, a nose ; gryphus, as before, a Griffon, or Vulture ; so called on account of its peculiar perforated nose.

264

NATURAL HISTORY.

with locality, for whereas in the Southern United States they act as scavengers in the towns, in
Guatemala and other places in Central America they are not seen in flocks, but occur in pairs only in
the forests. As in the case of the other Vultures, their food consists of can-ion, and they are found
in large numbers in deserts, where they obtain, an ample supply of food in the animals which perish.
The Turkey Vulture is about two feet and a half in length. The plumage is black with a purplish
gloss, and in life the bare head and neck are of a bright red colour, which soon fades after death.

BRAZILIAN CAKACAUA.

FAMILY FALCONID^E.— THE FALCON-LIKE HAWKS.

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY.— THE CARACARAS (Polyborina).

All the members of this sub-family are more or less Vulturine in their habits and appearance,
and many of them are carrion feeders. The name " Caracara " with which these birds are here
designated is of Brazilian origin, and all the species included under the present heading are
inhabitants of Central and Southern America, with the exception of the Secretary Bird of Africa.
They all seem to be at home on the ground, and they differ from all other birds of prey
in having a membrane which joins the base of the two outer toes to the middle one, a feature
which is doubtless useful to the birds when wallowing in the marshy ground, which many
of them frequent in quest of frogs, &c. The Southern Cai'acai-as (Ibycter australis) are said
to run with extreme quickness, putting out one leg before the other, and stretching forward their
bodies very much like Pheasants. Mr. Darwin, who became acquainted with these birds during
his voyage in the Beagle, says that their flesh is good to eat, and he gives a very interesting

THE SECRETARY BIRD. 26o

account of the habits of the Southern Caracara in the Falkland Islands, where they were extra-
ordinarily tame and very mischievous, frequenting the neighbourhood of the houses to pick up all
kinds of offal. If a beast were killed they congregated from all quarters like so many Vultures, and
they did not hesitate to attack arid capture wounded birds, on one occasion pouncing on a Dog which
was lying asleep. They would also carry off miscellaneous articles which were lying on the ground.
" A large black glazed hat was carried nearly a mile, as were a pair of heavy balls, used in catching
wild cattle. Mr. Usborne experienced during the survey a severe loss in a small Kater's compass,
in_ a red morocco case, which was never recovered." According also to Mr. Darwin, these birds
were quarrelsome and extremely passionate, and it was curious to behold them, when impatient, tear-
ing up the grass with their bills, from rage. It may be owing to their strong feelings, as described
by the last-named naturalist, that the colour of the face changes in the Brazilian Caracara, concern-
ing which a somewhat amusing incident may be related. There arrived from Patagonia at the
Zoological Gardens two Caracaras, which were white instead of brown, like the Brazilian species
(Polyborus tharus), and the question which troubled naturalists was, whether these Patagonian birds
were a distinct species, or whether they were simply a white variety of the ordinary Brazilian
bird. The latter had the bare skin of the face lemon-yellow, whereas the white birds had this part
purple, and this was looked upon as one sign of their belonging to a distinct species. But one
memorable day an ornithologist went up to describe the new arrivals, and to bestow on them a
name, which should mark the character of the purple face. No doubt existed in his mind, for the
white birds had now lived for a whole year in the Gardens, and were still white and had a purple
visage, but, happening to turn his head away for one moment, he was not a little surprised, on
looking back at his supposed new species, to find that the facial character had disappeared, and that
the bird's visage was now yellow. At the same moment the face of one of the Brazilian birds in the
adjoining den had turned red, and hence it became clear that the Caracaras can change the colour of
the bare face at will, and that the lighter-coloured specimen was only an albino after all ! Besides
the Caracaras, at least one other species of bird of prey changes colour in a somewhat similar
way — the Bateleur Eagle,* which, if irritated, flushes up to the roots of its feathers, and its bare face,
which is usually scarlet, becomes a deep blood-red or crimson. In the case of the latter bird the
change of colour is visible not only in the visage but in the feet also, which likewise acquire a
darker red than before.

THE SECRETARY BIRD (Serpentarlus^ secrctarius $} .

This is the only African representative of the Caracaras, or web-footed birds of prey, and from its
genei-al look and from its habits, no less than from some peculiar anatomical characters, it is by many
good authorities considered to be a game bird, and not a Hawk at all. No one, however, who
has seen a Secretary kill a Rat, and the prodigious force with which, by repeated blows of his
powerful legs, sometimes springing into the air and bringing both feet down at the same moment
upon his victim, he quickly reduces it to a shapeless pulp, would consider him anything but a bird
of prey. Standing before a Cobra which rises to attack him, the Secretary spreads his wings
out in front as a shield to guard his body, and then from behind this protection he strikes his
enemy down. On account of their prowess in destroying venomous Serpents, they are protected
with care by both the European and Native Governments in South Africa, and in the Cape Colony a
penalty is inflicted upon any one who ventures to kill one of these useful birds. Sometimes the
Secretary does not win in the fight with the Snake, for a good observer has stated that on one
occasion he saw a bird suddenly leave off fighting and run to a pool of water, where he fell down
dead. If the Snake bites a feather, the bird immediately pulls it out, but in the above instance the
reptile had drawn blood from the point of the pinion. It is somewhat remarkable that the Secretary
should have such sticking power in his legs, as they are long and slender for the size of the bird, and
are so brittle that it is said that, if suddenly started into a quick run, their legs will snap. The
Secretary Bird is a most voracious feeder, devouring Rats, Lizards, Locusts, Snakes, Tortoises, &c., and
Levaillant states that he took from the stomach of one of these birds three Serpents as long as his arm

* Helotarsus ecaudatus. f Serpentarius, a devourer of Serpents. J Secrctarius, a secretary.

266

NATURAL HISTORY.

and an inch in thickness, eleven Lizards of seven or eight inches in length, and twenty-one small
Tortoises of about two inches in diameter, besides a large quantity of Grasshoppers or Locusts, and
other insects.

A spirited and truthful account of the habits of the Secretary was published in 1856 by the late
M. Jules Verreaux, who spent upwards of fifteen years in South Africa engaged in a study of the
natural history of that part of the world, and a few extracts from this paper cannot be resisted.*

SECRETARY BIRD.

" As Nature exhibits foresight in all that she does, she has given to each animal its means of preserva-
tion. Thus the Secretary Bird has been modelled on a plan appropriate to its mode of life ; and it is
therefore for this purpose that, owing to the length of its legs and tarsi, its piercing eye is able
to discover at a long distance the prey which, in anticipation of its appearance, is stretched on the
sand or amongst the thick grass. The elegant and majestic form of the bird becomes now even more
graceful ; it now brings into action all its cunning in order to surprise the Snake which it is going to
attack ; therefore it approaches with the greatest caution. The elevation of the feathers of the neck and
back of the head shows when the moment for attack has arrived. It throws itself with such force on
the reptile that very often the latter does not survive the first blow. But if the bird does not succeed,

* Proceedings of the Zoological Society, 185G, p. 348.

THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS. 267

and the enraged Snake draws itself up and expands, at the same time, the skiu of its ueck, as is the way
with the more dangerous Serpents, the bird is forced to retreat, and takes a spring backwards, waiting
to seize a favourable moment for recommencing the attack. Raising itself, the furious reptile moves its
tongue with the quickness of lightning, and gives forth the most vehement hisses, which keep back the
enemy and seem to force some respect from it : but the bird, whose courage redoubles in the same
ratio that the difficulties increase, opens out its wings, and, returning to the charge, assails the reptile
afresh with blows from its terrible feet, such as no one would believe, and which are not long in
putting the Snake /tors fie combat. We have, however, sometimes seen the Snakes launch themselves
on the Secretary, but, either by opening its wings, whose long primaries serve it as a kind of shield,
or by jumping backwards or on one side, the bird is certain to parry the attack of its antagonist, who
at last, overcome by fatigue, falls at full length on the ground. The moment is seized by the Secretary
to redouble its massive blows, which, by dislocating the vertebral column, soon cause the reptile to
give iip the ghost. It is then that the victorious Hawk darts like an arrow, and placing its foot on
the Serpent's neck, just at the back of the head, commences to swallow it, which it does by beginning
at the tail first. Nor is this a long operation, even with reptiles five or six feet in length and more than
four inches in diameter ; and as soon as it arrives at the head it completely smashes the skull by several
blows of its bill before swallowing it."

"Both sexes work at the construction of the nest, whicli is always placed on the summit of a high
dense bush, more often a mimosa. It is added to each year, and it is easy to see the age of a nest by
the number of fresh layers which have been added year by year. The young birds remain for six
months before leaving the nest, their legs not being strong enough to support the weight of the body.
During the whole of this time they are fed with great assiduity by both parents."

The Secretary Bird stands more than four feet high, when fully grown. The general colour of the
plumage is grey, with black quills ; the lower back and rump are black, the upper tail-coverts white ;
the tail is grey, tipped with white, and crossed with two black bands; below, the colour is ashy-white,
the thighs and abdomen black. From the hinder part of the crown and occiput springs an elegant
crest of phimes, which the bird can raise or depress at will ; they are either entirely black, or grey
with a black tip. It is from these long plumes that the bird has got the name of the Secretary, from
some fancied resemblance in the bird's head to the quills which a secretary places behind his ear.

In America, the Secretary is represented by the Cariama (Qariama cristata), a bird which
looks so like a game bird that, as we have said, many ornithologists place both it and the
Secretary among the Gallinaceous birds, and not among the Hawks. From a consideration
of its anatomy, however, both Professor Parker and Professor Sundevall determined that the
Cariama is an accipitrine bird, though of a very aberrant form. Those who differ from them admit
that where the Secretary is placed in the natural system the Cariama must also be located, and no one
who has studied the habits of the former, either in a wild state or in captivity, can doubt for a
moment that it is a veritable bird of prey, and so it follows that the Bustard- like Cariama must
also be included in the same order.

CHAPTER IV.

THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS AND BUZZARDS.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE— Habits —Its Movable Tarsi— THE HARRIERS— Distinctive Features— THE MARSH HARRIER—
Habits — Its Thievish Propensities— THE HARRIER-HAWKS— Colonel Greyson's Account of their Habits — THE CHANTING
GOSHAWKS— Why so Called— Habits— THE TRUE GOSHAWKS— Distinctive Characters— THE GOSHAWK— Distribution—
In Pursuit of its Prey — Appearance— THE SPARROW-HAWKS— Distinctive Characters — THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK —
Habits— Appearance— THE BUZZARDS — Their Tarsus— THE COMMON BUZZARD — Where Found — How it might be turned
to Account — Food— Its Migrations— Habits — Appearance — THE HARPY.

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCONIDvE.— THE LONG-LEGGED HAWKS (Accipitrina).
ALL the Hawks included under this heading are remarkable for their long legs, in which the tibial
bone and the tarsus are about equal in length. In all the other Hawks, Eagles, Kites, Buzzards, and
Falcons, the tibia is always longer than the tarsus.

268 NATURAL HISTORY.

The Long-legged Hawks are not such powerful birds of prey as the Eagles or Falcons, and do not
possess, as a rule, the same dash and courage in pursuing their quarry, many of them feeding on
a low kind of diet, and being robbers of eggs and destroyers of young birds. The birds of prey
belonging to this sub-family are — 1. The Gymnogenes ; 2. The Harriers; 3. The Goshawks ; 4. The
Sparrow-Hawks.

THE BANDED GYMNOGENE* (Polyboroides* typlcus).

From its general appearance, especially in its naked yellow face, this remarkable Hawk is con-
sidered to be a close ally of the Secretary Bird ; but the proportions of its legs and its habits proclaim
it to be nearly related to the Harriers. Two kinds of Gymnogenes are known, one inhabiting
Africa, and the other being found in Madagascar. The food of the present species appears to consist
of Frogs and Lizards, and at times it walks over the ground which has been recently burnt, in pursuit
of insects and small reptiles ; at other times it will sit for a long time on stumps by pools of water,
watching for Frogs, which in such situations form its favourite food. The Gymnogenes are remarkable
in the class of birds for being able to put their leg "out of joint" at will (that is to say, they can
bend the tarsus backwards just as they please) ; and this is a fact which may be accepted as a
certainty, since its truth has been tested by many trusty and independent observers. One of these,
the late M. Jules Verreaux, states that the tarsi are movable at the " knee "-joint toward the front
from behind, a provision which, from the facility it affords the bird for drawing up Frogs out of the
marsh-holes by means of its talons, is of no little service to it. The exceedingly compressed toes of
this species also enable it to introduce its long tarsi into the narrow crevices of the rocks. He saw it
twist and turn its legs in all directions in capturing its prey in marshy places. Mr. Thomas Ayres
also says that " the legs of this bird bend backward at the knee in an extraordinary manner, very
much as if they were out of joint."

The Banded Gymnogene is nearly twenty-four inches in length, and is of a light grey colour,

th black wings, the secondaries being grey like the back, with a black band before the tip ; the

lower back is white barred with black; the tail black M'ith a white tip and a white bar across

[lie middle; the throat and chest are grey like the back, and the rest of the under surface is white

irred with black. The cere and bare space round the eye are yellow when the bird is alive.

THE HARRIERS (Circus}.

All the Harriers have a facial disc as in the Owls, though not so distinct as in the latter group
of birds. In both, however, the disc is formed by a ruff of soft, close-set plumes, which encircle the
face ; and hence in most classifications the Harriers have been considered as being closely allied to the
Owls, on account of their having this " facial disc." Their structure and habits, however, entirely do
away with the idea of there being any real affinity between these two groups of accipitrine birds.

Before the draining of the fens in England, Harriers were by no means uncommon in certain
localities ; b\it they are becoming rarer year by year, as each favourite haunt passes from them under
the dominion of the agriculturist. Three kinds were found in England, of which the Hen Harrier
(Circus cyaneus) was the rarest ; Montagu's Harrier (C. pygargus) was the most plentiful and the
most widely distributed; and the Marsh Harrier, or Moor Buzzard (C. ceruginosus), the most
powerful. This is the species which has held its own best, as it is still found breeding in some few
places in the United Kingdom. The habits of all the Harriers are very similar, and the genus Circus
is probably — with the exception of the Peregrine Falcons — the most universally distributed of any
Raptorial birds, for there is scarcely any part of the world where a Harrier is not found.

THE MARSH HARRIER (Circus centginosus).

This is an inhabitant of the Old World, where it enjoys a wide range. It is one of the greatest
robbers of eggs and young birds, being, in countries where it is still plentiful, a great nuisance to the
sportsman, as, says Colonel Irby, " slowly hunting along in front, it puts up every Snipe and Duck

* Gymnogene : from two Greek words (7"f"'<>s» bare, naked ; 7eVv?, a cheek). f Polyboroides : like a Polyborus or Caracara.

THE MARSH HARRIER.

269

that lies in its course, making them unsettled and wild."* The same authority furnishes the following
interesting particulars about the habits of the present species : — "In Andalusia, as well as in Morocco,
over all low wet ground, the Marsh Harrier is to be seen in vast numbers, particularly in winter.
Great quantities remain to breed, sometimes as many as twenty nests being within three hundred
yards of one another. The latter, loosely constructed with dead sedges, vary very much in size and
depth, and are usually placed amidst rushes in swamps, but sometimes on the ground among brambles
and low brushwood, always near water, though occasionally far from marshes. They begin to lay about
the end of March, and at that time fly up a great height, playing about, and continually uttering their
wailing cry. The eggs are bluish- white, and usually four or live in number ; they certainly vary in
size and shape, and are often much stained. Like the eggs of all the Harriers that I am acquainted
with, and many others of the Accipitres, when blown and held up to the light they show a bluish

MARSH HARHIEK.

tinge. I once found a nest containing only one egg nearly ready to hatch, and saw another with
six eggs (thi-ee quite fresh, and the other three hard sat on). I believe that if the first set of eggs
be taken they lay again in a fresh nest, as I found sets of fresh eggs as late as the 2nd of May.

"Cowardly and ignoble, they are the terror of all the poultry which are in their districts, con-
tinually carrying off chickens, and, like other Harriers, are most terribly destructive to the eggs and
young of all birds. On account of these propensities, I never let off a Marsh Harrier unless it spoiled
sport to fire at one. Sometimes, when at Casa Vieja, and the Snipe were scarce, we used to lie up in the
line of the Harriers' flight to their roosting-places ; for they always take the same course, and come
evening after evening within five minutes of the same time. Upon one occasion a friend and myself
killed eleven, and during the visit accounted for over twenty. I also upon every possible opportunity
destroyed the nest and shot the old ones ; but it was the labour of Sisyphus, for others immediately
appeared. However, there was a visible diminution of their numbers at Casa Yieja. I never saw
rats in their nests or crops, and believe they have not the courage to kill them ; small snakes, frogs,
wounded birds, eggs, and nestlings unable to fly, form the main part of their prey. I have seen the

129

* Col. Irby, " Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar," p. 34.

270 NATURAL HISTORY.

Marsh Harrier hawking over the sea about two hundred yards from the shore, where there was
shallow water, but could not see what they were taking.'7

THE HARRIER-HAWKS (Micraatur*).

These constitute a little genus of Hawks peculiar to the New World, where they form a perfect
link between the Harriers and the Goshawks. In form they are stoutly-built birds like the latter, while
they retain the facial ruff of the Hari-iers, and hence the name of Harrier-Hawk adopted for them
here. Their habits are well described by a good observer, the late Colonel Grey son, of the U.S. Army,
who writes of the largest species of the genus, the Harrier-Hawk (Microst/wr semitorquatus) : —
" Among the great variety of Hawks to be met with in a single day's excursion in the locality of
Mazatlan, none are so easily recognised as this peculiar and interesting species. I have found it only
in the heavy forests, or the immediate vicinity of a thickly-wooded country, where its slender form
and lengthened tail attract our attention as it swiftly glides through the tangled woods with that
remarkable ease which we have often noticed in the Sharp-shinned Hawk (A.fwscus). It appears
to be strictly arboreal in its habits, and possessed of wonderful activity, either in springing from
branch to branch without opening its wings, or rapidly darting through the intricacies of the bush
with apparently but little difficulty. I have seldom seen one of these Hawks in an open country, and
have never seen one flying higher than the tree tops, where they are met with. Its wings are rather
short, and its flight is performed by rapidly repeated strokes, only for a short distance at a time. It
preys upon various species of wood birds, which it captures by darting upon them on the ground or
in the bushes ; but the Chachalaca is its favourite game. This is a gallinaceous bird, or wild chicken,
about the size of, or lighter than, the common hen, and is entirely arboreal, seldom running upon the
ground, but is able by its peculiarly-formed feet to cling to, or spring rapidly through, the thickest
branches with great agility ; but this Hawk follows it with equal facility, until an opportunity offers
to strike its prey, then both come to the ground together, the Hawk being the lighter bird. I
witnessed a scene of this kind that took place when I was endeavouring to get a shot at a Chachalaca,
as it was jumping about the very thick branches of an acacia overgrown with lianas ; it appeared to
be in great distress, uttering its harsh notes of alarm, and spreading its fan-shaped tail. Suddenly I
saw one of these Hawks pounce upon it ; when with harsh screams of terror and pain the Chachalaca
dragged its captor to the ground, where they struggled for a few moments, but the unfortunate bird
was soon overcome. The struggling and screams of the Chachalaca created a great commotion among
the denizens of the woods ; far and near were heard the harsh cries of other members of its family,
and the Urraca Magpie, with streaming tail and ludicrous gesticulations, as well as the Blue-back
Jay, and other birds in the neighbourhood, gathered around to witness the scene of rapine. Suddenly
appeared in the midst of this clamour a lai-ger Hawk (Buteo Harrisi, And.), which rushed at once upon
the captor of the Chachalaca. Unable to withstand so heavy a charge, he was compelled to give up
his honestly captured prey to a superior force, thus proving the old adage that 'might is right.' The
slender but compact figure of our present subject was now seen perched upon a neighbouring bough,
scrutinising, with a vicious eye, the more powerful but less active bird of prey, as he vainly attempted
to bear off the lifeless form of the Chachalaca ; but there was one yet mightier than he. I observed
it for a few moments, then shot it, as also the Long-tailed Hawk, thus securing all three.

" They build their nest of dry twigs and moss, which is placed in a very tall tree, but below the
higher branches. The only nest I have seen was inaccessible, therefore I regret that I am unable to
describe the eggs."

THE CHANTING GOSHAWKS (Melieraxt).

These birds are met with in Africa only, and they have received the name of " Chanting " Gos-
hawks from their song, which has been stated by the French traveller, Levaillant, to be of considerable
power, for he says he has heard the male of the Cape species (Melierax canorus) sing for hours together
in the twilight of moming and evening, and sometimes through the night. This, however, has been

* /Luxpos, small; axtur, & Goshawk. See "Lawrence's Birds of Western and North -Western Mexico." "Memoirs of
the Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist.," VoL ii., p. 299. t ni\t, honey; itpuf, a Hawk.

THE GOSHAWK. 271

questioned by Mr. Layard, who is well known as an authority on African bii-ds, and who observed
the species in some abundance in certain parts of South Africa. According to this observer, the bird
will perch on the top of a high tree, utter its " mellow piping whistle," and fly off again. He has also
heard it call when flying. Now, although the Chanting Goshawks may not have such powers of song
as have been credited to them, it is certain that they really have a more varied note than is the case
with other Goshawks, and the Red-faced Goshawk (Melierax yobar) is said to whistle very much, and
better than M. canorus. About five different species of Chanting Goshawks are known, all being
from Africa : hence the genus Melierax is one of those forms characteristic of the Ethiopian region,
which embraces Africa below the Sahara desert. One species only, the Many-banded Goshawk
(Melierax polyzonus), a frequent bird in Abyssinia and Senegambia, is known to wander beyond the
limits of the above-named region, as it occui-s in Mogador, whence living specimens have been more
than once sent to the Zoological Gardens.

The habits of the Chanting Goshawks are very similar to those of the ordinary Goshawks of more
northern climates, the larger species feeding on Quails, Fraiicolins, and other small game, reptiles, and
locusts, while the less powerful kinds devour small birds and reptiles. The colour of the plumage is a
pearly-grey in the South African Chanting Goshawk (M. canorus), the belly being white with greyish
cross-lines ; the rump is white ; the primary quills black; tail dusky, tipped with white and crossed by
broad white bars ; the cere and legs are red ; the iris dai-k brown. It measures about three feet in
length. This style of colouring is found in all the species, excepting one small one, which is entirely
black all over, save some white spots on the tail, and is known as the Black Goshawk (Melierax niger).

THE TRUE GOSHAWKS (Astur).

These are represented nearly all over the world, every country having one or more species of the
genus Astur, excepting the continent of South America, which possesses only two kinds, both of them
rare and of limited range. More than thirty different species of the genus have been described, and
they present great differences in size and style of coloration, their habits varying equally, according to
the strength and power of the birds ; but they are all remarkable for a veiy sturdy bill, and thick-set
legs and sharp talons. A Goshawk may always be told by the latter characters, and by its short
toes, which are perhaps smaller in proportion to the size of the bird than in any other group of the
birds of prey.

These birds, and the Sparrow-Hawks, have very short wings, and have not the same power of
flight as in the true Falcons, which are long- winged birds ; and hence, in the old days of falconry,
they were never considered of such value as the Peregrine in the chase. They were also called Hawks
of the " fist." as they were flown at game from the hand, instead of soaring down on the quarry from
aloft.

THE GOSHAWK (Astur palumbarius).

This is the largest and most powerful of all the genus, as it is also the best known, being found
all over the northern parts of Europe and Asia. It used to be of more frequent occurrence in Britain
formerly than it is now ; and although it can only nest in this country on the rarest occasions in the
present day, the author was introduced to an old gamekeeper on the Marquis of Huntly's estate at
Aboyne, who perfectly remembered the Goshawk breeding regularly at Glentanner. A young bird is
still captured now and then in autumn, one of the last instances being that of a young male, who was
captured in an area at Hampstead, on the 3rd of August, 1872, and is now in the British Museum.

It will feed on nearly every kind of bird and animal that it is able to catch, and in falconry it is
principally employed to take Hares and Rabbits ; it will also take Pheasants and Partridges, a great
number of these latter birds being killed by the Goshawk in its wild state. It is able to pursue its
quarry with great dexterity through a wooded country, and it possesses great powers of abstinence,
so that, if its prey escapes into cover for the time, the Hawk will often wait for its re-appearance,
and will generally exhaust the patience of the quarry, and succeed in capturing it. During the day-
time it remains solitary in dark fir-forests, and comes out to feed in the morning and evening. The
nest is often a huge structure, being added to year by year ; and an immense nest is figured in

272 NATURAL HISTORY.

Professor Newton's " Ootheca Wolleyana." Some idea of the size may be gained from the story told
by Mr. Wolley, who climbed up to one that was placed a good height up in a large Scottish fir, and when

he stood on the same branch with
the nest, the latter still reached
several inches above his head, so
that the building of this nest had
probably been the work of several
years.

The old birds are alike in
plumage ; but the female, as is the
case with all Goshawks, is larger
than the male, measuring about
two feet in length, while the male
does not exceed twenty inches ; the
wing also, which is about twelve
inches in the male, exceeds four-
teen in the female. The colour is
grey, the head black, the sides of
the face white, streaked with black
lines ; below, the under surface of
the body is white, barred across
with black cross-bars of ashy-
brown; the under tail-coverts are
white ; quills and tail ashy-brown,
the tail feathers tipped with white ;
cere yellow; bill bluish ; iris orange.
The young birds differ considerably
from the adults, being rufous be-
low, with longitudinal streaks of
dark brown ; the upper surface
is brown, all the feathers being
margined with reddish-white.
GOSHAWK. In North America, a bird

very similar to the Goshawk takes

its place ; and a third species of the same group is found in Madagascar only. It is, however,
principally in the Malayan Archipelago that the greatest number of species occur, nearly every island
possessing a Goshawk peculiar to itself.

THE SPARROW-HAWKS (Accipiter).

These may almost be called miniature Goshawks, as they are not only short-winged birds like the
latter, but they even have the same style of plumage, consisting generally of a dark-grey back, a barred
under surface, and a piercing yellow eye. They may, however, be distinguished from the Goshawks
by their small, weak bill, and long, slender, middle toe. With the exception of some of the Oceanic
Islands, Sparrow-Hawks are found all over the world, being plentiful even in South America, where
the rarity of the Goshawks has already been alluded to.

THE COMMON SPARROW-HAWK (Accipiter msus}.

This is an active and plucky little bird, which still holds its own in England, notwithstanding the
raids made upon its nest, and the destruction of old birds by keepers. Nor can it be denied that the
Sparrow-Hawk, hatching its young about the time when the young chickens and Pheasants are also
being reared, will occasionally make a swoop on the pheasantry, and carry off the chicks to feed its
own offspring. The principal food of this Hawk is small birds, in the pursuit of which it is so eager

THE BUZZARDS.

273

that it has several times been known to dash through a glass window, and be caught in the room ;
while Messrs. Salvin and Broclrick, in their work on British Falconry, state that they have "known
a trained Sparrow-Hawk force itself to such an extent into a blackthorn bush, where it had killed a
bird, as to require to be cut out." Like the Goshawk, it is often trained for hawking, but is a much
more delicate bird to rear, and requires careful management when young. Nevertheless, a well-trained
Sparrow-Hawk will account for a considerable number of birds ; and in the work of the above-mentioned
authors is given an instance of one Hawk having killed 327 head in less than two months, consisting
of Sparrows, Blackbirds, Thrushes, a few Par-
tridges, and Linnets, more than two-thirds of
the number being Sparrows.

In size the female Sparrow-Hawk is con-
siderably larger than the male, measuring
nearly sixteen inches in length, and nine inches
and a half in the wing. She is generally paler
grey, never so blue as in the male, nor is she
so red underneath. A sign of age, by which a
mature hen Sparrow-Hawk may be known, is
the pi'esence of a tuft of rufous plumes on the
flanks, which is feebly developed in the young
bird, but is a conspicuous feature in the adult.

The male is bluish slate-colour above, the
quills browner and barred across with darker
brown, these bars being very distinct below; the
tail is barred with blackish-brown, and tipped
with white ; cheeks and ear-coverts are rufous ;
under surface of body whitish, with narrow bars
of bright rufous, the under tail-coverts white, as
are also the under wing-coverts and axillaries,
these two latter parts being spotted with brown.
Young birds are brown with rufous edges to
the feathers; underneath they are rufous, barred
with brown on the flanks and breast, the throat
and fore-neck streaked with the same colour.
The bars on the tail are five in number in a
young male, but as the bird increases in age the number of bars decreases, and is generally only
four in a very old bird : the same takes place in the female. The range of the Common Sparrow-
Hawk is very similar to that of the Goshawk, being extended all over Europe and Northern Asia, and
into Northern China and North-western India. Neither of the birds go to South Africa, and range
into the north-eastern portion of that continent only in winter.

THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY.— THE BUZZARDS (Biiteonincc).

These Hawks constitute a numerous assemblage of the birds of prey, and lead on from the long-
legged Hawks of the previous sub-family to the Eagles, ending with the Great Harpy, which is, perhaps,
the most powerful bird of prey in the world. All the Buzzards have the tibia much longer than the
tarsus, but they may be distinguished from all the Eagles, Kites, and Falcons by having the back of
the tarsus " plated," and not " reticulated." In the accompanying woodcuts is shown the hinder aspect
of a Buzzard's tarsus (figure on p. 274), by which it will be seen that the scales are arranged in
plates, very differently from that which takes place in the tarsus of an Eagle (figure on p. 274),
where the scales are reticulated.*

The Buzzards are more numerous in the northern parts of the world than in the tropics, and a
large decrease in the number of species takes place in Central and Southern America, whilst in
Oceania and Australia they are altogether absent. As a rule, they are birds of plain plumage and
* Rete, Lat., a net, so called on account of the network pattern.

SPARROW-HAWK. {After Keulemc.ns )

274

NATURAL HISTORY.

HIND VIEW OF TARSUS OF BUZZARD, SHOWING
THE PLATED ARRANGEMENT OF SCALES (A).

sluggish habits, possessing neither the courage of the Eagles, nor the dash and adroitness of the
Falcons, in capturing their prey. Africa produces some species which, as regards plumage, are an

exception to the general rule, the Augur and Jackal Buzzards
(Buteo augur and JButeo jackal) being rather handsome birds,
their plumage being a mixture of black and chestnut.

THE COMMON BUZZAED (Buteo* vulgar*).

This is a strictly European bird, although it has been
stated to occur in Central Asia, and to sometimes wander into
North- eastern Africa. Like all other birds of prey, it is
rather rare in Great Britain, but it still breeds in certain
localities, although the great majority of specimens which are
killed in Britain are found in the fall of the year. The
power of the Common Buzzards to attack large game is
very limited, and Mr. Robert Grayt observes : — " To many
persons it will seem unwise, I dare say, to call this Buzzard
a useful bird in game preserves, yet I cannot but think that
if the experiment were made of allowing it to fulfil the ends
for which Nature designed it, our native game birds would
benefit by the trial. So far as my own observations have
extended, the Common Buzzard is just the kind of instru-
ment wanted to clear off sickly young birds, which, on

arriving at maturity, yield an offspring of a degenerate breed. Of somewhat sluggish habits, it does

not care to interfere with strong-winged birds, being content with those that, through wounds or a

naturally feeble constitution, are unable to save themselves. In

this way only strong birds are left, and a healthy breed ensues.

Let any of our proprietors of moors, who are jealous of the

daring prowess of Eagles and lordly Peregrines, act upon this

hint, and I will venture to say we should have fewer instances

of disease amongst game birds to chronicle."

Although the Buzzard does not quarter the ground like

a Harrier, and search for its prey on the wing, it may not

unfrequently be seen circling in the air at a considerable height,

generally over the place which contains its nest, but as a rule

it perches on some stone or similar resting-place, whence ic

watches for its prey. When flying it utters a clear loud cry,

which has been described as " mewing." Its principal food consists

of Field Mice, but it also devours Moles, young birds, the

caterpillars of Hawk Moths (Sphingidce), Grasshoppers, and it

will also occasionally feed on carrion, or on dead fish cast up

on the sea-shore. When migrating in the autumn, which it

does in considerable numbers together, a good many are caught

for the purposes of food, and the manner of catching them is

thus described by Nilsson in his work on the birds of Sweden : —

" In October, when they pass through Skane on their passage to

the south, they remain for some time on the outermost point of

land to await a suitable westerly wind to cross. Large numbers HIND VIEW OF TARSrs OF SERPENT EAGLE<

J SHOWING THE RETICULATED ARRANGE-

collect and roost at night in the trees (especially in the willows) MENI or SCALES.
which grow there. When the darkness sets in, two men go in

company to catch them, one with a sack, and the other with a stout cudgel. The latter climbs quietly

up into the tree, where he can just distinguish the bird, whilst the other remains below; and so soon

* Buteo, Lat., a Buzzard. t "Birds of the West of Scotland," p. 46.

IRE COMMON BUZZARD.

275

as the climber has got np to where he can reach a bird, he catches it by the legs with the left hand,
and either twists its neck with his right hand, or stuns it with a blow of the cudgel, and throws it
down to his companion on the ground, who crams it into the sack. In this manner two men can catch
thirty or forty in the evening, or, according to Burgomaster C., as many even as seventy or eighty ; and
Captain E. relates that twenty were obtained one evening from the same tree. They are easiest to
catch when it is dark and blowing hard, so that the bird cannot easily hear the noise. In all, many
hundreds are caught annually, some of which are cooked fresh or made into soup, but most are salted
down and kept for use during the winter."

The nest of the Buzzard is generally pluced on some non-evergreen tree at various heights from
the ground, but in Scotland it builds on rocks. The usual number of eggs is three or four, and these

COMMON BUZZARD.

are a bluish- white, with reddish blotches. They vary a good deal in colour, some being r-ather richly
marked, while others are almost colourless. The time of breeding is generally the month of April, or.
in severe seasons, early in May. A Crow's nest is occasionally taken possession of. When the bird
makes its own nest, this is formed of large branches with a lining of grass, occasionally of a few
feathers. No bird varies more than the Buzzard in plumage, and many beautiful variations in its
dress take place before the adult plumage is gained. The old bird is almost entii-ely brown above and
below, the breast and abdomen generally having a more or less barred appearance ; the quills are brown,
banded with darker brown, and shaded with grey on their outer aspect ; the tail is ashy-brown, more or
less inclining to rufous, and having twelve or thirteen bars of darker brown. Young birds have a great
deal of white about their plumage, some of them being nearly cream-coloured. The size of the adults is
about twenty-two inches, and the sexes vary a little in dimensions, the wing of the female being perhaps
one inch longer than that of the male.

The great utility of the Buzzard in destroying Mice ought to render it an object of protection and
encouragement, for the number of small Mammals destroyed by these birds is immense. Brehm

276

NATURAL HISTORY.

calculates that when they have young they will destroy at least one hundred Mice a day, and mentions
that thirty Field Mice have been taken from the crop of a single bird.

THE HARPY (Tfirasatiis* harpy ia +).

Although from its size and courage this bird is generally called the Harpy Eagle, it is evident
from its structure that it is a Buzzard, as it possesses the " plated " tarsi of the latter group of birds

THE HARPY.

It is an inhabitant of the New World, from Mexico through Central America to Brazil and Bolivia.
It is a very destructive bird, causing great damage to the flocks, and even destroying calves, whence
it is an object of detestation to the stock-keepers in Mexico. It also feeds on deer and on the large
Macaws which are found in the forest it frequents. It stands more than three feet and a half high, and
has a large crest, which, together with its powerful talons and glittering eye, gives the bird an imposing
aspect even in captivity. In the adult bird the coloration is ashy-grey, inclining in very old examples
to silvery grey relieved by the dark ash-coloxired wings and tail.

s, daring ; aerds, an Eagle.

a bird of prey.

277

CHAPTER V.
EAGLES AND FALCONS.

THE EAGLES— THE BEAKDED EAGLE, OB LAMMERGEIER— A Visit to their Nest— Habits— A Little Girl carried off alive—
— Habits in Greece — Appearance — Von Tschudi's anil Captain Hutton's Descriptions of its Attacks— THE TRUE
EAGLES — THE WEDGE-TAILED EAGLE — Eye — Crystalline Lens — How Eagles may be Divided — THE IMPERIAL EAGLE—
THE GOLDEN EAGLE — In Great Britain — Macgillivray's Description of its Habits — Appearance -THE KITE EAGLE —
Its Peculiar Feet— Its Bird's-nesting Habits— THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE— THE INDIAN SERPENT EAGLE— THE
BATELEUR EAGLE — THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE— A Sea Eagle— Story of Capture of some Young — THE SWALLOW-
TAILED KITE— On the Wing — THE COMMON KITE — THE EUROPEAN HONEY KITE — Habits — ANDERSSON'S PERN—
THE FALCONS— The Bill— THE CUCKOO FALCONS— THE FALCONETS— THE PEREGRINE FALCON— Its Wonderful
Distribution — Falconry — Names for Male, Female, and Young — Hawks and Herons — THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON
THE KESTRELS— THE COMMON KESTREL— Its Habits and Disposition.

THE THIRD SUB-FAMILY OF THE FALCOXIDJE.— THE EAGLES (Aqnilime).

As already explained, the Eagles may be distinguished from the Buzzards by their reticulated
tarsus; otherwise the proportions of the leg-bones are similar, the tibia being considerably longer than
the tarsus.

THE BEARDED EAGLE, OR LAMMERGEIER (Gypaetm barbatm).

The generic name of this Eagle is derived from two Greek words (71^, a Vulture, dero'y, an Eagle),
and no name could have been better chosen, for with the structure of an Eagle it combines many of
the habits of a Vulture, and has many ways in common with the Egyptian Vulture (Neophron
jwrcnopte'Tus). In Europe it is found only in the mountainous parts of those countries bordering the
Mediterranean basin, and is now nearly extinct in Switzerland. In the mountains of Spain, how-
ever, it is still to be met with in some quantities, and Mr. Howard Saunders states that one or two
pairs may be found in every range of mountains. In Sardinia it is said by Mi%. Basil Brooke to
l>e decidedly common, and during one of his visits to that island he obtained a very curious nestling
bird covered with down. " A pair of these birds," says Mr. Brooke, " are in possession of every
separate range of hills, which they appear to regard as their own territory, and from which they are
seldom to be found far distant. They are generally to be seen singly or in pairs ; but now and
then I have observed three, and on one occasion four together. As a rule they are most decidedly
mountain birds, but occasionally a single bird may be seen hunting over the plains and cultivated
lands, not flying more than one hundred yards high. The nest of one found on the 18th of April
was built on a broad ledge of a precipitous cliff, about three hundred feet high, within twenty feet
of the top, and was completely sheltered from the severity of the weather by a large overhanging
piece of rock. After some trouble I discovered a way by which, with a little care, I managed to
get on the ledge, much to the discomfort of the solitary inmate — a young nestling, covei-ed as yet
with a pale yellowish-brown down. The nest itself was an accunnilation of dried sticks, with a cup-
shaped hollow in the middle, and had evidently been used for years. In it, and on the surrounding
ledge, were great quantities of the leg-bones and feet of goats, &c., and a part of a fox's lower jaw ;
these being in all stages of putrefaction, the smell was abominable. The old female on my first visit
to the nest sat extremely close, and although I was standing over her within seven or eight yards,
would not leave her young until I fired a shot, upon which she dashed off, dropping almost perpen-
dicularly, and was out of range before I could fire. She flew over the valley and lit upon a high-
projecting, rocky pinnacle, upon which I could see her through the telescope, sitting quietly watch-
ing all my proceedings. She returned to the nest shortly afterwards, on my having retired to a
little distance."

In Algeria the Lammergeier is said to feed largely on Land Tortoises, which it carries to a
great height in the air, and drops upon a convenient rock, so as to break the shell. So much
lias been written upon the habits of this bird that it would be impossible to give here one tithe
of the interesting notes which have been published in various works and periodicals ; but no
history of the species, however brief, would be complete without a passing mention of the little
girl who was said to have been carried off in childhood by one of these birds. The history,
130

273 NATURAL HISTORY.

believed by him to be well authenticated, is related by Naumann as follows . — " Anna Zurbuchen,
of Hatchern, in Bern Oberland, born in 1760, was taken out by her parents, when she was nearly
three years old, when they went to collect herbs. She fell asleep, and the father put his
straw hat over her face and went to his work. Shortly after, when he returned with a bundle
of hay, the child was gone; and the parents and peasants sought her in vain. During this time
Heinrich Michel, of Unterseen, was going on a wild path to Wappesbach, and suddenly heard a child
cry. He ran towards the sound, and a Bearded Vulture rose, scared by him, from a mound, and
soared away over the precipice. On the extreme edge of the latter, below which a stream roared,
and over whose edge any moment would have precipitated it, Michel found the child, which was
uninjured, except on the left arm and hand, where the bird had probably clutched it ; its shoes?
stockings, and cap were gone. This occurred on the 12th of July, 1763. The place where the child
was found was about 1,400 paces distant from the tarn where it had been left asleep. The child
was afterwards called Ldmmeryeier-Anni, and married Peter Frutiger, a tailor in Gewaldswyl, where
she was still living in 1814."

The circumstantial way in which the above narrative runs appears to leave little doubt of
its reality, but it is difficult to give it credence, as the Lammergeier has but little power in its feet,
which resemble those of the Vultures ; and most of the stories of its prowess have been discredited
by the researches of modern naturalists. Dr. Brehm observes : — " To my intense astonishment,
the Spanish hunters did not regard this bird in the slightest degree as a bold, merciless robber : all
asserted that it fed on carrion, especially bones, only attacking living animals when driven by
necessity. They called it ' Quebranta-Huesos,' or the ' Bone-smasher,' and assured me that this
favourite food was broken in a singular manner. My later observations proved nothing which
would justify my treating their statements as otherwise than correct, so I was forced to come to the
conclusion that the Lammergeier had been much maligned. Since my first account of this bird,
I have read a number of communications from other observers, and gather from the whole that the
Bearded Vulture is nought else than a weak, cowardly bird of prey, gifted neither in mind nor body
to any great extent, and one that but rarely carries away small mammals. Its food usually consists of
bones and other carrion."

Mr. Hudleston met with the Lammergeier in Greece, where, however, it was not common,
and he writes of its habits as observed by him : — " He is not a demonstrative bird like the Griffon,
who may be seen sailing about at a great height in the air, sometimes alone, but more often in troops
of from half a dozen to fifty, revolving in endless circles round each other, that no corner may remain
unseen. The Lammergeier, on the contrary, may be observed floating slowly, at a uniform level,
close to the cliffs of some deep ravine, where his shadow is perhaps projected on the wall-like rocks. •
If the ravine has salient and re-entering angles, he does not cut across from point to point, but
preserves the same distance from the cliff; and when he disappears in any natural fissure, you feel
sure of the very spot where he will emerge on turning the corner of the precipice. MaiTOW-bone.s
are the dainties he loves the best ; and when the other Vultiires have picked the flesh off any
animal, he comes in at the end of the feast and swallows the bones, or breaks them and swallows
the pieces, if he cannot get the marrow out otherwise. The bones he cracks by taking them to
a great height and letting them fall on a stone. This is probably the bird that dropped a Tortoise
on the bald head of poor old ^Eschylus. Not, however, that he restricts himself, or the huge black
infant that he and his mate are bringing up, in one of the many holes with which the limestone
precipice abounds, to marrow, tin-tie, bones, and similar delicacies : neither lamb, hare, nor kid
comes amiss to him — though, his power of claw and beak being feeble for so large a bird, he cannot
tear his meat like other Vultures and Eagles. I once saw a mature bird of this species which had
evidently swallowed a bone, or something uncommonly indigestible, close to the abattoir at Athens.
He was in a very uncomfortable attitude, and appeared to be leaning on his long tail for support.
After riding round in gradually decreasing circles till within ten yards, I dropped off horseback and
made a rush at him, but he just managed to escape, and then rising slowly till about the height of
the Acropolis, made off towards the gorge of Phylse, where there is an eyry.

