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THE

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS,

'itS-

sP^

REPORT

\ c '■

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS

VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

DURING THE YEARS 1873-76

UNDER THE COMMAND OF

Captain GEORGE S. NARES, R.N., F.R.S.

AND THE LATE

Captain FRANK TOURLE THOMSON, R.N.

PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERINTENDENCE OF

THE LATE

Sir C. WYVILLE THOMSON, Knt., F.R.S., &c.

REGIUS PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH
DIRECTOR OF THE CIVILIAN SCIENTIFIC STAFF ON BOARD

AND NOW OF

JOHN MURRAY, LL.D., Ph.D., &c.

ONE OF THE NATURALISTS OF THE EXPEDITION

Publisl)eD bp ©vDer of i^er i^ajestp’s ^obernmeut

PRINTED FOR HER MAJESTY’S STATIONERY OFFICE

AND SOLD BY

LONDON EYRE & SPOTTISWOODE, EAST HARDING STREET, FETTER LANE
EDINBURGH JOHN MENZIES & CO.

DUBLIN HODGES, FIGGIS, & CO.

1891

Price Forty-two Shillings.

PRINTED BV NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH,
FOR HER majesty’s STATIONERY OFFICE.

EDITOKIAL NOTE.

This Monograph on Deep-Sea Deposits forms the penultimate volume of the
Official Eeports on the Scientific Results of the Challenger Expedition.

The work connected with the examination and study of the samples of
Deep-Sea Deposits, and the preparation of this Report for the press, have
occupied a very large part of my time and attention for nearly twenty
years, and my colleague. Professor A. F. Renard, has also given much of his
time to the same studies during the past fourteen years. We hope the
completed work may be regarded as an interesting contribution to our
knowledge of the ocean, and prove useful to a large number of scientific
men, as it is the first attempt to deal systematically with Deep-Sea Deposits,
and the Geology of the sea-bed throughout the whole extent of the ocean.

There are three Appendices to the volume, — the first containing an
explanation of the Charts and Diagrams ; the second a Report on the
Analysis of Manganese Nodules, by John Gibson, Ph.D., of Edinburgh
University ; and the third Analyses of Deposits and materials from the
Deposits, by various Analysts.

The final volume of the Challenger Reports will give a detailed list of
the organisms procured at each of the Observing Stations, together with
other summary matter dealing with general questions of Oceanography, and
will in all probability be published during the course of next year.

Challenger Office, 45 Frederick Street,
Edinburgh, November 4, 1891.

John Murray.

REPORT

ON

EEP-SEA DEPOSIT

BASED ON THE

SPECIMENS COLLECTED DURING THE VOYAGE
OE H.M.S. CHALLENGER

IN THE YEARS 1872 TO 1876

BY

JOHN MURRAY, LL.D., Ph.D.

ONE OF THE NATURALISTS OF THE EXPEDITION

AND

Rev. a. F. RENARD, LL.D., Ph.D.

PROFESSOR OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF GHENT

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PKEFACE.

During the Voyage of the Challenger, the collection, examination, and
preservation of all the samples of deposits were undertaken by Mr. Murray.
Mr. Murray had also charge of all the work carried on by means of tow-
nets in the surface and sub-surface waters of the ocean, and gave much
attention to the part played by pelagic organisms in the formation of marine
deposits. During the voyage he submitted the results of his work in this
direction to Sir Wyville Thomson, and the results are referred to in several
of the Reports of Sir Wyville to the Hydrographer of the Admiralty,
published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.^

Towards the close of the Cruise a Preliminary Report was prepared by
Mr. Murray on the Deposits and Surface Organisms, and published in the
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London.^

On the return of the Expedition to England, Mr. Murray continued the
examination of the large collections that were brought home, and published
some papers dealing with the results of his work.^

In the year 1878 Professor Renard was invited by Sir Wyville Thomson
to assist Mr. Murray in the examination and description of the Challenger
collection of marine deposits, especially with reference to the mineralogical
and petrographical aspects of the subject. Subsequently it was arranged
that a Report on all available samples of Deep-Sea Deposits, whether
collected by the Challenger or otherwise, should be published conjointly by
Mr. Murray and Professor Renard.

During the years 1881 and 1882 Professor Renard spent several months
in Edinburgh, when a large number of the deposits in the collection were
examined in great detail, and the methods of examination and the order of

1 See Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 423 ; vol. xxiii. pp. 32 and 245 ; vol. xxiv. pp. 33, 463, and 623.

2 Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv. pp. 471-544, 1876.

* “ On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of the Ocean,” &c., Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. j^p.
247-261, 1876; “On the Structure and Origin of Coral Reefs and Islands, ibid., vol. x. pp. 505-518, 1880.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

h

X

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

tlic proposed publication were arranged. For the past ten years the work
has been continuously carried on, and in the interval we have published
preliminary papere dealing with our results.^

At the outset it was proposed to give a detailed description of every
sample of deposit from depths greater than 100 fathoms, together with all
that was known of the physical and biological conditions of the waters at
the Stations from which the specimens were obtained. Nearly all the
Challenger siimi)les, and a very large number of samples collected by other
Expeditions, were in fact thus examined and largely prepared for publi-
cation, with names of the species of organisms and all other particulars. It,
however, became necessary to curtail the descriptions, and to limit them to
the Challenger collections, so that the work ultimately assumed its present
form.

The details with reference to the various samples of deposits collected by
the Expedition are presented in tabular form in Chapter II. The more general
conclusions and descriptions are given in a series of chapters dealing with
the composition and distribution of the different types of deposits, and in the
preparation of these chapters we have made use of all the materials in our
possession. Professor Renard thinks it should be stated that Chapter IV.,
dealing with the materials of organic origin, has been written wholly by
Mr. Murray.

We are much indebted to our friends. Sir William Turner and Mr. Robert
Irvine, for reading ditlerent portions of the proofs, and giving us the benefit
of their suggestions, and we have to thank the various analysts and other
scientific men for valuable hints during the progress of the work. We desire
to acknowledge our indelHcdness to all those assistants who have aided
us in the practical examination of the deposits, especially to Mr. Frederick
Pearcey, who accompanied the Expedition and was afterwards assistant in
the (’hallcngcr Ofiicc, and to Mr. James Chumley, who not only helped in
the practical examination of the specimens, but has also rendered great
assistance in the j»rei)aration of this volume for the press.

’ “On the Mirrrwcojiic Characters of Volcanic Ashcfl and Cosmic Dust, and their Distrilmtion in Deep-Sea
Dr]Miu,” I‘rnr. Hoy. Sor. Kdin., vol. xii. pp. 474-40r), 1884; “On the Nomenclature, Origin, and Distribution of Deep-
Sea IVpcMiU,'' ihid., pp. 495-520.

CONTENTS

PAGE

Preface, ix

Introduction, xiii

CHAPTER I.

On the various Methods of Obtaining, Examining, and Describing Deep-Sea Deposits, . 1-32

CHAPTER II.

On the Nature and Composition of the Specimens of Deep-Sea Deposits collected during
the Challenger Expedition, and their Variations with Change of Conditions, . . . 33-183

CHAPTER IIL

On Recent Marine Formations and the different Types of Deep-Sea Deposits ; their Com-
position, Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution, ..... 184-248

CHAPTER IV.

Materials of Organic Origin in Deep-Sea Deposits, ..... 249-288

CHAPTER V.

Mineral Substances of Terrestrial and Extra-terrestrial Origin in Deep-Sea Deposits, . 289-334

CHAPTER VI.

Chemical Products formed in situ on the Floor of the Ocean, .... 335-412

APPENDICES.

Appendix

I. Explanation of Charts and Diagrams, ....... 413-415

II. Report on an Analytical Examination of Manganese Nodules, by John Gibson, Ph.D.,

F.R.S.E., with Diagram, ........ 417-423

III. Chemical Analyses, ......... 425-496

MST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

29 LitliograpUic and Chromo-lithographic Plates, with Explanations.

43 Charts showinf? the Distribution of Nlarine Deposits in colour, and the Dredging and Sounding
Stations.

22 I)i»gn.n.. .howing the Verticel Uistrihiition of Temperature an<l the Kelathma between the
Deposits an«l Depth.

.36 Wotjdcuts in the Text.

INTRODUCTION.

All the notions concerning the sea among ancient peoples were vague and elementary ;
the few facts known with reference to the phenomena of the ocean were limited to mari-
time nations like the Phoenicians. Among the learned men of antiquity two doctrines
may be said to have prevailed with reference to the distribution of land and water.
What may be called the Homeric School — to which Eratosthenes ^ and Strabo ^ belonged
— held that the three continents of the old world formed a single island surrounded by
the ocean. On the other hand, what may be called the Ptolemaic School regarded the
Atlantic and Indian Oceans as enclosed seas like the Mediterranean, and maintained that
the east and west points of the known world approached each other so closely that, sail-
ing west from Spain, a ship might easily reach the eastern extremity. Thanks to
the influence of Ptolemy,^ this mistaken notion was perpetuated, and led about fourteen
centuries after his time to the discovery of America by Columbus.

The ancients cannot be said to have had any definite conceptions of the deep sea.
Experienced mariners, like the Phoenicians and Carthagenians, must necessarily have
possessed some knowledge of the depths of the waters with which they were familiar, but
this knowledge, whatever its extent,, has been wholly lost. In the writings of Aristotle ^
we meet with the first bathymetrical data. He states that the Black Sea has whirlpools
so deep that the lead has never reached the bottom ; that the Black Sea is deeper than
the Sea of Azov, that the Hlgean is deeper than the Black Sea, and that the Tyrrhenian
and Sardinian Seas are deeper than all the others.®

Polybius,® in estimating the time it would take for the Sea of Azov and Black Sea to
be filled up by the alluvium brought down by the rivers flowing into them, states that
the greater part of the Sea of Azov is only 5 to 7 fathoms in depth. Similar depths are
shown on modern hydrographic charts.^

Posidonius® states that the sea about Sardinia had been sounded to a depth of 1000
fathoms — the greatest depth that had ever been attained.® This is the first record of a
deep-sea sounding, and it would have been interesting had the writer given some infor-
mation as to the methods employed by the ancients in these bathymetrical measure-^

1 276-196 B c. ^ Born about 60 b.c. ^ Lived about tbe middle of the second century a.d.

^ 384-322 B.c. 5 Arist., Meteor., 114, § 29. « 204-122 b.c. ^ Polyb., iv. 39-42.

® Born about 135 B.c. ^ Posidon. ap. Strab., i. 3, § 9, p. 54 ; see E. H. Bunbury, History of Aucient Geography,
vol. ii. p. 98, London, 1883.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

c

XIV

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

meiitd ; before we meet with similar definite statements on deep-sea soundings centuries
pass awa}'. Plutarch * says : — “The geometers think that no mountain exceeds 10 stadia
(60G7 feet) in height, and no sea 10 stadia in depth.” Cleomedes’^ says: — “Those who
doubt the sphericity of the earth on account of the hollows of the sea and the elevation
of the mountains are mistaken. There does not in fact exist a mountain higher than
15 stadia (9107 feet), and that is also the depth of the ocean.”

The documents of the i\Iiddle Ages relative to orography and bathymetry are
indefinite and unimportant. The wide-spread opinion among sailors, that the greatest
depth of the sea is found near the steepest coasts, appears to be very ancient, and is
partly founded on fact. Ibn Khaldoun, who, in the fourteenth century, wrote his famous
history of the Berbers, remarks that if the highest mountains are situated near the sea, it
must be n'garded as a providential arrangement to arrest the invasion of the ocean.®

Nicolaus Cusanus, who lived in the first half of the fifteenth century, invented an
apj>aratus consisting of a hollow sphere, to which a weight was attached by means of a
hook, intended to carry the sphere down through the water with a certain degree of
velocity. On touching the ground the hook became detached, the weight remained
at the bottom, the sphere ascended alone, and the depth was calculated by the time it
took to return to the surface."* This apparatus was afterwards improved by Piichler,
Allx;rti,‘ and Hooke,® but the various instruments produced were not satisfaetory as
regards sounding in the deep sea.

Science, and in a special manner what may be called the Science of the Globe, plays
a large part in the intellectual and moral changes whieh characterise the transitional
period known as the Renakssance. The thirty years from 1492 to 1522, through the
discoveries of Columbus, Vasco di Gama, and Magellan, added a hemisphere to the
chart of the world. Not only did these voyages double at a single bound all that
wa.s previously known of the surface of the earth, but by creating new ideas, enlarging
the field of research, observations, and studies, they contributed more than anything
else to the progress of the past four hundred years, and the rapid development of
imKlern civili.sation. The existence of the Antipodes, and the sphericity of the earth,
were no longer scientific theories, but practically demonstrated facts ; the fundamental
principles of all scientific geograj>hy were for ever established.

During his voyage across the Pacific, l\lagellan^ attempted, for the first time, to
sound in the open ocean. Navigators at that time had sounding lines of only 100 and
200 fathoms in length. With these Magellan did not reach bottom between the coral
i.slnnds of St. I’aul’s and Bos Tiburones, and he somewhat naively concluded that this was

* townnls the end of the first century a.d.

’ n<iurishe<l prolwhly in the second centurj’ a.d.

* Ihn Kbnidoun, Ilistoire dcs I/erlKjrs, trad, de I’Amhe par M. le Slanc, torn. i. p. 194, Paris, 1852.

* For dt-j-riplion of thU apparatus sec Po;y?cn4orf, Gescliichte der Phyaik, p. IIG, Leipzig, 1879.

* I K4-1 172 A.D. • 1635-1703 A.D. M470-1521 A.D.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XV

the deepest part of the ocean.^ Although the oceanic phenomena revealed at the surface
of the sea were eagerly studied during, and immediately after, the time of the great
discoveries to which we have just referred, the phenomena of the deep sea cannot be
said to have engaged the attention of navigators and scientific men till after the lapse
of several centuries.

In the first half of the seventeenth century Kircher reviews the doctrines as to the
depth of the sea accepted in his time. He says : — “ In the same manner as the
highest mountains are grouped in the centre of the land, so also should the greatest
depths be found in the middle of the largest oceans : near the coasts with but slight
elevations the depth will gradually diminish towards the shore, I say coasts with but
slight elevations, for if the shores are surrounded by high rocks, then greater depths are
found. This is proved by experience on the shores of Norway, Iceland, and the Islands
of Flanders.”^

The first attempt to represent the bottom of the sea by isobathic curves is to be
found in a map by Philippe Buache in 1737. These curves are intended to show that
certain elevations of the sea-bottom correspond with the orography of the neighbouring-
land. In an essay on physical geography, published in 1752, he develops his ideas on
this subject,^

Unsuccessful attempts were made by Captain Ellis in 1749, by Lord Mulgrave in
1773, and by Scoresby in 1817, to sound the ocean. Sir John Ross was more fortunate
in 1818. During his first Arctic expedition he brought up 6 lbs. of mud from 1050
fathoms in Baffin’s Bay. Soundings were correctly obtained in 1000 fathoms in Posses-
sion Bay, and worms and other animals were found in the mud procured. Sir James
Clark Ross, during his Antarctic expedition,'^ after a number of unsuccessful attempts
with the sounding lines in use, made a new line on board his ship, 3600 fathoms in
length. With this a satisfactory sounding was obtained in 2425 fathoms in the South
Atlantic, and another off the Cape of Good Hope in 2677 fathoms. On two occasions
no bottom could be found with over 4000 fathoms of line. He also dredged successfully
in depths of 400 fathoms. Some beautiful specimens of Corals, Corallines, Flmtra, and a
few Crustaceous animals were obtained.

A great impulse was given to deep-sea soundings when Lieut. Brooke, an officer in
the United States Navy, invented his sounding machine in 1854, by which, applying
Cusanus’ idea of a detaching weight to the sounding line, the sinker was detached
when the weight struck the bottom. This instrument was modified and improved by
Commander Dayman, who employed it while sounding across the Atlantic in the region
through which the Atlantic cable would require to pass. The introduction of steel wire

^ Pigaffetta, Premier voyage autour du Monde, p. 53, Paris, I’an ix.

2 KircPer, Mnndus Subterraneus, p. 97.

^ Buache, “Essai de geographie physique,” &c.. Hist, de I’Acad. des Sciences, 1752, p. 399.

^ From 1839 to 1843,

XVI

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

hy Sir William Thomson in 1870 was a still further improvement, and, indeed, since the
commencement of submarine telegraphy, the process of taking deep-sea soundings has been
rapiilly perfected. ^lany submarine telegraph ships, surveying vessels, and even private
vnchts, have now been fitted with the most improved apparatus for sounding ; so that,
when it is desired to know the depth only, this can be ascertained expeditiously and
with great accuracy.

During the past thirty years the ocean has been sounded in all directions, and we
have in consequence a very correct notion of the general form and relief of all the great
ocean btisins and enclosed seas. Not only in a knowledge of the bathymetry of the
iKcan, but in an acquaintance with all the other conditions of the deep sea, there has
been a rapid and important development, thanks to the investigations of the Challenger
Expedition, as well as the previous and subsequent expeditions of this and other
countries.

This Report being limited to a consideration of the sedimentary deposits of the deep
sea, it seems desirable to indicate the views that have at difierent times been held with
reference to marine sedimentation.

Herodotus' discussed the formation of alluvium at the entrance of the Nile, and
the relations subsisting between land and sea, but on these it is unnecessary to dwell.

Plato,* in the myth of Atlantis, supposes a great extent of land situated in the
external sea to have disappeared in one day and one night beneath the water of
the ocean. Since that time, he adds, the Atlantic Sea has ceased to be navigable ; its
waters have become muddy and charged with clay derived from the engulfed land.®

Skylax of Coryanda,^ in speaking of the sea which bathes the west of Europe,
limits his remarks to saying : — “ Beyond the Pillars of Hercules there are many
Carthagenian commercial stations, much muddy water, high tides, and open seas.”®

Aristotle* Inis no new views with regard to the great external ocean, which, he
states, in accordance with the ideas generally admitted in his time, is muddy and
little agitated by the wind.s.

Polybius' points out that in the Sea of Azov the rivers bring down considerable
quantities of sediment. He estimates the time it will take for this fiuviatilc alluvium
to fill up, not only the Sea of Azov, but also the Euxinus or Black Sea. The ideas
of Polybius, from a geological point of view, are most reasonable, but the rate of
encroachment h{us been much slower tluin he supposed during the 2000 years which
sr-panite us from tlie time when he wrote. The modifications in these seas have'
not Ijccn ver)' appreciable.

StralK)* says: Running water works profound modifications on the surface of the

• 4s.i-.108 11.C. * Bom 42ft n.c. * Plato, Tima:ufl, c. 5, 6, and CritioiS, c. 3, 8.

* Flonriahwl in the middle of the fourth centurj' B.C. * Skylax, Periplus, 1. " 384-322 u.c.

2t>4-122 B.C • Born alx)ut CO B.c.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XVll

land, and these changes are subordinate to the nature of the country through which
streams and rivers pass. Torrents descending from mountains have a great erosive
power, and the same is the case with rivers which flow over soft or sandy ground ;
both spread out on the plains and transport to the sea immense quantities of
alluvial matter. The sediment from rivers is not transported to great distances,
for matters in suspension are arrested by the movements of the sea ; the bed of the
ocean is not in consequence filled up so rapidly as one would think, but the places
near the coasts are loaded with sandy materials, and it is here that the greatest
modifications take place. He rejects the view that the sediment brought to the
Black Sea by rivers could have bad any considerable effect in filling up that sea and
causing it to overflow. Strabo likewise attributed an active part to the winds in
all the changes taking place at the surface of the globe. To the combination of all these
forces he attributes what has, since his time, been called the sculpturing of the continents.^

Seneca ^ says : In virtue especially of its persistence and continuity, water acts on the
sobd bodies which constitute the land by dissolving and disintegrating them, and even
transporting them, sometimes far from their place of origin. All rocks, even the
hardest, are penetrated by water, which dissolves them at least partially. Seneca
attributes the solvent action to the presence of a gas (spiritus) ; thermal springs
possess the power of dissolving minerals in the highest degree. Among those which
resist the least, he enumerates salt, sulphur, nitre, alum, bitumen, and lime. The
matters dissolved by water are deposited again, and this precipitation is especially
abundant when the waters are thermal and gaseous. He likewise explains the formation
of calcareous tufas. He points out that the saline substances, held in solution by the
aqueous element, may be absorbed by earthy layers, which in a way serve as a
natural filter. What has just been said upon the chemical action of water shows
that Seneca had clearly recognised those hydrothermic phenomena which play so
important a role in geology.

Seneca’s ideas regarding the mechanical action of water are not less just. The
hardest rocks are not able to resist the repeated force exercised by a drop of water,
and the erosive effects of water are most pronounced when the forces in play are
those of rivers and the currents and waves of the sea, as may be observed in the
beds of rivers and on bold coasts ; everywhere on the land, water is to be seen
victoriously attacking and destroying rocks. Its chemical effects often precede the
mechanical action ; this last finds its work half completed. Streams and rivers
transport at all times, but especially during floods, clay, sand, and rocks picked up
from the layers which they traverse. The erosive power of waves is, however, even

1 See H. Fischer, Ueber einige Gegenstiinde der physischen Geographie bei Strab, als Beitrag zur Geschichte der
alten Geographie, Wernigerode, 1879.

^ Born a few years b.c.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

xviii

jnroater than tliat of rimnins: water : cliffs broken and smashed into ruins are
unquestioned witnesses of the work of destruction effected by the sea on coasts.
Running waters deposit at their mouths the matters which they carry in suspension,
thus fonning the deltas of rivers. In their turn the mineral particles in suspension
in marine waters are deposited at the bottom of the sea, often at considerable distances
from the cojusts. Among the factors which play a part in marine sedimentation, tides
and currents arc enumerated. Seneca points out, besides, that all waters, and especially
tliose of the ocean, possess the power of cleansing themselves from all impurities ; they
may l>e said to wash the coasts and lay down near them all matters ' in suspension.
Duriii" a series of centuries the lines of coasts undergo sensible modifications.^

A few notions regarding the geological action of water, the sediments carried into the
sea and then solidified, are met with in the works of Kazwini,^ and other Arab writers.

We find in Macoudi® examples of the carriage of fluviatile sediments, whose
accumulation eau.ses the sea to retire. He had been profoundly impressed by the
sanding up produced by the Tigris and Euphrates ; he cites the case of the city of
Iliza, formerly a sea-port, which, after the lapse of 300 years, was situated far in
the interior.^

.Mbirouni® embraced the idea, previously expressed by Megasthenes, according to
which Bengal has been formed by the accumulation of sediment deposited by the Ganges.
The writings of this author also show that he had observed the distribution of materials
tninsported by water ; he points out that the larger fragments are deposited at the
upper parts of rivers, that gravel is found lower down in their course, and finally,
that sand and the finest particles are carried into the ocean.

In Italy, in the fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci wrote that the sea changes the
equilibrium of the earth, that the shells accumulated in various layers have necessarily
lived on the spot which the sea occupied. The great rivers, he says, carry into the
ocean the waste of the land, and the deposits thus formed have been successively covered
by others of various thicknesses, and finally the bottom of the sea has become the top
of mountains.®

The Dane, Steno^, endeavours to show that the carapaces of Crustacea are formed of
matter secreted by the animal’s body; he establishes the connection existing between
fossils and the sclimentary layers which contain them, and the true origin of both. He
was the first to distingui.sh the layers formed in the sea from those deposited in fresh
water, and to notice the character of the .shells in both instances. He concludes, from

• S« A. NebriuK, Die msologi«:hen Anachauungen des Philosophen Seneca, Wolfcnbiittel, 1873 and 1876.

• Flouriahc**! aUjut 1263 a.d. * Flouri»hed about 91.1 A.D.

‘ M»g>ndi, lAf Prairie* d’Or, texte et traduct. par MM. Meynard et Courtcille, Paris 1861 ; see in jiarticular the
ancolot* of Kaled and AW-el-Mc^h, tom. i. c. ix. pp. 216, 222. ® Flourished about 1000 A.n.

• See Venturi, £>«ai iur le* ouvmgcs physico-niath(funati(iucs de Leonard da Vinci, Paris, 1797.

^ L>e aolido inlra tolidum naturaliter contento di“scrtationis prodromus, Florence, 1GG9.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XIX

his observations on the original character of these deposits, that the layers now found
perpendicular, or inclined to the horizon, were horizontal at the time of their formation.

In 1740 Ant. Lazzaro Moro developed a system in which he attributes to frequently
recurring submarine explosions the formation of mountains, plains, and islands. Accord-
ing to him the globe was primitively covered with water ; on the third day of creation
the crust which formed the bottom of the sea was raised. The mountains resulting from
this upheaval are the primitive rocks, in which no fossils are found. At a later period
there arose from the interior of the earth lava and other substances which accumulated on
the bottom of the sea, and were upheaved in their turn through the same agency. With
this second phenomenon were introduced diverse substances, such as salt, sulphur, and
bitumen. As a natural consequence the water became salt, animals were developed in
it, the earth became peopled about the same time, and the eruptions continuing produced
an alternation of sedimentary and eruptive deposits.^

Arduino divided the Paduan, the Vicentin, and the Veronese mountains into primitive,
secondary, and tertiary. The secondary mountains are for the most part formed of com-
pact limestone in continuous strata, and contain petrified organised bodies. These strata
vary in hardness, fineness of grain, composition, colour, and in the species of marine
bodies they contain, since, according to him, there is but one kind in each stratum.^

Marsilli ^ makes a few observations on the bathymetric knowledge then possessed
concerning the nature of the bottom of the sea ; he admits that the basin of the sea
was excavated “ at the time of the creation out of the same stone which we see in
the strata of the earth, with the same interstices of clay to bind them together.” He
adds that we should not judge of the nature of the bottom of the basins by the
materials which seamen bring up in their soundings. They dredge almost always on
a muddy bottom, and very rarely on a rocky one, because the latter is covered with
slime, sand, sandy, earthy, and calcareous concretions, and organic matter. These
substances, he says, conceal the real bottom of the sea, and have been brought there '

by the action of the water. These substances always cover stony masses. “ Lastly,”

he adds, “ to explain myself briefly, I may compare the bed of the sea to a cask,

which, having long held wine, seems from the inside to be made of dregs of tartar,

though it is really of wood.” In the profiles which accompany his work, he has
marked with dotted lines the stony parts of the bottom. In sea-bottoms of
great extent, he distinguishes those which are covered with fine sand, or with a sandy
conglutination ; the part covered with fine sand is always that exposed to the flow
of rivers.

1 De orostacei e degli altri marini corpi, che si trovano sui monti, Venice, 1740.

^ Di varie minere di metalli e d’altre specie di fossili delle montane provincie Venetae, &c., Mem. Soc. Ital., tom.
iv. 1788.

3 Histoire physique de la mer, par L. F. comte de Marsilli, traduit par Boerhaave, Amsterdam, 1725.

XX

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The observations of Donati ’ on the bottom of the Adriatic led. him to think that it is
hardly different from the surface of the land, and is but a prolongation of the superposed
strata in the neighbouring continent, the strata themselves being in the same order.
They contain marble, stone, metals, and in some places sand, gravel, or clayey soil. He
attributes to the nature of the sea-bottom the presence of certain substances in one
j)lace and their absence in another, and adds that he thinks this observation will
explain wliy the earth has mountains and plains entirely destitute of marine bodies,
whilst in other parts a great many are found, and why in some spots many varieties are
found, and only one in others. Among the rocks formed in the Adriatic, Donati mentions
marble, breccia, and calaireous tufa. The bottom of the Adriatic is covered with a layer
formed by crustaceans, testaceans, and polyps, mixed with sand, and to a great extent
l)ctrified. This crust may be 7 to 8 feet deep, and he attributes to this deposit, bound
together with the remains of organisms and sedimentary mineral matter, the rising of the
bottom of the sea, and the encroachment of the water on the coasts.

In the great works of Wolfgang, Knorr, and Walet (1755-1773) we akeady find a
distinction established between the fossil remains of pelagic animals and those of
animals found on the sea-coast, and they express an opinion that the existing analogues
of those that have not been found must exist in the deep seas as yet unexplored.

Beccari, towards 1729, created a new branch of conchology by the discovery of a small
kind of jK)lythalamous shell of nautiloid shape {Nautilus heccarii, Linn.). The coils of
the helix and its transverse divisions give it a great resemblance to the ammonite — a term
of compari.son which was long adopted for all the other analogous Foraminifera, so
jilentiful in the marls of North Italy. Beccari counted more than 1500 in two ounces
of this micaceous silico-calcareous sand.^

leu years later G. Biauchi (better known by the name of J. Plancus) announced that
he had found on tlie shore of Rimini the living analogue of the small fossil ammonite,
and that its dimensions were such that it required 130 of them to equal the weight of a
grain of wlicat. lie found a great many other species, which he still classed along with
the nautilus and ammonite, on account of their internal divisions. His work^ contri-
buted much to increase our knowledge on this subject, and at a later period he pointed
out, within a mile of Sienna, a bed of microscopic shells analogous to those found on the
shores of Rimini.

Later on Soldani examined the clay of the tufa and sands of North Italy, and pro-
duced hi.s work on the nautili and ammonites of Tuscany,^ enriching science with a

' fvvJii *ur I'hiHtoire naturellc fie la incr Adrialifjue, par le Dr. Vitaliano Donati, avec une lettre du Dr. L. Sealer,
trafluit (Ic I'lulien, & la Have, cliez Pierre de llondt, 1767, p. G.

* Cunun. Donon., vol. i. p. 02.

* I>e conchif iiiinua iiotin in littorc AriniinicnHi, Venice, 1739.

* orittf>)(rarico e<l ofSi-rvazioni 8oi»ra]le terre nautiliche ed ammoniticbe di Toscana, with 25 plates,
Kienno, M’*).

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XXI

multitude of shells belonging to very small marine animals, then considered as nautili
and ammonites — an error which lasted till 1835. As he assigned no particular names to
the diverse forms, which he described and figured with care, and even grouped according
to certain analogies, Soldani did not advance the knowledge of them as much as he might
have done had he applied the then well-known nomenclature of Linnaeus. In 1789-1797
he produced another very considerable work ^ on the microscopic shells found on the
shores of the islands of Giglio, Elba, Massa, &c. He observes in this work that these
small bodies are not young specimens which grow with age, but are perfect adults. The
various species occupy various depths, and this explains, he adds, why those in a fossil
state are not found mixed indifferently in all the strata.

In 1836 Professor C. G. Ehrenberg produced his first works. His name will ever
remain inseparably connected with the discoveries relating to the microscopic organisms of
the sea. It would be impossible to enumerate here the numerous memoirs and important
publications of this micrographer, who devoted his whole life, with extraordinary activity,
to microscopic organisms, to atmospheric dust, to the examination of material brought up
from deep soundings, and to all questions appertaining to the sea. We must touch on one
salient point, viz. , the connection he established between certain classes of living micro-
scopic organisms, and the part they played in geological times. As early as 1836 he
showed that the siliceous strata, known as “ Tripoli,” found in various parts of the globe,
especially at Bilin in Bohemia, were but an accumulation of the skeletons of Diatoms,
Sponges, and Radiolaria ; he pointed out that similar strata were formed now-a-days by
Diatoms in the subsoil of Berlin. In 1839 his observations at Cuxhaven revealed the
presence of living Diatoms and Radiolarians on the surface of the Baltic, of the same
species as those found fossil in the Tertiary deposits of Sicily and Oran. He showed,
moreover, that in the Diatom layers of Bilin the siliceous deposit had, under the influence
of infiltrated water, been transformed into compact opaline masses. Starting from these
facts, he concluded that rocks similar to those which play so important a part in the
terrestrial crust are still being formed on the bottom of the sea.

Humboldt addressed a letter to Lord Minto, First Lord of the Admiralty, with
reference to Sir J. C. Ross’s Antarctic Expedition, calling attention to the importance of
studying the microscopic organisms, which Ehrenberg had shown played so important a
role in the constitution of terrestrial strata. Dr. Joseph Hooker, who was attached as
naturalist to the expedition, observed ^ that the waters and ice of the Antarctic regions
swarm with Diatoms to such an extent that they give the water a brown tint. Between
lat. 50° and 70° S. prodigious quantities of them were found, and in 80° S. lat. all the
surface ice, the sides of the icebergs, and the base of the great Victoria Barrier within the
limit of the waves, were coloured brown by these organisms. He remarks that the siliceous

^ Testaceographia et zoophytographia parva et microscopica, with 179 plates.

2 Brit. Ass. Eepoit for 1847.

(DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. 1891.)

d

XXll

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

skeletons must, after the death of the organisms, form siliceous deposits of considerable
extent around all coasts bordered with ice, at depths between 80 and 400 fathoms.
Opposite Victoria Barrier the bottom w’as covered with a white or greenish mud, consist-
ing principally of Diatom frustules. In very deep water, opposite Victoria and Graham’s
Land, the mud was very pure and fine grained, but in shallow water, near the coast, it
was mixed with sandy and gravelly particles. Hooker considered that these microscopic
plants were intended to maintain in the south Polar regions the balance between the
animal and vegetable kingdom, and also to purify the vitiated atmosphere, performing in
Antarctic latitudes the part of vegetation in other regions. He states that Diatoms exist
in every latitude from Spitzbergen to Victoria Land, Iceland, Great Britain, the Medi-
terranean, North and South America, and the islands of the South Sea, and that the
frustules of species living in the Antarctic have contributed to the formation of various
strata during geological periods. He estimates that the deposit formed principally of
Diatom frustules extends continuously for more than 400 miles off Victoria Land, at
depths of about 300 fathoms. The existence of remains of Diatoms, including a few
Antarctic species, in volcanic ashes, pumice, and scoriae, led him to suppose that organic
substances covering the bases of active volcanoes, like Mount Erebus and Vesuvius, might
be ejected from the craters along wfith volcanic products.

In 1840 Edward Forbes joined, as naturalist, the surveying ship “ Beacon” while in
the Mediterranean, and for eighteen months he studied the iEgean Sea and its shores,
taking more than one hundred dredgings at different depths down to 130 fathoms. Before
Forl)C8’ time the bathymetrical distribution of marine animals had been investigated to a
certain extent, but the works of Audouin and Milne-Edwards (1830), Sars (1835), and
Oersted (1844), ap[>lied only to the more superficial w^aters of the sea. Forbes studied
the question with regard to animals inhabiting deep water, and in 1844 published his
memoir, “ On the Light thrown on Geolog}'’ by Submarine Kesearches.” ^ He maintains
that the dredgings show the extetence of distinct regions at successive depths, having
each a special a.ssociation of species. He remarks that the' species found at the greatest
depths are also found on the coasts of England, and he concludes, therefore, that such
species have a wider geographical distribution. Forbes divided the area occupied by
marine animals into eight zones of depth, in which animal life gradually diminished with
increase of depth, until a zero was readied at about 300 fathoms. He shows that in
Cretaceous and Tertiary layers similar zones may be distinguished, and that depth must
have been in former times, as it is now, one of the factors in the distribution of marine
organisms. He found fewer species in the deep zones than in the shallow ones, and
supposes that j»lants, like animals, disapjieared at a certain depth, the zero of vegetable
life being at a less depth than that of animal life. Forbes concluded that, as nearly all
marine basins are over 300 fathoms in dejith, most of the sedimentary beds must be void

' Edinhunjh New I'hil. Joum., vol. xxxvi. p. .318.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. xxiii

of organic remains, and the absence of organisms in certain strata convinced him that
they had been formed at great depths or deposited prior to the existence of organisms.
He observed that the number of organisms belonging to colder regions increased with the
depth of water, and in the deeper zones of warm latitudes species are noticed which are
inhabitants of the littoral zones of the highest latitudes. Forbes also showed that all
sea-bottoms are not equally fit for the development of life, for in all the zones he found
areas less peopled than others, these areas being mostly formed of ooze and sand, and
inhabited only by creatures whose remains were not likely to be met with in a fossil
condition. He explains the alternation of layers with and without fossils by changes in
the level of the sea-bottom of the time. The science of Oceanography was greatly
advanced by the researches of Forbes, more especially with regard to the distribution of
marine animals,^ and in this respect Loven also materially contributed to the science.

In 1845 Professor W. C. Williamson described some Foraminifera, Diatoms and
Sponge spicules from some Mediterranean muds, and, in discussing the origin of
limestone strata in shallow and deep waters, he suggests that the whole of the
calcareous organisms may be removed by carbonated waters.^

In 1846 Captain Spratt, R.N., dredged from 310 fathoms, 40 miles east of Malta,
eight species of Mollusca, and he expressed the opinion that life exists at much more
considerable depths ; later, when surveying the Mediterranean between Malta and Crete,
he obtained fragments of shells from a depth of 1620 fathoms. Both Spratt and Loven
arrived at conclusions which proved the influence of temperature on the distribution of
marine animals.

In 1851 Professor J. W. Bailey applied himself to the microscopic study of the sound-
ings collected by the U.S. Coast Survey within 100 fathoms,^ and he showed the important
part played by Foraminifera in the deposits some distance off the coast of New Jersey.
Owing to the abundance of these calcareous organisms the deeper deposits differed con-
siderably from the shore deposits, in which mineral particles, especially quartz, predomi-
nated. In 1856 he made known the nature of the soundings collected by Brooke in the
Sea of Kamchatka in depths of 900 to 2700 fathoms.^ He remarks that in all the samples
mineral matters diminished with increase of depth, and that while the mineral particles
decreased the organic remains increased. Of organic remains Diatoms predominated,

1 In 1850 Forbes presented his first general Report on the Marine Zoology of the British Islands to the British
Association. This Report was of great importance to science, and in it he indicated the desirability of prosecuting
further researches in the North Atlantic, opposite the Hebrides, around the Shetlands, and between the Shetland and
Faroe Islands, thus pointing to a field of exploration which twenty years later became the scene of the investigations of
Carpenter, Thomson, and Gwyn Jeffreys, and still more recently of Murray and Tizard.

^ “ On some of the Microscopical Objects found in the Mud of the Levant and other Deposits,” &c., Mem. Lit. and
Phil. Soc., Manchester, vol. viii. pp. 1-128, 1847.

^ “ Microscopical Examination of Soundings made by the U.S. Coast Survey off the Atlantic coast of the United
States,” Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vol. ii., article iii. pp. 1-15.

* Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, vol. xxi. pp. 284-285, 1856.

XXIV

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Sponge spicules ami Radiolarians being also present, while the calcareous tests of Fora-
minifera were absent. These deposits of microscopic organisms, in their richness, extent,
and high latitude, resemble the siliceous deposits of the Antarctic already noticed by
Hooker. Bailey’s researches proved that localised deposits were formed in the high seas,
in which not calcareous, but siliceous, remains predominated. The excellent state of
preservation of these siliceous organisms, and the fact that many of them still retained
the soft jiarts, led him to conclude that they must have been living up to a very recent
jK*rio«.l, not necessarily at the great depths where they were found, but probably drifted
from shallower deposits.

About the same time Bailey published his work on the origin of greensand and
its fonnation on the bottom of modern seas.^ Ehrenberg had long before observed a
pseudomorphism of the calcareous shells of Foraminifera in the Chalk into silica. As
early as 1845 Bailey had called attention to the casts of Foraminifera in the Eocene marls
of Fort Washington.'^ ]\Iantell stated in 184G® that casts of Foraminifera and their soft
parts were preserved in flint and limestone, and that the chambers of the Foraminifera
were often filled with calcite, silica, or silicate of lime. But Ehrenberg was the first to
show the connection between greensand and the Foraminifera, and to throw light on a
point which had long puzzled geologists. In 1855 he says that, in all the examples be
had examined up to that time, greensand must be considered as due to the filling up of
organic cells of Foraminifera, like a lithoid mould.^ Bailey verified Ehrenberg’s results
from the examination of a number of Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks of North America.

Pourtalds in 1853 announced that he had obtained from a depth of 150 fathoms, in
lat. 31' N., long. 79'’ W., a dei)Osit formed of almost equal parts of GlohigeHnae and
black sand, probably greensand.'^ Bache showed these and similar samples, taken in the
region of the Gulf Stream, to Bailey, who found in them casts of organisms, some of
which were “well-defined greensand, others reddish, brownish, or almost white.”® He
concludes that these glauconitic cjists have not been transported from ancient formations,
but have Ijeen formed where they were found in the same manner as in geological forma-
tions. He states that his own and Ehrenberg’s researches prove that other organisms,
Ijcsides Foniminifeni, may serve as moulds for the greensand, and he notices that with
the well-<lcfined casts are a.ssociated green grains less regular in form, “having merely a
rounded, cracked, lobed, or even eoprolitic appearance.”^ The phenomena accompanying
the decomposition of organic, substances, he says, are closely connected with the formation
of this mineral — a green or red silicate of iron or almost pure silica.

In 185G I>ieut. Berryman, in the steamer “ Arctic,” sounded across the North Atlantic,
and obtained samples of the deposit from thirty-four points between St. John’s, New-

• /'rnc, Jlndnm Soc, Sal. llut., vol. V. pp. 3fi4 36S, 1856. * Amer. Journ. Sci., vol. xlviii. p. 341.

’ /'Alt Tmtu., p. 466, 1S46. < MonaUb. d. k. Akad. Berlin, 185.5, p. 172.

I^|x»rt U.H. C'oswt Surrey for 18.'i3, Ajip., p. 83. ® Loc. cit., p. 367. ^ Loc. cit., p. 3C8.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XXV

foundland, and Valentia. These deposits were described by Bailey,^ who, from the fact
that the mineral particles were angular, concluded that there is little movement at the
bottom in deep water, otherwise the mineral fragments would be rounded. He observed
the abundance of calcareous matter due to the accumulation of microscopic shells, which
fall to the bottom after the death of the organisms. Bailey also observed the presence
of volcanic ashes in the deposits, and remarked that the Gulf Stream had spread these
“ plutonic tallies ” over thousands of miles. Some doubt having arisen as to whether
these ashes might not have been thrown overboard from passing steamers, Bailey com-
pared the two, and arrived at the conclusion that the substances found on the bottom of
the Atlantic were really of volcanic origin ; Maury supposed that this dust might have
been carried by the wind from volcanoes in Central America or from extinct volcanoes
in the Western Islands. By treating the deposits with acid, Bailey showed that there is
always a small quantity of mineral particles in organic calcareous sediments, though
veiled by the preponderance of the calcareous element, and that the calcareous organisms
increase in abundance as the Gulf Stream is approached. He found only imperfect casts
of Foraminifera in the deposits off the northern coasts, the green casts being generally
met with in the more southerly soundings.

Lieut. Maury, in the latest (9th) edition of his “ Sailing Directions,” 1858, gives an
abstract of the knowledge of marine deposits possessed up to that time. He estimated
the part taken by calcareous or sihceous microscopic organisms in pelagic deposits, based
upon Bailey’s observations. He agrees with Bailey that the animalculse, whose remains
are found at the bottom of the sea, lived in the surface waters ; but he carries the idea
too far when he asserts that the absence of light, low temperature, and pressure preclude
the possibility of life in very deep water. Ehrenberg held the opposite opinion regarding
the habitat of these microscopic organisms, based upon the presence of organic substances
in the shells dredged from the bottom of the sea, and argued that he distinguished forms
in the deposits to be found nowhere else ; but tow-net observations have since proved
that forms identical with the most abundant of these shells from the bottom live in the
surface waters.

In 1857 Captain Dayman sounded across the North Atlantic in H.M.S. “Cyclops,”
along the great circle between Valentia and Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, a little to the
north of Berryman’s line of soundings. He states that in his deepest sounding the de-
posit consisted of a plastic floury substance or ooze, which stuck to the line when drawn
up.^ Dayman’s soundings were examined and reported on by Professor Huxley,® who
found the samples obtained between 1700 and 2400 fathoms to be remarkable for their
uniformity ; in the bottles containing them Huxley observed a viscous substance, and

^ Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, vol, xxi. pp. 284-285.

^ Deep-Sea Soundings in the North Atlantic, made in H.M.S. “Cyclops,” in June and July 1857, London, pub-
lished by the Admiralty, 1858.

® Appendix to Dayman’s Eeport.

XXVI

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

.small round corj)U8cles soluble in acid, which he called Coccoliths, and which he regarded
as the skeletal parts of a supposed gigantic Monera — Bathyhius — wide-spread over the
sea-bottom. When dry the deposit looked like chalk, and he observed that the calcareous
organisms formed the principal part, Globtge>'ina shells making up 85 per cent, of the
mass ; siliceous organisms were also present, including Coscinodiscus and other Diatoms.
He considers the Globigerina Ooze to be of high scientific interest on account of its extent,
depth, and resemblance to the Chalk, and discusses the question of the habitat of the
Foniminiferous shells constituting the major part of the deposit. He does not express a
decided opinion as to whether the shells have been transported from shallower water,
whether the animals lived in the surface waters, from whence, after death, they subsided
to the bottom, or whether they actually lived at the bottom in deep water, but seems to
prefer the last hypothesis, concluding by saying : “ I abstain at present from drawing any
positive conclusion, preferring rather to await the result of more extended observations.”

Dr. Wallich, in 1860, accompanied H.M.S. “ Bulldog ” as naturalist when surveying in
the North Atlantic for the American cable. In discussing the results of his examination
of the deposits obtained ^ he endeavours to trace a connection between the Globigerina
Ooze and the Gulf Stream, pointing out that the shells are abundant in the deposits be-
tween the Faroe Islands and the east coast of Greenland, and in a large portion of the
direct line between Cape Farewell and Rockall, but are absent or rare in the deposits be-
tween Greenland and Labrador. In the southern hemisphere calcareous deposits had been
found on the Agulhas Bank at a depth of 90 fathoms, in which the Globigerina shells
made up 75 per cent, of the sediment ; he suggested that the area covered by this deposit
dej>ended on the current flowing round the Cape from the east. Wallich came to the
conclusion that many of the fossiliferous strata, hitherto regarded as having been deposited
in shallow water, may possibly have been deposited at a great distance from the surface.

A considerable quantity of mud from the North Atlantic, 2500 fathoms, was handed by
Huxley to Professor Gumbel,^ who found it to consist of Foraminifera, with Radiolarians,
Diatoms, Sponge spicules, Ostracodes, and mineral particles. Gumbel expresses the
opinion that these mineral particles were transported by currents, and concludes that if
such heavy materials couhl have been conveyed so far from the coasts, clayey matters
wrmld have l>ecn transported at the same time, and that the clayey deposits of ancient
formations might have a similar origin. He confirmed Huxley’s observations on Cocco-
liths, and found similar Inxlies in numerous geological strata ; he also agrees with Huxley
as to the existence of the Monera, Bnthybius.^

• TT»« North Atliuttic Lnn<l(jn, 1862. * See Nature, vol. iii. pp. 16, 17, 1870.

• wu believed to l>e a ({ipintic Monera, covering with a network of organic matter the whole of the sea-
l«ttom in the gn«ter depth* of the Indian and Atlantic Ocean* (see Huxley, Quart. Joum. Micros. Sci., N. S., vol. viii.
p. 203, 1868; /'roe. Rny. (itmjr. Sor., vol. xiii. p. 110, 1869). Mr. Murray ha* nhown that what was supposed to be a
gigantic Monera (Balhyftiut) con«uite<l of the gelatinous sulphate of lime thrown down from the sea-water, with which
the specimens of the ooze were imjiregnatcd, by the alcohol used in the preservation of the samples (see Narr. Chall.
Kxp., vol. i. p. 930).

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XXVll

The dredgings and soundings along the coast of America, taken by the U.S. Coast
Survey in 1867, were subsequently examined by Pourtales. He found among the
deposits two well-marked varieties, siliceous and calcareous ; the siliceous deposits
extended along the coast as far as Cape Florida. The calcareous deposits are divided
into Coral and Foraminiferous formations, the latter found in the greatest depths. He
also distinguished a muddy deposit, which he considered quite subordinate and related to
the Tertiary formations.^

Pourtales also gives a description of the different stages in the formation of glauconite.
He says : — “We find, side by side, the tests perfectly fresh, others still entire, but filled
with a rusty-coloured mass, which permeates the finest canals of the shells like an
injection. In others, again, the shell is partly broken away, and the filling is turning
greenish ; and finally we find the casts without trace of shell, sometimes perfectly
reproducing the internal form of the chambers ; sometimes, particularly in the larger
ones, cracks of the surface or conglomeration with other grains obliterates all the
characters. They even coalesce into pebbles, in which the casts can only be recognised .
after grinding and polishing.” ^ Pourtales observes that these glauconitic grains are
deposited in depths of 50 to 100 fathoms near the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina,

L. Agassiz discussed the results of Pourtales’ observations, and states that what he
had seen of deep-sea deposits seemed to indicate that no recent or ancient formation ever
occurred in very deep water. He concludes that the present continental areas within
the 200-fathom line, as well as the oceans, have preserved their outlines and positions
from the earliest times.^

In the Eeports of Carpenter, Wyville Thomson, and Gwyn Jeffreys, on the cruises of
H.M.SS. “ Lightning,” “ Porcupine,” and “ Shearwater,”* there are many references to the
marine deposits collected in the sounding tube and dredges. A comparison is especially
drawn between the White Chalk and the Atlantic mud or ooze ; in the earlier Eeports it
was suggested that “ we are still living in the Cretaceous epoch,” and in later ones that
the Atlantic mud “ might have been accumulating continuously from the Cretaceous or
even earlier periods to the present day.”®

In 1871 Delesse published his work “Lithologie du Fond des Mers,” treating more
particularly of coast sediments from the seas of France ; it forms an important contribu-
tion to our knowledge of marine deposits, and contains lithological charts founded upon
the official charts published by the European and American Governments.

The Challenger Expedition left England in 1872, and during the cruise, which lasted
nearly three and a half years, many preliminary notices were published by Wyville

1 E«port of tlie Superintendent of the United States Coast Survey for 1869, pp. 220-225, Washington, 1872.

^ Loc. cit., p. 224.

^ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zcol., vol. i. pp. 368, 369, 1869.

^ From 1868 to 1870 ; published in Proc. Boy. Soc.

® Thomson, The Depths of the Sea, p. 470, London, 1874.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

-xxviii

Thomson, Murray, and Buchanan,’ dealing with the nature and origin of the marine
deposits procured in the various sounding and dredging operations.

Since the return of the Challenger Expedition very many samples of marine deposits
have been collected from nearly all regions of the ocean basins by the surveying vessels
of the Briti.sh Navy, by the telegraph ships belonging to the India-rubber, Gutta-percha,
and Telegraph Works Company, and to the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance
Company, and by Norwegian, Italian, French, German, and American Expeditions. The
great majority of these sainjdes have passed thi'ough our hands, and have, along with the
Challenger collections, formed the material for our investigations.

In the jiresent work we have endeavoured to point out the composition and mode of
formation of marine deposits in general, as well as the distribution of the different types
over the door of the ocean. In many cases we have indicated the resemblances and
differences between these deposits and certain geological formations, but we have not
discus.sed in detail the wider geological bearings of the results arrived at from these
re.searche.s. If it be remembered that, previous to the recent scientific explorations of the
great ocean basins, we passessed no positive knowledge concerning the organic and minera-
logical components of the deposits now forming over more than one-half of the earth’s
surface, the im[)ortance of the Challenger’s discoveries, as to the nature of the sea-bed,
on all inquiries regarding the past history of our globe will be readily appreciated. «

'I'he large amount of material at our command has enabled us to divide marine
dcjKjsits into two great categories — Terrigenous Deposits and Pelagic Deposits.

The Terrigenous Deposits include those now forming along the littoral zone, in
shallow water, and on the continental slopes beyond the 100-fathom line. They are,
for the most part, composed of materials washed down from emerged land, the various
comjKjnents exhibit abundant traces of mechanical action, and the accumulation is
relatively rapid. Among these terrigenous deposits it is possible to recognise an accumu-
lation of materials analogous to those forming certain schistose rocks, shales, marls,
grecn.sands, chalks,* j)hosphatic and other limestones,^ volcanic grits, quartzites, and sand-
Htonc.H of gcologiail formations.^

* See /'roe. Hoy. Soc., vol. xxiv., 18Tfi

* The DAture of the niincnil particlcH nml pchhles of the chalk, the evidences of mechanical action, the variability
of the n*idue of the chalk, the chemical aiialysiH, the character of tlie orj^anic remains, and the position of the Cretaceous
*=■*, ell point to the white chalk l>ein({ formed near shore, and not in the abysmal rej'ions of a deep ocean like a typical
(>lobi(;erina 0»zc (itee L. Cayenx, “ I>a Craie du Nonl de la France et la Hone a Globigerines,” Ann. Son. g(fol. du Nord,
tom. xix. pp. 95-102, 1891, and other j«p<*ni by the same author). The same remarks are ai)j)licable to certain calcareous
and liliceoux rock* of the Alp (sec F. Wuhner, “ Aus <ler Urzeit unserer Kalkalpen,” Zeitnehr. d. Deutschen und Oeslerr.
AljimtyreinA, B<1. xxii. pp. H7-124, 1H91).

* In some tiTri>p’nou* depwita there appears to lie distinct evidence of the coiiimencement of dolomitisation.

‘ The area covere«l by tiTri({cnous depjaiU (from the const line seaward to an average disPince of about 200 miles,
and down to an avemgi' depth of alK>ut two miles) has lx:en calle«l by Mr. Murray the Transitional Aren. It covers
about one-seventh, while the land stirfacir occupies two-sevenths, and tlie plagic deposits four-sevenths of the earth’s
surface. Mr. Murray holds that all the marine stratifie<l rocks of the continents have in past times been laid down in
regions corresponding to the Transitional Area.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

XXIX

The Pelagic Deposits are formed in the deep water of the central regions of the great
ocean basins, and consist of organic oozes and a reddish clay. They are chiefly made up
of the calcareous and siliceous remains of organisms that have fallen to the bottom from
the surface waters, along with clay and volcanic debris in a more or less advanced state
of decomposition. There is little or no trace of mechanical action on the components of
these Pelagic Deposits, their accumulation is relatively slow, and among them there do
not appear to be any accumulations of materials identical with the marine stratified rocks
of the continental areas. It seems doubtful if the deposits of the abysmal areas have in
the past taken any part in the formation of the existing continental masses.^

An inspection of Chart 1, showing the horizontal distribution of deposits, and an
examination of the accompanying descriptions, will show that the various types of
deposits pass insensibly the one into the other, and that a slight alteration in the
depth is frequently sufficient to produce a marked difference in the character of the
deposit, the other conditions remaining unchanged. So slow does the growth of the
deposit in some red clay areas appear to have been that not more than a few inches
have accumulated since the Tertiary period. The various components have consequently
undergone much alteration, and numerous new secondary products have been formed.
In these abysmal deposits, as well as in those close to the coasts, it will be seen that
synchronous deposits may thus differ widely in their mineralogical and biological com-
position, even when the conditions at the surface of the ocean are almost identical.