" The Lammergeier has an extremely ugly countenance ; this becomes perfectly diabolical when
lie is irritated, and shows the bright red round his eyes. Altogether, what with his black beard, rufous

THE LAMMERGEIER.

?79

breast, and long, dark tail, he is an awful-looking beast, and lias the reputation of committing divers
evil deeds — such, for instance, as pushing lambs and kids, and even men, off the rocks, when they aie
in ticklish situations. Nevertheless, he is a somewhat cowardly bird, has a feeble, querulous cry, and
will submit to insults from a Falcon not a fourth his size or weight."

Von Tschudi says that in Switzerland it will capture Hares, Martens, Squirrels, Crows, and
Woodcocks, and he states that a stomach was found to contain five pieces of Bullock's ribs two inches
thick and from six to nine inches long, a lump of hair, and the leg of a young Goat from the kne« to

BEAKDEU EAGLE, OR LAMMERGEIER.

the foot. The bones were perforated by the gastric juice, and partly reduced to powder. The stomach
of another Lammergeier, examined by Mr. Schinz, contained the large hip-bone of a Cow, the skin and
fore-quarters of a Chamois, many smaller bones, some hair, and a Heath-cock's claws. Should a
Lammergeier see an old Chamois or a Sheep or Goat grazing near a precipice, it will whirl round
and round, trying to torment and frighten the creature till it runs to the edge of the cliff, and then,
falling down upon it, the bird not unfrequently succeeds in pushing it into the abyss below with one
stroke of its wings. Diving down after its mangled victim, it will begin by picking out its eyes, and
then proceed to tear open and devour the body. It is only the smaller class of booty, such as Foxes,
Lambs, or Marmots, which can be carried off by the Lammergeier, as its feet and claws, as we have
already remarked, are comparatively weak.*

In the Himalayas, where the species is also tolerably plentiful, its habits vary somewhat, and it

* " Sketches of Nature in the Alps."

2SD NATURAL H18TUHY.

not infrequently comes close to habitations for offal or bones, and behaves in a very Vulturine manner.
Captain Huttoii writes : — " Marvellous, indeed, are the stories told, both by natives and Europeans,
of the destructive habits of this bird, and both accounts, I fully believe, have scarcely a grain of
truth in them : all I can positively say on the point, however, is that I have known the bird
well in its native haunts for thirty years and more, and never once, in all that time, have I seen
it stoop to anything but a dead carcase. As to carrying off hens, dogs, larnbs, or children, I say
the feat -would be utterly impossible, for the creature does not possess the strongly-curved, sharp-
pointed claws of the Eagle, but the far straighter and perfectly blunt talons of the Vulture. Day
after day I have seen them sweeping by along the face of the hill, like the wandering Albatross at
sea, and, like it, ever in search of offal, which, when found, is not swept off the ground after the
manner of the Kite, but the bird alights upon it, as it would upon, a Bullock, and then, if the
morsel is worth having, devours it on the spot, and again launches itself \ipon its wide-spread wings
and sails away as before. There is no sudden stooping upon a living prey, as with the Falcon
tribe, but its habits and manners in this respect are, as far as I have seen, entirely Yulturine."

The Lammergeier measures about three feet and a half in length, and its outspread wings often
extend to as much as nine feet in expanse. A second species is found in Africa, the Southern
Lammergeier (Gypaetus ossifragus), which differs from the European one, in having the tarsus bare,
instead of being feathered to the toes.

THE TRUE EAGLES (Aquila).

In Austi-alia no true Eagle is found, but a very powerful bird called the WEDGE-TATLED EAGLE
(Uroaetus* audax^) inhabits that country, differing from all its more northern relations in its

very long and wedge-shaped tail, which is like that of the
Lammergeier.

The true Eagles have a very powerful bill, with a festoon
distinctly marked in the edge of the upper mandible, which is,
however, different from the toothed bill of the Falcons, to be
considered presently. They nearly all possess a large bony
EYE OF EAGLE, SHOWING CRYSTALLINE shelf over the eye, which may serve to protect that organ from
LENS. (After Yarren.) ^e suniight during some of the aerial excursions the bird

makes.

The orb of the eye in the Eagles is supported by a ring of bony plates, numbering fifteen in
the Golden Eagle. These bony plates are capable of slight motion xipon each other. The figure
represents the crystalline lens of the same bird, the lens being subject to great variety of form
in different birds. In the Eagle the proportion of the axis to the diameter of the lens is as 3T*<j
to 5T7^ ; in the Eagle Owl, which seeks its prey at twilight, the relative proportions of the lens
are as 6T7^ to 7T% ; and in the Swan, which has to select its food under water, the proportions of
the lens are as 3 to 3T8Q. Birds have also the power of altering the degree of the convexity of the
cornea. With numerous modifications of form, aided by delicate muscular arrangement, birds appear
to have the power of obtaining such variable degrees of extent or intensity of vision as are most in
accordance with their peculiar habits and necessities. J

In these birds is found a return of that difference in the size of the sexes which was so noticeable
in the Sparrow-Hawks, for in the Eagles the female is decidedly larger than the male. There are two
convenient groups into which the Eagles may be divided, according as they have feathered or un-
feathered legs. All the true Eagles belong to the first section, all the less noble and Serpent-eating
kinds to the latter section. Although they are birds of grand physique, it is a question whether Eagles
deserve the position they enjoy for nobility of disposition: they are rapacious it is true, but not alwnys
brave, for one Golden Eagle will give way to a Peregrine Falcon, while the grand-looking IMPERIAL
EAGLE (Aquila heliaca, see figure on p. 235) is said by a good observer in India, Mr. A. O. Hume, C.B.,
to be no better than a great hulking Kite. He adds : — "Much has been written about the daring and
fierceness of this Eagle. I can only say that in India (where possibly the climate is subversive of
* ovpa, a tail ; aero?, an Eagle. + Audax, bold. { Newton Ed., Yarrell's " British Birds," i., p. 19.

THE GOLDEX EAGLE. 281

courage), I Lave never seen the slightest indications of these qualities. I have driven the female off
hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before the eyes of the pair, without either of them flapping a
pinion even to defend what a little Slmke will swoop at once to save ; and I have seen a couple of Crows
thrash one of them soundly. As a rule, this species with us is an ignoble feeder. I have generally
found them gorged with carrion, and after a good meal they will sit stupidly on a tree, or any little
mud pillar, and permit you to walk within thirty yards of them ; but before feeding they are some-
what wary, and can by no means always be secured, even when seen sitting. On more than one
occasion I have seen Desert Rats (Gerbillus erythrurus) in their crops, and I once shot one of a
pair which were busy, 011 the line of rail at Etawah, devouring a Bandicoot Rat (Mus bandicota),
which some passing train had cut in two. Occasionally, but rarely, I found that they had eaten
Quails and other birds. Once I shoj; a male which was dancing about on the ground in such an
astounding fashion that I killed it to see what the matter was. The bird proved to have been
choking. It had swallowed a whole dry shin-bone and foot of an Antelope. The bone apparently
could not be got down altogether, and in trying to void it, the sharp points of the hoof had stuck into
the back of the roof of the mouth." *

THE GOLDE1ST EAGLE (Aquila

The Golden Eagle is so called from the tawny or golden-brown colour which pervades the feathers
of the neck in the old bii'd. Excepting in certain places in " Caledonia stern and wild," where it is
protected, it is a species which is becoming very rare in Great Britain, and but for the intervention
of a few large-minded proprietors in Scotland would doubtless ere this have been extinguished. It is
a much rarer bird now than the "White-tailed Eagle, and the last-named species is often mistaken for
it; but a little attention to one point will obviate all fear of a mistake in this respect, the Golden
Eagle having at all ages the tarsus feathered to the toes, whereas the Sea Eagle belongs to the bare-
legged section of these birds.

A better description of the habits of the Golden Eagle probably does not exist than that given by
the late Professor Macgillivray : —

" See how the sunshine brightens the yellow tint of his head and neck, until it shines almost like
gold ! There he stands, nearly erect, with his tail depressed, his large wings half raised by his side,
his neck stretched out and his eye glistening as he glances around. Like other robbers of the
desert, he has a noble aspect, an imperative mien, a look of proud defiance ; but his nobility has a
dash of clownishness, and his falconship a vulturine tinge. Still, he is a noble bii'd, powerful,
independent, proud, and ferocious, regardless of the weal or woe of others, and intent solely on the
gratification of his own appetites ; without generosity, without honour, bold against the defence-
less, but ever ready to sneak from danger. Such is his nobility, about which men have so
raved. Suddenly he raises his wings, for he has heard the whistle of the shepherd in the corry, and
bending forward, he springs into the air. Oh, that this pencil of mine were a musket charged
with buck-shot ! Hardly do those vigorous flaps serve at first to prevent his descent ; but now,
curving upwards, he glides majestically along. As he passes the corner of that buttressed and battle-
mented crag, forth rush two ravens from their nest, croaking fiercely. While one flies above
him, the other steals beneath, and they essay to strike him, but dare not, for they have an instinctive
knowledge of the power of his grasp, and after following him a little way they return to their
home, vainly exulting in the thought of having driven him from their neighbourhood. Bent on a
far journey, he advances in a direct course, flapping his great wings at regular intervals, then shooting
along without seeming to move them. In ten minutes he has progressed three miles, although he
is in no haste, and now disappears behind the shoulder of the hill. But we may follow him ia
imagination, for his habits being well known to us, we may be allowed the ornithological licence
of tracing them in continuance. Homeward bound, his own wants satisfied, he knows that his
young must be supplied with food.

" Over the moors he sweeps, at the height of two or three hundred feet, bending his course
to either side, his wings wide spread, his neck retracted, now beating the air, and again sailing

* "Kough Notes on Indian Ornithology," p. 145. t xpv<ros, gold; aerds, an Eagle.

282

NATURAL H1STOUX.

smoothly along. Suddenly he stops, poises himself for a moment, stoops, but recovers himself
without touching the ground. The object of his regards, a Golden Plover, which he had spied
on her nest, has eluded him ; and he cares not to pursue it. Now he ascends a little, wheels in
short curves, presently rushes down headlong, assumes the horizontal position when close to the
ground, prevents his being dashed against it by expanding his wings and tail, thrusts forth his talons,
and grasping a poor terrified Ptarmigan that sat cowering among the grey lichens, squeezes it to death,
raises his head exultingly, emits a clear, shrill cry, and springing from the ground pursues his journey.

GOLDEN EAGLE.

" In passing a tall cliff that overhangs a small lake, he is assailed by a fierce Peregrine Falcon,
which darts and plunges at him as if determined to deprive him of his booty, or drive him headlong
to the ground. This proves a more dangerous foe than the Raven, and the Eagle screams, yelps,
and throws himself into postures of defence ; but at length the Hawk, seeing the tyrant is not bent
on plundering his nest, leaves him to pursue his course unmolested. Over woods, and green fields, and
scattered hamlets speeds the Eagle, and now he enters the long valley of the Dee, near the upper end
of which is dimly seen through the grey mist the rock of his nest. About a mile from it he
meets his mate, who has been abroad on a similar errand, and is returning with a white Hare in
her talons. They congratulate each other with loud yelping cries, which rouse the drowsy shepherd
on the strath below, who, mindful of the lambs carried off in spring-time, sends after them his male-
diction. Now they reach their nest and are greeted by their young with loud clamour.

" Let us mark the spot. It is a shelf of a rock, concealed by a projecting angle, so that it cannot

THE KITE EAGLE. 283

be injured from above, and is too distant from the base to be reached by a shot. In the crevices are
luxuriant tufts of Rhodiola rosea, and scattered around are many alpine plants, which it would delight
the botanist to enumerate. The mineralogist would not be less pleased could he with chisel and hammer
reach that knob which glitters with crystals of quartz and felspar. The nest is a bulky fabric, five feet
at least in diameter, rudely constructed of dead sticks, twigs, and heath ; flat, unless in the centre,
where it is a little hollowed and covered with wool and feathers. Slovenly creatures you would think
these two young birds, clothed with white down, amid which the larger feathers are seen projecting,
for their fluid dung is scattered all over the sticks, and you see that, had the nest been formed
more compactly of softer materials, it would have been less comfortable. Strewn around, too, are
fragments of Lambs, Hares, Grouse and other birds in various stages of decay. Alighting 011 the edges
of the nest, the Eagles deposit their prey, partially pluck off the hair and feathers, and rudely
tearing up the flesh, Jay it before their ever-hungry young."

The length of a male Golden Eagle is a little more than two feet and a half, while the female
attains at least three feet in dimensions, with a wing three inches longer than that of her mate.
The colour of the plumage is dark brown, with a rich tawny hue on the back of the neck and nape,
the feathers of these parts being streaked with darker brown ; the tail is more or less mottled with
grey at the base, and is whiter in younger birds. The latter are often popularly distinguished as
the Ring-tailed Eagles. By some authors the Eagle which frequents the mountains is considered to be
a different species from that which inhabits the plains, but as far as present experience goes it is the
younger birds which are more often met with in the latter localities, being probably driven from
their mountain homes by the older birds. The Golden Eagle varies his choice of an eyry in different
localities, building in the British Islands generally on a rock, but in many other countries nesting on
a tree. It is found all over Europe and Northern Asia, in mountainous districts, extending into
China and even into the Himalayas, whence the finest specimens are obtained. In North America
also the examples of the Golden Eagle seem to be very large, but are not to be otherwise distinguished
from European specimens.

THE KITE EAGLE (Neojws* malayensis).

This extraordinary bird bears the above name from its resemblance generally to a Kite, and also
from its plumage, which in the young bird is wonderfully Kite-like, so that a dead specimen carelessly
examined might be taken easily for one of the latter birds. One moment's search, however, would dispose
of the illusion, for no one who has once heard of the foot of this Eagle could ever forget it or mistake it
for that of any other raptorial bird, the talons being longer and more slender in proportion to the size
of the foot than in any known Eagle ; they are also nearly straight. The inner claws are the longest,
and that excellent observer, Captain Vincent Legge, points out that they seem " especially adapted
for the work of carrying off loose and fragile masses, such as the nests of small birds, as they would
naturally form its chief means of grasp when such an object was being held by both feet during the
process of flight." This last sentence gives an insight into the habits of the bird, which are on a par
with its remarkable structure. It might well be called the " Bird's-nesting Eagle," for it seems to be
the only bird of prey which systematically lives by the robbery of smaller birds' nests ; only on very
rare occasions, and when pressed by hunger, has it been known to attack larger game or worry the
poultry- yard. It is almost always on the wing, and the Lepcha-hunters near Darjeeling speak of it as
the bird " that never sits down." It is found in the Himalayas and in other wooded districts of India,
and occurs but more sparingly in the Malayan peninsula and islands, i-anging to some of the
Moluccas, but probably visiting the latter only on migration. But it is in Ceylon that it is, perhaps,
more plentiful than in any other locality, and the best account of its habits is that given by Captain
Legge, whose words are subjoined. " This fine, long-winged Eagle is, on account of the singular
structure of its feet and its curious habits, one of the most interesting, but, at the same time, perhaps
the most destructive of raptors to bird-life in Ceylon. It subsists, as far as can be observed, entirely
by birds'-nesting, and is not content with the eggs and young birds which its keen sight espies among
the branches of the forest-trees, but seizes the nest in its talons, decamps with it, and often examines

* vfo<:, new ; TTOV'J, a foot : meaning that there was something novel and extraordinary about its foot.

284 NATURAL HISTV£Y.

the contents as it sails lazily along. Furthermore, Mr. S. Bligh informs me that he once found the
best part of a bird's nest in the stomach of one of these Eagles which he shot in the Central Province.
Its flight is most easy and graceful. In the early morning it passes much of its time soaring round the
high peaks or cliffs on which it has passed the night, and about nine or ten o'clock starts off on its
daily foraging expedition. It launches itself with motionless wings from some dizzy precipice, and
proceeding in a straight line, till over some inviting-looking patna-woods it quickly descends with one
or two rather sharp gyrations, through, perhaps, a thousand feet, and is in another moment gliding
stealthily along just above the tops of the trees. In and out among these, along the side of the wood,
backwards and forwards over the top of the narrow strip, it quarters, its long wings outstretched and
the tips of its pinions wide apart, with apparently no exertion ; and luckless indeed is the Bulbul,
Oriole, or Mountain Finch whose carefully-built nest is discovered by the soaring robber." *

The size of the Kite Eagle is about thirty inches in length, and the colour is entirely black, with
some indistinct bars of ashy-grey on the tail. Besides the Eagles that have been alluded to already,
there are the Hawk-Eagles (Nisaetus), remarkable for their long legs, and the Crested Eagles
(Spizaetus), which have a beautiful long crest hanging from the hinder part of the head.

THE COMMON HARRIER EAGLE (Circartus t gallicus).

This, which is also called the "Jeaii-le-Blanc," is one of the best-known of all the bare-legged
section of the Eagles. The genus Circaetus, to which it belongs, contains five species, of which four
are peculiar to Africa, the C. gallicus being found all over Southern and Central Europe, and
extending into India, where it is not at all unplentiful. In its nature this bird is rather sluggish,
though in confinement it is very untamable, and wears a thoroughly fierce aspect, as could be seen by
any one who examined the specimen in the Zoological Gardens. Its ferocious appearance was
heightened by its peculiar eye, which is very large, of a bright yellow, with a very small black pupil,
whereas the pupil in most birds of prey is rather large. J

THE INDIAN SERPENT EAGLE (Spikrnis clieela].

This is a beaxitiful bird, having the under surface mottled with white spots or " ocelli." All the
Serpent Eagles, of which there are several species, are characterised by a similar style of plumage, and
by a full, thick crest of feathers springing from the occiput and hind part of the head. They are found
all over India and Ceylon, Southern China, and the Burmese countries, the Malayan Peninsula, Sunda
Islands, Borneo, and Celebes. The Ceylonese species, which is a small race of the Indian bird, is
stated by Layard to feed on Snakes, Lizards, and other reptiles and insects, and to be particularly
pai-tial to the large trees on the banks of tanks, from them swooping down on the frogs which
came up to sun themselves on the floating logs or reeds. The Indian species of Serpent Eagle is a
powerful bird, and is said to capture Pheasants during the breeding season and bring them to the
nest. Mr. Hume has generally found small Snakes in their stomachs ; once as many as fifty together
were found, all scarcely bigger than large Worms; and an instance was brought to his knowledge of a
Cobra some two feet and a half long having been found dead, but uninjured, in one of these birds'
stomachs. Mr. Thompson, a frequent contributor to Mr. Hume's " Rough Notes," tells of one which
he had alive, and which was kept along with two little Indian Owls (Carine brama), a Carrion Crow,
and three large green Woodpeckers, and who killed and ate up every one of the latter, though well
supplied with other fresh meat.

THE BATELEUR EAGLE (Helotarsus§ ccaudatus\\}.

This is a very remarkable bird, which might also with propriety be called the Short-tailed Eagle,
as it is the only species known in which the wings exceed the tail in length. It is found in Africa
only, where it is by no means rave in the southern and north-eastern quarters of the continent.

* "Birds of Ceylon," p. 49. f «<>o?, a Harrier; ie-rur, an Eagle. J Ibis, 1865, p. 253.

§ e'Auj (atpew), to lift ; Tapcrds, a tarsus. || Ecamlatus, Latin, meaning "without tail," on account of its shortness.

TEE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.

285

In Darnara Land, according to Mr. Andersson, it builds its nest on trees, selecting generally one of
such a terribly thorny nature that the nest is always difficult of access. Occasionally, however, a
rock is selected for the breeding-place. When in captivity, this bird changes the coloiu- of the face,
exactly as the Brazilian Caracara already alluded to ; the bare skin round the nostrils and eyes, which
is generally brilliant coral-red, fading to pale orange-yellow.

BATELEUR EAGLE.

The Bateleur Eagle is about two feet in length, and has an enormous crest of plumes. The colour
is black, with a large maroon-coloured patch on the shoulders and on the back, the tail being also of
tliis colour. Sometimes individuals with pale, cream-coloured backs are found ; but at present it is
not known whether these are a different species, or whether they constitute only a pale variety of the
ordinary Bateleur.

THE WHITE-TAILED EAGLE (Haliaetus albicilla*}.

Sea Eagles are absent from South America, but probably from no other country of the globe. Both
Europe and North America are inhabited by large and powerful species ; and throughout Africa and
Madagascar the handsomely-marked species II. vocifer occurs. One of the most widespread is the
White-bellied Sea Eagle ; it is found round the coasts of Australia and all the Molucca Islands, ranging
as far as India and Ceylon, and as high as Cochin. China.

The White-tailed Eagle, which, from its being an inhabitant of the British Islands, is the species
most familiarly known of all the Sea Eagles, is still met with in some of the northern parts of

* iAiatTos, a Sea Eagle.
131

286 NATURAL HISTORY.

Scotland, and in the Hebrides ; but as it is a bird which creates a good deal of havoc among lambs
at certain periods of the year, the war of extermination which has been waged against it has now
contributed considerably to the increasing rarity of the species on these coasts. The breeding of this
Sea Eagle has been well described by Mr. Woolley.* He says: — "On the coasts, the Sea Eagle
chooses a roomy and generally sheltered ledge of rock. The egg which Mr. Hewitson figures (Eggs, Br. B.,
ed. 3, pi. iv., fig. 2) is one of two which I took on the 23rd April, 1849, on one of the most northern
points of our island. The nest was very slightly made of a little grass and fresh heather loosely put
together, without any sticks; but two or three 'kek' stalks were strewn about outside. There was a
good thickness of guano-like soil upon the rock, which made much nest unnecessary. Two or three
Guillemot's beaks, the only unmanageable part of that bird, were not far off. The eggs were laid two
clays before when I went to reconnoitre ; and I never shall forget the forbearance which a friend
who was with me showed, at my request, as he lay, gun in hand, with the hen Eagle in full view upon
her nest not forty yards below him. Her head was towards the cliff, and concealed from our sight ;
whilst her broad back and white tail, as she stood bending over her nest on the grassy ledge, with the
beautiful sandstone rock and sea beyond, completed a picture rarely to be forgotten. But our ears,
and the air we breathe, give a finish to Nature's pictures which no art can imitate ; and here were the
effects of the sea, and the heather, and the rocks, the fresh warmth of the northern sun, and the
excitement of exercise, while the musical yelping of the male Eagle came from some stand out of
sight. Add to all this the innate feeling of delight connected with the pursuit of wild animals, which
no philosopher has yet been able to explain further than as a special gift of our Great Maker, and then
say whether it is not almost blasphemy to call such a scene a ' picture ! ' Upon this occasion, I made
some remark to my friend, when the hen Eagle showed her clear eye and big, yellow beak, her head
full of the expression of wild nature and freedom. She gave us a steady glance, then sprang from the
rock, and with 'slow winnowing wing' — the flight-feathers turning upwards at every stroke — was
soon out at sea. Joined by her mate, she began to sail with him in circles farther and farther away,
till quite out of sight, yelping as long as we could hear them, Gulls mobbing them all the time.
To enjoy the beauties of a wild coast to perfection, let me recommend any man to seat himself in
an Eagle's nest. The year before this I took the young ones out of the same eyry late in July.
It was my first attempt at an Eagle's stronghold, and I shall never forget the interest of the whole
affair; a thunderstorm coming on just before, making it necessary to cut drains in the peat with
our knives, to divert the torrents of water ; our councils about the best mode of attaching the ropes ;
the impertinence of a young lad who, stationed to watch for my signals, was rendered quite useless by
his keen sense of the ridiculous on seeing me, in my inexperience, twisting round and round at the end
of the rope ; the extraordinary grandeur everything assumed, from the nest itself ; the luxurious feeling
of exultation ; the interest of every plant about it — I know them all now ; the heaps of young Herring-
Guns' remains, and the large fish-bone ; but, above all, the Eaglets fully able to fly, and yet crouching
side by side, with their necks stretched out and chins on the gi*ound, like young Fawns, their frightened
eyes showing that they had no intention of showing fight.

" Very gently, as a man ' tickles ' trout, I passed my hand under them, and tied their legs
together, and then tried to confine their wings. They actually allowed me to fasten a handkerchief
round them, which, however, was soon shaken off when they began to be pulled up. When the men
had raised me, the string attached to my waist lifted one Eaglet, and presently the second came to the
length of his tether. Great was the flapping of wings, and clutching at rocks and grass. I had many
fears that the string or the birds' legs must give way ; but, after much hard pulling, I got them safely
to the top, and they are now (1853) alive at Matlock amongst rocks, where I hope they may breed ;
but, though five years old this season, they have not yet quite completed the adult plumage. Their
dutiful parents never came near them in their difficulties ; but I am happy to say that in 1850 (the
year after I took their eggs), they carried off their young, through the interest I was able to exert in
their favour. They had shifted their position; and they changed again in 1851 to a rock with an
aspect quite different, and more than a mile away. • In 1847, to please the shepherds, the young were
shot in the nest, which was built in the spot where I visited it the two following years. There was
no sea-weed about this nest either time that I saw it ; but a friend wi-ites me word, that two which

* "Ootheca Woolleyana," p, 47.

THE SWALLOW-TAILED KITE.

287

he examined last year on the sea-cliffs of this island, and which he carefully described to me, were
principally made of that material, as Mr. Hewitsoii also had found them in the Shetland Islands. On
one of these two occasions, the old Eagle made a dash near my informant, with a ' fearful scream,' and
such was the tremendous character of the rocks, that his ' hair gets strong ' when he thinks of them.
These two nests, both occupied, were not more than a mile and a half apart."

WHITE-TAILED EAGLE.

THE SWALLOW- TAILED KITE (Elanoides furcatus).

The forked tail which is characteristic of the Kites reaches in the present species its greatest
development, so that the name of Swallow-tailed Kite is by no means inappropriate. On five occasions
the bird has been captured in England, and it is doubtless during its migration that the bird is
driven to Britain by some adverse wind. Its i-ange is extensive, as it is numerous during the
summer in some of the southern States of North America, and it migrates to South America, whence
it frequently appears in collections from Brazil and Columbia. Mr. Audubon gives the following
account of the Swallow-tailed Kite : — " The flight of this elegant species of Hawk is singularly
beautiful and protracted. It moves through the air with such ease and grace, that it is impossible for

288 NATURAL HISTORY.

any individual, who takes the least pleasure in observing the manners of birds, not to be delighted
by the sight of it whilst on the wing. Gliding along in easy flappings, it rises in wide circles to
an immense height, inclining in various ways its deeply-forked tail, to assist the direction of its
course ; dives with the rapidity of lightning, and, suddenly checking itself, re-ascends, soars away, and
is soon out of sight. At other times, a flock of these birds, amounting to fifteen or twenty individuals,
is seen hovering around the trees. They dive in rapid succession amongst the branches, glancing
along the trunks, and seizing in their course the insects and small lizards of which they are in quest.
Their motions are astonishingly rapid, and the deep curves which they describe, their sudden doublings-
and crossings, and the extreme ease with which they seem to cleave the air, excite the admiration of
him who views them while thus employed in. searching for food.

" In the States of Louisiana and Mississippi, where these birds are abundant, they arrive in
large companies in. the beginning of April, and are heard uttering a sharp plaintive note. At this-
period I generally remarked that they came from the westward, and have counted upwards of a
hundred in the space of an hour, passing over me in a direct easterly course. At that season, and in
the beginning of September when they all retire from the United States, they are easily approached
when they have alighted, being then apparently fatigued, and busily engaged in preparing themselves-
for continuing their journey, by dressing and oiling their feathers. At all other times, however, it is.
extremely difficult to get near them, as they are generally on wing through the day, and at night
rest on the highest pines and cypresses, bordering the river-bluffs, the lakes, or the swamps of that
district of country.

" They always feed on the wing. In calm and warm weather they soar to an immense height,
pursuing the large insects called Musquito Hawks, and performing the most singular evolutions that
can be conceived, using their tail with an elegance of motion peculiar to themselves. Their principal
food, however, is large Grasshoppers, Grass Caterpillars, small Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs. They
sweep close over the fields, sometimes seeming to alight for a moment to secure a Snake, and holding
it fast by the neck, carry it off, and devour it in the air. When searching for Grasshoppers and
Caterpillars, it is not difficult to approach them under cover of a fence or tree. When one is then
killed, and falls to the ground, the whole flock comes over the dead bird, as if intent upon carrying-
it off. An excellent opportunity is thus afforded of shooting as many as may be wanted ; and 1
have killed several of these Hawks in this manner, firing as fast as I could load my gun.

" The Fork-tailed Hawks are also very fond of frequenting the creeks, which, in that country,
are much encumbered with drifted logs and accumulations of sand, in order to pick up some of
the numerous Water-snakes which lie basking in the sun. At other times they dash along the trunks
of trees, and snap off the pupse of the Lociist, or that insect itself. Although when on the wing they
move with a grace and ease which it is impossible to describe, yet on the ground they are scarcely
able to walk.

" I kept for several days one which had been slightly wounded in the wing. It refused to eat,
kept the feathers of the head and rump constantly erect, and vomited several times part of the
contents of its stomach. It never threw itself on its back, nor attempted to strike with its talons,
unless when taken up by the tip of the wing. It died from inanition, as it constantly refused the
food placed before it in profusion, and instantly vomited what had been placed down its throat."

THE COMMON KITE (Milvus ictinm*).

Times have changed in England since the number of Kites to be seen flying about London Bridge
could form a subject of astonishment to a foreign traveller visiting that country ; but less than three
hundred years ago this was the case, though now the species has been all but banished from the land.
It may still occasionally nest in some parts of Wales and of Scotland ; but in the latter country places
where formerly the species bred plentifully now know it no more. The Kite builds its nest of sticks
on a large tree, but occasionally also on rocks, and it is generally composed of a mixture of materials,
such as bones, &c., and the lining usually contains a good many rags ; so that Shakspere, with the
knowledge of natural history which always distinguished him, was quite right when he said —

"When the Kite builds, look to lesser linen."
* UTI»OS, a Kite.

THE EUROPEAN HONEY-KITE.

289

The presence of the Kite in London was useful in the old days, as its food consists by preference
of offal, though it also devours Moles, Frogs, and unfledged nestlings, Rabbits, Snakes, and fish.
The forked tail of this species — which serves as a rudder to the bird when flying, as it often does,
in circles aloft — easily distinguishes it from all other British birds of prey. The length of the
bird is about two feet, and the general colour of the upper plumage is rufous, most of the feathers
being edged with that colour. Below, it is rufous-brown, with a narrow streak of blackish down the
feathers ; the quills are black ; the
tail rufous-brown, deeply forked,
and crossed with seven or eight bars
of black. The species is found all
over Europe, but becomes gradually
rarer in the eastern parts.

THE EUROPEAN HONEY-KITE

(Pa his rtpirorus).

This bird is generally known as
the Honey-Buzzard, though from
the reticulations on the hinder
aspect of the tarsus it has evidently
nothing to do with those birds, even
if its soft and kite-like plumage did
r.ot show its affinities to the Kites.
Its nostril is also peculiar, and is
closed in by a membrane, which
doubtless forms a protection from
the stings of insects when the bird
is attacking a Bee's or Wasp's nest.
Its habits have been well described
by Brehm.* This bird is, perhaps,
the most timid of all European
birds of prey, but is remarkable for
its good temper. Its movements
are in the highest degree clumsy ;
its flight is bad, heavy, and slow,
and is generally a short one, and
the bird shows a great disinclination

to rise to any considerable height in the air ; in short, its whole bearing evinces the most lazy
disposition. It will sit for hours on a stone boundary wall, on a solitary tree or sign-post, or on some
other elevated spot, quite contented, watching its prey, which consists of the following : — Insects of all
descriptions, Beetles, Caterpillars, Dragon-flies, Gadflies, Worms, Frogs, Snakes, Lizards, and destructive
Rodents, which form its principal food ; besides which it is very fond of hunting for the nests of the
Humble-bee and Wasp, and of feeding on their larvae. This bird also, unfortunately, destroys the
young, and especially the eggs, of such of the smaller birds as it comes across while hunting for
insects ; .this causes it to be looked upon as a disagreeable and hateful enemy by all birds. Crows
and Rooks mob the Honey-Buzzard with almost the same eagerness as they chase the Eagle-Owl,
and all small birds make a great noise at its appearance. In the summer it also feeds on buds,
blossoms, bilberries, other wood-berries, and even leaves. This habit distinguishes it from all other
German birds of prey.

"The Honey-Buzzard reaches us somewhat late in the year, and commences to build its
nest when the other Raptors have hatched their broods. The nest is very flat, and is placed on
the highest of our forest trees; it is principally constructed of green twigs, mixed with dead
sticks, and is lined with moss, hair, and feathers. It generally contains three eggs, of a rusty

* " Bird-life," p. 543.

COM.MOX KITE.

290 NATURAL HISTORY.

yellow ground, very thickly blotched and spotted with dark reddish-brown. They are somewhat
small and rather long in shape. Of these rarely more than two are hatched The young ones are
at first fed with Caterpillars, Flies, Beetles, Worms, &c., which the old birds collect in their crops,
and then throw up ; later they are treated to pieces of Wasps' nests filled with larvae, Frogs, Mice,
young birds, &c. The parent birds still continue to feed their young long after the latter have left the
nest. Both young and old birds remain in company almost till the moulting season comes round, when
they migrate more to the southward."

The Honey-Kite inhabits, during the summer, the greater part of Europe, and flies away to Africa
to pass the winter. In India it is represented by a species which goes through similar changes of
plumage, but may always be recognised by its long crest. The phases through which the Honey-Kite
passes are most remarkable, the bird being sometimes nearly all white, at other times all black; and
this plumage seems to occur at any age, sometimes in youth, sometimes in old age ; and hence this is
called a melanism (/*e'A.or, black). Many birds of prey are subject to this melanism, but none
more so than the Honey-Buzzards, and their representatives in America, the Tooth-billed Kites
(Leptodori).

ANDEESSON'S PEKN (Machcerhamphus * Anderssonl).

This remarkable bird bears the name of one of the most intrepid, as well as one of the most
unassuming, of African travellers, the late Charles John Andersson, who discovered it during his
residence in Damara Land in South-western Africa. So rare is it, and so difficult to obtain, that he
only managed to procure two specimens in the space of ten years, though constantly on the look-out
for the bird. He writes concerning it: — "On the 10th of March, 1865, I obtained one specimen, a
female, of this singular bird at Objimbinque, Damara Land. It was shot by my servant, who
observed another, probably the male. I imagine that I have myself observed it once or twice in the
neighbourhood of Objimbinque just before dusk. When brought to me I instinctively suspected the
bird to be a feeder at dusk or at night, and called out, ' Why, that fellow is likely to feed 011 Bats ! '
And truly enough so it turned out ; for on dissection an undigested Bat was found in the stomach ;
and in another specimen, subsequently killed by Axel, there were several Bats in the stomach, "t It is
probably owing to this habit of feeding in the evening that the bird is so difficult to procure, as is the
case with many of the Goat-suckers, which are also night-feeding birds. Since Mr. Andersson's death,
two or three specimens of his Pern have been sent from Madagascar, but in the intervening portions
of the African continent it is as yet unknown.

The colouring of this species is plain, being of a chocolate-brown colour, with a long crest springing
from the back of the head ; above the eye is a white spot, and another below the eye ; the throat and chest
are white, with a streak of dark brown down the centre of the throat ; the quills and tail are banded
the bars showing paler below. The length of the bird is about seventeen inches.

Only one other species of the genus Maclwerhamphus is known, and this is Westermann's Pern
(M. alcinus), which is an inhabitant of Malacca, where it is almost as rare as Andersson's Pern is in
Africa. It has lately been sent from South-eastern New Guinea, and may ultimately be found to
inhabit some of the Moluccas.

THE FIFTH SUB-FAMILY.— THE FALCONS (Falconina:).

In all the true Falcons and in the allied genera the bill, which was simply festooned in the Eagles,
Kites, and Buzzards, becomes very distinctly toothed, and in some genera even two teeth are present.
In these birds, too, the cere is strongly shown, and is generally of a bright yellow colour.

THE CUCKOO-FALCONS (Baza).

These birds have the soft plumage of a Honey-Kite, and yet possess the toothed bill of a Falcon, so
that they are placed among the Falconinse ; but, because of their Kite-like plumage, they follow close
to the Perns and Honey-Kites. They not only possess the usual tooth of the Falcon's bill, but a
second is actually present, so that there is no difficulty in recognising a member of the genus Baza.

* /iuxaipci, a sharp knife ; pantos, a bill.

t Andersson's " Birds of Damara Land." Edited by J. H. Gurney, 1872, p. 22.

THE PEREQ&INM FALCON. 291

The American. Cuckoo-Falcons (Ha/rpagus) are the only other birds of prey which have a double-
toothed bill.

The name of " Cuckoo "-Falcon has been given to these birds on account of their actual resemblance
to a Cuckoo, in the grey colour of the back with the reddish bars on the under surface. They have also
a very large yellow eye. The distribution of the genus Baza is singular, and it is one of those forms
which does not occur in Emppe, but exhibits the affinity which is often seen between certain African
and Indian birds. About nine different kinds are known, each having its own limited range. Thus
Swainson's Cuckoo-Falcon (B. cuculoides *) is found in the forest country from Senegambia to Gaboon
in West Africa, and is replaced by Baza Verreauxi in the forests of Natal. In Madagascar a third
species (B. madayascarie'nsis) ocelli's, and on crossing the Indian Ocean a fourth kind (B. ceylonemis) is
found inhabiting Ceylon. Malacca and the Sunda Islands have their own Baza sumatrensis, the
Philippines B. magvirostris, the island of Celebes B. erythrothorax, the Moluccas and New Guinea B.
Reinwardti, and Northern Australia, B, subcristata. None of these birds appear to be migratory, and
their geographical distribution is interesting when traced out on a map of the world.

From their shy and retiring habits, but little has been recorded of their life. Verreaux's Cuckoo-
Falcon is said to frequent the dense bush in Natal, and Captain Harford shot one in that country
while engaged upon an ant-hill, and their food appeal's to consist of Grasshoppers and Mantidse, while
another observer took from the stomach of one of these birds remains of a green Mantis, of Locusts, and
of a Chameleon. This species is one of the largest of the Cuckoo- Falcons, measuring seventeen inches
in length, and the colour is dark ashy-grey ; deeper ash-colour on the head and crest ; the sides of
the face, throat, and chest, are clear ashy ; the breast white, banded across with pale rufous brown ; the
under tail-coverts being pure white ; both the wings and tail are barred with dark brown. The sexes
of these birds differ very little in size.

THE FALCONETS (Microhierax^,

This name is applied to a genus of tiny Falcons, which are peculiar to the Indian region. One of
them, the Indian Falconet (Mierokieraas ccerulescens), is found in the Himalayas and the Burmese
countries. A second one is peculiar to Assam, a third to the Philippine Islands, and a fourth to the
interior of China, while the fifth and remaining species is found in the Malayan Peninsula and the
Sunda Islands.

Not one of these little Hawks is seven inches in length, and even to this day there are many
authors who think that they are Butcher-birds or Shrikes, and not Hawks at all. They are, however,
true Falcons, though of very small size, and are said to be used by native chiefs for hawking insects and
Button-quails, being thrown from the hand like a ball ; but this story has been discredited of late, the
Besra, a small Sparrow-Hawk, being probably the bird alluded to. The Falconets are known to sit
solitary on high trees, and according to native accounts they feed on small birds and insects.

THE PEREGRINE FALCON (Faleo peregrinm*}.

This noble bird justifies his name of peregrinus, by his distribution over the earth's surface.
The ordinary Peregrine, which is still found in suitable places breeding on British coasts, is
met with all over Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into South Africa and India in winter,
extending throughout China to the Sunda Islands, and the Philippine Archipelago. In North
America he is also widely distributed, and is as plentiful as in Europe. In the southern hemisphere the
Peregrines, though strictly of the same type as the European bird, are always darker in colour, and
have blacker faces and heads. The Australian Peregrine is called Falco melanogenys,§ and extends
its range from the Australian continent to New Caledonia and the New Hebrides, and as far north as
Java. In South Africa the resident Peregrine is a very small, dark-coloured bird, and is called Falco
minor. This species is also met with in North-eastern Africa, and even ranges into the Mediterranean,
as it has been shot in Ehocles, Sardinia, and Morocco. Again, in Chili, another dark-faced form occurs,
the Falco nigriceps,\\ not unlike its Australian relative.

To write a history of the Peregrine Falcon would be almost to write a history of falconry, and

* Lit., like a Cuckoo. t MI*P<K, small, tiny; «>a£, a Hawk. J A wanderer.

§ M€*a«, black ; ye'cts, a cheek. || Nigriceps, black-headed.

2.2

NATURAL HISTORY.

although it would be beyond the limits of the present work to enter deeply into the subject, a
few words must be said about it here. The art of falconry probably came from the East, where
it is still practised, and an ancient bas-relief was found by Sir Austen Layard, among the ruins
of Khorsabad, depicting a falconer with a Hawk on his wrist, thus proving the antiquity of
the pursuit. In Great Britain it was formerly much in vogue, and in Salvin and Brodrick's
work on "Falconry in the British Islands" there will be found an interesting resume of tl:e
art, as performed in Great Britain, from ancient times down to the present. It is lamentable to

think of the way in which these noble
birds, once the pride and favourite of
monarchs, are now shot down and classed
as vermin. The strict way of preserving
game which has been common of late years,
and the general use of firearms, have, n-j
doubt, been the chief causes of the destruc-
tion of the larger Falcons, and it will take
some time to disabuse the vulgar prejudices
of gamekeepers, and of some proprietors,
as to the mistake that is made in killing
off every kind of raptorial bird indis-
criminately. A protest which was penned
by Mr. G. E. Freeman, in his " Falconry,"
is worthy of reproduction here : — " All
Hawks, when they have a choice, invari-
ably choose the easiest flight. This fact
is of the last importance in the matter
before us. I confess that I at once give it
the chief place in this argument. Who
has not heard of the Grouse disease 1 It
has been attributed, sometimes respec-
tively, and sometimes collectively, to
burnt heather ; to heather poisoned from
the dressings put on Sheep ; to the Sheep
themselves cropping the tender shoots and
leaves of the plant, and thus destroying

PEREGRINE FALCON. tue Grouse's food ; to the tape-worm ; to

shot which has wounded but not killed ;

and perhaps to other things besides. It may be, 1 doubt not, correctly referred to any or to all of
these. Of this, however, there appears no question that from whatever cause it springs it is
firopagated. A diseased parent produces a diseased child. Now, I say that when every Hawk is
killed upon a large manor, the balance of Nature is forgotten, or ignored ; and that Nature will
not overlook an insult. SJie would have kept her wilds healthy; destroy her appointed instru-
ments, and beware of her revenge ! "

The Peregrine Falcon has always been celebrated with falconers for its superior dash and courage.
The female is much the larger and more powerful bird, and is called the " Falcon," the male being
known as the " Tiercel." The young birds reared from the nest are called " Eyes," and the immature
specimens, from their more rufous colour, are distinguished as the "Red Falcon" and the "Red
Tiercel." When a bird has been caught wild in the full plumage it is called "Haggard." The
principal flight of the " Falcon " was at the Heron, and many anecdotes are told of the encounters
between these two antagonists in .mid-air. The evidence of Falconers, however, goes to show that the
impalement of the Hawk by the Heron's bill is a rare occurrence, and it is only when the birds come
to the ground that the presence of the man is required to rescue the Falcons from their dangerous foe.
The Heron, on being pursued, endeavours to avoid his pursuer by mounting high into the air, the
Falcon meanwhile doing his best to rise above him and strike the quarry to the ground. Generally,

THE PEREGRINE FALCON.

293

two Falcons were employed in the chase, and while the Heron avoided the stoop of one by changing

his position suddenly, the other was ready to stoop from above, until, by a successful swoop, the Heron

would be mastered and borne to the ground with the two Falcons in close embrace. Then was the

time for the good falconer to be at hand to save his Hawks from the

Heron. In a wild state the Peregrine feeds on Grouse of all kinds,

Pheasants, Partridges, Ducks, Pigeons, Plovers, &c., but it does not so

often visit the poultry-yard as the other Hawks, preferring the open

country or the sea-coast. In this latter locality, the Falcon feeds on

the various sea-birds, such as the Puffins, Auks, Guillemots, and as it

flies back to its nest with food for its young, it will sometimes in very

wantonness rip up a Gull or other sea-bird if it happens to get in the

way as it rushes by. The nest is generally large, and composed of

sticks and herbaceous plants, excepting in localities were none of the

latter exist, when it is made of grass. The site chosen is some sea-cliff

or high precipice inland, where there is sure to be some difficulty in

reaching the nest, which is generally harried by means of a rope. They

build in the same localities for years together, and Professor Newton

gives an interesting record of such an occurrence,* when he mentions

a hill in Lapland, where a pair of Falcons had a nest when it was visited

by the French astronomical expedition in 1736, a nest being re-discovered

in the same place in 1799 by Captain Skjb'ldebrand, and again by the

late Mr. Woolley, in 1853. Near the site of its nest the Peregrine

brooks no intruder, and will even attack an Eagle, an instance having

been recorded of one of the latter birds being stunned and brought

to the ground by a Peregrine, who broke its own wing in the attempt,

and was liberated by the shepherds to mend its wing as best it could,

ia gratitude for having delivered their aquiline enemy into their hands.
In Holland, whei'e until recent years hawking was largely carried

on xmder the auspices of the king, there is a well-known place, called

Valkenswaard, whei-e a good many Hawks are trapped every autumn

during migration, and it is from the neighbourhood of this village that many of the most

celebrated falconers have come. At the same time England has also produced many celebrated

adepts at the art, which is generally carried on from father to son ;
and one of the Barr family, with a high reputation as a falconer, a
few years ago exhibited his trained birds in the neighbourhood of
London. The writer has also seen some fine sport in Huntingdonshire;
with Lord Lilford's Hawks, in a large extent of open country near
Great Gidding.

The male Peregrine is of a bluish-grey colour, narrowly barred with
black, the wings darker ; the cheeks, ear-coverts, and moustache, black,
the entire sides of the head being sometimes of this dark aspect;
underneath, the body is white, with more or less of a reddish tinge, and
crossed with black bars ; tail grey, broadly barred with black and tipped
with white. The length is about fifteen inches, that of the female
about seventeen ; and the wing is fourteen inches and a half in length
instead of about twelve, as in the male. In plumage the hen bird is
veiy similar, but is generally of a richer rufous hue below.

Besides the Peregrine Falcons there are a host of smaller species of the genus Falco, varying
much from the above birds in size and style of colour, but of exactly the same form, and having
much the same habits. The Hobby (Falco subbuteo) and the Merlin (F. Ksalon} represent
these smaller Falcons in the British Islands.

HOODED FALCOX.

FALCON h HOOD.

* "Ootheca Woolleyaua," p. 93.

132

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE GREENLAND JER-FALCON (Hlerofalco candiean*)*

Besides the Peregrine, there were used in falconry, in England, the Noble, or Jer-Falcons, birds
which were much prized, although they did not possess the same fire and dash in pursuit of their
quarry exhibited by the former bird. There are five distinct kinds of these northern Jer-Falcons,
without mentioning the Saker Falcon of South-eastern Europe, which also belongs to the genus
Hlerofalco. The best known is the Greenland Jer-Falcon, which, as its name implies, is an inhabitant
of Greenland and North America, young birds only occurring in the British Islands during migration.
This species is nearly pure white in colour when fully adult, the back and wings retaining small spots
of black, the entire head and breast, and especially the tail, becoming pure white as the bird gets older
and loses the spots and bars which characterise its immature dress. An unfailing mark by which a
Greenland Jer-Falcon can be told at any age is the light yellowish bill and cere, and the absence of
aiTOW-shaped bars on the flanks, which in young birds are longitudinally streaked with brown, but are
never barred. All the other Jer-Falcons have distinct bars across the flanks, as well as bluish bills
and regularly barred tails. They are four in number, the Norway Jer-Falcon (H. gyrfalco\ the
Iceland Jer-Falcon (H. islandicus), Holboll's Jer-Falcon (H. holbolli), and the Labrador Jer-Falcon
(//. labradorus). They are nearly all peculiar to the countries whose names they bear, the Norway bird
not occurring anywhere out of Europe and Northern Asia, one specimen having been known to occur
in England ; it seems also to emigrate to Central Asia, as a single bird was procured during the last
Yarkand Mission. All the Jer-Falcons have shorter toes than the Peregrines, in which the outer toe
is very long, while in the other birds the outer and inner toes are about equal in length.

When in a wild state the Greenland Falcon feeds upon Ptarmigan, Geese, and on the sea-birds
which freqtient the cliffs where it takes up its abode. It evinces great courage in defending its
nest.

THE KESTRELS (Cerclweis).

These form a group of short-toed Hawks, like the foregoing, but are much more numerous in
species, and are found distributed all over the world, with the exception of some of the Oceanic
Islands. More than twenty different kinds of Kestrel are recognised by naturalists, and they ai-e
more insect-feeding birds than the bolder and nobler Falcons which have just been spoken of. The
commonest and best known of all is

THE COMMON KESTREL, OR WIND-HOVER (Cerchneis
This species gains its name of Wind-hover from a very pretty and graceful action with which it
hangs suspended in the air, as if by a thread, keeping itself balanced by a constant winnowing
of the air by its wings, and from this position it scans the ground below for a stray Mouse which
may venture out of its hole, for mice and small birds constitute its principal food. It is frequently
to be seen in the autumn hovering about a field of sheaved corn in the twilight, selecting a
position about forty feet in the air, and occasionally stooping down on some prey in the
stubb'e below. Should it not succeed in its pounce, it flies a little way in a few easy circles,
and again commences to hover over a new part of the field. Insects also form a staple
article of food to the Kestrel, who devours them while in full flight, passing its leg up to its
bill, and the author has met with an instance of a Kestrel hawking for insects over a stream in
the late evening. This Hawk is, unfortunately, often confounded through the ignorance of game-
keepers with the Sparrow-Hawk, and suffers consequently for the misdeeds of the latter, a fact much to
be regretted, for it is a very useful bird, owing to the number of mice it destroys ; indeed, a
writer in Macgillivray's " British Birds " computes that a single Kestrel would destroy upwards of ten
thousand mice during its stay in Britain. It will also catch birds, but in limited numbers, and
then generally only during the breeding season, when its young require constant food. Although of a
less ferocious nature and aspect than the Falcons, the Kestrel, nevertheless, often shows forth his
accipitrine temperament in a way that would scarcely be expected from his mild-looking dark eye,

* icpds, sacred ; falcu, a Falcon ; caitdicaits, white. t Kipjivrj/s, or K<?PXI'T)> ^FM a Kestrel ; tinnunculus, Lat., a Hawk.

THE COMMON KESTREL.

295

which has nothing of the ferocity of the yellow iris of the Sparrow-Hawk. Some young birds belonging
to the writer, consisting of three females and a male, being left without food for a few hours by the
person in whose charge they were placed, forgot their fraternal affection, and the larger hen birds set
upon the male, who was not so large or strong as they were, and devoured him completely. When
shooting in a sandy island near Heligoland also, the writer wounded a Dunlin, which floated on the
water a considerable distance out at sea, and whilst waiting for the waves to bring the bird in to land
a Kestrel hove in sight and made a
swoop at the Dunlin, which the latter
avoided by a rapid dive. Twenty-three
times the Hawk repeated the manoeuvre
without success, until the poor little
wader became exhausted, and was borne
in the talons of his relentless foe to-
wards the rock of Heligoland, about a
mile off. This action had been wit-
nessed also by Messrs Seebohm and
Nicholson, from other parts of the same
sandy island, and the latter kept pace
with the Kestrel as it skirted the beach,
in the hopes that it might cross the
island, when a shot would perhaps
have caused the bird to drop his ex-
hausted quarry. The Hawk, however,
kept well out at sea, and regained his
rocky home, though he was several
times seen to pause in his flight and
take a tighter grasp of his victim.

The nest of the Kestrel is often
placed in towers and old buildings, and
the bird is sometimes to be seen round

the Nelson monument in Trafalgar Square, but a tree is more frequently the site selected, when
an old Crow's or Raven's nest is often chosen. The hen bird, as is the case with most Hawks,
sits very close, and will often require a stick or stone to be thrown close to the nest before it
will m<3ve off, and the sudden drop which it gives is often the means of saving its life, as the chance of
a successful shot is difficult. The eggs are from four to six in number, and are rather handsomely
coloured, being blotched with rufous on a white ground, and are not unfrequently entirely rufous.

In most of the Kestrels the sexes differ conspicuously in colour, the females being barred. This
is the case in the common species, where the male has a blue head and tail. In the size of the sexes
there is little or no difference, each measuring about twelve inches and a half. In winter, when there
are fewer mice and beetles about, the Kestrel shifts his quarters, and becomes to a certain extent
migratory : at this season of the year it visits India and Africa, not extending, however, so far down
the latter continent as some of the European birds go. It is abundant at certain seasons in north-
eastern Africa and Senegambia, but seldom goes as far as the Cape. The most easterly occurrence
that is known of the Common Kestrel is the island of Borneo, though it is a common bird in China.
It should be mentioned, however, that the Kestrel is always darker in colour from Japan and China,
so much so that many naturalists consider it to be a distinct species from the British bird.

COMMON KESTREL.

THE SECOND SUB-ORDER.— PANDIONES.

CHAPTER VI.
THE OSPREYS AND OWLS.

THE OSPREY— Distribution— Food— How it Seizes its Prey— Nesting Communities— STRIGES, or OWLS— Distinctions
between Hawks and Owls- Owls in Bird -lore and Superstition— Families of the Sub-order - THE FISH OWL- PEL'S
FISH OWL— The EAGLE OWL— Dr. Brehm's Description of its Appearance and Habits— THE SNOWY OWL— HAWK
OWLS— PIGMY OWLETS— THE SHORT-EARED OWL— THE LONG-EARED OWL— THE BARN OWL— The Farmer's Friend-
Peculiar Characters— Distribution.

THE OSPREY, OR FISHING EAGLE (Pandion haliaUus}.

THE Osprey is one of the most cosmopolitan of the birds of prey, being found all over the world,
with the exception of the continent of South America and some of the Pacific Islands. Specimens
from Australia and the Moluccas are generally smaller than those from Europe or America ; but as
the size of the species appears to vary in different localities, the Australian form cannot be considered
other than a permanently smaller race. Everywhere the habits of the Osprey seem to be very similar,
the bird never being found away from the vicinity of water, unless it be sometimes during the breeding

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES OF OWLS. 29?

season, when it makes its nest at some distance from its feeding haunts. Its food consists entirely of
fish, and it is capable of carrying off one of considerable size ; in the capture of its prey it is greatly
aided by its reversible toes, and by the roughness of the sole of the foot, which is covered with
minute spikes, and these are, of course, of great assistance to the bird in holding such a strong
and slippery prey as a large fish often proves to be. Professor Newton writes of one living
in the Zoological Gardens, that "when a fish was given to it, it was observed to seize it
across the body, placing the inner and outer toes at right angles with the middle and hind
toes, and, digging in the claws, it held the fish most firmly by four opposite points, not relaxing
its hold or altering the position of the toes, but picking out the portions of flesh from between them
with great dexterity." Occasionally, the Osprey attacks a fish beyond its strength, and it is then
drawn under the water, and drowned. Mr. Dresser saw this happen in the Bay of Fundy, when a
Fish Hawk was unable to release itself from a heavy fish, and. after being dragged under the water
time after time, was ultimately carried out to sea, and disappeared. Mr. Collett, of Christiania, tells us
that in one of the Norwegian lakes a huge Pike was caught, with the remains of an Osprey 's skeleton still
attached to its back. Sometimes, on landing its prey, the bird is unable to extricate its talons, and is
captured alive. The nest of the Osprey is a large structure, and is variously situated, according to the
nature of the locality. It is generally placed on a tree ; but in situations where there are no trees
the position chosen is on a large rock or stone, very often on the islands in the middle of the lakes
which it frequents. The eggs are generally three in number, sometimes four, and are very beautiful,
varying from a rich red to a buffy-white colour, with large reddish and brown markings. In Europe
it is found nesting invariably in pairs, but in North America large communities are found ; and Dr.
Brewer relates that sometimes as many as " three hundred pairs have been observed nesting on one
small island ; and when a new nest is to be constructed, the whole community has been known to take
part in its completion. They are remarkably tolerant towards smaller birds, and permit the Purple
Grakle (Qniscalus purpureus) to construct its nests in the interstices of their own."

THE THIRD SUB-ORDER.— STRIGES, THE OWLS.

The principal distinctions between Hawks and Owls (Striyes) have been already pointed out
(p. 255) ; but there are still some other smaller characters to which a passing allusion must be made.
It would be difficult, for instance, for the merest novice in the study of ornithology to mistake an Owl,
when seen alive in a cage, or even in a case of stuffed birds, its enormous head and short neck being
unlike those of any of the other birds of prey. The neck of some
Owls is, indeed, so short and contracted, that it is with difficulty
that any intervening curve between the nape and the back, which
would mark a perceptible neck as in most Hawks, can be detected.
Again, the Owls have their eyes directed forwards, so that they con-
front the spectator ; while most of the other birds of prey turn their
head more or less on one side when their attention is diverted, and
do not look one straight in the face as an Owl does. The cere is
almost always hidden by bristles in the Singes, and the latter have a
very distinct facial disc, surrounded by a curious ruff, somewhat similar
to that of the Harriers (Circus, p. 268), and Harrier-Hawks (Mivrastur, SKULL OF TEKGHALM'S owi,
p. 270). The external ear-opening is a complicated organ in the Owls,

and differs considerably, the orifices often being of different form on either side of the head ; and
in one species, Tengmalm's Owl (Nyctala tengmalmi), the ear-openings are of different shape in the
skull itself.

To those interested in bird-lore, a most entertaining study might be afforded by tracing the
superstitions with which Owls have been regarded in all countries, and in the earliest times. Such
a study was begun by the late Mr. Broderip, in his " Zoological Recreations,"* where he quotes from
the ancient writers many passages, which show that Owls were as much regarded as birds of ill-omen
by the inhabitants of Greece and Italy in olden times as they have been in England up to the present

* pp. 82, 95.

298

NATURAL HISTORY.

day. Nor is the infatuation confined to Europe, as later on. are quoted instances of superstitious
dread of the Owls in Morocco and West Africa ; while they are equally held in fear in many Eastern
countries.

The Athenians alone seem to have had a regard for these birds, and an Owl is found on the
reverse side of many of their coins, the bird being sacred to their guardian deity, Athene. The species
figured is probably the Little Owl (Carine noctua), a bird which is common in Greece. It is difficult
fco guess why the Owl came to be regarded as the embodiment of wisdom, unless it was from its
having been sacred to Minerva, the Goddess of Wisdom, who is sometimes represented as the Owl-
headed goddess.

" The Owlet's wing," writes Mr. Harting,* " was an ingredient in the cauldron wherein the
witches prepared their ' charm of powerful trouble' (Macbeth, Act iv., sc. 1) ; and with the character
assigned to it by the ancients, Shakspere, no doubt, felt that the introduction of an Owl in a dreadful
scene of a tragedy would help to make the subject come home more forcibly to the people, who had,

r/r \\\P'^

LITTLE OWL.

from early times, associated its presence with melancholy, misfortune, and death. Accordingly, we find
the unfortunate Owl stigmatised as the ' obscure,' ' ominous,' ' fearful,' and ' fatal ' ' bird of night.'
Its doleful cry pierces the ear of Lady Macbeth while the murder is being done : —

'Hark! Peace!

It was the Owl that shriek' d, the fatal bellman,
Which gives the stern'st good-night.'

Macbeth, Act ii., Sc. 2.

And when the murderer rushes in immediately afterwards, exclaiming — 'I have done the- deed.

Didst thou not hear a noise?1 She replies— ' I heard the Owl scream.' And later on 'The

obscure bird clamour'd the live-long night.' " (Macbeth, Act. ii., Sc. 3.)

The awe, no doubt, with which this bird is regarded by the superstitious, may be attributed iu
some measure to the fact of its flying by night.

" Deep night, dark night, the silent of the night,

The time when Screech-Owls cry and Ban-Dogs howl."

Henry VI., Part ii., Act L, Sc. 4.

* Ornithology of Shakspere.

THE OWL FAMILIES. 239

Arid jet, strange to say, the appearance of an Owl by day is by some considered equally ominous : —

" The Owl by day,
If he arise, is mocked and wondered at.1'

Henry VI., Part iii., Act v., Sc. 4.

"For Night-Owls shriek, where mounting Larks should sing."

Richard II., Act iii., Sc. 3.

Should an Owl appear at a birth, it is said to forebode ill-luck to the infant. King Henry VI.,
addressing Gloster, says : —

"The Owl shrieked at thy birth, an evil sign."

Henry VI., Part iii., Act v., Sc. 6.

While upon any otLer occasion, its presence was supposed to predict a death, or at least some dire
mishap : —

"The Screech Owl, screeching loud,
Puts the wretch that lies in woe
In remembrance of a shroud."

Midsummer Night's Dream, Act v., Sc. 2.

When Richard III. is irritated by the ill-news showered thick upon him, he interrupts the third
messenger with

" Out on ye, Owls ! Nothing but songs of death ? "

Micharcl III., Act iv., Sc. 4.

The same author, from whom the above Shaksperian illustrations are quoted, alludes further to
the superstitious dread of the Owl, which exists likewise amongst the Dyaks of Borneo, and in Ceylon
a Wood-Owl, belonging to the same genus Syr mum, to which the English Wood-Owl belongs, is
known as the " Devil-bird," and is held in great fear. Colonel Irby, writing of the Barn-Owl,* tells
the following story from the MS. of the late Mr. Favier, of Tangier : — " The inhabitants of Tangier
consider this bird the clairvoyant friend of the Devil. The Jews believe that their cry causes the
death of young children ; so in order to prevent this, they pour a vessel of water out into the
courtyard every time that they hear the cry of one of these Owls passing over their house. The
Arabs believe even more than the Jews, for they think that they can cause all kinds of evil to old as
well as young ; but their mode of action is even more simple than that of their antagonists the Jews,
as they rest contented with cursing them whenever they hear their cry. Endeavouring to find out
from the Mahometans what foundation there is for the evil reputation of this species, I was told this :
' When these birds ciy they are only cursing in their own language ; but their malediction is
harmless unless they know the name of the individual to whom they wish evil, or unless they have the
malignity to point out that person when passing him ; as the Devil sleeps but little, when there is evil
work to be done he would infallibly execute the command of his favourite if one did not, by cursing
the Owl by name, thus guard against the power of that enemy, who is sworn to do evil to all living
beings.' Having learned the belief of the Mahometans relative to this Owl, it was more difficult to
find out exactly that of the Jews, who, when questioned by me, knew not how to answer, except that
the act of pouring water in the middle of the courtyard is a custom of long standing, in order to avert
the evil which the Owl is capable of doing ; that is to say, the water is poured out with the view of
attracting the evil spirit's attention to an object which distracts him, and so hides from him the infant
which the Owl in its wickedness wishes to show him."

The late Mr. Waterton, in an entertaining essay on the habits of the Barn-Owl, says : — " Among
the numberless verses which might be quoted against the family of the Owl, I think I oaly know of
one little ode which expresses any pity for it : —

4 Once I was a Monarch's daughter,

And sat on a lady's knee ;
But am now a nightly rover,
Banish'd to the ivy tree.

* " Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar," &c., p. 56.

300 NATURAL HISTORY.

Crying, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo, hoo.

Hoo, hoo, hoo, my feet are cold ;
Pity me, for here you see me,
Persecuted, poor, and old.' " *

The Owls are divided into two families, the first of which is called Bubonidce, and the second
Strigidce. In the latter family are represented only two genera, Striae and Heliodilus, which contain
six species, all the remaining Owls, about one hundred and ninety in number, belonging to the
BubonMce. The breast-bone in the latter family always shows two or more clefts or indentations, and
there are no " serrations " on the middle claw, whereas the Barn-Owls always have the inner edge of
the middle claw serrated, that is, with a small, toothed margin, like the teeth of a saw (serra, Lat., a
saw ; serratus, notched like a saw), and the breastbone has no clefts in its hinder edge. The
Bubonidce embrace two sub-families, the Buhonince, which have no opercuhim, or fold of skin, closing
in the ear, and the Syrniince, which have a very large operculum. It seems natm-al to commence the
classification of the Nocturnal Accipitres with the Bare-legged or Fishing Owls, as the structure of
this part very much resembles that of the Osprey, which was the concluding representative of the
Diurnal Accipitres. The thigh feathers are thick, and fit close to the leg ; the tarsus and toes are bare ;
the outer toe is reversible ; and the soles of the feet are covered with tiny spicules, which serve to hold
fast their finny prey in the same manner as do those of the Osprey.

THE FISH 0\VL.

The following account of the Indian Fish Owl (Ketupa \ ceylonensis] is taken from the work by
Captain Vincent Legge, R.A., on the birds of Ceylon : — "This large Owl loves the vicinity of water,
haunting the banks of rivers, tanks, inland salt lagoons, the borders of sea-bogs, and woods surround-
ing rice-fields. All who have visited the tanks in the north and east of Ceylon must be familiar with
the fine bird, which so often is surprised napping in the lofty trees growing on the embankments, or
so-called 'bunds.' Its powers of vision in the day are not quick, but they are tolerably clear. On
hearing the footsteps of man, it raises its large ear-tufts, and bending down its head, stares steadily
down from its lofty perch among the green boughs, and as soon as it becomes aware of the nature of
the intruder on its retreat, launches itself out of the tree, and is not easily approached a second time.
It is much more common in wild forest country, combined with water, than in cultivated districts. It
sallies out in the evening with great regularity. As soon as the sun begins to sink behind the sur-
rounding forest, it may be noticed flapping noiselessly round some secluded cheena, or leisurely crossing
the lonely tank, resounding at the hour of sunset with the buzzing of innumerable frogs, to the nearest
conspicuous tree, and there gives out its sepulchral groan. This gloomy salutation is usually responded
to by its mate, who perches close at hand, and answers by a double note, the two lonesome sounds
resembling the words gloom — oh, gloom. At night I have often heard these notes repeated by a pair
without intermission for many minutes. Layard remarks that, when alarmed during the day, they
utter a loud hiss, subsiding into a growl. They appear to have an accustomed place of roosting, for Mr.
Houldsworth notices that they ' perched day after day on the same branch ! ' This is very often in
an exposed situation, and it frequently falls to their lot to be mobbed by a flock of garrulous Bulbuls,
King-Crows, and other Owl-hating small birds. Fish is the favourite food, and, in fact, the usual diet
of this species ; but when this is not procurable, small mammals, reptiles, and even insects are devoured
by them. In the stomach of one, for example, I found a Snake (Haplocercus ceylonensis), and some
large Beetles. As a proof of their miscellaneous diet, and also of their voracity, I may mention that
a pair of Fish Owls, which were kept by Sir Charles Layard in the same aviary with a Brahmin Kite,
fell one night upon their luckless companion, and, after slaughtering him, forthwith proceeded to devour
him completely. Further, Mr. Hume records, in 'Nests and Eggs,' finding the remains of Quails,
Doves, and Mynahs in the nest of a pair on the Jumna. It has also been stated that they feed on
the carcases of the Gavial and Crocodile."

* " Essays on Natural History," p. 8. -j- Ketupa, a " barbarous " name, with no meaning.

32

EAGLE OWL.

THE EAGLE OWL. 301

PEL'S FISH-OWL (Scotopdia peli). *

The African Fish-Owls are exactly like the Indian as regards their bare legs, but they have
no tufts on their heads. Three different kinds are known, and they are all rare birds, frequenting the
rivers and inland lakes of the African continent. Pel's Fish-Owl was discovered on the Gold Coast by
Mr. Pel, the Dutch commandant at Elmina, nearly forty years ago. The specimen procured by that
gentleman flew across the river Boutry, and settled among some shady boughs on the other bank,
when it was knocked down with the blow of a gun. The following account of one of these rare birds,
from the Barra coimtry, Senegambia, is given by Mr. John Henry Gumey, who had the specimen
alive in his possession for a long time : it was presented to him by Colonel O'Connor, C.B., who is the
author of the accompanying "Sketch of Nero, the Owl, a Fetish Bird." The colonel writes t: —
" During seven years' exploration of Western Africa, I only met one of the species of the Owl ' Nero.'
He was brought ' a chicken,' full of pen-feathers, or rather down, of a delicate straw-colom*, and very
thick, from a lagoon in the Barra country. No native would admit ' Nero ' as a visitor ; and when the
bird was installed in Government House, the servants and head people came in a body to remonstrate,
asserting ' he was a Gumbi Owl, a Fetish ! ! and would destroy and kill whatever object he looked on.'
The chief groom (an old soldier, who had charge of the poultry) insisted that ' every cock and hen
would go dead.' Strangely enough, an epidemic broke out, and carried off from fifty to sixty head of
fowls ; and each day the groom placed the defunct birds on the steps of Government House, to meet
the eye of Mrs. O'Connor, seeming to exult in the mortality amongst the feathered tribe. ' You see
wid your own eye, Missus, dat debil Jumbi bird, he go kill all de fowls. Governor tink he hab long
head, but he no sabey Owl. Suppose you put him in de stable, he see Nelly (Mrs. O'Connor's favourite
mare), de horse he go tumble down dead.' Death at last ceased to reign amongst the poultry popula-
tion, and Nero became my principal pet ; he ranged over the piazza, perching on the branch of a tree ;
he was fed regularly by the orderly on roasted fish, but he often came to the dinner-table, and flew
down for scraps of meat, bread and butter, which he took gently from myself or from Mrs. O'Connor,
permitting us to rub his head, crest, neck, and back, seemingly enjoying the caressing. But he would
snatch meat or bones from the Cat or Dog ; and when the Eagle was introduced into his company,
he beat him in a most unmerciful manner away from his peculiar and original position of the piazza,
the Eagle being one of the fiercest and most pugnacious of African birds, brought from the upper part
of the Gambia river near ' Wallie,' and, when in vigour, able to carry away a kid or small lamb.
Nero luxuriated in a tub of water, frequently washing himself, and perching on the rim until dry.
He was wont to go out to the garden or fields, where instantly an immense commotion arose among
all the birds. The larger ones flew round the Owl, keeping a very civil distance, the smaller birds
flew away ; but Nero treated both alike with sovereign contempt. He would return of his own
accord to the roosting-place in the piazza, and when put out and confined for some days, rejected
all food, and pined until restored to his perch. With me he was as tame as any Canary, and, after
an absence of two months, recognised my voice when I went to his cage at Oatlands (Devon), appearing
much pleased by my taking him out for a walk on the grass. Many natives from the interior told me
' they had never seen such a bird before ; but they considered him unlucky? I really think Nero is
nearly sans any relations, and certainly devoid of all friends in Western Africa."

Pel's Owl measures neai'ly two feet in length, and has the wing sixteen inches and a half.
Its colour is a deep rufous bay, with black transverse bars ; below it is light bay, with heart-shaped
bars of black ; the iris is dark-brown, whereas in the Indian Fishing Owls it is always yellow.

THE EAGLE OWL (Bubo ignavus}.l

This and its relative, the Virginian Eared Owl of America, are the largest of all the family. It
is found all over Europe and Siberia, extending even to China and the Himalayas, but the few
instances of its capture in Great Britain have been probably those of birds escaped from confinement,
as it is by no means an uncommon species in aviaries in England. As it is not, strictly speaking,

* o-KOToy, darkness ; n-eAeia, a Dove, with a covert allusion to the name of the discoverer (Sclater). f Ibis, 1859, p. / '47.

I Bubo, a Horned Owl (Vergil) ; ignavus, dastardly — an inappropriate title for so fine a bird.
133

302 NATURAL HISTORY.

a British bird, recourse must be had to the writings of Continental naturalists for an account of its
habits, and the following extract is made from Dr. Brehm's " Bird Life " (p. 567) : — " The Eagle Owl
is somewhat fantastic in appearance, usually sitting with its feathers so much ruffled as to make it
seem much larger than it really is. ' In that large, shapeless mass of feathers,' says Naumann, ' one
can scarcely distinguish the limbs ; the half-closed eyes hide their glorious rays ; suddenly it opens them
wide, bends the head and upper part of the body forwards, swaying from side to side, and raising first
one foot and then the other, begins to tremble, winks slowly with the eyelids, spits like a cat, and
snaps its bill. When angry its eyes flash fire, it bends forward with hanging wings, ruffles its plumage
as much as possible, and snapping and hissing, dashes furiously at the enemy.'

" This bird seems less courageous than sui'ly and quarrelsome, and yet it is asserted that it will
fight to the death with the Golden Eagle, when attacked by the latter. The Eagle Owl is a powerful
bird, and as there are no bounds to its fury, it is but rarely that anything escapes from its grasp.
Though strictly nocturnal in its habits, it always keeps a good look out for its own safety in the
daytime, and is ever shy and cautious. Keen of sight and hearing, it takes wing while the danger is
still far off. Like other Owls, this bird is fond of pressing itself against the stem of a tree, with
unruffled feathers, so as to closely imitate the stump of a tree, and thus escape detection. Inasmuch
as deep clefts in the rocks, or the thickest of trees, are its usual retreats, the Owl is often passed over,
which fact is undoubtedly an advantage, for the day birds mob it whenever they see it. They may
possibly have made it the savage, spiteful bird it is, inasmuch as their system of constant irritation
would be sufficient to try the temper of the mildest individual. Thus nothing remains for the Owl
but to evade its distui-bers, and hide itself as long as possible; but woe betide it if discovered, for then
the friends of daylight treat it to a ' charivari ' without equal.

" The first to arrive on the scene is the ubiquitous Crow, conducted thither by some inquisitive
warbler who has discovered the enemy's retreat. The Crow thoroughly understands what the little
fellow means, and hastens to convince itself of the truth of the information. Having satisfied itself,
it retires noiselessly, but only to carry the news to its relatives. Now they flock in from all sides
to take part in the fight, with an eagerness worthy of the boldest man ; gi'eeting one another with
hoarse and scornful croaks, the sooty tribe hasten as fast as they can to the scene of action. The
mockers surround the poor old ' Grand Duke,' at first at a respectful distance, though they are fully
determined effectively to disturb its siesta. There sits the Owl, rolling its eyes, spitting, snapping its
beak, and ruffling its feathers, now hopping from one leg to another, now raising and lowering its
feathered horns by turns ; mad with rage, bemoaning its fate, and at loggerheads with the whole
world, it awaits the turn that matters may take ; at the same time, be it remembered, every Crow
takes good care not to lay hold of the irritated gentleman ; nothing less than a Raven dares to rely on
its own strength. One of these, however, will run a tilt at the dark knight, using its sharp beak as a
lance ; but before the latter has time to raise the tenible claw, the Raven makes good its retreat,
pi-epares for another rush, and darts like an arrow, so as to use its weapon effectively. The Owl now
loses the last remnant of patience, and seeks safety in flight. Oh, unlucky wight ! this is all the black
swarm have been waiting for, the Crows being far its superiors on the wing. Giving vent to exulting
cries, they dart down from above with such unerring aim and force as to scatter the poor brute's
feathers in clouds to the wind : they rise again with a mighty noise that heeds no secrecy, as though
they sought to proclaim to the world at large all the fell deeds committed by this Prince of Darkness,
while other knights advance to battle. All Hawks and Falcons, ay, the proud Eagle even, answer
to the call, and hasten to take part in the fray. Now the Owl must, perforce, either beat a hasty
retreat or remain on the field. In any case, however, the Owl is thoroughly worried, and sometimes
really damaged, before it finds refuge in some thick tree or rocky cleft, where it hides itself as
closely and as silently as its rage will permit, until quit of the Crows.

"The detestation in which the Eagle Owl is held by all diurnal birds is not ill-founded, for
this bird preys on every living creature it can overcome, assassinating them in the most abominable
manner while they are asleep. Its quarry is as follows : — Fawns of the Roe Deer, Hares, Rabbits,
Hamsters, Rats, Moles, Mice, Capercailzie, Black-game, Hazel-hens, Pheasants, Partridges, Rooks,
Jays, Magpies, Snakes, Lizards, and Frogs ; Rooks seem to be its favourite morsel. No wonder,
then, that they pay their enemy out if they can only see an opportunity. It assassinates them ; they

THE EAGLE OWL.

303

attack it in open day. The Eagle Owl generally breaks the spine of the smaller animals close to the
head, and, cracking the remaining bones, devours its prey, skin and all ; the heads of the larger birds
it pulls in large pieces which it swallows. It, however, always devours a portion of the hair, feathers,
or scales as well, and wastes away if fed on flesh alone. The indigestible portions of the meal are
thrown up in large round pellets or 'casts.' With larger animals, it lays open the skin of the belly,
and eats out the flesh from inside. If it finds that there is too much for one meal, it carefully replaces
the skin, and hides the remainder in some dark cranny or corner until required again. This Owl

SNOWY OWL.

drinks rarely, slaking its thirst generally with the blood of its victims. If food is plentiful, it gorges
itself; but in times of dearth it can go without food for weeks together.

" By the last fortnight in March the Eagle Owls commence preparations for breeding. At this
season may be heard their hollow, muffled cry of ' poohoo, poohoo,' which is distinguishable at a great
distance through the woods, and it is not to be wondered that the timid are frightened at it. In the
silent, dark recesr.es of the mountain forest a variety of noises, well calculated to make one's flesh
creep, fall upon the ear : the shrill, mocking laugh, a sound as of snarling hounds ; the whoop of the
hunter, the snorting of Horses ; these are all calculated to impress the uneducated and superstitious
with the truth of the legend of the wild huntsman. Even to the ear of the better-informed, these
hideous cries, the loud screech of the female, or the ' poohoo ' of the male, intermingled with the
snapping of the beak and curious miaulings, sound somewhat weird j and the boldest of mortals can

304

NATURAL HISTORY.

scarcely repress a cold shudder when a company of these forest spirits favour him with one of their
demoniacal nocturnal concerts. Doubtless these sounds represent the battle-cries of the males when
fighting for the females, and take the place of the song of the Nightingale when telling its tale of love.

"After the Owls have paired these cries are heard less frequently, both birds being now fully
occupied with their nursery
operations. The large nest is
composed outwardly of branches
and sticks, and is lined with
dry leaves and small twigs. It
is built, and generally placed in
either the cleft of a rock or in
a hole in some ruined tower ;
the nest is never built in a tree
but from necessity. The two or
three eggs are also often found
lying on the bare surface of the
rock, Avithout any nest whatever.
They are round, cross-grained,
and white, and somewhat larger
than a hen's egg. The young
are hatched in about thi-ee
weeks. They are usually two in
number, rarely three; they look,
on their first appeai-ance, like
balls of cotton-wool, and keep
up a constant hissing or shrill
whistle. They remain a long
time in the nest, and are so
abundantly provided with food
by the parent birds, that one is
sure to find a large heap of
provisions at the nest. The
Owlets often betray their pre-
sence to their innumerable ene-
mies by their cries, and suffer
much persecution inconsequence.
When about eight weeks old
they are able to fly, though they
still remain for some time longer
under the care of the old birds.
These latter rarely wander far
from a particular neighbour-
hood, and usually build in the
very same place the following
year."

Besides the Eagle Owls, the sub-family Subonince contains the Snowy Owl (Nyctea* scandiaca^},
all the Hawk Owls (Surnia$ Ninox§), and the Pigmy Owlets (Glauddium\\). Many of the birds
belonging to this latter genus are not much bigger than a Sparrow. They are found nearly all over the
world, with the exception of Australia and Oceania, and one species, the European Pigmy Owlet

VVKTIOS, nightly, i.e., a bird of night— a most inappropriate title for the Snowy Owl, which is a day-flier.
t Scandiaca, Scandinavian. J A proper name. § A " barbarous " name, of no meaning.

|| From y\avK6s, blue or grey.

SHORT- EARED OWL.

THE BARN OWL. 305

(G. passerinum*\ is by no means uncommon in many parts of the Continent, though it has not yet
been met with for certain in the British Islands,

The sub-family Syrniinae contains only three genera, the Horned Owls (Asio\\ the Wood Owls
(Syrnium%), and the Tengraalni's Owl (Nyctala§ tengmalmi), the latter having been already noticed
(p. 297) as possessing the curious difference in the ear-opening on each side of the skull. Of the
Horned Owls two species are found in the British Islands, viz., the Short-eared Owl (Asia
accij)itrinus\\), and the Long-eared Owl (A. otus^l). The former of these birds is often seen in the
daytime, and is said to hunt for its prey on dull days, when it will fly at small birds as well as mice ;
and Mr. Low, writing on the birds of the Orkneys, where the Short-eared Owl breeds, says that he
has found in the nest the remains of a Moor-fowl (Red Grouse), two Plovers, besides the feet of
several others ; and the same writer states that during the breeding season it becomes very impudent,
and will even seize and catch up chickens from the doors, and also chase pigeons in open daylight.
Although resident in the British Islands, a large migration of the species takes place in autumn, and
it is not unfrequently shot by sportsmen in the turnip-fields ; while Bewick mentions the recurrence of
twenty-eight individuals being flushed in a turnip-field in November, being probably attracted to the
locality by an abundance of food. It may also be occasionally
found in marshes near the sea-shore, as occurred once to the
writer, who started a Short-eared Owl from the sedgy bank
on the west side of Pagham Harbour, in the early part of
September. "When winged, it boldly faced its pursuer, erecting
the little tufts on its head and fiercely snapping its bill, as
is the manner with all Owls in defending themselves.

Its relation, the Long-eared Owl, is a bird of different
habits, and, instead of breeding on the ground as the foregoing
species does, it selects a dark wood or clump of firs, appro-
priating a deserted Squirrel's " dray," or adapting the nest of ^jjUBfiffi^
another bird to its own requirements. Macgillivray gives the
following account of a young specimen which he had in confine-
ment: — "An individual of this species, which was sent to me in FACE OF THE BARN OWL>

winter by the Rev. Mr. Adam, having been left at night perched

on the back of a chair in my drawing-room, tore to tatters six valuable skins of birds from the Rocky
Mountains, and an equal number of nearly equally rare specimens from India. A young bird which
I kept for some time, on perching, stood at first with the body inclined, afterwards nearly erect, and
slept in the latter posture, with its neck rather extended, its feathers drawn close, and its tufts
recumbent. When irritated, it raised its plumage, threw its body forward, and uttered a sharp cry,
It seized its food with its bill ; if large, transferred it to one of its feet, but if otherwise, retained it
in its bill. In flying, it carried a small object in its bill, but a larger in its foot. It could close
one eye while the other remained open, and when placed in a strong light, frequently drew the
membrane over the lighted eye, while the other remained unsheathed, though for the most part
it winked with both simultaneously. The hides contracted unequally, according to the degree of
light. When perched at night, it sometimes emitted a clicking noise, like that of a spring, with its
bill ; but when provoked, it neither hissed nor snapped, but uttered a shrill, tremulous, plaintive cry,
or succession of short notes, erecting its tufts at the same time."

THE BARN OWL (Strix **

This is essentially the friend of man, frequenting villages and homesteads where he is protected,

and extending his range where civilisation precedes him, being attracted doubtless by the Mice and

Rats, which are also the accompaniments of civilisation. The number of small mammals which one of

these birds will devour ought to be his passport to the protecting care of the farmer and agriculturist,

* Passerine, or Sparrow-like : i.e., of the size of a Sparrow. •(- A proper name. * Svpnor, a proper name.

§ njKToAds, nocturnal. || Like a Hawk. IT WTOS, long-eared Owl. ** orpi-yf, an Owl.

tt Fiery ; flame-coloured.

306

NATURAL HISTOET.

but it is seldom that an Owl of any kind meets with approval on taking up his residence on an estate.
Facts, however, are stubborn things, and in the hope that a more generous reception may be afforded
to these useful birds, the following quotation is made from Professor Newton : — " Owls, like other
birds of prey, as already mentioned, return by the mouth the indigestible parts of the food swallowed
in the form of elongated pellets. These are found in considerable numbers about the usual haunts of
the birds, and examination of them reveals the nature of the food, and shows in nearly every case the
great services tliey render to man by the destruction of Rats and Mice."* The infallibility of the
evidence thus afforded as to the food of the Owls is as complete as the way of obtaining it, by those
who have the opportunity, is simple. Several German naturalists have made some very precise
researches on this subject. The following results, with regard to the three commonest species of Owls,
are those afforded by the investigations of Dr. Altam, as communicated by him to the German
Ornithologists' Society during its meeting in 1862 : —

Tawny Owl
Long-eared Owl .
Barn Owl .

REMAINS FOUND.

5*1
1*1]

O a

1

1
«

6
u

§

w

QJ
1

Shrews.

Moles.

3

0)

i

0

M

210
25
706

16

6
3

42
6
237

296
35
693

33
1,590

48

18
2
22

48

Colonel Irby, in the work which has already been alluded to, says of the Barn Owl : — "Almost
exclusively feeding on Rats and Mice, they deserve every encouragement and support that can be
afforded them ; but from being in all countries regarded with superstitious awe and dislike, they
are more or less persecuted on that account ; and in England, through the ignorance and stupidity
of gamekeepers, who fancy that they kill game (i.e., feathered game), they suffer most severely.
This excuse is ridiculous, for old birds they have not the power to kill, and young Pheasants
and Partridges, at the time the Owls are on the feed, are safely being brooded by the parent bird."
Those who wish to encourage and increase Owls, and have not hollow trees or buildings where
they nest, may always gratify their wishes by fixing an empty barrel (about an 18-gallon. size) hori-
zontally in the fork of any large tree, cutting a hole in one end large enough for the birds to enter ;
but the hoops of the cask should be screwed on, or it will soon fall to pieces. Not only the Barn
Owl, but the Tawny Owl (Syrnium aluco} also will use barrels, or " Owl-tubs." The difficulty, how-
ever, is to keep out the Jackdaws, but when once the Owls have established themselves, there is no
fear of that intmsion. The late Mr. Waterton was a well-known admirer of the present species,
and he devotes one of his " Essays on Natural History " to the Barn Owl, from which a few passages
are extracted : — " Up to the year 1813 the Barn Owl had a sad time of it at Walton Hall. Its
supposed mournful notes alarmed the aged housekeeper. She knew full well what sorrow it had
brought into other houses when she was a young woman, and there was enough of mischief in the
midnight wintry blast, without having it increased by the dismal sci-eams of something which people
knew very little about, and which everybody said was far too busy in the churchyard at night-
time. Nay, it was a well-known fact, that if any person were sick in the neighbourhood it would be
for ever looking in at the window, and holding a conversation outside with somebody, they did not
know whom. The gamekeeper agreed with her in everything she said on this important subject,
and he always stood better in her books when he had managed to shoot a bird of this bad and
mischievous family. However, in 1813, on my return from the wilds of Guiana, having suffered
myself, and learned mercy, I broke in pieces the code of penal laws which the knavery of the game-
keeper and the lamentable ignorance of the other servants had hitherto put in force, far too suc-
cessfully, to thin the numbers of this poor, harmless, unsuspecting tribe. On the ruin of the old
gateway, against which tradition says the waves of the lake have dashed for the greater part of a

* Newton's edition of Yarrell's '' British Birds," Vol.1., p. 147.