* We have examined hand specimens of Tertiary or ‘recent rocks from the Barbados, the Solomon Islands and
other oceanic islands of the Pacific, which approach closely in character to Pteropod Ooze, Glohigerina Ooze, Red Clay,
and Radiolarian Ooze (see Harrison and Jukes-Browne, “The Geology of Barbados,” published by authority of the
Barbadian Legislature, 1890 ; H. B. Guppy, “ Observations on the recent calcareous formations of the Solomon group
made during 1882-84,” Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xxxii. pp. 545-581, 1885).

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

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CHAPTEE I.

ON THE VAEIOUS METHODS OF OBTAINING, EXAMINING, AND DESCRIBING

DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

a. Methods employed on board Ship.

The various instruments employed on board ship for the purpose of obtaining infor-
mation with reference to the deposits now forming on the floor of the ocean have
been described in detail in the Narrative of the Cruise.^ In this place it is, however,
proposed to refer briefly to these instruments with the view of pointing out the quantity
of these deposits procured by the different methods, under various conditions as to
depth, locality, and nature of the bottom.

The ordinary deep-sea sounding lead, from 12 to 14 Ibs.^ in weight, armed with
lard, often gives valuable and reliable information concerning the deposits in all depths
under 100 fathoms.® This is especially the case where the bottom is hard, sandy,
or rough, and if the lead be used frequently over a considerable area, and the particles be
examined by the microscope after being freed from the grease by means of turpentine or
naphtha.

The Cup Lead (Fig. 1) is a modification of the ordinary deep-sea lead (A), with an
iron spike (C) driven into its lower end ; at the bottom of this spike is an inverted hollow
iron cone (B), and above the cone is a sliding iron disc (D) movable up and down the
spike between the bottom of the lead and top of the cone, and just large enough to cover
the opening of the cone when resting upon it. During the descent of the lead the
disc is raised off the cone by the friction of the water, so that on reaching the bottom the
cone is forced into the mud, and is filled with the mud or other loose material forming
the deposit. On the lead being drawn up through the water, the friction of the water
forces down the sliding disc (D) on the top of the cone (B), and thus prevents the
contents from being washed out.

The Valve Lead (Fig. 2) is another modification of the deep-sea lead, fitted at its
base with an iron cylinder (A) having a common butterfly valve (B) at the bottom.
This form of lead was found in practice to be the best for all ordinary soundings in
depths under 300 fathoms.^ The cylinder being made to unscrew, the contents can be
collected expeditiously, and usually without much loss. Even when the cylinder
contained no specimen from the bottom, an examination of the lower edges would often

1 Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. i. pp. 56 et seq. ^ 5‘5 to 6'4 kilogrammes. ® 183 metres. ■* 549 metres.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 1

o

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

indicate the nature of the rock or other hard substance upon which the instrument had
struck. In sounding in enclosed arms of the sea, such as the lochs of the west of
Scotland, where the deposit is a soft mud, although the depths are usually under 100

Fia 1. — The Cop Lead.

A, ortlilury de*p-«e* lead ; B, in-
verted hollow iron cone ; C, iron
■pike ; D, tliiling iron dUc.

A

n

Fio. 2. — Tlio Valve
Sonnding I>ead.

A, iron cylinder ; B,
butterfly valve.

Fios. 3, 4.— Buchanan’s Improved Sounding Lead.

A and B, brass tube 1 inch (26'4 mm.) in diameter in two pieces,
at lower end of the upper piece a shoulder C, with a thread
screw, receives the corresponding shoulder D of the lower
piece. The leaden weight M or N rests on the shoulder C.
Wlien used, tube B is filled with a plug or cylinder of the mud,
the upper part containing water. The plunger P is used to
push out the plug of mud from B when the latter is unscrewed
at D. Tlie weight M is 14 lbs. (6'4 kilogrammes), the weight
N, 3 lbs. (1-4 kilogrammes). A comb valve may be fitted at
the lower end of the tube if necessary (see L, Fig. 7).

fathom.s, n mollification of this tube is desirable, so as to procure a section of the mud by
plunging the tube deep into the deposit. Such a modification was devised by Mr.
Buchanan and is represented in Figs. 3 and 4.

Thr Hydra Sounding Machine, or the Baillie Sounding Machine, represented in the

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

3

cuts Figs. 5 and 6, were always used on board the Challenger for the deeper soundings, the
latter being exclusively employed during the last two years of the cruise. In these the iron

Fig. 5. — Hydra Sounding Machine. Fig. 6. — Baillie Sounding Machine.’

A, brass cylinder with butterfly valve B at a, iron cylinder with butterfly valve / at the

the bottom and a sliding iron rod C at the bottom and brass tube b at the top ; c, cylindrical

top ; D, stud over which the wire attached iron weight sliding backwards and forwards in 6,

to the washer E, and thus supporting the regulated by the slit d ; e, iron weights,

weights or sinkers F, is passed.

weights or sinkers (F) which surround the iron cylinder serve to carry the line down and
to force the tube into the deposit, but being detached on striking the bottom, these sinkers

4

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

jire left at the bottom of the sea, while the tube containing a specimen of the deposit is

hauled to the surface and on board ship. During the first
months of the cruise the diameter of the tube was not more
than 1 inch,^ but this was replaced by one having a diameter
of 2^ inches,^ and latterly the tube was made to project fully
18 inches^ below the weights. When there was reason to
suppose that the bottom would be a tenacious clay, no
butterfiy valve was used at the lower end of the tube, as
this valve is a great impediment to the entrance of the
deposit into the tube. In these cases the tube sometimes
sank 1 8 inches or 2 feet * into the clay, and brought up a
section to that depth and over a quart ® bottle fuU of the clay.
It not being always possible to know beforehand the nature
of the bottom, it was found by experience best to have the
tube always fitted with the butterfly valve when sounding,
for a Globigerina Ooze or other less tenacious deposit was not
retained in the tube without the valve. To facilitate collect-
ing the mud or other deposit brought up by the tube, the
lower half was made to unscrew, and this was then taken into
the laboratory, the butterfly valve removed, and the roll of
mud or other deposit taken out at the upper end, or allowed
to slip out by its own weight, on jerking or on striking it
gently on the table. The arrangement, colour, and general
appearance of the difierent layers, if any, were then carefully
noted. Even when the whole of a more or less granular
deposit appeared to have been wholly washed out of the tube
on its way up through the water, still a small quantity of the
deposit or a few shells or stones would usually be found
inside behind the valves. The method of sounding with these
machines is very satisfactory from the point of view of the
study of Deep-Sea Deposits, for the largest specimens of the
deposit arc thus ol)taincd ; the method of sounding with
wire, now chiefly employed, where the weights and tubes are
verj’ much less, is le.ss satisfactory in this respect.

Buchanan’s combined sounding tube and water-bottle, as
used by Mr. Buchanan with success on board the telegraph
ships, is represented in Figs. 7, 8, 9, and 10, and has the
advantage of utilising the weights in pushing the tube into the ground, with the

j—#

Flo. 7.- Bofhjin*n'i CorotiiDerl Sotui4-
lug Tab* ud W«ter-nottle.

• 25*4 mm.

* 63'7 mm.

* I.*) ? ccntimetrc«.

< Cl centimetres.

^ litres.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

view of procuring specimens of the deposits below the superficial layers. With it
good samples of the mud and of the bottom water are obtained without trouble. The
instrument consists of the “water-bottle” A, a tube about 18 inches^ long and 2^
inches^ in diameter, of about one litre capacity. It has at each end a valve, H, K,
made of india-rubber, on a metal seating, opening upwards. Above the upper valve H,
the shank C is screwed into the tube A, and below the lower one K, the mud tube B,
which is 12 inches^ long and 1 inch^ in diameter, is screwed to A. Into the lower end
of the mud tube B can be inserted the valve L, which consists of a piece of thin sheet
brass, cut out like a comb, and bent round into a cylindrical shape. It is soldered to a
stouter piece of brass tube, which fits into the end of B and is retained by a bayonet
joint. At the upper end of the shank C the tumbler D supports the weight E by the
sling F, and is in its turn supported by the sounding line M.

The details of the tumbler are shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10. It will be seen that at its

Fig. 8.

Pig. 9.

Fig. 10.

Disengaging Apparatus for Buchanan’s Sounding Tube and Water-Bottle.

upper end it has the hole a, into which the eye of the sounding line is spliced. At the
lower end it has three notches, h, c, and d. If it is not wished to detach the weight, the
sling supporting it is hooked into the notch d, which is considerably below the suspend-
ing axis. Consequently, when' the tube reaches the bottom and the sounding line
above slackens, the tumbler still preserves its upright attitude, and on heaving up, the
sinker is recovered along with the tube. If the sinker is not to be recovered, the sling
is hooked in the notch h, which is above the axis. When the tube reaches the bottom
and the sounding line slackens, the pressure of the sling upsets the tumbler, which falls
1 45'7 centimetres. ^ 57‘35 mm. ^ 30-48 centimetres. 25’4 mm.

6

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

over into the position Fig. 9. In getting into this position the weight drags the sling

out of the notch h, and it falls into the notch c.
Here it remains as long as the tube is at the
bottom, exerting all its weight in pushing it into
the ground. On heaving in, the tumbler is drawn
into an upright position, when the sling slips free
and the tube is brought up without the sinker.
When it has been brought to the surface, it is
found that the mud tube B is filled with a com-
pact cylinder of mud, which by its weight has
kept the india-rubber valves closed by drawing
them tight down on their seats, and has therefore
insured that the water enclosed at the bottom has
not been contaminated by admixture with other
water on the way up.

The localities, even in mid ocean, where the
bottom is “ hard ground,” are by no means rare,
and if the tube just described be dropped on it
with a 50 Ib.^ sinker, the mud tube will be much
disfigured ; but if there be any loose material at
all, such as gravel or coral, a little of it will
probably be entangled behind the comb valve.
In the absence, however, of a mud plug, the
bottom water will be valueless. As a rule, the
bottom of the deep sea consists of mud sufiiciently
soft and tenacious to fill the mud tube throughout
the greater part of its length with a compact plug,
and if the tube B be screwed water-tight into the
lower part of the tul^e A, it is retained in it just as
a liquid is retained in a pipette. In soft ground,
clays and most Globigerina Oozes, it is better
to discard altogetlier the comb valve L, because
it always oflTers some resistance to the entrance
of the mud, and is not wanted to keep it in.
The instruments are fitted with mud tubes of two
sizes, namely, the smaller 1 inch^ in diameter, and
the larger inches® in diameter. In the ordinary
routine work of running a line of soundings the smaller size should be used and without

• 22'8 kilognuiimeit. * 25‘4 iiiiii. ^ 44‘46 mm.

Fio. 11. — The Slip Water-Bottle.

A, braM cyllixler sliding ap and down the metal shank
B, sttacherl by a wire to the slipping arrangement E,
fixed to the «>d of the itxl F. When the ai>paratus
reaches the bottom the cylinder is released and falls
down to the lower j*rt, where it rests on the lower of
two sernrstely ground valves C and D ; the water
cacloMd Is removed by the tap U.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

7

the comb valve. It is screwed into A on the top of a thin leather washer to make the

Fig. 12. — The Dredge.

A, A, arms of the dredge, connected together with iron .screw bolts B, B, B, and between them an iron tongue C, with
a swivel-ring D at its upper end, to which ; the dredge-chain is fastened ; E, E, E, two knife-edged pieces of iron on
the long sides of the framework, having an outward inclination of about 10° from the perpendicular ; F, sack of
the dredge made of network of soft line, and lined inside with cotton cloth ; G-, G, iron bar, suspended by the ropes
H, H, to the framework, and supporting the flat-headed swabs K, K, K, K, K.

joint tight. At each sounding a sample of the mud and of the bottom water will be

8

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

obtained. hen the tube is brought on board, the mud tube is unscrewed, any water
that may be on the top of the mud cylinder is poured off, and the mud cylinder itself
pushed out by a metal plunger, which just fits the tube. The water is simply poured
out of the bottle into any convenient vessel. If the gases dissolved in the water are

to be examined, then it must be drawn off by a
siphon passed through the upper valve and down
to the bottom of the tube.

This sounding tube has been very successfully
used on board the ships “Dacia” and “Inter-
national,” belonging to the India-rubber, Gutta-
percha, and Telegraph Works Company, while
surveying the route for the cable from Cadiz to
the Canary Islands. It has the advantage that on
board such ships, where rapidity of work is of the
greatest importance, good samples of mud and of
bottom water are obtained in the course of the
ordinary routine work, and without having to use
any extra instruments. The weight of the sinkers
used was 60 Ibs.,^ but 50 Ibs.^ is quite heavy
enough. When the sinker is to be recovered, its
weight should not exceed 30 Ibs.^

In some of the telegraph ships four small
tubes were at one time fitted to the lower part of
the sounding instrument, and brought up four little
rolls of the deposit. Other slight modifications have
been introduced in the form and size of the tube
and valve for retaining a specimen of the deposit,
but these do not differ widely from those which
have been noticed above.

Fio. 13.— The Beam-Trawl lued in <lecp-nca work.

A water-bottle, called the slip water-hottle
(Fig. 11), was almost always attached to the line
when sounding on board the Challenger ; this bottle closes on .striking the bottom, and
it frequently liappened that it was partly filled witli mud or ooze, thus giving, in
addition to the sounding tube, indiaitions a.s to the nature of the deposit.

In tlie drcd(jes and trawls (Figs. 12 and 13) used on board the Challenger, a large
quantity of deposit was frequently brought up from the greatest depths of the ocean.

' 27-2 kilfigramme*. * 22-7 kilogrammcH. ’ 13 6 kilogrammes.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

9

The iron framework of the largest dredge was 5 feet’^ in length, 1 foot 3 inches^ in
breadth — its weight being 137 Ibs.;^ the next size, which was made much stronger, was
4 feet^ in length, 9 inches® in breadth, and weighed 259 lbs.;® the smallest was 3 feet^
in length, 1 foot® in breadth, and weighed 85 lbs.® The smallest was generally used in
great depths, and with it a successful haul was obtained in 3875 fathoms.^®

The trawls were of the kind known as beam-trawls, the length of the beams
being 17, 13, and 10 feet the smallest was used in very deep water. Into the
bottom of the bag of the dredge and into the bottom of the net of the trawl fine
cloth was usually sewn, so as to retain some of
the fine ooze or mud, as well as to capture very
small animals. It frequently happened that many
hundredweights of Globigerina Ooze, Diatom Ooze,
or other deposit were brought up in the dredge
and trawl, especially when a fine cloth was placed
in the bottom of the bag or net. On the other

hand, the greatest hauls of manganese nodules,
sharks’ teeth, bones of whales, fragments of rocks,
mixed with red or chocolate-coloured clay occurred
when no cloth was placed in the bag or net ;
on these occasions the fine clay evidently passed through the meshes, while the larger
fragments were retained in the netting ; there was occasionally a sufficient quantity of
the above materials in the trawl to fill a 30-gallon cask.^'

When a large quantity was procured, the ooze or clay was passed through sieves of
various sizes (Fig. 14), by working them up and down in large tubs of clean sea water ;
all the larger particles from these sieves were then carefully collected and placed in bottles
with spirit, and labelled “coarse” and “fine washings.”^® A quantity of the deposit, just
as it was taken from the dredge or trawl, was also preserved in bottles for examination at
home. The operation of sifting the deposits took place on the dredging bridge imme-
diately after the trawl or dredge was landed on board ; the more detailed examinations
were carried on in the laboratory on the upper deck.

The ordinary surface tow’-net (Fig. 15), used for catching pelagic animals, made of
coarse cloth of various kinds, the iron hoop having a diameter of 1 foot or 18 inches,^'^

1 1-524 metres. ^ 381 centimetres. ^ 621 kilogrammes. * 1’219 metres.

® 22'9 centimetres. ® 117'4 kilogrammes. ^ 914 decimetres. * 30‘48 centimetres.

® 38’6 kilogrammes. 7088 metres. 5184, 3’964, and 3 05 metres. 136 litres.

The ooze which had been passed through sieves was sometimes sent home from the “Porcupine” and earlier
expeditions without being properly labelled, or without a statement that all the finer particles had been washed away,
hence some samples were described as Orhulina ooze, some of the siftings consisting largely of these Foraminifera.

30‘48 or 45'7 centimetres.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

2

10

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

waa frequently attached to the beam of the trawl and iron frame of the dredge, and
gave in most cases information of the immediate surface-layers of the bottom that could
not be obtained by the trawl, dredge, or sounding tube. A tow-net was in like manner

Pio. 15. — Onliaarj method of using the Tow-Net.

sometimes fixed to the weights that were placed on the trawling line, some 200 to 500
fathoms’ in front of the dredge or trawl. This net occasionally came up filled with mud
or ooze.

In another way, however, the surface-nets gave still more valuable information.
During almost every day of the cruise these nets were dragged at the surface and in
depths of 10, 20, 50, and 100 fathoms,* either from the ship or from small boats lowered
for the purpose. Occasionally they were sent down to and dragged at depths of 500,
1000, and 1500 fathoms.’ The contents of the deeper nets were carefully compared with
the contents of those dragged at the surface and in shallow water. Again, the organic
remains found in the deposits at the bottom were carefully compared with the animals
captured in the tow-nets on the same day or in the same region. Hundreds of observa-
tions of this kind, repeated day after day, led to a very accurate conception of the part
played by surface organisms in determining the nature of the deposits now forming on
the floor of the ocean at different depths and in different latitudes throughout all parts
of the world.

(Jn every occasion during the cruise when the anchor was heaved on board, it was
carefully inspected, and specimens of the mud which came up on it were examined and
pre8cr\'c<l. Recently Mr. Buchanan anchored one of the telegraph ships in 1600 fathoms^
with an anchor specially arranged to bring up a specimen of the deposit (see Fig. 16).
This was a Tropman anchor, weighing 5 cwts.,’ the flukes being connected by a
frame to which a canvas bag was laced ; with this he obtained over 1 cwt.® of
Globigcrina Ooze.

Tlie various contrivances have now been indicated by which information is obtained
concerning the de{)08its now forming on the floor of the great oceans and inclosed seas.
Although there are many mcKlifications in the trawls and dredges not here referred to,
these are not of any essential importance as regards the information furnished about the

’ 368 tn 914 tr.elrc^. * 18'3, .'J6'0, 91 '5, and 183 metres. ® 914, 1828, and 2742 metres.

* S936 metr«t. * 253‘7 kilogrammes. ® 60"7 kilogrammes.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

11

deposits.^ The specimen of a deposit brought up at any particular spot may be very
small, yet when studied vdth the light thrown on the subject at other stations where a
large quantity was procured by the dredge or trawl in addition to that taken in the
sounding tube, a very correct idea of the nature of
a deposit can be formed even from the examination
of such a small sample.

As soon as a specimen of a deep-sea deposit
was procured, it was examined on board by Mr.

Murray, and notes of the quantity, colour, and the
general physical characters were entered in a
journal. A small quantity of the deposit was then
shaken up in pure sea water and separated by
three decantations, each of which w^as examined
in the wet and dry state by the microscope ; ^ the
organisms, minerals, and other substances present
were then noted so far as possible. The carbonate
of lime in the specimen was subsequently removed
by dilute hydrochloric acid and the residue ex-
amined with the microscope. In order to examine
specimens of the deposit and the various decan-
tations in the dry state, it was found to be a great
saving of time to saturate these with spirit of wine
and then burn this off. The appearance of the
manganese nodules, teeth, bones, and other materials were also carefuUy noted on being
taken from the dredge. Mr. Murray’s notes, as well as the large number of specimens
brought home with so much care, were all available in the more detailed examination
which has since been carried on at home during the past fourteen years.

h. Methods adopted for the Study and Description op the Deposits in the
Laboratory after the Return of the Expedition.

In the preceding section the various contrivances for raising specimens of marine
deposits from the bottom of the sea, together with the methods employed in

^ For an account of more recent modificationB in deep-sea apparatus, see Alexander Agassiz, Three Cruises of the
United States Steamer ‘Blake,’ Boston and New York, 1888; Sigshee, Deep-Sea Sounding and Dredging, Washington,
1880 ; Prince Albert de Monaco, Recherche des Animaux Marins, Compte-Rendu des Sc4ances du Congrfes International
de Zoologie, p. 133, Paris, 1889 ; Thoulet, Oc4anographie (Statique), Paris, 1890.

* The microscopes used most frequently by Mr. Murray were a Ross binocular with low powers and a Hartnack with
high powers ; these were firmly clasped to a small table, fixed securely into the deck of the ship. The seat again was
firmly fixed between this table and the wall of the cabin. By this arrangement he could work with advantage even
in rough weather when the motion of the ship was considerable.

1‘2

THE VOYAGE OF II.M.S. CHALLENGER.

tlie fiivt sorting aiul examination of the materials on hoard ship, have been
indieated.

It is now proposed to explain in detail the })lau adopted in the subsequent detailed
examination and deserijUion of tliese deposits, — to point out the chemical manipulations

Via. 17. — Urolging ami Soumliog arraiigctucuU on board tlio (Jhulltiiiger.

and inirro / opif; finalyses by means of which the liiological and mincralogical nature of
tin- d<-{K)«itH wa,H d<'t4rriijincd,

dio liistor)' of .'I marine (lej)osit is in general very complex, comprising as it docs an
account of the origin of the deposit, the cau.ses which have brought the varied elements

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

13

to the spot, and the modifications, physical and chemical, which these have undergone in
the course of time. Each of the constituent elements, whether organic or inorganic, has,
again, its own history, and this we have endeavoured to trace by studying their nature,
form, dimensions, and their relations to each other at the spot from which they have been
collected by the dredge or sounding tube. For this purpose the chemical and micro-
scopical methods recently introduced into the study of geology have been largely made
use of. A knowledge of the various particles forming a deposit led to a rational classi-
fication of marine deposits and to a definite nomenclature, of which we will have to
speak further on.

At the outset, the difficulties which surround this kind of study may be pointed out.
In the first instance the quantity of a deposit procured in the sounding tube may be very
small, and this, especially whenever of an incoherent nature, has undergone a kind of
sorting in the tube itself, owing to some of the finer or coarser particles being washed out
while being hauled up through the water. Again, the specimens preserved in spirit or
water have undergone sorting by being shaken up during the voyage, so that the contents
of the bottles are often arranged in layers, the heavier portions being at the bottom and
the lighter on the top. The specimens artificially dried, when not first washed in
distilled water, often contained crystals of sulphate of lime and other sea salts. In the
case of samples from the dredge or trawl there had been, it was evident, much washing
away while the apparatus was being hauled up through the water ; indeed often all the
deposit was washed away, and only manganese nodules, teeth, bones, and rock fragments
remained in the net. It is thus apparent that considerable care was necessary to ensure
that, in making analyses or in choosing a sample for determining the percentage of
carbonate of lime or other elements present, we were working with an average sample.
As a rule we took for this purpose the specimens collected in the sounding tube and
dried on board ship. When a difference was noted in the upper and lower layers in the
sounding tube, these were preserved and examined separately. The results of an
examination of the specimen from the sounding tube, frequently small in quantity, were
compared with those obtained from an examination of a very large quantity procured in
the trawl or dredge at the same spot, often amounting to several hundredweights.

It is evident, then, that to make the descriptions as dear as possible, it became
necessary to follow a systematic plan and not to deviate from it. The method finally
adopted was chosen, after many attempts, as the best, and the one most likely to be
followed by others in describing deposits that may be hereafter obtained from the ocean’s
bed. This method will now be referred to in detail, and will be at once rendered intel-
ligible by reference to the Tables in Chapter II., -where the particulars regarding each of
the Challenger specimens are presented in synoptical form.

In commencing the examination of a deposit, attention was first given to the
macroscopic characters. By means of the naked eye or a hand lens, the substance was

14

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

inspected in the wet and dried condition, and its general aspect, colour, grain, and
greater or less plasticity in the former state, and its brittleness, cohesion, colour, grain,
and the streak of the clayey matter in the latter state, were noted. It seemed necessary
to distinguish the differences in the characters of the substance in the wet and dry
condition, as these are often considerable, the colour being often deeper in the wet
material, the condition in which it is usually seen by seamen when brought on board
ship. Macroscopic examination itself permits a classification of deposits into certain well-
defined categories, in accordance with their mode of formation and composition. It
shows in a general way the composition of the deposit, and especially the part taken in
its composition by organic and inorganic elements. Colour in this relation is important,
as it frequently enables us to distinguish at once an organic ooze from a mud or clay
made up chiefly of inorganic materials, especially when taken in combination with the
grain and other physical peculiarities.

The colour and other physical characters of the Residue left after the removal of the
carbonate of lime are likewise important, for they frequently enable us to trace the con-
nection between a typical Red Clay and the residue present in a Globigerina Ooze, the
colour of the residue in such an ooze being often entirely masked by the abundance of
the calcareous shells ; the colour of this residue is noted, in the tables, in the same column
as tlie name and physical characters. Plasticity points out the greater or less abundance
of clayey matter ; the farinaceous aspect indicates abundance of Diatom frustules ; the
grain tells as a rule whether the deposit comes from near a coast, from the open sea,
or from a region affected by floating ice.

The fundamental characters of a deposit revealed by a macroscopic examination
become much more definite and precise when followed by a detailed examination of its
component particles, commencing with a microscopic examination of the calcareous
organisms, which were separated by decantations into finer and coarser portions, and
examined in the wet and dried conditions. This was accomplished by placing the wet
substance in long clear glass wash bottles, and shaking up with abundance of clean water,
so as to separate the particles one from another and free them of amorphous matter.
Subsequently the various products of decantation, when dry, were passed through sieves
with ver}’’ fine meshes. The genera and species of the organisms could in this way be
determined with great accuracy, and their relative abundance could be estimated. In
over a hundred of the deposits all the calcareous organisms were carefully picked out by
means of a moistened camel-hair pencil from under the microscope, and then mounted
on separate slides when the species were determined ; this was a work requiring great
care and patience, and was latterly most successfully and expeditiously performed by Mr.
Frederick Pearcey, who accompanied the Expedition, and w^as subsequently assistant in
the Challenger Office. In this way the Molluscs, Foraminifera, fragments of Polyzoa,
Annelid tubes, Corals, otoliths of fish, and other calcareous fragments underwent careful

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

15

examination. The smaller fragments, which could not thus be picked out and
examined separately, were searched for under high powers, and the presence or relative
abundance of Coccospheres, Coccoliths, Ehabdoliths, and amorphous and other particles
was noted. ^

Under the heading Carbonate of Calcium in the Tables, Chapter II., the general
character of these organisms is indicated in two columns. In the first of these the
Foraminifera are named, beginning with the pelagic Foraminifera, which make up the
greater part of the carbonate of lime present in most deep-sea deposits. These organisms
live on the surface of the ocean in vast numbers, and the dead shells accumulate at the
bottom, forming, when in great abundance, the well-known Globigerina Ooze ; the pro-
portion which these make of the whole deposit is estimated after inspection, and the
figures indicating this proportion are placed in brackets ( ). In like manner, the

percentage of the shells of those Foraminifera which live at the bottom of the sea is
estimated and placed beneath in the same column. In the second column the kind and
percentage of other calcareous organisms present in the deposit are indicated in the
same way.

In front of the two columns giving the names and estimated quantities of the different
carbonate of lime organisms, is another smaller column under the general
heading Carbonate of Calcium, which gives the total percentage of
carbonate of calcium present in the deposit. This is obtained by a quan-
titative determination of the carbonic acid by attacking the sediment
with dilute hydrochloric acid. What is considered as a fair representa-
tive sample of the deposit is taken, finely ground, and dried thoroughly
in an air or water oven at a temperature (in the case of the air-oven)
of 100°-110° C., and transferred to a sample tube. A portion, about
0‘5 to 1 gramme, is weighed directly but quickly, and transferred to the
large bulb of the carbonic acid apparatus (see Fig. 18).

This apparatus consists of a bulb (a) of about 3 ozs. (100 c.c.)
capacity, an acid bulb (6), and a calcium chloride tube (c). The bulb is 18.— Carbonic

, . , . , Add Apparatus.

provided with two openings, one as ordinarily is the case, and another
smaller one blown in the side of the neck. Into the larger opening is fitted an india-
rubber stopper, through which passes the limb or delivery-tube of the acid bulb. This
acid bulb is fitted with a ground stop-cock, and holds about half an ounce of dilute
hydrochloric acid, 1 in 3. Into the smaller opening is fitted another india-rubber
stopper, into which is fixed an upwardly-inclined calcium chloride tube, filled with
fragments of fused calcium chloride, to dry the evolved carbonic acid gas. The calcium

1 The minute organisma and amorphous calcareous matters here referred to are not, of course, included in the term
“ fine washings” (p, 23), which we use exclusively to indicate the finer portions of the deposit after the removal of the
coA-bonate of lime.

16

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

chloride is first subjected to a stream of dry CO2, so that, when used in the estimation
of the COj, no error may be introduced by the absorption of the gas. The calcium
chloride tube is fitted with an india-rubber stopper, in order to exclude the outside air
when cooling and during the process of weighing.

The weighed sample is placed in the large bulb, a little water added, the different
parts adjusted and finally wiped dry, and then the whole is weighed by suspending
from the beam of the balance by a fine platinum wire. The acid is then run in little
by little, until all eflervescence has ceased ; the contents of the bulb are heated with
constant shaking to near the boding point, cooled, and finally weighed, and from the
loss in weight (weight before experiment minus weight after) the percentage of calcium
carbonate is calculated. When these analyses were first made, Ludwig’s apparatus was
used, but this was modified to the present form by the substitution of an ordinary
calcium chloride tube for the circular basal one, as there was a certain amount of
inconvenience experienced in heating.

It may be urged that the determination by carbonic acid, unaided by the oxide of
calcium test, indicates but approximately the quantity of carbonate of calcium, for the
deposit may contain carbonates of magnesia and iron. It is sufiicient to observe that
these bodies are only present in very small quantities. Besides, the composition of a
deposit at the same station and even in the same sample varies sometimes by a quantity
greater than the error committed. It is true that small quantities of iron, alumina,
phosphates, &c., are always dissolved in the above process, but this partial dissolu-
tion has no marked influence on the biological or mineralogical determinations that
require to be made. This method was then sufficiently exact for our purpose. Complete
quantitative analyses were made of many of the deposits, but the length of time
required to do this for all samples was not compensated by any real utility in the
investigation, while in many cases the quantity of a deposit was insufficient for such an
analysis.

By thus removing the carbonate of lime with dilute hydrochloric acid from each
de|>osit, our descriptions are conveniently divided into two parts, one dealing almost
exclusively with materials of organic origin — the shells and skeletons of carbonate of
lime secreting organisms, — and another referring to the part in which the mineral element
predominates in the great majority of cases ; in some localities, however, there are
associated with the minerals properly so called, the remains of siliceous organisms,
together with the silicified casts of calcareous organisms, and these may together or
8cj)arately make up the greater part of the deposit after the removal of the carbonate
of lime.

That part of the deposit which remains in the vessel after the removal of the carbonate
of lime is called in the descriptions Residue. In the examination of this residue the
heavier particles were separated by decantation and examined by reflected light in the

EEPOUT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS,

17

wet and dried states, and subsequently mounted on microscopic slides for examination
by transmitted light. As a rule the residue from about 1 gramme of the substance
was taken for examination, so that the evaluations of the various elements present might
be comparable in different deposits, but often very large quantities of a deposit were
taken and the carbonate of lime all removed, in order to have a considerable quantity
of residue for more thorough examination and study.

The processes made use of in lithology for isolating mineral species by means of
strong acids, by the action of electro-magnets, by liquids of high density, by sifting, &c. ,
have all been used by us with varying success, especially when we desffed to get a
sufficient quantity of a substance for quantitative examination.

Liquids of high density, such as the compounds of mercury and potassium, and
borotungstate of cadmium, were useful when dealing with a coarse deposit, but not so in
dealing with an ordinary deep-sea deposit, where the grains are exceedingly fine, so much
so, that as a rule it appears to the naked eye as a homogeneous mass. With an ordinary
magnet and an electro-magnet we were most successful in extracting from a mud or ooze
all the magnetic particles, such as magnetite, fragments of meteorites, with particles of
magnetic metals. This was accomplished by placing the magnet, covered with thin
“ iron ” paper, in a porcelain basin, in which the mud or ooze had been well mixed up
with water, and moving it slowly about, keeping the magnet as near to the bottom of
the vessel as possible without touching it ; it was then removed into another basin,
the paper taken carefully off, and the particles washed into a clean basin to clear
them from extraneous matter, then re-collected on a slide for examination under the
microscope.

The deposit was, after great dilution with clean water, also passed over fixed electro-
magnets, to collect the magnetic particles, but this was not so convenient in practice as
the above method with movable electro and permanent magnets.

The very simple process of fractional decantations, practised often and after a regular
system, proved to be in the end the most useful and expeditious way of preparing the residue
for microscopic analysis, and it was this process that we followed in all our examinations.
In this way we were usually able to separate sufficiently the Residue into the three
portions noted in the table under the headings: 1. Siliceous Organisms ; 2. Minerals ;
3. Fine Washings. The decantations were performed with glass or porcelain vessels
and abundance of water. The whole was kept in motion for some time, and then the
finer particles were poured off carefully, after continued stirring and shaking. The first
of these decantations gave us the fine washings, in the second the siliceous organisms
predominated, while the heavier mineral particles remained behind. Each of these were
mounted on microscopic slides for further examination.

The figures in the first column of the tables under Residue give the percentage in
the whole deposit, and is found by subtracting from 100 the quantity of carbonate of

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 3

18

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

calcium as determined by analysis. The numbers within brackets in each of the other
columns before siliceous organisms, minerals, and fine washings, give the estimated
abundance of these in the deposit, as in the case of the relative abundance of the various
carbonate of lime organisms under the heading carbonate of calcium ; in short, all the
numbers in the tables within brackets ( ) represent the estimated quantity present after
examination, in contradistinction to those numbers without brackets, which are the result
of quantitative determination.

1. Siliceous Organisms. — These consist generally of Diatoms, Radiolaria, and Sponge
spicules of various kinds. The enumeration of the genera of these would much exceed
the limits necessarily imposed by the style of the table, but full particulars are given in
the special reports, to which the reader is referred. Under this heading are also grouped
those Foraminifera, the tests of which are for the most part made up of the inorganic
particles found in a deposit, like the Astrorhizidse, Lituolidse, &c. There are also placed
under this heading the glauconitic and other casts of marine organisms which are
occasionally found in considerable quantity in some deposits, and remain in the residue
after the removal of the carbonate of calcium ; these cannot, of course, be classed
among siliceous organisms in the same sense as Diatoms, Radiolarians, and Sponge
spicules, but their mineralogical characters are indistinct, and for descriptive purposes
this appears the best place to note their occurrence. These casts bear distinctly the
impress of the calcareous organisms, but their chemical composition has not been in all
wises determined, though in many instances they are probably either a silicate corre-
sponding to glauconite, or of a phosphatic nature. When glauconite is present with
well-defined characters, it is placed among the mineral particles.

2. Minerals. — The fragments of minerals and rocks were examined on slides, first
by reflected light, dry, and then by transmitted light, under the mineralogical microscope.
Sometimes preparations were mounted in Canada balsam, or the particles were cemented
together by gum copal, and then rubbed down till thin and transparent, by a process
analogous to that u.sed in making thin sections of rocks.^ But this was possible only in
certiiin eases, and generally we had to examine the mineral fragments on a slide with
water, this mode of observation allowing the particles to remain free, and rendering easy
chemiwil reactions under the microscope. The mean diameter and form of the mineral
fnigoncnts arc stated in all cases, as this is a matter of considerable importance in giving
a clue as to the agents at work during the formation of the sediment under con-
sidcration. The order in which the species are mentioned in the tables is, generally
speaking, that of their imjjortance or abundance in the deposits. The characters which
have guided us in diagnosing the mineral species most commonly met with in the deep-
sea deposits are briefly stated below ; the characters noted under the various species refer

• Hc« F. a. Pcarwy, Mctlirxl of ConRr>liduting and Prejinring Thin Sections of Friable and Decomposed Rocks,
Sandjs Clays, Oozes, and other Granulated Substances, Proc. Roy. Phys. ISoc. Edin., vol. viiL pp. 296-300, pi. xi., 1884.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

19

always to the examination of isolated crystals or fragments of minerals such as are found
in the deep-sea deposits. There are many characters which are passed over in silence,
though no less important than the others, but these properties are only shown when the
minerals are cut into numerous sections in various directions, and therefore but rarely
seen in such isolated grains. It should also be remembered that the determination is
much more difficult because these particles are of very small dimensions, are mixed
with a large quantity of amorphous substances, are generally decomposed and altered by
chemical or physical agencies, and in this isolated state do not present the associations
which are met with in crystalline rocks. Only those mineral species that are well
defined and individualised are mentioned, and their characters given in the following
short descriptions. When speaking of the “fiue washings” we shall indicate some
of the principal characters of the amorphous matters which are present in the deposits,
such as clayey matters, oxides of iron and manganese, organic substances, phosphatic
grains, &c.

Amphibolb. — Hornblende. — Although minerals of the amphibolic group are more or less frequent in the
deposits it is rather difficult, except in the case of glaucophane, to distinguish the varieties owing to the
minuteness of the grains and to their clastic nature. We have generally to deal with common or with basaltic
hornblende. The fragments of these tv,'o varieties are generally prismatic, with a perfect cleavage of 124°
parallel to the prism, high relief and interference colour.s, the greatest extinction angle rarely exceeding 20°.
Common hornblende, more or less distinctly prismatic individuals, generally greenish, rarely brownish, colours of
pleochroism green. Associated with quartz, epidote, felspar, and other debris of older crystalline rocks. In some
cases fragments of actinolite are found as columnar or fibrous aggregates with debris of crystalline or actinolite
schists. Basaltic hornblende, fragments of well-crystallised individuals, sometimes regularly bounded crystals
coated with volcanic glass, well-marked cleavage, high lustre on the planes of cleavage, black by reflected and
brown by transmitted light, strong pleochroism and absorption, small angles of extinction, vitreous inclusions,
in some cases coating of magnetite and characteristic corrosion.

Glaucophane. — This mineral is somewhat rare in the deposits ; it is observed in the form of small
prismatic fragments and is distinguished by its highly-pronounced violet-blue colour, and by the angle of the
prismatic cleavage, which is the same as for amphibole. The extinction angle on the klinopinakoid does not
exceed 7°. Strong pleochroism : blue, bluish violet, yellowish grey. Occurs with land debris and fragments
of mica-schists and gneissic rocks.

Apatite. — This mineral, rarely found in the deposits, is observed in the form of hexagonal columnar
fragments, sometimes in elongated or rounded grains. The surface is corroded and full of small cavities,
extinction parallel to the length, colourless, or but slightly coloured, in this case pleochroic, high index of
refraction, considerable relief. Readily soluble in acids, tested by microchemical reaction with molybdate of
ammonium and by' sulphuric acid. These microchemical reactions were also used in the determination of
small phosphatic concretions and of grains of the same nature. Apatite was found with fragments of older
crystalline rocks (see chapter on phosphatic nodules).

Calcite. — Besides the great number of the remains of organisms or skeletons formed of calcite or of
aragonite, this mineral is often observed in the deposits bounded by the cleavage planes or as radiated or fibrous
aggregations. These fragments or concretions of calcite are generally characterised by the twinning parallel to
— J R, or by the cleavage parallel to R, colourless, sometimes coloured with limonite, bluish, yellowish, and
occasionally milky or almost opaque. Small relief, between crossed nicols presents characteristic irisation, high
interference colours, stronger absorption of the ordinary ray j is distinguished by the facility with which it i.s
attacked by cold hydrochloric acid. Calcite of organic origin can almost always be distinguished by its form

20

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

and microstructure ; sometimes, as in tlie case of otoliths of fish, Foraminifera, and Mollusc shells, one observes
between cnissed nicols the black cross of sphcrulitic aggregation.

CoLoiuTE. — Under this name are included all the minerals of the chlorite group. Lamellae or scales more
or less curved, with irregular outlines, often with parallel structure, sometimes forming fibro-radiated aggregates.
.Vlso observed in the form of minute amorphous particles attached to various minerals or coating rock frag-
ments ; perfect cleavage parallel to the basal plane ; colour green, more or less dark, index of refraction low.
The lamelhe parallel to the cleavage are isotropic, extinction parallel to the cleavage, interference colours
bluish, pleochroic, fibro-radiated aggregates give the interference cross of spherulites, easily acted upon by
acids, microchemical reaction of magnesia, iron, and alumina; becomes opaque, brown, or blackish when heated
on a platinum foil. Generally found with debris of schistose and of older crystalline rocks, principally
amphibolic or gneissic, also as coating of some specimens of continental rocks and minerals.

Chromite. — Often in small octahedral crystals, more usually as irregular grains; fine splinters are trans-
j)arcnt, reddish brown, or bro^vn. In reflected light black metallic lustre, not magnetic, not attacked by acids,
reaction of chrome before blowpipe. Found with debris of crystalline rocks, especially of olivine rocks.

Deles.site. — Fibrous or fibro-radiated aggregates, often zonary structure, green, yellowish green, brownish,
double refraction weak, slightly pleochroic. Often observed on fragments of basaltic rocks, of tachylite, or of
jmlagonite. Easily acted upon by acids, when heated becomes black or brownish.

Dolomite. — Sometimes found as aggregations of crystals, which have almost always the outlines of the
fundamental rhombohedron I\, forming small rock fragments, with saccharoidal structure ; colourless or
brownish, not acted upon by acetic acid or cold dilute hydrochloric acid, microchemical reaction of magnesia.
Occurs in the deposits as fragments of dolomitic rocks associated with blocks or gravel of older crystalline and
sedimentary rocks transported by icebergs.

Epidote. — Generally occurs as fragments of crystals, mostly prismatic, rarely with sharp crystallographic
faces, elongated parallel to the axis of symmetry, cleavage cracks following M. Several crystals often found
attached parallelly, sometimes more or less radiated aggregates or grains. Yellowish green colour, sometimes
almost colourless, uneven surface and strong relief, high interference colours, strong pleochroism : yellow,
brown, green ; extinction parallel to the cleavage, unattacked by cold acids. Occurs with debris of eruptive
or schistose rocks.

Felspar-s. — (a) Monorlinic. — Generally fragments bounded by the cleavage planes, following P and M,
intersecting at right angles, colourless or coloured by interpositions, dull or sometimes opaque, in other cases
glassy. Weak double refraction, low interference colours, no pleochroism nor differences in absorption,
extinctions of the monoclinic system, twins following the Carlsbad, Baveno, or Manebach laws. Sanidine,
often in crystals more or less fragmentary, with glassy habit, colourless and transparent, presenting the ordinary
crystallographic form, tabular parallel to M or prismatic parallel to the edge P/M, separation-planes parallel to
the orthopinakoid, glass inclusions often regularly disposed. Associated with recent volcanic products, often
covcreil entirely or partly with a glassy coating. Orthoclase, fragments bounded by cleavage planes, often
irregular grains, no glassy habit, dull and milky, no glass inclusions, intergrowth with quartz or with triclinic
felspar, decomposition into kaolin or muscovite, microchemical reaction of potash. Associated in the deposits
with debris of crystalline schists and of older eruptive rocks.

(h) Trirlinir, — Microclinp, colourless or dull grains or fragments often bounded by the cleavage planes
parallel to P ami .M, j»olysynthetic lamella; following the albite and pericline laws. In parallel polarised light
(’bamcteristic cross-hatched appcaninco produced by twin lamellae parallel and perpendicular to P/M.
Extinction of 15* .30' on P, alterations as for orthoclase. Associated with debris of older eruptive and schisto-
cr}'iitallinc rocks. 1‘laijiodane^ under this designation are included all the triclinic felspars with the exception
of microcline. As a rule, in the deposits, the s|)ccification of pdagioclase by optical determination is difficult
or uncertain ; when a specification of the plagiocluscs has been made it is stated in the descriptions. They
occur in ileep-sea tkqiosits in most coses ns fragments of crystals often bounded by the cleavage jilanes ; when
they arc iml>c<lded in glassy or pnlagonilic matter, ns is frequently the case in the true pelagic deposits, they
pre. nt the onlinary crystallographic forms or are crystallised in very thin tables parallel to M. Polysynthetic
twinning following the albite law with frcriuent repetition, and following the pericline law, sometimes Carlsbad

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

21

twinning together with the twinning according to the albite and pericline laws. Extinctions of triclinic minerals,
zonary structure. The plagioclastic fragments present two kinds of habit : dull and cloudy with the debris of
older eruptive rocks, glassy and colourless with those of more recent eruption and in volcanic ashes ; alteration
into zeolitic matter, kaolin, mica, and saussurite ; microchemical reaction of lime and soda. When it was
altogether impossible, on account of the alteration or of their minuteness, to determine whether the felspathic
fragments were to be referred to the monoclinic or the triclinic felspars we use the general term felspar.

Garnet. — Often in rhombododecahedral crystals or in grains either quite round or angular, irregular
fracture without cleavage, numerous inclusions of various minerals, occasionally coated with green chloritic or
serpentinous substance or with phyllitic matter. Generally little altered, isotropic, reddish by transmitted
light, unacted upon by acid, high index of refraction, strong dispersion. The most frequent varieties in the
deep-sea deposits are common garnet, almandin, and pyrope ; they occur generally with debris of older crystal-
line and schisto-crystalline rocks.

Glauconite. — Grains more or less rounded, sometimes split, often retaining the form of Eoraminifera or
other organisms in which the glauconite has been moulded. The colour by reflected light is yellow, more or
less dark green, black or reddish ; by transmitted light it shows greenish or reddish tints. Between crossed
nicols aggregate polarisation spotted with bluish and yellowish tints, in some cases appears isotropic, numerous
inclusions, reaction of potash (see description of glauconitic deposits).

Gypsum. — Generally regularly-bounded crystals, sometimes rounded, perfect cleavage following the
klinopinakoid, transparent, colourless, greyish or brownish from numerous inclusions of clayey and other
substances from the bottom. Double refraction strong ; axial plane in the plane of symmetry. In some cases,
if not in aU, these crystals were formed in the bottles containing the deposits preserved in alcohol.

Hematite. — Generally found as red hematite, as flakes or small granules coating or colouring other
mineral particles, sometimes isolated in the deposits. Often transparent, red to yellowish. Soluble in strong
hydrochloric acid. In the deposits this earthy red hematite is very difflcult to distinguish from brown hematite
or limonite, the former being frequently altered. Brown hematite, often associated with manganese, is the
most frequent in the deposits as brownish amorphous colouring matter, easily soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Magnetite. — Readily extracted with a weak magnet, angular grains frequently in the form of octahedral
crystals, sometimes twinned following the spinel law, frequent skeleton crystals and groups of irregular grains,
opaque, black, with a characteristic bluish metallic lustre. Occasionally a zone of limonite covers the surface of
these magnetic particles ; often imbedded in volcanic glass, and associated in the same fragment with other
volcanic minerals such as felspar, augite, hornblende, &c., more rarely Avith debris of older schisto-crystalline
rocks and cosmic spherules. Titaniferous magnetite or ilmenite is often found in irregular jagged grains; it is
distinguished in some cases from true magnetite by a coating of leucoxene. Acted upon by hydrochloric acid,
it is slowly dissolved, giving a yellowish green solution.

Mica. — The minerals of this group are generally distinguished by the naked eye in the deposits ; they
are seen as shining flakes, particularly when the water is being decanted. As it is difficult, or almost im-
possible, to distinguish the various species of the micas in the deep-sea deposits, we have taken into account
for a broad distinction the following characters. The particles of mica do not show crystallographic outlines,
except on the cleavage plane, which is shining ; they are perfectly cleavable in thin lamellse parallel to the
basal plane. More or less transparent in various colours from light yellowish or almost colourless to green,
brown, or almost opaque, showing brilliant interference colours, optically negative, extinction parallel to the
cleavage. We divide all the micas into : {a) Black mica, flakes parallel to the cleavage deep brown or green,
also red or almost black, in convergent light biaxial character scarcely determinable, very strongly pleocbroic,
the rays vibrating parallel to the cleavage strongly absorbed. Associated with debris of schisto-crystalline
and metamorphic rocks, and of old and recent eruptive rocks. This subdivision comprises biotite, and probably
anomite and phlogopite in some cases. (&) White mica, with a silvery lustre, transparent, colourless, light
yellowish or greenish ; no pleochroism, but absorption of the rays parallel to the cleavage. Intense coloration
between crossed nicols, large axial angle. In some cases sericite is met with in the soundings associated
with fragments of porphyroids or phyllites ; it is observed as irregularly-bounded flakes, bent and twisted ; the
lamellae are irregular. The other characters are the same as for white mica. The white mica is commonly found

22

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

with debris of altered sedimentary or f^eissic rocks or with minerals derived from the disintegration of granite.
It is possible that under the name of white mica not only muscovite and sericite, but other varieties, and also
altered black mica, are included. Generally speaking, the micas are the less altered of the silicates of the
deejvsea deposits.

Olivine, — Almost always irregularly-bounded grains, except when coated with volcanic glass ; in this case
olivine has the crystallographic forms of this mineral in recent eruptive rocks ; often skeleton crystals. Im-
perfect cleavage following the brachypinakoid and cracks following the macropinakoid. Transparent, colourless,
greenish or reddish by alteration, without pleochroism, and with feeble absorption, high relief; colours of
polarisation very bright green and red, even for the smallest fragments. Numerous inclusions of fluid, of
vitreous grains, of magnetite and picotite. Decomposes into serpentinous matter, but generally the alteration
of olivine in dee{vsca deposits is accompanied with a deposition of ferric oxide or hydrous oxide of iron.
Gelatinises with sulphuric acid. Olivine is found in some exceptional cases with debris of crystalline schists
or older eruptive rocks, but generally with clastic volcanic minerals and fragments of basalts, limburgite,
tachylite, and in volcanic ashes.

PvRiTES. — Sometimes observed in cubic crystals or in the form of pentagonal dodecahedrons, sometimes
with the characteristic striie of oscillatory combination, sometimes in irregular grains, opaque, yellowish metallic
lustre or bluish black in reflected light. Occasionally transformed into limonite.

Pyroxene. — (a) Rhoinlric, lamellar aggregates, generally large fragments, are found with older eruptive rock
debris, short prismatic fragments with products of more recent eruptions. Cleavage following the prism of about
90*, in some cases also another cleavage parallel to the brachypinakoid. Index of refraction high, low inter-
ference colours. Extinction parallel to the pinakoidal cleavage. Enstatite, colourless to grey, yellowish, not
pleocbroic. Bronzite, often fibrous, yellowish to greenish, pleochroic, greyish green, yellowish. These two
pyroxenes often contain metallic inclusions, intergrowth with monoclinic pyroxene. Associated with older
rock debris, principally with peridotic rocks, and with volcanic ashes of ande.sitic or trachytic nature. In this
case the fragments or crystals have often glass inclusions, but do not show intergrowth with monoclinic pyroxene.
Thi.s or the previous variety found also in cosmic spherules. Hij'persthene, greenish, red or brownish fragments
bounded by cleavage planes, prismatic when associated with the debris of more recent eruptive rocks, inter-
growth with monoclinic pyroxene. In the massive variety characteristic tabular inclusions, strong pleochroism.
Found rarely with debris of older eruptive rocks, in some cases with lapilli or minerals of andesitic or trachytic
eruptions.

(6) Monoelinir. — Augite, fragments irregularly bounded or with cleavage planes, often crystals of the
ordinary form, coated with volcanic glass, twinning parallel to the orthopinakoid, cleavage parallel to the prism
of 87* 6', greenish, yellowish, brownish, purplish, high index of refraction, strong double refraction, oblique
extinction of 36* 54'. Weak plmchroism ; green, yellow, brown; in some cases not pleochroic. Gaseous or
glassy inclusions frequent, encloses also crystals and grains of magnetite. Found frequently in the deposits
with debris of basalts, andesites, &c., in volcanic ashes. DiaJlage, grains bounded by cleavage faces, cleavage
parallel to the ortbopinakoic], fibrous structure ; greenish or brownish, tabular inclusions, double refraction
strong, maximum extinction angle of alxmt 40°, cleavage plates show one of the systems of polar rings. Associated
with debris of older eruptive rocks.

Quartz. — It is genenilly in the form of quartz that free inorganic silicic acid is found in the deposits;
particles of jasper, cliulcedony, A’c., are rtslatively rare. Only in exceptional instances was quartz observed as
■mall cry'stals hounde<l by the planes of the hexagonal prism and pyramid. As a general rule the grains of
this mineral are without any crystal lograjihic outlines ; they are angular or rounded, massive, without cleavage
planes, with a characteristic conchoidal fracture. After cleaning with acid, the grains are transparent and
colourleMi ; some arc clouded with inclusions, no traces of alteration, not attacked by acids. The latter
characters : absence of cleavage planes, conchoidal fracture, rounded or angular form, without crystallographic
faces, absence of any decomposition, distinguish at first sight this mineral from felspar. Interference figure of
monaxial crystals, positive double refraction, in parallel polarised light bright colour, when the fragments
attain, as they do in aome deposits, a certain thickness. In many cases this mineral is characterised by its
inclusiona, aoraetimes arranged in planes or irregularly disposed, by liquid inclusions, some with carbonic acid
or with amali cubic crystals ; sometimes these (quartz grains contain needles of tourmaline, rutile, scales of

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

23

hematite, chlorite, &c. The minerals associated with the quartz grains give a clue as to the matrix rock :
quartz fragments derived from granite are generally characterised by numerous liquid inclusions, some with
cubic crystals, the grains have not crystallographic outlines. The same may be said of quartz derived
from crystalline schists. Quartz of porphyritic rocks, which is very rare, is distinguished in some rare cases
by its more or less regular outlines, corrosion, and by glassy geometrical inclusions ; moreover, liquid inclusions
are not so often met with as in granitic quartz. The quartz of clastic rocks is angular or rounded, the micro-
structure of the grains being the same as that of the same mineral in the rocks in which it was originally formed.
Vein quartz presents irregular grains or aggregations of grains containing numerous liquid inclusions, sometimes
fibrous or milky. Fragments of chalcedony are fibrous with a radiated structure, the fibres being very thin
double refraction negative, aggregate polarisation or spherulitic interference cross.