THE BARN OWL. 307

thousand years, I made a place with stone and mortar, about four feet square, and fixed a thick oaken
stick firmly into it. Huge masses of ivy now quite cover it. In about a month or so after it was
finished a pair of Barn Owls came and took up their abode in it. I threatened to strangle the
keeper if ever, after this, he molested either the old birds or their young ones ; and I assured the
housekeeper that I would take upon myself the whole responsibility of all the sickness, woe, and
sorrow that the new tenants might bring to the Hall. She made a low courtesy, as much as to
say, ' Sir, I fall into your will and pleasure,' but I saw in her eye that she had made up her mind
to have to do with things of fearful and portentous shape, and to hear many a midnight wailing in
the neighbouring woods. I do not think that up to the day of this old lady's death, which took
place in her eighty-fourth year, she ever looked with pleasure or contentment on the Barn Owl, as
it flew round the large sycamore trees which grow near the ruined gateway.

" "When I found that this first settlement on the gateway had succeeded so well, I set about
forming other establishments. This year I have had four broods, and I trust that next season I can
calculate on having nine. This will be a pretty increase, and it will help to supply the place of
those which in this neighbourhood are .still unfortunately doomed to death by the hand of cruelty or
superstition. We can now always have a peep at the Owls in their habitation
on the old ruined gateway whenever we choose. Confident of protection,
these pretty birds betray no fear when the stranger mounts up to their place
of abode. I would here venture a surmise that the Barn Owl sleeps stand-
ing. Whenever we go to look at it we invariably see it upon the perch, bolt
upright, and often with its eyes closed, apparently fast asleep. Buffon and
Bewick err, no doubt unintentionally, when they say that the Barn Owl
snores during its repose. What they took for snoring was the cry of the
young birds for food. I had fully satisfied myself on this score some years
ago. However, in December, 1823, I was much astonished to hear this
same snoring kind of noise, which had been so common in the month of
July. On ascending the ruin, I found a brood of young Owls in the
xpartment.

" Upon this ruin is placed a perch, about a foot from the hole at which

, / ,• -IT i.T, • 1 BREAST-BONE OF THE

the Owls enter. Sometimes, at mid-day, when the weather is gloomy, you BARN OWL-

may see an Owl upon it, apparently enjoying the refreshing diurnal breeze.

This year (1831) a pair of Barn Owls hatched their young, on the 7th of September, in a sycamore
tree, near the old ruined gateway.

" Tf this useful bird caught its food by day, instead of hunting for it by night, mankind would
have ocular demonstration of its utility in thinning the country of Mice ; and it would be protected
and encouraged everywhere. It would be with us what the Ibis was to the Egyptians. When it has
young, it will bring a Mouse to the nest about every twelve or fifteen minutes. But in order to have a
proper idea of the enormous quantity of Mice which this bird destroys, we must examine the pellets
which it ejects from its stomach in the place of its retreat. Eveiy pellet contains from four to seven
skeletons of Mice. In sixteen months from the time that the apartment of the Owl on the old gateway
was cleaned out, there has been a deposit of above a bushel of pellets. The Barn Owl sometimes
carries off Rats. One evening I was sitting under a shed, and killed a very large Rat as it was
coming out of a hole about ten yards from where I was watching it. I did not go to take it up,
hoping to get another shot. As it lay there, a Barn Owl pounced upon it, and flew away with it.
This bird has been known to catch fish. Some yeai's ago, on a fine evening in the month of July, long
before it was dark, as I was standing on the middle of the bridge, and minuting the Owl by my watch
as she brought Mice into her nest, all on a sudden she dropped perpendicularly into the water. Think-
ing she had fallen down in epilepsy, my first thoughts were to go and fetch the boat ; but before I had
well got to the end of the bridge, I saw the Owl rise o\it of the water with a fish in her claws, and
take it to the nest. When farmers complain that the Barn Owl destroys the eggs of their Pigeons,
they lay the saddle on the wrong horse ; they ought to put it on the Rat. Formerly, I could get
very few young Pigeons, till the Rats were excluded effectually from the dovecot. Since that took
place it has produced a great abundance every year, though the Barn Owls frequent it, and are

308 NATURAL HISTORY.

encouraged all around it. The Barn Owl merely resorts to it for the purpose of concealment. If it
were really an enemy to the dovecot, we should see the Pigeons in commotion as soon as it begins
its evening flight ; but the Pigeons heed it not. Whereas, if the Sparrow- Hawk or Hobby should
make its appearance, the whole community would be up at once ; proof sufficient that the Barn Owl is
not looked upon as a bad, or even a suspicious character, by the inhabitants of the dovecot."

The colour of the Barn Owl, which is a bright orange buff, mottled with ashy-grey on the upper
surface, and white below, distinguishes it from any other Owl. The oval form of the disc is also to a
great extent peculiar, as is also the serrated edge to the middle claw, which has been referred to before
(p. 300). The breast bone is likewise remarkable, as it has no clefts in the hinder margin.

The range of the present species is very considerable, as it is found all over the New World, from
the northern and middle United States down to Patagonia and the Falkland Islands. In the Old
World it occurs in equal plenty, but does not extend very high north, being a rare visitant to Denmark
and Sweden. Although common in Poland, it is only sparingly distributed throughout Russia, and
even appears to be entirely absent in many Central and Southern parts. The same may be said
of Turkey. It is not known at present from Siberia or China, but is found throughout Africa, India,
Australia, and the majority of the Oceanic Islands. Nearly all Owls have two distinct phases of
plumage — a grey one, and a red one. This is especially the case in the little Scops Owls, which have
tufts of feathers on the head like the Eagle Owls, of which they may be said to be representations in
miniature. The Barn Owls are no exception to this general rule of the family ; but owing to the
light colouring of the bird, it is not so perceptible as in some of the other species of Owls. Even in
England, however, a short study of the species will show the student that some individuals are much
redder underneath, instead of being white, and are profusely freckled with grey above ; and this dark
coloration does not depend upon the age of the bird, nor is it a difference of sex. In some islands,
such as the Cape Verde group, San Domingo in the West Indies, the Falkland Islands, and the
Galapagos, the Barn Owls are almost always dark-coloured, and light ones are very seldom found. On
the other hand, in Australia and Oceania the species becomes peculiarly light in plumage, and dark
individuals are the exception.

THE SECOND ORDER.— PICARIAN BIRDS (Picarice).*

CHAPTER VII.

THE PARROTS.

Characteristics of the Order— The Sub-orders— ZYGODACTYIuE- -THE PARROTS— Their Talking Powers— Sections of the
Family — THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO — THE PYGMY PARROTS — THE AMAZON PARROTS — THE AMAZONS — THE GREY
PARROT — Court Favourites — Historical Specimens — In a State of Nature— Mr. Keulemans' Observations — THE
CONURES— THE ROSE-RINGED PARRAKEET— Known to the Ancients— Habitat —Habits— THE CAROLINA CONURE—
Destructive Propensities— THE PARRAKEETS— THE OWL PARROT— Chiefly Nocturnal— Incapable of Flight— How this
Fact may be accounted for — Dr. Haast's Account of its Habits — THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS — THE BRUSH-
TONGUED PARROTS— THE NESTORS— THE KARA PARROT— Skull of a Parrot— The Bill.

THE birds which are contained in this order are of very different forms, but they possess one character
which, although an osteological one, is found throughout nearly the whole group, and that is, the
double notch in the hinder margin of the sternum or breast bone. In all the true Passeres, or perching
birds, only a single notch is observed. The hind toe, which in the true perching birds is an essential
character, and is separately movable, possessing its own distinct flexor muscle, is in the Picarians not
of so much account, its flexor muscle being joined to the common flexor of all the toes ; it is sometimes
absent altogether. If the Parrots have certain characters in common with the Accipitres, the Cuckoos
and the Plantain-eaters undoubtedly show affinity to the Game-birds, while most of the other families
have peculiar structures which render them quite distinct from the ordinary mass of true perching
birds or Passeres. It may be remarked that the eggs of most of the Picaricn, so far as we are
acquainted with them, are glossy white, and that the majority of them breed in the holes of trees or of

* From Picus, a Woodpecker.

33

COCKATOOS.

THE PARROTS. 309

rocks, and that they are as a rule bad nest-builders. The greatest exception to the above description
of the nesting of these birds is met with in the family of Goatsuckers (Caprimulgidat), some of whom
lay their eggs on the ground, the eggs being beautifully marbled with streaks and spots.

Within, this great Picarian order there are two large sub-orders, called respectively the Scansorial
and the Fissirostral* Picaritz. The Scansorial birds are also sometimes known as the Zygodactylse,t
or yoke-footed birds, because they have their toes arranged in pairs, two in front and two behind, and
their name of Scansores is given to them because most of them are climbing birds, and run up trees and
rocks with great facility, though in different ways. Parrots, for instance, use their bills in climbing
from branch to branch, while Woodpeckers have very powerful feet and stiffened tail-feathers, which
support them as they cling to the bark of the trees, the bill being chiefly employed to prise off the
bark in order to get at the insects underneath. Cuckoos do not climb trees in the same manner as the
Woodpeckers, though they have true zygodactyle feet : the present writer has, however, seen a
common Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) cling with both feet to the trunk of a huge elm while it picked oft'
insects from the bark. It must not be supposed, however, that the above are the only birds which
climb trees, for among the true Passeres, or perching birds, there occur such birds as the Dendroco-
hiptidce in South America, who have stiffened tails exactly as the Woodpeckers, while the Tree-
creepers are just as expert as the last-named birds, and yet cannot be placed in the same order as the
Scaiisorial (Picarice), for they possess a simple passerine foot, with three toes in front and one behind.

The Fissirostres, .or wide-gaping birds, are also called Gressorial Picarise, as their toes are more or
less connected together, which gives them a very flat sole to the foot. They generally hunt for their
food from some selected spot, ordinarily a post or a dead bough, whence they take flights after
their prey, usually returning to the same spot to devour it. Their flight is active and swift, their gape
extremely large, and the head correspondingly big, and in many instances clumsy and ungainly. The
feet are generally small and weak.

SUB-ORDER I.— ZYGODACTYLE.
FAMILY I.— THE PARROTS (Psittaci).

Just as the Monkeys have been placed at the head of the Mammalia on account of their
high development, so the Parrots, from their general cleverness, and especially on account
of the facility with which they can talk, have been considered the highest order of birds,
and placed at the beginning of the class. It is impossible for some people to avoid
the conclusion that these birds think and reason, and the ct, pi-opos or sometimes mal du
propos way in which they introduce speeches, coupled with the look of wisdom which they
assume while being spoken to, seems to show that the brain is being employed in thinking. A friend
in Manchester told the writer of a parrot-show in the North of England, where the talking powers of
each bird were made the subject of a prize competition. Several of the birds had exhibited their
prowess, and at last the cover was removed from the cage of a Grey Parrot, who at once exclaimed, on
seeing the company to which he was suddenly introduced, " By Jove ! what a lot of Parrots ! " an
observation which gained him the prize at once. Instances of famous talking birds might be
multiplied by the hundred, and it is wonderful to read some of the stories which have been related of
Parrots, whose fame has been recorded in many popular works, leaving no doubt that these
birds often possess the power of reason of a very high order ; at the same time, it must be con-
fessed that many of the Corvine birds, such as Ravens, Jackdaws, and Magpies, do not fall far short of
their Scansorial friends.

The Parrots are divided into two large sections, firstly the Parrots proper (Psittaci jyroprii), and
secondly the straight-billed Parrots (Psittaci orthognathii). These two sections together contain six
families, of which five belong to the first and one to the second. The true Parrots have a powerful
and swollen bill, especially as regards the lower mandible, which is much inflated, curved, and flattened
in front, the cutting edges (tomium) indented just behind their tip. The sub-family which has to
be noticed first are the CamptolophincK§ or Cockatoos, which are birds entirely of the Australian

* Fissus, cleft ; rostrum, a beak. f frtov, a yoke ; &'',^u\ot, a toe. J opflbs, straight; -yj/aflos, a jaw,

§ Ka/uTT-rw, to bend ; xb^or, a crest.
134

310 NATURAL HISTORY.

region, being confined to Australia and the Molucca Islands. The bill is higher than it is broad, with
a very distinct indentation of each side of the cutting edge of the mandible, the tip of the bill short,
rather strong and perpendicular, the head crested in all except the Pygmy Parrots (Nasiterna). This
family contains at once the largest and the smallest of the Parrots.

THE GREAT PALM COCKATOO (Microglossus* atcrrimits-fi.

This is one of the most powerful of all the Parrot tribe, measuring about twenty-four inches in
length, and having a bill of unusual thickness and power. Its black plumage also renders it a con-
spicuous species, the only relief to this sombre colouring being the greyish crest and the dull crimson
cheeks. Its home is New Guinea, but it is also found in the Cape York Peninsula in Australia,
where it was discovered by John Macgillivray during the voyage of the Rattlesnake. He writes
as follows respecting it : — " This very fine bird, which is not uncommon in the vicinity of Cape York,
was usually found in the densest scrub among the tops of the tallest trees, but was occasionally seen in
the open forest land perched on the largest of the Eucalypti, apparently resting on its passage from one
belt of trees or patch of scrub to another. Like the Black Cockatoos, or Calyptorhynchi, it flies slowly
and usually but a short distance. In November, 1849, the period of our last visit to Cape York, it was
always found in pairs, very shy, and difiicult of approach. Its cry is merely a low short whistle of a
single note, which may be represented by the letters ' ffweet-Hweet.' The stomach of the first one killed
contained a few small pieces of quartz and triturated fragments of palm-cabbage, -with which the crop
of another specimen was completely filled ; and the idea immediately suggests itself, that the powerful
bill of this bird is a most fitting instrument for stripping off the leaves near the summits of the
Seaforthia elegans and other palms to enable it to arrive at the central tender shoot."

THE PYGMY PAEEOTS (Nasiterna).

These Parrots are represented by seven little manikins which are found in New Guinea and the
adjacent islands, each particular island possessing its own peculiar species. Not one of these little birds
exceeds a Sparrow in size, the largest being a little over three inches and a half in length. Owing to
their small size and the resemblance of the green colouring to the forests they inhabit, they are not
easily seen, and until recent years were very hard to procure. In the island of Mafoor in the Bay of
Geelvink, N.W., New Guinea, Baron von Rosenberg says that he found it common near Roemsaro,
and several specimens, both alive and dead, were brought to him by the natives. They bred there
in January and February, nesting in hollow trees and laying two eggs, the size of those of the
English Bottle Titmouse. Their food consists of fruit.

THE AMAZON PAEEOTS (Androgloss'ma?) .\

This, the second sub-family, consists of the true Parrots, of which the ordinary Grey Parrot (Psittacus
erythacus) is the type. It also includes all the Green Parrots of America, which are called Amazons,
as well as the Lories (Eclectus) and Love-birds (Agapornis). The head is moderately smooth, without
any highly-developed crest, as in the Cockatoos, and the tail is short, or of only moderate length. The
tail-feathers are generally broad and obtuse, in a few widening at the tip, or sharp at the end.
In the genus Prioniturus, which inhabits the Philippine Islands, and some of the Moluccas,
the two centre feathers have the shafts produced, and ending in a small spatule, or racket.

THE AMAZONS (Chrysotis).§

These Parrots are entirely American, and ai*e the only birds of the New World which can compete in
talking powers with the African Grey Parrots, who, however, far surpass their American relatives.
About thirty species of Amazon are known, all of them confined within the limits of the Neotropical
region, which comprises the whole of Central and Southern America, south of an imaginary line drawn
through Northern Mexico. The West India islands are also included in this area, and most of them

* Mixpos, small ; yMawra, a tongue. t Very black. J «>"ip, a man ; yAwoo-a, a tongue. § XPV<T°S) S<d<L 5 °"?. <in ear.

THE AMAZON PARROT.

311

are inhabited by a species of Amazon. The habits of all these Parrots seem to be very similar, and a
good account of the Active Amazon of Jamaica (Chrysotis agilis) is given by Mr. Gosse* :— " All the
Parrots are gregarious, cunning, watchful, noisy, mischievous ; and thus are like the Monkeys. This
and the Yellow-billed Parrot [Mr. Gosse's name for 0. agilis is the Black-billed Pai-rotJ are so much
alike in manners and general appearance, that a description, of one applies nearly to the other. Flocks
varying from half a dozen to twenty or thirty fly hither and thither over the forest, screeching as they
go, and all alight together on some tree covered with berries. Here they feast, but with caution.
On a slight alarm one
screams, and the whole
flock is on the wing,
vociferous if not musical,
and brilliant if not beau-
tiful, particularly when
the sun shines on their
green backs and crim-
soned wings. They gene-
rally prefer lofty trees,
•except when, in June,
the ripe yellow plantain
tempts them to descend,
or when the blackberry
shines upon the pimento.
Of the latter the flocks
devour an immense
quantity, and the former
they destroy by cutting
it to pieces with their
powerful beaks, to get
at the small seeds. One
day in January, when
the pimento on the brow
of Bluefields Mountain
was about ready for
picking, being full-sized,
font yet green and hard,
I observed large flocks
of Black-bills, and a few
Pai'rakeets, flying to and
fro with voluble chatter,
now alighting to feed on
the hot, aromatic berry,
now flying off, and

wheeling round to the same neighbourhood again. They were not at all shy, but, with unusual care-
lessness of one's proximity, scarcely moved at the report of the gun which brought their companions
to the ground. Of two which I shot on this occasion, I found the craws stuffed with the cotyledons
of the seed alone, the most pungently aromatic part of the berry ; the fleshy part having been, as I
presume, shorn off by the beak and rejected. When alighted, as is often the case, on a dry branch,
their emerald hue is conspicuous, and affords a fair mark for the gunner ; but in a tree of full foliage,
their colour proves an excellent concealment. They seem aware of this, and their sagacity prompts
them to rely on it for security. Often we hear their voices proceeding from a certain tree, or else
have marked the descent of a flock upon it, but on proceeding to the spot, though the eye has not
wandered from it, and we are therefore sure that they are there, we cannot discover an individual.

* " Birds of Jamaica," p. 266.

AMAZON PARROT.

312 NATURAL HISTOET.

We go close to the tree, but all is silent, and still as death ; we institute a careful survey of every
part with the eye, to detect the slightest motion, or the form of a bird among the leaves, but in vain ;
we begin to think that they have stolen off imperceived, but on throwing a stone into the tree, a dozen
throats burst forth into cry, and as many green birds rush forth upon the wing. The screaming of
this and the following species differs from that of the Parrakeet, so far as to be easily distinguished.
That of the latter consists of a series of harsh screeches, of comparative length ; that of the Parrots is.
less shrill, more broken into short and rapid articulations, forming a series of varying length, separated
by momentary pauses. It is, in fact, much more like a hurried chattering."

THE GREY PARROT (Psittacus erythacus).

This familiar cage-bird is a native of Africa, and it would appear to have been a favourite in
England for a longer period than can be traced. They were held in great estimation at the court
of the "Merry Monarch" Charles II., for his Queen Catharine of Braganza had a parrot-keeper, at a,
salary of £36 per annum, while the maids of honour received only £10 a year each, and the " mother
of the maids " £20 per annum. Therefore, the custodian of the Parrots was better paid by £16 than
the lady who held the very responsible post of care-taker of the maids of honour.* A Grey Parrot
which lived for forty years with the Duchess of Richmond and Lennox, who died in 1702, and who-
was a celebrated beauty at the court of Charles II., is preserved in Westminster Abbey along with
the effigy of that lady, having survived its mistress only a few days.

It is strange that for a bird which has so long been one of the chief pets in Europe, so little is
known of its habits in a wild state, and at the present time not a single authentic egg of this species,
taken in its native haunts, is known to exist. Occasionally it lays in confinement a white egg, like
other Picarian birds, but it is probably from the care with which the species selects its breeding-place-
that it has been so difficult to find their nest and eggs. The only naturalist who appears to have
discovered the latter appears to be the celebrated natural history artist, Mr. Keulemans, who spent
nearly two years in West Africa, and has written the best account of the Grey Parrot in a state of
nature,t as observed by him on Ilha do Principe, or Prince's Island, in the Bight of Biafra. Here it
is very common, and breeds in the month of December in the very thickest forests. Only one pair
breed in each tree, laying five eggs in a hole thereof, but a large number nest in close proximity to each
other, many hundreds breeding in the same area, according to the above-named author. Both parents-
take a share in the rearing of the young birds, sitting by turns, the one who is thus relieved bringing
food to its mate and feeding it out of its crop, which method is also adopted in the care of the young
birds. The food of the Grey Parrot is stated to consist of palm-nuts, the arocat (Laurus persea), the-
banana (Musa paradisea), goyare, mango, and many other fruits of a smaller size; but it always-
gives the preference to palm-nuts. On Prince's Island, writes Mr. Keulemans, there is " a very lofty
mountain, reaching some 1,200 feet above the level of the sea, and called by the natives ' Pico de
Papagaio,' or Peak of the Parrots. On the slope of this mountain, and extending far up its side, is a
magnificent forest. The trees are of great size and height, and their trunks and branches give support
to the lianas and other climbing plants, which hang about them in luxurious folds. The density of
the forest is so great that it is only with the greatest difficulty and toil that the explorer can force his-
way through it ; while to the Parrots who come up there every night it presents no obstacle, but
gives them, under the shelter of its thick foliage, a secure and pleasant resting-place."

Another observer in West Africa, Dr. Reichenow, found the Grey Parrot breeding in West Africa,
in the low-lands along the streams and groves of mangrove, and the great difficulty of traversing these
swamps is, according to him, the reason why their bi-eeding habits are not better known. They are
very destructive to the crops of Indian corn, which they visit in large flocks, wasting as much as they
consume. They proceed to roost in flocks, selecting the same route each night ; and Governor Ussher
says that, whilst up the river Addo, near Lagos, he has seen them crossing at sunset from their
feeding-grounds to their roosting-places, when they presented the appearance of one continuous flock
passing at a great distance overhead, their screams and chattering being heard long after darkness has

* G. D. Rowley, " Ornithological Miscellany," Vol. I , p. 175. t "Natural History of Cage-birds," Part I.

34

GREAT MACAWS.

TEE HOSE-SINGED PARRAKEET.

313

set in. They are said by some travellers to be very good eating, but by others to be only good
for soup.

The Grey Parrot in his native haunts is an unsociable bird, and a curious story is told by
Dr. Dohrn, and confirmed by Mr. Keulemans, respecting the species in Prince's Island. As has
already been stated, the Parrots are extremely common there, but not a single Kite is met with on the
island. On the neighbouring island of St. Thomas there is an abundance of Black Kites but not a
single Parrot, between
whom and the Kites a
constant warfare is
waged, so that, should
one of the latter get
driven over to Prince's
Island he is almost im-
mediately set upon by
the Parrots and slaugh-
tered ; and the com-
pliment is returned if
a Parrot is so unfor-
tunate as to land un-
invited on St. Thomas's.
On the coast the chief
enemy of the Parrots is
the Yulturine Sea-Eagb
(Gypohierax angolensis).

The colouring ot
the Grey Parrot is
simple, being of a clear
bluish-grey, with a red
tail. About the face
the skin is white, and
covered with a soft,
velvety feathering,
amongst which there is
a plentiful supply of
white powder, as any
one knows who scratches
the head of "Polly."
This powder is present in
most of the family, but
not to the same degree
as in the grey species.

The young bird in the nest is stated to have the tail dark-grey instead of red, and it is more of a
brownish-grey colour, not so clear as in the old bird, while the iris is grey instead of yellow.

The COXURES (Conurince) are the third sub-family of Parrots, and are represented largely in
America, only one genus, Palcvornis, being found in India and Africa. They have the head devoid
of a crest, with a very long graduated tail, and short and weak tarsi. Amongst the best -known
species of this sub-family may be mentioned the Great Macaw.

THE ROSE-KINGED PARRAKEET (Pateornis torquatus).

This Parrot is probably the species of which we have the earliest known record, as Onesicritus,
who was admiral of the fleet of Alexander the Great, is said to have brought from Ceylon a specimen
of a green Parrot with a red neck. Many authors have supposed that the large Alexandrine Parrakeet
(Palceornis eupatrius, or Alexandri) was the species referred to, but the habitat of this bird is now

GREY PARROT.

314

NATURAL HISTORY.

known to be the island of Java, and the Rose-ringed Parrakeet is more probably the bird intended.
Professor Sundevall, the great authority on Aristotle, believes that the present bird was the only
Parrot known to the ancients, being brought into Europe probably from Nubia. Other species were
not seen in Europe before the end of the Middle Ages, and the West African species, such as the
Senegal Parrot (P. senegalus), in 1455, and the Grey Parrot even later; the latter not being described
before Aldrovaridus, about the year 1600. American species were brought already in 1493 by
Christopher Columbus, and many Indian species after the circumnavigation of Africa about the
year 1500. The present bird is common in India and Ceylon, and is, moreover, one of the few

species of birds which are
common to the Indian
Peninsula and the con-
tinent of Africa, as it is
a well-known bird in
Nubia and Abyssinia,
and on one occasion a
flock has been seen in the
neighbourhood of Port
Elizabeth in the extreme
south of the continent.
According to Dr. Jerdon,
it is one of the most
common and familiar
birds in India, frequent-
ing cultivated ground and
gardens, even in the
barest and least wooded
parts of the country, and
it is habitually found
about towns and villages,
constantly perching 011
the house-top. It is very
destructive to most kinds
of grain, as well as to
fruit-gardens. Burgess
says that they carry off
the ears of corn to trees
to devour at leisure, and
Jerdon has observed the
same sometimes. When
the grains are cut and
housed it feeds on the

HOSE-RINGED PAKBAKEET.

ground in the stubble

cornfields, also in meadows, picking up what seeds it can ; and now and then takes long nights,
hunting for any tree that may be in fruit, skimming close and examining every tree ; and when it has
made a discovery of one in fruit, circling round, and sailing with outspread and down-pointing wings
till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size, sometimes in vast numbers, and
generally many hundreds roost together in some garden or grove. At Saugor all the Parrakeets,
Mynahs, Crows, Bee-eaters, &c., of the neighbourhood, for some miles around, roost in company in a
large grove of bamboos ; and the deafening noise heard there from before sunset till dark, and from
the first dawn of day till long after sunrise, gives to the listener the idea of numberless noisy steam
machines at work. Many of the flocks of Parrots are very late in returning, and fly along quite low,
skimming the ground, and just rising over a tree, house, or any obstacle in the way, and, for several
nights in succession, several Parrakeets flew against the wall of a house, on the top of a hill in

THE PAREAKEETS. 315

Saugor, and were killed. The Rose-ringed Parrakeet breeds both in holes in trees, and very com-
monly in the south of India about houses, in holes in old buildings, pagodas, tombs, &c. It lays
four white eggs. Its breeding season is from January to March. Adams states that he has seen
this Parrakeet pillage the nests of the Sand Martin ; but with what intent he does not guess at
Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated strokes of the wings, somewhat wavy laterally, or
arrowy. It has a harsh cry, which it always repeats when in flight, as well as at other times.
Mr. Philipps remarks that the Kite will sometimes swoop down on them when perched on a
tree, and carry one off in its talons ; also that Owls attack these birds by night.*

The length of this species is about sixteen inches and a half. It is green with a black band
extending from under the chin backwards nearly to the nape, and having a rose-coloured collar
round the hind neck. The bill is cherry-red, the feet greyish, and the iris pale yellow. The
female does not possess the rose-coloured collar, but has instead a narrower one of emerald
green.

THE CAROLINA CONURE (Conurus carolinemis).

The Conures are inhabitants of the New World, and are very abundant in South America, but
one species, the Carolina Conure, penetrating into the Nearctic region above the line of North Mexico.
It is a very handsome bird, but is rapidly decreasing in numbers, and becoming restricted in its
range, so much so, that in places where it was once plentiful it is now no longer to be found at all.
Even in 1842, when Audubon wrote, they were then fast diminishing, and are now confined to the
Southern and South-western States, as far west as the Missouri river. The food of the Carolina
Conure is stated to consist chiefly of the seeds of the Cockle-burr (Xanthirum strumarium), but it is
also very partial to fruit of all kinds, and it is owing to the way in which it has been shot down that
it is now so rare, for Mr. Audubon describes the immense damage done by a flock of Conures to stacks
of grain, which they covered in such numbers that they presented to the eye the same effect as if a
brilliant-coloured carpet had been thrown over them. The farmers resented the attacks on their pro-
perty to such an extent that the same naturalist states that he has seen hundreds killed in the course of
a few hours, the survivors, after each shot, flying round for a few minutes, and then settling again in
a place of most imminent danger. Even in confinement the birds seem to develop their destructive
propensities, destroying wood, books, and, in short, everything that comes in their way, while from
their incapability of talk, and their harsh, disagreeable voices, they are not much esteemed as pets.
As Audubon observes, the woods are the habitation best fitted for them, and there the richness of
their plumage, their beautiful mode of flight, and even their screams, afford welcome intimation that
the darkest forests and most sequestered swamps are not destitute of charms. According to the same
observer, they deposit their eggs, without making a nest, in the bottoms of such cavities in trees as
those to which they usually retire at night. Many females deposit their eggs together, and he
believed that the number laid by each hen bird was two ; the eggs were greenish- white, and nearly
round, and the young are at first covered with soft down, such as is seen in nestling Owls. The colour of
this Parrot is green, the head and neck bright-yellow, and the forehead and region of the eye scarlet ;
the bill is white, the feet pale flesh-colour, and the iris hazel ; the length of the bird being about
fourteen inches. The female is like the male, but the young bird has the head green instead of
yellow.

THE PARRAKEETS (Platycercina).

These form the fourth sub-family, and are remarkable for their slender, smooth tarsus, which is
formed as in most birds ; and the voice is more agreeable than in the other genera, the membei-s of
which, almost without exception, have a harsh and unpleasant cry. They are mostly inhabitants of
Australia, whence come several of them well known as cage-birds, such as the King Parrakeet

,._ O

(rlatycercus scapulatus), the Rosella, or Rose Parrakeet (P. eximius), and in America they are repre-
sented by the single genus Bolborhynchus.

* Jerdon, " Birds of India," I., p 258.

316

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE OWL PARROT (Strigops* habroptilus^).

The genus Strigops is the sole representative of the fifth sub-family, the Strigopince. It is one of
the most remarkable of all the Parrots, and is met with only in New Zealand. The face shows a disc
exactly as in the Owls, whence the name, and the wing is very short, convex, and rounded. In its
habits this bird is chiefly nocturnal, but not entirely so ; the most remarkable fact connected with it
being, perhaps, its unwillingness to fly. Thus Dr. Buller, F.R.S., in his excellent work on the " Birds of
New Zealand," writes : — " All who have studied the bird in its natural state agree on this point, that
the wings, although sufficiently large and strong, are perfectly useless for purposes of flight, and that
the bird merely spreads them to break the force of its fall in descending from a higher point to a lower,
when suddenly surprised ; in some instances even this use of them is neglected, the bird falling
to the ground like a stone. We are naturally led to ask how it is that a bird possessing .
lai'ge and well-formed wings should be found utterly incapable of flight. On removing the skin
from the body it is seen that the muscles by means of which the movements of these
anterior limbs are regulated are very well developed, but are largely overlaid with fat. The
bird is known to be a ground-feeder, with a voracious appetite, and to subsist chiefly on vegetable
mosses, which, possessing but little nutriment, require to be eaten in large quantities ; and Dr. Haast
informs us that he has sometimes seen them with their crops so distended and heavy, that the birds
were scarcely able to move. These mosses cover the ground and the roots or trunks of prostrate trees,
requiring to be sought for on foot ; and the bird's habit of feeding at night, in a country where there
are no indigenous predatory quadrupeds, would render flight a superfluous exertion, and a faculty of
no especial advantage in the struggle for existence. Thus it may be reasonably inferred that disuse,
under the usual operations of the laws of nature, has occasioned this disability of wing ; for there is
no physiological reason why the Kakapo should not be as good a flier as any other Parrot."

The Kakapo, as it is called in New Zealand, meaning a " Night Parrot," is becoming rarer every
year, as the places which it affects become more and more accessible to the colonists. From the long
accounts of its habits given in Dr. Buller's work, the following note of Dr. Haast is selected, as it

f, an Owl ; to\!/, a face, i.e., Laving the appearance of an Ow.l.

a/3po?, soft ;

feather.

THE OWL PARROT.

317

gives a good idea of the habits of this singular species : — " So little is known of this solitary inhabitant
of our primaeval forests, that the following short narrative of observations, which I was fortunate
enough to make during my recent West Coast journey, may interest you. Although I was travelling
almost continuously for several years in the interior of these islands, it was only during my last
journey that I was enabled to study its natural history. I was well acquainted with its call, and had
often observed its tracks in the sands of the river-beds and in the fresh-fallen snow, but I had not
actually seen it. The principal reason for this was, that formerly I had no dog with me ; and
consequently it would only be by the greatest accident that this bird, not at all rare in those
untrodden regions, could be obtained. The true habitat of the Kakapo is the mossy Fagus forest,
near mountain streams, with occasional grassy plots ; but it also lives both on the hill-sides, amongst
enormous blocks of rock, mostly overgrown with roots of trees and a deep covering of moss, and on
wooded flats along th-3 banks of the larger rivers, liable to be inundated by heavy rainfalls or by the

sudden melting of the snow It is a striking fact, that — with the exception only of

the valley of the river Makarora, forming Lake Wanaka — I never found the Kakapo on the eastern
side of the Alps, although extensive
Fagiis forests exist there also. It
appears to have crossed the main
chain at the low wooded pass which
leads from the soui-ce of the Haast
to that of the Makarora, and reached
the mouth of this river at Lake
Wanaka, where probably the absence
of forest put a stop to its farther
advance. It is very abundant in
the valley of the last-mentioned
-river, and is found even in the
Makarora bush, notwithstanding
that numerous sawyers are at work
there. When camped on the borders
of that forest we continually heard its
call near our tents ; but none of the
sawyers had any idea of the existence
of such a large bird in their neigh-
bourhood, although the irregular
shrill call had sometimes attracted their attention. It also occiirs in the valley of the Wilkin, but is less
numerous there, which may be accounted for by the existence of wild dogs in this locality. We may
therefore safely assume that from the junction of this river with the Makarora the Kakapo ascended
toward the sources of the former. In the valley of the Hunter, only divided by a mountain-range of
great altitude but with some low saddles, no sign of it was to be observed, although large Fagus
forests would appear to offer a propitious abode. This bird has hitherto been pronounced to be of
true nocturnal habits ; but I think, from observations I was able to make, that this opinion ought to
be somewhat modified. It is true that generally an hour after sunset, the dense foliage of the forest
giving additional darkness to the country, its call began to be heard all around us. It then
commenced to rove about, and, attracted by the glare of our camp-fire, frequently came close to our
tent, when the heedless bird was immediately caught by our dog. But as we met with it on two
occasions in the daytime, occupied in feeding, and as I observed that it knew and understood perfectly
well the danger which approached, we may assume that it has, at least in this respect, some relation
to diurnal birds. In order to show why I come to this conclusion, I will particularise the two
occurrences I have mentioned, as they appear to bear directly upon some other important points in
the structure of this bird. When returning from the West Coast, we observed in the afternoon (the
sky being clouded) a Kakapo sitting on the prostrate trunk of a ti'ee in the open forest. When about
ten yards from it, the bird observed us, and disappeared instantly in its hole, whence, with the aid of
the dog, we afterwards took it. It is clear that in this case the bird was not overtaken by the
135

OAVL PAR110T. (After Keulemans)

318 NATURAL HISTORY.

coming day when far from its abode, but that it left its retreat voluntarily during daylight. The
second instance I shall mention is more striking, and shows that the Kakapo feeds also during the
day. It was towards evening, but still broad daylight, when we passed along the hill-side near a deep
rocky gorge, and saw a large Kakapo sitting on a low fuchsia-tree, about ten feet from the ground,
feeding on the berries. When close to it, the bird saw us, and instantly dropped down as if shot, and
disappeared amongst the huge fragments of rocks strewed along the hill-side. But the most
remarkable circumstance was, that the frightened bird did not open its wings to break its fall,
but dropped as if it did not possess any wings at all. In order to see whether they would fly, or even
flutter, when pursued by an enemy, I placed on the ground a full-grown specimen, which had been
caught by the dog without being hurt. It was on a large shingle-bed, so that the bird had ample
room for running or rising on the wing, if for this purpose it wanted space. I was not a little
astonished to observe that it only started running towards the nearest point of the forest, where a
dark shadow was apparent, and it went quicker than I had anticipated, considering the position of its
toes and its clumsy figure, its gait resembling closely that of a Gallinaceous bird in its movements. As
I was standing sideways to it, I thought that it kept its wings closed upon its body, so little were they
opened ; but my companion, who was equally anxious to see how our prisoner would try to escape,
and who stood a little behind it, observed that it opened its wings slightly, but without flapping them
in any degree, using them apparently more for keeping its balance than for accelerating its move-
ments. This would almost lead to the conclusion that the Kakapo does not travel far, especially as I
have already shown that its whole structure is ill adapted for running. But having myself frequently
followed its tracks, and found them to extend a great distance over the sandy reaches along the river,
such a conclusion as that suggested above would be erroneous. It must be exceedingly fond of water,
because in many localities its tracks were observed for half a mile over shingle and sand to the banks
of the river : and I am unable to explain the curious fact, iinless the object be to mix river water
with the enormous mass of pulpy vegetable matter which is to be found in its crop. With the
exception of two specimens, the crops of which were filled with the large berries of a small-leaved
Coriaria, by which their flesh was flavoured, all the birds examined by me had their crops widely
distended by a mass of finely-comminuted vegetable mosses, weighing many ounces.

" I carefully examined the subterranean abode of this bird. From the account given by the natives,
I thought that it would be found living in well-excavated holes, resembling in their construction those
of the Fox or Badger ; that the entrance would be so small as to enable only the inhabitants to enter,
and thus to exclude larger animals from persecuting it. This, however, is not the case ; because, with
one exception, all the specimens obtained were either in fissures amongst rocks, or in. cavities formed
by huge blocks tumbled one over another, and overgrown with moss, or in holes formed by the roots
of decayed trees. The cavities in the rocks were generally sufficiently large to allow of my dog, a good-
sized Retriever, freely entering them. The openings to the other holes were smaller, and it was some-
times necessary to cut away a few roots at the entrance. Inside, the cavity was invariably of very large
size, because we could plainly hear the dog advancing several yards before commencing his scuffle with
the occupant ; and on returning with the bird in his mouth, he always emerged head foremost, thus
proving that the chamber was large enough to enable him to turn himself round. Before he had
become accustomed to the work, the dog was often punished severely by the bird's powerful beak and
claws ; but he ultimately became quite an expert, always seizing his prey by the head and crushing
the skull.

" The holes or abodes of the Kakapo were not only on the mountain sides, but also on the flats
near the river banks which are liable to be overflowed. There can be no doubt that when a sudden
inundation takes place the bird can save itself upon a bush or neighbouring tree. I do not think,
however, that it can climb the boles of standing trees, because it never resorted to them during the
night or when persecuted by the dog — except in one single case, when the bird ascended a leaning
tree close to our camp, and remained till the dog had given lip the attempt to obtain it. But, not-
withstanding that almost all the abodes that came under examination were natural cavities, I met with
one hole that seemed to have been regularly mined. On the northern bank of the river Haast, just
below the junction of the river Clarke, a large flat occurs, formed by deposits of sand, over which a
thin layer of vegetable mould is spread, and on which a luxuriant vegetation has ^prung up. The

THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PAREOTS.

319

river, in washing against these deposits, has in some cases formed nearly perpendicular banks, about
six to eight feet high. At one spot, about two feet below the surface, several rounded holes were
observed, and the dog tried in vain to enter them. After carefully scenting the ground, he began to
scratch the surface with his paws, and soon succeeded in widening the entrance sufficiently to admit
his body, and he immediately afterwards emerged with the bird in his mouth. There is no doubt in
my own mind that this hole at least had been excavated ; and the burrowing faculty of the bird may
be considered so far established. On a flat in the valley of the Makarora, the dog brought one from
the interior of a hollow drift-tree, which was lying amongst sedges and grasses in an old river channel.
There never was more than one individual in the hole, although very often, within twenty or thirty
yards of it, another specimen would be scented out by the dog, the two being generally of opposite
sexes. At night-time, in visiting our camp fire, they generally came in pairs, the two being succes-
sively caught by my dog, a single or sometimes a repeated angry growl from the bird informing us
that he had hold of it. These circumstances lead me to conclude that din-ing the day each inhabits
separately its own hole, and that only after dark do they meet for feeding and for social intercourse."

In size, the Owl Parrot is about twenty-six inches in length, and is of a dark sap-green colour,
varied and mottled with dark brown and yellow ; the face is lighter, being darker brown, the ear-
coverts mixed with yellow ; the belly and under tail-coverts, as well as the wing-lining, are rather
brighter yellow than the rest of the under surface. The tint of green varies a good deal : from light
yellowish to dark sap-green.

THE STRAIGHT-BILLED PARROTS (Psittaci orthognathi).*

In this second section of the Parrots only one family is known, all the members of which are
easily recognisable by their straightened bills, the lower mandible being gently compressed, and not

bulged out, with a nearly straight tip, the cutting edges with scarcely any indentation. With the
exception of the Lorikeets (Loriculus), membei-s of which are found in India and the Indo-Malayan
region, the whole family is Australian, being confined to that continent and the adjacent Molucca
Islands, New Zealand, and the islands of Polynesia.

* optfo',, straight ; yraOo?, jaw.

320 NATURAL HISTORY.

THE BRUSH-TONGUED PARROTS.*

The Brush-tongued Lorikeets are all birds of very beautiful colouring, and are mostly found
in Australia, the Moluccas, some few species extending through the Oceanic Islands. All seem
to be very similar in their habits, an account of which is given by Mr. Gould. He says: — "This
arboreal group of honey-eating Lorikeets, if not so numerous in species as the seed-feeding Parrakeets,
is individually as abundant, and more universally dispersed, being found in every part of Australia
yet visited. In their structure, habits, food, and mode of nidification, no two groups of the same
family can be more widely different than these forms : the pencilled tongue, the diminutive stomach,
thick skin, tough flesh, and foetid odour of the Trichoglossi presenting a decided contrast to the simple
tongue, capacious crop and stomach, thin skin, delicate flesh, and freedom from odour of the Platycerci;
besides which, the Trichoglossi possess a strong os furcatorium, which bone is wanting in the Platycerci.
Hence, while the Trichoglossi are powerful, swift, and arrow-like in their flight, the Platycerci are
feeble, pass through the air in a succession of undulations near the ground, and never fly to any great
distance. The mode in which the two groups approach, alight upon, and quit the trees is also remark-
ably different — the Trichoglossi dashing among and alighting upon the branches simultaneously and
with the utmost rapidity, and quitting them in like manner, leaving the deafening sound of their
thousand voices echoing through the woods ; while the Platycerci rise to the branch after their
undulating flight, and leave them again in a quiet manner, no sound being heard but their inward
piping note. The eggs of the Trichoglossi arc from two to four in number ; those of the others are
more numerous."

THE NESTORS (Nestor).

These Parrots, which are only found in New Zealand, are generally placed with the other Brush-
tongued Parrots. " In all Parrots the fleshy tongue ends anteiiorly in a dilated portion, supported by a
nai-rower neck. This tip is much like the end of a human finger, as mentioned by most observers ; and
its function is similar also, for it is employed by the bird as a third prehensile organ in connection with
the upper and lower beak, any solid substance being held by the tongue and upper beak, while the
mandible is freed to give another bite. Continuing the simile of the finger, the tip is
directed forwai'ds with the nail-like portion downwards, the part corresponding to the
free edge of the nail appearing along the lower margin of the anterior rounded surf ace. t
In the Trichoglossi, this ' nail,' or horny plate, is stated to be present ; but on the
superior surface of the tongue, between the lateral edges of the unguis, or nail, there is
an arrangement of retroverted papillae, forming a spinous covering, and their mechanism
is such that when the tongue is protruded beyond the mouth to grasp any object, the
papillae stand upright, or are even directed somewhat forward. In Nestor," continues
Professor Garrod, " there are no papillae of this description ; but the tongue is here, as
Dr. Buller says, ' soft, rounded on the edges, with a broad central groove,' and it is as
smooth as in other Parrots. Therefore, the Kaka Parrot cannot in this point be said to
TONGUE OF approach the Trichoglossini (badly so called). The peculiarity of the tongue of Nestor
NESTOR, consists in the fact that the interior edge of the unguis, or nail, always free (though for
a very short distance) and jagged in the other birds of the class, is here prolonged
forwards beyond the tips of the tongue for about one-tenth of an inch, as a delicate fringe of hairs
with a crescentic contour. In the living bird the mouth is moist, as in the Lories, and not, as in the
Cockatoos and others, dry and scaly."

The members of the genus Nestor are entirely confined to New Zealand, the species of Philip
Island (Nestor productus) being now extinct. Their habits, like those of all New Zealand birds,
are sufficiently curious, one of them, known as the " Kea " (JV. notabilis), actually feeding on raw flesh,
as is noticed by Dr. Buller :— " Those that frequent the sheep stations appear to live almost exclusively
on flesh. They claim the sheep's heads that are thrown out from the slaughter-shed, and pick them
perfectly clean, leaving nothing but the bones." An eye-witness described this operation to Dr.
Hector as follows : — " Perching itself on the sheep's head or other offal, the bird proceeds to tear off"

* Trichoglossi. t Professor Garrod in Proceedings of the Zoological Society for 1872, p. 787.

THE KARA PARROT.

321

the skin and flesh, devouring it piecemeal, after the manner of a Hawk; or at other times holding
the object down with one foot, and with the other grasping the portion it was eating, after the ordinary
fashion of Parrots." Dr. Buller also mentions instances of tame Parrots devouring their comrades in.
captivity; but the Kea is the only Parrot known to eat flesh when flying wild.

THE KAKA PAEROT (Neuter mcridionalis}.

This Parrot is best described by the above-named ornithologist in the work on the Birds of New
Zealand, to which frequent reference has been made in these pages : — " Sprightly in its actions,
eminently social, and more
noisy than any other in-
habitant of the woods, the
Kaka holds a prominent
place among our native
birds. Being semi-noc-
turnal in its habits, it
generally remains quiet
and concealed during the
heat of the day. If, how-
ever, the sportsman should
happen to find a stray one,
and to wound instead of
killing it, its cries of dis-
tress will immediately
rouse the whole fraternity
from their slumbers, and
all the Kakas within
hearing will come to the
rescue, and make the
forest echo with their dis-
cordant screams. Unless,
however, disturbed by
some exciting cause of
this sort, they remain in
close cover till the ap-
proach of the cooler hours.
Then they come forth with
noisy clamour, and may be
seen, far above the ti*ee-
tops, winging their way
to some favourite feeding-
place; or they may be
observed climbing up the KAKA PAWM)T..

rough vine-clad boles of

the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles, and assuming every variety of attitude, or diligently
tearing open the dead roots of the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and
their larvae. In the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild blossom and berry, these
birds have a prodigality of food, and may be seen alternately filling their crops with a variety of juicy
berries, or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata (Melrosideros robusta] by means of their
brash-fringed tongues. "With the earliest streaks of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped
in darkness, the wild cry of this bird breaks upon the ear with a strange effect. It is the sound that
wakes the weary traveller encamped in the bush ; and the announcement of his ever active Maori
attendant — ' Kua tangi te Kaka' — is an intimation that it is time to be active. But although
habitually recluse during the day, it is not always so.

322 NATURAL HISTORY.

" During gloomy weather it is often very active ; and sometimes even in the bright sunshine a
score of them may be seen together, flying and circling about high above the tree-tops, uttering their
loud screams, and apparently bent on convivial amusement. When the shades of evening bring a
deeper gloom into the depths of the forest, and all sounds are hushed, save the low hoot of the waking
Morepork, or the occasional cheep-cheep of the startled Robin, the Kaka becomes more animated. It
may then be heard calling to its fellows in a harsh rasping note, something like the syllables ' t-chrut,
t-chrut,' or indulging in a clear musical whistle with a short refrain. It is strictly arboreal in its habits,
and subsists to a large extent on insects and their larvse, so that it is probably one of our most useful
species. Where they exist in large numbers they must act very beneficially on the timber forests ; for
in the domain of Nature important results are often produced by apparently trivial agencies. Like all
the honey-eaters, while supplying their own wants, they do good service with their brush tongues by
fertilising the blossoms of various trees, and thus assisting in their propagation ; while, on the other
hand, the diligent search they prosecute, for insects and grubs, and the countless numbers daily
consumed by each individual, must materially affect the economy of the native woods. On this
latter point Mr. Potts has furnished the following valuable note : — ' Although so often accused of
injuring trees by stripping down the bark, from careful observation we do not believe a flourishing
tree is ever damaged by its beak. It is the apparently vigorous, but really unsound, tree that is
attacked, already doomed by the presence of countless multitudes of insects of many varieties, of
which it is at once the food and refuge, either in their perfect or larval state. In the persevering
and laborious pursuit of this favourite food, the Kaka doubtless lends his assistance in hastening
the fall of decaying trees ; the loosened strips of bark dissevered admit to the exposed wood rain
and moisture collected from dews and mists, to be dried by evaporation by the heat of the sun,
by the desiccating winds, only to become saturated again. Under this alternation the insidious
fungi take root, decay rapidly sets in, the close-grained timber gives place to a soft spongy texture,
branches drop off', and gradually the once noble-looking tree succumbs to its fate ; but its gradual
decay and fall, the work of years, has proved beneficial to the surrounding plants : the dropping
of the branches admits light and air to the aspiring saplings, assists in checking the undue spread
of lichens and epiphytes ; and when the old stem falls, tottering down from its very rottenness,
its place is supplied by vigorous successors.'

" In estimating the value of the labours of the Kaka as an insect-eater, it should not be for-
gotten that the family of Woodpeckers is entirely absent from our bird -fauna, and that upon this
indefatigable climber devolves some share of the duty of representing that peculiar group of
forest birds. How diligently the insects are sought for by the Kaka may be judged from the
heaps of bark chips that lie beneath the decaying trees. Often it may be noticed on the ground
tearing away the mossy clothing of the huge gnarled roots that spread around ; even the soft
rotten boughs are gnawed to obtain the larvse of some of the larger bush insects."

The Nestors vary immensely in colour, so that many of the plumages now known to be only
occasional varieties have been supposed to be specifically distinct. They are birds of large size, and
have the cere, or fleshy portion at the base of the bill, rather strongly developed, the bill being large
and powerful. The colour is of an olivaceous brown, with a dash of dark red, the crown grey, and the
ear-coverts shaded with orange, the cheeks with dark red, as also are the lower back, rump, and
upper tail-coverts and abdomen.

The structure of the bill of the Parrots is so remarkable as to be worthy of a more extended
description than could be given to it when it was incidentally referred to in our account of the
osteology of birds in general. The way, however, in which the upper and lower jaws are con-
nected with the skull was there explained, and a reference to the description on pp. 241-2 will
save the necessity of much repetition now. That account embraced all members of the class of
birds ; here we are dealing only with certain peculiar modifications.

If the skull of an adult bird of any familiar type, such as a Crow, be examined, it will be seen
that the bones of the upper jaw are apparently continuous, and form one piece, with those of
the forehead and sides of the head. There is nothing that looks like a joint, or " articulation,"
between the bill where it is attached to the forehead above, or to the long jxigal arch ( " quadrato-
jugal ") that runs each side to reach the quadrate bone, or to the flattened bones that help to

THE CUCKOOS. 323

form the palate below. But if the skull of this same bird had been carefully examined in an earlier
stage of its existence, it would have been found that the bones were at first distinctly separate at
the three points here indicated, and were merely connected by a soft membranous substance. In many
birds this "inter-osseous" membrane connecting the bones of the upper mandible with the skull
proper never becomes true bone at all, but remains throughout life more or less soft and flexible.
And by this means a sort of elastic joint is established, conferring upon the beak a certain range
of up and down motion.

Now in Parrots, more conspicuously than in any other birds, each of these joints, not alone that
of the beak with the forehead, is converted into a true hinge-like articulation, so that the upper
jaw can be raised to a very considerable extent; and to effect
this motion the muscles of the palate are developed into a some-
what complex apparatus.

If the figure be examined, the actual relations of the bones
can be readily made out. At a is seen the line where the bill
is articulated to the frontal bones. At b is the joint which the
bill makes with the long jugal bone (j). And at c is its articula-
tion with the palatine bone (pi).

But it is not this mobility of the upper mandible alone that
gives the characteristic aspect to the Parrot's face. There are
several other points in which Parrots agree, with a wonderful
uniformity, among themselves, and differ from most other birds. Besides the absence of certain impor-
tant processes, called " basi-pterygoid," the ploughshare-like bone, or "vomer," is altogether wanting.
The maxillo-palatines are veiy largely developed and spongy ; they unite with one another in the
middle line, and with the thick wall of bone into which the septum iiasi is in Parrots strongly
ossified, and thus fill up almost the whole base of the beak. The long palatine bones proper are
remarkably flattened from side to side for most of their length ; their hinder edges are more or
less notched, and quite free from any bony attachment ; and they are iinited at about the hinder
third of their length by a plate-like extension from each. The scoop-like lower mandible, with
its tip that seems to have been cut off " square," to be out of the way of the strongly-hooked upper
jaw, is too familiar to call for any particular description.

THE SECOND ORDER.— PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER I.— ZYGODACTYL^E.

CHAPTER VIII.

CUCKOOS — HONEY GUIDES — PLAINTAIN-EATERS — WOODPECKERS — TOUCANS — BARBETS.

THE CUCKOOS— THE BUSH CUCKOOS— THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR COUCALS— THE COMMON CUCKOO— Its Cha-
racteristics—Mrs. Blackburn's Account of a Young Cuckoo Ejecting a Tenant— Breeding Habits— The Eggs— The
Call-notes of Male and Female -Food —Its Winter Home— Its Appearance and Plumage— THE HONEY GUIDES—
Kirk's Account of their Habits— Mrs. Barber's Refutation of a Calumny against the Bird— THE PLANTAIN-
EATERS— THE WHITE-CRESTED PLAINTAIN-EATER— THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER— THE COLIES— THE WHITE- BACKED
COLY— THE WOODPECKERS— How they Climb and Descend Trees— Their Bill-Do they Damage Sound Trees?—
THE WRYNECKS— THE YAFFLE— THE RED-HEADED WOODPECKER -- THE SPOTTED WOODPECKER— THE TOUCANS
—Mr. Gould's Account of their Habits— Mr. Waterton's Account — The Enormous Bill — Azara's Description of the
Bird— Mr. Bates' History of a Tame Toucan— THE BARBETS— Messrs. Marshall's Account of the Family— Mr.
Layard on their Habits.

THE SECOND ORDER OF ZYGODACTYLE PICARTAN BIRDS.— THE CUCKOOS
WITHIN the limits of this family are comprised birds of very different habits and of very different
structure, some being inhabitants of the ground and of the thick bush, whilst others are lovers of
the open, and are birds of very strong flight. Without being able to climb up the trunks of trees,

S24 NATURAL HISTORY.

like our Woodpeckers, the Cuckoos possess the zygodactyle foot of the climbing bird in a very perfect
degree. They differ from others of the Scansorial group by the position of the nostrils, which are
placed rather low in the upper mandible, not far from the cutting edge of it. There are three sub-
families of Cuckoos, distinguished by the form of the wing : the first of these has the wings short,
rounded, and with from two to six, or even seven, of the primaries slightly indented in the middle.
They have the feathers of the thigh close-set, and not over-hanging like those of a Hawk, as is the case
with the true Cuckoos.

THE BUSH CUCKOOS (Phcenicophaina}.

These birds have representatives in India, Axistralia, and Africa, and even South America. Some
of them are of very varied and beautiful plumages, and many of them reach the size of a moderate
game-bird. The first genus of these Bush Cuckoos contains

THE LARK-HEELED CUCKOOS, OR COUCALS (Coit,-opus).

These are remarkable for the form of the hind toe, which is furnished with a straight nail or claw,
very strong, always equalling and often surpassing the length of the hind toe itself. These Lark-
heeled Cuckoos do not occur in Europe, but are found all over Africa, India, and Burmah, to China,
and throughout the Malayan Archipelago to Australia. They frequent the thick bush, and have a
very similar call-note, which has been rendered by some observers as resembling the syllables " bop
bop," while on the West Coast of Africa, from their cry " hoot, hoot," they have been nicknamed by
the colonists the " Scotchman." Writing of the Eyebrowed Lark-heel, Mr. Thomas Ayres says : —
'•' This bird frequents the dense bush, and principally lives amongst impenetrable creepers, where
it hunts about in search of the insects which it feeds upon ; if disturbed, it flies but a short distance.
The note is a loud, melancholy, cooing noise; they call most in wet weather. They are fond of
getting up into trees that are covered with creeping plants, and sunning themselves ; they generally
fly on to the lower part, and then gradually hop upwards till they gain the top, but they can fly a
very short distance at a time, and are easily caught if chased out into the open grass, though
they lie very close, and it requires a good dog to find them. If disturbed, they immediately fly to
the thickest cover near at hand, and commence running, like the Rails." Mr. Ayres says that they
feed on Grasshoppers, Caterpillars, and other insects; but Mr. Rickard, another excellent field naturalist,
in South Africa has found a small Snake and Locusts in their stomachs, one having a small bird —
a White- eye (Zosterops) — inside him. The Lark-heeled Cuckoos are not parasitic, like the true Cuckoos
and many others : that is to say, they build their own nests, and do not employ the nests of other birds
to place their eggs in. When hatched, the yoxmg birds are very curious, being covered with long hairs
and bristles. In colour the Lark-heels are for the most part rufous, with black heads, but some of
them are almost entirely rufous, the shafts of all the feathers much stiffened, so that the plumage lies
very close, which must be of advantage to birds Avho have to climb a great deal amongst the lianas
and creepers of tropical forests.

Of the Indian Coucal (Centropus bengalemis) an interesting account is given by Mr. Gammie,
which affords a very good idea of the habits of these Bush Cuckoos. He says.: — " This species has
increased largely of late. Among grassy scrub, up to 3,500 feet, it is now abundant, where, only a few
years ago, it was rarely to be found. In the earlier part of the rainy season its odd, monotonous
notes are to be heard in every direction. I am not sure that the male calls, but have shot the
female — as I found by dissection — when calling. It has a call of .a double series of notes :
' whoot, whoot, whoot, ivhoot ;' then, after a pause of four or five seconds, ' kurook, kurook, kurook,
kurook.' The ' whoot ' is quite ventriloquistic, sounding as if it came from a distance of six or
seven yards from the bird. Before calling, it seats itself about five feet from the ground ; then
you see it draw its neck and body together, slightly puffing out its body-feathers, raising its back,
and depressing its tail, and for every ' whoot ' there is a violent throb of the body, as if the bird
was in great pain ; at the same time the motion of the throat is scarcely perceptible, and its bill
is closed. Then, as if greatly relieved, it stretches itself out, the feathers fall smooth, and with open
mouth and throbbing throat comes the 'kurook,' without the slightest attempt at ventriloquism.
When searching for the caller, one must take no notice of the ' whoot,' but wait for the ' kurook.'

THE COMMON CUCKOO. 325

It feeds almost entirely on Grasshoppers, and frequents the open, scrubby tracts only. I have never
once seen it in larger forests."*

The Malkohas are another remarkable group of the Bush Cuckoos, and are found throughout
India, Ceylon, the Imlo-Malayan region and islands, as far as the Celebes. The genera differ princi-
pally in the shape of the nostril ; and although differences of structure are usually considered
sufficient characters on which to found distinctions of genus, some ornithologists are of opinion
that the variation in the form of the nostril only separates them as species. One of the most
remarkable of these Bush Cuckoos is the Carpococcyx radiatus of Borneo, which, when alive, is
stated by Mr. Wallace to resemble a Pheasant in appearance and gait. It lives much on the ground,
and is often caught by the Malays in the snares which they set for Argus Pheasants and other game-
birds. In Madagascar they are represented by the Couas (Sericosomus), of which there are no less
than ten species found in that island. They are the inhabitants of the Palestriiia forests, where their
monotonous notes are often heard. The cry of the Blue Cuckoo is said by Messrs. Pollen and Van Dam
to resemble the syllables cir-cir-cir, while that of the Crested Coua (S. cristatus) is toc-toc-toc. When
calling, the latter bird raises its crest and flaps its tail and wings. Its flight is difficult and generally
descending, and the bird never flaps its wings when it flies. It is ordinarily seen on the lower
branches of the trees, and loves to repose during the great heat of the day in the sheltered parts of
the trees, resting on the branches and puffing out its feathers.

In America there are several allied forms of Bush Cuckoos, many of which frequent the ground,
one of the most interesting being the Geococcyx californianm, which is called the " Road-runner,"
and is a bird of such powers of running that it is sometimes hunted on horseback and pursued with
hounds, a test of fleetness in which it is said often to make a longer race than its pursuers
anticipated.

THE COMMON CUCKOO (Cucuhis canorus).

The true Cuckoos, of which the English bird is the type, differ from the Bush Cuckoos in
being more Accipitrine, or Hawk-like, in their appearance, and having long thigh-feathers, like the
majority of the birds of prey. The nostril is swollen and rounded. It would be easy to write a
complete book on this mysterious bird, whose habits and cry have rendered it an object of interest
in all countries and from very early times. The popular superstition concerning the nestling —
that the young Cuckoo, when sufficiently grown, and having no further use for the little foster-
parent to whose care it owed its life and well-being, used to devour the latter — has often been
held up as an " awful example " to ungrateful children who become a burden and a shame to their
parents when they are unable to provide for them any longer. The idea of the young Cuckoo
devouring its protector is no doubt erroneous, and, as Brehm puts it, has arisen from the oft-
recurring spectacle of a little Wren or a diminutive Gold-crest placing food in the wide-gaping
mouth of the young Cuckoo, which, indeed, without much stretch of the imagination, might swallow
it. In Mr. Gould's " Birds of Great Britain " there is a picture showing the denouement of the
young Cuckoo's story, when, still callow and blind, it is represented as disposing of some unfortunate
little Tree Pipits which were hatched along with it in the same nest. This incident was
sketched by Mrs. Hugh Blackburn, who thus describes the occurrence : — " The nest (which we
watched last June, after finding the Cuckoo's egg in it) was that of the common Meadow Pipit
(Titlark, Mosscheeper), and had two Pipit's eggs besides that of the Cuckoo. It was below a
heather bush on the declivity of a low abrupt bank or highland hill-side, in Moidart. At one
visit the Pipits were found to be hatched, but not the Cuckoo. At the next visit, which was after
an interval of forty-eight hours, we found the young Cuckoo alone in the nest, and both the
young Pipits lying down the bank, about ten inches from the margin of the nest, but quite
lively after being warmed in the hand. They were replaced in the nest beside the Cuckoo,
which struggled about till it got its back under one of them, when it climbed backwards directly
up the open side of the nest, and hitched the Pipit from its back on to the edge. It then stood
quite upright on its legs, which were straddled wide apart, with the claws firmly fixed half-way
down the inside of the nest among the interlacing fibres of which the nest was woven, and

* "Stray Feathers," 1877, p. 385.
136

326

NATURAL HISTORY.

stretching its wings apart and backwards, it elbowed the Pipit fairly over the margin so far that its
struggles took it down the bank instead of back into the nest. After this the Cuckoo stood a minute
or two, feeling back with its wings, as if to make sure that the Pipit was fairly overboard, and
then subsided into the bottom of the nest. As it was getting late, and the Cuckoo did not imme-
diately set to work on the other nestling, I replaced the ejected one and went home. On returning
next day, both nestlings were found dead and cold out of the nest. I replaced one of them, but
the Cuckoo made no effort to get under it and eject it, but seated itself contentedly on the top of it.
All this I find accords accurately with Jenner's description of what he saw. But what struck me
most was this : the Cuckoo was perfectly naked, without the vestige of a feather, or even a
hint of fxiture feathers ; its eyes were not yet opened, and its neck seemed too weak to support

COMMON CUCKOO.

the weight of its head. The Pipits had well-developed quills on the wings and back, and had bright
eyes, partially open ; yet they seemed quite helpless under the manipulations of the Cuckoo, which
looked a much less developed creature. The Cuckoo's legs, however, seemed very muscular, and it
appeared to feel about with its wings, which were absolutely featherless, as with hands ; the spurious
wing (unusually large in proportion) looked like a spread-out thumb. The most singular thing of all
was the direct purpose with which the blind little monster made for the open side of the nest, the only
part where it could throw its burden down the bank. I think all the spectators felt the sort of horror
and awe at the apparent inadequacy of the creature's intelligence to its acts that one might have felt
at seeing a toothless hag raise a ghost by an incantation. It was horribly 'uncanny' and
' gruesome ! ' '

The above account of Mrs. Blackburn's graphically describes the ejection of its foster-brothers
and sisters by the nestling Cuckoo ; and this brings us to the next part of the subject, viz., the breeding
habits of this curious bird. As is well known of the hen bird, it never makes its own nest, but it is
believed that during its stay in Europe it lays altogether about eight eggs, all of which are deposited

THE COMMON CUCKOO. 327

in the nest of some other bird. The variation in the colour of the Cuckoo's eggs is very great,
from a white speckled egg, like that of the Water Wagtail, or the dark brown mottled egg of a
Lark or Pipit, to the blue egg of the Hedge Sparrow ; while Mr. Dresser states that he has seen
even green eggs, and is of opinion that the same female will lay similarly coloured eggs. The re-
searches of ornithologists during recent years sufficiently prove that the female Cuckoo lays her egg
upon the ground, and then deposits it in the nest of a bird whose egg resembles the one she has just
laid ; hence it is probable that a hen Cuckoo killed with a broken egg in its mouth is the rightful
owner of the latter, and has not been sucking the eggs of some other bird, as the species is often
supposed to do. The writer has on many occasions found Cuckoos' eggs in the nest of the Water
Wagtail in Berkshire, the latter bird being frequently selected by the Cuckoo as her victim ; and he
can affirm that the eggs were in all cases similar to those of the Wagtail, but were a little larger in
size. In due time the young Cuckoo is hatched, the rightful owners of the nest ejected, and for weeks
the powers of the unhappy foster-parents are exercised to the utmost in feeding the gaping and
constantly-complaining occupant of their domain. Even when the young Cuckoo has outgrown the
nest, and is strong enough to fly about, he is still attended by his foster-parents. So great is the
instinct of the young Cuckoo to receive food from other birds, that a specimen in the Zoological
Gardens which managed to live through the winter and put on his full plumage in the following
spring, on the appearance of a Hedge Sparrow in the same aviary, fluttered down, and with drooping
wings and open bill solicited food from his small companion.

The reason for the parasitic habits of the Cuckoo is hard to discover, but it appears probable that
the number of males greatly exceeds that of the females, and one observer has calculated that the
preponderance of the former sex over the latter is as much as twenty-five to one. This would seem to
he too large an estimate, but the proportion is probably about five males to one female. The latter
may not only be distinguished by its somewhat darker plumage, and a certain red colour on the chest
(which is more apparent when the bird is alive), but has a somewhat different note from that of her
mate, and calls cuckoo in a much sharper and less emphasised way than the male bird. Thus, if
the call of the female be represented by the syllables ctick-oo, the responsive utterance of the male
would be coo-coo. The female has also another call-note, which may be described as " whittling," and
is well expressed by Brehm as kwikwikwik, the sound of which is quite sufficient to set all the male
Cuckoos within hearing cuckoo-ing with might and main. Thus it happened to the writer, on a still,
quiet evening in spring a few yeai's ago, to be fishing beneath a large elm-tree on the river Thames,
when a female Cuckoo flew into the topmost boughs and uttered her peculiar note. From four
different points of the compass she was answered by male birds, who one and all directed their flight
toward the tree where she was perched. A tremendous scrimmage ensued, and apparently a fight took
place, but, being suddenly alarmed, they all took flight in different directions. It is certain that during
the breeding season the Cuckoo is a very passionate bird, and loves to call until, from sheer hoarseness,
he is obliged to stop ; sometimes his cry comes from the middle of a thickly- wooded tree, at other times
he will sit on a bare dead branch, or swing in the breeze from the top of a fir-tree. The female bird
is more retiring and keeps nearer the ground, so that it is possible to shoot her by hiding behind a
tree as she hunts after insects near one of their favourite haunts. The same plurality of males has
been observed by the author during the spring at Avington Park, in Hampshire ; and on one occasion,
when the female was shot, the note of the males was scarcely heard again, as if they had disappeared
from the vicinity.

Brehm remarks :* " The note itself, and the manner in which it is emitted, are typical of the bird's
habits and character. The same abruptness, insatiability, eagerness, the same rage, are noticeable in
its whole conduct. The Cuckoo is a greedy feeder, and a discontented, ill-conditioned, passionate
fellow : in short, a decidedly unamiable bird. Its food consists entirely of insects and their larvae ;
young Cuckoos, alone, will sometimes eat berries ; Cockchafers, Fern-beetles, Moths, and Dragon-flies
are favourite morsels, and Caterpillars (especially the hairy species, which no other birds ever
devour) being preferred. The hairs of these creatures cling so close to the inner membranes of the
stomach that the use of the magnifying glass is necessary to convince one that they do not form part
and parcel of that organ. Its keen sight enables the Cuckoo to see Caterpillars from a great distance,

* "Bird-life," p. 595.

328

NATURAL HISTORY.

when it flies quickly to the spot, seizes them, and returns to its perch, without spending much time
over the operation or climbing about after them. The bird is so constantly on the move that it
always manages to obtain sufficient food — which is saying a great deal, for its stomach is large and its
powers of digestion almost unlimited. Thus it would be a most useful bird, did it not cause so much
damage while breeding."

The Cuckoo resembles a Hawk so much in flight that even a practised eye sometimes fails to
distinguish it from a Kestrel at first sight. There is, however, a certain pointed look about the body

GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.

of the bird which distinguishes it from a Hawk; if near enough, the flat, obtiTse head of the latter
making the bird appear as if it had no head at all.

Lastly, one word as to the winter home of the Cuckoo. It is always known in England as the
" harbinger of spring," and with the exception of the Swift, who very rarely makes a mistake in the
period of his advent, there is no bird whose arrival may be considered so certain a sign of that genial
season of the year. Just as the Swifts, however, sometimes come in for some cold weather, which
proves fatal to many of them, so the Cuckoos have been known to have been detained by cold
winds in. the south of England, where they have remained in flocks until the weather was more
seasonable and they could distribute themselves over the country. They are seldom heard of in the
height of summer; and, as the old rhyme says, " in June he changes his tune, in August go he must."
And it seems certain that this bird leaves England early in that month, but not entirely, as young
birds — perhaps the later offspring — are seen as late as September. The old ones arrive in Egypt on
their way south before the young birds, which are somewhat later ; and in Berkshire the writer shot
three young Cuckoos during the first week in August, a few yeai-s ago, out of a flock of birds on
migration, which, like himself, had apparently taken shelter under a wood from an approaching
thunderstorm. These specimens are now in the British Museum, and are of slightly different ages.

THE HONEY GUIDES.

329

The Cuckoo is a well-known bird at the Cape of Good Hope during the English winter, and specimens
are in the national collection. It is much rarer on the west coast of Africa, but was shot by Governor
Ussher near Cape Coast Castle, evidently on migration. The main route of the birds visiting the
Cape in winter is, however, evidently down the Nile Valley and along the east coast to the Cape
Colony and South Africa generally. A second line of migration extends to India, and it probably
goes further, and has been found in the island of Celebes. In Asia, however, and Australia, there are
several species of Cuckoo, very like the English bird, but smaller and differing in voice, which have
not been sufficiently studied to enable one to say whether they are actually distinct or not.

The Cuckoo when adult is ashy-grey, with a white breast, barred across with narrow lines of
greyish-black ; the tail is long, barred with white on the outer feathers, and spotted with white on the
centre ones ; the bill is black, with a little yellow at the gape and at the base of the lower mandible ;
the' feet and the eye .are yellow; the length of the bird is about thirteen inches. The female is a
trifle smaller, and has the chest slightly tinged with rufous. The young bird is quite different, being
blackish, mottled with yellow and grey, and having a good deal of white about the hind neck. Rarely
in England, but more often on the Continent, the Cuckoo is red instead of grey, and this is called
the "hepatic" plumage. It is found also in Owls, Goatsuckers, and a few other birds, and exists
in almost all the true Cuckoos.

THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE HONEY GUIDES (Indicatondfe) .

These constitute a small family of Scansorial birds allied to the Cuckoos, and, like the latter, they
are parasitic, and lay their eggs in other birds' nests. Eleven species are known, of Avhich eight are
peculiar to Africa, one is found in the Himalaya Mountains, one in the Malayan Peninsula, and one
in Borneo. The Asiatic members
of the group are extremely rare, and
our knowledge of the habits of these
birds is derived from a study of the
African species : so that it is not
yet known whether the Asiatic
Honey Guides deserve the name of
Indicator, which is applied to the
birds on account of their being
" indicators," or " pointers out," of
Bees' nests containing honey. Dr.
Kirk thus described their habits in
the Zambesi district : — " The Honey
Guide is found in forests, and often
far from water, even during the
dry season. On observing a man,
it comes fluttering from branch to
branch in the neighbouring trees,
calling attention. If this be re-
sponded to — as the natives do by
whistling and starting to their feet
— the bird will go in a certain
direction, and remain at a little
distance, hopping from one tree to
another. On being followed, it
goes farther; and so it will guide the way to a nest of Bees. When this is reached, it flies
about, but no longer guides ; and then some knowledge is required to discover the nest, even
when pointed out to within a few trees. I have known this bird, if the man, after taking up the
direction for a little, then turns away, come back and offer to point out another nest in a different
part. But if it does not know of two nests, it will remain behind. The difficulty is that it will

HONEY GUIDE. (After Keulemans.)

330 NATURAL HISTORY.

point to tame Bees in a bark hive as readily as to those in the forest. This is natural, as the Bee
is the same ; the bark hive — ' Musinga,' as it is named — being simply fastened up in a tree, and left for
the Bees to come to. The object the bird has in view is clearly the young Bees. It will guide to nests
having 110 honey, and seems equally delighted if the comb containing the grubs be torn out, when it is
seen pecking at it." Many of the natives of South Africa believe that the bird will occasionally guide
the traveller, through sheer malice, to a Leopard or an Elephant ; but on this point there seems some
little doubt, to judge from a letter of Mrs. Barber, an accomplished lady and good observer in South
Africa : — " What I wrote to you in a former letter is the opinion of many old bee-hunters in this part
of the country, who have no faith in the popular belief that leading to the Leopard is done on purpose.
My nine brothers, who were all brought up in this country, were all of them great hunters, as well as
sportsmen ; and during all the years of their experience, while they were living at Thai-field, where
Bees' nests were exceedingly plentiful, and where they were constantly in the habit of following these
birds, never once did the Honey Guide ever lead them purposely to any noxious animal. Many times,
in following the bird through dense woods, have they started various kinds of creatures ; but if they
did not neglect the bird for the purpose of hunting, she would continue her flight towards the Bees'
nest, regardless of the startled animals. One of my brothers once, while following a Honey Guide
through a dense forest near the Kowie, passed directly through a drove of wild Pigs. They were,
of course, more frightened than he was, and rushed about in every direction ; but my brother knowing
the popular belief, and wishing to test it, took not the slightest notice of the wild Pigs, but passed on,
keeping his eye on the bird, who went steadily on her way, until she arrived at the nest she intended
to show, regardless of the Pigs. I have other reasons for not believing the story. Why should the
Honey Guide waste her time in leading people to Leopards, Jackals, Wolves, and so forth 1 These
creatures are not her natural enemies ; she would gain nothing by doing" it — no advantage whatever ;
and I have ever found that in nature there is nothing done in vain, or in an empty, purposeless
manner. There is always a reason for the peculiar habits and actions of birds and animals of all
kinds ; and therefore, why should a bird which does not even rear her own young, and has not the
care of a nest, fear or care about these animals ? Why should the Honey Guide, unlike all animals,
do this thing without any reason for doing it 1 And again, when the bird has arrived at the nest she
intends to show, there is an alteration in the notes of her voice. An old bee-hunter knows this in an
instant, and knows when he ought to commence searching for the nest. Now, this alteration never
takes place when animals of various kinds are startled in passing through the forest while following
the bird. Hence I conclude that she does not intend to show where these creatures are, or the
alteration in her voice would take place." Some of the Indicators are not of the same use in guiding
to Bees' nests, and are consequently held in less repute. They are all birds of similar coloration, being
generally of a dull grey, tinged with yellow or olive, and they vary considerably in size, the larger
species, such as I. major and 7. sparrmanni, measuring about eight inches in length ; while the smallest
species, /. exilis, from the Gaboon, does not exceed four inches. Although coming very close to the
Cuckoos in the natural classification, the small bill, the thick-set, stout plumage, and the nine primaries in
the wing, in addition to their peculiar habits, easily distinguish the Honey Guides as a separate family.

THE FOURTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE PLANTAIN-EATERS (Musophagidat).

These may be called a strictly Ethiopian family of birds, every single member being found in
Africa, and nowhere else. They have very much the appearance of game-birds, and are all remarkable
for their beautiful crests, which they are able to elevate or depress at will. Although belonging to
the Scansorial, or climbing birds, they do not always keep their toes in pairs, but being of a lively
disposition they hop continually from bough to bough, and the outer toe is seen as often placed in front
with the others as it is directed backwards along with the hind toe. With the exception of the Grey
Plantain-eaters, all the other species have beaxitiful red primaries ; and the writer was informed by
the late African traveller, Jules Yerreaux, that the bird often gets caught in violent showers during
the rainy season, when the whole of this brilliant red colour in the wing-feathers gets washed out, and
the quills become pinky-white, and after two or three days the colour is renewed, and the wing
resumes its former beauty.

THE WHITE-CREATED PLANTAIN-EATER.

33J

THE FIRST SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGID^E.— THE MUSOPHAGIN^E, OR TRUE

PLANTAIN-EATERS.

THE WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIN-EATER (Corythau mmophaga}.

This is perhaps the best known of the whole family of these curious birds, being the commonest
species in South Africa, where it is plentiful in the forest districts of the Knysna, and the south coast
as far as Natal, and the wooded districts of the Eastern Transvaal. It is known by the name of the
Louri, or Lory, and the following brief account of its habits is given by Mr. Layard : * — " The
Plantain-eater feeds on fruits, and frequents the highest trees, rarely, if ever, descending to the ground,
over which it can, however, travel with great i-apidity if brought down by a shot. The motions of

WHITE-CRESTED PLANTAIX-EATEU.

this species are very graceful and light, and performed with an ease and rapidity that delight the eye
of the beholder. Strange to say, though we inquired carefully, we never could obtain any
information respecting the nidification of this beautiful and common bird. Mr. Atmore, however,
states that the eggs are white; but this must be from hearsay, as he writes: 'How difficult it is to
find these forest birds' nests ! The Lories are breeding now, but for the life of me I cannot find a
nest. The young ones go in troops, and are delicious eating ; the old ones in pairs. We never shoot
specimens out of a troop except for the pot.' An old foi-ester told him that the eggs were white, both
the latter and the nests being like those of Pigeons. Mr. Rickard says : ' I once found an egg in a
bird I shot at East London (January 27th) ; it was pure white, and the size of a tame Pigeon's.'
Mr. Bowker writes : ' I once found a Louri's nest. It was just like a Dove's, built of sticks laid
horizontally, and about the size of a large dinner-plate, placed about ten feet from the ground in the
centre of a round bush. The old bird flew out as I walked up. I found five young birds in the nest ;
they were almost full-grown, but their tails rather short and stumpy, crest just showing, but I cannoi
remember whether the red on the wing was showing or not. On my getting up to the nest they aU

* Sharpe's edition of Layard's " Birds of South Africa," p. 141.

332 NATURAL HISTORY.

flew out, and were killed by my Dogs before I could come to the rescue. The bush was twenty or
thirty yards from the edge of a large forest, and I was rather surprised at this nest, as I had been told
they built in hollow trees.' " In size this species is about nineteen inches long; the general colour is
green, with a broad white tip to the feathers of the crest, the abdomen and vent are blackish, the qiiills
brilliant carmine.

The false Touracoes, as Dr. Sclater calls them, do not possess the red colouring of the wings, but
are for the most part of a uniform grey colour. The best known species is

THE GREY PLANTAIN-EATER (Schizorhis concolor).

This is also found in South Africa, but in different districts to the White-crested Plantain-eater.
Where the range of the latter ceases that of the present bird begins, and it is found throughout the
Matabele country and the Transvaal as far as the Zambesi, and westwards through Damara Land to
Angola. Mr. Andersson writes: — "It is partial to localities abounding in large trees; and when
prominently perched, with crest erect, it is not unlike a gigantic Coly. It also climbs and flies like
the Colies, which it strongly resembles in its general habits. It is usually found in small flocks, and
feeds on berries and seeds, especially those of mistletoe and of other parasitical plants, and also 011
fruits, young shoots, and insects. The Damaras call this species ' Ongoro-oroquena,' from the extra-
ordinary and almost human cry with which it frequently startles the traveller who is passing near its
perch. It is sometimes very easy to approach these birds, whilst at other times they are so shy that
they will defy the utmost exertions which may be made to obtain them. On January 5th, 1867, I
obtained three eggs of this species, of a dull bluish-white colour, at Omapja, from a boy, who told me
that the nest which contained them was composed of sticks roughly put together, and situated in a
tree at some distance from the ground ; and on March 1st I met with a nest in Ondonga placed in a
tree, but at no gi-eat elevation, which also contained three eggs, much incubated." Dr. Exton, also,
who has been through the Matabele country, writes as follows : — " In travelling through the Bechuana
country one often comes upon a party of five or six of these birds, hiding from the mid-day heats
under the sheltered portions of dense foliage near the centre of a large tree. Whilst yet undisturbed,
the crest lies flat on the head, and can only be seen as a tuft projecting from the occiput. But their
first act on becoming aware of an intruder is to run along the branches, either to the summit of the
tree or to the extremity of a branch commanding a good look-out, where, with crest fully erected and
well thrown forward, they keep up a constant reiteration of their note. If but little alarmed they
move rapidly from branch to branch, frequently jerking up the crest, and assuming an attitude of
attention. Again, after flight from one tree to another, on alighting, they first rest on a branch, with
the body somewhat horizontal and the tail drawn nearly to the perpendicular, as if assuring them-
• elves of their equilibrium, and then raising the body, elongating their neck, and at the same time
elevating the crest, they seem to take an observation as to the security of their new position. So
much is this a habit of the bird, that during the conversational difficulties of my earlier intercourse
with the Bechuanas, when inquiring for the nest of Schizorhis (the native name of which is
' Ma-quaai '), as soon as it dawned upon the mind of a native what bird I meant he has imitated
its note, accompanied by a sudden jerking up of the hand, with his fingers extended to the utmost,
as if at the same time to mimic the elevation of the crest. Dr. Sclater mentions that ' Mr. J. J.
Monteiro, speaking of the Grey False Touraco (S. concolor), as observed in Benguella, expressly
states that the crest-feathers are always carried erect.' In my own experience, the observation of
Schizorhis was an eveiy-day occurrence ; and, as I have stated, when undisturbed (also when in
flight) veiy little of the crest is to be seen, but is invariably carried erect on. the least alarm. I may
here mention a peculiar scream of S. concolor. I was one day walking along a low ridge of rocks,
from which I flushed an Owl — the common Bubo maculosus — that flew to some distance to a clump of
trees. Presently I heard an agonised scream, such as is made by a young Antelope when seized by a
Dog ; and so exact a repetition of the sound was it that even my Dogs were deceived by it, and
rushed off in the direction whence it came. I also sent a Kaffir boy, and presently followed myself,
when I discovered it was the frightful scream of Schizorhis, of which a party were collected round
the Owl I had previously disturbed, and whose presence appeared to be the exciting cause. At a
later period I had a second opportunity of verifying this observation."

THE WHITE-BACKED COLY.

333

THE SECOND SUB-FAMILY OF THE MUSOPHAGID^E.— THE COLIIN^, OR COLIES.

Like the foregoing sub-family, the Colies are confined to Africa. They have decided affinities with
the true Plantain-eaters, but are distinguished at a glance by their long tails, the feathers of which
are much pointed, and become smaller and narrower towards the outside of the tail. They are most
dexterous climbers, as was well seen in the captive specimens of the Chestnut-backed Coly, which
were brought by Cameron from Angola, and lived for some time in the London Zoological Gardens.

THE WHITE-BACKED COLY (Colius capemis).

The Colies are known in the Cape Colony by the name of Muisvogel, or Mouse-bird, and they
are not uncommon, ranging about in small families of from six to eight individuals. Mr.
Layard says that they fly with a rapid, though laboured flight, generally at a lower level
than the object at which they aim, and on nearing the latter they rise upwards with a sudden,
abrupt curve. They creep among the branches like Parrots, and hang suspended head downwards,
without inconvenience ; and it is said that they invariably sleep in this position, many of them con-
gregated in a ball. The nest was found by Mr. Andersson in Damara Land, between September and
December. It was placed in a small bush, and was composed externally of grass and twigs, lined
internally with softer grass, and the eggs were dull white, and, according to his observations, always
three in number. Mr. Andersson states that the bird " is gregarious in its habits, being found in
flocks by day, and also when roosting at night. Its flight is short and feeble, seldom extending
beyond the nearest bush or tree, on reaching which it usually perches on one of the lower branches,
and then gradually glides and ci-eeps upwards through the foliage, using both bill and feet for that
purpose. It is essentially a fruit-eating bird, but I believe when hard pressed for its regular food
it does not despise insects and the young shoots of plants. Its flesh is palatable." The Colies as a
rule are dull-coloured brown birds, but they have a long crest. The present species is perhaps the
handsomest, being ash-coloured, and having the lower back and rump purple glossed with red, while a
white line, bordered on each side by a broad black one, extends from beneath the shoulders to the rump.
The bill is bluish-white, and the feet bright red. The length of the bird is thirteen or fourteen inches.

137

334

NATURAL HISTORY.

eA.

Ji.br.

THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.— THE WOODPECKERS (Pieidte).