The silica derived from organic remains, which, like quartz, plays a very important part in marine deposits,
behaves, between crossed nicols, like an isotropic body ; to this character must be added the property which
this variety of silica possesses of preserving, notwithstanding its tenuity or disaggregation, a special organic
structure (Radiolaria, Diatoms, Sponge spicules). This structure enables us in numerous cases to determine
the organisms from which the siliceous particles are derived. This variety of silica is soluble in caustic
potash.

Rutile. — This mineral is very rarely found in isolated prismatic crystals or in small grains, it is generally
imbedded in fragments of rocks. In some shore deposits rutile is observnd in the form of fine needles, or
fragments of microscopic prismatic crystals often twinned as in the slates. Sometimes these small crystals are
arranged in groups {sagenite), brown or reddish in colour. Double refraction very strong, high relief and brilliant
polarisation colours for the smallest particles, not acted upon by acids. Associated with debris of older schisto-
crystalline rocks, slates, &c.

Serpentine. — Compact or fibrous grains, in some cases mesh- or lattice-structure, yellowish, greenish, or
brownish ; in the veins, secondary deposition of metallic oxides ; remains of the primitive mineral imbedded in
the serpentine, birefrangent, colours of chromatic polarisation generally weak ; in polarised light the fibrous or
special structure appears most distinctly. Attacked by hot hydrochloric acid, and by sulphuric acid, with separa-
tion of gelatinous silica.

Tourmaline. — Often found in small prismatic fragments or hemimorphic crystals. Transparent, brownish,
bluish grey, reddish or greenish. Strong pleochroism, the ordinary ray very much absorbed, extinction
parallel to the length, no cleavage but cracks somewhat parallel to the base, tolerably numerous inclusions
often grouped together. Unattacked by ordinary acids. Almost always associated with debris of crystalline
schists, granitic rocks, slates, &c.

Zeolites. — Sometimes granular aggregations, isotropic {analcim), or with rhombohedric cleavage {chahasite),
more frequently divergent or radiated aggregations of small prismatic crystals, exceptionally isolated crystals or
fragments of crystals bounded by prismatic and pyramidal faces, generally attached to fragments of rocks or
of volcanic glass; colourless, transparent, low polarisation colours. Easily acted upon by hydrochloric acid, with
formation of gelatinous silica. It was only possible in some exceptional cases to give a specification of the
various zeolites, by microscopical examination or by. microchemical reactions (see chapter on formation of
zeolites in the deep-sea deposits).

Zircon. — Small quadratic crystals more or less rounded, prismatic but generally short, with indications of
pyramidal faces. Colourless, yellowish, reddish, strong double refraction, relief very marked, colours of
polarisation bright red and green, no pleochroism. Sometimes zonary structure, liquid and other inclusions.
Reaction for zirconia by fusing with bicarbonate of soda. Found with debris of crystalline schists and of older
and recent eruptive rocks, associated also with quartz grains, and other minerals derived from the disintegration
of sedimentary rocks.

The above are the minerals most frequently met with in the deposits, and the micro-
scopical characters on which we rely for their determination. It is true that all the
characters used in lithological investigations are not indicated in the foregoing short

‘24

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

ilescriptions, but, as already stated, the nature itself of the deep-sea deposits does not
allow us to make a pnictical application of all the resources of microscopical analysis.
Some other minenil particles composed of lapilli and fragments of rocks, manganese and
iron concretions, phosphatic nodules, cosmic spherules, &c., will be described at length in
the following chapters.

3. Fine Washings. — It remains now to point out the characteristics of the third part
of the residue, that denominated “ fine washings.” This portion comes away with the
first decantations ; although in these decantations the substances composing the deposit
are separated, as a rule, according to their specific gravity some particles of a higher
density are always ciirried away with the lighter substances on account of their form
and their very small size. Hence it may be expected that the fine washings obtained
in this way will be a mixture of various substances in which predominate nevertheless
the lightest and the smallest particles of the deposit. The somewhat vague term of
fine washings appears to be preferable for this part of the residue to a mineralogical -
name, such as clay, for instance. The fine washings are connected intimately with the
two other groups of materials composing the residue — the siliceous organisms, and the
mineral particles ; but the small size of these siliceous remains and of the fragments
of minerals do not, as a rule, permit them to be classed with determinable species, and,
on the other hand, in this part of the residue the amorphous matter predominates,
forming, to the naked eye, a kind of homogeneous mass of a decidedly clayey character.
Under the high powers of the microscope one observes that infinitesimal particles of
organic and inorganic nature are imbedded in this argillaceous substance, which forms,
so to 8})cak, the substratum of the whole. Hence in this heterogeneous aggregation,
which comes under the name of fine washings, may be distinguished : —

a. Argillaceous matter, forming small lumps with indefinite outlines, not reacting
between crossed nicols, coloured or slightly tinted by other substances, reddish grey,
browni.sh, &c., no gclatinisation with cold acids, after treatment with hydrochloric acid
l>ecomes more or lc.ss colourle.ss, soluble after ebullition in sulphuric acid, heated on a
platinum foil becomes red, yellowish, brownish, through the decomposition of the organic
substances and dehydration and oxidation of the iron. Keaction of alumina with cobalt
solution. The microstructure of this clayey matter is very indefinite, having, in wet
[ircparations, a more or le.ss gelatinous a.spect in many instances. The colouring
sub.stances arc niangancsc and iron, or one of them. The hydrated peroxide of
manganc.-.Hc, in small microscojiic concretions or as a j)igment, is brownish, transparent,
and di.s.HolvcH in strong hydrochloric acid setting chlorine free. With the manganese are
gcncnilly associated, jis the colouring matter of the amorphous substances, oxides of
iron, chieHy linnuiite, which arc dissolved in cold dilute hydrochloric acid. When this
iron is not combined with the clay, it aj>pcars as small lamell®, as confused aggregations,
giving to the clayey substance an ochreous or yellowish brown colour. With reflected

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

25

light, limonite is reddish or deep brown ; after heating these particles become black,
opaque, and magnetic. Although we can rarely distinguish limonite from red hematite,
it seems probable that in some cases the latter is represented in the deposits. The
distinctive characters are that hematite is not at all so soluble in acids ; it is red in
reflected light and in transmitted light slightly transparent with a reddish tinge. These
argillaceous matters are mixed up with : —

h. Organic substances, heated on a platinum foil they disappear or leave cinders,
not decomposed by hydrochloric acid ; soluble in caustic potash. Generally no organic
structure is to be seen ; amorphous, colour greenish, yellowish, brown, or grey, between
crossed nicols behaving as isotropic bodies ; in some cases when exhibiting an organic
structure they are birefrangent.

c. Siliceous organisms, owing to their low specific weight (1'9 to 2 ’3), and their small
size, these are carried away with the fine washings, and are fragments of the siliceous
organisms found in the deposit.

d. Mineral particles, fragments of the same species as mentioned under “minerals.”

We see thus that what goes by the name of deep-sea clay has no complete analogy

with what should be included under the name of pure clay. It is not chemically or
physically similar to kaolin, but is more nearly allied to bole-clay, rich in iron and
manganese, and the clayey matter in the fine washings plays a much less important
part than might be suspected before microscopical examination. Further on it will be
shown that the proportion of silica in these clays, and therefore the proportion of silica
in the fine washings, indicates generally free silica. This is to be attributed to the
presence of remains of siliceous organisms, or small quartz particles. The fragments of
minerals which pass away in the first decantations are always less than 0'02 mm. in
diameter; their diminutiveness thus makes them float suspended in the water for some
time, when the latter is agitated by shaking. Particles of this size might perhaps be
determined in a rock section under the mineralogical microscope, but this is not possible
with minute, isolated, irregular, chemically and physically altered, fragments, generally
without any crystallographic outlines. There is, however, one exception in the case of
splinters from pumice stone and vitreous volcanic rocks. The structure and form of
these glassy particles makes them much more readily distinguishable than other mineral
particles, so that particles even 0'002 mm. in diameter can be recognised. This can
easily be tested by grinding a piece of pumice to powder in an agate mortar, when it
will be found that the abundance of gaseous bubbles, the filamentous structure, curvi-
linear outline and jagged appearance due to the presence of the bubbles, enable the
minutest fragments to be detected. The fragments from basic and acid pumice can
even be detected in some cases ; the latter yields elongated and nearly colourless
fragments, while the former shows darker particles, and some of the bubbles are of a
circular form rather than elongated.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

4

‘26

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

To sum up, tlieii, with rcfereuce to any one of the examples taken from the Tables
in Chapter II., it will be observed that the number of the station is first given, then
follow the date, the position, the depth from which the specimen was obtained, and the
temperature of the water at the surface and bottom of the sea, when these are known.

The name given to the deposit is then stated, with the general physical characters, and
the colour of the residue after tlie removal of the carbonate of calcium is also noted in the
same column. The footnotes in the tables give the numbers of the analyses of substances
from each station ; these analyses will be found tabulated in the subsequent chapters.
References to the specimens figured in the plates are also given in the footnotes.

Under the heading Carbonate of Calcium there are three columns, the first giving
the percentage of this substance in the whole deposit, the figures having been obtained by
quantitative analysis. In the second column the general designations of the Foraminifera
which secrete lime are given in two groups, the first including those which live on the surface
of the ocean and whose dead shells accumulate at the bottom of the sea and form by far
the largest part of the carbonate of lime in oceanic deposits; the second group includes
those lime-secreting Foraminifera that pass the whole of their lives at the bottom of
the sea. Before each of these groups will be found numbers within brackets, giving an
estimated percentage of the part each j)lays in making up the whole deposit. In the third
column wll be found an indication of the remains of other lime-secreting organisms
obseiA’cd in the deposit, such as pelagic and other Molluscs, otoliths of fish, fragments of
Echinoderms, calcareous spicules of Alcyonaria, Corals, Ostracodes, calcareous Algae, &c.,
and the number before this group gives the estimated amount of these in the whole
deposit. Except when the shells of pelagic Molluscs are present, this group does not
make up a large part of any deposit in water over 200 fathoms ^ in depth.

Under tlie heading Residue the first column gives the percentage of the residue in
tlic whole deposit, the figures here being obtained by subtracting the weight of carbonate
of calcium found by analysis in 100 parts of the deposit. In the following column is given
the general designation of the siliceous organisms or their fragments, and the estimated
percentage of these in the whole deposit. Under this head are included those Foramini-
fera which build their tests by cementing together the mineral particles of the deposit,
as well as those internal casts of calcareous organisms which have usually more or less of
a glauconitic character. In the next column is given the mineral and crystalline
fragments, with their mean diameter in millimetres, and the estimated part these as a
whole take in the formation of the deposit. As a rule, the order in which the various
8fK!cies of minerals arc stated gives an index to their abundance in the deposit, the most
numerous l>eing stated first, the least numerous last. In the fourth column, under this
heading, will be found a statement as to the bulk and eharacter of the fine washings of
the residue. The constitution of these is very complex, but is fundamentally of an

' 3G6 inctrca

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

27

amorphous clayey character, with exceedingly minute fragments of all the mineral
particles and siliceous organisms with oxides of iron and manganese.

In the last column of the table will be found additional observations with reference
to the nature of the bottom at the place where the deposits were collected, with other
brief details. For more easy reference there is placed along the edges of the tables a
statement as to the regions of the ocean to which the descriptions refer, and at the upper
left-hand corner of each table there is a reference to the charts and sections in which the
stations are represented.

c. Chemical Analyses of the Deposits.

During the cruise of the Challenger, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan frequently made qualitative
tests of the deposits and of some of the substances found in them, but no detailed
quantitative analyses could be attempted. In the foregoing sections it has been stated
that we have not always had recourse to complete and elementary chemical analysis,
preferring as a general rule microscopic analysis, for these deposits not having a constant
and well-defined composition, did not require for their classification the long operations of
quantitative analysis. As previously stated, the quantity of carbonate of calcium has in
every case been determined, as this afibrded a ready and certain means of classing the
various kinds of deposits. In a great number of cases we have applied quantitative
methods of chemical analysis with a definite end in view while engaged in the examina-
tion of the various samples, and in typical examples of all the deposits complete
qualitative and quantitative analyses have been undertaken by ourselves or other chemists
acting under our directions. The plan adopted by MM. Eenard, Sipocz, Hornung, and
Klement, in the laboratory of Professor Ludwig of Vienna, or in M. Eenard’s laboratory
at Brussels, may be here referred to in order to prevent repetition.

Following the method generally adopted at present for the analysis of silicates, three
samples of the substance were taken. The first served to determine the water, silica,
alumina, oxide of iron, manganese, magnesia, lime, and eventually cobalt and nickel.

With reference^ to the direct determination of water, this has always been effected
after the method which we owe to Dr. Sipocz. The substance is dried at 110° C.,
weighed, mixed with three times its weight of alkaline carbonates, and placed in a
small platinum boat ; the latter is then introduced into a porcelain tube and exposed to
the action of a heated stove, all the precautions prescribed by Sipbcz being taken during
the operation.^ Under the influence of the heat of the furnace, the solvents act at
the same time as the water frees itself ; this latter is driven off by a current of dry air
and collected in a U-tube containing pumice stone saturated with sulphuric acid,
previously weighed. When the disengagement of the water ceases, the increased weight

1 Sipocz, Sitzungsberichte der Wiener Akademie der Wissenschaften, Bd. Ixxvi. p. 51, 1877.

28

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGER.

of the tube shows the quantity of water collected directly, and the solvent process is now
complete. The boat is withdrawn from the tube and contains a vitreous mass. The
silica is separated in the usual way after the evaporation to dryness of an acid solution.
The iron and alumina are precipitated in the form of hydroxides by ammonia. Ebulli-
tion is maintained until the complete disappearance of the excess of free ammonia, so
as to keej) the manganese in solution ; when the latter body was present in rather con-
siderable quantities, the separation was effected by means of succinate of ammonia.

The oxides of iron and alumina weighed together are redissolved in hydrochloric
acid ; the small quantity of silica which is left undissolved in the acid is then treated
apart, and the weight of it added to that of the silica obtained before. The iron is
separated from the alumina by potassium hydrate ; to the filtrate, after the separation of
the iron and alumina, the direct addition of sulphide of ammonium gives a precipitate
of sulphide of manganese, which is weighed after calcination in the form of mangano-
manganic oxide. The calcium is afterwards precipitated in the form of oxalate of
rnlcium, and weighed as oxide of calcium. In the filtrate separated from the precipitate
of oxalate of calcium, the addition of phosphate of ammonium and ammonia produces
a precipitate of ammonio-magnesia phosphate. Finally, the sulphuric acid is treated in
the form of sulphate of barium in the last filtrate.

The second portion of the substance was destined for the determination of the
protoxide of iron. The substance, dried and weighed, is introduced into a hard glass
tube in an atmo.spherc of carbonic acid gas, and mixed with hydrofluoric acid and
sulphuric acid. The sealed tube is submitted to a temperature of about 100° C. until
the .sub.stance is entirely decomposed ; the solution is then titrated with permanganate
of potash.

The third and last portion of the substance is used for the determination of the
alkalies. This part, weighed and dried, is submitted to the action of sulphuric and
hydrofluoric acids in a platinum capsule ; after evaporation with acids and calcination,
the substance is treated with hydrochloric acid. The manganese is precipitated by
barj'ta, and the excess of baryta by ammonia and carbonate of ammonia. A solution
is thus obtained, containing the alkaline chlorides and excess of carbonate of ammonia ;
the latter is got rid of by calcination. The last traces of magnesia are eliminated by
oxide of mercury ; the chlorides are weighed together. To the solution containing the
chlorides of so<lium and j)otassium is added chloride of platinum, in order to separate the
|K)tassium as chloro-platinate, which is weighed in a gla.ss filter after dessication. From
the weight of the chloro-platinate of potassium, the quantity of chloride of potassium
is detluccd. Tlic weight of cliloride of sodium is obtained by difference.

In certain <mcs, when it bcciimc necessary to estimate quantitatively the various
substances forming the residue, a large quantity of the deposit was treated with very
dilute hydnsdiloric acid, Liking care that the operation should take place without

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

29

exceeding a weak acid reaction ; after the elimination of the carbonates, phosphates, and
sulphates, the residue was analysed as described above.

A considerable number of sharks’ teeth, bones of Cetaceans, and manganese nodules
were selected by Mr. Murray and sent to Professor Dittmar, F.R.S., for analysis. This
able chemist has himself given an account of the methods he has employed, and these
will be stated in the various places where his results are discussed, throughout the body
of this Eeport. The same chemist also made, at the request of the editor of the reports,
experiments to establish the state of oxidation of the manganese in the deposits, and
gives a full account of his methods.

Soon after the return of the Expedition, Mr. Murray selected, at the request of the
late Sir C. Wyville Thomson, a rather extensive series of typical deposits, rocks,
manganese nodules, and other substances, which were all sent to the late Professor
Brazier of the University of Aberdeen for analysis. These will be found interpolated
throughout the body of this work. These various deposits and concretions were analysed
by submitting the substances to the hydrochloric acid test ; the part dissolved in the
acid was analysed separately, and the residue of this experiment was afterwards treated
by solvents.^

d. Materials available and made use of during the Investigation.

It seems desirable, in concluding this introduction on the methods we have employed
in this research on the nature and distribution of deep-sea deposits, to say a few words
on the specimens and collections at our disposal during the investigation. While many
thousands of samples of deposits have been examined by us from nearly every part of
the great ocean basins, only those collected during the voyage of H.M.S. Challenger
have been described in detail in the following tables. After much reflection it was
deemed advisable to limit the descriptions to the Challenger collections, as they formed
the basis of the whole inquiry. All the specimens were collected and labelled with great
care immediately after they were brought up from the bottom of the ocean, and the
conditions under w^hich they were found were carefully noted. The quantity of the
deposit procured at each station by the sounding tube, the fcrawl, and the dredge was as

^ Professor Brazier says ; — “The deposits in these analyses were treated as earths by me, and after digestion in
hydrochloric acid, were evaporated to dryness and subsequently re-dissolved as far as possible ; the insoluble residue,
after weighing, was treated with boiling caustic potash, and so much of the residue as was then dissolved was looked upon
as silica of easy combination, and classed along with the bodies soluble originally in hydrochloric acid. Where Diatoms
and other siliceous organisms were present, I was puzzled to know in what state the silica existed at the bottom of the
ocean, for in the analyses of these deposits there was little for it to be combined with. In sirch cases the silica dissolved
by caustic potash must very closely represent the siliceous organic matter present. I need not mention that the silica,
with alumina and iron remaining insoluble in the potash, was simply rocky grit. Apparently, some allowance should
be made for small portions of silica derived from easily decomposed minerals yielding sesquioxide of iron and
alumina.”

30

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

a rule much larger than in the case of any other collection of deep-sea deposits, and
they covered such a wide area in all the principal ocean basins that they must be
regarded as fairly representative of all the deposits now forming on the floor of the
ocean. The detailed study of these large samples has thrown so much light on the
subject that it has been possible to interpret with great certainty the nature of the
deposit in those regions where only a relatively small quantity of the mud, ooze, or clay
has been obtained by other expeditions. Indeed, the number of samples of deposits that
have been sent to us from British and foreign ships and expeditions, which we have
examined in the manner set forth in the following tables, greatly exceed those collected
by the Challenger ; in all, these have amounted to many thousands, and will be made
use of in verifying all general conclusions.^ In this way we have had an opportunity of
examining personally deposits from nearly every region of the great ocean basins, and
from nearly all the enclosed or partially enclosed seas. An investigation, extending over
so wide a field and occupying so long a time, necessarily involved a great amount of
labour and patience, but led in the long run to a great familiarity with and knowledge
of deep-.sea deposits as a whole, and their distribution in existing seas.

c. Leading Characteristics of Deposits from different Localities.

After a careful examination of a deep-sea deposit, following the method explained in
the foregoing pages, it is even possible to state with a very considerable degree of
certainty the region of the ocean in which it was formed, as well as to state approxi-
mately the depth and distance from land at which it was procured by the sounding tube,
dredge, or trawl. Indeed, we frequently requested our assistants to select for us a sample

• In addition to the Challenger collectionB, the following among other collections have passed through our hands:
— The very large and in)[>ortant collection made hy the U.S.S. “Tuscarora” throughout the basin of the great Pacific
Oc<-an in 1873-78 ; a collection by the U.S.S. “Gettysburg” in the Atlantic in 1876 ; a large and important collection
made by the U.S..S. “ Blake” in the Caribl>ean Sen, Gulf of Mexico, and along the eastern coasts of America, 1877-82;
a very extensive collection from the steamships “ Silvertown,” “ International,” “ Dacia,” and “Buccaneer,” belonging to
the India- rubWr, Gutta-|*ercha, and Telegraph Works’ Company, Silvertown, 1884-86, along the western coasts of
Africa, around the Cojk; Verde and Canary Islands, and about the West Indies; several large collections from the ships
of the Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Comjiany in 1879-85, along the eastern coasts of Africa, in the
Indian Ocean, and in the Pacific Plastem Seas, and in the South and North Atlantic; many valuable and important
collections receive<l through the Ilydrographer of the Admiralty, from Her Majesty’s surveying ships “Sylvia,” Red
Sea, 1 ►AO; “Seine,* Indian Ocean, 1885; “ Egeria,” Indian Ocean, 1887, and South Pacific, 1887-89; “Myrmidon,”
Coral Sea, 1887 ; “ Riimbler,” Indian and Pacific Owans, 1888-9<»; “ Valorous,” North Atlantic, 1870-75; “Investi-
gator,” Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean, 1H86-89; “Alert,” South Pacific, 1880; “h'lying Fish,” Indian Ocean, 1887;
“Stork," Indian Ocean, 1888; “Triton,” P’aroe Channel and North Sea, 1882-84; “Bulldog,” North Atlantic, 1860;
“Porcupine,” North Atlantic, 1869-70; “Lightning," North Atlantic, 1868; “Nassau,” Indian Ocean, 1876; “Argus,”
North Atlantic, 1879; “Swallow” and “Dove,” Yellow Sea, 1865-66; “Dart,” Pacific Ocean, 1857. We have also
receive*! specimens, or have Ijeen j>ermitte<l to examine them at different times, from the Norwegian North Atlantic
Kxpe*liti*>n, Narcs' North Polar Expe<lition, Ross’s Antarctic Expedition, “ Talisman ” Expedition, “ Gazelle ” Expedi-
tion, “ Ilaseler" Ex|>edition, and the U.S. Fish Commission, as well as from other sources.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

31

from among several thousands, but not to give us the slightest indication of the ocean or
depth from which the specimen was obtained. After examination, we have then marked
regions on the chart in which we believed it was collected, stating at the same time the
probable depth. In the great majority of cases, in about nine out of ten trials, the
position could be stated within a few hundred miles and the depth within a few hundred
fathoms. A few of the considerations on which we relied in making such determinations
may fitly terminate this chapter on the methods of study.

The presence of large numbers of Pteropod and Heteropod shells indicates tropical or
subtropical regions, and relatively shallow depths. Abundance of the shells of pelagic
Foraminifera indicates the same regions, but when found without the shells of pelagic
Molluscs they indicate a greater depth than when these latter are present. A very few
fragments of these pelagic organisms, and consequently a low percentage of carbonate of
lime, with abundance of the red and yellow oxides of iron and the black oxide of
manganese, point out again still greater depths in the tropical regions. The presence
or absence, and the size, of Ehabdoliths, Coccoliths, and Coccospheres give important
indications as to latitude and depth — the first predominating in tropical regions,
the two latter being better developed in temperate regions, and all disappear from the
deposits as the polar waters are approached. Take again the remains of those lime-
secreting organisms that habitually five at the bottom of the sea, such as Foraminifera,
Polyzoa, Ostracodes, Molluscs, Corals, Annelids, and Algae. The greater or less abund-
ance of these in a deposit give most useful indications as to the depth and the distance
from land at which the specimen was collected. These organisms are as a whole more
abundant and better developed in shallow water, and in both these respects a change is
observed in their fragmentary remains in greater depths and at a greater distance from
land. Some species, however, denote, when present in abundance, ranges of depth. The
greater or less abundance of some of the remains of the pelagic species give indications
as to longitude ; for instance, some pelagic species of Foraminifera are much more indi-
cative of an Atlantic deposit than of a deposit from a similar latitude and depth in the
Pacific.

In the same way the remains of siliceous organisms may furnish information as to
depth and locality. The frustules of the large Diatom Ethmodiscus, Castracane, is quite
characteristic of some of the deepest tropical Eed Clays and Eadiolarian Oozes far from
land ; it is quite absent in temperate and polar regions. A typical Diatom Ooze is only
found in the neighbourhood of the great Southern Ocean surrounding the Antarctic
continent, although some deposits that might be called Diatom Oozes are found in the
most northern parts of the Pacific. A typical Eadiolarian Ooze is limited to certain of
the deeper tropical and subtropical portions of the Indian and Pacific Oceans.

When we consider the mineral particles, they too testify as to the conditions under
which the deposit was formed. Typical glauconite and glauconitic casts appear to be

32

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

limited to deposits now forming in relatively shallow depths in more or less close
proximity to continental land, and especially along those high and bold coasts that are
removed to some distance from the embouchures of rivers bearing abundance of fine
silt into the ocean. Phospluitic and glauconitic nodules appear also to be indicative of
deep water otf continental shores.

In typical oceanic deposits, should there be any casts of the calcareous organisms,
these are with few exceptions imperfect or mere skeletons, and are always of a reddish
colour from the presence of ferric oxide. Quartz particles are relatively rare, or absent,
in deposits far removed from the continents, with the exception of those regions affected
by floating ice. They are, however, abundant along many continental shores for many
miles seawards. Small round wund-borne fragments of quartz and other minerals are,
however, found in the deposits many hundreds of miles to the west of the northern
shores of Africii and oti’ the shores of Australia. The size and nature of the mineral
particles in an organic ooze, as well as the colour and amount of the amorphous clayey
matter, or fine icashings of our descriptions, very frequently enable us to tell the
position from which the specimen was collected. Volcanic fragments, and especially
glassy fragments and pieces of pumice stone, are in many cases markedly indicative of
a deep-sea deposit ; for instance, when these have undergone decomposition and are
jussociated with nodules of manganese peroxide, sharks’ teeth, bones of whales and cosmic
spherules, we arc sure that the specimen must have come from the greatest depths
of the ocean, far removed from large masses of continental land.

Such arc some of the main points on which we would rely for determining the position
and dei)th from which a specimen of any deposit might have been procured were these
unknown, but there are many others which have not been touched upon. Enough has
been said, however, to show that at the present time a careful study of a deposit enables
us to state with much precision the conditions under which it must have been laid down.

The application of the same rea.soning to those geological strata which resemble
nnxleni marine formations is at once apparent.

CHAPTER II.

ON THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE SPECIMENS OF DEEP-SEA
DEPOSITS COLLECTED DURING THE CHALLENGER EXPEDITION, AND
THEIR VARIATIONS WITH CHANGE OF CONDITIONS.

In this chapter each specimen of marine deposit collected during the Challenger
Expedition is described with considerable detail in a series of Synoptical Tables, and
these Tables are follo'wed by observations indicating the more striking variations which
these deposits undergo with a change in the depth, in latitude, in the temperature of the
surface waters, and in the distance from continental and other lands.

a. Synoptical Tables.

In Chapter L the methods followed in the macroscopic and microscopic examination,
as well as in the chemical analyses of the de]30sits, have been pointed out. The results
obtained by the application of these methods to the study of the Challenger collections
are set forth in the following Synoptical Tables, which form a methodical repertory of
the facts observed at each of the Challenger’s sounding and dredging stations in so far
as these refer to the deposits now in process of formation. The descriptions follow the
order in which the specimens were collected during the voyage. The specimens have all
been treated in a uniform manner, and it is believed that these Tables contain all essen-
tial details regarding the characteristic properties of each specimen of the deposits. The
numbers of the stations correspond to those on the charts and diagrams at the end of the
volume, in which the temperature conditions and the geographical and bathymetrical
distribution of the deposits are represented. The reader is referred to the previous
chapter for a definition of all the terms and headings made use of in the tables.^

The facts summarised in these Tables serve as a foundation for the descriptions in
Chapter IIL, where each type of Deep-Sea Deposit is considered in its ensemble, and for
the conclusions in subsequent chapters where the origin of the materials which make up
these deposits is discussed. In addition, however, to the Challenger collections, a very
large number of samples from other expeditions and from many other regions of the
ocean, have been examined in a similar manner, and have likewise served as a foundation
for all general conclusions.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)-

1 See page 26.

5

KngUuJ to Gibraltar.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

:U

S«« Charts 2 and 3.

■ 2 d

Data.

Position.

Depth In
Ksthonu.

Tomperature
of the Sos-
wster
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

’A ~

1

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminilera.

Other Organisms.

i

, 1

1872
Doc. 30

41 58 0 N.
9 42 0 W.

1125

Q

O

Blub Mud

Olobigenna, Pulvinulina.

Coccoliths, Coccospheres.

u

1873
Jan. 1

40 25 0 N.
9 38 30 W.

325

52 0

67-0

Ib

.. 1

40 24 0 N.
9 45 OW.

730

49-0

57 0

• Hard Ground,

Ic

.. 1

40 23 0 N.
9 43 OW.

050

67-0

Id

•• -

39 55 0 N.
10 5 OW.

1975

57-0

II

.. 13

38 10 0 N.
9 14 »0W.

470

67-0

Green Mud, green-grey when
dry, granular.

[40-00]

(10-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina. '

(15-00%), Miliolid®, Textularia,
' Lagenid®.

(16-00 %), Otoliths and teetl
fish, Gasteropods, Cirripe
plates, Ostracodes, fragme
of Echinoderms, Coccolithi

11a

.. 13

38 5 0 N.
9 39 « W.

1270

67 -0

Green Mud, ....

...

IlB

lie

.. u

.. 14

38 31 0 N.
9 31 0 W.

38 28 0 N.
9 35 0 W.

84

280

57-0

67-0

1

^ Green Muds,

A few Globigorinid® and other
Foraminifera.

Fragments of Gasteropods.

IIo

.. H

38 26 0 N.
9 38 0 W.

560

62-0

67 -6

Green Sand, greenish grey when
dry, finely granular, earthy.
Seeidne dark yellow-green.

31-81

(12-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(15-00 %), Textularid®, Lagenid®,
Rotalid®, Xummuliuid®.

(4-81 %), Lamellibranchs, Od
codes, Echinoderm fragmra
Polyzoa.

llB

.. 14

38 22 80 N.

9 44 0 W.

1290

67-0

[Jlue Mud, greyish when dry,
plastic, coherent, lustrous
streak.

Besidne red-brown.

19-00

(10-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Textularia, Uvigerina,
Nonioniiui,

(4-00 %), Echinoderm fragmm
Polyzoa, Coccoliths.

Hr

.. 14

88 14 25 N.
9 49 42 W.

1475

37-5

57-5

Blue Mud, light fn-ey when dry,
very coherent, {daatic, lustrous
streak.

Reddue red-brown.

26-60

(20-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Uvigerina, Discorbina.

(6-50 %), Echinoderm fragmra
Coccoliths, a few Rhabdojit

IIo

.. 14

38 9 43 X.
9 48 OW.

1380

38 0

67-5

Rlue Mud, light grey when dry,
very coherent, plastic, earthy,
fleaidue red-urown, floccu-
Icut

28-86

(20-00 %), Globigorinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00%), Uvigerina, Truncatulina.

(7-86 %), Echini spines. Coo
liths, Rhabdoliths.

Iln

i

r. H

87 66 0 X.
10 8 OW.

1800

87-0

57-0

Uluk Mud, grey when dry,
plastic, coherent, earthy, very
line grained, breaking up in
water.

Besidne red-brown.

19-88

(16-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Rotalid®.

(2-88 %), Ostracodes, Echinodi
fra^ents, Coccoliths, « 1
Rhabdoliths.

i"

15

87 1 45 X,
9 23 45 W.

1000

39-5

59-5

Green Mud, grey when dry,
plastic, coherent, earthy, break-
ing up in water.

Baaidne yellow-brown, floc-
culcnt

18-88

(6-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(8-00 %), Miliolirm, Textularid®,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®, Nonionina.

(4-88 %), Gasteropods, Serf*
Lamellibranchs, OstrsM
Echinoderm fragments, Poi
zoa, Coccoliths.

-■

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

Residue.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Small mineral particles.

Much amorphous clayey matter.

On this occasion the first sounding and dredging were
taken by the Challenger ; they were quite successful,
the dredge bringing up several Echinoderms and Crus-
taceans, but this and several of the subsequent sound-
ing-s were trials of the apparatus, and frequently none
of the deposit was obtained or preserved.

In each of these soundings the tube brought up no indi-
cation of the nature of the bottom. The dredge, which
was put over in 1000 fathoms, came up empty.

...

Both the sounding line and dredging line broke in
heaving in.

(40 '00%), Sponge spicules, As-
trorhizidae, Haplophragmiuvi,
glauconitic casts, a few Dia-
toms.

(10 '00%), Quartz, mica, felspar,
glauconite.

(10'00%), Amorphous matter,
mineral and siliceous re-
mains.

Over one hundredweight (50 kilogrammes) of this deposit
was obtained by the dredge. The percentages have
been approximated, there being too little preserved
for analysis. Light green glauconitic casts of the
Foraminifera remained after treatment with acid.

The dredge brought up mud much the same as at 470
fathoms, which was twenty-five miles further east.

1

1

Many mineral particles with
glauconite.

Amorphous matter.

These deposits contained a good deal of glauconite, but
none was preserved for subsequent examination.

(10 "00 %), Sponge spicules, glau-
conitic casts. Diatoms.

(40 '00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular; quartz, felspar, glau-
conite, mica, magnetite.

(18 ’19 %), many minute mineral
particles, clayey and organic
matter.

The shells of the larger organisms in this deposit are
fragmentary. Many beautiful glauconitic casts of Fora-
minifera and other organisms remained after treatment
with dilute hydrochloric acid.

(5 '00 %), glauconitic casts and
a few siliceous spicules of
Sponges.

(lO'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz, dark and
pale glauconite, felspar, mica,
magnetite.

(66 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles and
minute fragments of siliceous
spicules.

This deposit contains much amorphous clayey matter.
All the Foraminifera are very small and much broken.
Glauconitic matter is less abimdant than at previous
stations.

(3 ‘00 %), a few glauconitic casts,
arenaceous Foraminifera, and
siliceous Sponge spicules.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; quartz grains, mica,
felspar, a few glauconitic
particles, tourmaline, a few
glassy volcanic fragments.

(65 '50 %), amorphous matter
and numerous fine mineral
particles.

Some two or three bright green imperfect casts of Fora-
minifera remained after treatment with dilute acid.
Coccoliths are abundant and large.

(1 ’00 %), siliceous Sponge spicules,
arenaceous Foraminifera, a few
glauconitic casts.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, mica, some
glassy volcanic particles, one
or two quartz and glauconitic
grains.

(65'14 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral par-
ticles.

One or two dark green glauconitic casts of Foraminifera
remained after treatment with dilute acid. Coccoliths
are abundant and large.

(I’OO %), a few siliceous Sponge
spicules, Ehabdammina.

(10 '00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, mica, magnetite,

quartz, tourmaline, a few
glassy volcanic fragments.

(69 '12 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
a few minute fragments of
siliceous organisms.

No glauconitic matter observed in this deposit, although in
shallower water nearer shore it is relatively abundant.

(2’00 %), glauconitic casts.
Sponge spicules, Haploph-
ragmium.

(25'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, mica, magnetite, au-
gite, glauconite, glassy volcanic
fragments.

(54 '12 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles
and minute fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The mineral particles of this deposit are angular, except
the glauconite and some of the large quartz grains,
which are more or less rounded. Many glauconitic
grains and casts of Foraminifera and other organisms
remained after treatment with dilute acid, chiefly of a
dark green colour.

England to Gibraltar.

Kii)(Uu<l to (Siliral-

Off Madvini (illmltat to Madoira. tar— oon/inuo^.

36

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S<« Cbarta 2, 3, and 4.

Tempe
of Uic
wa
(Fal

raturo

e

V

Dat«.

PoaUion.

Depth in
Patnuma.

.Sea-

ler

ir.).

Deslguation and Phyaical Charactcra.

Carbonate op Calcium.

^ r *

1 *iT.*

♦

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

!

1873

•

•

e

•

^ IlK

Jan. 15

36

58

50 N.

626

54-0

60-0

'

9

14

20 W.

. Ill

.. 15

37

2

0 N.

900

60 0

• Green Sands

Globigerinidai and other Fora-

Fragments of Echinodenns, 1

9

14

OW.

minifera.

luscs, &c.

IV

.. 1«

36

25

0 N.

600

60 0

8

12

OW.

V

.. 2S

35

47

0 N.

1090

38-5

61-0

Globigerisa Ooze, pale yellow

60-84

(60-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(5-84 %), Ostracodes, Eel
spines, Coccoliths, Rhab

8

23

OW.

with rose tinge, slightly co-

vinuUna.

hcrent when dry.

(1-00%), Biloculina, Textularidse,

liths.

Besidue red.

Truncatulina.

Va

..

36

13

0 N.

2500

59 0

10

7

0 W.

VI

.. 80

36

23

0 N.

1525

380

58 -0

Globigerina Ooze, red-grey
when wet, white with pink
tinge when dry, finely granu-.

67-54

(60-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-

(6-54 %), Ostracodes, Eel

11

18

0 W.

vinulina.

spines, Polyzoa, Coccolil

(1-00 %), Biloculina, Textu-

Rhabdoliths.

lar, slightly coherent, breaking
up readily in water.

laridae, Lagena.

Besidue red.

VII

.. 31

35

20

0 N.

2125

37-0

60 0

Globigeuina Ooze, .

13

4

OW.

VI I A

Feb. 1

34

4

0 X.

2250

37 0

61 0

Globioerina Ooze, yellow when

74-77

(65-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-

(8-77 %), Echini spines, Polyi

14

18

0 W.

wet, white when dry, finely

mnulina.

Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

granular, pulverulent.

(1 -00 %), Biloculina, Textularida;,

Besidue red.

Lagenidte, Rotalid*.

Vila

.. 2

32

43

0 X.

2225

37 0

63 0

GLOBtGEHiNA OozE, yellowish.

63-13

(45-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(7-13 %), Lamellibranchs, Ost

15

52

0 W.

granular, slightly coherent,
breaking up readily in water.

vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolidte, Textularida?,

codes. Echini spines, Polyi
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

Besidue red-brown.

Liigenida*, Truncatulina, No^ii-

onitia.

VI u

.. 2

32

21

0 X.

670

46-8

63-0

Caltabe/jur Sand, brown, coarse.

96-27

(5-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(88-27 %), Otoliths and teeth

16

24

0 W.

Besidue red-brown.

vinulina.

fish, Scrpula, Gasteropo

(3'00%), Miliolid®, Tcxtularid®,

Lamellibranchs, PtcroM

Ligeiiid®, Rotalid®, Polyslom-
ella.

Heteropods, Ostracodes, Ch
peds, Echinoderm fragmen

Corals, Polyzoa.

VIlD

.. 2

32

16

0 X.

1160

64 0

Volcanic Mcd, pale grey when

38-40

(25-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(10'40 %), Gasteropoda, Laim

16

28

0 w.

drv, granular, pulverulent.

vin iilina.

branchs, Pteropods, Iht*

Besidue brown-grey.

(3-00 %), Textularid®, Uvigerina,

pods, Ostracodes, Ech

Truncatulina.

spines, Polyzoa, Coccolitlu.

VI It

.. 2

32

20

16 X.

930

43-5

63-5

Vtiu’ANiC Mi'D, grey. brown.

29-20

(22-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(6-20 %), Gasteropoda, Lami

16

32

0 W.

granular, slightly coherent.

vinulUia,

branchs, Pteropods, Ostraeod

earth V.

(1-00%), Miliolid®, Bolivina,

Echini spines, Polyzoa, 0
eoliths, Rhabdoliths.

Beddue red.

Truncaluliiui.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

37

Kesidub.

Additional Obsekvations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Sponge spicules and Diatoms.

Quartz, felspar, glauconite, mica,
magnetite.

Amorphous clayey and organic
matter.

The deposits in these soundings were nearly the same as
at 560 fathoms on January 14 (Station IId), but none
was preserved for subsequent examination. From 900
fathoms the dredge came up full of mud.

(2 "00 %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, one or two
arenaceous Foraminifera, a few
imperfect casts.

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, tourmaline, glassy
volcanic particles, quartz
sometimes rounded.

(29 '16 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

A few imperfect casts of pelagic Foraminifera remained
after treatment with dilute acid. Only one or two of
the organisms are macroscopic.

No deposit obtained; line carried away.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; lapilli, felspar,
augite, magnetite, glassy vol-
canic fragments, pumice.

(26 '46 %), ferruginous amor-
phous matter, fragments
of minerals and fine por-
tions of siliceous organ-
isms.

A few particles of volcanic rocks measured 0'15 mm.
in diameter or larger. Much magnetite and many
brown altered glassy particles were observed.

Deposit quite similar to the next. Trawl brought up
several specimens.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, a few
; Sponge spicules, ffaplophrag-
mium.

(3'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
lapilli, augite, glassy volcanic
fragments.

(21 '23 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral parti-
cles and fragments of silic-
eous organisms.

Among the minerals were a few rounded quartz grains,
some of which were covered with limonite.

I (I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Hyperammina, Hap-
lophragmium, a few imperfect
j casts.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'13 mm.,
rounded and angular ; frag-
ments of volcanic rocks,
plagioclase, magnetite, ortho-
clase, manganese grains,
augite, olivine, glassy vol-
canic particles, quartz, horn-
blende.

(40 '87 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

A few brown casts of the Foraminifera remained
after treatment with dilute acid. The Coccoliths are
notably large.

1 Sponge spicules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'25 mm.,
angular and rounded ; basaltic
rock fragments, glassy vol-
canic particles, olivine,

augite, magnetite, felspar.

(2'73 %), fine mineral fragments
and some 'amorphous matter.

The organisms and minerals had mostly a slight coating
of manganese. Some fragments ofrocks measured nearly
1 cm. in diameter.

(1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules.

(40 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; lapilli of vesicular
basalt, felspar, augite, mag-
netite, olivine, glassy volcanic
particles.

(20 '60 %), fine fragments of
minerals, amorphous matter,
and a few minute fragments
of Sponge spicules.

Some of the Gasteropoda, Lamellibranchs, Pteropods, and
Heteropods in this deposit are macroscopic ; much
olivine and magnetite present.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, As-
trorhizidffi.

(15 '00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; numerous lapilli of
vesicular basalt, augite, mag-
netite, felspar, glassy volcanic
particles.

(54'80 %), amorphous matter,
many small fragments of
minerals, a few fragments of
siliceous organisms.

’

Englaiul to tJibral-

t&v— continued. Gibraltar to Madeira, Oil' Madeira.

Iklatlrru to

IW'iwtvn llw C«u»rv Tcnrrifp. Off MtilcrU—

38

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S«« Cbarts 2, 4, and 5.

: *1

i

1 9 X

!

Dat«.

PoalUon.

il

Temperature
of tno Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

1873

• 9 99

O

O

VI Ir

Feb. 2

32 27 0 N.

1600

63 0

Volcanic Mud, brown, slightly

36-93

(17-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-

(17-93 %), Otoliths of flsl

16 40 30 W.

coherent, gritty.

vinulina.

Gasteropoda, Lamellibranch

Beaidue brown.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Textularidie,

Pteropods, Heteropods, Oata

Lagenidae, Rotalida;, Num-

codes, Echinoderm fragment

mulinidie.

Polyzoa, Coccoliths, RhaW

liths.

Vlln

.. s

32 32 45 N.

1150

39 0

63 0

16 48 0 W.

VIlB

.. 3

32 35 0 N.
1 51 ft \V

790

45-0

62'8

• Volcanic Muds,

Globigerinidae and other Fora-

Fragments of many calcareoi

minifera.

organisms.

VIU

.. 3

32 36 15 N.

490

63 0

16 53 15 W.

viu

29 19 0 N.

1975

36-2

62-5

Globigebina Ooze, .

16 38 OW.

VIlL

.. 10

28 28 0 N.

278

640

1 Volcanic Muds, brown, earthy.

10-36

(About 5-00/'), Globigerinidae,

(About 5-00 %), Otoliths

16 12 30 W.

>- slightly coherent, gritty.

Pulvinulvna.

fish, Serpula, Gasteroped

VllM

.. 10

28 28 0 N.

630

45-0

64 0

J Beeidne red-brown.

11-84

(About 1 -00 %), Miliolidae, Textu-

Lamellibranchs, Pteropodi

16 10 OW.

laridae, Lagenidse, Rotalidae,

Heteropods, Ostracodes, EcliL

Nummulinidae.

spines, Polyzoa, Coccolith

Rhabdoliths.

.. 10

28 SO 30 N.

975

41-0

64-0

Volcanic Mud

16 3 SOW.

Vllo

10

28 83 0 N.

560

45-5

64-0

Volcanic Mud, brown, earthy,

25-93

(5-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(16-93 %), Otoliths of fish,

16 4 OW.

slightly coherent, gritty.

vinidina.

pula, Gasteropoda, Lsmell

Boadne red-brown.

(4-00%), Miliolidae, Textularida;,

branchs, Pteroj)ods,Heterop«

Lagenidic, Rotalida:, Num-

Ostracodes, Echini spiw

mulinidie.

Polyzoa, Coccoliths, Khalxk

/

liths.

Vllr

.. 10

28 35 0 N.

78

64-0

Volcanic Sand, mottled, black.

45-09

(15-00 %), Miliolinob, Polylrema,

(30-09 %), fragments of Cm

16 6 0 W.

white, and red.

Numnmliuidie.

taceans, Serpula, Dcnlaim

Besidue black, sandy.

Gasteropods, Lamellibiandi

'i

Pteropods, Echini spina

Polyzoa, calcareous Algse.

VI Iq

.. 10

1 28 88 0 N.

179

64 0

IIaiid Ground,

16 6 OW.

•Vila

.. 10

28 41 0 N.

640

45-8

64 0

Volcanic Mud, brown, earthy,'

31-70

(22 00 %), Globigerinida:, Pul-

(8-70 %), Otoliths of fish, A*

16 6 OW.

slightiv coherent, gritty.

vimuina.

pida, Gasteropoda, Laradi

Bealdne rod-brown.

(1-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidne,

branchs, Pteropods, Hetai

l-agenidn:, Rotalida:, Num-

pods, Ostracodes, Echin

muliuida:.

H|iines, Polyzoa, Coccolitln

llliubdoliths.

viu

.. 10

28 45 ft X.

1390

88-5

63 0

V'oLCANic Mud,

‘1

1

16 7 OW.

S«c anal. 68.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

39

Residue.

Additional Observations.

1 Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

j (I'OO %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules,

'

(40'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; lapilli and scoriae,
magnetite, olivine, sanidine,
plagioclase, augite, horn-
blende, glassy volcanic par-
ticles.

(22'07 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral frag-
ments, a few remains of sili-
ceous orgar^ms.

Many volcanic mineral particles.

V.'

...

(About I'OO %), a few Sponge
spicules, naplopTwagmium.

(About 40 '00 %), m. di. 0 '08 mui. ,
angular ; lapilli of vesicular
basalt, augite, sanidine, pla-
gioclase, magnetite, olivine,
glassy volcanic fragments,
glauconite.

(About 48'00 %), amorphous
matter, numerous minute
fragments of minerals, and a
few remains of siliceous
organisms.

...

(1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules,
Haplophragmium.

(40 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; lapilli of vesicular
basalt, augite, sanidine, pla-
gioclase, magnetite, olivine,
glassy volcanic fragments.

(33 '07 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral, parti-
cles, and a few remains of
siliceous organisms.

(.63 '91 %), m. di. I'OO mm.,
rounded; fragments of basaltic
rocks, augite, black glassy
particles, nxagnetite.

(1 '00 %), amorphous matter,

(I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
Haplophragmium.

(30'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; lapilli of vesicular
basalt, augite, sanidine, pla-
gioclase, magnetite, olivine,
glassy volcanic particles.

(37 '30 %), many minute frag-
ments of minerals, amorphous
matter, a few remains of
siliceous organisms.

Some of the organisms are maeroscopic. The mineral
particles form a red-brown volcanic sand. Trawl line
broke in heaving in.

The deposits were in all these soundings similar to the
above, the mineral particles being larger nearer shore.

No deposit preserved ; the small quantity on the tube
indicated a Globigerina Ooze.

These two soundings are practically the same. The size
of the mineral particles is a little less in the deeper
sounding, viz., 630 fathoms, and here the pelagic Fora-
minifera make up the greater part of the carbonate of
calcium. The same remark holds good for all these
soundings off the Canary Islands ; the deeper ones
might be called Globigerina Oozes.

No (ieposit preserved.

This deposit resembles those of Stations VIIl.
VIIm.

and

The carbonate of calcium is made up for the most part
of rounded fragments of Molluscs, Serpula, Echino-
derms, Polyzoa, and Foraminifera.

No trace of any deposit obtained.

VIIm., so far as the inorganic constituents are con-
cerned.

No deposit preserved.

Madeira to

Off Madeira-coa<»titgrf. Tenerife. Between the Canary Islands,

Tritprifi' tn .'v>iubr«ro l*Un>l. U<'tMrn-n tl>« Ctnar^’ laUuJs— fon/iNiuni.

40

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S«« Charts S and 6, and Dia^m 1.

1 ® ,

I

DaU.

Poallioo.

II

n

Trmporature
of U)u Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Dcalgnatton and Physical Charactcra.

Carbonate op Calcium.

!

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

other Organisms.

.

i '‘VIIt'

1878
Feb. 11

• f

28 42
17 8

0 N.

0 \v.

1750

•

37-5

O

63 0

Volcanic Mud, grey when drj',
slightly coherent, earthy,
gritty.

Bewdue dark red-brown.

36-50

(32-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Bolivina, Lagena,
Truncatulina, Nonionina.

(3*50 %), Ostracodes, Echia
spines.

Vllr

VIlv

.. 11

.. 11

28 20
17 34

27 68
17 39

0 X.
0 W.

0 X.
ow.

1340

1620

38-5

37-5

65-0
65 0

■ Volcanic Mud.s,

VIII

i,

.. 12

28 3
17 27

15 X.
0 W.

620

64-5

Volcanic Mud, grey - brown
when dry, slightly coherent,
gritty, earthy.

Besidue brown.

29 02

(17-00 %), Globigerinidfe, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidse,
Chiloslomclla, Lagenidic, Ro-
talidaj, Polystomclla.

(9-02 %), Otoliths of fish, Dn
talium, Gasteropoda, LanuLi
branchs, Pteropods, Hear#,
pods, Ostracodes, EchinoilOT
fragments, Polyzoa.

.. 15

27 24
16 65

0 X.
0 W.

1890

36-8

64-5

Globigerina Ooze, grey when
dry, slightly coherent, earthy.
Siesidue brown.

50-00

(45-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinuliTia.

(5-00%), Pteropods, Ostrscods
Echini spines, Coccolitts.
Rhabdoliths.

i

*-

1

a. 17

25 52
19 22

0 X.

0 w.

1945

36-8

67-0

Gi/3bigerina Ooze, white with a
yellow tinge, slightly co-
herent, finely granular.
Besidue red-brown.

64-55

(55-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidse, Textnlaridie,
Lagenida;, Rotalida;.

(7-55 %), Otoliths of fish, Gu
teropods, fragments of Pirn-
pods Echinoderms and Conk
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

-i

1

'(

.. 18

25 45
20 14

0 X.
0 w.

1525

370

65 0

Ptkropod Ooze, light brown
with pink tinge, very slightly
coherent, granular.

B«sidue red.

[70-00]

(50-00 %), GlobigerinidiB, Pul-
vinulina.

A few specimens of Bolivina.

(20-00%), Otoliths offish,Gsst»»
pods, Lamellibranchs, PIm*
pods. Heteropods, Cirripels
Eehinoderm fragments,
fragments, Coccoliths,
doliths.

4

.. 18

25 28
20 22

0 X.
0 w.

2220

66 0

...

* L

.. 21

24 20
24 28

0 X.
0 w.

2740

1

87-0

68-0

Red Clay, plastic, light red-
brown when dry, sublustrous
streak, coherent.

Besidue brick red.

12-00

(9 -00 %), Globigerinidfe, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00%), Miliolida:, Oaudry-
ina, jAtgena, Truncatulina.

(2-00 %), Gasteropod and laas-
libranch shells, Ostracoda
Echini spines, CoccolitR
Rhabdoliths.

«

».

2? 14
28 22

0 X.
0 w.

1

2960

87-0

69-2

Ur I) Clay

A few Globigerinidfe.-

...

••7

L

.. 24

23 23
8l 31

0 X.
0 w.

2760

36-9

08 0

Rr.D CiJiY, plastic, homogeneous,
unctuous, (trying into coherent
red coloured lumps which
break up readily in water,
lustrous streak.

Besidue brick-red.

4-11

(3*00%), broken shells of Olohi-
gcrina.

(1-11 %), small teeth of fish.

• ^ aitaJ. M. t fL - anal. 70. J Soc anal. 33. | 8c< anal. 34. | fk* anal. 96, 97 ; PI. III. figa. 1, 2, 3. II Sec anal. *1, 2. •* See anal 3.

E.EPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

41

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Jlinerals.

Fine Washings.

I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
Haplophragmium.

(25^00 7o)j 111- di. 0^06 mm.,
angular ; lapilli of basaltic
rocks, plagioclase, sanidine,
augite, olivine, magnetite.

(37 •SO 7o)j many fine mineral
particles, amorphous matter,
a few remains of siliceous
spicules.

J

Except for the large number of mineral particles of vol-
canic origin,, these deposits might equally well be
called Globigerina Oozes.

2 '00 7o)j Sponge spicules, frag-
ments of Eadiolaria, Astror-
hizidse, Cydanimina, Textu-
laridse.