These are perhaps the most typical of all the yoke-footed or climbing birds, as they are most
expert climbers, being aided in the latter operation not only by their long toes, which are arranged
as usual in this order in pairs, but by their stiffened tail, which enables them to climb with great
rapidity up the perpendicular trunks of trees. If they wish to descend a little
way they do not turn and come down head-foremost, as a Nuthatch would do,
but they let themselves down by a few jerks, still keeping an oblique position,
with the tail downwards. The bill in almost every member of the family is
wedge-shaped, and very powerful, and with this organ a Woodpecker taps vigorously
at the bark, which he sometimes also prises off to get at the grubs or insects under-
neath. These latter, as they endeavour to escape, have little chance against the
intruder, who, in addition to the stout bill which discloses their place of conceal-
ment, possesses a peculiar tongue, which is capable of being protruded to a long
distance, is furnished with minute barbs at the end, and is covered with a glutinous
fluid from which the insects are unable to free themselves. The Woodpeckers
nearly all procure their food in the above manner, but occasionally frequent the
ground, and the Green Woodpecker (Gecinus * viridis) commits great ravages
among ant-hills. The resting-place is generally a hole excavated by the bird itself
in a hollow tree, and the eggs are white. Among ths most aberrant of the
Woodpecker family are the Wrynecks (lyuxty, of which one species is well known
in England under the name of the " Cuckoo's mate." The Wrynecks are all birds of
beautiful mottled plumage, and do not have a stiffened tail like a true Woodpecker.
They are found in Europe,
in India, North-Eastern and
Southern Africa. Wood-

P6ckerS> OI1 the °tll6r liand>

.

are extremely plentiful in the
J?.y^!MB«l New World, and are distri-

Uro-byal; (<-M e.br) to- .„. _

getiier form the thyro- buted all over Atrica, xLurope,

Jbyal-

and Asia, but are not found in
the Australian region, no Woodpecker occurring
beyond the Island of Celebes in the Moluccas.

One great peculiarity in the anatomy of
the Woodpeckers is the structure of the tongue,
and its relation to the hyoid bone and its horns,
or cornua. (For a description of this part in
the Mammalia, see Vol. I., p. 168.) In Birds
the hyoid bone is a much more complex structure
than in the Mammalia. Besides forming the
basis of the otherwise mainly muscular substance
of the tongue, it is continued backwards in most
birds as a double chain of bones, each pair of
which bears a separate name significant of
importance ; and the whole is apparently quite
distinct from the skull above and from the

larynx below. Its composition in the common fowl is best rendered intelligible by reference to
the accompanying woodcut (Fig. 1). It represents the entire hyoid apparatus divested of all muscular
and other surrounding tissues. The upper part of the figure is that nearest to the tip of the tongue,
and the references to the lettering become clear in the course of the subsequent description.

Another woodcut (Fig. 2) shows a side view of a dissection of the head of the common Green Wood-

* yj, earth, and <ave'o), I shake ; viridis, green.

f The classical Greek name, from its double note sounding like the exclamation W, hence the verb Wfw, I cry out.

Fig 1.— "HYOID"
BONE OF ADULT

0 S
A.

cerato-hyais:

Fig. 2. — SIDE VIEW OF DISSECTION OF
HEAD OF COMMON GREEN WOODPECKER.

(Half natural size. After Macgillivray.)

^ os it 11 , la.u.i IVI^UL otii LYIUJ \jiifi ma , V"*'» "*•' *«• W* »>- "*•"»• » i»» '•""V- —

tr) Trachea; (r.m.) Retractor Muscles of Tongue wound round Trachea.

ANATOMY OF THE WOODPECKER.

pecker (Gednus viridis), and a reference to the explanation of the lettering on it will give a general
idea of the whole.

The tip of the tongue (t) is a slender, flattened, horny point, bearing on its sides and tipper surface
a number of very delicate bristles, or prickles, directed backwards, an arrangement eminently useful
to the bird for enabling it to extract its insect food from the recesses to which its beak, by reason of
its size and hardness, could not readily, nor with sufficient quickness, gain access. This tip is further
rendered a more efficient instrument for this purpose by its being constantly moistened by a very viscid
saliva secreted by two particularly large salivary glands (Figs. 2, 3, and 4, s.g.) ; and it was long ago
remarked by Sir Charles Bell, in his essay on "The Hand" (Bridgewater Treatise, 1837), that the same
muscles that effected the protrusion of the tongue exerted a simultaneous pressure upon these glands,
so that the first result of the muscular contraction is to lubricate the tongue, while the rest of its force
is spent in shooting it out with marvellous rapidity.

Behind this barbed and horny tip, the tongue is a slender worm-like body,
of which the core is the anterior prolongation of the hyoid bone. The fore-part of
this core, more like a bristle than a bone, is known to anatomists as the " glosso-
hyal," and it is immediately succeeded posteriorly by the "cerato-hyal."*
Behind this is the "basi-hyal" (Fig. 1, b.h.}, the last bone to enter into the
formation of the tongue proper. From this basi-hyal springs the pair of bones
— the " thyro-hyals" — which attain the remarkable degree of development for
which the birds now under consideration are distinguished. From each side
of the hinder portion, then, of this basi-hyal bone diverge these important
"thyro-hyals" (Fig. 1, c.br., e.br.). They, in the Woodpeckers
(compare Fig. 3, thJi.), extend outwards and backwards to pass
one on each side of the neck until they curl upwards and for-
wards, converging to meet one another on the upper part of
the back of the head ; thence they run along together, ploughing
themselves a furrow in the skull-top till they reach almost to the
right nostril. Each of these curved and highly elastic bones
is surrounded by a delicate sheath, whose inner surface is kept
constantly moist and lubricated by its own secretion ; and this
sheath is attached to the bone of the skull at its junction with
the \ipper mandible, as is shown in the accompanying woodcut Fig. 4. — DISSECTION OF
(Fig. 3, i).

Enclosed in the sheath here spoken of, and along the con-
cavity of each bone, is a muscle which has a fixed attachment to (After

HEAD OF GREEN
WOODPECKER VIEWED
FKOM BELOW.

3. — TJPPER

the crura of the lower mandible on each side (Fig. 4, e.m., e.m.}. 10 Lower Mandibieim Base

/ of Tongue; (tk.li.,th. h. >Thyro-
The contraction of this mnsr-lp shoots flip tonmift out, in t.wo hyals; (s.g., s.g.} Salivary

VIEW OF SKULL „, .

OF GREEN woo£- 1 "6 contraction ot this muscle shoots the tongue out m two

PECKER.

Glands; (m, m) Muscles of

(After
Maogiuivray.,

g!^gTracheat

different ways. In. the Green Woodpecker the extremities of

,1 ,1 i -i ! , ., , trusorMuscles.wliich thrust

the thyro-hyal bones are themselves attached to the mandible, out the Tongue; (r.m.) Re-

" ' tractor Muscles of Tongue

while the curvature of the bones makes a loop that hangs
low clown on each side of the neck (see Fig. 2, th.h.). As the
muscle is shortened this loop is raised up, and the free tip of the

tongue is consequently projected ; and since the muscle is on the inner, or concave, side of the curve,
a very small shortening on its part makes a great addition to the apparent length of the tongue. Sir
Charles Bell elucidates this action by comparing the great effect on the curve of a fishing-rod's
flexible top that a small tightening of the line has. But while this is the case in many species,
there are others in which the sheath alone is attached to the bones of the forehead, and the bones
themselves slide along inside together with the contracting fibres of the muscle, thus producing
the same result as was obtained in the other case by the loops hanging low down in the
neck.

Compare Fig. 1, ch. ; this bone usually exists in a paired condition, but in Woodpeckers and some other birds it
appears single by the confluence of its members In many birds the "basi-hyal" is succeeded by the "uro-hyal" (Fig. 1,
l>. lr.), a bone altogether absent whenever the tongue is capable of extraordinary protrusion.

335

NATURAL HISTORY.

The tongue, whose length is thus so extraordinarily increased, is drawn back to its original
position within the bill by another pair of muscles, one on each side, which are attached to the basi-
liyal. These take their origin from the trachea, around which (as shown in Figs. 2 and 4, r.m.),
in many species, they are curiously wound in their course. And, since the bones are at the point
of their greatest curvature when at rest, it is obvious that this action of withdrawal is materially
assisted by the elasticity of the prolongations of the hyoid bones themselves ; for it is a well-known
law that Nature never lets power run to waste, but always utilises forces of mere elasticity or rigidity
when by their means the expenditure of nervous energy and muscular contractility can be saved.

It may be observed that this curious development of the bones of the tongue is not confined
to the Woodpeckers ; in the Sun Birds (Nectar iniidce) of the Old World, and the Humrning-Birds

(Trochilidce) of the New, this same adaptation of means to ends obtains. Even in the Picidse them-
selves many variations have been noticed, in addition to those above alluded to; for instance, in
the Yellow-billed Woodpecker (Sjihyrapicus* varius) of North America the horns of the hyoid do
not reach so far as the eye, so that the tongue, with its bushy tip in this case, is only extensible in
a very slight degree; while in the Hairy Woodpecker (Picm villosus) the thyro-hyals curve
spirally over the right orbit so as to reach entirely around the eye, to be inserted at its lower
posterior margin.

Considerable difference of opinion exists as to the damage done by Woodpeckers in tapping
sound trees, and many a poor bird pays the penalty of his life for his supposed destructive pro-
pensities. Mr. Waterton argues strongly on the side of the bird, and alleges that only rotten and
unsound trees are attacked for the sake of a nesting habitation, or for the purpose of getting insects ;
but that this is not always the case was proved by the writer himself in the spring of 1878, when
a boy was sent up to a hole in a beech-tree in Avington Park, in Hampshire. The tree was still

* vifrvpa, a hammer ; picus, a woodpecker.

GREAT BLACK WOODPECKER AND GREAT SPOTTED WOODPECKER.

35

THE WOODPECKER.

337

perfectly sound, so sound, indeed, that the bird had evidently given up the idea of inhabiting it
for that year, and had betaken himself elsewhere, after having excavated a round hole to the depth
of two or three inches. In the same tree, a little lower down, was a similar hole, evidently made
the previous year, when the bird had '; tapped " the tree, and it was clear that he had returned
again in the succeeding season, and had tried a little higher up in the trunk, to see if there were any
chance of procuring a domicile. This proceeding must have injured the tree, and was the work
of a Green Woodpecker, or Yaffle, whose laughing note was heard from another quarter of the park,
even as the above examination was being conducted. In this part of Hampshire, though the bird is
not persecuted by the owner of Avington, Mr. Edward Shelley, or by his keepers, the Green Wood-
pecker is rare ; but in certain parts of Huntingdonshire the writer can remember to have found it

- . . .:,•</< \ -^

m

GHEEX WOODPECKER.

very plentiful in his school-days, and it was a never-failing object in a country walk, flitting from tree
to tree in front of the observer, and always keeping a sharp look-out from the opposite side of the
trunk on which he settled. This species appears in old pieces of poetry under the various names of Yaffle,
Woodwele, or Woodwale, Whetile, and it is in some places called "He whole," Woodhacker, &c.*: —

" The Skylark in ecstasy sang from a cloud,
And Chanticleer crowed, and the Yaffil laughed loud."

The Peacock at Home.

The Woodwele sang, and would not cease,

Sitting upon the spray ;
So loud he wakened Robin Hood

In the greenwood where he lay."

Eitson's Edition of Robin Hood, vol. i., p. 115.

* Yarrell, "British Birds," vol. ii., p. 137.

333 NATURAL HISTORY.

" There the Jay and the Throstell

The Mavis menyd in her song,
The Woodwale fard or beryd as a bell
That wode about me rung."

True T/tomas.

Some Woodpeckers seem to make storehouses against the winter, by pecking holes hi a tree, and
an interesting example of a piece of bark, in which a Red-headed Woodpecker (Jlelanerpes fonni-
civorus)* had placed a store of acorns, is to be seen in the British Museum.

Another British species, the Lesser Spotted Woodpecker (Picus^ minor], is a bird of different
habits, frequenting fruit-gardens in. the autumn, and doing very little damage to trees in the nesting
season. It generally selects the rotten branch of an old poplar-tree, and hollows out a hole in so
perilous a situation that it is difficult to climb to, and, indeed, the whole bough is often brought down
by the first gale in the ensiling winter. Here its small wedge-shaped bill speedily makes an excavation,
and at some little distance down in the hollow interior it lays its glossy white eggs on the touchwood
and decaying wood. Both sexes assist in the preparation of the nest ; and in mild winters they some-
times begin with the commencement of the year to look out for their future home. The selection of
this appears to be a matter of no small anxiety, for several trees are examined in turn, and
often at long distances apart. The birds at the time of incubation keep xip a continual signalling
one to the other, which is produced by a rapid whin-ing noise caused by tapping on the thinner
branches of the dead trees. This call-note, if it may be called such, is generally heard in the early
morning, and ceases as soon as the nesting operations have finally commenced. Besides this note,
they have also one like the " laugh " of the Green Woodpecker, but, of course, much reduced in
accordance with the difference in the size of the two birds. The little Spotted Woodpecker may often
be seen hanging on to, and climbing round, the slender twigs of the outer branches of a tree, and looks
much like a Creeper or a Nuthatch, which it does not greatly exceed in dimensions.

THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAX BIRDS.
THE TOUCANS (Rhamphastida).l

The Toucans, with their clumsy bills, have much the aspect of Hornbills, which they may bo said
to represent in South America, to which continent they are entirely confined, but by this time the
student knows that they have really little to do with each other, beyond a certain, outward similarity,
as the Toucans belong to the Scansorial, the Hornbills to the Fissirostral, section of the Picarice. It is
not possible to give a long account of the habits of individual species of Toucans, and a general sketch of
their manners and customs is extracted from the monograph of the Toucans written by Mr. John Gould. $
To him the late Prince Maximilian, of Neuwied, an excellent observer, during his travels in South
America writes : — " The Rkamphastidce are very common in all parts of the extensive forests of the
Brazils, and are killed in great numbers at the cooler portion of the year, for the purposes of the table.
To the stranger they are of even greater interest than to the natives, from their remarkable form, mnl
from the rich and strongly-contrasted style of their colouring, their black or green bodies being
adorned with markings of the most brilliant hues — red, orange, blue and white — the naked parts of
the body dyed with brilliant colours, the legs blue or green, the irides blue, yellow, &c., and the large
bill of a different colour in every species, and in many instances very gaily marked. The colouring of
the soft parts is, however, so evanescent, that, to determine the species with accuracy, they must be
depicted during life or immediately after the birds are killed. Common as these birds are in their
native wilds, it is exceedingly difficult to detect their breeding-places ; it is certain that they deposit
their eggs in the hollow limbs and holes of the colossal trees so abundant in the tropical forests, but
I never was so fortunate as to discover them. The stomachs of the specimens I examined contained
nothing but the i-emains of fruits, principally of the softer kinds, for which, indeed, they have such
a liking that they resort in great numbers to the plantations in the vicinity of their native haunts, and
commit sad havoc among their favourite delicacies. I was informed that they frequently steal and
eat young birds, but no instance of their doing so came under my own observation, and I never

* fxeAas, black ; ep-ma, I creep ; formicivorus, ant-eating. t Linnreus. A proper name. J From pd/j^os, a bilL
§ "Monograph of the Rhampliastidcc, or Family of Toucans," by John Gould, F.RS. Introduction.

THE TOUCAX. 339

detected the remains of animal food in their stomachs. Mr. Waterton's opinion agrees with mine, that
they feed solely upon fruits ; but Azara, among others, states that they also feed upon animal sub-
stances. The specimens we saw in a state of domestication were very voracious and perfectly
omnivorous, but they seem to be purely frugivorous in a state of nature, a fact which was, indeed,
confirmed by the Brazilian natives whom we questioned on the subject. In their manners the
RhamphastidcK offer some resemblance to the Crows, and especially to the Magpies; like them they are
very troublesome to the birds of prey, particularly to the Owls, whom they surround and annoy by
making a great noise, all the while jerking their tails upwards and downwards. The flight of these
birds is easy and graceful, and they sweep with facility over the loftiest trees of their native forests,
their strangely-developed bills, contrary to expectation, being no encumbrance to them. The voice
of the Toucans is short and xinmelodious, and is somewhat different in every species. The feathers
tire used by the Indians for personal decoration, especially the yellow breasts of the birds, which they
affix to their heads on each side near the temple, and also to the ends of their bows."

Mr. Waterton, in one of his Essays, has the following remarks : — " There are three species of
Toucan in Demerara, and three diminutives, which may be called Toucanets. The largest of the former
frequents the mangrove-trees on the sea-coast. It is never seen in the interior until you reach Macous-
hia, where it is found in the neighbourhood of the river Tacatou ; the other two species are very common.
They feed entirely on the fruits of the forest, and, though of the Pie kind, never kill the young of
other birds or eat carrion. The larger is called Bouradi by the Indians (which means nose), the other
Scirou. They seem partial to each other's company, and often resort to the same feeding tree, and
retire to the same shady noon-day retreat. They are very noisy in rainy weather at all hours of the
day, and in fair weather at morn and eve. The sound the Bouradi makes is like the clear yelping of
a p'ippy-dog, and you fancy he says ' Pia-po-o-co,' and thus the South American Spaniards call him
Piapoco. All the Toucanets feed on the same trees on which the Toucan feeds, and every species of
this family of enormous bill lays its eggs in the hollow trees. They are social, but not gregaiious.
You may sometimes see eight or ten in company, and from this you may suppose they are gregarious,
but upon a closer examination you find it is only a dinner party, which breaks up and disperses
towards roosting-time. You will be at a loss to conjecture for what end Nature has overloaded the
head of this bird with such an enormous bill. It cannot be for the offensive, as it has no need to wage
war with any of the tribes of animated nature, for its food is fruits and seed, and those are in super-
abundance throughout the whole year in the regions where the Toucan is found. It cannot be for the
defensive, as the Toucan is preyed upon by no bird in South America, and, were it obliged to be at
war, the texture of the bill is ill-adapted to give or receive blows, as you will see by dissecting it. The
flight of the Toucan is by jerks. In the action of flying it seems incommoded by this huge, dispropor-
tionate feature, and the head seems as if bowed down to the earth by it against its will. If the
extraordinary size and form of the bill expose the Toucan to ridicule, its colours make it amends.
Were a specimen of each species of Toucan presented to you, you would pronounce the bill of the
Bouradi the most rich and beautiful one. It is worthy of remark that all these brilliant colours of
the bill are to be found in the plumage of the body and the bare skin around the eye." Space will not
permit of a long extract from the works of d' Azara (the only field naturalist of any fame that Portugal
has yet produced), but a few notes of this traveller, made in Paraguay, differ from the foregoing
accounts, and show that in the southern portion of their range the habits of some of the Toucans vary
to a great extent. So voracious does d' Azara consider them, that on this account he places them among
the birds of prey, and writes : — " The Toucans, contrary to all appearances, destroy a great number of
birds, and, on account of their long and strong beak, are respected and feared by all species. They
attack and drive them from their nests, and in their very presence eat their eggs "and young ; these
they draw from the holes with the long beak, or throw down nest and all together. It is credibly
reported that the Toucans do not even respect the eggs or young of the ' Aras ' (Macaws) and
Caracaras, and if the fledglings are too large or too strong to be lifted from the nest, they
dash them to the ground, as if it were their nature not only to devour, but to uselessly destroy. The
bird, in flying, presents the point of his bill against the wind, so that it does not offer more resistance
than that of other birds in which the head and superficies are equal in extent ; besides which, the
conformation and specific lightness of this long beak cannot impede flight, because the highest points

340

NATURAL HISTORY.

of tlie bird being the bill itself and the anterior portion of the body, they form no obstacle, the wind
first taking effect upon the point of the bill. When in a state of repose, the Toucan carries its bill
rather more elevated than a horizontal line that would pass through the eyes, and when closely looked
at, it looks like a false bill, because its base exceeds the breadth of the head, which presents the appear-
ance of being enclosed in a case. In addition to these singularities, the nostrils are placed behind

the aforesaid base. The
tongue is very narrow and
of an equal thickness
throughout. It is entirely
osseous, and resembles
somewhat a feather two
lines in width, furnished
with an osseous fringe,
which is directed from
behind forwards, so that
the tongue, stiff and un-
yielding, takes 110 part in
the direction of the food
nor in the formation of
the note, which, in the
first two Paraguayan
species, is confined to the
single syllable ' roe.' The
mandibles are very dis-
tinctly deiitated at their
edges, these dentations
not corresponding at all
above and below, nor are
they even relatively sym-
metrical. The beak itself
is a thin osseous sheath,
filled with a number of
empty cellules. The eye
is large, and surrounded
by a triangular naked
space, puffed up, and very
pretty. The foot is -very
short and stout, and
TOTJCAX. covered nearly to the heel

with long scales, harsh to

the touch. The outer toe, as well before as behind, is the longest. The claws are much flattened
and curved, as in the Woodpeckers. The tail is composed of ten feathers. The Toucan flies at
a moderate height, and in a straight horizontal line, flapping its wings occasionally with some
noise. The flight is quicker than the smallness of the wings would lead one to believe. It perches
towards the top of the highest trees, and though unable to climb after the manner of Woodpeckers,
it still progresses with speed, hopping from branch to branch. It pays great attention to all
that takes place in its vicinity, advancing with fear and diffidence, like the ' Uruca ' and the
' Acahes.' There is no perceptible difference between the two sexes, nor do I believe that the
species exists towards the south beyond 28°, nor that it drinks. It rarely settles on the ground. The
Toucan hops obliquely and very awkwardly, with the legs separated about a hand's breadth. When it
takes young birds from the nest, pieces of meat or fruit, it throws them in the air, as a juggler his
balls, and by a quick movement of the beak repeats this action until the food is in a favourable
position for being swallowed, and then by another movement gulps it down its large throat. If the

THE BARBETS.

341

BILL OF TOCCAX.

mouthful be larger than the orifice of the gullet, the Toucan abandons it without seeking to
divide it."

Mr. Bates, in his " Naturalist on the River Amazon," makes some further allusions to the
Toucans and their bill, which will be found well worth the reading. He also gives the following
history of a tame bird (Vol. ii., p. 341) :—
" One day, whilst walking along the prin-
cipal pathway in the woods near Ega, I

saw one of these Toucans seated gravely on
a low branch close to the road, and had no
difficulty in seizing it with my hand. It
turned out to be a runaway pet bird; no one,
however, came to own it, although I kept it
in my house for several months. The bird
was in a half-starved and sickly condition,
but after a few days of good living it re-
covered health and spirits, and became one
of the most amusing pets imaginable. Many
excellent accounts of the habits of tame

Toucans have been published, and therefore I need not describe them in detail ; but I do not recollect
to have seen any notice of their intelligence and confiding disposition under domestication, in which
qualities my pet seemed to be almost equal to Parrots. I allowed Tocaiio to go free about the house,
contrary to my usual practice with pet animals. He never, however, mounted my working-table
after a smart correction, which he received the first time he did so. He used to sleep on the top of
a box in a corner of the room, in. the usual position of these birds — namely, with the long tail laid
right over on the back and the beak thrust underneath the wing. He ate of everything that we eat
(beef, turtle, fish, farina, fruit), and was a constant attendant at our table — a cloth spread on a mat.
His appetite was most ravenous, and his powers of digestion quite wonderful. He got to know the
meal-hours to a nicety, and we found it very difficult, after the first week or two, to keep him away
from the dining-room, where he had become very impudent and troublesome. We tried to shut him
out by enclosing him in the back yard, which was separated by a high fence from the street on which
our front door opened ; but he used to climb the fence and hop round by a long circuit to the dining-
room, making his appearance with the greatest punctuality as the meal was placed on the table. He
acquired the habit afterwards of rambling about the street near our house, and one day he was
stolen, so we gave him up for lost. But two days afterwai'ds he stepped through the open doorway
at dinner-hour, with his old gait, and sly, magpie-like expression, having escaped from the house
where he had been guarded by the person who had stolen him, which was situated at the farther end
of the village."

THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE ZYGODACTYLE PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE BARBETS (Capitonidee)*

These are climbing birds of somewhat brilliant coloration, distributed over the tropical portions
of both hemispheres, but absent in Europe, Northern Asia, Australia, and the Moluccas southwards
from the Sunda Islands. " Though strictly arboreal in their habits," write Messrs. Marshall, in their
exhaustive work on the family ,t " and living only in forest districts or open countries interspersed
with groves of trees, they are neither shy nor difficult to approach. When the districts in which
they are found happen to be at all thickly populated, the Barbets show no disposition to retreat to
more secluded quarters, but take up their abode in gardens, and frequently breed in trees close to the
houses. They usually keep to the tops of the trees, but may occasionally be seen creeping among the
branches of small bushes and underwood. Their food is fruit, seeds, buds, and occasionally insects ;
these latter are very seldom resorted to in Asia, more frequently in Africa, and with some American
species they form the staple food. They are not gregarious, though a great number may sometimes

* From Capito, the principal genus : u proper name.

t " A Monograph of the Capitonidte, or Scansorial Barbets," by C. H. T. Marshall and G. F. L. Marshall (1871).
138

NATURAL HISTORY.

be seen together in a fig-tree at the fruit season. They live in pairs during the breeding season, which
is in the spring, and commence moulting in September. They rarely, if ever, descend to the ground,
and appear to move from tree to tree only when compelled to do so in search of food, or when
disturbed by an intruder. Their flight is powerful, but heavy and undulating, like that of a Wood-
pecker. A curious instance of their disinclination to travel is seen in the fact of the Himalayan
Lineated Barbet (Megcdwma hodysoni) and the Hoary Jungle Barbet (M. caniceps) never crossing
the narrow valley of the Deyra Doon, though both are abundant in their respective boundaries;
also that the Blue-faced Barbet (M. asiatica) is confined to the valley of the Jumna, in the district

between Mussooree and Simla,
though there are many other val-
leys apparently equally suitable.
When not in pursuit of food, the
Barbets sit motionless among the
foliage near the tops of the trees,
and exhibit none of that vivacity
which is so marked a charac-
teristic of the Passerine birds,
amongst which they have been
sometimes erroneously classed.
Their voice is loud and ringing,
consisting almost always of one,
two, or three syllables, given out
with extraordinary power, and
may be heard at midday or on a
moonlight night when all other
sounds are hushed. Some of the
American species have, in com-
mon with the Toucans, the habit
of jerking their tail up over their
back when they utter their call.
The male and female sometimes
keep up what appears to be a
' calling-match ' for about ten
minutes, and then suddenly cease.
As far as is known, they all build
in holes of trees, which they make
for themselves in soft or decayed
branches. Ko lining is needed
for the nest, a few of the broken
chips being left at the bottom

of a hole. The entrance is circular and neatly bevelled, resembling that of a Woodpecker. The
hole is generally about eight or ten inches deep, varying, of course, with the size of the bird.
They lay three or four shining white eggs, with rather thin shells, and rather elongated, blunt,
oval in shape, both ends being nearly similar. They are laid in the latter end of April and
beginning of May in. Northern India. Barbets are occasionally caged, but they are very seldom
brought to England, and do not bear confinement very well ; consequently, little is known
of them in this country, except to ornithologists. An interesting account of one of them
(MegalfKma zeylunica) in captivity, by Mr. Layard, will be found quoted below. Their plumage,
though very brilliant, is tasteless and too gaudy, and their shape is heavy and ugly, which will
account for their skins not yet having .been promoted to the positions with which pretty birds'
feathers are generally associated in the minds of the non-ornithological public." Mr. Layard's account
is as follows : — " The Brown-headed Barbet is common in Ceylon, and universally distributed. It
feeds on fruits and berries of all kinds, which it swallows entire. It does not, that I know of, devour

PEARL-SPOTTED BARBET.

THE JACAMAES. 343

small birds when in a state of nature, but one kept in a large aviary at Colombo destroyed all the
little Amadincv placed with it. Not content with snapping them up when within his reach, he would
lie in wait for them behind a thick bush or the feeding-trough, pounce upon them unawares, and,
after beating them a little on the ground or perch, swallow them whole. When this cannibal came
into my possession he was confined in a smaller cage than that in which he had at first been secured.
This seemed to displease him, and he went to work to find some means of escape. He narrowly
examined every side and corner to discover a weak spot, and having detected one, applied himself
vigorously to bore a hole through it, as a Woodpecker would have done. Grasping the bars with his
feet, he swung himself round, bringing his whole weight to bear upon his bill, which he used as a
pickaxe, till the house resounded with his rapid and well-aimed blows. On being checked from
exercising his ingenuity in this manner, he became sulky, and refused to eat or offer his call of
recognition when I approached him. In a day or two, however, he apparently thought better of the
matter, resumed his labours upon another spot, and fed as voraciously as ever, devouring huge slices
of bananas, jungle fruits, the bodies of any small birds I skinned, &c."

THE SECOND ORDER.— PICARIAN BIRDS. SUB-ORDER II.— FISSIROSTRES.

CHAPTER IX.

THE JACAMARS, PUFF BIRDS, KINGFISHERS, HORNBILLS, AND HOOPOES.

THE JACAMARS -THE PUFF BIRDS— THE KINGFISHERS— Characters— THE COMMON KINGFISHER— Distribution-
Its Cry — Habits — After its Prey— Its own Nest-builder—Mr. Rowley's Note on the Subject— Nest in the British
Museum — Superstitions concerning the Kingfisher— Colour— Various Species— CRESTED KINGFISHER— PIED KING-
FISHER—Dr. Von Heuglin's Account of its Habits— New World Representatives— OMNIVOROUS KINGFISHERS— THE
AUSTRALIAN CINNAMON-BREASTED KINGFISHER— Macgillivray's Account of its Habits— THE LAUGHING JACKASS of
Australia— Its Discordant Laugh— The " Bushman's Clock "—Colour-Habits -THE HORNBILLS— Character— Their
Heavy Flight— Noise produced when on the Wing — Food — Extraordinary Habit of Imprisoning the Female— Native
Testimony — Exception— Fed by the Male Bird— Dr. Livingstone's Observations on the point, and Mr. Bartlett's
Remarks— Strange Gizzard Sacs— Dr. Murie's Remarks — Mr. Wallace's Description of the Habits of the Hornbills —
Capture of a Young One in Sumatra — THE GROUND HORNBILLS— South African Species— Kaffir Superstition regarding
it— Habits— Mr. Ayres' Account of the Natal Species— How it Kills Snakes— The Call— Habits— Mr. Monteiro's
Description of the Angola Form— Turkey-like Manner— Wariness— Food— THE HOOPOES— Appearance— Distribu-
tion— THE COMMON HOOPOE— Habits— The Name -How does it Produce its Note ?— THE WOOD HOOPOES— Habits.

THE FIRST FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE JACAMARS (Galbulidce}*

THESE birds are usually of metallic green plumage, with long beaks and wedge-shaped tails, and are
found only in Central and Southern America, where they seem to represent the Bee-eaters of the Old
World. Not many notices have appeared of their habits, the best being that given by Mr. Waterton,
in his "Wanderings" in Demerara : — "A bird called Jacamar is often taken for a Kingfisher, but it
has no relationship to that tribe: it frequently sits in the trees over the water, and as its beak bears some
resemblance to that of the Kingfisher, this may probably account for its being taken for one. It feeds
entirely upon insects. It sits on a branch in motionless expectation, and as soon as a Fly, Butterfly,
or Moth passes by, it darts at it, and returns to the branch it had just left. It seems an indolent,
sedentary bird, shunning the society of all others in the forest. It never visits the plantations, but is
found at all times of the year in the woods. There are four species of Jacamar in Demerara; they
are all beautiful, the largest rich and superb in the extreme. Its plumage is of so fine a changing blue
and golden green, that it may be ranked with the choicest of the Humming Birds. Nature has denied
it a song, but given a costly garment in lieu of it. The smallest species of Jacamar is very common
in the dry savannas. The second size, all golden green in the back, must be looked for in the Wallaba
Forest ; the third is found throughout the whole extent of these wilds ; and the fourth, which is the
largest, frequents the interior, where you begin to perceive stones in the ground."

i. a proper name.

344 NATURAL HISTORY.

THE SECOND FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIEDS.
THE PUFF BIRDS (Biicconidcc).

In general form the Puff Birds are not unlike Kingfishers, some of which they resemble in their
habits, feeding chiefly on insects, which they catch in the air. In many respects also they resemble
the Bee-eaters (Meropidce), and may be considered as representing the last-named family in South
and Central America, to which countries they are entirely confined. Of the Long-winged Puff Birds
(Clwlidoptera tenebrosa) the late Prince Maximilian of Neuwied gives the following account : — " It is
not rare in most provinces of South Brazil, and very common in many of them. It is found in
certain spots sitting still and immovable upon the high isolated branches of the forest trees. From
time to time it flies after an insect in the air. and falls back again to its place like a true Fly-catcher.
It is a stupid, still, melancholy bird, but likes to sit high, and not low and near the ground, like other
Puff Birds. As in form and colour it rather resembles a Swallow, the Brazilians call it Andurinha do
mate (Wood Swallow). The resemblance is greatest when the bird sits upon the ground, for its feet
are little adapted for walking, and it consequently shuffles along as a Swallow does. Its flight is
light and undulating. Sitting upon a high point, -.vhence it can overlook the neighbourhood, it often
emits a short call-note. It is anything but timid, and veiy easy to shoot. It is usually found where
the woods are varied with open country, on the edges of the woods, but likewise in the interior of
them. The food of these birds consists of insects, of which I have found the remains in their
stomachs. On the Eio Grande del Belmonte I observed how these birds nest. In the month of
August I saw them enter a round hole in a perpendicular sand-bank on the river, like a Kingfisher's.
After digging about two feet in a horizontal direction, we found two milk-white eggs upon a bad
lining of a few feathers." *

THE THIRD FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE KINGFISHERS (Alcedinida}.

The Kingfishers are a very varied family, including within their limits birds of very different
form and habits. The bill is always long and powerful for the size of the bird, producing, in some of
the smaller species, a top-heavy and ungainly aspect; but this organ is modified according to the habits
of the birds, and is strictly in accordance with the functions which it has to perform. The foot is
similar in all Kingfishers, the sole being very flat, and the toes joined together for the greater part
of their length, so that the birds always have a very firm support to their bodies. The legs are very
short and weak, the wings powerful, and the gape very wide. The Kingfishers may be divided into
two sub-families, distinguished by the form of the bill, which is long and compressed in the fish-eating
Kingfishers (Alcedinince), of which the European bird is a type, with a distinct ridge or keel along
the upper mandible ; while in the Dacelonince, which have a stouter and flatter bill, with a smooth
and rounded culmen, the food is varied, consisting more of insects than of fish.

THE COMMON KINGFISHER (Alcedo* ispida}.

This is, perhaps, the most brilliantly-coloured bird there is in England, but by reason of its shy
habits and wonderfully quick flight it is not often observed, excepting as a flash of bright blue on the river
side, appearing for an instant and gone the next. It is, however, by no means uncommon in many of the
rivers in the south of England, particularly during the month of October, when a partial migration of
the species evidently takes place. At this season of the year, the writer once observed a Kingfisher
on the ornamental water in St. James's Park. Beyond the British Islands it is found in most parts
of the European continent, being replaced in the East by the little Indian Kingfisher (A. bengalensis),
a miniature of the English bird, but with a much longer bill. The following account of the
habits of this bird, the result of several years' close acquaintance with the species on the river Thames,
is taken from the author's work on this subject J : — "When in a wild state, flying along the banks of
a stream, or sitting patiently at watch for its finny prey, the Kingfisher is a beautiful sight. Often
has it been our good fortune to witness the bird at close quarters, but this is by no means easy to

* Sslater, " Synopis of the Fissirostral Family Bucconidre, " 8vo, 1854. \ Alcedo, a Kingfisher.

J Sharpe's " Monograph of the Alcedinidae, or Kingfishers."

THE KINGFISHER.

345

accomplish, owing to the extreme wariness of the bird from repeated persecution. The presence of the
Kingfisher in one's neighbourhood can be detected from some distance by the faint cry which falls upon
the ear from afar. This note, which is a shrill, but not unmusical, scream, generally consists of two
syllables, but is very difficult to render in language. Naumann gives it as ti-ti, which is by no means
a bad representation of the cry; and these syllables are quickly repeated as the bird leaves its perch
and skims over the stream. The flight is rapid and very direct, the bird speeding like a bullet a little
height above the surface of the water. When suddenly disturbed, it utters its cry shortly after leaving
its perch, and then flies for some distance in silence ; but when passing unmolested from one resting-
place to another, its shrill note may be heard at frequent intervals. Just before perching, the cry is
uttered three or four times suc-
cessively— ti-ti-ti. When resting,
it sits uprightly, with the glance
directed downwards, motionlessly
scanning the stream beneath, in-
tent on the capture of any fish
or water insect which may come
within its reach. Its unerring
dive seldom proves fruitless ; and
when secured, a few smart raps
on its perch, to which the bird
always returns, deprive the victim
of life, after which it is imme-
diately swallowed. Except in the
eai-ly morning, it seldom chooses
a very open position for its rest-
ing-place ; but in the autumn,
when the migration is in progress,
at break of day it is not unusual
to see two, or even three, birds
in company on a rail or on the
side of a punt ; in the day-time,
however, it loves solitude, and
seldom more than one can be seen
at once, and then it affects more
shady and secluded haunts. In
general it is a lonely bird, jealous
of intrusion, especially from in-
dividuals of its own species. Each
pair appears to choose and main-
tain a particular hunting-ground,

and should one Kingfisher enter upon the domain of another, it is speedily and effectually ousted by
the rightful owner with cries of rage. So fierce is the animosity displayed by these birds, that when
excited in combat they fly heedless of obstacles, and thus occasionally meet their death in their
headlong career." An instance is on record of two Kingfishers flying with such violence against a
Avindow that both pursuer and ptirsued met their death on the spot. The present species does not
always pounce on its prey from a perch, but will occasionally fly out over the mid-stream, and hover
in the air like a Kestrel Hawk ; and after making an unsuccessful plunge, will repeat its hovering
position over the same spot, until its efforts are rewarded with success. It has been seen also to
dash into the water several times in succession, Avhich movement has been supposed to be for the
purpose of attracting fish to the spot by disturbing the water ; it is, however, more probable that in
this exercise the bird is taking a bath. The young have exactly the same cry as their parents, but
the note is less shrill. On leaving the nest, they often congregate in some well-shaded locality by the
side of the stream, where food is brought to them by their parents, and the presence of the nestlings

COMMON KINGFISHER.

346 NATURAL HISTOEY.

is often betrayed by their shrill pipings. The bill in the young birds is very short, and has a little
white tip to it; in the adult male it is entirely black; but the female may always be distinguished
by the base of the lower mandible being red.

That the Kingfisher makes its own hole is now an ascertained fact, and the following note on
the subject was published in 1866 by Mr. G. Dawson Rowley: — "Though the subject of the King-
fisher (Alcedo ispida) is somewhat stale, yet, in consequence of the remarks which I have just read
in the October Quarterly on ' Homes without Hands,' I send you the following notes, made this
spring, in order to set at rest, if possible, a mistake regarding the breeding of this bird. Modern
writers on the Kingfisher are hardly more free from error than even Ovid or Pliny. The bird is a true
miner, and makes a nest of fish-bones ; but, as no rule is without an exception, when it cannot find
a suitable bank to bore in, it has been known to nidificate in abnormal situations,,; and when abun-
dance of proper fish are not to be caught it is obliged to do without bones.

" From many years' constant Avatching, I can exactly tell the probable position of the hole, and
the day it will be begun. Accordingly, on Thursday, March 29, I sent two witnesses to a particular
spot on the River Ouse, St. Neots, Huntingdonshire. They observed that there was on that day
positively no hole of any kind, no vestige of hole, in that bank. On Easter Monday, April 2, I sent
a keeper to the place. He reported the hole as begun. On the same day I went in a boat, and,
putting a reed up, found it by actual measurement about fifteen inches deep, the moulds being quite
fresh outside. Droppings of the bird (which was seen constantly leaving the hole) were visible in
two places. There was also a shallow hole a little to the left of the above-mentioned one. This was
a failure — either from caprice or some other cause abandoned. We observe the same in Woodpeckers,
which will sometimes bore in three or four places before they get one to their liking, a circumstance
I particularly remarked in a pair of the Greater Spotted Woodpeckers (P. major] last spring. Between
March 29 and April 2 the Kingfisher had made two holes. I thought it best now to leave the place,
only receiving from the keeper each morning a report, as he went by in his boat, how the bird was
going on.

" Saturday, April 7, I made a memorandum : ' I again observe fresh moulds, but not, as we
consider, to-day's, but yesterday's : hence I suppose the hole to be nearly finished, if not quite.' Here,
I should say, after taking these nests constantly for nearly thirty years, I find twenty-one days is the
correct time, from the commencement of the excavation to the end of laying seven eggs. I never had
the luck to find eight ; Mr. Gould, however, informs me he once did. ' Saturday, April 21. Opened
the hole situated in the perpendicular bank to keep off Water-rats. Found by measurement the
entrance was twelve inches from the surface of the ground, and about five feet from the water. The
length of the ascending gallery was eight inches and a half, and the oval chamber six inches in
diameter more. The top of the chamber was nine inches from the surface of the ground. It contained
the iisual nest of fish-bones, which was one inch and a half deep ; and the same, with the seven fresh
eggs, are now before me, with two other nests from the same locality. The bird flew off after the first
dig, which I commonly made so as to cover up the hole again without disturbance if the full number
of eggs had not been laid. There was no excrement in the chamber, but much just outside in the gallery.'
The size of the chamber is just sufficient for the owners to turn round pleasantly. When the young
birds, which I have seen in every stage, have been some time in the nest, of course the hole gets very
foul. Here, then, is a case, capable of being attested by two or three witnesses step by step — and con-
cerning which there can be no doubt— where the Kingfisher is proved to have made its own hole.
I have known it when driven from one bank by floods to revert to an old hole of its own making
in the previous year ; but never has there been an instance of its taking up with the abode
of its most deadly enemy, the Water-rat. It is hard to prove a negative, biTt it is certainly a most
unlikely thing for a Kingfisher to enter a rat-hole. No one who has seen the eggs of this species in
situ as often as I have can deny that the fish-bones are placed with the design of making
a nest."

In the British Museum may be seen a nest of the Kingfisher, which was taken by Mr. Gould
under the following circumstances : — " On the 18th of April, 1859, during one of my fishing
excursions on the Thames, I saw a hole in a precipitous bank, which I felt assured was the nesting-
place of a Kingfisher ; and on passing a spare top of my fly rod to the extremity, a distance of nearly

TUE KINGFISHER. 347

three feet, I brought out some freshly-cast bones of fish, convincing me that I was right in my
surmise. The day following I again visited the spot with a spade, and, after removing nearly two
feet square of the turf, dug down to the nest without disturbing the passage which led to it. Here I
found four eggs placed on the usual layer of fish-bones. These I removed with care, and then
replaced the earth, beating it down as hard as the bank itself, and restored the turfy sod. A fort-
night after the bird was seen to leave the hole again, and my suspicions were aroused that she had
taken to her old breeding quarters a second time. I again visited the place on the twenty-first day
from the date of my former exploration, and upon passing the top of my fly rod up the hole, found,
not only that it was of the former length, but that the female was within. I then took a large
mass of cotton-wool from my collecting-box, and stuffed it to the extremity, in order to preserve the
eggs from damage during my again laying it open from above. On removing the sod and digging
down as before, I came to the cotton-wool, and beneath it was formed a nest of fish-bones the size
of a small saucer, the walls of which were fully half an inch thick, together with eight trans-
lucent pinky-white eggs, and the old female herself. This nest I removed with the greatest
care ; and it is now deposited in the proper place for so interesting an object — the British Museum.
This mass of bones, then weighing 700 grains, had been cast up and deposited by the bird and its
mate in the short space of twenty-one days. Ornithologists are divided in opinion as to whether the
fish-bones are to be considered in the light of a nest. Some are disposed to believe them to be the
castings and fseces of the young brood of the year, and that the same hole being frequented for a
succession of years, a great mass is at length formed ; while others suppose that they are deposited
by the parents as a platform for the eggs, constituting, in fact, a nest ; and I think, from what I
have adduced, we may fairly conclude this is the case : in fact, nothing could be better adapted to
defend the eggs from the damp earth." In ancient times there was a legend that when the King-
fishers made their nests — which were supposed to float upon the top of the sea — fine weather was
always allowed to prevail.* A custom used formerly to be in vogue in England of turning a
Kingfisher into a weathercock ; and, according to the late M. Jules Verreaux, this practice is pursued
in France even in the present day, where the bird is mummified and suspended by a thread with
extended wings in order to show the direction of the wind. Mr. Harting alludes to these superstitions
in his " Ornithology of Shakespeare " (p. 275). It was formerly believed that during the time the
Halcyon, or Kingfisher, was engaged in hatching her eggs, the water, in kindness to her, remained so
snlooth and calm that the mariner might venture on the sea with the happy certainty of not being
exposed to storms or tempests ; this period was therefore called, by Pliny and Aristotle, " the
halcyon days."

"Expect Saint Martin's summer, halcyon days."

Henry VI., Part i., Act i., sc. 2.

It was also supposed that the dead bird, carefully balanced and suspended by a single thread,
would always turn its beak towards that point of the compass from which the wind blew. Kent, in
King Lear (Act ii. sc. 2), speaks of rogxies who —

" Turn their halcyon beaks
With every gale and vary of their masters."

And, after Shakspere, Marlowe, in his Jew of Malta, says : —

" But how now stands the wind ?
Into what corner peers my halcyon's hill ? "

The Common Kingfisher measures about seven inches from the tip of his bill to the end of his
tail. The colour of the upper parts is blue, greener on the mantle and scapulars, and beautiful rich
cobalt on the back, rump, and upper tail-coverts ; the head is blue, barred with black, the wings blue,
with spots of brighter cobalt on the coverts ; in front of the eye is a spot of rufous, this being also the
colour of the eye-coverts and under parts; the throat is white, and there is a patch of white on
each side of the neck ; the cheeks and sides of the breast are blue, the bill is black, the feet

" Perque dies placidos hiberno tempore septem
Incubat alcyone pendentibus ajquore nidis. "— Ovid, Met. xi. 745.

PIED KINGFISHER,

THE KINGFISHER FAMILY. 349

red. The female is coloured like the male, but can always be told by the red colour at the base
of the under mandible. This is also present in young birds of both sexes, but the latter can
readily be distinguished by their shorter bills.

Species of the genus Alcedo are distributed over the greater part of the Old World, extend-
ing even into the Molucca Islands, but in Australia and the Papuan group they are represented by
the genus Alcyone, comprising Kingfishers of similar form to the English bird, but distinguished by
the absence of the inner toe. In Africa and Madagascar some beautiful little crested King-
fishers (Corythornis) are met with, the largest of which scarcely exceeds five inches in length.
A very familiar species on the banks of the Nile is the Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle * rudis), one of the
commonest birds in Africa and India, and of this species Dr. von Heuglin writes f : — " It lives
in pairs, is sociable, and, except during the breeding season, more friendly with members of its
own species than other Kingfishers, and often several pairs dwell in the same neighbourhood. It
sits and watches along the shore on overhanging branches, on roofs, walls, brickets, rocks, and even
on the ground, but seldom pounces from the latter on its prey. From time to time it takes a flight
over shallow clear water, also right across the river or from one island to another, sometimes very
low, generally, however, several fathoms above the surface. Its flight is not very swift, but straight,
and steadied by quick, fluttering motions of the wing — not rushing, like that of Alcedo ispida — and
it rises and falls according to will and with great agility. One often sees it, after taking a start
by several quick flaps of the wing, and gliding on for a distance, suddenly, with one quick
movement, alter the direction of the flight and suddenly stop and hover. When hovering, the bill
is held straight down, and the hind part of the body and tail also rather lowered. Directly it
catches sight of its scaly prey it turns up, lays its feathers close to the body, and drops like a stone
into the water, remaining often over ten seconds below the surface. It seldom misses its mark, and
devours the fish it has captured either on the wing or at one of its resting-places. The voice is a
shrill whistle, at the same time chirpy, or at times snickery. During the pairing time the males
often fight on the wing, and roll together, calling loudly, nearly to the surface of the water. In
Egypt the breeding season is our spring ; according to Adams, as early as December. The nest, con-
sisting of a small heap of clean dry grass, is placed in a horizontal hole about arm's depth in a steep
bank, and contains four to six pure white roundish eggs, the shell of which is rather rough compared
with that of A Icedo ispida. Often several nest-holes are close together. The plumage of the young
much resembles that of the adult. There is scarcely any bird on the Nile tamer than the Black and
White Kingfisher." The genus Ceryle, to which the foregoing species belongs, is largely represented in
the New World, one of the best known being the Belted Kingfisher of North America, and an unusual
circumstance in fish-eating Kingfishers is characteristic of the genus, viz., a difference in the colouring
of the sexes. The Stork-billed Kingfishers (Pelargopsisty are the most powerful members of the
sub-family, some of them measuring nearly a foot and a half in length.

More difference in form and size is perceptible in the omnivorous Kingfishers (Dacelonince),
where some of the little three-toed species of Ceyx do not exceed five inches in length, whereas the
Great Laughing Jackasses of Australia (Dacelo) attain the dimensions of more than a foot and a half.
The smaller birds of this section feed almost entirely on insects, and the Rose-cheeked Kingfisher of
Africa (Ispidina§picta) feeds principally on Grasshoppers and small Locusts, while its representative
in Natal (/. natalensis) is said to feed entirely on Butterflies and insects caught on the wing. They
are often found along the banks of rivers, but never catch fish. The large genus Halcyon is dis-
tributed all over Africa, and ranges throughout Southern Asia, through China, to Japan, inhabiting
also the islands of the Malay Archipelago and the entire Continent of Australia. These birds prefer
a mixed diet, and, in addition to an occasional fish, they will also eat Crustacea, small reptiles, and
insects. Perhaps the most beautiful of all the Kingfisher family are the Tanysipterce, \\ which are
found only in New Guinea, the adjacent Moluccas, and the noi-th-east peninsula of Australia,
These birds have only ten tail-feathers, the middle pair being very much longer than the rest, and
ending in a spatule or racket. They live entirely in the forests, feeding on insects, and they are said
to roost in the holes of rocks by the side of small streams. The best known species of Tanysiptera

* KnpuXos, a sea-bird of the halcyon kind. f " Ornithologie Nord Ost Afrikas," p. 185.

I n-eXapTo?, a stork ; w\li, a face. § Diminutive of Ispida, a Kingfisher. [| ravva, to stretch ; irrepov, a wing.

139

350

NATURAL HISTORY.

is the Australian Cinnamon-breasted Kingfisher (T. sylvia), which was discovered by the late Mr.
John Macgillivray, who gives the following account of its habits : — " This pretty Tanysiptera is rather
plentiful in the neighbourhood of Cape York, where it frequents the dense bushes, and is especially
fond of resorting to the sunny openings in the woods, attracted, probably, by the greater abundance of
insect food found in such places than elsewhere. I never saw it on the ground, and usually was
first made aware of its presence by the glancing of its bright colours as it darted past with a rapid
arrow-like flight, and disappeared in an instant amongst the dense foliage. Its cry, which may be

LAVGHIXG JACKASS.

represented by whee-whe-ivhee and wfteet-wheet-wheet, is usually uttered when the bird is perched on
a bare, transverse branch, or woody, rope-like climber, which it uses as a look-out station, and
whence it makes short dashes at any passing insect or small Lizard, generally returning to the
same spot. It is a shy, suspicious bird, and one well calculated to try the patience of the shooter,
who may follow it for an hour without getting a shot, unless he has as keen an eye as a native,
to whom I was indebted for first pointing it out to me. According to the natives, who know it
by the name of Quatawur, it lays three white eggs in a hole dug by itself in one of the large
ant-hills of red clay which form so remarkable a feature in the neighbourhood, some of them
being as much as ten feet in height, with numerous buttresses and pinnacles. I believe that the
bird also inhabits New Guinea ; for at Redscar Bay, on the south-east of that great island, in
long. 146° 15' E., a head strung upon a necklace was procured from the natives."

The largest of all the Kingfishers are the Laughing Jackasses of Australia, this curious name
being given to the bird from its strange note and peculiar look, both of which can be appreciated

THE HORX BILLS. 351

by any visitor to the London Zoological Gardens, where there is generally one, if not two, out of the
seven species known. Of the bird in its native haunts a very good idea is given us by the " Old
Bushman," the late Mr. Henry Wheelwright, which is here taken from a little work called the " Bush
Wanderings of a Naturalist." " About an hour before sunrise the bushman is awakened by the most
discordant sounds, as if a troop of fiends were shouting, whooping, and laughing around him in one
wild chorus : this is the morning song of the ' Laughing Jackass,' warning his feathered mates that
daybreak is at hand. At noon the same wild laugh is heard, and as the sun sinks into the west it
again rings through the forest. I shall never forget the first night I slept in the open bush in this
country. It was in the Black Forest. I woke about daybreak, after a confused sleep, and for some
minutes I could not remember where I was, such were the extraordinary sounds that greeted my ears ;
the fiendish laugh of the Jackass, the clear, flute-like note of the Magpie, the hoarse cackle of the
Wattle-birds, the jargon of flocks of Leatherheads, and the screaming of thousands of Parrots as they
dashed through the forest, all joining chorus, formed one of the most extraordinary concerts I have ever
heard, and seemed at the moment to have been got up for the purpose of welcoming the stranger to
this land of wonders on that eventful morning. I have heard it hundreds of times since, but never
with the same feelings that I listened to it then. The Laughing Jackass is the bushman's clock, and
being by no means shy, of a companionable nature, a constant attendant about the bush-tent, and a
destroyer of Snakes, is regarded, like the Robin at home, as a sacred bird in the Australian forests. It
is an uncouth-looking bird, a huge species of land Kingfisher, nearly the size of a Crow, of a rich
chestnut brown and dirty white colour ; the wings slightly chequered with light blue, after the manner
of the British Jay ; the tail-feathers long, rather pointed, and barred with brown. It has the foot of a
Kingfisher ; a very formidable, long, pointed beak, and a large mouth ; it has also a kind of crest, which
it erects when angry or frightened, and this gives it a very ferocious appearance. It is a common bird
in all the forest throughout the year ; breeds in a hole of a tree, and the eggs are white ; generally seen
in pairs, and by no means shy. Their principal food appears to be small reptiles, grubs, and caterpillars.
As I said before, it destroys Snakes. I never but once saw them at this game : a pair of Jackasses had
disabled a Carpet-Snake under an old gum-tree, and they sat on a dead branch above it, every now and
then darting down and pecking it, and by their antics and chattering seemed to consider it a capital
joke. I can't say whether they ate the Snake — I fancy not; at least the only reptiles I have ever found
in their stomachs have been small Lizards. The first sight that struck me on landing in London was a
poor old Laughing Jackass moped up in a cage in Ratcliffe Highway. I never saw a more miserable,
woe-begone object. I quite pitied my poor old friend, as he sat dejected on his perch ; and the thought
struck me at the time that we were probably neither of us benefited in changing the quiet freedom of
the bush for the noise and bustle of the modern Babylon." The Common Laughing Jackass has the
sexes alike, but in all the other species the male has a blue tail and the female a red one.

THE FOUETH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAX BIRDS.
THE HORNBILLS (Buceroiida) .

These birds are found in Africa, India, and throughout the Malayan region and Molucca Islands, as
far as New Guinea. They are birds of rather ungainly appearance, nearly every species having a casque,
or helmet, which is developed in every variety of shape, and in some of them reaches an extraordinary
size. The flat soles which were alluded to in the Kingfishers are here developed in a greater degree,
and the toes are united together in exactly the same way. The flight, however, of the Hornbills is very
different from that of the Kingfishers, being heavy and performed with an abundance of noise : so
much so that some explorers in South-eastern New Guinea have been led to speak of a bird
whose wings, when flying, produced a noise " resembling a locomotive," but which was doubt-
less made by the large Hornbill (Bnceros * ruficollis), which frequents that part of the world.
They are generally found on very lofty trees and at a great height, which makes them difficult to
shoot ; and Governor Ussher says that in ascending the lonely forest-clad rivers of North- western Borneo
the only sign of life is often a solitary Hornbill flying across at a great height in the air. Wallace
states that the Rhinoceros Hornbill (Buceros r/tinoceros), a native of the Malayan Peninsula and Borneo,

* /Joi'*«pc<K, having the horn (ice'pcw) of a cow (jSous).

352

NATURAL HISTORY.

finds the exertion of flying so great that it is compelled to rest at intervals of about a mile ; and the
same author says that he heard the Great Hornbill (Dichoceros bicornis} more than a mile off, so that
the amazement caused by one of these large birds to the travellers in New Guinea, as mentioned above,
does not seem so very inexplicable. The voice of the last-named species is said to be very harsh and
grating, and the noise it makes is compared by Wallace to something between the bray of a Jackass
and the shriek of a locomotive, and is not to be surpassed, probably, in power by any sound that an
animal is capable of making. Tickell says that its roar re-echoes through the hills to such a degree

GUEAT HORNBILL.

that it is difficult to assign the noise to a bird ; and Wallace observes that this is kept up so continuously
as to be absolutely unbearable. The flight is heavy, and performed by repeated flappings of its huge
wings. It usually flies in a straight line, and sails only when about to alight upon some tree.*

The food of the Hornbills consists principally of fruits, but under certain circumstances they
become to a great extent omnivorous, and will devour anything, some of the species searching the
ground for Lizards, which they devour readily, both when wild and in confinement ; and the Pied
Hornbill (Anthracoceros malabaricus) is stated by Mr. Inglis to be very fond of live fish, which it
catches in shallow pools. The way he discovered this predilection for an abnormal diet was as follows :
he possessed a tame Otter and three tame Hornbills ; at feeding time the Otter was placed in a tub

* Elliot : "Monograph of the Bucerotidae, or family of the Hornbills," Part IV.

THE KORNBILLS. 353

containing live fish, and these, when closely pressed, would jump out to escape from their pursuer, and
were immediately swallowed by the Hornbills. Mr. Inglis has also found bones of fish in the stomachs
of birds which he had shot ; and the natives of the Naga Hills affirm that when these Hornbills are
intent on fishing they can be approached sufficiently close to be killed by a stick.

By far the most curious habit belonging to these birds is that which takes place during the
breeding season, when the male bird plasters the female into a hollow tree, there to hatch her eggs,
nor does he release her until the young ones are nearly full grown. It is scarcely possible to conceive
a practice more detrimental to the well-being of any bird than this. The exertion of feeding
himself as well as his wife and nestlings must entail a serious strain upon the male, while the
destruction of the latter must inevitably ensure the starvation of the female and of the young birds.
This curious habit has been well attested by observers in Asia as well as in Africa ; and the writer
once received from an old negro collector on the West Coast of Africa, who rejoiced in the name of
St. Thomas David Aubinn, and styled himself " Royal Hunter to the King of Denkera," an adult
female of the Black Hornbill (Sphagolobus atratus), together with a nearly full-grown young one.
which, he said, had been taken by him together out of the hole of a tree ; and the habits of the Horn-
bill in this respect were given by him in the following words : " When the female go to sit, the male
he her shut in tree. If he no bring food, then she angry. If he no then bring food, then she more
angry — swear. If he no then bring food, then she curse him for die. Man — beef — beefy — beef ! "

If the last sentence is intended to represent the enraged Hornbill, it is evident that the noises
produced by the bird are not of that startling character ascribed to the Eastern species by Wallace, as
mentioned above. All accounts seem to agree that the female is shut in the hollow of a tree ; but Dr.
Kirk noted an exception, on native authority, and therefore one which must be confirmed by future
research. This is the Crested Hornbill (Bycanistes cristatus), which is a common bird on the river
Shire, where it goes in large flocks, and roosts regularly in the same places. " The natives say that the
female hatches her eggs in a hole underground, in which she is fastened by the male." Our astonish-
ment at the imprisonment of the female Hornbill is not lessened when it is found that the male bird
keeps her supplied with food by a most curious process, which accounts for the statement of Dr.
Livingstone* : — "The first time I saw this bird was at Kolobeng, where I had gone to the forest
for some timber. Standing by a tree, a native looked behind me and exclaimed, ' There is the nest of
a Korwe.' I saw a slit only, about half an inch wide and three or four inches long, in a slight hollow
of a tree. Thinking the word Korwe denoted some small animal, I waited with interest to see what
he would extract. He broke the clay which surrounded the slit, put his arm into the hole, and brought
out a Tockus, or Red-beaked Hornbill, which he killed. He informed me that when the female enters
her nest she submits to a real confinement. The male plasters up the entrance, leaving only a narrow
slit by which to feed his mate, and which exactly suits the form of his beak. The female makes a nest
of her own feathers, lays her eggs, hatches them, and remains with the young till they are fully fledged.
During all this time, which is stated to be two or three months, the male continues to feed her and
the young family. The prisoner generally becomes quite fat, and is esteemed a very dainty morsel by
the natives ; while the poor slave of a husband gets so lean that on the sudden lowering of the tem-
perature, which sometimes happens after a fall of rain, he is benumbed, falls down, and dies." At a
meeting of the Zoological Society on the 25th February, 1869, Mr. A. D. Bartlett produced a curious
envelope, which had been thrown by a Wrinkled Hornbill (Anorrhinus corrugatus) in the Zoological
Gardens of London, which was found to contain plums or grapes well packed together ; and Mr.
Bartlett came to the conclusion that it was by means of fruit packed together in such a wrapper that the
male fed the female during her confinement in the hollow tree. In 1874, Dr. Murie exhibited to the
same society some similar envelopes, or, as he more properly called them, gizzard sacs, which had been
thrown up by a specimen of Sclater's Hornbill (Bycanistes subcylindricus) in the same way as by the
previous bird. On examination, these gizzard sacs proved to be the interior lining of the bird's
stomach ; and it was evident, fi*om the short time that elapsed between the throwing up of the
envelopes, that, as Dr. Murie observed, the bird in the interval had made a new one, and got rid of it
also, without apparently being any the worse. One can readily imagine, however, that this process,
being continued during the long period that the female is shut up in the hole of the tree, must tend

* " Missionary Travels in South Africa."

354 NATURAL HISTORY.

greatly to weaken the bird. The habit of feeding his mate seems to be inherent in every Hornbill,
even in captivity, for Mr. Bartlett observes : — " The tame male Hornbill is particularly distinguished
at all seasons by this habit of throwing up his food, which he not only offers to the female, but to the
keepers and others who are known to him. The male Concave Hornbill (Buceros cavatus) now in the
Gardens will frequently throw up grapes, and, holding them in the point of the bill, thrust them into
the mouth of the keeper, if he is not on the alert to prevent or avoid this distinguished mark of his
kindness."

Mr. Wallace thus describes the habits of the Hornbill s, as observed by him during his travels
in the East, and he points out certain peculiarities, proving that the old systematic position of these
birds near the Toucans of America is erroneous : — " From an examination of the structure of the
feet and toes, and from a consideration of their habits, we are led to conclude that the Hornbills
are Fissirostral birds, though of a very abnormal form. Their very short legs and united toes, with
a broad flat sole, are exactly similar to those of the Kingfishers. They have powerful wings, but
their heavy bodies oblige them to use much exertion in flight, which is not therefore very rapid
though often extended to considerable distances. They are (in the Indian Archipelago, at least)
entirely frugivorous, and it is curious to observe how their structure modifies their mode of feeding.
They are far too heavy to dart after the fruit in the manner of the Trogons ; they cannot even fly
quickly from branch to branch, picking up a fruit here and a fruit there ; neither have they strength
or agility enough to venture on the more slender branches with the Pigeons and Barbets ; but they
alight heavily on a branch of considerable thickness, and then, looking cautiously round them, pick
off any fruits that may be within reach, and jerk them down their throats by a motion similar to
that used by the Toucans, which has been erroneously described as throwing the fruit up in the
air before swallowing it. When they have gathered all within their reach they move sideways along
the branch by short jumps, or, rather, a kind of shuffle, and the smaller species even hop across to
other branches, when they again gather what is within their reach. When in this way they have
progressed as far as the bough will safely carry them, they take a flight to another part of the tree,
where they pursue the same course. It thus happens that they soon exhaust all the fruit within
their reach ; and long after they have left a tree the Barbets and Eurylaimi find abundance of food
on the slender branches and extreme twigs. We see, therefore, that their very short legs and syn-
dactyle feet remove them completely from the vicinity of the Toucans, in which the legs are actively
employed in moving about after their food. Their wings, too, are as powerful as those of the Toucans
are weak ; and it is only the great weight of their bodies that prevents them from being capable
of rapid and extensive flight. As it is, their strength of wing is shown by the great force with
which they beat the air, producing a sound, in the larger species, which can be distinctly heard a
mile off, and is even louder than that made by the flight of the great Muscovy Duck." Mr.
Wallace * also describes the capture of a young Hornbill in Sumatra : — " I returned to Palembang by
water, and while staying a day at a village while a boat was being made water-tight, I had the good
fortune to obtain a male, female, and young bird of one of the large Horiibills. I had sent my
hunters to shoot, and while I was at breakfast they returned, bringing me a fine large male of the
Buceros bicornis, which one of them assured me he had shot while feeding the female, which was
shut up in a hole in a tree. I had often read of this curious habit, and immediately returned to
the place, accompanied by several of the natives. After crossing a stream and a bog, we found a
large tree leaning over some water, and on its lower side, at a height of about twenty feet, ap-
peared a small hole, and what looked like a quantity of mud, which I was assured had been used
in stopping up the large hole. After a while we heard the harsh cry of a bird inside, and could
see the white extremity of its beak put out. I offered a rupee to any one who would go up and
get out the bird, with the egg or young one, but they all declared it was too difficult, and they were
afraid to try. I therefore very reluctantly came away. In about an hour afterwards, much to my
sin-prise, a tremendous loud, hoarse screaming was heard, and the bird was brought me, together with
a young one, which had been found in the hole. This was a most curious object, as large as
a pigeon, but without a particle of plumage on any part of it. It was exceedingly plump and soft,

* " Malay Archipelago," Vol. I., p. 212,

THE GROUND HORN BILLS.

355

and with a semi-transparent skin, so that it looked more like a bag of jelly, with head and feet
stuck oil; than like a real bird."

One genus of these Hornbills is so remarkable as to demand a special notice.

THE GROUND HORNBILLS (Bucorax).

These are an African form, of which there are two or three kinds, distinguished by the casque,
which is open hi the birds from Abyssinia, compressed and shut in the South African species (B. cafer).

GROUND HOKNBILLS Of ABYSSLMA.

Of the habits of the latter bird several accounts have been written, from which a few extracts are made ;
and the first is from a letter sent by Mr. Henry Bowker to Mr. Layard, after the publication of the latter's
"Birds of South Africa"* : — " There are many superstitions connected with the 'Bromvogel.' The
bird is held sacred by the Kaffirs, and is killed only in times of severe drought, when one is killed
by order of the ' rain-doctor,' and its body thrown into a pool in a river. The idea is that the bird
has so offensive a smell that it will ' make the water sick,' and that the only way of getting rid of
this is to wash it away to the sea, which can only be done by heavy rains and flooding of the river.
The ground where they feed is considered good for cattle, and in settling in a new country, spots
frequented by these birds are chosen by the wealthy people. Should the birds, however, by some
chance, fly over a cattle kraal, the kraal is moved to some other place. They are mostly found in
* See Sharpe's Edition of Layard's " Birds of South Africa," p. 122.

356 NATURAL HISTORY.

groups of from three to six or seven, and build their nests in hollow trees, or in the hollow formed
by three or four branches striking off from the same spot. They roost in tall yellow- wood trees,
and commence calling about daylight. I never saw one eating carrion, as stated in your book,
though I have frequently seen them near the bones of dead cattle, picking up beetles and worms.
They will eat meat, mice, and small birds, and swallow them by throwing them suddenly in the air,
and letting them drop down the throat in falling. I once had a tame one, and noticed this par-
ticularly. It is very weak on the wing, and when required by the ' doctor,' the bird is caught by the
men. of a number of kraals turning out at the same time, and a particular bird is followed from one
hill to another by those on the look-out. After three or four flights it can. be run down and caught
by a good runner."

Mr. Ayres' account of the species in Natal, though often referred to by other writers, is
so excellent that no work treating of South African birds can omit it, and is therefore reproduced
here in its entirety : — " In the stomach of the male were snakes, beetles, and other insects. These
birds are gregarious, and to be found here all the year round, but are not very plentiful, generally
three or four, sometimes more, being found together. They are very fond of hunting for their food
on ground from which the grass has been burnt ; with their strong bills they peck up the hard ground
and turn over lumps in search of insects, making the dust fly again. Having found an insect or
other food they take it up, and giving their head a toss, the bill pointing upward, appear to let
the food roll down their throat. They also kill large snakes in the following manner, viz.: — On
discovering a snake, three or four of the bii'ds advance sideways towards it with their wings stretched
out, and with their quills flap at and irritate the snake till he seizes them, by the wing-feathers, when
they immediately all close round and give him violent pecks with their long and sharp bills, quickly
withdrawing again when the snake leaves his hold. This they repeat till the snake is dead. If the
reptile advances on them they place both wings in front of them, completely covering the heads and
most vulnerable parts. Their call, which consists of but one note repeated — a deep and sonorous
coo-coo — may be heard at a great distance. I have myself heard it, under favourable circumstances,
at a distance of nearly two miles. The call of the female is exactly the same coo-coo, only pitched
one note higher than the male. The latter invariably calls first, the female immediately answering,
and they continue this perhaps for five or ten minutes, every now and then, as they are feeding.
Their flight is heavy, and when disturbed, although very shy, they seldom fly more than half a mile
before they alight again. At a distance they would easily be mistaken for Turkeys, their body being
deep and rather compressed, similarly to those birds, with the wings carried well on the back. The
little pouch on the throat they are able to fill with air at pleasure, the male bird sent to me
to London doing this before he died. I think their principal range of country is on the coast and
from twenty to thirty miles inland. They roost on trees at night, but always feed on the ground."

In Angola, where the bird is called by the natives Engungoaskito, Mr. Monteiro had great
difficulty in procuring specimens, on account of the superstitious dread in which they are held by the
natives. He says : — " They are found sparingly nearly everywhere in Angola, becoming abundant,
however, only towards the interior. In the mountain range in which Pungo Andongo is situated,
and running nearly north and south, they are common, and it was near the base of these
mountains that I shot these two specimens. They are seen in flocks of six or eight (the natives say
always in equal numbers of males and females). Farther in the interior I was credibly informed
that they are found in flocks of from one to two hundred individuals. The males raise up and open and
close their tails exactly in the manner of a Turkey, and filling out their bright cockscomb-red, bladder-
like wattle on their necks, and with wings dropping on the ground, make quite a grand appearance.
They do not present a less extraordinary appearance as they walk slowly with an awkward gait, and
peer from side to side with their great eyes in quest of food in the short grass, poking their large bills
at any frog, snake, &c., that may come in their way. Their flight is feeble and not long sustained.
When alarmed, they generally fly up to the nearest large tree, preferring such as have thick branches
with but little foliage, as the Adansonia, ' Muenzo ' (a wild fig). Here they squat close on the
branches, and, if further alarmed, raise themselves quite upright on their legs in an attitude of
listening, with wide open bills. The first to notice a person at once utters the customary cry, and all
fly off to the next tree. They are very wary, and the grass near the mountains being comparatively

THE HOOPOES. 357

short, with but little scrub or birch, it is very difficult to approach without being observed by them
from the high trees. I followed a flock of six for upwards of two hours, crawling fiat on my stomach,
negro fashion, before I obtained a chance of a shot, when I was so fortunate as to break the wing of a
male without otherwise injuring it. It was quickly captured by the blacks. They are omnivorous in
their food ; reptiles, birds, eggs, beetles, and all other insects, mandioca roots, ginguba or ground-nuts,
constitute their food in the wild state. In confinement I have fed this bird upon the same food, also
upon fresh fish, which it showed itself very fond of, as well as on entrails of fowls, &c. On letting it
loose in Loanda in a yard where there were several fowls with chickens, it immediately gulped down
its throat six of the latter, and finished its breakfast with several eggs ! The note or cry of the male
is like the hoarse blast of a horn, repeated short three times, and answered by the female in a lower
note. It is very loud, and can be heard at a considerable distance, particularly at night. They are
said to build their nests on the very highest Adansonias, in the hollow or cavity formed at the base
or junction of the branches with the trunk."

The present species is of a very large size, measuring about forty inches in length, and about
nineteen inches in the wing. It is entirely black, with the exception of the primary quills, which are
white ; the bill and legs are black, but the bare skin on the neck and round the eye is bright red in
the male, but blue in the female.

THE FIFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTKAL PICARIAN BIRDS,
THE HOOPOES (Upupidte).

Different as these birds are in appearance and habits, ornithologists now agree that from their
structure they must be placed in close alliance with the Hornbills, with which they are more
particularly connected by the Wood Hoopoes. Instead of the ungainly figures and top-heavy-
looking casques of the Hornbills, the Hoopoes are remarkable for their graceful carriage and elegant
figure, in which the beautiful crest plays an important part. They are particularly at home in the
desert countries, where their sandy-coloured plumage is 110 doubt a great protection to them • and a
story is told that the Hoopoe, if it sees a Hawk approaching, will throw itself flat on the ground,
and by twisting its wings round in front and remaining motionless, with its bill pointing upwards,
it will look like a piece of old rag, and thus escape detection.

Not more than five species of Hoopoe are known, all inhabitants of the Old World, and the most
widely distributed is the Common Hoopoe (Upupa epops) of Europe, which visits England during the
spring and autumn migration, and at least one instance of its breeding in that country is known.
Mr. Howard Saunders states * : — " In the year 1847 a pair of Hoopoes nested in a hole of an old
yew-tree in a shrubbery of an old-fashioned garden at Leatherhead, Surrey. The proprietor was very
anxious that the birds should not be disturbed, and a strict veto was placed upon any bird's-nesting in
the shrubbery — a severe trial to our boyish propensities ; but we were afterwards rewarded by seeing
the parent birds with their young strutting about upon the lawn. As well as I remember, there were
five young ones besides the two old birds." The species is found all over central and southern Europe
in summer, being in some places very plentiful ; but it is a rare visitor to the northern parts, and has
disappeared from some countries, like Denmark, for instance, where the felling of the old and
hollow forest trees has deprived it of its accustomed breeding-places. In some places the bird is
disliked, and in Scandinavia, where it occurs only in the southern and central portions, it bears a
bad name among the peasantry, who suppose it to be a foreboder of war and hard times, and from
this circumstance its name of Harfugel or "army bird," is derived. The Chinese also have an
objection to them, branding them by the name of " Coffin-bird," as they often breed in the holes of
exposed Chinese coffins. On the other hand, according to Canon Tristram, in the Sahara the Arabs
have a superstitious veneration for the Hoopoe, and its magical properties enter largely into the arcana
of the Arab " hakeem." He says that great numbers of Hoopoes resort to the M'zab cities and
freq*ent oases in winter, where they strut about the courtyards and round the tents with the
familiarity of barn-door fowls. Mons. Favier says, that in Tangier the superstitious Jews and
Mahomedans both believe that the heart and feathers of the Hoopoe are charms against the
machinations of evil spirits.

* Sharpe and Dresser, "Birds of Europe," Part VII., 1871.
140

353

NATURAL HISTORY.

The ordinary name of Hoopoe is derived from the note of the bird, and in most European
languages the latter suggests the vernacular names. Thus, in Bulgaria it is called Poo-poo, in Valentia
Put-Put, Bubbula, &c., in Italy, Poupa in Portugal, and so on. Mr. Swinhoe writes of the bird and
its note as follows : — " I have already described the peculiar way in which the Hoopoe produces its
notes — by puffing out the sides of its neck, and hammering on the ground at the production of each

COMMOX HOOPOE.

note, thereby exhausting the air at the end of the series of three, which makes up its song. Before it
repeats its call, it repeats the puffing of the neck with a slight gurgling noise. When it is able to
strike its bill, the sound is the correct hoo-hoo-hoo ; but when perched on a rope, and only jerking out
the song with nods of the head, the notes more resemble the syllables hoh-hoh-hok. Mr. Darwin makes
use of this last fact to show that some birds have instrumental means to produce their music. It is
not to this point, however, that I wish to call attention, but to the fact of the bird's puffing out the
sides of its neck. It is generally supposed that the song of a bird is produced by actions of the lower
larynx on air passing up the bronchial tubes onwards and outwards through the main tube, or trachea.
The trachea of the Hoopoe is not dilatable, but its oesophagus is ; and the puffing of the neck is
caused by the bulging of the oesophagus with swallowed air. There is no connection between the

THE WOOD HOOPOES. 359

oesophagus and the trachea, aiicl apparently no organ at the entrance to the former that could modify
sound. What action, then, can this swallowed air be made to take in the production of the bird's
notes 1 Pigeons have strikingly large air-crops, which they empty with each coo, and refill before they
coo again. Many birds swell out the throat when calling or singing, and others move it up and down.
These actions must also be caused by the swallowed air in the oesophagus, and must modify the sounds
in some way, as variously used, adding power and richness in some cases, or giving veiitriloquistic
effect in others. This question seems never to have been enquired into before, and I throw out the
liint in hopes that others may help to elucidate the matter with their investigations."

The length of the Common Hoopoe is about one foot ; the upper surface is greyish-brown, the
win "8 and shoulders black barred with white, the rump being pure white ; on the head, which is tawny-
coloured, is an enormous crest, the feathers of which have a black tip, before which is a narrow white
bar ; the tail is black, with a white band at about a third of its length from the end ; underneath the
body is pale cinnamon, white on the abdomen and under tail coverts, the flanks striped with brown.
The sexes are alike in colour, excepting that the female is a little paler.

THE WOOD HOOPOES (Irrisor).

All the birds belonging to this section of the Hoopoes are remarkable for their very long and
strongly graduated tails, for their brilliant metallic plumage, which is always dark, and inclining more
or less to black — instead of a sandy colour, as in the true Hoopoes — and most of them for their very
curved, scimitar-like bills. They are all natives of Africa, and have a remarkably loud, chattering
note ; and from its harsh and resounding voice the Red-billed Wood Hoopoe (7. erythrorhynchus) is
known among the Dutch at the Cape as " Cackala," or the " Chatterer." The late M. Jules Verreaux
told the writer that the noise made by these birds is tremendous, and that on one occasion he was
attracted by an uproar, which seemed to indicate that something unusual was the matter. On pro-
ceeding to the place whence the noise came, he was astonished to find on the low branch of a tree three
of these birds, perched one on the back of the other, betokening by their drooping wings and repeated
chatter-ings the utmost consternation and fright. The cause of this was not far to seek, for just below
the birds was a cobra, balancing himself in an erect attitude, and perfectly motionless, the only in-
dication of life being the incessant flicking of the animal's tongue. The cacklings of the birds became
feebler and feebler, until at last the bottom one fell off the perch and dropped into the extended jaws
of the snake, which were ready to receive it ; while the other two birds, apparently freed from the
spell of the reptile's eye, took to instant flight. Having his gun in his hand, M. Verreaux shot the
snake immediately ; but on going to rescue the bird, found that the latter was qiiite dead. Mr. Thomas
Ayres, who has studied the species in Natal, says : — "The food of these birds consists almost entirely
of a species of cockroach, which they take from the crevices of rough-barked trees, and in search of
which they creep about the trunk and branches somewhat similarly to the Woodpeckers. In this
manner their tail-feathers frequently become much worn. From four to eight of these birds are
generally together, and frequent bushy country. They have a loud chattering note, and are extremely
restless in their habits. They have a peculiarly powerful and disagreeable smell." Mr. Andersson's
account of the species is as follows : — " It lives in small flocks — probably consisting of entire families —
which frequent trees, chiefly of the larger kinds, and examine them most assiduously in search of
insects and their larvte, which they extract from crevices in the wood and from beneath the bark.
These birds climb like Woodpeckers ; and their long tails come into constant contact with the rough
surface of the trees, by which the tail-feathers are much injured. When they have finished their
examination of one tree they move to the next convenient one, but not all together, as a short interval
generally elapses after the departure of each individual. The moment flight is decided on, they utter
harsh discordant cries or chatterings, which are continued until they are all safely lodged in their new
quarters. These harsh notes are also heard when they conceive themselves in danger from either man,
beast, or bird ; and they thus often betray their presence."

The present species measures about seventeen inches, the tail being about ten out of that
number, and being thus three inches longer than the body of the bird. The colour is black, glossed
with green on the head, back, and under surface, with blue on the throat, purple on the wings and tail,

3SO NATURAL HISTORY.

and having a bronzy gloss on the shoulders. All the tail feathers, except the two centre ones
have a -white spot near the tip and across the wings a white bar. The bill and legs are
bright coral red.

CHAPTER X.

THE BEE-EATERS— MOTMOTS— ROLLERS— TROGONS— NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS-
SWIFTS— HUMMING BIRDS.

THE BEE-EATERS— Their Brilliant Plumage— Colonel Irby's Account of the Bird in Spain— Shot for Fashion's sake—
THE MOTMOTS— Appearance— Mr. Waterton on the Houtou— Curious Habit of Trimming its Tail— Mr. O. Salvin's
Observations on this point— Mr. Bartlett's Evidence — THE ROLLERS — Why so called— Canon Tristram's Account of
their Habits— Colour- Other Species— THE TROGONS -Where found— Peculiar Foot -Tender Skin— Inability to
Climb— Their Food— THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR Q.UESAL— Mr. Salvin's Account of its Habits— Its Magnificent
Colour — How they are Hunted — THE NIGHTJARS, OR GOATSUCKERS — Appearance — Distribution — The
Guacharo, or Oil-bird— " Frog-mouths "—Mr. Gould's Account of the Habits of the Tawny-shouldered Podargus— How
it Builds its Nest— Mr. Waterton's Vindication of the Goatsucker— What Services the Bird does really render Cattle,
Goats, and Sheep— Its Cry — The Common Goatsucker— THE SWIFTS— THE COMMON SWIFT— Migration— Their Home
in the Air— Where they Breed— Nest— Tree-Swifts— The Edible-Nest Swiftlets— Mr. E. L. Layard's Visit to the
Cave of the Indian Swiftlet— THE HUMMING BIRDS— Number of Species— Distribution— Professor Newton's
Description of the Bird — Mr. Wallace on their Habits — Wilson on the North American Species.

THE SIXTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE BEE-EATERS (Xeropida).

THE Bee-eaters are among the most brightly plumaged of the Picarian birds, and are distributed over
the whole of Africa, India, the Moluccas, and Australia. One species (Merops apiaster) visits Europe
in the summer, being, however, nowhere so common as in the countries of the Mediterranean basin,
though they occasionally wander to England. Colonel Irby* gives the following account of the
Bee-eater in Southern Spain : — " The bird did not appear to me to be quite so common in Morocco
at the end of April as on the Spanish side of the Strait, where, during April, May, June, and July, it is
one of the most conspicuous birds in the country ; at that season, Andalusia without Bee-eaters would
be like London without Sparrows. Everywhere they are to be seen ; and their single note, teei-p,
heard continually repeated, magnifies their numbers in imagination. Occasionally, they venture into
the centre of towns when on passage, hovering round the orange-trees and flowers in some patio or
garden. Crossing the Strait for the most part in the early part of the day, flight follows flight for
houi*s in succession. When passing at Gibraltar, they sometimes skim low down to settle for a
moment on a bush or a tree, but generally go straight on, often almost out of sight ; but their cry always
betrays their presence in the air. In some places they nest in large colonies ; in others there are,
perhaps, only two or three holes. When there are no river-banks or barrancos in which to bore holes,
they tunnel down into the ground, where the soil is suitable, in a vertical direction, generally on some
slight elevated mound. The shafts to these nests are not usually so long as those in banks of rivers,
which sometimes reach to a distance of eight or nine feet in all ; the end is enlarged into a round sort
of chamber, on the bare soil of which the usual four or five shining white eggs are placed. After a
little they become discoloured from the castings of the old birds, the nest being, as it were, lined with
the wings and undigested parts of Bees and Wasps. Vast numbers of eggs and young must be
annually destroyed by Snakes and Lizards. The latter are often seen sunning themselves at tho
entrance of a hole among a colony of Bee-eaters ; and frequently have I avenged the birds by treating
the yellow reptile to a charge of shot. The bills of Bee-eaters, after boring out their habitations, are
sometimes worn away to less than half their usual length ; but as newly-arrived birds never have these
stumpy bills, it is evident that they grow again to their ordinary length. It has often been a source
of wonder to me how they have the exertion to make these long tunnels : the amount of exertion must
be enormous ; but when one considers the holes of the Sand-Martin, it is perhaps not so surprising after
all. During my stay at Gibraltar, Bee-eaters decreased very much in. the neighbourhood, being con-
tinually shot on account of their bright plumage, to put in ladies' hats. Owing to this sad fashion,

* " Ornithology of the Strait of Gibraltar," p. GG.

THE MOTJLOTS.

361

I ;<aw no less than seven hundred skins, all shot at Tangier in the spring of 1874, which were consigned
by Olcese to some dealer in London. However, the enormous injury these birds do to the peasants who
keep Bees fully merits any amount of punishment, but, at the same time, they destroy qviantities of
Wasps. After being fired at once or twice, they become very wavy and shy at the breeding-places ;
and the best way to shoot them is to
hide near the colmenares, or groups
of corchos, or cork bee-hives, which
in Spain are placed in rows, some-
times to the number of seventy or
eighty together; and it is no un-
usual thing to see as many Bee-
eaters whirling round and swoop-
ing down, even seizing the bees at
the very entrance of their hives.
The reason of their early departure
in August is to be accounted for by
the simple fact that bees cease to
work when there are no flowers,
and by that time all vegetation is
scorched up." The Bee-eater suffers
probably less from the fashionable
rage after its plumes than do some
of the bright-coloured birds, as it
goes in winter to South Africa,
where it rears another brood of
young ones.

THE SEVENTH FAMILY OF THE
FI SSI ROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE MOTMOTS (Momotida).'
These birds are peculiar to
the New World, being found from
Mexico southwards through the

whole of Central America and the South American continent. Their general plumage is green, and
the majority of the species have a large racket at the end of the centre tail-feathers, formed by the bird
itself, as detailed below. Mr. Waterton gives an account of the Motmots in Demerara, and he was
the first to point out that the racket in the tail was produced by the bird's own action. He writes :—
" The Houtou ranks high in beauty amongst the birds of Demerara. His body is green, with a bluish
cast in the wings and tail ; his crown, which he erects at pleasure, consists of black in the centre,
surrounded with lovely blue of two different shades ; he has a triangular black spot, edged with blue,
behind the eye, extending to the ear ; and on his breast a sable tuft, consisting of nine feathers, edged

also with blue. This bird seems to suppose that its beauty can

•, be increased by trimming the tail, which undergoes the same

^^•^^ operation as one's hair in a barber's shop, only with this differ-

ence, that it uses its own beak, which is serrated, in lieu of a pair
of scissors. As soon as his tail is full-grown, he begins about
an inch from the extremity of the two longest feathers in it, and
cuts away the web on both sides of the shaft, making a gap
about an inch long. Both male and female adonise their tails in
this manner, which gives them a remarkable appearance amongst all other birds. While we consider
the tail of the Houtou blemished and defective, were he to come amongst us, he would probably con-
sider our heads, cropped and bald, in no better light. He who wishes to observe this handsome bird

AUSTRALIAN BEE-EATEK.

BILL OF MOTMOT.