(40 •OO 7o)j HI- di. 0^08 mm.,
angular ; lapilli of basaltic
rocks, scoriaceous fragments,
felspar, augite, olivine, horn-
blende, magnetite, glassy vol-
canic particles.

(28 •OS 7o)) minute fragments of
minerals, amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
siliceous organisms.

This deposit contains very many particles of volcanic
sand and a considerable quantity of amorphous matter.
There are also many coloured particles, some altered
to palagonite. Some of the Foraminifera are macro-
scopic. Dredge brought up a large- quantity of the
mud.

2 '00 7o)> Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules. Diatoms.

(15^00 7o)i HI- di- mm.,

angular ; quartz, sanidine,
olivine, augite, lapilli, mag-
netite, fragments of pumice.

(33^00 7o)) amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals, remains of siliceous
organisms.

The carbonate of calcium is made up almost entirely of
pelagic Foraminifera. Among the minerals are some
rounded grains of quartz covered with limonite.
Dredge came up empty.

1 '00 7o)i Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, Astrorbizidse,

Trochammina, a few imperfect
casts.

(2^00 7o)j ID- di. 0^07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, magne-
tite, olivine, augite, glassy
volcanic particles.

(32 ^45 7o)i amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
a few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

Some of the quartz grains are covered with limonite, and
measure about 1 mm. in diameter. Some of the
organisms are macroscopic. Dredge half full of mud ;
nothing found on sifting except otoliths of fish and
Pteropod shells. ^

iO'OO 7o)> Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, thin imperfect
casts of Foraminifera and
other organisms, Hyperam-
mina.

(lO^OO 7o)> di. O'lO mm.,

angular ; felspar, black mica,
augite, manganese grains,
glassy volcanic particles, red-
coloured altered fragments.

Amorphous matter.

Two soundings were taken, and on each occasion no
deposit came up in the tube. The dredge brought up a
large Sponge, Poliopogon amadou, and a small quantity
of the ooze was obtained attached to the basal portion.
In the dredge there were manganese nodules and
many fragments of a dead Coral covered with a thin
coating of black shining manganese. Many of the
organisms are macroscopic.

...

No deposit obtained ; sounding line broke in hauling in.

•00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Aschemonella, Lituo-
lidse.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz
covered with limonite, magne-
tite, felspar, augite, pumice,
black mica.

(86 •OO %), a great many fine
mineral particles, amorphous
matter, fragments of siliceous
organisms.

Dredge full of clay, on sifting which a few shells of Mol-
luscs were found in addition to the Foraminifera.

A few mineral particles.

Much amorphous matter.

A small quantity of the deposit came up in the tube.

•00 %), Siliceous spicules,
Haplophragmium .

(l^OO %), m. di. 0^06 mm.,
angular; felspar, black mica,
fragments of pumice, a few
small rounded grains of quartz
covered with limonite, zircon,
manganese grains.

(93 ^89 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals, and a few remains
of siliceous organisms.

This deposit was of a brown-yellow colour when taken
from the tube, smooth and homogeneous.

(DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. 1890.)

Between the Canary Islands — contimicd. Tenerife to Sombrero Island.

T>»n«rifr lo ftotnbrrro Nland -ttut/inH/it

42

TUE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S<« Chui 6 and Diagram 1.

0 .
II
II

Pal«.

fodSka.

il

Tcniperaturo
of tlio Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organigms.

•8

1878
Feb. 25

•

23 12
32 56

0 N.
0 W.

2700

Q

37-0

O

67-0

Rf.d Clay, plastic, unctuons,
lioniogenooua, drying into co-
herent red coloured lumps
which break up readily in water,
lu.strous streak.

Residue brick-red.

16-42

(16-00%), Globigerinidffi, Pulvitvw-
Una, and their broken parts.

A few Truncatxdina pyginxa.

(1*42 %), small teeth of fish.

-

.. 26

23 23
35 IJ

0 X.
0 W.

3150

36-8

69 0

Red Clay, plastic, unctuous,
homogeneous, drying into light
red coloured coherent masses
which break up in water,
lustrous streak.

Residtie dark rod-brown.

3-11

(2 -11 %), Globigerina, Pulvinu-
lina.

(I'OO %), small teeth of fish.

'

:io

1

.. 38

28 10
38 42

0 y.
0 w.

2720

36-5

71 0

Red Clay, light red, plastic,
unctuous, homogeneous, lustrous
streak.

Residue brick-red.

13-30

(12-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
mmjblina.

(1-30 %), small teeth of 14
Echini spines.

i in

5Iar. 1

22 45
40 87

0 X.
0 w.

2575

36-5

72-2

Globigebina Ooze, light yellow-
red when dry, slightly coherent,
earthy.

Residue red.

51-16

(50 -00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinuli'iia.

(1-16%), Echini spines, Coett
liths, Rhabdoliths.

t 12

.. 3

21 57
43 29

0 X.

0 w.

2025

36-9

73-0

Globigebina Ooze, granular,
many black particles.

R^idue red.

44-88

(40‘00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

Echini spines, CoccoEth
Rhabdoliths.

•13

f

6. ^

1

21 36
44 39

0 X.
0 w.

1900

86-8

72-0

Globigebina Ooze, light reddish
yellow, slightly coherent,
gritty, drying into friable
lumps.

Residue red.

74-50

(66-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(2-00 %), Miliolidm, Textularidie,
Lagenida:, Rotalidse,

(6 '50 %), Otoliths of fish, Serpdi
Gasteropod and Lamellibraad
shells, Pteropod frsgmaitt
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

•*14

i

M 6

21 1

46 29

0 X.
0 w.

1950

36-8

74-0

Globioebina Ooze, light reddish
yellow, slightly coherent, gran-
ular.

Residue red.

70-43

(67 "00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(S' 43 %), Echinoderm fragmab.
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

1

20 49

48 45

0 X.

0 w.

2325

36 2

72-6

Globigebina Ooze, j>ale yellow-
brown, granular, slightly co-
herent.

Residue rod.

67-60

(60’ 00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(7-60 %), Otoliths of fish, Otto
codes, Echinoderm fragamk
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths

.. 7

20 39
50 33

0 X.
o\s\

2435

86-2

74-0

GumiOEBiNA Ooze, light yellow-
brown, granular, slightly co-
herent.

Residue brown.

52-22

(46‘00 %), Globigerinida:, Pul-
vinulina.

(I'OO %), Miliolidae.

(5-22 %), Echinoderm fragment*
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

17

.. 8

90 7

52 32

0 X.
0 w.

2885

36 5

74 0

Globioebina Ooze, light red-
brown, granular, slightly co-
herent, bn-aking np readily in
water.

Reddne brown.

68-40

(61-00 %), Globigerinida?, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidae.

(6-40 %), Echinoderm fragment
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

* aBal 4 + fiw anal. 6, 24.

T 8«s snal 37 ; PI XI. fig. 6. *• 8w anaL 38.

t >Soc annl.n.
ft Soc anal. 39.

§ .Sfifi anal. 35. || See anal. 36.

XX See anal. 40, 08. §§ See anal. 41.

J

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 43

Ebsidue.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Mne Washings.

,

•00 %), Sponge spicules, Haplo-
phragmium.

(1 •OO %), m. di. 0 •OS mm. ,
angular ; fragments of mono-
clinic and triclinic -felspars,
augite, hornblende, magnetite,
black mica, rounded grains of
quartz covered with limonite,

(81 •SS %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
a few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

The Globigerinidse are very much broken, and have a cor- *)
roded appearance. The rounded quartz grains are
almost certainly wind-borne. Dredge was empty,
probably never reached the bottom.

manganese grains.

•00 %), Sponge spicules,. Soro-
sphaira, lieophax.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0'Q6 mm.,
angular and rounded; felspar,
magnetite, black mica, augite,
pumice, rounded grains of
quartz covered with limonite,
manganese grains.

(94'89 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Only a few points of effervescence were noticed on treat-
ing a portion of the deposit with dilute acid. The
deposits have been gradually altering in character,
becoming less rich in Foraminifera. This deposit con-
sists almost entirely of Ked Clay in a state of fine divi-
sion. Dredge one-fourth full of the clay ; sounding
tube penetrated over a foot (30 ^48 cm.) into the deposit.

■00 %), Sponge spicules, Kadio-
laria, Raplophragmium.

.

(1-00 %), m. di. 0^06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, black mica, glassy
volcanic particles.

(84*70 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
remains of siliceous organisms.

Note the increasing percentage of carbonate of lime with
the lesser depth.

*00 %), sponge spicules.

(2 '00 %), m. di. O^OO mm.,
angular ; sanidine, augite,
magnetite, glassy volcanic
particles.

(45*84 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles.

Dredge came, up empty.

•00 %), Kadiolaria.

(30^00 %), m. di. 0'80 mm.,
rounded and angular ; grains
of manganese, red and yellow
fragments of palagonite, sani-
dine, augite, pumice.

(24 •12 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral fragments,
a, few siliceous remains.

The finer portions of the deposit seem to have been
washed away in pulling up the tube. The large quan-
tity of manganese and palagonite is remarkable, and
accounts for thelarge percentage and size of theminerals.
Some of the organisms are macroscopic. Dredge empty.

•00 %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
laria, Astrorhizidse, Lituolidse.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0^08 mm.,
angular ; lapilli, sanidine,
augite, magnetite, palagonite,
glassy volcanic particles, a
few manganese grains.

(23 •SO %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
a few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

The deposit is remarkably pure as regards the carbonate
of calcium being chiefly made up of the remains of
pelagic Foraminifera. Some of the organisms are
macroscopic. Dredge contained a small quantity of
the ooze.'

•00 %), Kadiolaria, a few im-
perfect red casts of the Fora-
'minifera.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; monoclinic and tri-
clinic felspars, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, glassy vol-
canic particles.

(27 ^57 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral and siliceous
remains..

Although the primordial chambers of the Foraminifera
are abundant, no Coccospheres were observed; Cocco-
liths are abundant and large. Water-bottle contained
some ooze, but there was none in the trawl.

■00 %), Kadiolaria, imperfect
red casts of pelagic Foramini-
fera.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0^06 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, augite,
magnetite, pumice, man-

(30 •lO %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral and siliceous
remains.

Note the decrease of carbonate of lime with increasing
depth, and consequent increase of amorphous matter in
this and the next sounding.

ganese grains.

00 %), Kadiolaria, red imper-
fect casts of Foraminifera.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0’06 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, magnetite,
augite, pumice, manganese
grains.

(45 •78 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and remains of Kadiolaria.

The dredge brought up some concretions covered with
manganese, two or three sharks’ teeth and valves of
Scalpcllum also covered with a thin coating of man-
ganese. The manganese grains found among the residue
left on treating the deposit with acid were round, and
had a diameter of about O^l mm.

00 %), Kadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, a few imperfect casts
of Foraminifera.

( 1 ■OO %), m . di. 0 •OS mm. , angu-
lar ; monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, lapilli of basaltic
rocks, magnetite, augite,
pumice, brown glassy vol-
canic particles.

(39^60 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
siliceous remains.

The deposits are becoming more clayey with increase of
depth (see next station).

Tenerife to Sombrero Island — continued.

St. TIionu« to IlcruiutU. Olf Sombrero UUiiit. Tmerifo to Sombrero Klaini — eonlinunt

44

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 6 and 7, and Diaf^^nis 1 and 2.

^ e
S3

|3

A

Date.

Poalllon.

Depth in
Fsuiunia.

Tcniwrature
of the Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Doaignatiun and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

itoitoni

Surface

Per cent.

Forarainifera.

Other Organisms.

1873

•

f*

O

' *18

Mar 10

19 41

0 X.

2650

36 0

74-0

Red Clay, light red-brown,

1578

(12-00 %), Globigerinidte, PmZ-

(2‘78 %) Coccoliths and RliaW

1

55 13

0 w.

pla.stic, coherent when dry.

vimdina.

liths.

nreaking up readily in water.

(i'OO %), Miliolina, Truncatu-

lu.strons streak.

Una.

Residue dark brown.

+19

.. 11

19 15

0 X.

3000

35-5

75-0

Red Clay, light red-brown, co-

1-49

Glohigcrina (fragments)..

57 47

0 w.

herent, breaking up in water.

lustrous streak, pWtic and

unctuous when wet.

Residue red-brown.

720

.. 12

18 56

0 X.

2976

36-0

75-0

Red Clay, light red-brown.

3-50

(2-50 %), GlobigerinidBe, Pul-

(1-00 %), small teeth of fish.

59 35

0 w.

coherent, lustrous streak.

vinulina.

breaking up in water, plastic

and unctuous when wet.

Residue red-brown.

121

.. 13

00

0 X.

3025

35-5

760

Red Clay, light red-brown.

2-44

(1-44 %), Glohigcrina.

(1-00 %), fragments of EchL

61 28

0 w.

coherent, breaking up readily

spines.

in water, lustrous streak.

plastic and unctuous when wet.

Residue dark brown.

23

.. H

18 40

0 X.

1420

38-4

76 0

Pteropod Ooze, white, very

80-69

(47-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(30-69 %), Gasteropoda, Laraell

62 56

0\V.

slightly coherent, gi'anular.

vinulina.

branchs, Pteropods, Heteit

Residue brown.

(3-00 %), Miliolina, Cassidulvna,

pods. Echini spines, Polyw

Truncalulina.

Coccoliths, Rhabdolitlis.

•^23

.. 15

18 24

0 X.

450

76 0

1

63 28

0 w.

Pteropod Oozes, light browTi,

84-27

(44-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(35-27 %), Otoliths offish, Gastm

'^i\

.. 15

18 26

0 X.

460

76 0

granular, slightly coherent.

vinulina.

pods, Lamellibranchs, Ptert

63 31

15 W.

chalky.

(5-00 %),Miliolida;, Textularidae,

pods. Heteropods, Ostracoda

Residue brown.

Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Num-

Eehinoderm fragments, Cota

23b

.. 15

18 28

0 X.

690

76-0

mulinidae.

and their fragments, PolyM

63 35

ow.

Alcyonarian spicules, (Jooot

liths, Khabdoliths.

•*2t

.. 25

18 38

30 X.

390

76 0

Pteropod Ooze, light brown

73-88

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(40-88 %), Otoliths of fish, Cepb*

65 5

30 W.

when dry, slightly coherent.

vinulina.

lopod beaks, Serpula, Deult

earthy.

(3-00 %), Jliliolidm, Textularidae,

Hum, Gasteropods, LnintOi

Residue red.

Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Num-

branchs, Pteropods, Hrt(f

mulinidae.

opods, Ostracodes, KchinodM

fragments. Corals and ttui

fragments, Polyzoa, Coccoliik

Rhabdoliths.

24a

.. 25

18 43

30 X.

625

76 0

I’teropod Ooze, light yellow

68-88

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

^(35-88 %), Gasteropods, Laradli

05 5

0 w.

when dry, slightly coherent.

vinulina.

branchs, Ptcro]iods, HeU«»

Residue li^it yellow.

(3-00%), Miliolidic, Textularidae,

]iods, Ostracodes, Echii

Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

spines, Polyzoa, Coccolith

Rhabdoliths.

S.'.- anal. 7.
Sec anaL 00.

t Sec anal. 8.

Sec anal, 61 ; I’l. XI. fig. 6.

t Soc anal. 9.

• Sec anal. 62.

§ See anal. 10.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 45

Residue.

Additional Observations.

/

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), a few spicules of Eadio-
laria.

(I’OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, magnetite,
augite, pumice, a few grains
of manganese.

(82 '22 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and Eadiolaria.

The small fragments of quartz covered with limonite,
believed to be wind-borne, which are very common in
the soundings on, and to the east side of, the Dolphin
Eidge, are, apparently, quite absent in this and the
following soundings on the western side.

(1 ’00 %), Eadiolaria.

if

j

(I'OO %), m. di. 0’07 mm.,
angular ; fragments of sani-
dine, augite, magnetite, glassy
volcanic particles, a few
manganese grains.

(96 '51 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
broken pieces of Eadiolaria.

No effervescence was observed on treating a portion with
dilute acid, and only one or two fragments of pelagic
Foraminifera were observed on microscopic examina-
tion.

(1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
;i laria, Haplophragmium.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, magnetite,
augite, lapilli, fragments of
pumice.

(94 '50 %), amorphous matter,

many minute mineral particles,
and fragments of siliceous
organisms.

The dredge brought up a large quantity of the Eed Clay.
On passing this through fine sieves many small worm
tubes [Myrioehele) were found. These were composed
of the minute mineral particles mentioned and Sponge
and Eadiolarian spicules ; many of the tubes con-
tained living worms. Some of the volcanic particles
are partially transformed into zeolitic matter.

|(1‘00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
1 spicoles, Haplophragmium.

(3'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
hornblende, magnetite, lapilli,
glassy volcanic particles.

(93 '56 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles,
fragments of siliceous or-
ganisms.

The calcareous organisms are much decomposed and
broken up.

\'2 ‘00 %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
laria, imperfect red and brown
casts of Foraminifera, Hap-
! lophragmitim.

(2 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; monoclinic and
triclinie felspars, magnetite,
augite, hornblende, black
mica, lapilli.

(15 '31 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Most of the finer particles in the deposit appear to be
fragments of Pteropods and other pelagic Molluscan
shells. In this respect it differs very considerably
from a true Globigerina Ooze where the finer particles
can be observed to be formed chiefly of Coccoliths,
Ehabdoliths, and the smaller fragments of Globi-
gerinidae. Very few of the Pteropods are perfect.
Many of the organisms are macroscopic.

;2'00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidee, Litu-
oM8e.

(2' 00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, augite,
plagioclase, magnetite, lapilli,
hornblende, a few glassy vol-
canic fragments.

(11 '73 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral and siliceous
remains.

The finer portions of the calcareous material appear to
be composed chiefly of fragments of Pteropods and
other pelagic Molluscs. Coccoliths and Ehabdoliths
are present but rare. A large number of the organ-
isms are macroscopic. A large quantity of the deposit
and a large number of animals belonging to all the in-
vertebrate groups were obtained in the dredgings at
these depths.

2 '00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorbizidse, Lit-
uolidae, imperfect brown casts.

I'OO %), Sponge spicules, and
imperfect brown casts.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
augite, magnetite, mica,
hornblende.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; .sanidine, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite,magnetite,
mica.

(23 '12 %), red amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, frag-
ments of siliceous organisms.

(29 '12 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, a
few fragments of Sponge
spicules.

The washings procured by passing the ooze through fine
sieves are composed almost entirely of Pteropod and
Heteropod shells, and a large part of the finer
portions of the ooze seems to be made up of the com-
, minuted fragments of the shells of these pelagic
' Molluscs. The Coccoliths and Ehabdoliths are small
and rare. Many of the organisms are macroscopic.
Three hauls were taken with the dredge on this date,
and yielded a large quantity of the deposit and many
animals.

J

Teiiovife to Sombroi'o Island — continued. Oil' Sombrero Island. St. 'riionuus to Herinnda.

St. Tliuiiiaa to llviiiiuila — *vhIihu^U.

46

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

St'e Chart 8 and Diagram 2.

Numlicr of
HUtlon.

Date.

roaitioo.

Depth in
Fathuma.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fnhr.i.

Deslgpiatioii and Physical Characters.

CARBONATE OP CALCIUM.

Bottom I

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

25

1873
Mar. 26

o t

19 41
66 7

M

0 X.

0 w.

3875

O

O

76’0

Red Ci.ay, grey when dry,
coherent, breaking up in water,
lustrous streak.

Besidue brown.

7-15

(4-00 %), Globigei-inidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Lagenidse, Truncatu-
Una, Amphistegiiia^

(2-15 %), Gasteropoda, Lamelli-
branchs. Echini spines, Toly,
zoa, Coccoliths.

26

.. -I?

21 26
..65 16

0 X.

0 w.

2800

76-0

Red Clay, red-brown when dry,
very coherent, dried portions
breaking up quickly in water,
lustrous streak, plastic and
nnctuous when wet.

B«sidue dark brown.

6-00

(4-00 %), Globigerina, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Textularia,
Rotalidae.

(I'OO %), fragments of Echki
spines, Coccoliths, RhaMj-
liths.

•27

22 49
65 19

0 X.
0 w.

2960

36-2

75-5

Red Clay, grey when dry, very
coherent, plastic, unctuous,
homogeneous, breaking up in
water, lustrous streak.

Besidue dark red.

3-25

(1-25 %), Globigervm,
(2-00 %), Truncatulina.

Two or three Coccoliths oiilt
observed.

28

.. 29

24 89
65 25

0 X.
0 w.

2850

36-3

750

Red Clay, red-grey when
dry, unctuous, homogeneous,
plastic, lustrous streak.
Besidue dark red.

1879

(15-00 %), Globigerinidee, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Trumcatulina.

(1-79 %), small teeth of fish.

t29

.. 31

27 49
64 59

0 X.
0 w.

2700

36’4

72-0

Red Clay, red-grey when dry,
unctuous, )>lastic, homo-

geneous, lustrous streak.
Besidue dark red.

21-84

(15-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Textularia,
Lagena, Rotalid*.

(4-84%), Otoliths and teeth of fill,
Gasteropods, Lamellibraucla
Ostracodes, Echini spiuo, i
few Coccoliths,

80

April 1

29 5
65 1

0 X.

0 w.

2600

36-5

72-0

Red Ciay, red-grey, plastic,
unctuous, homogeneous, sub-
lustrous streak.

Besidue red.

28-88

(20-00 %), Globigcrinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolina, Textularia,
Lagena, Truncatulina.

(5-88 %), fragments of Lamelli
branch shells, O.stracodei,

Echini spines, Coccolitii,

Rhabdoliths.

31

3

31 24
65 0

0 X.
0 w.

2475

36*5

69-5

Oi.oBKiEKiSA OoEE, dirty white
or grey, i)iilverulent, slightly
plastic.

Besidue red brown.

54-70

(43-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinvJina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidse.

(10-70 %), teeth of fish, Oatn-
codes, a few minute fraguetii
of calcareous Algae, Coccolitia
Rhabdoliths.

82

.. 3

31 49
64 55

0 X.
0 \v.

2250

36-7

68-0

Cu)nioKniNA Ooze, dirty white,
pulvenilcnt, homogeneous.
Besidue red-brown.

69-61

(45-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00(%), Miliolidaj, Marginulina,
Rotalidx*, Nummulina.

(21-61 %), Otoliths of fish, G«-
teropods, Ostracodes, Echi»
spines, Polyzoa, many fnf-
ments of calcareous Algie, C*-
eoliths, Rhabdoliths.

32a

.. 3

32 1
64 51

0 X.
0 w.

1820

68 0

Coral Mud, white, chalky,
pulverulent, granular.

Besidue dark brown.

81-86

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vimuina.

(10-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidae,
Nodoaaria, Rotalidae, Num-
mulina.

(41 -86 %), Otoliths of fii
Serpula, Gasteropoda, Lamelli
branchs, Pteropods, Heti-w
pods, Ostracodes, Echim

spines, Polyzoa, Alcyonsfi*
spicules, calcareous Algi
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

ike anal. II.

Sec anal. 25.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

47

1 EESIDUE.

(

Additional Observations.

Siliceoua Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

j'l*00%), Radiolaria, Sponge
1 spicules, EhxthdammincL

]

\

(20‘00%), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
magnetite, glauconite, a few
glassy volcanic particles.

(71 '85 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, a
few remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

In this sounding — which is the deepest taken by the
Challenger in the Atlantic — the deposit was red on
the surface, while the deeper layers were greyish, and
appeared to contain more carbonate of lime than the
upper. The dredge contained a red coloured mud, but
no organisms, other than a few dead shells of Foramin-
ifera. A sounding tube which was sent down attached
to the dredge gave on the outside some traces of a blue
mud. The deposit brought home contains some Ptero-
pods and other Molluscan shells and Foraminifera,
which appear to have come from a previous dredging,
possibly from the same dredge having been used.
During the early part of the cruise there was not so
much care taken as later. There are, however, some
things which indicate two distinct layers in this
deposit.

1 '00 %), Radiolaria and Sponge
spicules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'O7 mm.,
angular; sanidine, augite,
magnetite, tourmaline, epi-
dote, zircon, glassy volcanic
fragments (some altered to
palagonite), manganese grains.

(92'00 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

Note the increase of amorphous matter with decrease of
carbonate of lime in these soundings. The organisms
are few in number, and are in a more or less fragment-
ary condition. The manganese grains are relatively
rare.

I’OO %)i one or two siliceous
spicules, and fragments of
:^diolaria.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, magnetite,
glassy volcanic fragments.

(94 '75 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute fragments
of minerals, and a very few
fragments of sihceous organ-
isms.

Only slight effervescence was observed when the deposit
was treated with dilute acid. Even in the washings of
a large quantity of the deposit there were few cal-
careous organisms.

I'OO %\ ^ few Sponge spicules
and one or two arenaceous
Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, magnetite,
minute pieces of pumice, one
or two manganese grains.

(79*21 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral particles,
and a few fragments of sili-
ceous organisms.

The organisms obsei'ved in this deposit are very minute,
and in a more or less fragmentary condition. Dredge
empty.

1 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spiciiles, Astrorhizidse, ITap-
lophragmium.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
felspar, augite, palagonite,
volcanic glass, manganese
grains.

(76'16 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

A large quantity of the deposit came up in the dredge.
When this was passed through fine sieves a few pellets
of manganese, about one millimetre in diameter, were
obtained, also some pieces of palagonite, and one piece
of pumice.

I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
one or two Radiolaria, Haplo-
phragmium.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
sanidine, magnetite, and
volcanic glass.

(69 '12 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
a few fragments of ^siliceous
organisms.

The deposit in the sounding tube indicated the same kind
of clay as in preceding station.

1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Haplo-
phragmium.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, magnetite.

(43 '30 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
small fragments of siliceous
organisms.

This deposit contained much amorphous matter. Note
the increase of carbonate of lime with decreasing depth
in the last few soundings.

I'OO %), Radiolaria and Sponge
spicules, Trochammina.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; fragments of felspar
and volcanic glass, magnetite,
augite.

(28 '39 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
fragments of sdieeous organ-
isms.

Some of the organisms are macroscopic. The presence of
fragments of calcareous Algie shows the approach to
shallower water.

2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Rhdbdammina, Haplo-
phragmiv/m, a few Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
felspar.

(15'14 %), amorphous matter,
small fragments of siliceous
organisms and minerals.

Many of the organisms are macroscopic. Between 10 and
20 per cent, of the carbonate of calcium contained in
this deposit is made up of numerous fragments of cal-
careous Alg£E, a true indication of sudden shallowing of
water, which the following soundings show.

1

St. Thomas to JJermuda — continued.

0(1 IWrmuU^ ri'""*** V’

— -Vl ltcnuu>li», iiuttin th« np«’f. Off H<-miUilft. imuU— <»n<inu«f.

48

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

J

Soe Cliart 8 «.iul ••

^ .
ts
|3

Date.

Poaitloo.

il

1-

Temperature
of the .Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Cliaracters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Clu

}ottum .

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

1 *82b
1

1

i

k

1873
April 3

32 10 0 N.
64 52 0 W.

950

e

«

68-0

Coral Mud, white, chalky,
granular.

Eesidue brown-black.

89-36

(35-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
■vinulina.

(6 -00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalida;, Num-
muliuidse.

(48-36 %), Otoliths of {
Serpula, Gasteropoda, Lame
branchs, Pteropods, Hcte
pods, Ostracodes, Echinode
fragments, Polyzoa, Aley
arian spicules, calcareous Al|
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

•mn

1

.. *

82 19 0 N.
64 40 OW.

380

67 0

Coral Mi'd, white, chalky,
pulverulent, granular.

Residue brown-black.

89-68

(15-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina, Cymbalopora.

(15-00 %),Miliolidae,TextularidiB,
Chilostomellidae, Lageuidae,
Rotalidae, Nummulinidse.

(59-68 %), Otoliths of 6
Serpula, Dentalium, Gaste
pods, Lamellibranchs, I’t?
pods. Heteropods, Ostracoi
fragments of Echinoden
Polyzoa, Bathyactis and ot
Madreporaria, AJcyonai

spicules, calcareous Al|
Coccoliths, a few Rhabdolil

M

32 21 30 N.
64 35 55 W.

435

68-0

Coral Mud, white, chalky,
pulverulent, granular.

Residue brown-black.

1

1 t—
1

1

1

1’

1 mile from
reef.

200

Coral Sand, white, with red
fragments.

Residue green coloured, with
organic matter.

93-34

(5-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(35-00 %), Miliolidse, Textu-
laridse, Lagenidai, Rotalidae,
Nuiiunulinida;.

(53-34 %), Otoliths of 5
Serpula, Gasteropods, Lame
branchs, Pteropods, Ostracw
Echinoderm fragments. Pc
zoa. Corals, AkyonaB

spicules, calcareous Alga.

”

32 24 0 N.
64 44 OW.

94

Coral Mud, white or grey, very
slightly coherent.

Residue browi .

95-43

(40-00 %), Miliolidse.

(55-43 %), Serpula, Gasterop
Lamellibranchs, Ostracoi
Echinoderm fragments,
careous Algte.

i

.32 21 10 N.
64 32 80 W.

5

Coral Mud, white, with green
tinge, somewhat coherent,
plastic, chalky, granular.
Residue brown.

91 -09

(40-00 %), MiliolidaJ, Polystotnella.

(51-09 %), Serpula, Gasteiope
Lamellibranchs, Ostracei
Echinoderm fragments, Po
zoa. Corals, calcareous Alga.

M

82 18 31 N.
64 51 45 W.

\

Coral .Sand, mottled grey and
white, granular.

Residue brown.

90-18

(10-00 %), Miliolidffi, Rotalida?,
Polystomclla.

(80-18 %), Serpula, Gastenpc
Lamellibranchs, Ostracw
Polyzoa, Corals, Alcyonsr
spicules, calcareous Algfs.

1 •
1

1

82 22 30 X.
64 42 low.

1

1

1

...

Coral Mud, white, with yellow
tinge, coherent, chalky, gritty,
plastic when wet
Residue dark green-brown.

86-77

(30-00 %), Miliolidie, Rotalia,
Polystomclla.

(56-77 %), Serpula, Gasteropf
Lamellibranchs, OstraoM
Echinodei-m fragments, (ale
cous Algte.

1 SS\

j 1

i

I-

1

82 89 0 N.
65 6 0 W.

2450

36-5

67-8

flLonroKRiNA OnzK, dirty white,
granular, alightly coherent,
chalky.

Residue red-brown.

66-00

1

1

(48-00 %), Clobigerinidn?, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidie, Truncatu-
Una.

(15 -00 %), Gasteropods, Ptcroi*
Polyzoa, calcareous
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

' 8«. n. XIII. figt. 2a, 24. t See I’l. XIII. fig. i. X See Tl. XIII. fig. 1.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

49

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

'

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
laria, Lituolidee, a few
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
felspar and volcanic glass.

(8 '64 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms, and a few fragments of
minerals.

Some of the organisms are macroscopic. There is a great
deal of amorphous calcareous matter in the deposit.

(1’00%), Sponge spicules, Radio-
laria, Lituolidse, arenaceous
Textularidse, Diatoms.

(] '00 %)? m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; felspar and volcanic
glass.

(8 '32 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of siliceous
organisms and minerals.

Many of the shells and fragments of other organisms are
macroscopic, the latter varying in size from 1 to
20 mm., the majority being from 4 to 6 mm. in
length. The washings which remain after pas.singthe.se
deposits through the sieves consist chiefly of the shells
of pelagic Molluscs and Foraminifera, with broken pieces
of large calcareous Foraminifera, Serpula tubes.
Polyzoa, Corals, calcareous Algse, &c. The percentage
of carbonate of lime is the mean of the analyses of the
two samples.

-

Dredge half full of chalky Coral Mud.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidie, one or two
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; felspar and volcanic
glass.

(4 '66 %), some amorphous

matter, minute fragments of
minerals, siliceous spicules,
and organic matter.

The majority of the particles making up the sand are
about I or 2 mm. in diameter, but some are much
larger. Although pelagic Molluscs and Foraminifera
are present the carbonate of calcium is mostly made
up of the shells of bottom-living organisms.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, im-
perfect casts of Foraminifera,
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
felspar, a few glassy volcanic
fragments, black mica.

(2 '57 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, fragments
of siliceous!' spicules and
Diatoms, a few fine glassy
particles.

This deposit is chiefly made up of calcareous Algse and
fragments of Gasteropod and Laniellibranch shells.
The finer parts appear to be chiefly derived from the
' decomposition of calcareous Algse.

(1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
imperfect casts of Foramini-
fera, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'40 mm.,
angular ; a few particles of
quartz and glassy volcanic
fragments.

(6 '91 %), fine fiocculent amor-
phous matter, siliceous and
mineral remains.

The deposit is made up chiefly of calcareous Algse and their
broken down parts, with a few of the other organisms
mentioned ; these latter are fragmentary. The whole
forms a coarse cement-like mass with a greenish tinge.
Many of the organisms are macroscopic.

(1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, one or
two imperfect casts of Fora-
minifera, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'50 mm.,
angularandrounded ; particles
of quartz, glassy volcanic
fragments.

(7 '82 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, siliceous
and mineral remains.

About 50 per cent, of the carbonate of lime in the sand is
made up of calcareous Algse, the particles measuring
from 1 to 10 mm. in diameter. Many of the organisms
are macroscopic.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules.

Diatoms.

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'80 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, hornblende,
glassy volcanic particles.

(10 '23 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of Sponge spicules
and Diatoms, small mineral
particles.

The residue contained many fragments of coal. It is
possible that at least some of the minerals found here
have been discharged from passing ships.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Haplopliragmium,
one or two Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; sanidine, plagioclase,
volcanic glass, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite.

(32 '00 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The Foraminifera obtained in this deposit are mostly of
pelagic origin. Note the decrease in the quantity of
carbonate of lime with increase of depth and distance
from the reefs.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

■

7

St. Thomas to Ber-
muda— continued. Off Bermuda. At Bermuda, inside thu reof. Off Bermuda.

iWnnUil* to n*lir«x. Ull lioruiuda— oontmu^ti.

50

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S«« Charts 8 and 9, and Diagram 2.

II

a 5

D«t«.

roeltlon.

Di-pth In
Kathums.

Tcniperaturo
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

CARBONATE OP CALCIUM.

z*

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminilera.

Other Organisms.

35b

1873
April 22

0 t »

32 26 0 N.
65 9 0 W.

2100

o

36-5

0

68-0

Globioerina Ooze, dirty white,
granular, chalky.

Beeidne red-brown.

77-13

(45-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulma,

(5-00 %), Miliolidie, Textn-
laridae, Rotalidse, Nnmmn-
linidae.

(27-13 %), Otoliths of fish. S
pula, Gasteropods, Pteropoi
Echinoderm fragments, Po!
zoa, calcareous Algse, Cocc
liths, Rhabdoliths.

•S5c

oo

II

32 15 0 N.
65 8 OW.

1950

68 0

Globioerina Ooze, white,
chalky, granular, slightly
coherent.

Besidue brown.

81-31

(53-00 %), Globigerinidie, Cymba-
lopora.

(3-00 %), Miliolidse, Textn-
laridsB, Lagenidae, Rotalidae,
NnmmulinidiB.

(25-31 %), Otoliths of fish, St
pula, bentaliwm, Gasteropoi
Lamellibranchs, Ptoropo
Ostracode valves, fragments
Echinoderms, Polysoa, a
careous Algse, Coccolifii
Rhabdoliths.

.. 23

Challenger

Bank.

32

Large specimens of Cristellaria
and other Foraminifera.

Fragments of Echinoderm
MoUnscs, &c.

! 37

i

.. 24

32 18 0 y.
65 38 8 W.

2650

36-5

68-0

Globioerina Ooze, brownish
when wet, dirty white when
dry, slightly coherent, gran-
ular.

Besidne red.

62-47

(50-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00%), Vemeuilina, Lagenidse,
Tr^ncatulina,

(10-47 %), Otoliths of £s
Lamellibranchs, Pteropa

Ostracodes, Echini spine
Polyzoa, calcareous Alp
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

1

.. 25

33 3 ON.
66 32 0 W.

2600

36-5

70-0

Globioerina Ooze, brown when
wet, dirty white when dry,
granular, slightly coherent.
Besidne red.

50-84

(45-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
mnulina.

(1-00 %), CassiduUna, Trwnmtu-
Una, Nonionina.

(4-84 %), small teeth of 3i
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

39

1

.. 27

34 3 0 N.
67 32 0 W.

2850

36-5

65 0

Red Clay, grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, sublustrous
streak.

Besidne red.

28-31

(20-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Vemeuilina, Pullmia,
Rotalidse.

(6-31 %), small teeth of fit
Ostracodes, Coccoliths, a fe
Rhabdoliths,

.0

-

■

28

34 51 0 N.
68 80 0 W.

2675

69-5

Globioerina Ooze, grey when
dry, with a pink tinge, slightly
coherent, gritty.

Besidne dark brown.

45-83

(40-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolina, Pullenia,
Trunmtulina,

(4-83 %), small teeth of fis
Cephalopod beaks, Pterop
fragments. Echini sniM
Coccoliths, a few Rhabdolitli

42

.. 30

85 68 0 N.
70 35 0 W.

2425

36-8

650

Bute Men, dirty grey when
dry, plastic, coherent, homo-
geneous, earthy.

Beeidne brown.

24-34

(20-00 %) Globigerinidse, Pui-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Oaudryina, Truncatu-
lina.

(3 -34 %), Cephalopod beaks, fi»
ments of Echinoderms, Coon
liths, one or two RhabdoliUit

..

!

May 1

36 23 0 N.
71 46 OW,

2600

36 -2

56-6

■ 44

1

1

1

.. 2

37 25 ON.
71 40 OW.

1700

Rlite Mud, with reddish ujiper
layer, blue-grey when dry,
plastic, containing gritty parti-
cles, earthy.

Beeidne dark brown.

24-61

(18-00 %), Globigorinido;, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidw, Textularidse,
Lageiiidie, Rotalidse.

(4-61 %), Otoliths of fish. Lame
libranch shells, Echinoder
fragments, Coccoliths, Coco
spheres, a few Rhabdoliths.

8ec,ri. XII. fig. 3.

F

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

51

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae, one or
two Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, augite, magnetite.

(20 '87 %), amorphous matter,
small fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

(1 -00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidfe, Litu-
olidie, one or two Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, augite, magnetite.

(16'69 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
siliceous organisms, and small
mineral particles.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, one
i or two Eadiolaria, A schema-
; Tiella, Lituolidae.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite, vol-
canic glass, magnetite.

(35 '53 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

(1 ‘00 %), a few Sponge spicules
and Eadiolaria, one or two
specimens of Eaplophrag-
1 mium and Gaudryina.

(2 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular, a few rounded ; sani-
dine, plagioclase, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, volcanic
glass, black mica, quartz,
manganese grains.

(46 '16 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous spicules.

1 (1 '00 %), one or two fragments
; of siliceous spicules, Litu-
' olidae. Diatoms.

'

(5'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, tourma-
line, augite, hornblende,
mica, manganese grains,
glauconite.

(65 '69 %), amorphous matter,
with a great many minute
fragments of minerals and a
few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

1 (1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, two
or three Eadiolaria, a few
I imperfect casts, Lituolidae.

i

'i

ii

(3'00 %), m.di. 0'06 mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, hornblende,
augite, magnetite, mica,
quartz, glauconite, glassy
volcanic particles, coloured
altered particles, a few man-
ganese grains.

(50 '17 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and a few fragments of sili-
ceous organisms.

;j(l "00 %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
laria, Rhabdammina, Litu-
1 olidae. Diatoms.

i)

(40 '00 %),m. di. 0'20 mm., angu-
lar ; monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, augite, ' hornblende,
quartz, tourmaline, lapilli,
mica, glauconite, a few man-
ganese grains, pyrites, mag-
netite.

(34 '66 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals, a few fragments of
Eadiolaria and Diatoms.

1(1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, Astrorhizidae,

1 Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(40 '00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, quartz, mica-schist
and other rocks, some of them
chloritic, magnetite, glauconite.

(34 '39 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
fragments of Sponge spicules
and Diatoms.

Additional Observations.

With the exception of the Foraminifera the organisms
are mostly fragmentary ; some of the fragments are
macroscopic.

Some of the shells are macroscopic. The pelagic organ-
isms here predominate over the fragments of calcareous
Alg®, Polyzoa, &c., washed from the reefs. The finer
portions contain many more Coccoliths and Ehabdo-
liths than the deposits nearer the reefs.

This bank is covered with Corals, Serpula, and calcareous
pebbles.

With the exception of the Foraminifera all the other
organisms are represented by minute fragments ; some
of these are much corroded as if being slowly dissolved.
Dredge contained a quart bottle (over a litre) of deposit.

The organisms in this deposit are very much broken up
and decomposed. One or two grains of manganese,
1 to 3 mm. in diameter, were observed.

The minerals are mostly angular ; a few of them approach
0’4 mm. in diameter. Note decrease of carbonate of
lime with increasing depth. This deposit is inter-
mediate in character between a Ked Clay and Blue
Mud ; the mineral particles are ice-borne.

No deposit was obtained in the sounding tube, but a
small quantity of the ooze came up in the dredge. The
mineral particles are chiefly angular, but among them
are many rounded quartz grains.

This deposit had a reddish surface layer. Rhabdoliths
have almost entirely disappeared, only a few being
recognised on the examination of a large quantity of
the deposit. The minerals are mostly angular ; a few
are rounded.

In first sounding line parted ; in second no bottom at a
depth exceeding 2600 fathoms.

The minerals are mostly angular ; some fragments of
quartz and gneissic rocks are about 1 mm. in diameter.
Several rounded pebbles were obtained in the washings
from the dredge, measuring from 2 to 6 cm. in
diameter, also a few irregular fragments of hardened
deposit, forming a conglomerate of a yellow-green
colour ; amongst these were several rounded compact
chalky nodules, apparently formed of the deposit,
measuring from 1 to 3 cm. in diameter.

Oil' Bermuda — continued. Bermuda to Halifax.

ll*Ur«i to n«nnu>lo. UoriiiUiU to nalifiix— ron/tniMi/

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

S«« Chart 9 and Dia^^m 2.

^ .
k. e

-

11

Half

PoaiUoo.

-3
5 1

ff

Tompcraturu
u( tlio Soa-
watiT
(Falir.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

1

i

1

' Siipfaco

Per cent.

Foraminlfera.

Other Organisms.

i

45

t

. 1873

May 3

• f

33 34
72 10

99

0 X.

0 w.

1240

•

37-2

o

49-5

Blue Mud, blue-grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, containing
gritty imrticles.

E^due dark grey.

14-59

(10 "00 %), Globigeriiiidse, Pul-
mnulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolidas, Textularidse,
Lagenidie, Kotalidte, Num-
muliuida:.

(3-59 %), Otoliths of fish, Ismi
librauch shells, Ostraca
valves, Echinoderm fragnieni
Coccoliths, Coccosphena, o
or two Rhabdoliths.

46

»

.. «

40 17
66 43

0 N.
0 W.

1350

37-2

40 0

Blue Mud, blue-grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, with gritty
particles.

Eesidae dark grey.

15-40

(8-00 %), Globigcrinidae, Pv,l-
vimUina.

(2-00 %), Miliolida;, Rotalida:.

(5-40 %), Otoliths of fish, Iaiw
libranchs, Pteropods, Ecliia
derm fragments, Coccolitl
Coccospheres.

f 47

M *

41 14
65 45

0 X.

0 w.

1340

420

Blue Mud, blue-grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, containing
many gritty particles.

B^idue dark brown.

6-68

(3-00 %), GlobigerinidiE, Pul-
viniiliiia.

(1-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidse,
Lagenida}, Kotalidae.

(2-68 %), Cephalopod beaks, Ech
noderm fragments, Cocculilk
Coccospheres.

.. 8

43 4
64 5

0 X.

0 w.

51

38-0

Rock, gravel, stones, &c..t

49

„ 20

43 3
63 39

0 X.

0 w.

85

35 0

40-5

Gravel, stones, kc.

50

1

.. 21

42 8
63 39

0 X.

0 w.

1250

38-0

45 0

Blue Mud, blue-grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, containing
gritty [larticles.

Bmidue dark blue-brown.

16-25

(10-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolina, Textularia,
Lageuida.', Tru7imluliiia.

(3-25 %), Echinoderm fragmetli
Coccoliths, Coccospheres.

51

22

41 19
63 12

0 X.

0 w.

2020

360

59-0

Blue Mud, dirty grey when dry,
containing sandy particles,
earthy.

Residue brown.

27-75

(20-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolida;, Te.xtularida;,
Lageuida:, \ioi&\\il^,Nonionina.

(5-75 %), Echinoderm fragmenh
Coccoliths, Coccospheres.

52

.. 23

39 44
63 22

0 X.
0 w.

2800

36-2

67-2

i

Blue Mud, brown-grey when
dry, coherent, containing gritty
]*articles, earthy.

Residue brown.

25-02

(20-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-uO %), Miliolina, Lagenidie,
Tnciuxitulina.

(3-02 %), fragments of Ecbi»
denns, Coccoliths, a few Co»
spheres.

53

.. 2«

86 30
63 40

0 X,
o^v.

2650

36-3

73 0

Blue .Mud, brown-grey when dry,
coherent, earthy, containing
gritty particles.

R^idue red-brown.

31-88

(25-00 %), Globigerinida:, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Tcxluluria,
Kotalidae. '

(4-88 %), fragments of
dorms, Coccoliths, C«f»
spheres, a few Rliabdolitbi

.. 27

34 51
63 59

0 X.

0 w.

2650

70-5

Blue Mud, grey when dry, co-
herent, homogeneous, earthy.
Residue red-brown.

24-56

(18-00 %), Globigerinida:, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Lagcna,
Truncatulina.

(4-56 %), Echinoderm frsgmwH
Coccoliths, one or two BluWr
liths.

1

9$ *■*

U 80
64 37

0 X.
0 w.

2500

70 5

Gi/rnir,r.itiNA Ooze., grey, pul-
verulent, homogeneous.
Residue brown-red.

54-81

(45 00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(3 -00 %), Miliolida;, Bulimina,
Truncatulina.

(6-81 %), fragments of FA»
denns, Coccoliths, Uhsbdslithi

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

53

Kesldue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

2 '00 %), a few Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, Astrorhizidse,
Lituolid®, Diatoms.

(40'00 %), m. di. O’lO mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, fragments of mica-
schist, diabase, &c., magne-
tite, glauconite, mica.

(43 '41 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of Diatoms
and minerals.

The coarser siftings of this mud, of which a large quantity
came up in the dredge, consist of a grey gravel, some
of the pebbles or large grains measuring from 1 to 5
cm. in diameter. One of these pebbles is a quartzite
containing zircon, tourmaline, rutile, kaolinised felsjiar,
and chloi'itic matter ; others are diabases, basalts, and
dolomites.

2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
olidae, Diatoms.

(45 '00 %), m. di. 0T2 mm.,
angular and rounded ; mica,
quartz, felspar, magnetite,
tourmaline, garnet.

(37 '60 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous spi-
cules and Diatoms.

The mud from the dredge contained a good many rounded
and angular pebbles from a millimetre to a centimetre
in diameter, composed of quartziferous diabase, mica-
schist, &c., the same as at the last station. Traces
of manganese are found on some of the pebbles.
Rhabdoliths have quite disappeared ; on the other hand,
there are a good many Coccospheres.

r

3 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
olidae, a few glauconitic casts.
Diatoms.

(70'00 %), m. di. 0T5 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
fragments of older volcanic
and other rocks, felspar,
pumice, glauconite, magne-
tite, &c.

(17 '32 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals.
Sponge spicules, and Diatoms.

Ho deposit was obtained in the sounding tube ; descrip-
tion taken from mud obtained in dredge. A large
block of syenite came up with the dredge. It weighed
about 5 cwts. (253 '7 kilogrammes), and was jammed
between the mouth and arras of the dredge. Some of
the mnieral fragments measure over 1 mm. in diameter.
Many of the quartz grains are covered with limonite.

3 "00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Haplophragmium,
Diatoms,

i'OO %), 'Radiolaria, Ehab-
dammina, Haplophragmium,
brown imperfect casts. Dia-
toms.

(•00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge spi-
cules, Astrorhizidse, Troch-
ammina, glauconitic casts,
i Diatoms.

■‘OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge spi-
cules, Ehabdammina, brown
imperfect casts. Diatoms.

•00 %), fragments of Radio-
laria and Sponge spicules,
Haplophragmium, a few
Diatoms.

•00 %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

(20^00 %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular and rounded ; felspar,
pumice, quartz, glauconite,
augite, hornblende, mag-
netite.

(20 '00 %), in. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; quartz, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, frag-
ments of older crystalline and
otherrocks, glauconite, augite,
hornblende.

(25^00 %), m. di. 0^15 mm.,
rounded and angular ; mono-
clinic and tricliuic felspars,
quartz, fragments of rocks,
augite, mica, hornblende,
magnetite, glauconite.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0^08 mm.,
angular ; monoclinic and tri-
clinic felspars, quartz, rock
fragments, augite, hornblende,
volcanic glass, magnetite,
glauconite.

(2^00 %), m. di. 0^07 mm.,
angular ; monoclinic and
triclinic felspars, quartz,
volcanic glass, glauconite,
magnetite, mica.

(1^00 %), m. di. 0^07 mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, glassy
volcanic fragments, mica.

(60 •75 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and fragments of Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, and Diatoms.

(49^25 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and fragments of Diatoms.

(46^98 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and Diatoms.

(55 ^12 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals and
siliceous organisms.

(71^44 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals, Radio-
laria, and Diatoms.

(43^19 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Some of the minerals measure over 1 mm. in diameter.
Fragments of older crystalline rocks are also found,
many covered with chlorite.

The minerals are mostly angular, but a few are rounded
and measure about 1 mm. in diameter. Dredge line
broke.

Uvigerina, which has been very common or abundant in
all the soundings lately, is here very sparingly re-
presented ; the pelagic Foraminifera are, on the other
hand, larger and more numerous.

Many of the larger Foraminifera, as Fulvinulina men-
ardii, &c., are much perforated and corroded, showing
well the solvent action of sea-water. This, together
with the preceding and following deposits, are in some
respects Red Clays or Globigeriua Oozes ; the presence
of ancient rocks places them among the Blue Muds.

This deposit contains much amorphous clayey matter, and
was formerly classed with the Red Clays.

A few of the mineral particles are about 3 mm. in
diameter, and are probably ice-borne.

Roi'muda to Halifax — continued. Halifax to Bermuda.

54

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

Soo Cliarts 6 and 8, and Diagram 3.

o .

« J
13

Dat«.

rociUoD.

Depth In
Fatnomt.

Tempornturo
of the Sea-
water
(Falir.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

carbonate of Calcium. ]

liottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

\

\

5.Sb

1

i!

1'

1873
May 29

• 0 it

32 7 35 N.
04 53 45 W.

1325

»

72-0

Coral Mud, white, pulverulent,
chalky.

Besidne brown.

86-00

(56-00 %), Globigerinidie, Picl-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Textularia,
Lagenidai, Rotalidte.

(28-00 %), ,Gasteropodi,

Lamellibranchs, Pteropodi, ,
Heteropods, Ostracodev
Echinoderm fragments, Poly.|
zoa, Alcyonarian spicules, cid. ;
careous Algce, Coccoliflu
Rhabdoliths.

.. 29

32 8 45 y.
64 59 35 W.

1075

38-2

72-5

Coral Mud, white, chalky,
pulverulent.

Beeidne brown.

83-02

(40-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinuliTUi.

(4-00 %), Miliolidfe, Textularida?,
Lagenidaj, Rotalidse, Nummu-
linidse.

(39-02 %), Otoliths of fish, .%i *
pula, Gasteroiiod and Lamd
libranch shells (larval), l'ter>
pods, Heteropods, Osti-acode.
Echinoderm fragments, Pole
zoa, Alcyonarian spienk',
calcareous Algae, Coaolitk
Rhabdoliths. ;

57 a

.

30

32 9 30 N.
65 7 35 W.

1250

73-0

Coral Mud, white, chalky,
pulverulent.

Besidue black.

84-75

(40-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(4-00 %), Miliolidse,’ Textu-
laridfe, Rotalidce, Nummu-
linidai.

(40-75 %), Otoliths of fish, i'-
pula, Gasteropod’ and Lsmelh.
branch shells (larval), Pu
pods, Heteropods, O.slracoJr
fragments of EchinodccE;,
Polyzoa, Alcyonarian sp- '
cules, calcareous Algff, Coew-
liths, Rhabdoliths.

II S7b

so

32 9 45 N.
65 10 50 W.

1575

73-0

Coral Mud, dirty white, pul-
verulent, granular, chalky.
Besidue red.

89-11

(35-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidee, Textu-
larida;, Lagenidce, Rotalidce,
Nummuliuidee.

(49-11 %), Otoliths of fish, ft-
pula, Pteropods, Heterop>‘,
Ostracodes, Echinoderm fi^
ments, Polyzoa, Alcyonarr'
spicules, calcareous A!
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

58

Jane 13

32 37 0 N.
64 21 OW.

1500

37-2

73-5

Coral Mud, dirty white, chalky,
pulverulent.

Besidne dark brown.'

77-38

(33-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
mnulina,

(5-00 %), Miliolidee, Textularida;,
Lagcnidie, Kotalidie.

(39-38 %), Otoliths of f '•
Gasteropoda, PteroMds, Het
opods, Ostracodes, Echinodi
fragments, Polyzoa, Alcyonui
spicules, calcareous AlgtP, C
eoliths, Rhabdoliths.

59

1

.. U

32 54 0 N.
63 22 OW.

2360

36-3

74-0

Globioerina Ooze, with a rose
tint, light brown when dry,
slightly coherent, earthy.
Besidne red-brown.

54-59

(45-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Textularidai,
Rotalidce.

(7-59 %), Echini spines. Cor
liths, Rhabdoliths.

I

m

}

.. 16

34 28 0 N.
58 56 0 W.

2575

36-2

71-6

Globioerina Ooze, light brown,
slightly coherent, earthy, pre-
senting small white s|iot8 to
the naked eye.

Besidne red.

31-38

(25-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 -00 %), Miliolina, Truncatu-
Una.

(4-38 %), Echini spines, IV
liths, Rhabdoliths.

61

.. 1"

34 54 0 N.
56 38 0 W.

2850

36-2

71-0

Red Clay, coherent, earthy, con-'
taining gritty i»articlc8.
Besidue r^.

8-02

(5 00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Lagcnidie, Rotalida;.

(2-02 %), Echini spines, C»
liths.

1

1

1

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

55

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
laria, Wmbdammiv/i, Lituo-
Ud®, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; one or two fragments
of felspar and volcanic glass.

(12‘00 %), amorphous matter,
with small fragments of sili-
ceous organisms and minerals.

j(l'00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
i laria, Astrorhizid®, Lituo-
lid®. Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
felspar and volcanic glass.

(14 '98 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, minerals, and
Diatoms.

1 1 ’00 %) Sponge spicules, one or
two Radiolaria, Astrorhizid®,

1 Lituolid®, Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
pumice.

(13 '25 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of siliceous
organisms and minerals.

;1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
: laria, Lituolid®, Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0’07 mm.,
angular; felspar, quartz,
pumice.

(8 '89 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms, one or two fragments
of minerals.

t‘00 %), Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, Lituolid®.

(I'OO %), ra. 'di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; felspar, augite, mag-
netite, volcanic glass.

(20 '62 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of siliceous
organisms and minerals.

. '00 %), Sponge spicules, one
or two fragments of Radiolaria,
Lituolid®.

(1 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; fragments of sanidine,
augite, hornblende, magnetite,
glassy volcanic particles.

(43 ’41 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

■00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
j spicules, Haplophragjnium.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; mono-
clinic and triclinic felspars,
quartz, magnetite, horn-
blende, glassy particles,

glauconite.

(64 '62 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

1 '00'%), Sponge spicules,
j a few Radiolaria, glauconitic
casts. Diatoms.

1 ,

!

(60'00 %), m. di. 0‘15 mm.,
angular and rounded ; mono-
clinic and triclinic felspars,
quartz, glauconite, fragments
of mica-schist and older vol-
canic rocks, garnet epidote,
magnetite, augite, actiiiolite,
volcanic glass.

(30 '98 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals,
Radiolaria, and Diatoms.

Additional Observations.

These deposits off Bermuda, together with those taken in
March and April, as well as many others not described
but which are marked on the accompanying chart, show
that the quantity of carbonate of lime increases as the
reefs are approached, and the water shallows. The car-
bonate of lime is, neai the reef, almost wholly derived
from the reef organisms ; as the distance from the reef
^ increases the remains of pelagic animals become more
and more abundant, the remains of the reef organisms,
on the other hand, diminishing. The Coral Sand passes
into a Coral Mud, this into a Globigerina Ooze, and in
very deep water far from the reefs the Globigerina Ooze
is replaced by a Red Clay ; some of the deeper deposits
in this series might be called Globigerina Oozes. See
Plate XIII. , which shows the variation of the deposit
with depth and distance from the reef.

J

This deposit, which is about 60 miles from the reefs,
does not appear to contain any fragments of reef
organisms.

The quartz grains are covered with limonite, while
there are also, among the minerals, fragments with
chloritic coatings. Trawl had not reached the bottom.

From the large percentage of minerals this deposit
might equally well be called a Blue Mud; the minerals
are evidently all ice-borne. Glauconitic casts of some
of the organisms remained after treatment with acid.
N ote the decrease of carbonate of lime with increase
of depth. Trawl brought up no deposit, but some
concretions covered with manganese.

J

Ofl' Bcrnuula. Ilernuula to Azores.

— «MiOxy o)

50

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

St-e Chart 6, and Diapram 3.

il

M

Da(«.

PosiUun.

Depth In
Fathom 1.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Dcatgnation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calciom. »

ikittom

Surface

Per cent.

I'oraminilera.

Other Organisms.

62

1873
June 18

35 7
52 32

0 N.
ONV.

2875

e

36 4

O

70 0

Rf.d Clay, pla.stic, homogeneous,
coliereiit, sublustrous streak.
Residue red.

10-72

(7-00 %), Olohigerina, Pulviim-
lina.

(rOO %) Rotalidsc.

(2-72 %), Echini spines. Cow-
liths, a few Coccospheres.

«3

.. 19

35 29
50 53

0 X.
0 W.

2750

71-0

Glouiokiuxa Ooze, light brown,
slightly coherent, plastic.
Residue brown.

33-93

(25-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
viuulina.

(2-00 %), Textularidie, Lagena,
Rotalidie.

(6-93 %), Echini spines, Cow
liths, Rhabdoliths.

•6t

i

i

i

.. 20

35 35
50 27

0 X.
0 W.

(2700)

75 0

Globioerina Ooze, light brown,
slightly coherent, homogene-

OU.S.

Residue brown.

35-00

(25-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), MiliolidfE, Textularidae,
Lagenidse, Rotalidee, Nummu-
linidie.

(5-00%), Otoliths and teoliy
fish, Serpula, one or tu
fragments of Clcodora pfn
midata, Ostracodes, fragiwM
of Eehinoderins, Polj-»s,
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

65

.. 21

36 33
47 58

0 X.
0 W.

2700

36-2

72-5

Red Clay, light brown, slightly
coherent, homogeneous, sub-
liLHtrous streak.

Residue brown.

27-59

(20-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Textularia, Lagenidie,
Rotalidse.

(4-59 %), Echini spines, Cow
liths.

66

oo

ft ••

37 24

44 14

0 X.
0 W.

2750

36-5

70 0

Globioerina Ooze, light brown,
homogeneous, slightly co-
herent.

Residue brown.

35-31

(25-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina,

(3-00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidie,
Rotalidie.

(7-31 %), a few fragmenti »
Echini spines, Coccoliths.

67

.. 23

37 54

41 44

0 X.
0 W.

2700

36-3

70-0

Globioerina Ooze, with red
tinge, slightly colierent.
Residue brown.

64-30

(46-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidie,
Rotalidaj.

(6-30 %), Ostracodo nlm
Echini spines, Coccolitbi.

63

.. 24

38 3

39 19

0 X.
0 w.

2175

36-2

70-0

Globioerina Ooze, with ro.se
tint, chalky, slightly coherent.
R^idue brown.

71-76

(60-00 %), Globigcrinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidic, Lagena,
Rotalidffi, Nonionina.

(8-76 %), Ostracodes, Echinodw
fragments, Coccoliths, Ktui
doliths.

69

.. 25

38 23
37 21

0 X.
0 w.

2200

36-2

71 0

Globioerina Ooze, white with
rose tint

70

M 26

38 25
35 50

0 X.
0 w.

1075

...

70 0

Globioerina Ooze, dirty white,
pulverulent, granular, chalky.
Residue brown.

83-31

(70-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidic, Textu-
laridse, Lagenidse, Rotalidie.

(10-31 %), Otoliths and wd4
fish, Gasteropods, Li»&
branchs, Pteropods, Ostna»k
Echinoderm fragments, Ctr*
liths, Rhabdoliths.

71

27

38 18
34 48

0 X.
0 \v.

1675

36-8

71-0

Globioerina Ooze, dirty white,
pulvcnilent, granular, chalky.
Residue brown.

88-31

(70-00 Globigcrinida*, Pul-

vinulina.

(6-00 %), Milioliilte, Textularidie,
LageiiidiB, Rotalidie.

(13-31 %), Otoliths of
I.aniellibranchs, Ptewp''*

lletcropods, Ostracodes, £'♦
inoderm fragments, Polp*
Coccoliths, Rhabdolithe.

K.

Soc anal. 42.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

57

KESIDUE.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine 'Washings.

I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules
and Diatoms.

1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, Lituolidae.

(2 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; monoclinic and tri-
clinic felspars, quartz, mica,
hornblende, glassy fragments,
glauconite. ,

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, augite, mica, magnetite,
manganese, pumice, glau-
conite.

(86 '28 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals,
Eadiolaria, and Diatoms.

(64 '07 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Most of the organisms are fragmentary. Many of the
mineral particles are evidently ice-borne.

Some of the Globigerinidee have grains of manganese
scattered over and adhering to their surfaces. Amor-
phous clayey matter partially fills some of the Fora-
minifera. In the washings from the trawl one small
piece of pumice, containing a large crystal of sanidine,
was obtained.

1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, Astrorliizidae,

Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, augite,
magnetite, fragments of
pumice, glauconite, quartz.

(63 '00 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
fragments of Radiolaria and
Diatoms.

Glauconite in these depths is unusual and is only repre-
sented by a few grains. Dredge contained one hundred-
weight (.50 kilogrammes) of deposit, in which .^were
some pellets of manganese.

1 '00 %), Sponge spicules,

Radiolaria, Haplo-phragmium.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
magnetite, volcanic glass,
one or two small particles of
quartz covered with limonite,
manganese grains.

(70'41 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

The organisms are, for the most part, fragmentary.
There is little difference between this and the previous
and succeeding deposits, though this is classed as a Red
Clay.

I'OO %) Eadiolaria, a few
Sponge spicules, Astrorliizidae,
Lituolidae.

(1-00%), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; monoelinic felspar,
augite, pumice, lapilli, mag-
netite.

(62'69 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of Radiolaria and
minerals.

This deposit is similar to that obtained at Station 65,
except in having a higher percentage of carbonate of
lime.

.'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorliizidae, Litu-
olidae.

•00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, one or two arenaceous
Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; monoclinic and
triclinic felspars, augite, mag-
netite, volcanic glass.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; a few fragments of
felspar, magnetite, volcanic
glass.

(43 '70 %), amorphous matter,^
fragments of minerals and
siliceous organisms.

(26 '24 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals and
siliceous organisms.

The rise in the percentage of carbonate of lime with
decrease of depth is here again illustrated. The
appearance of the pelagic Foraminifera is different from
that in tropical deposits.

...

Only a small quantity of the deposit came up in the
tube ; the examination of this quantity, however,
indicated a deposit, in some respects, similar to that at
Station 68.

•00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae, a few Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; a few fragments of
sanidine, volcanic glass, mag-
netite, manganese grains.

(14 '69 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals, Eadio-
laria, and Diatoms.

In the washings of a large quantity of the deposit from
the trawl there were a great many Pteropod shells and
fragments, also concretions of the ooze with black
spots.

•00 %),’’ Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae, imperfect brown casts,
a few Diatoms.

(I'OO %), ni. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; fragments of pumice,
felspar, lapilli, magnetite,
augite, manganese.

(8 '69 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

In the trawl there were several aggregations of the ooze
from 3 to 4 cm. in diameter, perforated by worms and
coated with a deposit of manganese ; also a fragment of
compact volcanic rock more or less rounded and about
7 cm. in longest diameter ; this fragment has a slight
deposit of manganese over the whole surface, with a
SfiiyitZa-tube attached. There was also a fragment of
sandstone, containing mica and stained with limonite,
and a large cinder, evidently from some ocean steamer.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

■

8

Bermuda to Azores — continued.

Atotm to

Ma>l<ririt th« Atom. Rrmiud* to Atom— <'oii/inw«(/.

58

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Chuts 6 ami 10, and Diagram 3.

= .

fc. e

1

Date.

roaitloD.

n

Temperature
of tlie Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

^ a*

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Forarainifera.

Other Organisms.

7S

1

1873
June 28

• » 00

38 34 0 N.
32 47 0 W.

1240

O

37 8

O

71-0

Ptf.ropod Ooze, white with
yellow tint, slightly coherent,
finely granular, chalky.
Braidue brown.

81-69

(60-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidae, Lagenidce,
B.otalId(e.

(16-59 %), Otoliths of fish, frij.
ments of Pteropods andHeteio
pods, a few Ostracodes, Eahiti
spines, Polyzoa, Coccolitk '
Rhabdoliths.

73

M 80

88 30 0 N.
31 14 OW.

1000

39-4

69-0

Pteeopod Ooze, white with
pink tint, chalky, slightly
coherent.

Besidue brown.

73-20

(35-00 %), GlobigerinidiE, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidee,
Lagenidie, Rotalidae.

(33-20 %), Otoliths of fish, Stt-
pula, Dentalium, Gasteropoda!
Lamellibranchs, Pteropodi, :
Heteropods, Ostracodes, Polj
zoa, Coccoliths, Rhabdolitk j

1

74

July 1

38 22 0 N.
29 37 OW.

1350

69-8

Pteropod Ooze, yellow, white
when dry, chalky, slightly
coherent.

Besidue brown.

73-50

(50-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidie, Lagenidse,
RotalidiB.

(20-50 %), Otoliths of fi; |
Lamellibranchs, fragmenh I
Pteropods, Ostracodes, Ectm I
spines, Coccoliths, Rhabdolilh I

.. *

Between Fayal
and Pico.

50-90

Volcanic Sand, mottled black
brown and white, very coarse.
Besidue brown.

68-73

(10-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidie.

(53-73 %), Serpula, Dcntaliu, I
Gasteropoda, LameUibraiick-1
Ostracodes, Echinoderm liwfl
ments, Polyzoa, calcamn 1
Algae. 1

75

i

1

.. 2

38 88 0 N.
28 28 30 W.

450

70-0

Volcanic Mud, dark grey when
dry, slightly coherent, gritty,
earthy.

Besidue dark brown.

20-69

(6-00 %), Globigerinidae, Puliyimt-
Una.

(4-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(10-59 %), Otoliths of fish,Ar I
pnila, Dentalium, Gasteropoi 1
Lamellibranchs, PtcroiioOL ■

Heteropods, Ostracodes, Eclii» ■
derm fragments, Polyzoa. c.' a
careous Alga, Coccolilh a
Rhabdoliths. ■

7«

.. 3

38 11 0 N.
27 9 0 W.

900

40 0

70 0

Pteropod Ooze, light grey
when dry, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidue brown.

52-22

(28-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(2-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(22-22 %), Otoliths of fish,
talium. Gasteropoda, lADxiil
branchs.Pterojmds, HeteropofcB
Ostracodes, Echini 8i«»B
Polyzoa, Coccoliths,
spheres, Rhabdoliths. a

78

.. 10

37 28 OX.
25 18 OW.

1000

71 0

Volcanic Mud, grey, very
fine grained, very slightly
coherent.

Besidue brown.

7-08

(3-00 %) Globigerinidae.

(2-00 %), Miliolida;, Textularidae,
Lagenidie, Rotalidae, Nummu-
linidai.

(2-68 %), Otoliths of fal
fragments of Pagurvt niB
other Crustaceans, (Sfiydia
Dentalium, GastefOj&iB

Lamellibranchs, PtcropAa

• Heteropods, Ostracodeii lAB
inodenn fragments, PoijiaB
Corals. a

7»

.. 11

38 21 0 X.
23 31 0 W.

2025

35 9

71-5

Giaibiof.rina Oozf., dirtv white,
slightly coherent, chalky,
Besidue red-brown.

66-65

(46-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina,

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Lagena,
Trun^ulina.

(8-65 %), fragments of

derms, Coccoliths, Bb^a

doliths. ■

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

59

Kesidue.

Additional Obsekvations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

2 '00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidse, imperfect brown casts,
Diatoms.

(l^OO %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular ; augite, magnetite,
felspar, sanidine, lapilh,
pumice.

(15 '41 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals,
Eadiolaria, and Diatoms.

A few rounded fragments of pumice, from 1 to 6 mm.
in diameter, were obtained in this deposit ; some
of these are much altered and decomposed. Much of
the amorphous calcareous matter is apparently derived
from Pteropods and Heteropods.

I'OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae, a few Diatoms.

(10^00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; monoclinio and tri-
clinic felspars, lapiUi, magne-
tite, augite, quartz, pumice.

(15'80 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
fragments of Eadiolaria and
Diatoms.

In the washings of a large quantity of the deposit from
the dredge there were many shells of pelagic and other
Molluscs, and a great quantity of pumice, the pieces
varying from 1 mm. to 6 cm. in diameter. They are
all of the light-coloured felspathic variety and much
altered ; some of the fragments are overgrown by
Serpula and other organisms.

1-00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae, a few Diatoms.

(l^OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; minute fragments
of volcanic rocks, plagioclase,
sanidine, magnetite, augite,
hornblende, volcanic glass.

(24 ’50%), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

PulvinvMna menardii appears to be almost, if not quite,
absent from this deposit,, as well as from most of the
deposits in this region.

t‘00 %), Sponge spicules, arena-
ceous Eoraminifera,

(20^00 %), m. di. I'OO mm.,
angular ; pumice, magnetite,
felspar, augite, hornblende,
sanidine, and many fragments
of volcanic rocks.

(7 ■27 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, fine

mineral particles, and frag-
ments of siliceous spicules.

About a bushel of this calcareous sand came up in the
dredge, mixed with many rounded fragments of
pumice and volcanic rock, measuring from 1 to 6 cm.
in diameter. Many of these are completely covered
with SerpulsR, calcareous Algae, or Polyzoa. Fully 30
per cent, of the carbonate of calcium is made up by
the fragments of Polyzoa alone, while Polytreraa
miniaceitm is very abundant.

!‘00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae. Diatoms.

(60'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular; fragments of volcanic
rocks, pumice, plagioclase,
sanidine, black mica, augite,
magnetite, hornblende.

(17 '41 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute fragments
of minerals, Eadiolaria, and
Diatoms.

In the washings from the dredge many Pteropods, Gas-
teropods, Lamellibranchs, Serpulx, and large quantities
of broken fragments of Polyzoa were obtained, also
numerous round and angular fragments of pumice and
volcanic rocks, from 4 to 6 cm. in diameter. In
many instances the pumice fragments were completely
covered with Serpula-tVihes, Algre, and Polytrerita.

•00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidae, a few Diatoms.

(5'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; fragments of volcanic
rocks, pumice, monocliuic and
triclinic felspars, augite, horn-
blende, black mica, olivine.

(41 '78 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute fragments
of minerals, and siliceous
organisms.

The washings of the mud from the dredge consisted
chiefly of large Gavolinia trispinosa and other Pteropod
shells, with many fragments of pumice varying from
1 mm. to 1 cm. in diameter.

•00 %), Sponge spicules, frag-
ments of Eadiolaria, As-
trorhizidae, LituoUdae.

(75 '00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular; pumice, plagioclase,
sanidine, augite, magnetite.

(16 '32 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
pumice and other minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The washings, on passing the deposit through sieves, con-
sisted of fragments of pumice (usually about 3 cm. in
diameter and smaUer) and Pteropod shells. Many
of the pumice nodules have Serpulw and Foraminifera
attached to them.

( 00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules. Diatoms.

(20 '00 %), m. di. 0‘15 mm.,
angular ; pumice, fragments
of volcanic rocks, felspar,
magnetite, augite, olivine.

(23 '35 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
pumice, siliceous spicules,'and
Diatoms.

The dredge brought up a small quantity of the ooze the
same as indicated by that in the sounding tube.

Azores to

Bermuda to Azo'ces—contimied. Off the Azores. Madeira

Miili’in to C*!" Vonle ItUn<lii. Axore < to )lail< ini—

GO

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 5 and 6, and Dia^ms 3 and 7.

51

13

80

81

82

83

Date.

PoaiUon.

1873

July 12 ! 35 3 OX.

21 25 OW.

13

34 11 0 X.
19 52 0 W.

14 33 46 0 X.

19 17 o\y.

15

85

86

33 13 0 X.
18 13 OW.

19 28 42 0 X.

i 18 6 OW.

21 25 46 0 X.

20 34 0 W.

87 21 25 49 0 X.

20 12 0 W.

80

23

23 58
21 18

0 X.
0 W.

C m

ii

c-t:

I—

2660

2675

2400

1650

1125

2300

1675

2300

22 18 0 X. i 2400
22 2 0 W. i

Teniperaturo
of the .‘Sea-
water
(Kalir.).

Bottom .Surface

36-6

37-0

36-6

37-0

36-6

36-4

36-6

71 0

71-0

70-7

71-0

69-2

71-0

72-0

72-0

73-5

Designation and Physical Characters.

Globigeuina Ooze, white with
rose tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidue red-brown.

Globioerina Ooze, white with
rose tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidne red-brown.

Globioerina Ooze, white with
rose tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidne brovs-n.

Globigerina Ooze, white when
dry, slightly coherent, chalky.
Besidne red-brown.

Volcanic Mud, brown with white
spots, slightly coherent,
earthy.

Besidne brown-black.

Globigerina Ooze, with yellow
tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidne red.

Nearly the same spot as .Station 3,
February 18, 1873, where in-
dications were found of a
Pteroi'od Ooze.

Ci/iBiGERiNA Ooze, white with
a rose or yellow tinge, slightly
coherent, chalky.

Besidne red.

Globigerina Ooze, yellowish red
tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Besidne red.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

66-43

62-38

79-79

71-09

6-54

57-77

64-38

68-60

Foramlnifera.

(55 -00 %), Globigerinid*, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 -00 %), Milioli'm, Lagena,
Kotalidie. .

(50-00 %), GlobigerinidiB, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidaj, Textn-

laridiB, Lagena, llotalidie.

(69-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

oyi'iiot I'i'nfi

(3-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidie,
Lagenidse, Eotalidie.

(60-00 %), Globigerinidee, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), MiliolidiB, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Kotalidae.

(2 00 %), Globigerinidoe, Pulvinu-
lina.

(1-00 %), Miliolid®, Textuiarid®,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®, Nummul-
inid®.

(50-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(TOO %), Miliolid®, Tcxlularia,
Tru'iuMlulina.

(57-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
liotalid®.

(50-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Kotalidffi.

Other Organisms.

(9-43 %), Osti-acodes, Echinoderm i
fragments, Coccoliths, Khabdo-
liths.

(10-38 %), Ostracodes, Eclino-
derm fragments, Coccolifc
Rhabdoliths.

(7-79 %), Echinoderm fragmeiti,
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

(9-09 %), Otoliths of fish, St
■pula, DerUalium, Gasteiopod
Lamellibranchs, Pteropod
Ostracodes, Echinoderm fra|
ments, Polyzoa, Coocolith
Rhabdoliths.

(3 ’54 %), Otoliths of fish, Ptenh
pods, Heteropods, Ecliinodem
liagments, Coccoliths, Rhsbdo-
liths.

(6-77 %),
Echini
Rhabdoliths.

Ostracode valra,
spines, Coccolitht

(6-38 %), fragments of Eohit*-
dorms, Coccoliths, Kb»liii>
liths.

(7 -50 %), fragments of Echi»
dorms, Coccoliths, l(b*U»
liths.

4

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

01

RESrOUE.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(1 ’00 %), fragments of Eadio-
laria and Sponge spicules,
Lituolidas.

(2-00%), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; pumice, felspar,
magnetite, augite.

(30 '57 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

The majority of the organisms in this deposit are in a
fragmentary condition.

(1 "00 %), one or two Eadiolaria,
Lituolidse, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; pumice, augite,
felspar, magnetite, some small
rounded grains of quartz
covered with limonite, mica.

(35 '62%), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals, Eadiolaria, and
Diatoms.

The deposits at this and the preceding stations are
remarkable for the relatively small number of perfect
shells of pelagic Foraminifera ; those present are
fragmentary. Pulvinulina menardii appears to be
nearly, if not quite, absent in this part of the Atlantic.
A quantity of ooze came up in the water-bottle.

I'OO %), Eadiolaria and Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; pumice, lapilli,

felspar, magnetite, augite,

olivine.

(18'21 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

Note in these deposits the complete, or nearly complete,
absence of the shells of Pteropods and Heteropods in
the deeper soundings.

I'OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, AstrorhizidjE, Lituo-
lidae, a few Diatoms.

i

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; pumice, lapilli,
monoclinic and triclinic fel-
spars, magnetite, black mica,
augite, olivine.

(25 '91 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The washings of the deposit, on being passed through
sieves, contained many small round fragments of
pumice, about 1 cm. in diameter, also a good many
otoliths of fish and fragments of Pteropods and other
Molluscan shells. Some of the pumice nodules are
overgrown by Serpulx.

I'OO %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
! liizidae, Lituolidae, a few
' Diatoms.

)'■

f

(75 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; pumice, fragments
of volcanic rocks, scoriaceous
lapilli, monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, magnetite, augite,
olivine, palagonite, manganese
grains.

(17 '46 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The washings obtained by passing a large quantity of the
mud through sieves were almost wholly made up of the
dead shells of Pteropods and Heteropods, with those of
a few bottom-living Molluscs. There were several large
fragments of a Gorgonoid Coral coated with manganese.
All the coral was dead and in the same condition as at
Station 3. There were in addition some fragments of
volcanic rocks, about 1 cm. in diameter, also coated
with manganese.

I'OO %), a few Eadiolaria,
j Haplophragmium, imperfect
brown casts.

(2 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded; small
rounded grains of quartz,
felspar, hornblende, mag-
netite, mica, volcanic glass,
manganese grains.

(39 '23 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

Pulvinulina menardii appears in this deposit ; it is
absent in the soundings to the north of this station.

'

A piece of a Gorgonoid Coral covered with manganese
came up in the sounding tube ; there were also some
pieces taken in the dredge. There was nothing further
to indicate the nature of the deposit (see Station 3).

1 '00 %), one or two Eadiolaria,
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

j

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular and rounded ; small
quartz grains covered with
limonite, felspar, augite,
hornblende, pumice, mag-
netite, mica, a few grains of
manganese.

(33'62 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

The manganese in the last three soundings shows that it
must be abundant over a large area.

'•‘OO %)) Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, a few arenaceous
1 Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz
grains covered with limonite,
monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, magnetite, augite,
hornblende, volcanic glass.

(39 '50 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

This deposit contains a considerable quantity of amor-
phous clayey matter. The specimens of Pulviniduia
menardii obtained here are very large, some macroscopic.

Azores to Madeira — continued. Madeira to Cape Verde Islands.

Off C»p« Vrnlo UUnd*. Madeira to Ca|« Venlo Iilanda— eon/inwAl.

62

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

See Charts 6 and 1 1 , and Diagram 7.

^ ,
13

Date.

Poaitlon.

C K
£ 1
1^

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op calcium.

Ua

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

■

»o

1873
July 24

• « ft

20 58 0 N.
22 57 0 W.

2400

86-5

Q

74-0

Globioerina Ooze.

'

1

.. 25

19 4 0 N.
24 6 0 W.

2075

36-5

74-0

Globigerina Ooze, with red
tinge, slightly coherent,

chalky.

Sesidne red.

60-95

(52-00 %), GlobigerinidiP, Bul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Rotalidie.

(7-95 %), Ostracodes, Echinodera
fragments, Coccoliths, Rhib.
doliths.

92

.. 26

17 54 0 N.
24 41 0 W.

1975

74-7

Globigerina Ooze, red tinge,
slightly coherent, chalky.
Eesidue red-brown.

57-15

(50-00 %), Globigerinidie, Ful-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidse,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(6-15 %), Otoliths of fish, fjjtn-
codes, fragments of Ecbiss.
derms, Coccoliths, Ehabdolitk

93

M 27

17 12 45 N.
24 55 45 W.

1070

75-0

Volcanic Mud, brown, slightly
coherent, earthy.

Besidne brown-black.

8-29

(4-00 %), Globigerinidae, Ful-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidse,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(2-29 %), Ostracodes, Edaw
derm fragments, Coccolit'
Rhabdoliths.

93a

.. 27

17 3 30 N.
24 53 OW.

1000

75-0

Volcanic Mud, brown, coherent,
earthy.

Besidne brown-black.

13-65

(5-60 %), Globigerinidae, Eul~
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidae,
Lageuidie, Rotalidai.

(5-65 %), Gasteropoda, Lamti-
branchs, Pteropods, Hehr
pods, Ostracodes, Echinoder
fragments, Polyzoa, Coccolitk
Rhabdoliths.

93b

.. 27

16 59 15 N.
24 57 45 W.

465

43-4

75-0

Volcanic Mud, brown with
white snots, coherent, earthy.
Beaiane brown-black.

13-63

(5-00 %), Glohigcrina, Pulvinu-
Una.

(3 -00 %), Miliolida;, Textularidse,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Num-
miuinidae.

(5-63 %), Serpula, Gastero|»-
LameUibranchs, I’taroiioJ
Echinoderm fragments, u'
zoa, Coccoliths, Rhabdolitk

93c

.. 27

16 67 15 N.
25 1 0 y>.

52

76-0

Coralline Sand, mottled white
and rose.

Besidne brown.

94-20

(4-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulitxa.

(20-00 %), Miliolidae, Textu-
laridae, Lagenidae, Rotalidae,
Nummiiliniclae.

(70-20 %), Serpula, Gosteropc
LameUibranchs, Pterop.

Ostracodes, Echinoderm fne-
ments, Polyzoa, calcsn-
Algae.

.. 30

Harbour,
Sl Vincent.

7-25

Calcareous Sand, white.
Besidne brown.

89-47

(2-00 %), Globigerinidae.

(55-00 %), Miliolidffi, Lagenidae,
Rotalidae, Nummnlinidae.

(32-47 %), Gasteropods, Lam
branchs, Ostracodes, £cL:
derm fragments, Polyzos, —
careous .dUgae.

93r

Aug, 6

16 60 0 N.
26 8 OW.

260

78-0

Volcanic Mud, grey-green with
many white fragments, slightly
coherent.

Besidne greenish black.

56-69

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vimuina.

(5 00 %), Miliolidae, Textnlaridae,
Lagenidoi, Rotalidae.

(21-69%), Otoliths of fc’ ^
Serpula, Gasteropods, Imb-
branchs, Pteropods, Hr'
pods, Ostracodes, Echinod^; I
fragments, Polyzoa, Coccolill- 1
Rhabdoliths. 1

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

63

I

Eesidub.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Only a small quantity of ooze came up in the sounding
tube and proved to be in all respects the same as that
at Station 89.

I'OO %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, Haplophrag-
mium.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz
grains covered with Umonite,
monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, augite, hornblende,
mica, magnetite, pumice, vol-
canic glass.

(37'05 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

All the pelagic Foraminifera found in this deposit are
large and well developed, especially Pulvinulina
menardii.

I'OO %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, Astrorhizidse,
Lituolidae.

(5 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; fragments of vol-
canic rocks, monoclinic and
triclinie felspars, volcanic
glass altered to palagonite,
magnetite, augite, hornblende,
olivine.

(36'85 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Some of the shells are macroscopic. The dredge did
not bring up any of the deposit. The increase in the
minerals point to the approach to the island of St.
Vincent.

.'00 %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules.

(70 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; fragments of vol-
canic rocks and volcanic glass,
olivine, augite, hornblende,
magnetite, felspar, black mica,
quartz.

(20 '71 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

A very great many particles of volcanic sand of a red,
black, and yellow colour are present, derived from the
disintegration of the rocks of the islands.

■00 %), a few Sponge spicules.
Diatoms.

(65'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; fragments of vol-
canic rocks, some of them
glassy, augite, magnetite,
small crystals of olivine, horn-
blende, black mica, palagonite.

(20 '35 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

A few of the organisms are macroscopic. With the
exception of the Foraminifera all the organisms are,
more or less, in a fragmentary condition.

•00 %), a few Sponge spicules.

(70'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular ; fragments of vol-
canic rocks, volcanic glass,
lapilli, felspar, augite, mag-
netite, olivine, black mica.

(15 '37 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute fragments
of minerals.

Some of the organisms are macroscopic, though chiefly
fragmentary. Many of the lapilli are highly altered.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular; fragments of volcanic
rocks, glassy particles, felspar,
augite.

(2'80 %), flocculent organic
matter, with amorphous
matter.

This deposit is chiefly composed of calcareous Algae of a
white and pink colour, which make up fully 40 per
cent, of the carbonate of calcium. These white and
pink particles measure from 1 to 7 mm. in diameter.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; fragments of volcanic
rocks, felspar, augite, volcanic
glass, magnetite.

(9 '53 %), organic matter, am-
orphous matter, and minute
fragments of minerals.

The mean diameter of the particles making up this
sand is 2 mm. Nearly two-thirds of these particles
are made up solely of Arnphistcgina lessonii, the re-
mainder of a few OrhitoliUs and other Foraminifera,
fragments of Polyzoa, Echinoderms, and calcareous
Algae.

( 00 %), Sponge spicules,

Radiolaria, Lituolidse.

(25 '00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular and rounded ; frag-
ments of volcanic rocks and
volcanic glass, felspar, olivine,
magnetite, augite.

(15'41 %), amorphous matter,
green flocculent organic mat-
ter, minute fragments of mine-
rals and siliceous organisms.

With the exception of the Foraminifera, the majority of
the organisms are in a fragmentary condition ; some
are macroscopic. The Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs
appear to be chiefly larval forms.

Slailcira to Cape Verde Islands — continued. OfT Capo Verde Islands.

Orf St r*ur j Oir C«i>o Vonlo NlmiiLi

Korku. St. Vincrnt to St. Paul'i Rock*. mnlinuetl.

04

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

See Charts 11 ami 12, ami Diagrams 4 ami 7.

61

13

Date.

roaltion.

o

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Kahr.)

Desiguation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

•;.*

C Ur

Itottoro

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminlfera.

Other Organisms.

1

1873
.\ug. 6

e t

16 46
25 10

0 N.
OM'.

675

O

O

78-0

Volcanic Mod, grey, coherent,
earthy.

Residue red-brown.

39-25

(20-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(5 -00 %), Miliolidfe, Textularidse,
Lagenidoe, RotalidiE.

(14-25 %), Otoliths of fiji,

Gasteropoda, Lamellibrandu,'
Pteropods, Ostracodes, Echino.
derm fragments, Polya*,
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

94

.. 5

16 42
25 12

0 N.
0 W.

1150

78-0

Volcanic Mod, light brown,
coherent, earthy.

Residue red-brown.

47-52

(35-00 %), Globigerinidaj, Pul-
vinuUna.

(3-00 %), MilioUna, Textu-

laridaj, Lagenidte, Rotalidaj.

(9-52 %), Otoliths offish, LanstUi.
branchs (larVaJ), Pteropodi, ,
Ostracodes, Echinodenn fnj[.
ments, Coccoliths, Rhabdolitk '

95

.. 10

13 86
22 49

0 N.
0 W.

2300

36-5

79 0

GLonioF-niNA Ooze, with rose
tint, sliglitly colierent, chalky.
R^idue brown.

54-29

(48 '00 %), Globigerinidfe, Pul-
vinulina.

(I'OO %), MilioUna, Rotalidae.

(5-29 %), fragments of Miiij
spines, Coccoliths, BhbJo. '
liths.

)

97

.. 13

10 25
20 30

0 N.
0 W.

2575

36-6

78-0

Globioerina Ooze, yellow tinge
when dry, granular, pulveru-
lent, earthy.

Residue red-brown.

30-15

(25-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidre, Textularidae,
Rotalidie.

1

(4-15 %), Ostracodes, fragiMsa'
of Echini spines, Cocoolitb^,
Rhabdoliths. '

98

9 21
18 28

0 N.
0 W.

1750

36-7

78-2

Globioerina Ooze, grey tvith
blue tinge, finely granular,
slmhtly coherent.

Residue brown-black.

62-22

(55-00 %), Globigerinida), Pul-
vinulina,,

(2 '00 %), Miliolida;, Textularidae.

(5-22 %), Otoliths of fish, j

pods, Ostracodes, Echiund'm
fragments, Coccoliths, Shit'
doliths.

101

.. 19

5 48
14 20

0 N.
0 W.

2500

36-4

79-2

Blue Mud, blue-grey, coherent,
unctuous, lustrous streak.
Residue blue-black.

6-22

(4-00 %), Globigerinid®,. Pul-
vinulina.

(1 '00 %), liotalidiE.

(1 -22 %), a few Coccoliths.

102

.. 21

3 8

14 49

0 y.
ow.

2450

36-4

78-0

Globioerina Ooze, light grey,
granular, slightly coherent.
Residue grey-black.

66-27

(60-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 -00 %), Miliolidte, Lagenidie,
Rotalidie.

(4-27 %), Lamellibranohs, Osti j
codes, Echinoderm j

Coccoliths. jj

103

.. 22

2 52
17 0

0 N.
ow.

2475

36 0

77 0

Globioerina Ooze.

...

1

1

104

.. 23

2 25
20 1

0 N.

0 w.

2500

36-6

78-0

Globioerina Ooze, grey, finely
granular, slightly coherent.
Residue brown-black.

71-70

(65-00 %), Globigerinidfe, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 '00 %), MilioUna, Rotalidie.

(5-70 %), fragments of
spines, Coccoliths, RiiiW* i
liths. I

105

.. 24

2 6
22 53

0 \.
0 w.

2275

36 0

78 0

Gloiiioeuina Ooze.

loe

25

1 47
24 26

0 X
0 w.

1850

36-6

78-0

Globioerina Ooze, grey, finely
granular, jmlvcrulent.

Residue brown-black.

89-47

(80 '00 %), Globigerinidm, Pul-
vinuUiui. ,

(2-00 %), MilioUna, Rotalidse.

(7-47 %), Pteropods, ^**■1
derm fragments, Cocooliiki
Rhabdoliths. 1

j 107

» 28

1 22
26 86

0 N.
0 w.

1600

37-9

78-8

Globioerina Ooze, grey, pul-
verulent.

Residue brown.

80-47

(70-00 %), Globigerinidic, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidffi, Rotalido:.

(8-47 %), Pteropods, Oatnc^l
fragments of Echini sii*!
Coccoliths, Rhabdolitiu.

' 108

!

1

.. 27

1 10
28 23

0 N.
ow.

1900

36 '8

78 0

Globioerina Ooze, grey-white,
granular.

Residue brown.

84-90

(77-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), liiloculina, Rotalidfe.

(6-90 %), fragments of
spines, Coccoliths,
liths.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

65

Kesedue.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(3 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Diatoms.

(2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, arenaceous Fora-
minifera. Diatoms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular; felspar, augite, mag-
netite, volcanic glass, frag-
ments of volcanic rocks, olivine.

(5 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; fragments of volcanic
rocks and volcanic glass,
olivine, felspar, magnetite,
augite, black mica.

(47 '75 %), amorphous matter,
with fragments of minerals,
Radiolaria, Sponge spicules,
and Diatoms.

(45 '48 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

Some of the shells of Foraminifera and fragments of other
organisms are macroscopic. The fine washings are
^ chiefly made up in these deposits, as well as in many
others similarly situated, of minute mineral particles
less than 0 '02 mm. in diameter.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria and
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular, except a few rounded
fragments of quartz ; frag-
ments of volcanic rocks some
of them vitreous, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, olivine,
palagonite, manganese grains.

(43 '71 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

All the pelagic Foraminifera, of which this deposit is
chiefly composed, are very large and well developed
forms, especially Pulvinulina menardii. Many of
these Foraminifera appear to show striking indication
of having been acted upon by some solvent.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria,
Lituolidffi, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite.

(67 '85 %),much flocculent amor-
phous matter, with minute
particles of minerals, Radio-
laria, and Diatoms.

Fine washings more than half made up of mineral frag-
ments less than 0'02 mm. in diameter. This deposit
might be called a Red Clay.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hizidse, Lituolid®, imperfect
brown casts, Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
generally angular ; felspar,
hornblende, round green frag-
ments resembling glauconite.

(35 '78 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles
and fragments of siliceous
organisms.

The dredge brought up some dark coloured ooze, the
colour being due to land detritus. There were small
yellow grains in the deposit, which on micro-analysis
were found to be phosphate of lime.

(1 '00 %), Radiolaria and Diatoms.

(35'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
quartz, mica, hornblende,
zircon, glauconite, a good
many small manganese grains.

(57 '78 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, many minute mineral
particles, fragments of sili-
ceous organisms.

This deposit contains much amorphous clayey matter and
many fine mineral particles. The glauconite in the
deposit at this and the last station is represented by
one or two grains.

I'OO %), a few Radiolaria,
Astrorbizidae, Lituolidae.

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; sanidine, hornblende,
magnetite.

(30 '73 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, with many small
mineral particles.

Only a small quantity of this deposit came up. The
subjoined analysis was made with less than half a
gramme. The specimen does not appear to be quite so
dark coloured as that obtained in 1876 at nearly the
same place. As at Station 98 the specimens of Pul-
vinuKna, menardii predominate.

...

Some traces of deposit on outside of the tube.

2 '00 %), Radiolaria, LituoMae,
Diatoms.

(1-00%), m. di. '0'13 mm.,
angnlar ; felspar, augite, mag-
netite, afew manganese grains.

(25 '30 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles.

This deposit still shows traces of land detritus.

Some traces of deposit on outside of tube.

I'OO %), Radiolaria, Lituolidae,
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angiilar ; fragments of sani-
dine and pumice, manganese
grains.

(8 '53 %), amorphous matter and
minute mineral particles.

Note the increase of carbonate of lime in the lesser depths.
Some ooze in the trawl.

I'OO %), a few Radiolaria.

. '00 %), Radiolaria, a few arena-
ceous Foraminifera, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm., an-
gular; sanidine, augite, glassy
volcanic particles, magnetite,
one small piece of pumice
observed.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm., an-
gular ; olivine, magnetite, en-
statite, actinolite, chromite,
serpentine.

(17'53 %), clayey matter and
fine mineral particles.

(13 '10 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

Owingto some rustyparticlesfromthesounding tube becom-
ing mixed with the deposit, the percentage of carbonate
of calcium in the accompamdng analysis is probably less
than it ought to be.

Mineral particles evidently from St. Paul’s Rocks.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 9 '

on' St I’iiui’rt

Off Capo Vorcle Islands— St. Vincent to St. Paul’s Rocks. liodcs.

r ituhkIo Nor»nh4 to IVniumhuco. St. Pniil'* R<Kk'5 to lVrn»nilo Noronha. f>ITHt. I’aiil'* Ilocka.

GG

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soc CharU 12, 13, 14, and 15, and Dinjirain 4.

^ .
11

Date.

Pcwltlon.

Depth in
Kathonis.

Tcnincmture
of tlie Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Itottom

Surface

Per cent.

1873

9 t ft

O

O

109c

1

1

.kug. 29

0 56 23 X.
29 22 15 W.

780

76-5

Globioerixa Ooze, grey, finely
granular, pulverulent.

Residue grey with green
tinge.

57 '34

1

I ' 109P

' 1
i

.. 29

0 56 4 X.
29 25 2W.

1425

...

77-0

Globioerina Ooze, grey, finely
granular, pulverulent, chalky.
Residue grey with green
tinge.

72-77

1

no

1

1

' 1

30

o o
00
o o

CO

2275

34-8

77*5

Globigerina Ooze, white or
light grey, finely gi'anular,
pulverulent.

Residue brown.

72-93

f m

i

.. 31

1 45 OS.
30 58 0 W.

2475

337

78-0

Globigerina Ooze, ivith red
tinge, slightly coherent.
Residue yellow-brown.

36-06

■ ii-j

1

3 33 0 .S.
32 16 0 W.

2200

34-0

78-0

Globigerina Ooze, of a dirty
white colour, granular, pul-
verulent.

Residue brown.

81-27

113.V

1

1

.. 2

3 47 0
32 24 30 W.

25

78-0

Calcareous Sand, mottled red
and white.

Residue greenish brown.

92-28

, 115

]

3

4 2 OS.
32 47 0 W.

2150

1

i

78-0

GuiBiOERiNA Ooze, with a vei-y
slight rose tinge, gi'anular,
pulverulent.

Residue brown.

79-30

no

.. 4

5 1 0 S.
83 50 0 W.

2275

34-3

78-0

Guibiof.rina Ooze, red tinge,
granular, pulverulent, earthy.
Residue red-brown.

65-04

117

1

5 56 0 8.
34 45 0 W.

1375

78-0

Gi/)bigf.rina Ooze, yellow-brown
when dry, slightly coherent,
earthy, gritty.

Residue red-brown.

56-59

; 117a

., r,

■

6 4 0 8.

34 51 0 W.

500

78 0

K ED M UD, grey -brown , si igh tly co-
henmt, finely granular, earthy.
Residue yellow-brown fine
clayey sand.

60-79

Carbonate of Calcium.

Foraminlfera.

(50 '00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Milioliim, Textularidse,
Lagenidaj, llotalidse.

Other Organisms,

(5 "34 %), Pteropods, Ostraccxk.
Echinoderm fragments, Coao- 1
liths, Rhabdoliths.

(60 ’00 %), Globigerinidae, Ptd-
vinulina.

(3 ’00 %), Miliolina, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidai.

(66 '00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(I’OO %), Miliolina, Lagenidae,
Rotalidae.

(977%), Pteropods, Ostracoda,'
Echini spines, Coccoliihs,
Rhabdoliths.

(6 ’93 %), Ostracodes, fragmcntj'
of Echini spines, Coccoliilu,!
Rhabdoliths. 1

(32 '00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(I'OO %), Miliolina, Rotalidae.

(75'00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinidina.

(1'00%), Miliolidae, Lagenidae,
Rotalidae.

(5 '00%), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(20'00%), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Rotalidae, Nummulinidae.

(70 ‘00%), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vi.nulina.

(1 '00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidae,
Rotalidae.

(57 '00%), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(1'00%), Miliolida*, Lagenida',
Rotalidae.

(40'00 %), Globigerinidae,
vinulina.

(6 '00 %), Miliolidae, Tcxtularia,
Lagenidae, Rotalida.

(16’00%), Globigcrinidiu, Pul-
vinulina.

(5 ’00 %), Miliolidm, Textularidic,
Lngcnidic, Rotalida'.

(3‘06 %), Ostracodes, EchiM-
derm fragments, Coccolitit 1
RhabdoUths.

(5 •27%), fragments of EcL
spines, Coccolith8,Rhab(iolitli

(67'28 %), Gasteropods, Lar.ri'^
branchs, Echinoderm frs.
ments, Polyzoa, cnlcire
Algae.

(8 '30%), fragments of Li-
spines, Coccoliths, Rink,
liths.

(7 ‘04 %), Otoliths and smalii -
of fish, Ostracodes, Ec'
spines, Coccoliths, Rli*'
liths.

(ll'59%),Otolithsof fi8h,G8'!if-'
pods, Lamellibranchs, Pu»
l)ods, Hetcrojiods, Ostrau^
fragments of Echini sfir.'-
Rhabdoliths.

(40 '79 %), fragments of L«niet*
branchs, Pteropods, Ib^'
pods, Ostracodes, E*'*'
spines, Coccoliths, Rhibi^
liths.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

67

RESIDUE.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria and
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), one or two Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, Lituolidee.

(30-00 %), m. di. 0'17 mm.,
rounded ; olivine, enstatite,
serpentine, magnetite, actino-
lite.

(15'00 %) m. di. 0'18 mm.,
rounded ; olivine, enstatite,
serpentine, actinolite, felspar,
augite.

(11 '66 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles.

(11 '23 %), amorphous matter
and minute mineral particles.

V

The mineral particles are chiefly from St. Paul’s Rocks
and consist of grains of olivine, numerous fragments of
micaceous scales, finely lamellar, yellowish with bronze
or silver lustre, — of which the microscopic characters
1 are those of enstatite or bronzite, — sometimes having
' brown linear inclusions following the prismatic
cleavage. There are also present fragments of
serpentine almost colourless or slightly gi-een. A few
of the organisms are macroscopic. Might be called
Pteropod Oozes. ^

(2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Lituolidse,
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
augite, magnetite, pumice,
glassy volcanic particles,
grains of manganese.

(24'07 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles.

Note the absence of shells of Pteropods at this depth, ■■
and the less amount of carbonate of lime in the next
with reference to the depth.

d'OO %), Radiolaria and Dia-
toms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, magnetite,
hornblende, augite, glassy
volcanic particles.

(61 '94%), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

This deposit contains much amorphous clayey matter
compared with those at Stations 110 and 112 in lesser
depths. The majority of the organisms which make up
the carbonate of calcium are in a fragmentary con-
dition. Might be called a Red Clay.

1 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidie, Lituo-
i lidse.

(1'00%), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, felspar,
pyroxene, black mica, zircon,
magnetite, glassy volcanic par-
ticles.

(16 '73 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles.

Many of the Poraminifera, especially Pulvinulina men-
ardii, are macroscopic.

i few Sponge spicules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'60 mm.,
rounded ; fragments of vol-
canic rocks, quartz, felspar,
glauconite, magnetite, augite,
hornblende, glassy volcanic
fragments.

(6'72%), a small quantity of
flocculent organic matter and
fine mineral particles.

The individual particles which make up this deposit vai-y
from 2 to 3 cm. in diameter, and are chiefly composed
of calcareous Algae of various species, some of these
being bright red in colour. Volcanic pebbles were
numerous in the dredgings. J

1 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
felspar, augite, hornblende,
black mica, magnetite, glassy
volcanic fragments.

(18'70%), amorphous matter and
small mineral particles.

Some of the Poraminifera are macroscopic. Black mica
is rare, but magnetite in isolated crystals and as in-
clusions in other minerals is abundant; some of the
glassy fragments are reddish, and transformed into
palagonite.

1 '00 %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
augite, hornblende, mica,
magnetite, glassy volcanic
particles.

(32'96%), amorphous matter and
fine mineral particles.

Many of the shells of Poraminifera — Pulvinulina men-
ardii, &c.,— are macroscopic; some of the quartz par- i
tides are rounded. j

1

1

j. '00 %), one or two fragments
1 of Radiolaria, Sponge spicules,
1 Lituolidae, imperfect brown
1 casts.

(5'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, augite, magnetite,
mica.

(37 '41 %), amorphous and floc-
culent matter, many fine
mineral particles, and minute
fragments of siliceous spi-
cules.

The pelagic Molluscs do not seem to be so abundant as
in the sounding at 500 fathoms, nor are the mineral
particles so large. Some of the shells are macroscopic.

■00 %), one or two Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidie.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
mica, felspar, hornblende,
olivine, epidote.

(28 '21 %), amorphous matter,
with many small mineral
particles.

The majority of the organisms found in this deposit are |
in a fragmentary condition ; some of them are macro-
scopic. The felspar is kaolinised.

J

oil St. Paul’s Rocks. St. Paul’s Rocks to Feriiautlo Noronha. Fernando Noronha to Pernambuco.

OfTthe Co«>t of.<)uth Anx-ricA liot«rr<>n IVmiunbuco ami Itihio. Fcmamlo Noronha to IVmambuco — tontinunl.

68

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Se« Charts 12 ami 15, and Diagram 4.

5-2

II

/;

118

no

•120

121

122

122 a

I22b

122c

123

Date.

PodUon.

tenth in
athumi.

Temperature
o( the Sea
water.
(Kahr.).

Bottom

Surface

1873

Of

O

O

SepL 8

7 28 0 S.
34 2 OW.

2050

35-2

77-5

.. 8

7 39 OS.
34 12 OlV.

1650

37-2

77-5

.. 9

8 37 0 S.
34 28 OlV.

►

675

78-0

.. »

8 28 OS.
34 31 OM’.

500

78-0

M 10

9 5 0 S.
34 50 0 W.

350

77-5

j

» 10
I

9 10 OS.
34 52 OW.

120

77-5

!

10

9 9 0 S.
84 53 OW.

32

77-5

.. 10

9 10 0 H.
34 49 OW.

400

77-5

.. 11

10 9 0 H.
1 35 11 OW.

1

1715

37-0

77-5

Designation and Physical Characters.

Glohioerina Ooze, with yellow
tinge, finely granular, slightly
coherent, earthy.

Besidue yellow-red.

Globioerina Ooze, yellowish,
finely granular, slightly co-
herent.

Besidue red.

Red Mud, red-broum, granular,
pulverulent, earthy, with white
calcareous spots.

Besidue yellow.

Red Mud, red-browm, arenaceous,
presenting white calcareous
spots, pulverulent, earthy, sub-
lustrous streak.

Besidue yellow and sandy.

Red Mud, yellow-browD, arena-
ceous, pulverulent, dotted with
white (^Icareous spots.

Besidue light brown, sandy.

Red Mud, red-brown, arenaceous,
with white calcareous spots,
slightly coherent, earthy,
gritty, sublustrous streak.

Braidue red-brown.

Red Sandy Mud, with shells.

Red Mud, similar to that of
Station 122 a.

GtonioERtNA Ooze, yellowish,
slightly coherent, earthy,
gritty.

Besidue rod-brown.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

37-18

(25-00 %), Globigerinidoe, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolida3, Lagenidae,
Rotalidte.

48-61

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidte, Textularidte,
Rotalidse.

38-93

(25-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidas, Textu-
laridje, Lagenidse, RotalidiE,
Nummulinidse.

38-56

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(3-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularidaj,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®.

42-15

(10-00 %), Globigeiinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®.

49-10

(15-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina.

(8-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®, Num-
mulinid®.

54-52

(35-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulinn.

(3 00%), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lagenid®, Rotalid®.

other Organisms.

(9-18 %), Otoliths of fish, fna.
ments of Pteropods and Hel^
pods, Ostracodes,
spines, Coccoliths, Rhabdo
liths.

(15 '61 %), Otoliths of fish, I'teri
pods. Heteropods, Echr .
spines, Coccoliths, llhsb»,
liths.

(11-93 %), Otoliths of fish, f ■
pula, Gasteropods, lAmd*!
branchs, fragments of /
lanthina, fragments of 2/ -
Brachiopods, Pteropods, H«
teropods, Ostracode vslt \
Echinodei-m fragments, Coci; ■
liths, Rhahdoliths,

(5 '56 %), Otoliths of fish, Gast*
pods, Lamellibranchs (laml.
Pteropods, Heteropods, Ovl
codes, Echinodemi fragmo'-
Coccoliths, Rhabdolitbs.

(27-15 %), Otolithsof fish, Gastir
pods, Lamellibranchs, Ptr^
pods. Heteropods, Ostracc’
Echinoderm fragments,
zoa, calcareous Algas, 111 ‘
doliths.

(26-10 %), Otoliths of f-
Serpula, Gasteropods, Iadi
branchs, Pteropods, Htt
pods, Ostracodes, Echinodi^
fragments, Polyzoa, i -
Coccoliths and Rhabdoliik

(16-62 %), Otoliths of fish, P- Cii
nods. Heteropods, OstnU'
Echinoderm fragments, Cs
liths, Rhabdolitns.

See anal. 54, 55.

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

69

Eesidue.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fi{^e Washings.

00 %), Sponge spicules, Lituo-
idse.

(15'00 %), m. di. 0T5 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
mica, hornblende, augite, fel-
spar, zircon.