362

NATURAL HISTORY.

in his native haunts must be in the forest at the morning's dawn. The Houtou shuns the society of
man ; the plantations and cultivated parts are too much disturbed to engage it to settle there. The

thick and gloomy forests are the places pre-
ferred by the solitary Houtou. In those
far-extending wilds, about day-break, you
hear him articulate, in a distinct and mourn-
ful tone, ' Houtou, houtou.' Move cautiously
on to where the sound proceeds from, and
you will see him sitting in. the underwood,
about a couple of yards from the ground, his
tail moving up and down every time he
articulates ' houtou.' He lives on insects and
the berries among the underwood ; and very
rarely is seen in the lofty trees, except the
bastard Siloabali-tree, the fruit of which is
grateful to him. He makes no nest, but rears
his young in a hole in the sand, generally on
the side of a hill."

In confirmation of Mr. Waterton's
remarks, a paper was published by Mr. Osbert
Salvin in the " Proceedings of the Zoological
Society " for 1873 (p. 429) :— " Some years
ago (1860) this Society possessed a specimen
of Momotus subryfescens, which lived in one
of the large cages of the parrot-house all by
itself. I have a very distinct recollection of
the bii'd ; for I used every time I saw it to
cheer it up a bit by whistling such of its notes
as I had picked up in the forests of America.
The bird always seemed to appreciate this
attention ; for though it never replied, it
became at once animated, hopped about the
cage, and swung its tail from side to side like
the pendulum of a clock. For a long time
its tail had perfect spatules ; but towards the
end of its life I noticed that the median
feathers were no longer trimmed with such
precision ; and on looking at its beak I noticed
that from some cause or other it did not close
properly, but gaped slightly at the tip, and
had thus become unfitted for removing the
vanes of the feathers. Since the subject has
been revived by Dr. Murie, it occurred to me
that Mr. Bartlett could hardly have failed
to watch this bird during its moults, and
whilst the tail-feathers were growing. I ac-
cordingly wrote to him, and received the
following reply : —

' DEAR SIR, — During the several years
the Motmot lived here I had many oppor-

MUTMIJT. , .

tunities of watching its habits ; and / have

seen the bird in the act of picking off the webs of the central featJters of its tail, and have taken
from the bottom of the cage the fragments of web that fell from the bird's bill. As the bird

THE ROLLERS.

363

lived here for some years, its bill got rather out of order, that is, it did not close properly at the
point ; and consequently the picking off the web at last was imperfectly performed, and the two sides
of the tail-feather presented an unequal and unfinished appearance. I noticed also that the Motmot
frequently threw xip castings, after the manner of the Kingfishers and other birds that swallow
indigestible substances. — Yours faithfully, A. D. BARTLETT.'

" The point is further elucidated by the examination of skins in our collection. We have a
number of specimens of various species in which the central tail-feathers were growing when the birds
were shot. The drawings now exhibited show some of them. Figm-e A represents the tail of a young
Momotus lessoni in its first plumage. The central tail-feathers are here untouched ; they merely show
the reduction in the breadth of the web in the part which is subsequently denuded. Of this more
anon. Figure B shows the growing feathers of the tail of a specimen of Momotus mexicanus ; in this
a few vanes have been removed from the left-hand feather. Figure c shows the process of denudation

TAIL-FEATHERS OF MOTMOT. (From the Proceedings of the Zoological Society.)

(A) Tail of if. lessoni: two Central Rectrices shaded; (B) Tail of if. mexictmits: the Central Rectrices, not fully grown, are shaded: (C) Tail of
a. lessoni, with stems of Central Kectrices partially denuded; (D) Tail of P. platyrliynchus.with Central Rectrices not symmetrical.

still further advanced. In all these three birds it will be noticed that the feathers in question have
grown symmetrically, both being of nearly equal length. Figure D represents the tail of a Priow-
rkynchus platyr/tynchus, where these feathers have not grown symmetrically, but the left-hand one has
been developed sooner than the right-hand one. What has happened ? The bird expecting to find
two feathers upon which to operate has commenced to nibble not only the left central rectrix, but also
the next rectrix on the right-hand side ! But it seems to have not felt very certain about the state of
its tail, for it has wandered off to one of the others, and commenced nibbling it also. When, how-
ever, the proper right-hand feather appeared, these mistakes have been discovered, and the work re-
commenced in the usual way. I can interpi-et in no other way the state in which the feathers- on the
right-hand side of the tail of this bird appear."

THE EIGHTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE ROLLERS (Coraciadee).

These birds constitute a family of birds which are strictly denizens of the Old World, and are
remarkable for their bright plumage. The vernacular name of Roller is given to them from their habit
of mounting or "rolling" in the air. Canon Tristram, in describing the habits of the European species
(Coracias garrula) in Palestine, writes as follows: — "On the 12th of April I reached Ain Sultan

S(J4 NATURAL HISTORY.

(Jericho) alone, and remained there in solitude for sevei-al days, during which I had many opportunities
of observing the grotesque habits of the Roller. For several successive evenings, great flocks of
Rollers mustered shortly before sunset on some dom trees near the fountain, with all the noise but
without the decorum of the Rooks. After a volley of discordant screams, from the sound of which it
derives its Arabic trivial name of ' Sclxurkrak,' a few birds would start from their perch, and
commence a series of somersaults overhead, somewhat after the fashion of Tumbler Pigeons. In
a moment or two they would be followed by the whole flock, and these gambols would be repeated
for a dozen times or more. Everywhere it takes its perch on some conspicuous branch or on the top
of a rock, where it can see and be seen. The bare tops of the fig-trees, before they put forth their
leaves, are, in the cultivated terraces, a particularly favourite resort. In the barren Ghor I have
often watched it perched unconcernedly on a knot of gravel or marl in the plain, watching apparently
for the emergence of beetles from the sand. Elsewhere I have not seen it settle 011 the ground-
Like Europeans in the East, it can make itself happy without chairs and tables in the desert, but
prefers a comfortable easy-chair when it is to be found. Its nest I have seen in ruins, in holes
in rocks, in burrows, in steep sand-cliffs, but far more generally in hollow trees. The colony in the
Wady Kelt used burrows excavated by themselves ; and many a hole did they relinquish, owing to
the difficulty of working it. But so cunningly were the nests placed under a crumbling treacherous
ledge, overhanging a chasm of perhaps one or two hundred feet, that we vvere completely foiled in our
siege. We obtained a nest of six eggs, quite fresh, in a hollow tree in Bashan, near Gadara, on the
6th of May. It is noticed by Russell among the birds of Aleppo." The colour of the Common Roller
is very beautiful, and we can well understand the significance of the Turkish name " Alia Carga," or
Beautiful Crow. The back is pale cinnamon-brown ; the wing-coverts pale blue, excepting those on
the edge of the wing, which are rich ultramarine ; the quills brownish-black, deep ultramarine
underneath; the secondaries with more blue on the outer web; the forehead white; the crown of
the head and back of the neck pale blue; the lower back and rump ultramarine; the upper tail-
coverts greenish-blue ; the tail blackish-brown, the feathers blue a,t the base, the two centre feathers
dull green ; cheeks and throat pale blue, streaked with silvery blue ; the under surface of the body
pale greenish-blue. The total length is twelve inches. One curious feature about the European
bird is that the outer tail-feather tends towards a point at the tip, as if there was an inclination to
become elongated ; and in Africa there is a species which actually differs from the European Roller
only in having the outer tail-feathers elongated to an extent of several inches.

In Madagascar, that wonderful island which produces so many peculiar forms of bird life, there
are found the Ground Rollers (Atelornis], extraordinary birds which live entirely on the ground, and
only come out at dusk. Their flight is said by M. Grandidier to be very weak, so that the birds
are never found above the lowest branches. They are rather local in their habitat, but where they do
occur seem not to be uncommon. The Cyrombo Roller (Leptosoma discolor") is also a native of
Madagascar, and has at first sight much the appearance of a Cuckoo, of which family of birds
it was for many years considered to be a member. The head is extremely large in this bird, and the
region of the nostrils densely plumed ; but the latter, instead of being placed near the base of the
bill, as in most Rollers, are situated nearly in the middle of the upper mandible. Messrs. Pollen and
Van Dam give an interesting account of this bird in their notes on the " Birds of Madagascar " : — " The
natives of the north-west of Madagascar give this bird the name of Cyrombo. It has the curious
habit of hovering in the air, and uttering a very loud note, striking its wings against its body as it
calls. This cry, resembling the syllables tu-hou, tu-hou, tu-hou, goes on increasing in force. Nowhere
have we found this bird in greater numbers than in the forests in the neighbourhood of the bays of
Boeny and Jongony, in the south-western portion of the island of Mayotte. The racket that they
make during the whole journey is truly wearisome. Although very active as criers, these birds are
lazy and stupid. As soon as they are perched on the branch of a tree, they remain, so to speak,
immovable, and in perpendicular position, so that it is easy to see them and knock them over. When
seen in this position, they look like birds impaled. We suppose that they live in polyandry, because
one always sees three times as many males as females ; often we have seen three males in company
with one single female, and all allowed themselves to be killed one after the other. In fact, when one
is killed, the others do not fly away, but content themselves with merely moving from one branch to

THE TRGGONS.

365

another. These birds live principally on Grasshoppers, but they devour also Chameleons and Lizards'
which gives to their flesh a disagreeable odour, like that we observe in the Common Cuckoo. In
preparing these birds we often found them with a species of large parasite of the family of the
Ornithomyise, of a dirty green colour. We were never able to study the propagation of this bird ;
but while in Mayotte we saw an individual make a nest of rushes in the hole of a great ' Badamier *
(Terminalia Catappa). These birds when they cry puff out the throat, so that this portion of the body
has the appearance of a pendent bag. When wounded, they erect the feathers of the forehead and
ears as well as those of the throat, all the while distributing well-aimed blows with the beak. The
Cyrombo plays a great part in the chants and religious recitations of the Malagasy natives. The

BLUE KOLLEK.

French colonists of Mayotte call this bird the ' Parrot.' It is common at Madagascar and Mayotte,
and has, according to Mr. Sclater, been found in the island of Anjounan."

THE NINTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.— THE TROG0NS (Trogotiidai).

These beautiful birds are found both in the Old World and the New, but are inhabitants of
the tropical latitudes only. In Africa two species only are known, nor does another species occur
until the coast of India is reached, and then in the forests of the peninsula and of the Himalayas
there are some beautiful red-breasted representatives of the family, whence throughout the Malayan
peninsula and the Sunda Islands some of the handsomest Trogons occur. But it is in America,
from Mexico southwards, that the larger number of species is met with, no less than thirty-three
out of a total of forty-six Trogons being peculiar to the New World. Their habits vary somewhat,
as all the Old World members are insectivorous, while the American species principally feed on
fruit, and only devour insects in a secondary manner. The Trogons may be distinguished not only
by their broadened bill, but by the foot, where the first and second toes are turned permanently,
two in front and two behind. This is a different arrangement to that of the Cuckoos and other
141

366 NATURAL HISTORY.

climbing Picarice, where the fourth toe is permanently or temporarily turned backwards as well as
the first. The skin of these birds is remarkably thin and tender, so that their preparation is by no
means an easy matter, and their appearance is also detracted from by a scantiness of plumage on
the nape, where a great want of feathers takes place. Mr. Wallace, writing of the birds of this
present family, remarks : — " As an instance how totally unable the Trogons are to use their feet
for anything like climbing, we may mention that the Trogons of South America feed principally
on fruit, which one would think they would get by climbing or walking after, if they could. But
no ; they take their station on a bare branch about the middle of the tree, and having fixed their
attention on some particularly tempting fruit, they dart at it, seize it dexterously on the wing,
and return to their original seat. Often, while waiting under a fruit-tree for Chatterers or Pigeons,
have we received the first intimation of the presence of a Trogon by the whir-r-r of its wings as it
dai'ted after a fruit. It is curious that this habit seems confined to the Trogons of America. In
the East I have never yet observed it, and in the numerous specimens I have opened, nothing has
been found but insects. The African Trogons also appear to be wholly insectivorous."

Again, in his "Naturalist in Nicaragua" (p. 122) Mr. Belt writes : — "The Trogons are general
feeders. I have taken from their crops the remains of fruits, grasshoppers, beetles, termites, and
«ven small crabs and land shells. The largest species, the Massena Trogon. (Trogon massena), is one
foot in length, dark bronze-green above, with the smaller wing-feathers speckled white and black, and
the belly of a beautiful carmine. Sometimes it sits on a branch above where the army of ants are
foraging below, and when a grasshopper or other large insect flies up and alights on a leaf it darts
after it, picks it up, and returns to its perch. I sometimes found them breaking into the nests of
the termites with their strong bills, and eating the large soft- bodied workers, and it was from
the crop of this species that I took the remains of a small crab and land shell (Helicina). They
take short, quick, jerking flights, and are often met with along with flocks of other birds — Fly-
catchers, Tanagers, Creepers, Woodpeckers, &c., that hunt together, traversing the forests in flocks
of hundreds, belonging to more than a score of different species, so that while they are passing over
the trees seem alive with them. Mr. Bates has mentioned similar gregarious flocks met with by
him in Brazil ; and I never went any distance into the woods around St. Domingo without seeing
them. The reason of their association together may be partly for protection, as no rapacious bird
or mammal could approach the flock without being discovered by one or other of them ; but the prin-
cipal reason appears to be that they play into each other's hands in their search for food. Creepers
and Woodpeckers and others drive the insects out of their hiding-places under bark, amongst moss
and withered leaves. The Flycatchers sit on branches and fly after the larger insects, the Flycatchers
taking them on the wing, the Trogons from the leaves on which they have settled."

THE LONG-TAILED TROGON, OR QUESAL (Pharomacrus* mocinno).

This beautiful species is mentioned in Wiliughby's Ornithology, which was published some
two hundred years ago, in which book an appendix is devoted to such birds as the author suspected
to be "fabulous;" and the Quetzaltototl of Hernandez was placed in this category, nor was it till the
French traveller Delattre visited Guatemala, and published his account of the habits of the bird in
1843, that it was restored to its proper position as one of the most beautiful of the feathered ttibe :
it is now by no means rare in collections. The best account of the habits of this species — and, indeed,
of any Trogon — is that given by Mr. Osbert Salvin, in his paper entitled " Quesal-shooting in Vera
Paz,"t in Guatemala. He writes from his diary : — " Off to the mountains at last, with a fine day and
a fair prospect of success. The road, after crossing the river, strikes off to the northward — a mountain
track winding among the hills. Soon after entering the forest, a river crosses the path — a foaming
torrent — a fall into which gives no hope of escape. A felled tree, one of the largest of the forest,
forms the bridge, over which, slippery with rnoss and foam, we have to pass. For ourselves it is
nothing; but I must say I tremble for the Indians, each of whom carries his 751bs. of cargo. In the
worst and most slippery part, the foothold is somewhat improved by the tree being notched with a
' machete ; ' but still it is as dangerous a pass as I ever crossed. After half-an-hour's delay, we reach
the other bank. One ' mozo ' only turned faint-hearted, and another carried his pack across. From

* 0apo«, a mantle ; uoucpds, large. f Ibis, 1861, p. 138.

36

LONG-TAILED TROGON, OH QUESAL.

THE LONG-TAILED TROGON. 367

\ihe river the path becomes very precipitous, and we continue to climb till we reach the foot of a rock,
where we find a deserted rancho, and take possession. A fire having been, made to heat the pixtones,
we dine, and afterwards start for the forest close by to look for Quesals. On entering, the path takes
the unpleasant form of a succession of felled trees, which are slippery from recent rains, and render
progress slow. My companions are ahead, and I am j\\st balancing myself along the last trunk, when
Filipe comes back to say that they have heard a Quesal. Of course, being especially anxious to watch
as well as to shoot one of these birds myself, I immediately hurry to the spot. I sit down upon my
wide-awake in most approved style close to Cipriano, who is calling the bird, and wait, all eyes and
cars, for the result. I have not to wait long. A distant clattering note indicates that the bird is
on the wing. He settles— a splendid male — on a bough of a tree, not seventy yards from where
we are hidden. Cipriano wants to creep up to within shot, \mt I keep him back, wishing to risk
the. chance of losing a specimen rather than miss such an opportunity of seeing the bird in its living
state, and of watching its movements. It sits almost motionless on its perch, the body remaining in.
the same position, the head only moving slowly from side to side. The tail does not hang quite
perpendicularly, the angle between the true tail and the vertical being perhaps as much as fifteen
or twenty degrees. The tail is occasionally jerked open and closed again, and now and then slightly
raised, causing the long tail-coverts to vibrate gracefully. I have not seen all. A ripe fruit catches
the Quesal's eye, and he darts from his perch, hovers for a moment, plucks the berry, and returns to
his former position. This is done with a degree of elegance that defies description. The remaivk has
often been made by persons looking at stuffed Humming-birds, ' What lovely little things these must
look in life, when they are flying about ! ' But they do not. Place a Humming-bird twenty yards
from you, and Avhat do you see of its colours, except in the most favourable position and light 1 This
is not the case with the Quesal. The rich metallic green of the head, back, and tail-coverts reflects its
colour in every position, whilst the deep scarlet of the breast and the white of the tail show vividly at
a distance, and contrast with the principal colour of the body. The living Quesal sti'ikes the eye by
its colour at once. It stands unequalled for splendour among birds of the New World, and is hardly
surpassed among those of the Old. Such are my reflections, when a low whistle from Cipriano calls
the bird nearer, and a moment afterwards it is in my hand — the first Quesal I have seen and shot.

" The cries of the Quesal are various. They consist principally of a low double note, ' whe-oot
wfie-oo,' which the bird repeats, whistling it softly at first, and then gradually swelling it into a loud
but not unmelodious cry. This is often succeeded by a long note, which begins low, and after swelling,
dies away as it began. Both these notes can be easily imitated by the human voice. The bird's other
cries are harsh and discordant. They are best imitated by doubling a pliant leaf over the first fingers,
which must be held about two inches apart. The two edges of the leaf being then placed in the mouth,
and the breath drawn in, the required sound is produced. Cipriano was an adept at imitating these
cries, but I failed in producing them for want of practice. When searching for Quesals, the hunter
whistles as he walks along, here and there sitting down and repeating the other notes. As soon as
he hears a bird answering at a distance he stops, and imitates the bird's cries until it has approached
near enough to enable him either to shoot it from where he stands, or to creep up to within shot. The
female generally flies up first, and perches on a tree near the hunter, who takes no notice of her, but
continues calling till the male, who usually quickly follows the female, appears. Should the male not
show himself, the hunter will sometimes shoot the female. Thus it is that so large a proportion of
males are shot. The flight of the Quesal is rapid and straight ; the long tail-feathers, which never
seem to be in his way, stream after him. The bird is never found except in forests composed of the
highest trees, the lower branches of which (i.e., those at about two-thirds of the height of the tree from
the ground) seem to be its favourite resort. Its food consists principally of fruit, but occasionally a
caterpillar may be found in its stomach."

The distinguishing character of this fine Trogon is the long tail of the male bird, which measures
about three feet in length. The colour of the upper parts is golden green, as well as the throat and
fore neck ; the breast is bright scarlet, and is overshadowed by some beautiful drooping plumes, which
spring from the shoulders, and hang gracefully over the wings ; the outer tail-feathers are white, with
black bases, and the bill is yellow. The female has a black bill, and is much smaller, and she does not
possess the long tail and decorative plumes of the male.

368

NATURAL HISTORY.

THE TENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.— THE NIGHTJARS,

OR GOATSUCKERS (Caprimulgidte).

From the adjoining woodcut it will be seen that a Nightjar is indeed a Fissirostral, or wide-
gaping bird, and this large mouth is characteristic of the whole family. Their soft mottled plumage,

their large eyes, and their habit of flying by night, have induced
many naturalists to place them in close proximity to the Owls, with
which family of birds, however, they have nothing further in
common. Members of the family of Goatsuckers are distributed
nearly all over the world, with the exception of the islands of
Oceania, and a great difference is observable in their size and
form, and to some extent in their habits. Thus the Guacharo, or
Oil-bird (Steatornis* caripensis), is met with only in the island
of Trinidad, where it is also called Diablotin, and where it inhabits
the inmost recesses of caverns, either by the sea or inland. The
birds spend the entire day in these dark recesses, and come out
only at night to procure their food, which consists of the fruits of

different palms, the seeds of which are rejected, and form, with the droppings of the birds, a thick
flooring of guano in some of the caves. Sometimes the bird forms a huge cradle of this deposit,
apparently for the greater security of its young ones ; and one of these singular nests, if such they may

MOUTH OF GOATSUCKER.

be called, is exhibited in the British Museum. The nestlings become very fat, and are sometimes
eaten, but according to M. Le"otand, in his work on the Birds of Trinidad, there is a certain odour
about them which makea them unpalatable to the appetite of most people.

In India and in the Malayan Archipelago is found a group of Nightjars belonging to the genus

(TTeap, o"reuTO9, lilt , opw?, 8> bini.

THE GOATSUCKERS.

369

Batrachostomus* popularly known as "Frog-mouths;" their place is taken in Australia and New
Guinea by the giants of the family — the Podargi, examples of which are generally to be seen in the London
Zoological Gardens. Of the Tawny-shouldered Podargus (P. strigoides^} Mr. Gould gives the following
account : — " Like the rest of this genus, this species is strictly nocturnal, sleeping throughout the day
on the dead branch of a tree, in an upright position across, and never parallel to, the branch
which it so nearly resembles as scarcely to be distinguished from it. I have occasionally seen it
beneath the thick foliage of the Casuarincc, and I have been informed that it sometimes shelters itself
in the hollow trunks of the Eucalypti, but I could never detect one in such a situation ; I mostly found
them in pairs, perched near each other on the branches of the gums, in situations not at all sheltered
from the beams of the midday sun. So lethargic are its slumbers, that it is almost impossible to arouse
it, and I have frequently shot one without disturbing its mate, sitting close by ; it may also be knocked
off with sticks or stones, and sometimes it is even taken with tjhe hand. When aroused, it flies lazily

COMMON GOATSUCKER.

off, with heavy flapping wings, to a neighbouring tree, and again resumes its slumbers until the approach
of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been previously dull and stupid. The
stomach of one I dissected induced me to believe that it does-not usually capture its prey while on the
wing, or subsist on nocturnal insects alone, but that it is in the habit of creeping among the branches in
search of such as are in a state of repose. The power it possesses of shifting the position of the outer
toe backwards, as circumstances may require, is a very singular feature, and may also tend to assist
them in their progress among the branches. A bird I shot at Yarrundi, in the middle of the night,
had the stomach filled with fresh-captured Mantis and Locusts (Phasmidce and Cicadce), which seldom
move at night, and the latter of which are generally resting against the upright boles of the trees. In
other specimens I found the remains of small Coleoptera, intermingled with the fibres of the roots of
what appeared to be a parasitic plant, such as would be found in decayed and hollow trees. The whole
contour of the bird shows that it is not formed for extensive flight or for performing those rapid evolu-
tions that are necessary for the capture of its prey in the air : the wing being short and concave in
comparison with those of the true aerial Nightjars, and particularly with the Australian form, to which I
have given the name of Eurostopodus.

* MTS>Z\OS, a frog ;

a mouth.

t Owl-like.

370

NATURAL HISTORY.

" Of its mode of nidification I can speak with confidence, having seen many pairs breeding
during my rambles in the woods. It makes a slightly-constructed flat nest of sticks, carelessly inter-
woven together, and placed at the fork of a horizontal branch of sufficient size to ensure its safety ;
the trees most frequently chosen are the Eucalypti, but I have occasionally seen the nest on an apple-
tree (Angophora) or a swamp-oak (Casuarina). In every instance one of the birds was sitting on the
eggs, and the other perched on a neighbouring bough, both invariably asleep. That the male par-
ticipates in the duty of incubation I ascertained by having shot a bird on the nest, which, on
dissection, proved to be a male. The eggs are generally two in number, of a beautiful immaculate

WHIP-POOK-WILL.

white, and of a long oval form, one inch and ten lines in length by one inch and three lines in
diameter.

" Like the other species of the genus, it is subject to considerable variation in its colouring,
the young, which assume the adult livery at an early age, being somewhat darker in all their
markings. In some a rich tawny colour predominates, while others are more grey. The night
call of this species is a hoarse noise, consisting of two distinct sounds, which cannot correctly be
described. The stomach is thick and muscular, and is lined with a hair-like substance, like that
of the common Cuckoo."

Mr. Waterton gives the following notes on Goatsuckers in his "Wanderings" (p. 139) : — " When
the sun has sunk in the western woods, no longer agitated by the breeze, when you can only see
a straggler or two of the feathei'ed tribe hastening to join its mate, already at its roosting-place,
then it is that the Goatsucker comes out of the forest, where it has sat all day long in slumbering
ease, unmindful of the gay and busy scenes around it. Its eyes are too delicately formed to bear
the light, and thus it is forced to shun the naming face of day, and wait in patience till night
invites him to partake of the pleasures her dusky presence brings. The harmless, tinoflfending Goat-
sucker, from the time of Aristotle down to the present day, has been in disgrace with man.
Father has handed it down to son, and author to author, that this nocturnal thief subsists by

THE GOATSUCKERS.

371

milking the flocks. Poor injured little bird of night, how sadly hast thou suffered, and how
a stain has inattention to facts put
upon thy chai'acter ! Thou hast never
robbed man of any part of his property,
nor deprived the kid of a drop of milk.

" When the moon, shines bright
you may have a fair opportunity of
examining the Goatsucker. You will
see it close by the Cows, Goats, and
Sheep, jumping up every now and then
under their bellies. Approach a little
nearer — he is not shy : ' he fears no
danger, for he knows no sin.' See
how the nocturnal flies are tormenting
the herd, and with what dexterity he
springs up and catches them as fast as
they alight on the bellies, legs, and
udders of the animals. Observe how
quiet they stand, and how sensible they
seem of his good offices, for they neither
strike at him nor hit him with their
tails, nor tread on him, nor try to drive
him away as an uncivil intruder. Were
you to dissect him and inspect his
stomach, you would find no milk there.
It is full of the flies which have been
annoying the herd.

" The pretty mottled plumage of
the Goatsucker, like that of the Owl,
wants the lustre which is observed in
the feathers of the birds of day. This
at once marks him as a lover of the
pale moon's nightly beams. There are
nine species here (Demerara) ; the
largest appears nearly the size of the
English Wood Owl. Its cry is so
remarkable that, having once heard it,
you will never forget it. When night
reigns over these immeasurable wilds,
whilst lying in your hammock, you will
hear this Goatsucker lamenting like
one in deep distress. A stranger would
never conceive it to be the cry of a
bird ; he would say it was the departing
voice of a midnight murdered victim,
or the last wailing of Niobe for her
poor children before she was turned
into stone. Suppose yourself in hope-
less sorrow, begin with a high loud
note, and pronounce ' Ha, ha, ha, ha,
ha, ha, ha ! ' each note lower and lower,
till the last is scarcely heard, pausing
a moment or two betwixt every note, LYUE-TAILED NIGHTJAR.

foul

(

872 NATURAL HISTORY.

and you will have some idea of the moaning of the largest Goatsucker in Demerara. Four
other species of the Goatsucker articulate some words so distinctly that they have received their
names from the sentences they utter, and absolutely bewilder the stranger 011 his arrival in these
parts. The most common one sits down close by your door, and flies, and alights three or four
yards before you as you walk along the road, crying ' Who are you, who-who-who-are-you.' Another
bids you ' Work away, work- work- work-away.' A third cries mournfully, ' Willy-come-go, willy-
willy-willy-come-go.' And high up in the country a fourth tells you to ' Whip-poor-will, whip-
whip-whip-poor-will.' You will never persuade the negro to destroy these birds, or get the Indian
to let fly his arrows at them. They are birds of omen and reverential dread. Jumbo, the demon
of Africa, has them under his command, and they equally obey the Yabahou, or Demeraran Indian
Devil. They are receptacles for departed souls who come back again to earth, unable to rest for crimes
done in their days of nature ; or they are expressly sent by Jumbo or Yabahou to haunt cruel
or hard-hearted monsters, and retaliate injuries received from them. If the largest Goatsucker
chance to cry near the white man's door, sorrow and grief will soon be inside ; and they expect to
see the master waste away with a slow consuming sickness. If it be heard close to the negro's or
Indian's hut, from that night misfortune sits brooding over it, and they await the event in terrible
STispense."

The common Goatsucker, which is also popularly known as the " Fern Owl," or " Nightjar,"
visits England only in the spring, when it arrives from Southern Africa, and distributes itselt over
the country. It is by no means an uncommon bird, but is rarely seen, owing to its habit of coming
out only at night, or at least in the twilight. They may then often be disturbed from the ground in
a country road, when they take to flight in a heavy manner, often making a flapping noise, which
appears to be caused by bringing the wings sharply together above the body of the bird. The call-
note may be described as " churring," and is disagreeable in sound ; it is
generally uttered by the Goatsucker when sitting on a low branch of a tree
or on a railing. It should be mentioned that the Caprimulgidae do not, as
a rule, sit crosswise on a branch, but always along the latter ; their favourite
haunt, however, is generally the ground, and it is supposed by some naturalists
that the curious pectinated claw is used by the Goatsucker for scratching
the ground. Dr. Giinther, F.R.S., who kept one of these birds alive, says

FOOT OF THE COMMON GOAT- tliat ^ frequen% usecl its comb-like claw for this purpose. Other people
SUCKER. have thought that its claw was intended for dealing away the debris of

moths and other insects, which would clog the bristles on the bill. The
true use of this comb-like appendage on the foot has not yet, however, been thoroughly determined.

THE ELEVENTH FAMILY OF THE FISSIROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.
THE SWIFTS (Cypselidce).

These birds, with the Humming-birds, are separated from the other Fissirostral Picarice by many
anatomical characters, the chief being the arrangement of the feather-tracts on the body, which are
quite peculiar ; the muscles are also unlike those of the other families, and hence these two groups
are often divided off by modern naturalists under the name of Macrochires. *

THE COMMON SWIFT (Cypxelut apm}.*

In the beginning of May the Common Swift comes to Great Britain and the rest of Europe,
after passing his winter sojourn in South Africa. He is one of the latest arrivals, as he conies only
when summer has fairly begun and fine weather is pretty well assured ; again, in autumn, he is
almost the first of the summer migrants to take his departure, and the absence of the Swifts from
their accustomed haunts is a sure sign of the approach of the fall of the year. So incumbent
does this early migration seem to be upon the species, that the Swifts have been known to leave
their young to perish of starvation rather than delay their departure if cold weather suddenly

* jxaicpds, long ; x«''p> a hand, in the sense of a wing of a bird. "1" Cypselus, a swift ; a, not ; jroii?, a foot

THE SWIFTS.

373

approaches. All birds appear to have at times a failure of instinct, and the Swift is no exception to
the rule, for sometimes they are caught in some cold weather on their arrival, and it is not uncommon
to find them benumbed with cold, and fluttering helplessly or even lying dead on the ground. In
this latter position they are peculiarly helpless, their little legs being unable to raise them so as
to give them the proper momentum to rise into the air again, while their lon« wino-s are much
in the way, and only assist in their entire discomfiture. The home of the Swift, then, is in the air
and here his evolutions are most

, v v3 '' -."••V"

rapid, and performed with ex-
treme quickness and yet with
consummate ease. For his
breeding home he often selects
water-spouts on lofty buildings,
such as the English cathedrals,
or else places his nest under the
roofs of houses, to the edge of
which he is able to shuffle, and
then to launch himself suddenly
down, after which his course is
easy. In the evening there is
generally a little gathering of
Swifts together, when they fly
screaming round and round the
buildings in which their nests
have been placed, separating
again for a few moments to
rejoin in an excited flock, which
passes with incredible swiftness
and much noise round the edges
of the towers or homesteads.
When about to migrate, how-
ever, they are silent, and the
flocks which may be seen cours-
ing along the sides of the downs
in the southern counties of
England in August utter no
sound, as if impressed with the
gravity of the long journey they
are about to undertake.

Macgillivray describes the
nest of the Common Swift as fol-
lows : — " It is very rudely con-
structed, flattened, about six
inches in diameter and half an
inch thick ; composed of particles of Aira ctespitosa, straws of oats, wheat, and grasses, intermixed
with fibrous roots, moss, wool, cotton, hair, and feathers of the domestic fowl, partridge, and rook.
These materials are confusedly felted and agglutinated, the glueing matter being of a gelatinous, not
of a resinous, nature, and in extremely thin shreds, which crackle, but do not readily burn, when flame
is applied to them. There is, however, a small quantity of the membranous scales of the Scotch fir,
together with some resinous matter, in one of these nests." The eggs are generally two in number, of
a long oval shape, and entirely white.

Swifts appear to be found all over the world, the most graceful being perhaps the Tree Swifts
(Dendroclielidon), which inhabit India and the Malayan region. In this same part of the world are
also found the Edible-nest Swiftlets (Collocalict), which breed in caves, their nests being eaten by the
142

COMMON SWIFT.

374

NATURAL HIS TOUT.

Chinese and other Asiatic people. Dr. Jerdon says : — -" The nest, when pure and of the first make,
is composed entirely of inspissated mucus from the large salivary glands of the bird. It is very small,
bluntly triangular in form, and slightly concave within ; of a semi-transparent, fibrous sort of texture,
bluish-white in colour, and with the fibres, as it were, crossed and interlaced. When the nests of the
first make are taken away, the second nests are mixed with feathers, and occasionally other foreign
substances. The eggs are two in number, and pure white." Mr. E. L. Layard gives the following
account of a visit to a cave inhabited by the Indian Swiftlet in Ceylon : — " I have at last visited the

THEE SWIFT.

cave in which Colloccdia md-ifica* builds, and will now, with the aid of my journal, give ail the
information I can, sending you bii-ds skinned and in spirit, and a young nestling taken from the nest
with my own hand. The cave is situated at a place called Havissay, about thirty-five miles from the
sea and twenty from the river, and about 500 feet up a fine wood-clad hill, called Diagallagoolawa, or
Hoonoomooloocota. Its dimensions are as follows : — Length between fifty and sixty feet, about twenty-
six broad, and twenty high. It is a mass of limestone rock, which has cracked off the hill-side, and slipped
down on to some boulders below its original position, forming a hollow triangle. There are three
entrances to the cave ; one at each end, and one very small one in the centre. The floor consists of
large boulders, covered to the depth of two or three inches with the droppings of the birds, old and
young, and the bits of grass they bring in to fabricate their nests. The only light which penetrates
the cavern from the entrances above mentioned is very dim. When my eyes, however, got accustomed

* Nest-building.

376

NATURAL HISTORY.

to the light, I could see many hundreds of nests glued to the side of the fallen rock, but none to the
other side, or hill itself. This I attribute to the fact of the face of the main rock being evidently
subject to the influence of the weather, and perhaps to the heavy dews off the trees ; but for this, the
side in question would have been far more convenient for the birds to have built on, as it sloped
gently outward, whereas the other was much overhung, and caused the birds to build their nests
of an awkward shape, besides taking up more substance. 1 was at the spot a few days before

Christmas, and fancy that must be about
the time to see the nests in perfection.
This is corroborated by the fact of my find-
ing young birds in all the nests taken by
me, and by what the old Chinaman said,
that the 'take' came on in October. I
find that they have three different quali-
ties of nests, and send two for your in-
spection. The best is very clean, white as
snow, and thin, and is also very expen-
sive. The most inferior are composed
of dry grasses, hair, &c., but I could not
detect anything like the bloody secretion,
as described (' though only under peculiar
circumstances of exhaustion ') by Mr.
Barbe, even in a fresh nest. I was in the
cave late (after 5 P.M.) in the evening of
a day which threatened rain, but the old
birds were still flying round the summit
of the mountain at a vast altitude, occa-
sionally dashing down into the cave with
food for their nestlings. By daylight
next morning I was on foot, but the birds
were before me, hawking on the plain
below and all about the hills. I have
found the birds here, in Colombo, in
Kandy, and all along the road we went.
I could learn nothing of the number of
eggs laid, nor of their colour. I found
one bird in

each nest. The Chinese who
live on the spot pretend not to understand
anything asked them, and the apathetic
Cingalese have never taken the trouble
information. The aspect of the country,
I saw flying round the various hills,
One, however, was pointed

•WHITE-THKOATED SPINE-TAILED SWIFT.

to see for themselves, so they could give me no

broken and rugged, coupled with the numeixnis flocks of birds

leads me to think there must be many breeding-places yet undiscovered.

out, but we had not time to visit it. I could not hear of any other kind of Swift breeding there,

but have just received such information as leads me to suppose that C. fuciphaya builds near Jaffna

on some rocks overhanging the sea. I may further add that there were no Bats in the cave with

(7. nidifica. nor did I see any bird of prey, save a fine Hwmatornis, which I shot. The Cingalese name

/or C. nidifica is WaJdit-na."

THE TWELFTH FAMILY OF THE FISSTROSTRAL PICARIAN BIRDS.— THE
HUMMING BIRDS (Troclnlida) .

These exquisite little creatures are perhaps the largest family of birds known, numbering, at the
present day, nearly five hundred species. It is simply impossible in a work like the present to do

THE HUMMING BIRDS.

377

more than allude to a family, the full description of which by Mr. Gould has occupied five large folio
volumes. An. immense variety of form and colour is presented to us. All the birds are of small size,
some of them being no larger than Hawk-moths, to which in their manner of flight they bear con-
siderable resemblance.

In some countries Humming-birds are tolerably common, but some species are of extreme rarity ^
such, for instance, as the Loddigesia mirabilis, which was discovered forty years ago, and still remains

SWOED-BILL HUMMING BIKI>.

represented by a single specimen in the collection of the late Mr. George Loddiges, and of which a
reward of fifty pounds, offered by Mr. Gould, has not succeeded in obtaining a second example. As a
rule, Humming-birds are a Neotropical family, that is to say, the vast majority of the species occur in
South America, and do not wander above the line of Northern Mexico ; but a few species are found in
the Southern United States, while one occurs in summer even in North America, ranging as far as,
and even breeding in, Canada. Professor Newton writes : — " Wilson, Atuhibon, Mr. Gosse, and
several others gifted with ' the pen of a ready writer,' have so fully described, as far as words will
admit, the habits of different members of the family TrochiliJce, that it is unnecessary to say much on
this score. Their appearance is so entirely unlike that of any other birds that it is hopeless to attempt

378

NATURAL HISTORY.

in any way to bring a just conception of it to the ideas of those who have not crossed the
Atlantic; and even the comparison so often made between them and the Sphingidce, though
doubtless in the main true, is much to the advantage of the latter. One is admiring the clustering
stars of a scarlet Cord/a, the snowy cornucopias of a Portlandia, or some other brilliant and beautiful
flower, when between the blossoms and one's eye suddenly appears a small dark object, suspended
as it were between four short black threads meeting each other in a cross. For an instant it shows in
front of the flower ; an instant more it steadies itself, and one perceives the space between each
pair of threads occupied by a grey film; again another instant, and, emitting a momentary

flash of emerald and sapphire light, it
is vanishing, lessening in the distance
as it shoots away, to a speck that the
eye cannot take note of — and all this
so rapidly that the word on one's lips
is still unspoken, scarcely the thought
in one's mind changed. It was a bold
man or an ignorant one who first ven-
tured to depict Humming birds flying ;
but it cannot be denied that repre-
sentations of them are often of special
use to the ornithologist. The peculiar
action of one, and probably of many or
all other species of the family, is such,
that at times in flying it makes the
wings almost meet, both in front
and behind, at each vibration. Thus,
when a bird chances to enter a room
it will generally go buzzing along the
cornice. Standing beneath where it is,
one will find that the axis of the
body is vertical, and each wing is tie-
scribing a nearly perfect semicircle.
As might be expected, the pectoral
muscles are very large ; indeed, the
sternum of this bird is a good deal
bigger than that of the common
Chimney Swallow (Hirundo rustica).
But the extraordinary rapidity with
which the vibrations are effected seems
to be chiefly caused by these powerful
muscles acting on the very short wing-

WHITE-BOOTED RACKET TAIL. boilCS, which ai'6 HOt half tll6 length

of the same parts in the Swallow ; and

accordingly, great as this alar action is, and in spite of the contrary opinion entertained by Mr.
Gosse, it is yet sometimes wanting in power, owing, doubtless, to the disadvantageous leverage
thus obtained; and the old authoi-s must be credited who speak of cobwebs catching Humming
birds. On the 3rd of May, 1857, a bird of this species flew into the room where I was sitting,
and after fluttering for some minutes against the ceiling, came in contact with a deserted spider's
web, in which it got entangled, and remained suspended and perfectly helpless for more than a
minute, when by a violent effort it freed itself. I soon after caught it, still having fragments of
the web on its head, neck, and wings ; and I feel pretty sure, that had this web been inhabited
and in good repair, instead of being deserted and dilapidated, the bird would never have escaped."

Mr. A. R. Wallace has written the following account of the habits of Humming birds on the
River Amazon : — " The greater number of species that frequent flowers do so, I am convinced, for

THE HUMMING BIRDS.

379

the small insects found there, and not for the nectar. In dozens, and perhaps hundreds, of
common flower-frequenting species which I have examined, the crop, stomach, and intestines have
been filled with minute beetles, ants, and spiders, which abound in most flowers in South America.
Very rarely indeed have I found a trace of honey or of any liquid in the crop or stomach. The
flowers they most frequent are the various species of Inga and the papilionaceous flowers of many
large forest trees. I have never seen them at the bignonias, or any flowers but those which grow
in large masses, covering a whole tree or shrub, as they visit perhaps a hundred flowers in a
minute and never stop at a single one. The little Emerald Hummer I have seen in gardens
and at the common orange (Asclejrias), which often covers large spaces of waste ground in the
ti'opics. But there are many, such as Phaethornis eremita and some lai'ger allied species, which. I

COMMON' TOPAZ HUMMING BIRD.

have never seen at flowers. These inhabit the gloomy forest-shades, where they dart aboiit
among the foliage; and I have distinctly observed them visit in rapid succession every leaf
on a branch, balancing themselves vertically in the air, passing their beak closely over the under
surface of each leaf, and thus capturing, no doubt, any small insects that may be upon them.
While doing this, the two long feathers of the tail have a vibrating motion, apparently serving as
a rudder to assist them in performing the delicate operation. I have seen others searching up
and down stems and dead sticks in the same manner, every now and then picking off something,
exactly as a Bush Shrike or Tree Creeper does, with this exception, that the Humming-bird
is continually on the wing. They also capture insects in the true Fissirostral fashion. How often
may they be seen perched on the dead twig of a lofty tree — the station that is chosen by
the tyrant Flycatchers and the Jacamars — from which, like those birds, they dart off a short
distance, and after a few whirls and balancings return to the identical twig they had left. In the
evening, too, just after sunset, when the Goatsuckers are beginning their search after insects over the

380

XA TURA L HIS TO R Y.

rivers- I have seen Humming birds come out of the forest and remain a long time on the wing. — now~
statiouary, now darting about with the greatest rapidity, imitating in a limited space the evolutions
of their companions the Goatsuckers, and evidently for the same end and purpose."

Wilson, the poet-naturalist, observes of the North American species as follows : — " Nature in
every department of her works seems to delight in variety, and the present subject is almost as
singular for its minuteness, beauty, want of song, and manner of feeding, as the Mocking Bird is for
unrivalled excellence of note and plainness of plumage. This is one of the few birds that are
universally beloved, and amidst the sweet dewy serenity of a summer's morning his appearance
amongst the arbours of honeysuckles and beds of flowers is truly interesting.

'When morning dawns, and the blest sun again

Lifts his red glories from the Eastern main,

Then through our woodbines, wet with glittering dews,

The flower-fed Humming bird his round pursues ;

Sips with inserted tube the honied blooms,

And chirps his gratitude as round he roams ;

While richest roses, though in crimson drest,
Shrink from the splendour of his gorgeous breast,
What heavenly tints in mingling radiance fiy !
Each rapid movement gives a different dye :
Like scales of burnished gold they dazzling show,
Now sink to shade, now to a furnace glow? "

CHESTED HUMMING JilllD.

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