(46 '82 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

00 %), a few Kadiolaria,
Sponge spicules, one or two
imperfect casts of Foramini-
lera, LituoHdse.

(10 '00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular ; quartz, mica, horn-
blende, felspar, zircon.

(40 '39 %),' amorphous matter,
^ with many minute mineral
particles.

00 %), Sponge spicules, As-
Torhizidae, Lituolidae.

(25'00 %), m. di. OTO ■''mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
felspar, mica, hornblende,
zircon.

(35 '07 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

00 %), Sponge spicules, As-
■rorhizidse, LituoUdae.

(15 ’00 %), m. di. 0T2 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
plagioclase, zircon.

(45 '44 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

i

10 %), Sponge spicules, As-
rorhizidfe, Lituolidae.

(15 '00 %), m. di. 0'30 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
mica, felspar, hornblende,
tourmaline, glassy volcanic
particles.

(41 '85 %), amorphous matter,
with a great number of minute
mineral particles.

)0 %), Sponge spicules,
Lstrorhizidae, Lituolidae.

(25 '00 %), m. di. 0'30 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
mica, augite, tourmaline, a
few glassy volcanic particles.

(24 '90 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and a few minute fragments
of siliceous spicules.

1 0 %), Sponge spicules, one
r two Radiolaria, Astror-
izidae, Lituolidae, imperfect
ists.

(1’00%), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular; quartz, mica, felspar,
hornblende, augite, a few
volcanic particles some of
them glassy.

(43'48 %), amorphous matter,
flocculent matter, many fine
mineral particles, and minute
fragments of siliceous spicules.

The mineral particles are angular and rounded and very
abundant. With the exception of the Foraminifera
the organisms are all fragmentary.

The Foraminifera in some instances give internal casts,
which are hollow and imperfect, black or red, the
colour being due to iron or carbonaceous matter.
Most of the organisms are fragmentary ; some are
macroscopic.

Many of the shells are macroscopic. The particles of
quartz are mostly angular, but sometimes rounded and
covered with limonite ; felspars are kaoUnised ; zircon
is rare.

The percentage of “other carbonate of lime organisms ”
appears low when compared with preceding and fol-
lowing stations, but the specimen examined did not
seem to justify a higher estimate.

The washings of the mud from the trawl and dredge gave
a great many small Gasteropod and Lamellibranch
shells, fragments of Echinoderms, Sponges, Polyzoa,
&c. The "minerals are generally angular, but in the
washings from the trawl there were large rounded
grains of milky quartz. The felspar is sometimes
kaolinised.

Both the trawl and dredge were w’orked in depths which
probably varied between the 350 fathoms of Station
122, and 120 fathoms of this station. Some large
rounded grains of milky quartz approaching 4 mm. in
diameter were obtained in the washings of the trawl.
Many of the pelagic and bottom-living organisms are
macroscopic ; the larger of these are chiefly fragmentary.
Among the minerals the quartz is very abundant.

I All the deposits along this Brazilian coast have a red
I colour ; some of the Globigerina Oozes might, from the
I nature and abundance of minute mineral particles, be
I called Ked Muds.

Some of the shells are macroscopic. A few red coloured
casts of the pelagic Foraminifera were obtained in the
residue after treatment wdth acid.

)

J

Fernando Noronha to Pernambuco — continued. Oil’ the Coast of South America between Pernambuco and Bahia.

lUlii* to Triiitan lU Cuuha. OlT the GnuI of South Aincrii'a between I’crnninbuco ntul li.iliia eontinufd.

70

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charta 12, 15, and 16, and Diapram 5.

si

|5

DaUj.

PoaiUon.

£•

5i

iLS

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.
(Falir.).

y.

i*

Bottom

Surface

1873

• r tt

O

O

124

Sept. 11

10 11 0 s.

35 2-2 0 W.

1600

77 ‘5

1-25

.. 12

10 46 0 S.
36 2 0 W.

1200

77-0

126

M 12

10 46 0 .S.
36 8 0 W.

770

77-0

126 a

M *

10 45 0 S.
36 9 0 W.

700

77-0

127

„ 13

11 42 0 S.
37 3 0 W.

1015

38-5

77-0

1-.-

.. 14

13 6 0 S.
38 7 OW.

1275

76-5

.. 16

Off Bahia.

10-17

129

.. 80

20 13 0 S.
35 19 0 W.

2150

34-2

74-0

ISO

Oct. 8

26 15 0 S.
82 56 0 W.

2350

34 7

69-0

••

29 35 0 .S.
-28 9 0 W.

2275

84 6

05-0

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonatb op Calcium.

Per cent.

Globioekin.a. Ooze, yellowish,
sliphtly coherent, earthy.
Beaidne red-brown.

Red Mud, red-brown, slightly
coherent, finely gi'.anular, with
white calcareous spots, sub-
lustrous streak.

Residue reddish yellow.

Red Muds, red-brown, earthy,
granular, slightly coherent,
sublustrous streak.

Residue red-brown.

Red Mud, red-brown, slightly
coherent, earthy, finely granu-
lar.

Residue red-browni, with
many glistening scales of mica.

Glodigerina Ooze, with a
yellowish tinge, slightly co-
herent, earthy.

Residue yellow-red.

Quartziferous Mud, of a light
greenish grey colour, slightly
coherent, granular, presenting
white calcareous spots.

Residue brown, sandy, with
black specks.

Globioerina Ooze, drying into
clayey ma.sses of a dirty red
colour, fine grained.

Residue red-brown.

Globioeuina Ooze, greyish red
when dry, finely granular, co-
herent.

Residue rcd<lish.

Globigerina Ooze, yellow-
brown, drying into coherent
maw*.

Residue red.

40-63

20-79

5-75

28-72

.50-65

30-90

46-43

35-93

55-63

Foraminifera.

(25-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(3 -00 %), Miliolidaj, Rotalidoe.

(10-00 %), Globigerinidai, Pul-,
vimilina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Rotalidse.

Pul-

(3-00 %), GlobigerinidiE,
vinulina.

(1-00 %), MilioUim, Textu-
larid®, Lagenidie, Rotalidaj.

Pul-

(10-00 %), Globigerinidse,
vinulina,

(3-00 %), Miliolidaj, Textu-
laridse, Lagenidse, Rotalidse.

Pul-

(30-00 %), Globigerinidse,
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidse, Textu-
laridse, Rotalida;, Nummu-
linidse.

(15-00 %), Miliolidse, Textu-
laridse, Lagenidse, Rotalidse,
Nummulinidie.

Pul-

(40-00%), Globigerinidaj,
vimilina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidse,
Rotalidse.

(27-00 %), Globigerinidaj, Pul-
vinulina.

(TOO %), Miliolina, Lagcna, Rota-
lidoj.

Pul-

(45-00 %), Globigerinidaj,
vimilina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidaj, Lagcna,
Rotalidaj.

Other Organisms.

(12-63%), Gasteropoda (laru!':
Pteropods, Heteropods, Ostr-
codes. Echini spines. Coo*,
liths, Rhabdoliths.

(8-79 %), fragments of Pteropuik
larval Gasteropods, E«-ba
spines, Coccoliths, RLiW*
liths.

(1-75 %), fragments of Pten^
Echini spines, Coccoiiik;
Rhabdoliths.

(15-72 %), Pteropods, Heten;i<i
Ostracodes, fragments i
Echini spines, C'occolil
Rhabdoliths.

(17-65 %), Gasteropodi (te
val), Pteropods, Heterop^
Echini spines, Cooeoliik
Rhabdoliths.

(15-90 %), Serjmla, GastempA
Lamellibranchs, Ostmeia
Echiuoderm fragments, Pd;-
zoa, Alcyonarian spiculo.

(5-43 %), small teeth of JA
Echini spines, Coo«yi
Rhabdoliths.

(7-93 %), fragments of BA*
8j)ines, Coccoliths, Rluy>

liths.

(8-63 %), fragments of
spines, Coccoliths, Ki*

liths.

«(«)

Mt;

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

71

RESIDUE.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

)0 %), a few Sponge spicules,
ne or two Kadiolaria, Litu-
lidae, imperfect brown casts.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
hornblende, felspar, mica,
augite, magnetite, a few glassy
volcanic particles.

(57' 37 %), many very fine
mineral particles mixed with
amorphous matter, and a few
minute fragments of siliceous
spicules.

Many of the shells are macroscopic, but are much broken
up. Some of the mineral particles attain a diameter of
2 mm.

)0 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
didee.

(25'00 %), m. di. 0‘08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
mica, felspar, hornblende,
pumice, glassy volcanic par-
ticles.

(53 '21 %), amorphous matter
mixed with many tine mineral
particles.

Quartz is the principal mineral in this deposit ; the smaller
particles are angular, but when the grains are large
they are rounded. Mica is abundant, and plagioclase
is present in some quantity ; pumice rarely occurs.
Some of the grains attain a size of 1 mm.

)0 %), a few fragments of
■ponge spicules, Lituolidse.

(25'00 %), m. di. 0‘13 mm.,
angular; quartz, mica, felspar,
hornblende.

(68 '25 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
a few minute fragments of
siliceous spicules.

The felspar is generally kaolinised.

)0 %), a few Sponge spicules,
.strorhizidse, Lituolidae.

1

(25 ’00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
mica, felspar.

(45 '28 %), amorphous matter,
very many minute mineral
particles, a few fragments of
siliceous spicules.

The amorphous matter in this deposit is small in quantity
compared with the mineral particles ; these latter form
the essential part of the residue, and their dimensions
vary from 1 to 0'02 mm. The quartz particles are
generally angular, rarely rounded, and are the most
abundant of the minerals in this deposit. Mica is also
abundant ; felspar is frequent and sometimes kaolinised.
Many of the shells are macroscopic although much
broken up.

0 %), a few Sponge spicules,
lituolidae.

1

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
mica, felspar, hornblende.

(47 '35 %), amorphous matter,
many minute mineral par-
ticles, and a few fragments of
siliceous spicules.

A few of the pelagic shells are macroscopic. The felspar
in some cases is kaolinised. Note that in all the
deposits along this coast Radiolaria are exceedingly
rare, and glauconite nearly, if not quite, absent.

iO %), Sponge spicules, and a
|w Diatoms.

1

(45 '00 %), m. di. 0'40 mm.,
rounded and angular; quartz,
felspar, magnetite, horn-
blende, mica, minute rock
fragments, grains of glau-
conite.

(23 '10 %), amorphous flocculent
matter, many minute mineral
particles, and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

In some places the deposit is a quartz sand ; in others a
mud containing all the above-mentioned material, along
with fine amorphous matter. Many of the organisms
are macroscopic.

|0 %), a few siliceous
licules, red casts of pelagic
Draminifera, AstrorMza,

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., angu-
lar ; quartz, mica, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, horn-
blende, glassy volcanic frag-
ments, augite.

(51 '57 %), amorphous matter
and very many fine mineral
particles.

Some of the quartz grains are rounded and covered with
limonite. The particles of felspar are in some cases
kaolinised. Scales of mica are abundant, having some-
times a diameter of 0 '2 mm. ; some silver-white scales
are probably muscovite. Dredge-rope earned away.

) %), a few fragments of
longe spicules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., angu-
lar and rounded; quartz, fel-
spar, augite, hornblende,
pumice, a few grains of man-
ganese.

(62 '07 %), amorphous matter,
with a great many fine min-
eral particles.

Many of the quartz grains are rounded and have a diameter
of 0'2 mm. The trawl was hauled up just to the ship’s
side when the line parted ; judging from the extension
of the accumulator.s, it was apparently heavily laden.

%), Radiolaria, Lituolidse.

1

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., a
few particles have a diameter
of 0'20 mm., angular; brown
and red glassy volcanic par-
ticles, felspar, augite, horn-
blende, mica, a few grains of
quartz and pumice.

(42 '37 %), amorphous matter,
with many very minute
mineral particles and a few
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

This deposit contains much amorphous clayey matter.
The trawl brought up the earbone of a ZipJmos, * having
a very slight coating of manganese ; gi’owing on it was
a polyp, to which an egg capsule was attached. There
was also a rounded piece of pumice, 3 to 4 cm. in
diameter, white coloured and very fibrous, and contain-
ing small crystals of magnetite and hornblende.

* See Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. iv, p. 39., pi. ii. fig. 10.

Olf the Coast of South America between Pernambuco and Bahia — continued. Bahia to Tristan da Cnnlia.

0(T Trut«n lU Cuuha. IkhiA to TrUUa ila Cuulia — tonlinued.

^2 the voyage of h.m.s. challenger.

See CIiATts 16 and 17, and Diagrams 5 and 6.

umber of
HtaUun.

Date.

FoaiUon.

Depth in
Fathoms.

Tcrapernturo
of tne Sea-
water.
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

carbonate op calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifora.

Other Organisms.

132

1873
Oct 10

e # $t

35 25 0 S.
23 40 0 W.

2050

O

35 0

O

58-0

Globioerina Ooze, white with
a rose tint, drying into
white chalky masses, slightly
coherent, finely granular,
homogeneous.

Sesidue red.

86-04

(75-00 %), Globigerinidae, PmZ-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Biloculirui, Rotalidse.

(9-04 %), fragments of EcLi;:
spines, Coccoliths, RluH.'
liths.

; 133

1

i

t

1

11

35 41 0 S.
20 65 0 W.

1900

35-4

58-0

Globioerina Ooze, white with a
slight rose tint, when dry
forming white chalky masses,
friable, pulverulent, homo-
geneous, granular.

Besidae red.

86-04

(75-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), MiliolidfB, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidai.

(9-04 %), Otoliths of fish,oafi
two fragments of larval Gmiit
pods and of Pteropods, ErL
noderm fragments, Coiicc'Jdi
Rhabdoliths.

1

f

1

134

.. 14

36 12 0 S.
12 16 OW.

2025

36 0

53-5

Globioerina Ooze, grey-white,
when dry forming grey chalky
masses, homogeneous, very
sliglitly coherent.

Eesidue dark brown.

59-18

(50-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolina, Textularidie,
Rotalidie.

I

(8-18 %), fragments of frV- K
spines, Coccoliths, Rhabdoii'i 1

136

15

37 1 50 S.
12 19 10 W.

360

53-5

Volcanic Sand, when dry form-
ing a red-brown dust or ash,
very' sliglitly coherent.
Besidue grey-brown.

6-93

(3-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidai, Lagenida;,
Rotalidce.

(2-93 %), Dentalium, Gst-
pods, LamellibranchB, Pv-
pods, Ostracodes, Eu.
spines.

1S5a

.. 1«

37 16 50 S.
12 45 15 W.

75

54-0

Hard Ground, shells and
gravel.

135b

1

.. 17

37 22 80 S.
12 33 OW.

465

53-5

Hard Ground, shells and
gravel.

...

135c

1

.. 17

87 25 30 S.
12 28 SOW.

110-

150

54 0

Coarse Shelly Bottom.

96-00

(5-00 %), Globigerinidas, Pul-
vinulina,

(15-00 %), Miliolida;, Textu-

laridoi, Lagenidre.

(76-00 %), Serpula, GasteRfr
Lamellibranchs, BracLif
Pteropods, Echinodem &■
ments, Polyzoa.

|I35d

17

87 25 0 S.
12 30 SOW.

72

54-0

Coarse Shelly Botto.m.

• • "

135e

.. 18

87 21 0 H.
12 22 30 W.

1000

53 '6

Hard Ground, shells and
gravel.

1

1 135r

.. 18

87 14 45 H.
12 20 15 W.

1100

53 6

Hard Ground.

1

135a

18

87 10 60 .S.
12 18 80 W.

550

54 0

Hard Ground.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

73

Eesidue.

Additional Obseevations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae.

(I’OO %), m. di. O'OOmm., angu-
lar ; fragments of felspar,
glassy volcanic particles,
augite, hornblende.

(12'96 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
minute fragments of siliceous
organisms.

Glassy -volcanic particles are abundant in this deposit,
many of them pale green or red owing to decomposi-
tion. Plagioclase, hornblende, and augite fragments
are rare. The Foraminifera are exceptionally small, and
Pulvinulina menardii was not observed.

00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Lituo-
lidse.

(1 '00 %), m. di. 0’06 mm., angu-
lar ; quartz, felspar, horn-
blende, mica, volcanic glass.

(11 '96%), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
fragments of siliceous

spicules.

The trawl brought up lanthina, shells occupied by Pag-
UTUS. The Foraminifera are veiy minute and all the
typical tropical forms have disappeared. Rounded
grains of quartz are very rare.

00 %), a few Radiolaria and
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

(5 ’00 %), m. di. 0‘06 mm.,
chiefly angular, a few rounded;
quartz, felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, black mica,
pumice, red and brown
rounded glassy particles.

(34 ‘82 %), amorphous matter,
many fine black and other
mineral particles, and a few
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

00 %), a few Radiolaria,
Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(SO'OO %), m. di. 0'50 mm.,
angular ; magnetite, augite,
hornblende, pumice, volcanic
glass sometimes altered to
palagonite.

(12’07 %), many fine mineral
particles, amorphous matter,
a few fragments of Radiolaria
and Diatoms.

Some of the fragments of volcanic rocks found in this
deposit have a diameter of from 1 to 3 mm. ; frag-
ments of felspathic rocks are numerous. Some of the
shells are macroscopic.

The dredge brought up a few volcanic rock fragments.

DO %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
ilidae. ,

(2 "00 %), m. di. 0'30 mm., an-
gular and rounded ; sanidine,
plagioclase, augite, horn-
blende, black mica, olivine,
glassy volcanic particles,
magnetite, lapilli.

(I’OO %), a small quantity of
flocculent organic matter,
minute mineral particles,
a few fragments of siliceous
spicules.

The material brought up by the sounding tube indicated
a hard shelly bottom.

There are one or two fragments of basaltic lava from
3 to 4 cm. in diameter, in which can be distinguished
crystals of augite and magnetite ; these are surrounded
by a red zone of decomposition. It may be safely
said that the bulk of this deposit is made up of Polyzoa.

Similar in every respect to the above.

The dredge brought up several large pumice stones.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

-

10

Bahia to Tristan da Cunha — continued. Oil' Tristan da Cunha.

l «|io of Tiood Hop* to JUrion M«u»l. Tri<t»n cU Cuuht to ( .11* of Ooo<l Hojk!.

74

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Se« Cliarts 16 and 18, and Diap^rams 6 and 8.

ud ;

S2 i

13

Dat«.

roeltion.

.S w

si

ri

Temperature
ot the Sea-
water.
(Kahr.jt

Designation ami Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

u.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

• i

(

136

i

1873 ■

Oct. 20

1

36 43 0 .S.
7 13 0\\.

2100

e

35-2

0

54 0

137

i

1

„ 23

1

i

1

35 59 0 S.
1 34 0 K.

2550

34-5

56-1

Globigerina Ooze, when dry
forming yellow-grey clayey
masses, homogeneous, pulveru-
lent.

Residue red.

35-22

(25-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Rotalidaj.

(9-22 %), Ostracodes, F/-I-
spines, Polyzoa, Coccolitk
very few Rhabdoliths.

138

.. 25

36 22 0 S.
8 12 0 E.

2650

351

56-2

Red Clay, red-grey, drying
into marly masses, finely granu-
lar, slightly coherent, earthy,
sublustrous streak.

Residue red-brown.

26-22

(20 ’00 %), GlobigerinidiE, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 '00 %), Miliolina, Rotalidoe.

(5-22 %), small teeth of ,
fragments of Echini jp
Coccoliths.

139

.. 27

35 35 0 S.
16 9 0 E.

2325

34 1

56-2

Globioerina Ooze, grey, drying
into chalky masses, with a fine
grain, pulverulent
Residue dark grey, sandy.

47-15

(35-00 %), Globigerinidifi, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidie,
RotalidiB, Nummulinidse.

(10-15 %), small teeth of r'
Echini spines, Coocoi
Rhabdoliths.

140

28

85 0 0 S.
17 57 0 E.

1250

59 0

Globioerina Ooze, greenish-
grey, drying into slightly co-
herent grey coloured masses.
Residue greenish brown.

50-26

(40-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Textularidie,
LagenidjE, Kotalidae, Nummul-
inidaj.

(9-26 %), fragments of E'
spines, Coccoliths, Bhiiv
liths.

i

Dec,

Simon’s Bay,
Ca[>e of Good
Ho])e.

20

Shelly Quartz Sand, yellow-
green when wet, greenish
coloured when dry.

Residue green.

]

22-17

(10-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularida;,
Lagenid®, Glohigerina, Rota-
lid®, Nummulinid®.

(12-17 %), Serpula, Gastenf.
Lamellibranchs, Ostu
Echinoderm fragments, Pr
zoa.

•141

1 ‘

!

.. 17

34 41 0 8.

18 36 0 E.

j

98

i

1

1

49-5

1

1

66*6

' Green Sand, with white spots,
1 grey-green and slightly co-

1 herent when dry, granular.

1 Residue green.

1

49-46

(15-00%), Globigerinidffi.

(25-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lagcnid®, Rotalid®, Nummu-
liuid®.

(9-46 %), Ga-steropods, lar
branchs, Ostracodes, E<'
derm fragments, P'';
Coccoliths.

rti42

[

.. 18

35 4 0 .s.
18 37 0 E.

1

15f)

1

47-0

65-6

1 Green Sand, green, presenting
white flitoU, calcareous, fine
I grained, slightly coherent when
drv.

Residue green.

67-75

1

1

(30-00%), Olobigerinid®.
(15-00%), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
I.agcnid®, Rotalid®, Numniu-
linid®.

(22-75 %), Otoliths, teeth,
fragments of bones of '
Serpula, Gastcropodi,
mellibranchs, Pteropod||0i
codes, Echinoderm frsgfc-
Polyzoa, Coccoliths.

* 8« anal. 66. t See anal. 72; I’l. XX. fig, 1 ; I’l. XXIV. fig. 1.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

75

Residue.

Additional Observations.

1

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

There was nothing in the sounding tube to indicate the
nature of the bottom. The dredge came up empty and
without any marks or material to indicate the nature
of the deposit.

)0 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
picules, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,

magnetite.

(62'78%), amorphous matter,
many very minute mineral
particles, fragments of

Diatoms.

The quartz grains in some cases are rounded, and about 1
mm. in diameter. The pelagic Foraminifera are much
broken, and composed entirely of the dwarfed, heavy,
and thick-shelled forms ; there is no great variety.
The bottom-living forms are very rare ; there are a few
macroscopic fragments of Polyzoa.

■0 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
licules, Diatoms.

(2-00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
orthoclase, hornblende, augite,
tourmaline, magnetite, grains
of manganese.

(70'78 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles and fragments of
siliceous spicules.

The pelagic Foraminifera are fragmentary ; the bottom-
living forms are very rare. Several of the quartz
grains are rounded and have a diameter of 1 mm.

0 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
jicules, AstrorhizidiE, Lituo-
dae. Diatoms.

(8'00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, glauconite,
plagioclase, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite.

(43 '85 %), amorphous matter
and very fine mineral particles.

Some of the bottom-living Foraminifera are macroscopic.
The felspar is kaolinised.

0 %), a few Radiolaria,
ponge spicules, Lituolidfe,
auconitic casts. Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz, glauconite,
felspar, augite, magnetite.

(47 74 %), amorphous matter
and fine mineral particles.

The pelagic Foraminifera are dwarfed in character.
Glauconite is abundant ; glauconitic casts of the
Foraminifera were observed. Note the appearance of
glauconite on approaching a continental shore.

3 %), Sponge spicules.

(70'00%), m. di. 2'00 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, felspar,
augite, glauconite, mica, mag-
netite, hornblende.

(6 '83 %), amorphous matter,
flocculent organic matter, and
minute fragments of minerals.

Many of the organisms are macroscopic. Quartz is the
principal mineral, many of the grains of which are milky
and rounded, some of the largest having a diameter of
1 cm. There is also present a quantity of amorphous
flocculent clayey and organic matter, which gives a
light green tinge to the deposit.

) %), Sponge spicules, white
d pale green casts of Fora-
nifera and other organisms,
tuolidie. Diatoms.

(40'00%), m. di. 0'35 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
glauconite, felspar, garnet,
black mica, hornblende.

(4 '54 %), greenish coloured mat-
ter (possibly organic), frag-
ments of minerals and Diatoms.

The quartz grains in many cases are rounded and the
felspar kaolinised ; all the minerals are more or less
covered with a greenish substance. Small glauconitic
concretions contained phosphate of lime.

1 %), Sponge spicules, grey
d green casts of Foramini-
■a, Astrorhizidse, Lituolidae,
atoms.

(20'00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, glauconite,
felspar, hornblende.

(6 '25 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals and
siliceous organisms, with
some green particles.

In the dredge there were a few glauconitic concretions
measuring from 2 to 6 mm. in diameter. There was
here, as at the last station, much green coloured
amorphous matter in the mud. Some portions seemed
like vegetable tissue ; when heated on platinum it
gave off an organic smell. This green substance
and the glauconite give the green colour to the
residue. There were a good many phosphatic con-
cretions, some of them over a centimetre in diameter.

Tristan da Cunlia to Cape of Good Hope. Cape of Good JIopc to JIarioii Isluiid.

M«non l«Uud to Crueot Caiic of (iootl llu|xi t« Marion l■lallll.

lalaotl*. OIT Marion Iilaud. evniinin'ii.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S«« Charts IS and 19, and Dia^n^m 8.

Poaltion.

Depth In
Fatuonui.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Itottom

Surface

0 f

36 48

0 S.

1900

O

35-6

O

73-0

Globigeiiina Ooze, dirty- white.

19 24

0 E.

slightly coherent, granular. •

Residue yellow-green, with

black grains.

45 57

0 S.

1570

35-8

43-0

Globigerina Ooze, white, gi-anu-

34 89

0 E.

lar, slightlj' coherent when

cli \ .

Residue yellow-grey.

46 48

0 S.

50-100

41-0

Volcanic Sand, black, fine

37 49 30 E.

grained, but mixed with

large fra^ents of shells, Scr-

pula, and Polyzoa.

Residue black.

46 43

0 S.

85-140

41-0

Volcanic Sand.

38 4

30 E.

46 41

0 8.

310

41-5

Volcanic Sand.

38 10

0 E.

46 46

0 8.

1375

35-6

43-0

Globigerina Ooze, white, fine

45 31

0 E.

grained, slightly coherent.

Residue yellow-grey.

k e
S3

II

f.

Date.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

'143

-1873
Doc. 19

144

144a

24

26

145

27

145 a

27

+146

90-34

92-34

26-13

86-36

• See anal. 78, 74; I’l. X.X. figa. 2, 3, 4.

Fill-

(70-00 %), Globigerinidfe,
vinulma.

(5-00 %), Miliolidfc, Textularidae,
Lagenida?, Rotalidse, Nummu-
linida;.

(15-34%), Otoliths of fish, Ian.;
Gasteropods, larval Iaim!'
branchs, Terebratula, 0(tn
codes, Echinoderm fragmett
Polyzoa, Coccoliths.

Ful-

(80-00 %), Globigerinid®,
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidfe, Lagenid®,
Rotalidse, Nummulinidaj.

(10-34 %), Ostracode valves, f
ini spines, Coccoliths.

(5-00 %), Globigerinidfe.

(5-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidse, Nummu-
linidae.

(16-13 %), Scrpula, Denlati’
Braobiopods, Gasterop--'
Lamellibranchs, Ostracai-
Echinoderm fragments, h;
zoa.

(75-00 %), Globigerinidae, Ful-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolida;, Textularid®,
Lagenidae, Rotalidcc.

(9-36 %), tubes of Scrfvk’^\
other Annelids, GasteryprtJ
Lamellibranchs, Cirripod"
tracodcs, Echinoderm '
ments, Polyzoa, Coccolith'

M

t See anal. 43.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

77

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

•00 %), a few Kadiolaria,
Sponge spicules, white and
green imperfect casts of
Foraminifera, Astrorhizidse,
Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(3'00 %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
rounded and angular; quartz,
felspar, plagioclase, glau-
conite, grains of manganese.

(5 '66 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, floccu-
lent matter, and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

This deposit contains hut little fine calcareous of clayey
matter and is almost entirely composed of i.solated
white Foraminifera shells. There were in the dredge
many small, irregular, phosphatic concretions, 1 to
4 centimetres in diameter, coated with manganese, and
containing glauconite and Foraminifera.

■00 %), Sponge spicules,

Radiolaria, Astrorbizidse,

imperfect casts, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; mono-
clinic and triclinic felspars,
augite, hornblende, magnetite,
olivine transformed into ser-
pentine, bronzite, fragments
of volcanic glass and allied
rocks, manganese grains,
quartz.

(5 ‘66 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles
and fragments of Diatoms.

This deposit, like that obtained at Station 143, is remark-
able for the small quantity of minute and amorphous
particles. Some rolled fragments of quartz attain a
diameter of about 1 mm. The pelagic Foraminifera
are of the small and thick-shelled varieties peculiar
to the colder waters of the ocean, although they
are not of the typical Arctic and Antarctic varieties,
Globigerina iulloides predominating.

00 %), a few Radiolaria,
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae,
Diatoms.*

(65’00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular and rounded; plagio-
clase, felspar, augite, olivine,
magnetite, small lapUli of
vitreous basaltic rocks.

(7 ’87 %), minute fragments of
minerals and Diatoms, amor-
phous matter, vegetable mat-
ter.

Four hauls were taken with the dredge, two at 50, one
at 75, and one at 100 fathoms. The bottom was
covered with Polyzoa of several species, the swabs and
dredge being filled with them, together with the
remains of a great many other animals.

'

Two hauls of the dredge were taken, one in 85 and the
other in 140 fathoms when a small quantity of deposit,
similar to that described at Station 144a, came up.
The animals were similar to those obtained on the
previous day when dredging nearer to Marion Island.

A little mud in the dredge indicated the same kind of
deposit as in the shallower depths on the same day.
One of the most successful hauls of the cruise was made
with the dredge, it being filled with animals.

aiO %), Radiolaria, Astror-
lizidae, Lituolidae, many
jtiatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
microcline, hornblende, mag-
netite, garnet, tourmaline,
pumice.

(9'64 %), fragments of Diatoms,
a little amorphous matter
and a few mineral particles.

No Rhabdoliths or Orbulinas were observed in this
deposit ; their southern limit seems to have been passed
at this point. There was a fragment about 1 cm. in
diameter chiefly formed of a lamellar mineral, probably
bronzite, with metalloid lusti’e, extinction parallel to
the direction of the cleavage, hardly fusible. It was
attached to some pale green serpentinous matter. The
trawl was used and one of the best hauls during the
cruise was obtained, the bag being filled with animals.
In the trawl were five irregular scoriaceous lapUli,
from 1 to 5 centimetres in diameter ; they are more or
less porous, like pumice, but the viti-eous substance is
deep brown.

]\Iarion Inlainl to C'rozet

Cape of Good Hope to Marion Island. — confimied. 0(1’ Marion Island. Islands.

Marion IpiUikI to Crozet

Off llranl I*Un>l. Off Kcrguolcn Ulainl. Off Crozet Nlaii'la. Ulaiid* — eunliHtud.

78

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soc Charts 18, 20, 21, ami 22.

^ .
w n

;

*13 '

Dato.

PoaiUon.

e m

£

Temperature
of tile Sea-
water.
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

y. ^

^ Ua

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

1

!

147

1

i

i

1 1

1873
Dec. 3i>

• 0 t0

46 16 0 S.
48 27 0 E.

1600

0

34-2

0

41 -0

Diatom Ooze, grey, very fine
grained, very slightly co-
herent, small grains recog-
nisable to the touch.

Besidue brown-black, lighter
portions white.

34-63

(30-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidie, Rotalidoe.

(3-63 %), Echinoderm fragmenti
Coccoliths.

1

1 j

147a

i

1

1874
Jan. 1

46 45 0 S.
60 42 0 E.

600

42-0

D1AT0.M Ooze, grey, pulverulent,
mineral particles perceptible
to the touch.

Besidue, heavier portions
black, lighter portions
white.

36-34

(30-00 %), Globigerinidaj, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidte, Rotalida;.

(5-34 %), Ostracodes, Edit:
spines, a few Coccoliths.

; 1

[ i

1 143

.. 3

46 47 0 S.
51 37 0 E.

210

41-0

Hap.d Ground, gravel, shells.

148a

3

46 53 0 S.
51 52 0 E.

550

...

41-0

Hard Ground, gravel, shells.

149
; 149a
{ 149b
: 1 49c
i 149d
1 149e
; 149r
149c
' I49h
149J
149k

1 Cl

1 i

f 1

1 ^

)

*3

1

0

A

Cl

Green Muds, when dry grey-
green, slightly coherent,

earthy.

Besidue dark green.

1-00

Miliolid.-e, Textularidse, Lagen-
idte, Globigerinidfc, Rotalidaj,
Nummulinida;.

Serpula, Gasteropoda, Laii
branch.s, Ostracodes, Etl
derm fragments, Polyzoi

160

Feb. 2

c 0

^ d

<d

0

150

35-2

37-5

Coarse Graved. (The descrip-
tion is made from material
obtained in the dredge. The
percentages arc approximated.)

[20-00]

(3-00 %), Globigerinidffi.

(1-00 %), Miliolidoc, Lituolidae,
Textularida;, Lageuidoe, Rot-
alida-.

(16-00 %), Tcrebralula, Or
codes, Echinodenns,
Polyzoa.

16.

.. 7

52 69 80 H.
73 33 80 E.

7.

...

36 '2

Voi.cANic Sand, black, fine
gmine<l.

Besidue block.

2-58

(1-00 %), Miliolidic, Textularida;,
Lagonido:, Globigerinidn:,
Rotalida;.

•

(1 -68 %), tubes of Serpidt
other Annelida, Gastewi'
Lamellibranchs, Ostnf
Echinoderm fragments,
zoa.

(1

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

79

Residue.

1

Additional Observations.

iliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

•00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
picules, numerous Diatoms.

(25-00 %), m. di 0-12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; felspar,
plagioclase, augite, horn-
blende, olivine, magnetite,
brown and red decomposed
glassy volcanic fragments, one
or two rounded quartz grains,
brown and red mammillated
fragments.

(15-37 %), fragments of Diatoms
and minute mineral particles.

Very little of the deposit was obtained. There were
several pebbles in the trawl; one fragment, about 3 cm.
in diameter, is angular ; some of them are vesicular
augite-andesites, with a vitreous base. In addition
there were other fragments covered with and cemented
by manganese ; these consist of lapilli, brown in
colour and much decomposed.

•00 %), Radiolaria, casts of
alcareous organisms, Dia-
oms.

(25-00 %), m. di. 0-12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; felspar,
plagioclase, black mica, born-
blende, augite, magnetite,
olivine, glassy volcanic parti-
cles, red mammillated frag-
ments.

(18-66 %), amorphous matter,
very many fragments of
Diatoms, and minute mineral
particles.

There are in this deposit very fine and perfect casts of
Foraminifera, fragments of Echini, &c. The carbonate
of lime organisms are white or of a pale straw colour ;
with reflected light they are shining and homogeneous;
with transmitted light some are opaque, some trans-
parent and yellow-brown. There are no green casts or
glauconitic particles in the deposit. It is unusual to
find such perfect casts in the deposit off a volcanic
island. Some of these casts show aggregate polariza-
tion.

There were two dredgings ; many animals, but no
deposit, were obtained. The bottom seemed to be
hard and composed of gravel, Polyzoa, and shells.

The dredge brought up a few specimens of Aphrocallistes.
The bottom appeared to be of the same nature as that
at the previous station.

00 %), Sponge spicules,
ituolidie, frustules of Dia-
ms.

(20-00 %), m. di. 0-15 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
magnetite, hornblende, olivine
(in some cases altered), lapilli,
pumice, brown volcanic glass.

(29-00 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, flocculent
organic matter, many fine
mineral particles, fragments
of Sponge spicules and
Diatoms.

During the month of January 1874 the Challenger took
many soundings and dredgings in the bays, and several
miles off the coast, of Kerguelen, in depths varying
from 20 to 150 fathoms. In all cases the deposit was
a Green Mud, with a strong smell of sulphuretted hydro-
gen, composed principally of mineral particles and the
skeletons of siliceous organisms. Generally these muds
did not effervesce with acid ; sometimes a few spots
were observed. The carbonate of lime never appeared
to make up more than 1 per cent. The larger, sized
mineral particles were found in the soundings nearest
the coast, while siliceous organisms seemed to be most
abundant in the soundings furthest from the coast.
In some cases the deposit was almost entirely made up
of the basal portions of siliceous sponges, e.g., Rossella
antarctica. The dredgings along this coast gave many
animals.

)0 %), many Sponge spicules
d Radiolaria.

(60-00 %), volcanic and otber
pebbles.

(5-00 %), amorphous matter
and fragments of siliceous
organisms.

A large number of stones were brought up in the dredge.
These are fragments of rocks of irregular form and
varying in diameter from 1 to 7 cm. They are blue-
black and much overgi'own by Sponges, Serpula,
Polyzoa, Foraminifera, &c. ; some of the pebbles are
granite, augite-andesite, basalt filled with delessite.

•j' %), Radiolaria, Sponge

(80-00 %), m. di. 0-30 mm.,
angular ; fragments of brown
and reddish volcanic glass
often enclosing microliths of
olivine, plagioclase, augite,
magnetite.

(12-42 %), many fine mineral
particles, a small quantity of
amorphous matter, fragments
of Sponge spicules and
Diatoms.

This deposit is essentially composed of black volcanic
sand and remains of organisms. The fragments of
glass are vesicular, and often decomposed. The dredge
was used three times and brought up many animals.

Jlariou Island to Crozet

Islands— Off Crozet Islands. Off Kerguelen Island. Off Heard Island.

T-Tmlnation I^aivl ti> Molhourno. In Vicinity of AnUrrtic Ice.

SO THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 23 and 24, and Diagrams 9 and 10.

imbcr of
lUtlun.

i

Date.

rositioo.

Depth In
Kathoms.

Tomperaturo
of the .Sea-
water.
(Vahr.)

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminlfera.

Other Organisms.

' 152

1

1874
Feb. 11

O f

60 62
80 20

0t

0 s.
0 E.

1260

O

O

34-5

Diatom Ooze, pale straw-
coloured wlien wet, when dry
white and presenting the
aj)j>earance of llour, very fine.

Eesidue wliite or pale rose,
very slightly plastic.

22-47

(20-00 %), Globigerinidie.
(1-00 %), Miliolidaj, Rotalidie.

(1 -47 %), Gasteropods, Lamelli-
braiichs (rare).

.. u

65 42
79 49

0 S.
0 E.

1675

29-5

Blue Mud, grey when dry,
unctuous, sticky, coherent,
containingmany hard particles.
Eesidue grey.

3-50

(2-00%), Globigerinidse, a few
Textularidai, Lagenidie, Rota-

lidiE.

(1-50 %), Gasteropods, Lamelli-
branchs, Ostracodes, Echioo-
derm fragments, Polyzoa.

154

19

64 37
85 49

0 S.
0 E.

1800

32 0

Blue 51ud, grey when dry,
coherent, sublustrous streak,
presenting hard particles to the
touch.

Eesidue dark grey.

1-00

Globigerinidie and Miliolina.

155

.. 23

64 18
94 47

0 S.
0 E.

1300

31 0

Blue Mud, grey when dry,
unctuous, coherent, sublustrous
streak, earthy.

Eesidue brown.

11-84

(9-00 %), GlobigerinidiE.

(1-00 %), Miliolidaj, Lagenidse,
Rotalidse.

(1*84%), fragments of Echiti
spines.

15«

.. 26

62 26
95 44

0 S.
0 E.

1975

33 0

Diatom Ooze, brown when wet,
white or dirty white when dry,
soft to the touch, resembling
flour.

Eesidue yellow-white.

2-08

Chiefly Qlohigeriiia, a few Trun-
cahdina.

• 157

Uar. 3

63 65
108 85

0 8.
0 E

1950

321

37-2

Diatom Ooze, straw coloured
when wet, white when dry,
very light, extremely fine
jiarticles, soft to the touch,
coherent under pressure, and
resembling flour in many
resj^M-i’ts.

l^sidue white.

19-29

(10-00 %), Globigerinidse.

(4-00 %), Miliolida,*, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotulidoe, Nuin-
inulinido!.

(6 -29 %), Otoliths and teeth i
fish, worm tubes, Gasteropek
Lamellibranchs, Ostreooki
fragments of Echini, Paljas.

■M58

•1 "

60 1
123 4

0 8.
0 E.

1800

33*5

45-0

OuinioKiiiSA Ooze, white with
slight rose tint, granular, pul-
verulent.

Eesidue yellow.

85-31

(75-00 %), Globigerinidse, Ful-
vinulina.

(2 00 %), Miliolid.-c, Textularidse,
Lagenidw, Rotalidse, Nura-
mulinidm.

(8-31 %), Scales of fish, worn
tubes, Ostracode nlm

Echinoderm fragments, Cka'
liths.

1^9

i

.. 10

47 26
laO 22

0 8.
0 E.

2150

'

'

34-5

61 -5

GLonioERiNA Ooze, grey with a
red tinge, granular, slightly
coherent.

Eesidue browu.

87-90

(75-00 %), Globigorinida?, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularid.-e,
Rotulidu;, Nummulinidse.

(11-90%), Ostracode nlf's
Echini spines, Coosolilh
Rhabdoliths.

i

• See anal 31, 32 ; I’l. XV, figa. la, 16. + See PI. XII. fig. 4.

■REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

81

Eesibue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Eine Washings.

(50 '00 %), Radiolaria, Astrorhi-
zidse, Lituolidae, numerous
Piatoms.

(15'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz sometimes
coloured red, monoclinic and
triclinic felspars, mica, horn-
blende, tourmaline, garnet,
magnetite, zircon, glassy vol-
canic particles, glauconite.

(12'53 %), a little amorphous
matter, a few mineral

particles, but principally
fragments of Diatoms.

The trawl came up fouled, but contained a few animals
and pebbles, the latter varying in diameter from 5 mm.
to 1 cm. ; one of the pebbles is a granitite, containing
quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase, hornblende, black or
green mica ; another is a fine-grained chloritic sandstone
with felspar. The minerals, as well as the rock frag-
ments obtained at this station, appear to indicate that
they come from rocks belonging to older formations.

(15 ’00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Lituo-
lidsB, Diatoms.

(20'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
plagioclase, hornblende, glau-
oonite, garnet.

(61 '50 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and Diatoms.

The dredge brought up many rocks and pebbles, to which
an Ascidian and an Actinian were attached, and a few
animals. The quartz grains are sometimes rounded and
covered with limonite. Among the pebbles are granitic
rooks, containing orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, and
black mica ; amjihibolite with large grains of green
hornblende and quartz ; metamorphic quartzite speckled
with black mica ; fine grained micaceous sandstone
passing to a schist; and red sandstone.

(3 "00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Diatoms.

(20'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; quartz, felspar, horn-
blende, mica, epidote, garnet,
glauconite.

(76 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles and
Diatom remains.

Some particles of ^(inerals attain a diameter of 1 or 2
mm. (

(3 ’00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(20'00 %), m. di. 0'30' mm.,
angular ; quartz, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite, magne-
tite, mica, garnet, tourmaline,
glauconite, fragments of

granitic and amphibolic rocks.

(65 '16 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles,
fragments of Radiolaria and
Diatoms.

The dredge came up without showing any signs of having
been at the bottom. It had to be hauled in soon, on
account of a strong wind rising, and the ship being sur-
rounded by iceberg.s. Some of the fragments of granitic
and amphibolic rocks attain a diameter of 2 cm.

i(60'00 %), many Radiolaria, a
! few Lituolidae, chiefly Dia-
i toms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
orthoclase, rarely plagioclase,
hornblende, mica, magnetite,
a, few small glassy volcanic
fragments.

(27 '92 %), essentially composed
of Diatom fragments, with a
little amorphous matter and
a few minute mineral par-
ticles.

The trawl brought up a number of animals, rocks, and
pebbles. The rocks and pebbles include granite, con-
taining orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, hornblende, and
mica ; gneiss composed of quartz, black and white
mica, and garnet ; chloritic quartzite ; fine-grained mica-
ceous sandstone ; slate formed of sericite with micro-
liths of rutile ; trachytic pumice with sanidine and
augite ; limburgite partially transformed into pala-
gonite ; and some other ancient and recent volcanic
rocks all very much altered.

(50 00%), many Radmlaria, some
Sponge spicules, Astrorhizidae,
Lituolidae, principally Dia-
toms.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
hornblende, a few magnetic
particles, small fragments of
palagonite, pumice, much
altered volcanic rock with
ophitic structure.

(27 '71 %), composed es.sentially
of fragments of Diatoms, a
small quantity of amorphous
matter and minute mineral
particles.

Only a small quantity of the deposit came up in the
sounding tube. In the trawl there were several pebbles
and one large piece of rock along with many animals.
One fragment of grey gneiss weighed 20 kilogrammes,
and some similar fragments had glacial markings there
was a basaltic fragment 6 cpi. in diameter, and thirty
pieces of pumice from 1 to 3 cm. in diameter.

(10 ’00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hizidae, Lituolidae, chiefly
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
pumice, glassy volcanic

particles.

(3 '69 %), a little amorphous
matter, with minute mineral
particles and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The trawl brought up pumice stones, pebbles, and many
animals. There were fifteen fragments of pumice,
generally all rounded, and varying in diameter from 2 to
5 cm., and also one flattened angular fragment of pala-
gonite, 3 or 4 cm. in width, and 1 cm. in thickness.
Some of the quartz grains are covered with limonite.

(2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, pumice, red glassy
volcanic fragments, manganese
grains, quartz grains (rare).

(9 '10 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

The trawl was put over, but came up without any of the
deposit or any bottom-living animals to show that it
had ever touched the bottom. The presence of Coccoliths
and Rhabdoliths in this deposit is worthy of notice, as
they have been absent in those to the south of lat. 55°.
The greater abundance of Orbulinas and Pulvinulinas
in the last two stations should also be remarked.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 11

)

k

In Vicinity of Antarctic Ice. Terniination Land to Melbourne.

Off Sv«ln*y. MrIl>ourn(> to Sj-tliiey. Trniiinttioii I^n<l to Mell<ournr — emlinti^l.

82

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Stv Charts 24, 25, and 26, and Diagrams 10 and 11.

^ .
u C

11

bate.

PoaitioB.

c •

e

C.5

Temperature
of tlic .Sea-
water
(Kahr).

Desigtiatiun ami Physical Characters.

-

CARBONATE OP CALCIUM. j

liuttom

Surface

Percent.

Forarainifera.

Other Organisms.

1874

• f ft

O

O

1

1

•160

Mar. 13

42 42 0 S.

2600

33-9

55 0

Red Clay, when wet chocolate

18-56

(12-00 %), Globigerinidaj, Pul-

(5-56 %), Teeth of fish and sonif

134 10 0 E.

coloured, reddish when dry, co-

vinulina.

pieces fof bone, Brachiopoiij, ,

hereiit, breaking up with diflS-

(1 -00 %), Miliolidaj, Textularidse,

Ostracodes, Echinoderra %.

culty in water.

Lagenid®, Rotalid®, Num-

ments, Polyzoa, a few Cocco

Residue reddish.

muliuid®.

liths.

161

.\pr. 1

38 22 30 .S.

33

63-5

Shelly Sands, mottled yellow

82-22

(10-00 %), Miliolid®, Textula-

i

1

i

1

(72*22 %), Serpula, Gastflwpodi.

144 36 30 E.

and brown.

rid®, Lagenid®, Rotalid®,

Lamellibranchs, Ostracodeii

162

.. 2

39 10 30 S.

38

63-2

Residues dark and pale

Nummulinid®.

Echinoderm fragmenti,l

146 37 0 E.

brown.

Polyzoa.

168

.. 4

86 57 0 S.

2200

34-5

72-0

Globigerina Ooze, grey, plastic,

61-77

(25-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(31-77%), Serpula, Pteropodi,i

150 34 0 E.

green when dry, coherent,

vinulina.

Ostracodes, Echinoderm fun-'

fine grained.

(5-00 %), Miliolid®, Textula-

ments, Alcyonarian spicula,

Residue dark green.

rid®, Lagenid®, Rotalid®,

Coccoliths, Coccospheres.

Nummulinid®.

168a

4

.86 59 0 Si.

150

71-0

Green Mud (?).

150 20 0 E.

.. 4

Port Jackson.

2-10

Blue Sandy Mud.s, with frag-

42-36

(1-00 %), Globigerinid®.

(36-36 %), Serpula, Brachiopok

6-15

nients of shells, in other cases

(5-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,

Gasteropods, Lamellibraatk

7

a shelly deposit with many

Lagenid®, Rotalid®, Nummu-

fragments of Echinodtrai,

sandy fiarticles.

liuid®.

calcareous Alg®. i

1

Residues mottled brown.

163II

Jane 3

33 61 15 S.

35

63 0

69-0

151 22 15 E.

1

163c

.. 12

S3 65 0 8.

85

62-2

67-5

Hard Ground, shells.

1

151 35 0 K.

163t>

12

33 67 30 .S.

120

68-0

Green Sand.

Globigerinid®, Pulvinulina.

Gasteropods, Pteropods; fnf ,

151 39 15 E.

Miliolid®, Textularid®, Lageu-

ments of Echinodemu,

id®, Rotalid®.

I68k

.. 12

.34 0 15 .S.

290

70-2

Green Sand.

151 44 15 E.

Ifijr

.. 12

.34 8 15 8.

650

40-8

70-2

Green Mud, green, coherent.

47-32

(35-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-

(10-32 %), Otoliths of fish, (w

151 51 30 K.

granular, earthy.

vinulina.

ments of Gasteropoda, Lamd;: ’

Residue dark green.

(2-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,

branch shells, Ecbinolm!

I.iagi'nid®, Rotalid®.

fragments, Coccoliths, Coo» j

spheres, Rhabdolitbs. '

• anal. 12, 6t», 100, 101; II. H. fig». 3, 3«, 34; 1*1. VIII. fig*. 10, 11; I’l. XVI. fig. 2; I’l. XVII. fig. 3; PI. XXVIII. figs. 1, 2, 4, 6.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

83

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

lilinerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

I'OO %), a few Eadiolaria,
Astrorhizidse, Lituolidfe, one
or two Diatoms.

(1‘00%), m. di. 0’08 mm.,
angular and rounded; felspar,
quartz, black mica, augite,
magnetite, pumice, many
fragments of volcanic glass,
magnetic spherules, man-
ganese- grains ; there is a
large number of minute frag-
ments of quartz covered with
limonite, apparently wind-
borne from Australia.

(79 '44 %), amorphous matter,
minute particles of minerals,
fragments of volcanic glass.

'••00 %), a few fragments of
Sponge spicules, casts.

!l ‘00 %), Sponge spicules, Ead-
1 iolaria,*Lituolid8e, Diatoms.

•00.%), Lituolidae, a few Dia-
toms.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0‘70 mm.,
rounded; quartz, mica, mono-
clinic and triclinic felspars,
augite, hornblende, magnetite.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, volcanic glass, horn-
blende, magnetite.

(50 ’00 %), m. di. 0'80 mm.,
rounded; quartz, felspar, frag-
ments of mica-schist, horn-
blende, magnetite, augite,
olivine.

(9 '78 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, much
brown flocculent organic
matter, a few minute mineral
particles, and fragments of
Sponge spicules.

(32 "23 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The sounding tube brought up about half a litre of the
deposit. The trawl came up with the netting much
torn, but in the bag there were a large quantity of red
or chocolate clay, many manganese nodules and animals.
The nuclei of the nodules are in some cases fragments
of felspathic basalt, black and opaque; in others they
arepiecesof basalt-glass coated with a pal agonitic reddish
or yellowish zone of decomposition. The upper layers
of the deposit from the sounding tube contained appa-
rently many more Foraminifera than the lower. The
clay mixed up with the nodules, most probably came
from the surface layers on account of the large quantity
of carbonate of lime as found by the analysis of a sample
taken from the trawl.

The major part of these deposits is made up of fragments
of Polyzoa with fewer of the other organisms mentioned,
the majority of the fragments being a little more than
5 mm. in diameter. There were a few greenish casts
of the carbonate of lime shells.

Only a small quantity of the deposit came up in the
sounding tube.

(6 '64 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, minute
mineral fragments and coal
dust, some flocculent organic
matter.

The carbonate of lime in these deposits is chiefly com-
posed of the fragments of Molluscan shells. The mineral
particles consist chiefly of rounded fragments of quartz
and particles of felspar.

longe spicules, glauconitic
casts of Foraminifera.

Quartz, felspar, glauconite.

A small piece of shell was all that came up in the
sounding tube.

A small quantity of mud came up on the grease of the
sounding tube, and gave the organisms mentioned,
but there was insufficient for analysis. (

A small quantity came up attached to the grease of the
sounding tube, much the same as-that obtained at the
last station, but it eontained more Foraminifera and
many more glauconitic casts and glauconite particles
of a dark green colour. There was insufficient for
analysis.

00 %), Sponge spicules, one or
two Eadiolaria, pale casts of
Foraminifera, Astrorhizidse,
Lituolidse, Diatoms.

(25‘00 %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, mica, hornblende,
magnetite, augite, glauconite.

(22 ‘68 %1, fine mineral particles,
with fragments of siliceous
organisms and amorphous
matter.

The pelagic Foraminifera are very abundant in this
deposit, a great many of them being filled with pale
yellow aud green glauconite. Some of the Foraminifera
are macroscopic.

1

Termination Land to Melbourne — mitinued. Melbourne to Sydney. Off Sydney.

84

TilE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 26 and 27, and Diagram 11.

-=

Date.

riitiUon.

I>cpth In
Katboina.

1

Temperature
of the Sea-
water!
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium. 1

. Jr

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

I'oraminifern.

Other Organisms.

164

j

1874
Juno 12

o /

34 8
152 0

0 S.
0 E.

950

Q

86 -6

O

69-5

Gkef.n Mud, grey-green when
wet, coherent, granular, eartliy.
Residue green.

48-16

(35-00 %), Globigerinidse, PitZ-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidre, Textularidje,
Lagi-nidre, Rotalido;, Nuinmu-
linidiB.

(11 -16'%), Otoliths of fish, fn)[.
ments of Lamellibranoh slidi
Ostracodes, EchinoJerm fn^.
ments, Coccoliths, Cecx-
spheres, Rhabdoliths.

164a

i

u

34 9
151 55

0 S.
0 E.

1200

70-2

Gkeex Mud, grey-green, granu-
lar, slightly coherent.

Eesidne green.

46-59

(35-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinvlina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidai,
Lagenida;, Rotalidte, Numinu-
liiiida:.

(9-59 %), fragments of IV
opods, Ostracodes, Lphiw
spines, Coccoliths, Khabdoliiiii

!

i*164B

1

1

13

34 13
151 38

0 S.
0 E.

410

69-0

Gueen Mud, green when wet,
greenish grey when dr}', pul-
verulent.

Residue green.

50-31

(35-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), MiliolidfE, Textularida;,
Lagenida;, Rotalida;, Nummu-
liuidae.

(10-31%), Otoliths of fiil
Serpula, ' Dentalium, GmPio.
pods, Lamellihraiichs, Pia
opods, Ostracodes, Ecliito-'
derm fragments, PoIvm, ■
Corals, Coccoliths, Ehibde ;
liths.

1

' 165
i

i

.. 17

34 60
155 28

0 S.
0 E.

2600

34-5

64-5

Red Clay, plastic, homogeneous,
drying into hard lumps, lus-
trous streak, breaking up with
difficulty in water.

Residue red-brown.

6-64

(2-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinidina.

(3-00 %), Miliolina, Lagenidte,
Rotalidse, Nummulinidie.

(1-54 %), Teeth of fish, Eelwi
spines, Coccoliths. j

1

rl65.\

19

36 41
158 29

0 S.
0 E.

2600

34-4

62-5

Red Ci.ay, homogeneous, plastic,
drying into luinjis, which break
up with difficulty in water,
lustrous streak.

Residue red.

19-13

(10-00 %), Globigerinidaj, Pul-
vinulii'M.

(3-00 %), Miliolidae, Lagenidaj,
Rotalidse.

(6-13 %), a few small torth o(j
fish, Ostracodes, biisi

spines, fragments of Polyia
Coccoliths, a few Rhabdoliiu

165b

.. 21

37 53
163 18

0 S.
0 E

1975

34-7

59-5

Globioeiii.s’a Ooze, white with
rose tinge, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Reudne grey-white.

76-59

(65-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vmulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolida>., Textularida;,
Lagenida;, Rotalida;, Num-
muliuida:.

(10-59 %), Otoliths offish,B(ii!ii
spines, Coccoliths, Cocoi

spheres, Rhabdoliths.

165c

I

j

.. 22

38 36
166 36

0 8.
0 E

1100

36-4

58-2

GLonioEitiNA Ooze, white, fine
grained, giving an almost im-
palpable jKiwtIer, very slightly
colierciit, chalky.

Residue red-brown.

81-89

(75-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
rinulina.

(I'OO %), Miliolid®, Tcxtularid®,
Lagi-nidre, Rotalid®, Nuin-
muliuid®.

(8-89 %), Ostracodes, li-i*
spines, Coccoliths, lihabuolias

:166

23

38 50
169 20

0 K.
0 1..

275

60-8

58-5

Glodioeuina Ooze.

88-45

Miliolid®,Textularid®, Lngcnid®,
Globigeriuid®, Rotalid®.

P'ragments of Pternpods, 6«W*-'
pods, and Laniellibi»»c)».
Ostracodes, EcbiniKicrj! ftv ■
ments, Coccoliths, Coo*
sjihcrcs, Rhabdoliths.

166b

16«;

1

1

» 23
.. 24

39 8

170 43
39 21

171 28

0 8.
0 E.
0 .H.
0 E

400

400

68 -6
58-0

1 Gi.onioEniSA Oozes, dirty
1 white, granular, very slightly
f coherent, soiling the fingers.

J Residues dirty w liitc.

82-20

(50 '00 %), Globigerinidre, Pul-
viiiulina.

(6-00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lagcnid®, Rotalid®.

(27-20 %), fragments of Gm!i'
])ods and Liinicllibiw ■■
Ostracodes, Echini *[■'
Coccoliths, Cocco3pherei,ll;'
doliths.

• aoaL 67, 84, 85, 86, 87; !t XXIV. fig, 2; PL XXV. fig. 1. t See I’l. XXVI. fig. 3. J See PI. XI. fig. 3.

I

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

85

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, one or
two Radiolaiia, pale casts of
Foramiuifera, Astrorliizid®.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
felspar, hornblende, augite,
magnetite, volcanic glass,
glauconite.

(39'85 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

This deposit is much like that obtained at Station 163 f,
but there is considerably more amorphous clayey matter.

2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, a
few Radiolaria, casts of Fora-
minifera, Astrorhizidse.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular ; quartz, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, augite,
hornblende, mica, glassy
volcanic fragments, magnetite,
epidote, glauconite.

(41 '41 %), fine greenish coloured
amorphous matter, fragments
of minerals, Radiolaria, and
Diatoms.

This deposit, except for the glauconite and other mineral
particles, might be called a Globigerina Ooze.

15'00 %), Radiolaria, many
casts of Foramiuifera and
other organisms, Astrorhizidae,
Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(25'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular; quartz, felspar, plag-
ioclase, glauconite, horn-
blende, augite, white or green
mica, epidote, tourmaline,
glassy volcanic fragments,
magnetite.

(9 '69 %), amorphous matter
and fine mineral particles,
with a green-brown substance
often cementing the particles
together.

The trawl brought up a quantity of mud, some pumice,
pebbles, and animals. Six pieces of pumice are
rounded, and a rounded fine-grained fragment of sand-
stone is 2 cm. in diameter. Glauconitic particles are
numerous.

I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, Lituolidae.

(20'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
hornblende, mica, magnetite,
glas.sy volcanic fragments,
pumice, grains of manganese.

(72'46 %), amorphous matter,
with minute mineral particles
and some siliceous fragments.

This deposit contains a great amount of amorphous
matter ; the pelagic Foramiuifera are chiefly in a
fragmentary condition.

I'OO %), Radiolaria, a few
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae.

(I'OO %), ra. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular; quartz, felspar, horn-
blende, mica, glassy volcanic
fragments, magnetite, man-
ganese grains, zircon, glau-
conite.

(78 '87 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute fragments
of minerals and some frag-
ments of siliceous organisms.

Among the minerals there are many small rounded par-
ticles of quartz the same as at Station 160, probably
wind-borne. Most of the pelagic Foraminifera are frag-
mentary, as at Station 165.

I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; fragments of pumice,
felspar, magnetite, augite.

(21 '41 %), amorphous matter,
with minute fragments of
minerals, Radiolaria, and
Diatoms.

This deposit contains a con.siderable quantity of fine
amorphous calcareous matter, and relatively little
clayey matter. Note the increase of carbonate of lime
with decreasing depth.

I'OO %), Radiolaria, Lituolidae,
one or two imperfect white
casts of Foramiuifera, a few
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; pumice, augite, fel-
spar, plagioclase, green mica,
magnetite, quartz.

(13'11%), amorphous matter and
small fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The quartz particles are few in number, small, rounded,
ami wind-borne. The volcanic mineral particles have
often a vitreous coating. The small lapilli are basaltic,
much altered, and filled with delessite ; some are vesi-
cular, others quite massive.

lituolidae.

A small quantity of the deposit which came up in the
somuling tube indicated a Globigerina Ooze, and con-
tained the organisms mentioned. The trawl brought
up a small quantity of the deposit, with the finer parts
washed away, from which the analysis was made.

5 '00 %), white and pale green
casts of the Foramiuifera,
Iiituolidae, a few Radiolaria,
one or two Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular ; pumice, felspar,
plagioclase, augite, magnetite,
glauconite, quartz, garpet,
manganese grains.

(13 '80%), amorphous matter and
small fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

These deposits are somewhat remarkable for the large
number of Coccoliths and Coccosplieres thej' contain.
The average diameter of the Coccoliths is 0'015 mm.,
and that of the Coccosplieres 0'025 mm. We estimate
that these organisms and their broken parts make up
from 15 to 20 per cent, of the deposit. The shallow
depth and relative absence of land debris probably
account in some measure for the abundance of these
organisms in this place. Although the white and pale
green casts of Foramiuifera are numerous, true glau-
conitic particles are exceedingly rare.

I

i

Olf Sydne)^ — continued, Sydney to New Zealand.

OffTonr»uKa Kr‘« ZmUq-I to Tonf^talia. 0(T Nrw 7x<aland. HyJiioy to New Zoalatul— a»Uinuai.

86

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

S«« Charts 27 and 28, and Diagrams 11 and 12.

Number of
bUUun.

Date.

PuaiUon.

II

C.5
it (•

Temperature
of Uie Sea-
water
(Kahr.X

Designation ami Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calciumi.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisnu.

i

167

{

1874
June 24

1

30 82 0 S.
171 48 0 E.

145-

150

e

O

58-5

Blue Mud, coherent, earthy,
homogeneous, finely granular,
marly, drying into light grey
lumps with sublustrous streak.

Besidue blue-green.

26-71

(10-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(10-00%), Miliolidse, Textularidae,
LagenidiB, Kotalidte, Num-
mulinidie.

(6-71 %), Otoliths offish, L
libranehs, Ostracodes, ]
spines, Coccoliths, Rhabdc

i

i

i

25

OIT D'Urvillo
Island.

32-52

Bi,uf. Muds, sandy, slightly
coherent, granular, the sandy
jiartieles becoming more

numerous and coarser in the
shallower depths near to the
shore.

Besidue green-grey.

8-71

(1 -00 %), Globigerinidte.

(4-00 %), Textularida;, Lagenidae,
Eotalidae, Nummuliuidte.

(3-71 %), fragments of La
branch shells. Echini s
Coccoliths.

188

'

July 8

40 28 0 S.
177 43 0 E.

1100

37-2

57-2

Blue Mud, green-blue when wet,
grey-blue when dry, fine
grained, coherent, breaking up
with difficulty in water, sub-
lustrous streak.

Besidue blue.

10-71

(5-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-

(2-00 %), Miliolidaj, Textularidae,
Lagenidse, Botalidae, Num-
mulinidte.

(3-71 %), Otoliths and tci
of fish, worm tubes, Ga
pods, Lamellibrauchs,
pods, Echinoderm fragme

1

16»

i

1

.. 10

37 34 0 a
179 22 0 E.

700

400

68-2

Blue Mud, blue-grey when dry,
slightly coherent, fine grained,
earthy, sublustrous streak.
Besidue blue.

4-36

(1 -00 %), Globigerinidte, Pulvinu-
Hna.

(2-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidte, Num-
muliuidae.

(1-36 %), Otoliths of fish, G«
pods, Lamellibranchs,
pods. Heteropods, Ostrai
Echini spines, Cocco
Rhabdoliths (rare).

170

171

.. H
.. 15

29 55 0 K
178 14 0 W.

28 33 0 H.
177 60 0 W.

520

600

43 0
39 5

65- 0

66- 6

• Volcanic Muds.

...

171a

.. 17

25 5 0 .a
172 6fl 0 W.

2900

34-3

72-0

Red Clay, plastic when wet,
light brown when dry, earthy
fracture, breaking np with
difficulty in water, sublustrous
streak.

*172

1 i

i

U -

1

20 68 0 a

176 9 OW.

18

76 0

CoKAL Hand, white with red
coloiirixl fragmcntii.

Besidue red.

90-70

(6 -00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(40'00 %), Miliolidre,Tcxtularidte,
Lagcnidie, Rotalidn;, Num-
mulinidic.

(45-70 %) Otoliths of
Scrpula, Gasterojiods, Lai
branchs, O.stracodes, E<
derm frngments,Coralii,Po
calcareous Algie.

See anal. 71; PI. XIV. fig. 2.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

87

Kesidue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Alinerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), a few small fragments
of Sponge spicules, Astror-
bizid®, Lituolid®, a few pale
and dark green casts.

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded; felspar,
quartz, augite, magnetite,
olivine, mica, many grains of
glauconite.

(70'29 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

This deposit contains a great many glauconite grains,
which are mostly irregular in form, but would appear
to have been at one time perfect casts of Foraminifera
and other organisms. In some cases the transition
can be traced by microscopic examination.

(2 "00 %), a few fragments of
Sponge spicules and Diatoms.

i

1

(60'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
mica, magnetite, felspar,
augite, many fragments of
clastic rocks.

(29'29 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
and a few fragments of
siliceous organisms.

A few of the mineral particles measure 1 or 2 mm., and
several rounded pebbles 2 to 4 cm. in diameter.

i (1 '00 %), Kadiolaria, Astror-
! bizid®, Lituolid®, Diatoms.

(2-00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; monoclinio and tri-
clinic felspars, quartz, augite,
bornblende, magnetite, oli-
vine, very many small frag-
ments of pumice and volcanic
glass.

(86 '29 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals and siliceous organ-
isms.

The bag of the trawl was nearly filled with a brownish
mud, in which were many large lumps of stiff blue
clay, and several pumice stones more or less rounded
ami of the light coloured fibrous variety. The beam
of the trawl had many lumps of stiff blue clay attached
to it. There was a thin watery red coloured layer in
which the calcareous organisms appeared to be more
abundant than in the stiff blue layers beneath. Many
of the bottom-living Foraminifera are macroscopic.
The fragments of pumice and volcanic glass have some-
times a diameter of 1 mnu, some felspar and quartz
fragments also attain nearly the same size.

i (I’OO %), Radiolaria, Astror-
! bizid®, Lituolid®, Sponge
' spicules, a few Diatoms.

j

(25 '00 %), ra. di. O'lO mm.,
angular, but some rounded ;
quartz, felspar, plagioclase,
green mica, hornblende, glau-
conite, pumice, magnetite.

(69 '64 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals, a few siliceous frag-
ments.

The trawl brought up a large quantity of the mud, some
pumice stones and animals. The surface layer was red
and not so compact as the stiff blue layer beneath.
The washings of the mud were chiefly made up of
arenaceous Foraminifera, many of which were macro-
scopic.

1

Only a small quantity of these deposits was obtained in
the sounding tube. In the trawl there were several
large pieces of pumice.

i

(I'OO %), Radiolaria and one or
two Diatoms.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; plagioclase, magne-
tite, hornblende, quartz,
pumice, red glassy particles,
fragments of basaltic rocks,
manganese grains.

(94 '00 %), amorphous matter,
small fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

There were several pieces of pumice .stone in the clay
brought up by the sounding tube, one of which was
1 cm. in diameter. Before the blow-pipe the deposit
fuses into a grey magnetic bead. No effervescence is
observed when treated with acids. The fine washings
are chiefly composed of minute fragments of pumice.

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules,
Astrorbizid®, Lituolid®.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'50 mm., angu-
lar ; monoelinic and tricliiiic
felspars, augite, hornblende,
magnetite, pumice, glassy vol-
canic fragments, lapilli of
basaltic and tracbytic rocks,
red-brown granules.

(5 '30 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, associated
with flocculent organic matter
derived from the Foramiuifera,
Alg®, &c.

The dredge brought up a large quantity of the Coral Sand
with some large fragments of Corals, many OrbitoUles,
shells, &c. The diameter of some of theiiarticles making
up the sand exceeded 1 cm. The mineral particles
are remarkable for the perfection of their crystallo-
graphic form ; the felspar often has the form of
rhombic tables.

Sydney to New Zealand. —cowtinweci. Olf New Zealand. New Zealand to Tongatabn. Oil’ Ton"atabn.

UfT TonK»taliU'

ItUnd* to New IIcbritlML t>fT h^i laUndt. coniinutd.

83

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Se« CharU 27, 28, 29, and 30, and Diagrams 12 and 13.

^ .
il

Date.

Position.

C g
£ 2
Si «

Temperature
of the .Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisma

•172a

1874
July 22

e f fr

20 56 0 ,S.

240

O

750

CoRAi, Sand, yellow-grej', slightly

86-44

(25-00 %), Globigerinidoe, Pul'

/

(26-44%), Otolithsoffish,Ga

173

17Sa

24

24

.. 29

175 11 OW.

19 9 35 S.
179 41 50 E.
19 9 32 S.
179 41 65 K

Off Lcnika.

315

310

12

76-0
77 0

coherent when dry, line grained.
Besidue light yellow-brown.

1

|-CouAL Muds.

Coral Sand, course, chiefly com-

90-30

vinulina.

(35-00 %), Miliolidm, Textularid®,
Lageuids, Kotalidae.

(50-00 %), Miliolidoe, Textularidse,

pods, Lamellibrancha, 1
pods, Echinoderm fragn
Polyzoa, Coral fragment
cyonaiian spicules, calca
Algae, a few Coccoliths.

(40-30 %), Serpula, Gastero

174

Ang. 3

19 6 0 8.

140

77 0

posed of large white and yellow
Orbiloliles and other Foramini-
iera.

Besidue yellow-brown.
Coral Mud, cream-white with

86-41

Nummulinidoe.

(25-00%), Globigerinidae, Pul-

LamelKbranchs, Pteropodi
tracodes, carapace and
parts of Crustaceans, frsgti
of Echinoderms, Alcyon
spicules, Polyzoa, Corals,
careous Algae.

(26-41 %), Otoliths offish, Gai

174a

.. 8

178 14 20 E.
19 6 32 8.

ICO

77-0

rose tinge, slightly coherent,
fine grained, pre.senting no
macroscopic elements.

Besidue yellow-brown.

Coral Mud.

vinulina.

(35-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidie,
Lagenidse.

pods, Lamellibranchs, 1
pods, Ostracodes, Eehino
fi-agiiients, Polyzoa, Coral
meuts, calcareous Algse,
Coccoliths.

174b

s

178 16 20 E.
19 6 45 8.

255

77-7

Coral Mud, cream-white with

86-31

(25 -00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(26-31%), Otoliths of fish, Ga

tl74c

.. 8

178 17 0 E.
19 7 50 8.

610

89 0

78-0

rose tinge, slightly coherent,
fine grained, presenting no
mucrosenpic elements.

Besidue yellow-brown.

Globioerina Ooze, with rosy

79-65

vinulina.

(35-00%), Miliolidaj, Textularid.-c,
Lageuidae.

(40-00%), Globigerinida:, Pul-

pods, Lamellibranchs, 1
pods, Ostracodes, Eehino
fragments, Polyzoa, Coral
ments, calcareous Algs,
Coccoliths.

(29 '65 %), Otoliths of fish, Gai

.. 3

178 19 35 E.
19 5 50 8.

210

77-7

tinge, fine grained, pla.stic
when wet, pulverulent when
dry.

Residue light brown.

CoiiAL Mud, cream coloured.

86-97

vinulina.

(10-00%), MiliolidfB, Textularidaj.
(10-00%) Globigerinid®, Pul-

pods, Lamellibranohs, I
pods, Hetcropods, E
spines, fragments of C<
Coccoliths, Khabdolitb.

(36-97 %), Otoliths of fish,

.. 1*

178 16 20. E.
19 2 0 8.

1350

36 0

77-6

slightly coherent, fine grained.
Besidue brown.

CLonioF.RiNA Ooze, with much

44-43

vinulina.

(40 00%), Miliolida;, Textularidte,
Lngeiiido!, RotalidiB, Nummu-
liuido:.

(35-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

}rula, Gastei-opods, Lsn
branchs, Pteropods, Ht
pods, Ostracodes, EoLiiini
fragments, Polyzoa, Coral
ments,. Alcyonarian spir
calcareous Algse, Coccalitli

(7 "43 %), Otoliths and small

1

177 10 0 K.

clayey matter, red when wet,
red brown when dry, coherent,
earthy.

Besidue chocolate coloured.

vinulina.

(2-00%), Miliolidoe, Textiilaridac,
Jjagenidee, Kotalidae, Nuiiiniu-
liuidtE.

of fish, Ostracode shells, E
spines, Coccoliths, Bhi
lilhs. It is remarkable thi
shells of Pteropods, Ih
pods, or other pciamc Moll
are found in this de|
although they were ap[«n
more abundant than tlisG
geriiiidoe in the surface w*

• fte« ri. XIV. fig. 1. t 8co n. XIV. figs. 3o, 36, J See PI. XIV. figs. 4a, 46.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

89

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(2‘00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olida;.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'40 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, magnetite, fragments
of brown and black volcanic
glass.

(8'56 %), a small quantity of
fine amorphous matter and
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Here also the mineral particles are remarkable for the
perfection of their crystallographic form.

There was insufficient for subsequent examination.

(1'00%), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olida;.

(3'00 %), m. di. 0'50 mm., an-
gular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, magnetite, fragments
of volcanic rocks.

(5'70 %), amorphous clayey and
other matter (organic), minute
mineral particles, and some
fine siliceous remains.

This deposit is composed of very large shells of Orhitolites
complanata, with fragments of Molluscs, Corals, &c.

(2‘00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olidiE.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; fragments of altered
volcanic glass, felspar, horn-
blende, augite, magnetite,
black mica.

(10'59 %), small quantity of amor-
phous mattes, with a consider-
able number of fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The Sponge spicules are derived chiefly from the genus
Qeodia.

There was insufficient for examination.

(2 ’00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olidse.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; fragments of altered
volcanic glass, pumice, plagio-
clase, olivine,homblende, black
mica, augite, magnetite.

(10 '69 %), amorphous matter,
with a few mineral fragments
and remains of siliceous or-
ganisms.

(3'00%), Sponge spicules, Kadio-
laria, Astrorhizidse, Lituo-
lidse, brown casts.

(2 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm., an-
gular ; hornblende, felspar,
magnetite, black mica, white
and black glassy volcanic
particles.

(15'35 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
small fragments of siliceous
organisms.

A few imperfect brown coloured casts of some of the cal-
careous organisms were observed. There are large
pieces of pumice present in the deposit. The percent-
age of particles from the reefs is much less than in the
other soundings nearer the reefs.

(2 ‘00 %), Sponge spicules, As-
trorhizidse, Lituolidse.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm., an-
gular ; felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, magnetite, pu-
mice.

(10 '03 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, minute fragments of
minerals andsiliceous spicules.

In the dredge there were several pieces of grey pumice
stone overgrown with Carpenteria and Scrpnila. One
of these pieces of pumice was as large as a hen’s egg.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hizidie, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm., an-
gular ; felspar, plagioclase,
black mica, augite, horn blende,
magnetite, many fragments of
pumice, glassy volcanic par-
ticles, lapilli of basaltic rocks,
manganese.

(53 '57 %), amorphous matter,
with small fragments of mine-
rals and siliceous organisms.

The trawl brought up a branch of a tree which was in
parts carbonised, also many fragments of pumice and
some animals ; most of the animals were found on the
piece of wood. The felspar and augite have sometimes
vitreous inclusions and are covered with glassy scori-
aceous matter. The pumice stones are all more or less
rounded and vary much in size, the largest being 6 to
8 cm. in diameter, and are all covered with a layer of
hydroxides of iron and manganese which penetrate
them more or less deeply. The pumice is to be re-
ferred to augite-andesite ; it contains plagioclase and
augite.

(DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. — 1890.)

12

Oil Fiji Islands. joiji Islands to Now lloliridc.s.

Fiji Ulaiula to

Xow lirbriilni to ICaiiio Iilatul. New ileliriilea— oon/inueri.

90

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Chart 27, aiul Diagram 13.

• u O
' S3

i BS

1"

Date.

Poaltlon.

Depth in
Katboma.

TomMrature
of the Sea-
water
(Kalir.).

Deaignatiou and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminlfera.

Other Organism*.

•176

1874
Aug. 15

O t

18 30
173 52

tt

0 S.
0 E.

1450

O

36-2

0

77 '5

Globioerina Ooze, reddish when
wet, red -brown when dry,
slightly coherent, breaking up
in water.

Besidue chocolate coloured.

62-41

(55 -00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vimdina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularidse,
Lagenidce, Rotalidse.

(6-41 %), Otoliths of fish, C
code valves. Echini s]
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

177

!

.. 18

16 45
168 7

0 S.
0 E.

130

78-7

Volcanic Sand, with concre-
tionary masses of a dark brown
colour, coherent, gritty.
Besidue brown, with red tinge.

13-14

(2-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(3 00 %), Miliolid®, Textularid®,
Lageuid®, Rotalid®, Nummu-
linidffi.

(8-14%), Serpula, Gastero
Pteropods, Balanus, ^
derm fragments, Poi
Corals, Alcyonarian spicu.

tl78

.. 19

16 47
165 20

0 S.
0 E.

2650

35-8

79-0

Red Clay, chocolate coloured
when wet, yellow-brown when
dry, coherent, breaking up in
water, fusing easily before the
blowpipe, sublustrous streak.

179

.. 21

15 58
160 48

0 S.
0 E.

2325

36-0

79-0

Globioerina Ooze, pale yellow-
brotvn, slightly coherent, homo-
geneou.s, fine grained.

Besidue red-brown.

32-29

(27-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
vinulina. ,

(TOO %), Biloculina, Rotalid®.

(4-29 %), small teeth of fish,
ini spines, Coccoliths, 1
dolitns.

leo

24

14 7
153 43

0 8.
0 E.

2450

36 0

80 0

Red Clay, grey-brown, plastic,
homogeneous, fine grained.
Beddue red-brown.

[1-00]

Fragments of Globigerinid® and
Rotalid®.

191

.. 25

18 50
151 49

0 S.
0 E.

2440

35-8

80 0

Red Clay {lop layer), light red-
grey when drj', coherent, fine
grained, lustrous streak, plastic,
unctuous, brown when wet.

Besidue brown.

(BoUom layer), light red-grey,
somewhat coherent, breaking
up readily in water, brown (but
lighter shade than the upper)
when wet.

Besidue brown.

6-42

32-28

Mostly broken fragments of Globi-
gerinid®, one or two Trunmtu-
lina jjygmsea.

(28-00 %), Globigerinid®, PMfuiim-
lina, very many more perfect
shells than in the upper layer ;
one or two Lagcna orbignyana.

(4-28 %), Coccoliths, E
doliths.

182

.. 27

13 6
148 37

0 fl
0 E.

2275

86-8

78-5

4

GLOBinr.iiiNA Ooze, yellow-grey,
chalky, slightly coherent, fine
grained, breaking up readily in
water.

Besidue red-brown.

49-90

(40-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pul-
rinulina.

(2-00 %), Bolivina dilatata,
Nummulinid®.

(7-90 %), Pteropod fragm
Ostracodes, Echini
Alcyonarian spicules, G
liths, Rhabdoliths.

• .See anal. 44, .^.6 ; I’l. XI. Hg. 1 ; I’l. XXIV. fig. 4. t See I’l. XXVII. fig. 2.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

91

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(10 '00 %), a few Radiolaria,
principally red coloured casts
1 of pelagic Foratninifera, Litu-
oUdse, a few Diatoms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
olivine, many fragments of
pumice, lapilli, volcanic glass
transformed into palagonite,
manganese grains.

(17'59 %), minute pumice and
other mineral fragments,
amorphous matter, and re-
mains of siliceous organisms.

The Foraminifera of this sounding are worthy of notice,
as while some of them are quite white and rose
coloured, others are deep brown or black and have in
some cases a depo.sit of manganese on their surfaces.
Very many of them are filled and covered with a red
siliceous matter, which remains as external and in-
ternal casts on removal of the carbonate of lime. On
breaking one of these shells three distinct zones are
observed : internal cast, shell, and external cast.

i(3'00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
' glauconitic-like easts of calca-
1 reous organisms.

(65 '00%), m. di. 0'30 mm., an-
gular ; black vesicular glassy
fragments, pumice, plagio-
clase, augite, magnetite, more
or less altered lapilli.

(18 '86%), amorphous ferrugin-
ous matter, very many mineral
particles, and a few fragments
of siliceous spicules.

Amongst the mineral particles are fragments of rocks
and pumice from 0'5 to 1 cm. in diameter. Of the
mineral particles many are often surrounded with
volcanic glass. Casts of some of the organisms in a
green matter remain after treatment with acid. The
concretions are overgrown with Corals, Serpula,
Polyzoa, and Garpenteria.

5 00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, a few Ammodiscv^
incertus, Diatoms.

1

(20 ‘00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, hornblende, pumice,
small particles of manganese.

(75 '00 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute particles
of pumice and other minerals,
fragments of Diatoms and
Sponge spicules.

This deposit does not show any sensible effervescence with
acids and no carbonate of lime organisms have been
observed. There are many fragments of pumice, some
of which are dark coloured. It would appear that this
deposit has its origin chiefly from volcanic debris.

' 2’00 %), Radiolaria and Sponge
1 spicules.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
magnetite, pumice, brown
glassy vesicular lapilli.

(60 '71 %), much amorphous
matter, many minute mineral
particles, pumice debris, and
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

The larger Foraminifera are much broken and decom-
posed. Many small fragments of pumice, much de-
composed, were observed among the minerals.

i l'OO %), Sponge .spicules, frag-
ments of Radiolaria, Haplo-
phragmium, a few Diatoms.

(2-00 %), m. di. 0‘06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, hornblende, pumice,
volcanic glass, magnetite.

(96 '00 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
fine fragments of siliceous
spicules.

Truncatulina pygmma is the only perfect representative
of the bottom-living calcareous Foraminifera observed;
the pelagic Foraminifera are nearly all fragmentary.
At the bottom part of the sounding tube there appeared
to be a stratification, evidenced by very thin dark and
light coloured layers.

!

1 '00 %), a few fragments of
Sponge spicules, Lituolidae,
casts of Foraminifera.

i

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, manganese grains.

(91 '58 %), much amorphous
matter, mineral and siliceous
remains.

The sounding tube was full of mud in two layers, the
upper layer, about three inches deep, being a Red Clay
very like that obtained at the last station. Very little
effervescence was noticed on treating a portion with
acid.

Separated from the upper layer by a distinct line was
a lighter coloured deposit which effervesced readily ;
with acids, leaving a residue similar to the upper -
layer. The minerals are the same in each layer.
Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths are present, but only a few
are perfect. The Globigerinidas are chiefly frag-
mentary. A piece of pumice about 3 mm. in diameter
was observed. In the trawl were many pieces of
pumice from the size of a pea to that of a hen’s egg.

1

;1'00 %), fragments of Sponge
spicules, a few casts.

(I’OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, magnetite, palagonite,
glassy volcanic particles, man-
ganese grains.

(65 '72 %), much brown amor-
phous matter and fine mineral
particles.

2'00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
Radiolaria, Rhahdammina,
Haplophragmium.

(2 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
quartz, augite, magnetite.

(46’10 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
minute siliceous remains.

1

Very little of the deposit was obtained, and considerable ;
washing may have taken place in the sounding tube. ;
A relatively large number of calcareous spicules of
Alcyonaria are present. The pelagic Foraminifera are .
nearly all fragmentary. j

Fiji Islaiuls to

Jvew Hebrides — contimicd. New Hebrides to Eaine Island.

York lo Arruu Itlaixl*. Olf Itoiuo IslaiiJ. New llvliridfn to Kaiiiu I ilutnl -cuatiinuil.

92

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

•1

I

S<*o Charts 27 and 31, and Diagram 13.

8 ®
P

t)at«

I S3

1874
Aug. 28

•184

29

185
185 a
tl85B

31

31

31

184

: 1

j Pooition.

f s

5 0
Ax

Temperature
uf the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Itottom 1

Surface

i

j

i

• t

Q

0

12 42

0 S.

1700

36-0

78-0

146 46

0 E.

12 8

0 S.

1400

36-0

77 *5

145 10

0 E.

1

11 35

25 .S.

135

1

77-0

144 2

0 E.

11 36

20 .S.

150

77-0

144 1

50 K.

11 38

15 S.

155

77-0

143 59

38 E.

Beach, Raine

Island.

1

Torres Strait.

3-11

10 30

0 S.

8

1

!

77-2

142 18

0 E

DeMguation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

Globigerina Ooze, cream-
coloured with ro.se tinge,
slightly coherent, fine grained,
breaking up readily in water.

Besidue red-brown.

Globioerina Ooze, yellowish
when dry, coherent, breaking
up readily in water.

Besidue reddish.

Coral SANDs,composed of white
and brownish fragments of
calcareous organisms.

Besidue yellow-red.

Coral Sand, yellow-white.

Besidue a few dark mineral
particles and some red
amorphous material.

Deposit compose<l of coarse sand,
shells, and gravel.

Besidue white, red, and
black particles.

shells, and gravel.

Besidue yellow-brown.

53-75

52-64

86-97

89-14

62-15

Foraminifera.

Other Organismi.

(50-00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %),BiloculiTia, Textularidai,
Lagenidse, Rotalidfe.

(40-00 %), Globigerinidffi, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 '00 %), Miliolidffi, Textu-
laridae, Lagenida;, Rotalidie.

(40-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(15-00 %), Miliolidie, Textu-
laridae, Lagenidee, Rotalidae,
Nummulinidae.

(35-00 %), Miliolida?,
Nummulinidae.

Rotalidte,

(15-00%), Miliolida;, Textularidae,
Rotalido;, Nummulinida;.

59-66 (20-00 %), Miliolida*, Textula-

rida-, Rotalidie, Nummulinida'.

(2-75 %), Ostracodea, Echini
spines, a few Cocooliths and
Rhabdoliths.

(10-64 %), Serpula, fragments of
Lamellibranchs, Braduopodi,
Cirripeds, Echini spin*,
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

(31-97 %), Otoliths of fish,
piila, Gasteropoda, lAind'
libranchs, Pteropods, Hetn»i
pods, Ostracodea, Echinodera
fragments, Polyzoa, calcsreoBj
Algae.

(54-14 %), Serpula, Gasterop
Lamellibranchs, Osfra«)dei!|
Echinoderm fragments, AlcTfri
narian spicules, Polyzoi,Con'
calcareous Algae.

(47-15 %), Serpula,
Gasteropods, LamellibrtiKifl
Ostracodes, Balaitus, Ecliii>“|
derm fragments, Alcyonsra^l
spicules, Polyzoa, Conls, «•!
careous Algae, calcawoni
cretions. '

(39-66 %), Serpula, DmlaliiA
Gasterojiods, LamnllibiMMl
Ostracodes, Balamu, KchiHJ
derm fragments, Alcyonirtl
spicules. Corals, PolyMk
careous Algae.

See anal. 79.

+ See anal. 88; PI. XXIV. fig. 3.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

93

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

1 Fine Washings.

1(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Am-
modiscus iiicertus, a few
1 brown casts.

[

(2 ’00%), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, mica, hornblende,
magnetite, volcanic glass
splinters, pumice, glauconite.

(42 '25 %), a considerable

quantity of fine clayey and
other matter, coloured red by
iron, minute mineral particles,
and remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

There was a large quantity of this deposit, of a uniform '
character throughout, in the sounding tube. The Fora-
minifera are large and very perfect and include a few
Text'ularia and Rotalia, as well as Pulvinulina favus.
All the pelagic forms are typical of a tropical Globi-
gerina Ooze. The volcanic glass in some cases has been
highly altered.

(2 "00 %), Radiolaria, casts of
Foraminifera in manganese
and iron, Sponge spicules,
Astrorbizidee, Lituolidee, a
few Diatoms.

!

(2'00 %), m. di. 0‘06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, quartz,
mica, hornblende, augite,
magnetite, fragments of
pumice.

(43 '36 %), amorphous matter,
with many small fragments
of minerals and siliceous
organisms.

In the trawl there were many pumice stones, several
cocoa-nuts, and other fruits. To these were attached
Hydroids, Brachiopods, Annelids, and Cirripeds. Some
of the largest pumice stones have a diameter of about
5 cm., all more or less rounded, some porous,
some homogeneous, some filamentous, some scoriaceous; !
others have a greenish tinge, with a thin coating of !
manganese, and are rather hard, but not so much J
altered as those at Station 175.

|0'OO%), many casts of Fora-
minifera of a reddish colour,
Astrorhizidje, Lituolidse.

(4’00 %), m. di. 0’07 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, mica, magnetite,
augite, glauconite, olivine.

(3 '03 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, some fine mineral
particles.

This deposit contains very many casts of Foraminifera
which are nearly all of a brick-red colour although a !
few have a greenish tinge ; there was, however, no
typical glauconite observed. Many of the organisms
are macroscopic. The numher of pelagic forms varies
greatly in different samples.

i

;i'00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
brown casts of calcareous
organisms.

1

(6 '00 %), m. di. 0’30 mm.,
rounded, smallest particles
angular ; quartz, plagioclase,
augite, hornblende, felspar,
mica, tourmaline, glauconite
grains, magnetite.

(3 '86%), a small quantity of floc-
culent organic matter and fine
mineral particles.

1

This deposit is made up for the most part of Corals, frag-
ments of Lamellibranchs and Gasteropods, Orbitolites,
Amphistegina, Heterostegina, and Rotalia. The grains
making up the “sand” measure from 1 to 10 mm.
in diameter.

J

(2‘00 %), Sponge spicules,
LituolidiB,

(30'00 %), m. di. 0'50 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, olivine, fel-
spar, magnetite, glauconite.

(5 '85 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, and fine mineral par-
ticles.

A large percentage of the carbonate of lime comes from |
fragments of calcareous rocks and concretions. These j
fragments average in diameter about 1 cm. In addition I
there are a few conglomerated masses about 1 cm. in ^
diameter, and quartz and other mineral particles
cemented together by a reddish material. Worm tubes j
composed of grain® of quartz are also present, and shell
fragments cemented together. ^

(5 "00 %), Lituolidse, Textula-
rida;, Sponge spicules, casts
of calcareous organisms. Dia-
toms.

(25'00 %), m. di. I'OO mm.,
rounded, liner grains angular
and often coated with limo-
nite ; chiefly quartz, some
grains of milky quartz.

(10'34 %), amorphous ferrugin-
ous matter, fine minerals, and
siliceous remains.

The sandy and calcareous concretions of the bottom
measure from one to many centimeti'es in diameter,
and on treatment with acid leave a considerable quan-
tity of yellow-red residue, chiefly made up of casts of
organisms. A second dredging, obtained near the first, i
was found to be finer but otherwise similar. Nearly all
the organisms arg impregnated with red oxide of iron,
giving a decided colour to the deposit. j

New Hebrides to Raiiie Island— mobbn/erf. Oil’ Raiiie Island. Capo York to .\rrou bsliuids.

Atrou IidauiU to lUuda. l'4i|io York to Arrou NUiidi. — eontintud.

w

94

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Se« Charts 31 and 32, and Diagram 14.

■3 .

5J

l5

Onto.

roaltlon.

IX-pth in
Fathoms.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water.
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium. I

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms. i

167

1874
Sept 9

• t n

10 36 0 S.
HI 55 0 E.

6-8

o

O

77*7

Deposit composed of sand and
shells.

Besidue green-brown.

77-90

(45-00 %), Miliolidae, Textular-
idaj, Rotalidse, Nummulinidse.

((

(32-90 %), Serpula, Gasteropodi, '
Lameilibranchs, PteropodW ;
ments, Echinoderm flagmen^ i
Polyzoa, calcareous Algae. i

188

9 .''.9 0 S.
139 42 0 E.

28-30

78-5

Depo.sit composed of .sand and
shells, green-grey.

Besidue pale grey.

38-70

(15-00 %), Miliolidae, Textular-
idae, Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(23-70 %), Serpula, Gasteropodi, i
Lameilibranchs, Ostracoda*, '
fragments of Echinodeniu,
Alcyonarian spicules, Polya*, '
one or two Coccoliths.

•169

.. 11

9 36 OS.
137 ."iO 0 E.

28

79-0

Green Mto, pale green-grey,
gritty, coherent when dry,
containing shell fragments and
calcareous concretions.

Besidue green-grey.

31-13

(10-00 %), Miliolidae, Textular-
idae, Rotalidai, Nummulinidae.

(21-13 %), Otoliths of fish, Stt-''
pula, Gasteropoda, Lamelli. 1
branchs, Ostiacodes, Echiuo-j
derm fragments, Polyzoa. i

190

.. 12

8 56 OS.
136 5 0 E.

49

79-2

Green Mud, green-grey, co-
herent, breaking up with diffi-
culty in water, containing
large fragments of Lamelli-
branchs and large calcareous
concretionary nodules.

Besidue green.

23-04

(1-00 %), Globigerina rubra.

(3-00 %), Miliolidae, Lagenidae,
Textularidee, Rotalidae, Num-
mulinidae.

(19-04 %), Serpula, Gasteropodi,
Lameilibranchs, Ostrecodei,
valves of Balanus, Echiiiodem
fragments, Polyzoa, Corah,

.. 16

.\rafura Sea.

65

Green Mud, green-grey, slightly
coherent, bre^oking up in water.
Beeidue dark green.

41-60

(10-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(10-00 %), Miliolidae, Lagenidae,
Textularid®, Rotalidse, Nuin-
mulinidae.

(21 -60 %), Serpula, Gasteropodi,
Lameilibranchs, Ptercpoik
Ostracodes, Jlchini spin»Vj
Alcyonarian spicules, Polyioi .

191

5 41 OS.
134 4 30 K.

800

39-6

82-2

Green Mud, very plastic when
wet, soft to the touch, coherent
when dry.

Besidue green with brown
tinge.

13-95

(8-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pulvinu-
lina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae.

(3 -95 %), Gasteropoda, Ijunflli-!
branchs, Ostracodes, Echin*'
derm fragments, calcaraw!
Algae. '

19U

24

5 26 0 S.
133 19 0 E.

580

40-7

81-5

Green Mud, dark grey with
green tinge, coherent when
drv, plaatic when wet.

Beeidue dark green.

40-20

(30-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
viwdina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Nummu-
linido!.

(7-20 %), Otoliths of fish.Ptei*’
pods, Ostracodes, Erhih

spines, one or two Cococlithi '

192

.. .‘6

5 49 15 S.
132 14 15 E.

140

82 0

Blue Mud, green-grey when dry,
plastic, coherent, breaking up
with difficulty in water, lustrous
streak.

Beeidue dark green.

8-30

(4-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidm, Rotalidae, Num-
mulinidae.

(2-30 %), Otoliths of fish, H
teropods, Lainellibisorh

Pteropods, Heteropods, 0iti»
codes, Echinoderm fragmeow
Alcyonarian spicules. J

See PI. XXVII. fig. 6.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

95

Residue.

■

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olidfe, Textularidae, glauconi-
tic casts, Diatoms.

(15'00 %), m. di. 0'50 mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz
often covered with limonite,
tourmaline, felspar, glauconite.

(5 '10 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles,
fragments of Diatoms.

Two dredgings were taken, one in 6 and another in 8
fathoms. The characters were similar in both cases,
and also similar to the deposits taken on the
previous day. There is less red coloured material than
at the previous station, but on the other hand the
glauconite is more abundant. The red material of
these and the preceding stations, on treatment with
acid, breaks up readily, only a few of the organisms
retaining their characteristic outlines. Calcareous con-
cretionary nodules were also observed. Quartz is the
chief mineral.

(3’00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olidae, casts of Foraminifera,
Diatoms.

(45’00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, glauconite,
felspar, hornblende, fragments
of rocks.

(13 "30 %), ferruginous amor-
phous matter and small frag-
ments of minerals.

One or two casts of the F oraminifera of a yellow colour
remained after treatment with acid. Calcareous con-
cretionary nodules about 3 cm. in diameter were
observed here as in the preceding deposits.

(3 '00 %), glauconitic casts, Tex-
tularidae, Sponge spicules, a
few Diatoms.

(25 ’00 %), m. di. 0’20 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, glauconite,
green mica, tourmaline, zir-
con.

(40 '87 %), amorphous green-
grey and other matter, fine
mineral particles, and a few
siliceous remains.

In this deposit there were calcareous nodules as at Stations
186 and 187, but much smaller in size and in some
cases dark in colour, due to the impregnation with
black oxide of manganese. The glauconite is more
abundant than in the four preceding stations.

(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Hy-
perammiTia, a few casts.

1

(50'00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular ; quartz, glauconite,
large fragments of felspar.

(24'96 %), fine mineral particles,
flocculent green amorphous
matter.

The calcareous nodules in this deposit are about 6 inches
long in some cases, and are covered with Serpula,
Corals, Polyzoa, Polytrema, Carpenteria, and Eyperam-
mina. After acid there remained a greenish red residue
of imperfect casts of organisms, minerals, &c. There
is much amorphous matter in this deposit, some of
which is transparent, with a green tint ; it shows
aggregate polarisation. This matter is proliably to be
referred to glauconite. There are also present some
small fragments of calcite.

(2‘00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
j spicules, a few pale green
j casts of Foraminifera.

(30‘00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
felspar, tourmaline, glauco-
nite, zircon.

(26 '40 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and a
few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

This deposit is similar to the last. There are more
pelagic Foraminifera here than in the five previous
deposits. No calcareous concretionary nodules were
found.

j(l '00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
1 laria, Lituolidse, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0 '06 mm., angu-
lar ; quartz, felspar, horn-
blende, glauconite, zircon.

(84 '05 %), much fine green amor-
phous and clayey matter, with
small fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

Among the organisms in this deposit there were worm-
tubes formed of the clayey material. Fragments of
wood, twigs, and seeds, were also present.

;i‘00 %), Sponge spicules, glau-
conitic casts.

1

1

1

1

(1'00%), m. di. 0’06 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar,
glauconite, pumice.

(57 '80 %), amorphous green
coloured matter, fine mineral
particles, and a few fragments
of Sponge spicules.

There was a large quantity of mud in the sounding tube ;
that on the top was of a green colour tinged rvith
brown, while at the bottom it was more clayey with
a blue tinge. After treatment with acid there remained
pale and dark green glauconitic grains and casts. There
were some concretions of Globigerina Ooze cemented
into a fine almost opaque paste of carbonate of calcium.
In the concretions some of the Globigerinidse are filled
with glauconite.

j 1 '00 %), a few Sponge spicules,
1 casts of Foraminifera, Litu-
olidse.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; glauconite (irregular
or spherical grains), quartz,
felspar, rarely thin greenish
scales of a chloritic mineral,
green pyroxene.

(89 '70 %), amorphous matter, a
few small fragments of
minerals.

Several soundings were taken, at two of which there were
traces of Coral Sand on the lead. At 3.30 p.m., south
of the Tionfolokker Islands, the Blue Mud described
was obtained. Near the same place two hauls of the
trawl were taken, and the deposit obtained was a Coral
Sand with large perforated fragments of calcareous rock.

Cape York to Arvou Islands— Arrou Islands to llanda.

iUiuU to Aniboina. Arroa Ulandii to Itaiidn — tonlinunl.

96

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

I

S«c Charts 31 and S3, and Diagram 14.

s

§3

Date.

Poaitloii.

S B

a

Tompemture
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

QUe

Bottom

Surface

1874

Off/

0

0

•19-2.^

Sept 26

5 49 15 S.
132 14 15 K.

1-29

Glohioerina Ooze, hard honey-
combed Globigerina rock.
Residue green.

.. 28

5 24 OS.
130 37 15 E.

2800

38-0

83-5

Volcanic Mud, blue, pulverulent,
fine grained.

194

.. 29

4 31 OS.
129 57 30 E.

200

83-0

!- Volcanic Muds.

194a

*» tt

4 31 0 S.
129 67 20 E.

360

82-5

J

Oct 1

Off Banda.

17

Volcanic Sand or gravel, made
up of red, white, and black
particles.

Residue black.

195

.. 3

4 21 OS.
129 7 0 E.

1425

38-0

82-0

Blue Mud, blue-grey, coherent,
homogeneous, fine grained,
plastic when wet.

Residue blue-grey.

l

.. «

Off Amboina.

15-20

Deposit comjKwcd of Sheliji and
.Sand, princifwlly Gasteropod
and lAmellibranch fragments,
UtUroMrgxnn complanala.
Residue dark grey.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

79-56

trace

52-09

31-36

69-26

Foraminifera.

Pul-

(60-00 %), GlobigerinidiE,
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidfc,
Lagenidse, Rotalidae, Nummu-
linida:.

Pulvinulina.

(20-00 %), Miliolidse, Rotalidae,
Nummulinidaj.

Pul-

(15-00 %), Globigerinida:,
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidre, Lagenidae,
Rotalidae.

(9-00 %), Globigerinid®, Pulvin-
ulina mciuirdii.

(26-00 %), Miliolidtc, Lagenidac,
Numuiulinidae.

Other Orgauisma.

(14-66 %), Serpula, Denidiuti}
fragments of Gasteropoda (rat«)l
and Lamellibranchs, iimU!
and carapaces of Crnstaceaiu,'
Pteropods, Ostracodea, Echino-
derm fragments, Corala (Ctoy.
ophyllia), Alcyonarianapiculi

(32-09 %), Otoliths of fish, Si
pula, Gasteropoda, Ltmd)
branchs, Echinodem fiifi
ments, Polyzoa, Corals, eij

careous Algae.

(13-36 %), Gasteropod fragmwili
Lamellibranchs, Pterop
Ostracodes, Alcyoiiarian
cules, Coccoliths.

(25-26 %), Otoliths of fisb,«
jmla, Dentaliv/m, GasteroH
Lamellibranchs (oyster), Plj
opods, Ostracodea, Bakh
Echinoderm fragments,
(free), Polyzoa.

See PI. XII. fig. 2.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

97

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(5'00 %), Sponge spicules, Textu-
laridae, casts of calcareous or-
ganisms.

(I'OO %), m. di. OTO mm.,
rounded ; glauconite, quartz,
felspar, zircon, olivine, horn-
blende.

(14‘44 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
siliceous remains.

5-00 %), Sponge spicules,

Radiolaria, Diatoms.

(60'00 %), m. di. 0‘20 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
volcanic glass, augite, magne-
tite, andesitic lapilli.

(35 '00 %), fine amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles,
and siliceous remains.

(47'91 %), angular; lapilli of
volcanic rocks, plagioclase,
augite, hornblende, magne-
tite, black glassy volcanic
particles, olivine.

A small quantity of fine amor-
phous matter.

'3 '00 %), Sponge spicules, a
few Radiolaria, Astrorhizidae,
Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular; magnetite, brownish
vesicular volcanic glass,

pumice, plagioclase, horn-
blende, augite.

(55 ’64 %), fine amorphous
matter, with minute mineral
particles and remains of sili-
ceous organisms.

2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Lituo-
' lidae, Diatoms.

1

1

!

(15 '00 %), m. di. 0’20 mm.,
angular and rounded ; plagio-
clase, sanidine, pyroxene,
magnetite, quartz, altered
olivine, pumice, particles of
volcanic rocks (some altered).

(23 '74 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, minute mineral parti-
cles, and fine siliceous re-
mains.

Additional Obseuvations.

In the trawl were several large pieces of honeycombed
rock, and many rounded more or less hardened nodules.
These nodules, when examined, were found to be com-
posed entirely of the shells of Olobic/erina, Pulvinu-
lina, and Orhulina, — in short, a Globigerina Ooze
more or less hardened. The large pieces of rock are
very hard, requiring heavy strokes of a hammer to
break them, and are overgrown with Serpula, Car-
penteria, Polytrema, Sponges, Corals, Polyzoa, &c.

Only traces of the deposit came up in the sounding tube ;
it had evidently been washed out. In the water-bottle,
however, there was a small quantity of a red-green
colour. No Foraminifera were observed in this latter,
but in that obtained in the sounding tube three Pid-
mnulinoi shells were observed.

Some pebbles and mineral particles came up in the tube.
Mixed with these were some pelagic Foraminifera.
The minerals were generally volcanic, and attached
to one was a piece of coral. In the dredge were several
fragments of volcanic rocks and pumice, measuring
from 1 to 4 inches (25 mm. to 10 cm.) in diameter.
Corals, siliceous Sponges {Aphrocallistes, &c.), and
calcareous Algae.

A large proportion of the deposit is made up of calcareous
Algae encrusting nuclei of various materials, such as
rock fragments,. Corals, &c., and forming nodules from
I to 4 inches (6 mm. to 10 cm.) in diameter. The
rock fragments are from 1 to 5 cm. in diameter, with
a few smaller mineral particles. The volcanic minerals
are very often surrounded with black volcanic glass ;
they may be considered as splinters or products of
disintegration of a basaltic rock or as a volcanic ash. J

A large quantity of the mud came up in the sounding
tube. There was a watery brown layer on the top,
whereas the remainder was a compact Blue Mud ; both,
however, were of the same composition. In the dredge
there were a number of pumice nodules, varying from
^ to 4 inches (12 mm. to 10 cm.) in diameter, slightly
impregnated with manganese. To several of the smaller
ones there were attached specimens of A'ntipathes. One
or two twigs and seeds were also found in the dredge.

Pieces of twigs and leaves were present. A piece of vol-
canic tufa about an inch (25 mm.) in diameter was also
obtained. Small fragments of rocks 3 or 4 mm. in
diameter were found among the minerals. Hctcrostcgina ‘
complanata, var. granulosa, is largelj' represented. '

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

13

Arrou Islands to Banda — continued. Banda to Amboina.

S*fnS.i«nipin to MooiU. Anilwin« to S«m»>o(in({iui.

98

THE VOYAGE OP H.M.S. CHALLENGED.

Sc« Chart 31, and Diag^ni H.

i ^

6i

li

Date.

PoaiUon.

Depth In
Fathoms.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Cimracters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

i

Ituttoiii

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

196

1874
Oct 13

0 f

0 48
126 58

30 S.
30 E.

825

o

36-9

O

83 0

Haud Ground, hard conglo-
merate, yellow-white.

Eesidue yellow-white.

9370

Miliolina, Orbitolites, Globigerina,
Carpcntcria, Polytrema,

Serpula, fragments of Gastero.'
pods, Lamellibranehs, Echiuo.:
derm fragments, Polym
calcareous Algje.

1

-

j 197

1

1

.. 14

0 41
126 37

ON.
0 E.

1200

35-9

82-5

Blue Mud.

...

198

20

2 65
124 53

ON.
0 E.

2150

38-9

85 0

VoixjANic Mud, red-brown,
coherent, fine grained, break-
ing up in water, plastic and
dark brown when wet.

.. 22

5 44

123 34

ON.
0 E.

2600

38-6

83-0

VoLCANfC Mud, red-brown, co-
herent, fine grained, breaking
ti]> in water, plastic and dark
brown when wet.

j 200

j

.. 23

6 47
122 28

ON.
0 E.

250

...

85-5

Green Mud.

...

1

M 26

7 3
121 48

ON.
0 E.

82

...

83 0

Stones, GitAVEi..

...

i

j

202

.. 27

8 32
121 £5

ON.
0 E.

2550

50 6

83 0

Blue Mud, dark brown, fine
grained, unctuous, plastic,
homogeneous, coherent.

trace

OloMgerina hulloides, Tcxtularia
dilatala.

Echini spines, a few Coccolitts

203

1

.. 81

11 6
123 9

ON.
0 K

20

...

85 0

Mud, Sand, and Shells.

...

...

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

99

ilESIDUE.

ADDI5IONAL OBSERVATIONS.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I’OO %), Sponge spicules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0‘08 mm.,
angular ; felspar, pj'roxene or
hornblende, pumice.

(4'30 %), fine amorphous matter
and a few fine mineral par-
ticles.

Nothing was obtained in the sounding tube, but in the '
trawl there were fragments of a hard, irregular, honey-
combed conglomerate of a j^ellow-white colour, coated
in parts with manganese and overgrown with Serpula,
Polyzoa, and Sponges. The largest fragment measured
12 by 8 inches (30 by 20 cm.), and was not unlike those
obtained on September 26, but much harder and the
orgaijisms were less apparent. Microscopic sections show
the whole mass to be composed for the most part of Fora-
minifera and calcareous Algae, transformed into a crys-
talline limestone. Microscopic crystals of carbonate of
lime have been formed in all the hollows of these con-
cretions, and the cement is also crystalline. From
consideration of the organisms, this deposit, unlike
that at Station 192a, has been formed in comparatively
shallow water. In addition to the rock fragments,
there were also pieces of Corals. In the residue after
acid there were observed a number of small rounded
bodies, isolated or grouped, yellow and transparent;
these must be organic.

Only a trace of the bottom came up in the sounding
tube, and this was a fine sandy mud formed of red,
white, and black mineral particles, mixed with a few
small Foraminifera and Radiolaria. There was also an
angular pebble of augite-andesite, much decomposed
and coated with manganese.

) (3'00 %), Sponge spicules,
LituoMse.

(45‘00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
pyroxene, hornblende, magne-
tite, pumice, palagonite,
lapillii

(52 '00 %), amorphous matter of
a brown colour and many fine
mineral particles.

In the trawl there came up one or two pieces of rock
about an inch in diameter, volcanic conglomerate the
same as found off Goonong Api, several palm fruits, and
pieces of wood and bark.

) j(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Eeo-
' phax nodulosa,, Gavdryina
, dphmiella, Diatoms.

(48 '00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, pyro-
xene, hornblende, magnetite,
pumice, vitreous lapilli.

(50 '00 %), fine amorphous
brown coloured matter, many
fine mineral particles, . and a
few siliceous remains.

There were many small fragments of pumice.

Only a small quantity of mud was brought up. It was-
green in colourand contained Diatoms, Coccoliths,. GZo6i-
gerina, Radiolaria, and small mineral particles.

I

I

I M'OO %), Radiolaria and a few
Diatoms.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; magnetite, felspar,
plagioclase, quartz, augite,
hornblende, pumice, coloured
altered particles, brown vol-
canic glass, small basaltic
lapilli.

(94 "00 %), amorphous matter.

Four or five small pebbles came up in the sounding
tube, some basaltic,, others limestone. The former
were covered with attached Foraminifera of various
kinds. !

The deposit which came up in the tube and water-bottle
was exceedingly soft and of a slate blue colour, with r
here and there a tinge of red.

J

Amboina to Samboangan. Samboangan to Manila.

Mitiiila to SanilxMuif^m. MunitA to IIoiik Koiik aiiiI l>ai k. Snnil>oaii),'aii to Manila — eouliituftl.

100

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Seo Chart 31, and Diagram 11.

S3

15

llato.

Position.

Depth In
Fathoms.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fnhr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Hot tom

Surface

Per cent.

1874

OP 00

O

: 204

Nov. 2

T2 28 0 N.
122 15 0 E.

705

84-0

Bute Mud, green-grey when dry,
fine grained, coherent, green
when wet.

Residue green.

11-31

204a

»

2

12 43 0 N.
122 9 0 E.

100

84-0

Green Mud, green, slightly
coherent.

Residue green.

56-18

0

12 46 0 N.
122 10 0 E.

115

84 0

Green Mud, same as 204a.
Residue green.

50-40

■

11

Manila Har-
bour.

4

Blue Mud, blue-grey, plastic,
fine grained, unctuous, co-
herent.

trace

! 205
1

13

16 42 0 K.
119 22 0 E.

1050

37-0

82-0

Blue Mud, light grey, homo-
geneous, fine grained, co-
herent.

Residue brown.

22-11

1875
Jau. 6

Hong Kong
Harbour.

7

Mud and Shells, gi-een-grey,
coherent, breaking up readily
in water.

Residue green-grey.

53-52

206

i

.. «

17 54 0 N.
117 14 0 E.

2100

36-5

75-2

Blue Mud, green, somewhat
plastic, coherent, unctuous,
homogeneous, fine grained.

ti-acc

, 207

.. 1«

12 21 0 N.
122 15 0 E.

700

5T6

80-0

Blue Mud, light green-grey,
coherent, homogeneous, fine
grained, HiiblnstroiiM streak,
breaking U]> with ditlicnlty in
wnter.

Residue dark green.

3-22

206

.. 17

11 37 0 N.
123 31 0 E.

!

1

8T0

Blue .Mud.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms,

(6'00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-

oj'j'i) ■J/ 1'i'nyi

(1-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidse,
Rotalidce, Nummulmidie.

(20'00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-

4^] 'll ‘1//'} II /V

(5-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularidee,
Lag('iiida;, Rotalida;, Num-

muliiiida?.

(20 ‘00 %), Globigei'inidiE.

(4 00 %), Miliolidaj, Textularidee,
Lagenidie, Rotalidje, Num-

mulinidaj.

Miliolina, Bulimina aculeata,
Rotxilia.

(15'00 %), Globigerinidte, Pul-
vinulina.

(TOO %), Cassidulina subglobosa,
Sjjhmroidiim bulloides, Rot-
aiidiB.

(5’00 %), Miliolidee, Rotalidse,
NuinmulinidiB.

Globigerinidae, Pulvinulina.

Textularia, Uvigerina, Glubi-
gcrina sacculifera, Pulvinulina
vicnardii, Jlolalia.

(4'31 %), Lamellibranch frij;
ments, Pteropods, Ostracoda
Echini spines, Coocoliths.

(31 T8 %), Otoliths offish, Cm.
teropods, Lamellibranchs (lir-
val), Pteropods, Heteropodf,
Ostracodes, Echinodem big-
ments, Polyzoa.

(26 '40 %), Otoliths of C4

Gasteropods, Lamellibrsndii
(larval), Pteropods, Hele»

pods, Ostracodes, Echins-
derm fragments, Polyzua.

Gasteropods, Lamellibruicla,
Pteropods, Coccoliths.

(6T1 %), Serpula, Gasteropodi,
Lamellibranchs, a fci
Pteropod fragments, Echini
derm fragments, free Conli
{Bathyaclis), Coccoliths, Sink
doliths.

(48 '52 %), Otoliths of fish, Gir
teropods, Lainellibrnth, j|
Ostracodes, Echiuoderm fnj '
ments, Polyzoa.

A few fragments of LiiTit&
branchs and Pteropods, os* •
two Coccoliths.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

101

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

; (5'00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
j spicules, Diatoms.

Jlinerals.

(60‘00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, quartz,
pyroxene, hornblende, mica,
magnetite, pumice, altered
volcanic particles, glauconite.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

(23 '69 %), green amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles,
and siliceous fragments.

(3-00%), Sponge spicules,
j Eadiolaria, Textularidae, casts
j of calcareous organisms.

, (4 '00 %), Sponge spicules,
j Eadiolaria, arenaceous Textu-
J laridie, glauconitic casts.

(30-00 %), m. di. O'lS mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, n)agnetite, volcanic
glass splinters, glauconite.

(10-82 %), many fine mineral
particles, a little amorphous
matter, and a few siliceous
remains.

After treatment with acid, there remain a good many
pale and dark green casts of the Foraminifera and
other shells.

(30-00 %), m. di. 0-10 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
quartz, hornblende, augite,
mica, magnetite, glassy vol-
canic particles, glauconite.

(15-60 %), many fine mineral
particles, a little amorphous
matter, and a few siliceous
remains.

The deposit is similar in every respect to that obtained
at the previous station. Pteropods are fewer. A great
many casts of the organisms remain after treatment
with acid.

1(3-00%), Sponge spicules and
I Diatoms.

!(5'00%), Sponge spicules,
I Eadiolaria, Astrorhizidae,
' Haplophragmium, Diatoms.

(5-00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
fragments of Diatoms.

(10-00%), Sponge spicules,
Eadiolaria, Rhizammina,
Lituolidae, Clavulina com-
I munis, Diatoms.

(25-00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite, glassy
volcanic particles more or
less altered, quartz.

(10-00 %), m. di. 0-13 mm.,
angular ; quartz, plagioclase,
felspar, hornblende, augite,
magnetite, palagonite, pum-
ice.

(25-00 %), m. di. 0-50 mm.,
rounded and angular; quartz,
plagioclase, felspar, pyroxene,
hornblende, epidote, magnetic
particles, glauconite.

(5'00 %), m. di. 0-20 mm.,
angular ; quartz, a great num-
ber of small particles of brown
vesicular volcanicglas.s, plagio-
clase, augite, manganese grains,
magnetite.

(72-00 %), fine amorphous
matter of a blue colour, fine
mineral particles, and a few
remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

(62-89 %), fine amorphous and
clayey matter, minute mineral
particles, and some siliceous
remains.

(16-48 %), fine mineral particles,
a small quantity of amorphous
matter, a few fine fragments
of Sponge spicules, one or two
fragments of Diatoms.

(85-00 %), much green-brown
clayey and amorphous matter,
some fine mineral particles,
and minute remains of silice-
ous organisms.

The deposit was obtained from the anchor. A number q
of small coprolite-like bodies are present.

In the trawl were two or three rounded nodules of pumice,
from 4 to 1 inch (12 to 25 mm.) in diameter, a few
cinders, and fragments of wood and leaves. The
nodules and pieces of wood were overgrown with
Serpula. In addition to these there were a dead
Coral {Bathyactis) and a Gasteropod.

The deposit was obtained from the anchor and consists
of fragments of shells, &c., cemented together by mud.
It is curious to note that although the surface waters
were full of Diatoms none or only a few fragments
were observed in the deposit from the bottom. The
felspar is sometimes kaolinised.

When brought up in the sounding tube the mud was
reddish at the top and of a slate-blue colour at the
bottom. Small pellets of amorphous matter are
observed in the larger washings of the residue, pro-
bably excreta of Echinoderms.

(3 -00 %), a few Eadiolaria,
I Sponge spicules, and Diatoms.

I

I

!

(5-00 %), m. di. 0-06 mm.,
angular; very small particles,
among which felspar and
augite predominate, quartz,
glas.sy volcanic particles,
lumps of disintegi-ating
volcanic matter black and
somewhat opaque, probably
volcanic matter altering into
clayey substances, glauconite.

(88-78 %), much green clayey
and amorphous matter, many
fine mineral particles, and a
few remains of siliceous
organisms.

The calcareous organisms are fragmentary.

A small quantity of deposit was obtained from the
stomach of a Holothurian. It was green in colour
and contained broken shells of all kinds, Echinoderm
spines, many varieties of Foraminifera, but no Globi- '
gerina or Pulvinulina.

S.amboangau to Manila — continued. Manila to Hong Kong and back. Manila to Sambonngan.

S«iiit>oant;«n to Ni-» (;uiiira. Mniiil# to Saintioan^mii— ron/i>iu<^(/.

102

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soe Chart 31, and Diagram 14.

.S5

H-2
= *
y.

Date.

Poaition.

;zi

c-t:

« M

ax

Bottom Surface

Temperature
of tlio Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

CARBONATE OF CALCIUM.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

209

1875
Jan. 22

209a

24

210

25

210a

26

211

28

212 „ 30

*218

Feb. 8

10 14
123 54

0 N.
0 E.

95

71 0

81 0

85

9 26 ON.
123 45 0 E.

375

54-1

80-2

9 15
124 38

0 N.
0 E.

185

57-1

80-7

8 0 ON.
121 42 0 E.

2225

50-5

81-0

6 64 0 N.
122 18 0 E.

10

83 0

5 47 0 N.
124 1 0 E.

2050

38-8

83-0

Blue Mud, green, slightly co-
herent, somcwliat plastic when
wet.

Besidue green.

Blue Mud.

Green Mud, light green-brown,
coherent, fine grained, dark
green when wet.

Residue green.

Blue Mud, light green-brown,
coherent, fine grained, dark
gi'een when wet.

Residue green.

Blue Mud, light yellow-brown,
fine grainetl, homogeneous,
coherent, plastic when wet.
Residue brown.

Sand, Gravel, and’ Mud.

Blue Mud, with reddish surface
layer, yellowish when dry,
slightly coherent, fine grained,
earthy, breaking up readily in
water.

Residue blue-grey.

35-82

Sec anal. 63.

Tul-

(13-00 %), Globigerinidfe,
vinulina.

(13-00%), Miliolidae, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidie, Nummu-
linidee.

36-06

17-00

14-63

(25-00 %), Globigerinidfe, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Milioliua, Textularidfe,
Lagenidse, Rotalia.

Pul-

(12-00 %), Globigerinidfe,

(1-00 %), MUiolidfB, Textularidfe,
Lagenidse, Nummulinidfe.

Pul-

(11-00%), Globigerinidaj,
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Cassidulina
mhglobosa, Lagenidse, Ro-
talidse, Nonionina u/nibili-
catula.

1-75

A few Globigerinidoe.

(9-82 %), Otoliths offish, Gastero-
pods, Lainellibranoh fragimnu
Pteropods, Heteropods, Oatn-
codes, Echinoderm fragmenu
Alcyonarian spicules, Cwav
liths, Coccospheres.

(9 -06 %), Otoliths of fish, LaaJ-
libranchs, Ostracodes, Ediiai
spines, Coccoliths, RhaWo-
liths.

(4-00 %), Otoliths of fish, Oasttr^
pods, Lamellibranchs (larni),
Pteropods, Ostracodes, Echio
spines, Alcyonarian spicuk

(2-63 %), Echini spines, CoccoIitU

(if!

A few Cephalopod lieaki
Pteropod fragments.

. j

i

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 103

j Residue.

Additional Observations.

j Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

line Washings.

.lO'OO %), Sponge spicules,
1 arenaceous Textularidse,

Astrorbizidae, Haplophragm-
1 ium, casts of calcareous or-
ganisms, Diatoms.

(20 '00 %), m. di. 0’20 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
glauconite, plagioclase, fel-
spar, augite, hornblende, mag-
netic particles.

(34 T8 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

This seems to be a Green Mud in process of formation and
resembles that obtained off the coast of Australia,
Station 164. Abundant casts of the organisms remain
after treatment with acid.

3 '00 %), Sponge spicules,

Eadiolaria, arenaceous Textu-
laridse, casts of calcareous or-
ganisms, Diatom.s.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; glauconite, felspar,
plagioclase, augite, magnetite,
hornblende, olivine {?), altered
volcanic rocks, a great many
small yellow pellets, round
and opaque in centre, probably
altered glauconite or imperfect
casts.

(59 ‘94 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles,
and fine siKceous remains.

This is in the same position as the previous station, and
is known as the Euplectella gi’ound.

There were a great many oval arenaceous bodies, of dif-
ferent sizes, believed to be the excreta of Echinoderms.

3'00 %), Sponge spicules

(Euplectella and Geodia),

Eadiolaria, Reophax spicv.li-
1 fera, arenaceous Textularidse,
Diatoms.

(5’00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, volcanic
glass, quartz, magnetite, horn-
blende, hypersthene, augite,
sanidine.

(75 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fine minerals, and siliceous
remains.

The sounding was taken close to the Island of Camiguin
in 185 fathoms. The bottom is a Blue Mud contain-
ing Olohigerina, Pteropods, &c., and many small red
and white mineral particles of volcanic origin. A
piece of tufa about 0'5 cm. in diameter was observed
in the washings. Hornblende and augite are here
more abundant than in other deposits of a similar
kind.

2‘00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Lituo-
' lidse. Diatoms.

(2 "00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, felspar,
quartz, augite, hornblende,
black mica, magnetite, vol-
canic glass, pumice, lapilli.

(81 ‘37 %), light coloured clayey
and amorphous matter, fine
mineral particles, and siliceous
remains.

The sounding was taken in the Sulu Sea in 2225 fathoms.
The tube was nearly full of mud, all above the valve
being of a red colour, that below slate blue ; no difference
but that of colour can be detected in the two samples ;
the blue, however, appears to have more clayey and
earthy matter than the much more diffuse upper layer.

i

On February 2, 1875, in the same locality, large frag-
ments of plagioclase, often zonary, embedded in a
vitreous coating, crystals of augite, magnetite, and
hornblende, were observed in the mud.

|5'00 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
bizidae, Lituolidse, Diatoms.

(

(60'00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular ; quartz, sanidine,
plagioclase, magnetite, horn-
blende, mica, pumice.

(33 '25 %), amorphous matter,
many minute fragments of
minerals, and a few fragments
of siliceous organisms.

In the reddish surface layer one or two fragments of
Foraminifera and a fragment of Pteropod were noticed,
but the deeper blue coloured portions contain no car-
bonate of lime organisms, and do not show the least
effervescence with acids. The Eadiolaria appear also
to be much more numerous in the reddish surface
layer. There were many large hardened lumps of the
deposit in the trawl, which contained many fragments
of wood, leaves, and branches. The hornblende and
felspar, often filled with vitreous inclusions, are, like i
many of the minerals, enveloped in a vitreous volcanic ■
coating. Some fragments of rocks have a diameter of
0’5 mm.

Manila to Sainboaiigan— Sainboaiigan to Now OniTica.

S«ml>o«iif;;nn to Nrw riuiiiM— <dm/ihii«/.

104 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Chart 31, and Diagrams 14 and 15.

1

'

i li
1 =s

(»U<.

Poaltiou.

•C, O

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Kalir.).

Designation and Pliysical Cliaracters.

Carbonate op Calcium.

s CO

'r.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

i

214

1

i

1875
Feb. 10

• * !

4 33 ON.
127 6 0 E.

600

O

41-8

O

80-6

Blue Mud, grey, granular, co-
herent, earthy.

Kesidue reddish..

34-34

(25-00 %), Globigerinidoe, Pul-
vinulina,

(2-00 %), TextularidfB, Lagenidse.,

i

(7 -34 %), Otoliths of fish, Oitn j '
codes, Echinodorm ftagmeDtt, i 1
Polyzoa. 1

215

1

12

1 » * “

4 19 ON.
130 15 0 E.

2550

35-4

81-8

Red Clay, red-yellow when dry,
coherent, lustrous streak,
homogeneous, plastic and dark
red-brown when wet.

i 1

.-'''''vi'

I

21«

2 40 ON.
133 58 0 E.

1676

85-4

82-8

Globigerina Ooze, light grey
with red tinge, slightly cohe-
rent, granular, plastic when
wet.

Residue dark red-brown.

49-03

(40-00 %), Globigerinidm, Pul-
vinulina menardii.

(1 -00 %), Miliolina venusta, Uvi-
gerina aspenda, Pulvinulina
favus.

(8-03%), Echini’ spines, Co» Kj

210a

1

,, i«

2 56 0 N.
134 11 0 E.

2000

35-4

82-8

Globigerina Ooze, light red-
grey, slightly coherent, line
grained, plastic and red
coloured when wet.

Residue dark red-brown.

34-67

(30-00 %), Globigcrinidfe, Ptd-
vinulina menardii, Rotalia
soldanii.

(4 '67 %), Scliini .;>iiie8, ij,

liths, Rhabdolitbii.

217

j

.. 22

0 39 0 8.
138 55 0 E.

2000

35-2

83 0

Blue Mud, blue-grey, homogene-
ous, coherent, line grained,
breaking ui> with difliculty in
water, dark blue-grey when
wot.

Residue dark blue.

12-75'

(10-75 %), Globigcrinid®, Pulvi-
nulina menardii.

(2-00 %), llUoculina depressa,
Truncalulimi pyymaea.

i

j.

1

.. 24

Hamholdt
IWjr, I'apua.

37

Blue Mud, blue-grey and plastic
when wet, eoherent, granular.
Residue blue-grey.

28-91

(5 -00%), Globigerinida'.
(10-00%), Miliolidie, Tcrtularia,
Kotalidm, Numinulinidie.

(13-91 %), Gasteropods,

branchs (larval), l’t«r"j“^ |
Ostracodcs, Echinoderm Inf j :
ments, calcareous Alga- j

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

105

RSSIDUG.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
1 fragments of Kadiolaria,
Astrorhizidre, Lituolid®.

i

(20'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; sanidine, plagioclase,
quartz, augite, hornblende,
magnetite, pumice.

(43 '66 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals.

Besides a quantity of the deposit there were in the trawl
many animals and numerous fragments of trachytic
tufa. These fragments are generally very compact and
break up with difficulty, their cohesion being nearly as
perfect as that of crystalline rocks. They contain |
Globigerina and other Foraminifera, and a great
number of volcanic particles, as felspar, plagioclase,
augite, rarely hornblende, magnetite, fragments of
volcanic glass. These concretions are true submarine
tufas, and seem to be an augite-andesitic ash or to
come from the disintegration of an augite-andesitic
rock containing hornblende. Vitreous fragments are
not frequent ; probably they are altered into chloritic
matter present in the concretions.

I'OO %), many Eadiolaria,
siliceous spicules, Lituolid®.

i

(5‘00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
volcanic glass splinters, frag-
ments of altered volcanic
rocks, magnetite.

(92'00 %), much fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral par-
ticles, and remains of siliceous
organisms.

There was one piece of pumice about the size of a pea in
the sounding tube. In the trawl were a few fragments
of pumice, about the size of a hen’s egg or less. These
all contain porphyritic minerals. Inside one piece was
found an OrbuUna-Ws.& body, having the shell composed
of black and red particles, but containing no carbonate
of lime {Placopsilina bulla?). The pumice fragments
are slightly impregnated in some cases with manganese.

00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
laria, lihizammina algseformis,
Lituolid®.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; pumice, felspar, plagio-
clase, augite, magnetite.

(48 '97 %), much red amorphous
matter, fine mineral and
siliceous remains.

PulvinuUna favus was noticed here for the first time
since leaving the Philippine Islands.

•00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
laria. Diatoms.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular; felspar, pyroxene or am-
phibole, magnetite, pumice,
altered volcanic glass.

(63 '33 %), much amorphous
matter of a red-brown colour,
fine mineral particles, and
remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

There are fewer Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths than in the
previous sounding. There were one or two pieces of
pumice stone in the sounding tube. A considerable
number of pumice stones came up in the trawl, varying
from the size of a marble to that of a good-sized egg.
The surface of most of these was impregnated with
manganese. Stephanoscyphus simplex with its stolons
ran over these stones in gi'eat numbers. There were
also present in the trawl quantities of RMzammina
algseformis, the tube of which is composed of Foramini-
fera and other bottom-living organisms cemented
together. There were also many worm tubes and a
large irregular Rhizopod similar in form to (but not)
Syringammina fragilissima.

I’OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules,' Ehizammina algse,-
formis, Lituolid®.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; felspar, augite, vol-
canic glass, sometimes altered
to palagonite, quartz.

(85 '25 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles,
and remains of siliceous or-
ganisms.

There were two or three small pieces of pumice and '
several worm tubes or portions of them in the sound- |
ing tube.

I'OO %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
laria, Haplophragmmm agg-
lutinans, Textularia sagittula.
Diatoms.

(20'00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
rounded ; felspar, volcanic
glass, quartz, magnetite, oli-
vine, hornblende, mica, pala-
gonite, glauconite.

(49 '09 %), fine mineral particles,
amorphous matter, and silice-
ous remains.

A few green casts of the Foraminifera remain after treat-
ment with acid.

(deep-sea deposits ohalI'. exp. — 1890.)

■

14

Samboaiigan to New Guinea — continued.

AJilitrmItr ItUiuU to Vokolmni*. New fiuiiira to Ailminilty Inlainlii.

106

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

f

I

I

Se« Charts 31 and 34, and Diagrams 15 and 16.

"S .

si J
|3

Date.

PoaiUon.

)epth in
athoma.

Temperature
of tlio Sea-
water
(Falir.).

Dcsignatiou and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Caloiusi. !

1

’r*

^04

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms. '

' 218

1875
Mar. 1

9 t tt

2 33 0 S.
144 4 0 E.

1070

O

36-4

O

84 0

Blue Mud, pale blue-grey with
reddish tinge, homogeneous,
coherent, somewhat plastic
when wet.

Beaidue dark blue-grey.

17-17

(10-00 %), Globigerinidae, ' Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidic, Lagenidaj,
Rotalidae.

(4-17 %), Otoliths offish, Serjiula,
lanthina, Dentalium, Lamtiii!
branchs, Pteropods, Kcliiji
spines. Corals (Balhyactu,
Coccoliths.

. 10

Nares Har-
bour.

16-25

Coral Saxds and Muds, pale
yellow-white, free in the case of
the sand, light-brown, slightly
coherent.

Eesidue dark brown.

86-87

(2-00 %), Globigerinidae.

(30-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Numinu-
linidae.

(54-87 %), Serpula, Gasteropoi,
Lamellibranchs, Pteropoth,
tracodes, Echinoderra fng
meuts. Corals, calcareous AIjr

•

.. 9

Beach, Main
Island, Admi-
ralty Islands.

Sand, grey, black, white, and red
particles.

Residue dark grey»

27-30

(8-00 %), MilioUna, Rotalia,
Nonionina.

(19-30 %), larval GasteroKuh.
Lamellibranch and Icma#. ;
derm fragments, Alcyonuiu i
spicules, calcareous Algic. i

219

.. 10

1 54 0 8.
146 39 40 E.

150

84-0

Coral Mud.

... '

220

.. 11

0 42 0 8.
147 0 0 E.

1100

.36-2

83-8

Glodiof.rina Ooze, pale ytdlow-
whitc, granular, slightly co-
herent.

Residue red-brown.

63-75

(50-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 00 %), Biloculina depressa,
Truncatulina lobalula.

(11-75 %), Echini spinei^^
liths, Rhabdolitlis.

f'

221

13

0 40 0 N.
148 41 0 E.

2650

35-4

83-8

Red Clay, light rod-brown, co-
herent, finegrained, jue.sentiug
no macroscopic elements.

trace

Pulviniilina favus (fragment).

|1

ij

Small teeth of fish. !

t

Ij

in

.. 1«

2 15 0 N.
146 16 0 M

2450

35-2

82-8

Red Clay, light brown with red
tinge, coherent, fine grained,
presenting no macroscopic
elements.

Residue chocolate coloured.

6-86

(5-86 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vintdina.

(1-00 %), Truncatidina pygmeea,
Nonionina umbilicatula.

1

Ij

A few small teeth of Wj
Plchini spines.

—

* 8ce PI. XXVI. fig. 6.

I

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

107

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

■00 %), Sponge spicules (in-
cluding Geodia), Astrorhizidae,
LituoUdae, Kadiolaria, Dia-
toms.

(lO^OO %), m. di. O^IO mm., an-
gular ; pumice, brown glassy
volcanic particles, felspar,
plagioclase, ■ augite, quartz,
magnetite, altered olivine,
lapilli.

(68 '83 %), much fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

This deposit was red on the top, grey at the bottom,
and contained some pumice fragments. There is no
difference save that of colour between the upper and
lower layers. In the bag of the trawl were much mud
and large pieces of pumice and other stones, varying
in size from that of a pea to that of a hen’s egg. These
are slightly impregnated in some cases with manganese
and overgrown with Serpula and Eyperammina vagans.
Pieces of wood, fruits. Annelid tubes, Pteropod and
lanthina shells were also in the trawl. Ehizammina
algaeformis is common. Many excreta of Echinoderms.

•00 %), Sponge spicules, As-
trorhizidae, arenaceous Textu-
laridae, a few imperfect casts,
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0^06 mm., an-
gular ; fragments of pumice,
black or brown altered vol-
canic glass, felspar, augite,
magnetite, quartz, manganese
grains.

(10^13 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and re-
mains of siliceous organisms.

Several dredgings were taken ; the bottom was always
found to bo a Coral Sand or Coral Mud. The pelagic
Foraminifera are rare. The sands are coarse and made
up of fragments of Coral, calcareous Algae, Lamelli-
branchs, and Gasteropods. Many of the fragments
are overgrown with Foraminifera, andPolyzoa.

A few imperfect casts remain after treatment with acid.

•70 %), Sponge spicules.

(70 •OO %), m. di. 0^25 mm., an-
gular and rounded ; plagio-
clase, sanidine, pyroxene,
hornblende, olivine more or
less altered, magnetite, splin-
ters of volcanic glass, pala-
gonite, small rounded lapilli,
quartz.

The sand is composed of fine particles of volcanic minerals,
averaging in size 0^25 mm., mixed with calcareous
organisms.

A sounding and dredging were taken about a mile from
the reef in 152 fathoms. Only traces of a greenish
coloured sand were in the sounding cup.

■00 %), Kadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Lituo-
lid*, Diatoms.

(2^00 %), m. di. O'lO mm., an-
gular ; pumice, plagioclase,
magnetite, brown glassy vol-
canic particles, hornblende,
very small lapilli of andesitic
rocks.

(32 •25 %), fine amorphous mat-
ter, minute mineral fragments,
and fine remains of siliceous
organisms.

In the trawl were several rounded pieces of pumice, about
i to 1 inch (12 to 25 mm.) in diameter, -u'hich were
slightly impregnated with manganese in some cases and
also overgrown with a Rhizopod (probably Hyper-
ammina).

•00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Reophax, Lituolidse,
Diatoms.

(l^OO %), m. di. O^IO mm.,
angular ; pumice, felspar,
augite, palagonite, magnetite.

(97 ■00 %), much fine chocolate
coloured amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles, and
siliceous remains.

On examination of the washings of a large quantity, a
piece of pumice about the size of a pea was found, and
one or two arenaceous Foraminifera ; also a good
many manganese grains.

•00 %), Radiolaria, Astrorhi-
zidse, Diatoms.

(2^00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; magnetite, glassy
volcanic fragments, man-
ganese grains.

(89 ‘14 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral ahd
siliceous remains.

The Globigerinidae are chiefly fragmentary. In the
washings was a piece of jmmice, about the size of a
pea, overgrown with Hypcrammina vagans.

New Guinea to Ailmiralty Islands. Admiralty Islands to Yokoliaina.

Atliiiinih)' to Vokoliaiii*—

108

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soc Chart 31, ami Diagrams 14 ami 16.

Ill

S5

Date.

Position.

ij

S’*

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Kalir.).

Desi^ation and Physical Characters.

CARBONATE OF CALCIUM. j

y.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Forarainifera.

Other Organisms. S

2*23

1875
Mar. 19

o »

5 31
145 13

0 X.
0 E.

2325

O

35-5

82 0

GLOBiflERiNA Ooze, light grey,
slightly coherent, breaking up
readily in water, j)lnstic and
red coloured when wet.

Besidue red-brown.

62-47

(45-00 %), Globigerinidce, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Biloculina depressa,
Lagenidae, Rolalia soldanii,
Nonionina umbilicatula.

(5-47 %), Echini spines, Coo*,
liths, Rhabdoliths.

'

*•224

21

7 45
144 20

0 N.
0 E.

1850

35-4 .

81-2

Globigerina Ooze, with a
slight rose tinge, almost white
when dry, slightly coherent,
friable, chalky, earthy.

Beeidue chocolate coloured.

79-20

(70-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3 -00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidaj,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Num-
niulinidae.

(6-20 %), Pteropods, Heteropoi, |l
Ostracodes, Brachioiwds, £4
inoderm fragments, Alcvm.
arian spicules, Coccoliik
Rhabdoliths. j

i

+225

„ 23

11 24
143 16

0 N.
0 E.

4475

35-2

80-2

Radiolarian Ooze, upper layer
red, deeper layers straw
coloured, very slightly co-
herent, fine grained.

trace

One or two Globigerina observed.

A few otoliths and small ttttlid 1
fish.

t226

.. 25

14 44
142 13

0 N.
0 E.

2800

35-5

790

Red Clay, deep chocolate
coloured when wet, greasy to
the touch, yellowish when dry,
j)ulverulent, breaking up with
difficulty in water, lustrous
streak.

Besidue chocolate coloured.

6-11

(4-00 %), Globigerinidas, Pul-
vinulina.

(1-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidse,
Lagenidae, Rotalida;, Num-
mulinidae.

(ril %), small teeth of SA, tf
Echini spines. J 1

227

„ 27

17 29
141 21

0 N.
0 E.

2475

35-2

79-2

Red Clay, chocolate coloured
when wet, plastic, fine grained,
presenting no macroscopic
elements.

trace

Truncatulina yygmsea (frag-
ments).

Small teeth offish, larval GiiWs L
pods, Ostracodes, Alcyomrin j
spicules. .|

■i

i

TIS

.. 29

19 24
141 13

o o

2450

35-2

80-2

Red Clay, red, coherent, fine
grained, ]>rcsenting no macro-
scopic elements, chocolate
coloured when wet

trace

\

\

Teeth of fish. ; i

j

I

229

'

April 1

22 1
140 27

j

c o

2500

35-2

78-5

Red Clay, red, coherent, bnt
somewhat friable, finegrained,
presenting no macroscopic
elements, chocolate coloured
and jilastic when wet.

trace

i

Small teeth of fish.

’ »« anal. 45, 57. f Hue I’l. XV. fig. 3 ; Tl. XXVII. fig. 5. * Sec anal. 13, 76.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

109

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

j -3'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
, spicules, Verneuilina pyg-
■meea, Diatoms.

Minerals.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; felspar, pyroxene
or amphibole, magnetite,
pumice, altered volcanic par-
ticles.

Fine Washings.

(43 '53 %)j fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral par-
ticles and remains of siliceous
organisms.

The Foraminifera are nearly all jielagic ; both large and i
small specimens are present, the larger ones being much
broken. A piece of pumice about the size of a pea came
up in the sounding tube. About a pint (half a litre)
of pumice fragments came up in the trawl, varying in
size from that of a pea to that of a hen’s egg, in most
cases much decomposed and friable. On one or two
there were attached small siliceous Sponges.

‘ 5 ‘00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litno-
lidse. Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
augite, magnetite, many small
fragments of pumice.

(14'80 %), amorphous matter,
many small fragments of
siliceous organisms and
pumice.

Only a small quantity of the ooze came up in the sound-
ing tube, but the dredge was filled with it. On passing
this through sieves many fragments of pumice were
obtained, varying much in size, the largest being about
5 or 6 cm. in diameter ; there were, however, many
hundreds of small fragments with a diameter of 1 or 2
mm. This deposit is essentially composed of pelagic
Foraminifera, the bottom-living species forming only a
very small portion of the whole mass. Rhabdoliths
are very rare, Coccoliths very small in size.

'80 '00%), Radiolaria, Sponge
j, spicules, one Haplophrag-
mium globigeriniforme Ob-
1, served. Diatoms.

(3'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; felspar, augite, pu-
mice, magnetite, palagonite,
lapilli of andesitic rocks,
bronzite spherule.

(17 '00 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, with many
fine fragments of siliceous
organisms and minerals.

Besides the many altered volcanic particles there are
many little aggregations of the bottom difficult to break
down, also little clusters of rhombohedral crystals of
carbonate of lime. This is the deepest sounding from
which deposit has been procured.

:3'00 %), Radiolaria, Lituolidae,
fragments of large Coscino-
discus.

I

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; magnetite free and
enclosed in volcanic glass,
monoclinic and triclinic fel-
spars, augite, hornblende,
many fragments of pumice,
vitreous fragments trans-
formed into palagonite.

(85 '89 %), many minute frag-
ments of pumice and other
minerals, and some small frag-
ments of siliceous organisms.

The trawl brought up a quantity of pumice. The clay at<
this station presents only some of the. typical characters
of clay, and appears to be, fundamentally, rather a fine
mud than a clay, and is composed chiefl}' of the tritu-
rated particles of pumice. The pumice stones aa-e all
more or less decomposed and coloured by the hydroxides
of iron and manganese. In some cases it is impossible
to determine the nature of these fragments, believed
to be pumice, even after microscopic and macroscopic
examination, but in the majority the structure of
pumice can be recognised in the thin slides.

3 '00 %), Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, Lituolidae.

(3'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; numerous particles
of pumice and volcanic glass
splinters (.some brown), plagio-
clase, felspar, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite.

(94 '00 %), fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

The deposit contains much manganese ; two or three
small pieces of pumice, about 0'5 cm. in diameter,
were obtained. The minerals are crystals or fragments
generally covered with a coating of scoriaceous glass.

2'00 %), Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, Haplophragmium
latidorsatum.

(8'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase often
coated with a net-work of
vesicular glass, augite, mag-
netite, pumice, palagonite,
manganese grains.

(90 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
remains of siliceous organ-
isms.

There is a considerable quantity of manganese in the
form of little black grains. There are also many pellets
of pumice from 1 to 5 mm. in diameter.

3 '00 %), Radiolaria, BMzam-
mina algseformis, Lituolidae,
Diatoms.

(5'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; pumice, scoriae,
plagioclase, black or brownish
volcanic glass, magnetite,
pyroxene.

(92 '00 %), much fine amorphous
chocolate coloured matter,
minute mineral and siliceous
remains.

The deposit does not effervesce with acid. The micro-
scope reveals only one or two small teeth of fish.
Particles of pumice and grains of manganese are
abundant. There are remains of the large cylindrical
Diatom, Eihmodiscus.

Admiralty Islands to Yokohama — continued.

Ailniitalty Itliilnlri In

Off Vokniiama - ' eiinhnueil.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

110

S«o Charts 31 and 35, and Diaj^m 16.

*3

B •

y.*

Date.

Poattloa.

C.5

4.?

•230

1875

137 57 0 E.

231

9 31 8 ON.

137 8 0 E.

232 3U> 12

233.

2S3a

2S3b

2SSc

10

35 11 0 N.
139 28 0 E.

84 39 0 N.
135 14 0 E.

34 38 0 N. I 50
135 1 0 E.

I

26

28

34 18 0 N.
133 35 0 K.
34 18 0 N.
133 21 0 E.

234 Jane 3

82 31
135 39

0 N.
0 E.

2.15

34

138

0 N.
0 E.

2250

15

267

565

• Tompcratliro
of tlic Sca-
1 water

(Kalir.).

Designation and Physical Clioractcrs.

Carbonate of Calcium. j j

i'i

Ilottoni

Biirtace

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organismi.

i “

O

1

' 35-5

1

1

1

1

1

68-5

Rep Clay, similar to the last,
tine grained, coherent, choco-
late coloured and plastic when
wet.

1

1

i;

i;

i

85-2

64 0

Hlce Mm, blue-grey, fine
grained, coherent, presenting
no macroscopic element.s,
breaking up readily in water.

trace

Globigerinidse.

41-1

64-2

Green Mud, green-grey, earthy,
slightly coherent, breaking up
readily in water, containing
shells.

Residue dark green with
brown tinge.

3-29

(I'OO %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
(rOO %), Textularida;, Eotalidie.

(1‘29%), Ostraoodes, lAis«.
derm fragments, Coecoliihj. i

if

1

ii

62*3

Blue Mud, light blue-grey,
slightly coherent, breaking up
with difficulty in water.
Residue green.

11-32

A few Rotalia.

(11-32 %), Gasteropoda, UtodB-
branchs, Ostracodw, R-liiiif
derm fragments. (

62-6

Sand.

59-9

66-3

66-8

1 Blue Muds, light blue-grey,
coherent, breaking up with
difficulty in water, plastic
when wet.

I Residue dark blue-grey.

4-29

(1 "00 %), MiliolidiE, Rotalidai.

(3-29 %), Dentalium, Cut*#-
pods, Lamcllibranchs, Otto-
codes, Echinoderm frsgDuaU. !

35-8

i

(

69-5

Blue Mud, light blue-grey,
slightly coherent, fine grained,
breaking up readily in water,
dark blue-grey and somewhat
plastic when wet.

Residue dark blue-grey.

trace

Olohigerina hulloides, Bulimina,
ovata.

1

1 '

1 1 ■

381

730

1

(iiiEEN Mitd, light green-grey,
slightly coherent, breaking up
in water.

Residue green.

[5-00]

(2 ’00 %), Globigerinidn:, Pulvinu-
Una mcnardii.

(1 '00 %), Bolivina Uxtilarioidcs,
Bngenidu!, Truncalulina pyg-
viaa.

1;

(2-00 %) Ostracodes, KdHj i
derm fragments, Coccolilk j
Rhobdolitlis. j

i

i

KEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

Ill

lent.

68

■00

■00] I (So

— ■

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Ayashings.

0 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
izidfe, Trochammina trul~
ssata, Diatoms.

(10 ■00%), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular ; almost entirely
composed of microscopic
splinters of brown volcanic
scoriaceous glass (volcanic
ash), plagioclase, magnetite.

(82 ‘00 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral and
siliceous remains.

A considerable quantity of the deposit was obtained in
the tube. The minerals consist mainly of broken down
scoriae. In the trawl were about a dozen pieces of
pumice stone, averaging an inch (25 mm.) in diameter ;
these fragments are impregnated with manganese and
overgrown with Hyperaminina vagans ; to one was
attached a small Brachiop>od.

00 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
izidae, Lituolid®, Gaudryina
phonella, Diatoms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; pumice fragments,
scoriae, felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite, magne-
tite, altered microscopic frag-
ments of volcanic rocks.

(75'00 %), much fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

The upper portion of the deposit was red, the lower a
blue colour. A great many Diatoms and Eadiolaria
are present ; one fragment of pumice, 0 '5 cm. in dia-
meter, was noticed.

) %), Sponge spicules, frag-
Lents of Eadiolaria, a few
ists. Diatoms.

(80'00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
magnetite, augite, horn-
blende, glauconite, quartz,
fragments of volcanic glass
and pumice.

(13'7l %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, minute
particles of volcanic minerals
aud siliceous organisms.

Some of the mineral particles are coated with manganese.
Some fragments of rocks measure about 0‘5 cm. in dia-
meter. Among the minerals there are a large number of
lapilli of black volcanic glass more or less rounded and
vesicular, measuring from 1 to 2 mm. in diameter. A
few pale green casts of Foraminifera remained after
treatment with acid.

00 %), Sponge spicules,
'aplophragmium canariensis,
iatoms.

(50’00 %), m. di. O’lO mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, white and- green mica
sometimes altered, horn-
blende, rarely augite, zircon,
chlorite.

(28 ■SS %), fine mineral particles,
amorphous matter, and sili-
ceous remains.

The mudi proper shows only one or two points of efferves-
cence when treated with dilute acid. Mixed with the
mud are large Lamellibranch shells, twigs, &c. A
great many Diatoms are present. The felspar is often
kaolinised.

The dredge brought up several rounded fragments of
rocks- and irregular masses of conglomerate, the latter
made up of smaller rook fragments cemented together
by calcareous organisms ; all these were overgrown
with Serpula, Balanus, Polyzoa^ Corals, and Molluscs.

0 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
iicules. Diatoms.

(40 '00 %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
rounded and angular ; quartz,
plagioclase, orthoclase, altered
felspar, white mica, horn-
blende, tourmaline, zircon.

(5371 %), fine mineral particles,
some clayey matter, and
remains of siliceous organisms.

These and other soundings in the Inland Sea gave a
sticky Blue Mud. The washings of a large quantity
of this mud consisted of a number of broken and dead
Gasteropod, Lamellibranch, and Dentalium shells with
a few Miliolid® and Eotalid®. There are many
Diatoms present in the mud as well as on the surface.
Shells of pelagic Foraminifera and Pteropods are
apparently absent in these deposits..

0 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
ncules, Diatoms.

(15‘00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular, rounded, felspar,
mica, magnetite, glassy

particles, coloured altered
glassy particles, hornblende.

(82'00 %), fine mineral frag-
ments, Diatom and other
siliceous remains, a small
([iiantity of fine amorphous
material.

Only traces of the bottom came up on the outside
of the tube, but in the water-bottle was a quantity
of Blue Mud, having streaks here and there of a red
tinge. The great mass of the washings consists of fine
mineral particles, remains of Diatoms and Eadiolaria.
Only one or two Olohigerina shells were observed and
these small. Among the Eadiolaria were noticed several
specimens of Challengeria tizardi.

0 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
ncules, casts of Foraminifera,
iatoms.

(60^00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular; plagioclase, felspar,
quartz, augite, magnetic par-
ticles, pumice, glauconite,
fragments of volcanic rocks.

(30^00 %), fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

No mud was obtained from the sounding tube or trawl,
but in the trawl were three or four pieces of pumice,
and about the bases of some Actinias were traces of the
bottom. Worm-tubes were present. After treatment
with acid a good many light and dark green casts of
Foraminifera are observed. The percentages have been
approximated, there being too small a quantity for
analysis.

Admiraltj" Islands to

Yokohama — continued. Off Japan.

Yoknhtm* to Sandwii li Ulniulii. Olf

11*2

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Sec Cherts 35 and 36, and Diagram 17.

“ .

^ 5
9S

il

Date.

Poaitiun.

Depth In
Kathomi.

Tenipcmtiire
u( the Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Charactei's.

Carbonate op Calcium. |

‘A

Kottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foramlnifera.

Other Organisms.

236

236a

1875
June 5

5

• t

34 58
139 29
34 59
139 31

m

0 X.
0 K.
0 X.
0 E.

775

420

O

37-6

O

66-5

66-5

1 GiiF.ES SIuDs, green, slightly
( coherent, breaking up in
1 water.

) Besidue dark green.

trace

Qlohigerina, Lagenidae, Biilimina
infiata.

i

Echini spines, Coccoliths.

*•237

-

34 37
140 32

0 X.
0 E.

1875

35-3

73-0

Blue Mud, with a reddish sur-
face layer, when dry grey-blue,
sliglitly coherent, granular.
Besidue bluish.

4-45

(1-45 %), Globigerinidae, Pulvinu-
Una.

(I'OO %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidae, Nummu-
liuidae.

i

(2-00 %), Otoliths and \ert«t(r
of fish, Cephalopod beth,
Pteropod and Heteropod la-
ments, Echini spines. j

1

238

„ 18

35 18
144 8

0 X.
0 E.

3950

35-0

70-5

Red Clay, red-grey when dry,
coherent, fine grained, pre-
senting no macroscopic ele-
ments, breaking up in water,
dark brown when wet.

239

.. 19

35 18
147 9

0 X.
0 E.

3625

35-1

70-2

Red Clay, light red-grey when
dry, coherent, fine grained,
presenting no macroscopic
elements, breaking up in water,
somewhat plastic and red
coloured when wet.

1

t-240

.. 21

35 20
153 39

0 X.
0 E.

2900

34-9

64-8

Red Clay, light red-grey tvlien
dry, coherent, fine grained,
breaking up in water, dark
red when wet.

1

ii

1

:24i

.

23

35 41
157 42

0 X.
0 E.

2300

351

69-2

Red Clay, the upper layers red-
dish, the deeper layers greyish
and more compact, when dry
Yellowish grey, slightly co-
herent.

Besidue chocolate coloured.

17-29

(lO'OO %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3 -00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Rotalidie, Nuiii-
mulinida*.

' 1 '

(4 -29 %), Brachiopods, (toi ;
codes. Echini spines, i fA
Coccoliths. i

1

1 '

242

»

24

35 29
161 52

0 X.
0 E.

2b7S

851

68-6

Red Clay, red-brown, unctuous
to the touch, sliglitly coherent,
fine grained, lustrous streak.

trace

A few broken fragments of Olohi-
gcrina, one or two very minute
Truncalulina pygmeea.

1,

A fragment of Janihim. || >t

!

• See ri. .XI.

f.g. 2.

t See I’l. .X.XVII. fig. 3.

+ See anal. 14, 80 ; PI. I. figs. 7, 8. |

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

113

Residue.

Additional Observations.

^ Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

i ■ '00 %), Sponge spicules, Eadio-
1 laria, casts of Foraminifera,
1 Diatoms.

(

1

(60^00 %), m. di. 0^20 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
pumice, augite, quartz, mag-
netite.

(35 •OO %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral and siliceous re-
mains.

Green casts of Foraminifera are left after treatment with
acid. In the trawl at the latter depth there were some
very large hardened pieces of the bottom. These were
perforated by worms and in some cases slightly coated
with manganese. In the cup of the lead were several
hardened clay nodules, and rather angular pebbles.
The minerals are of volcanic origin.

r

•00 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
hizidte, Lituolid®, Sponge
spicules, Diatoms.

i

(

%

(30^00 %), m. di. 0^15 mm.,
angular ; almost all volcanic
minerals, monoclinic and
triclinic felspars, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, fragments
of black vesicular glass, pum-
ice, black mica, manganese.

(60^55 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The trawl brought up many animals, much mud, several
pumice stones, and many large blocks having the
same mineralogical composition and clastic elements
as the mud itself ; these appear to be indeed simply
hardened or conglomerated portions of the deposit.
In these conglomerated portions there are fragments of
plagioclase coated with glassy mattter, splinters of
augite and hornblende, magnetite, fragments or lapilli
of basaltic rocks, vesicular or massive, and opaque
splinters of pumice filled with microliths. In the wash-
ings of the mud were many arenaceous Foraminifera.

i -00 %), Sponge spicules,
1 Eadiolaria, Reophax nodulosa,
Diatoms.

(10 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
augite, magnetite, glassy
volcanic splinters.

(82 '00 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral frag-
ments.

No blue lower layer was observed in the deposit, as was
the case in the bottoms taken in the Japan stream.
The deposit is a Eed Clay, intermixed with which are
remains of siliceous organisms, broken down pumice,
and volcanic mineral jjarticles.

•00 %), Eadiolaria, Beophax
nodulosa, Diatoms.

(lO^OO %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, felspar,
pumice, scori®, magnetite,
palagonite, augite, man-
ganese grains, olivine, micro-
scopic lapilli.

(87^00 %), much amorphous
red coloured matter, mineral
and siliceous remains.

A considerable quantity of pumice is present ; two pieces,
about the size of a bean, quite black on the outside,
were obtained on washing a quantity of the clay. The
siliceous organisms do not seem to be so abundant as
in the previous sounding. Among the washings were
numerous black particles of manganese.

, •OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
1 spicules, Ehabdammina, Lit-
' uoUd®, Diatoms.

(5^00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm., angu-
lar ; plagioclase, pumice,
scori®, glassy volcanic parti-
cles, magnetite, augite, pala-
gonite.

(90^00 %), much red amorphous
matter, siliceous and mineral
remains.

This deposit is similar to that obtained at the last station,
but the siliceous organisms seem to be more abundant.
In the clay were worm-tubes much impregnated with
manganese, also several blackened pieces of pumice
about the size of a pea. The minerals are chiefly ,
broken down pumice. j

,5^00 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
hizid®, Lituolid®, Diatoms.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular ; felspar, chiefly

monoclinic with numerous
vitreous inclusions, augite,
more rarely hornblende,
magnetite, numerous frag-
ments of pumice, manganese.

(57 ^71 %), amorphous matter,
numerous small vitreous frag-
ments, fine mineral particles,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

The trawl brought up many hundreds of pumice stones
and many animals. The tow-nets attached to the beam
of the trawl were filled with fine soft clay. The
arenaceous Foraminifera are very abundant and macro-
scopic. About fifty of the fragments of pumice had a
diameter of from 8 to 15 cm. The majority were
about 5 cm., but fragments of all sizes were abundant,
down to small microscopic particles, those of the larger !
size being generally less decomposed than the smaller
ones. Microscopic sections of these pumice stones
show vitreous basis, sanidine, plagioclase, and augite.

i’OO %), Eadiolaria, Haplo-
pkragmium latidorsatum, Dia-
' toms.

(5^00 %), m. di. 0^10 mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
pumice, some rounded grains
of quartz.

(92 '00 %), much fine reddish
clayey matter, small particles
of volcanic minerals and
pumice, fragments of siliceous
organisms.

There was a small quantity of the deposit in the sounding
tube, and also a small quantit}^ and two small man-
ganese nodules in the water-bottle. The nodules had
a nucleus of altered pumice, and a coating of manganese
an eighth of an inch (3 mm. ) in thickness.

[

)

J

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

15

Oil Japan — continued. Yokohama to Saiulwioh Lslaiula.

Vokohtnui to S«n<lwirh Iiiliinilii— oon/iHi//v/,

114

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

S«« Chart 36, and Diagrams 17 and IS.

•- 8
« 3

11

Date.

roaiUoD.

8 ^
5 2

k *

Tcmpemtiiro
of the .Sea-
water
(Kaiir.).

Designation and I’liysicnl Chnractcra

— u*

Itottom

.Surface

Per cent.

1875

1 0 r

O

O

243

June 26

1

■ 35 24 0 X.

■ 166 35 0 E.

2800

35 0

71-0

Red Clay.

244

1

„ 2S

i

35 22 0 N.
169 53 0 E.

I

i

1

2900

35-3

70-5

Red Clay, reddish or light
bromi when dry, coherent,
fine grained, soft to the touch.

trace

1 245

1

„ 30

36 23 0 N.
174 81 0 E.

2775

34-9

69 0

Red Clay, light red-grey when
dry, colierent, very fine
grained, breaking up readily in
water, presenting no macro-
scopic elements, chocolate
coloured and plastic when wet.

trace

*•246

July 2

36 10 0 N.
178 0 0 E.

2050

35-1

73-0

Globigerina Ooze, brownish
when wet, plastic, grey when
dry, slightly coherent.

Residue brownish.

56-07

247

Q

.. 3

35 49 0 X.
179 57 0\V.

2530

35-2

73-0

Red Clay, upper layer dark red,
lower layer much lighter, fine
grained, presenting no macro-
scopic elements, coherent,
breaking up in water.

Residue red-brown.

10-06

t248

.. 5

37 41 0 X.
177 4 OW.

2900

35 1

69-2

Red Clay, brown-red, unctuous
when wet, yellowish brown
when dry, coherent, sublus-
trouB streak.

trace

24»

1

•• ^

87 59 0 X.
171 48 OW.

3000

35-2

65-2

Red Clay.

trace

250

1

M 9

87 49 0 X.
166 47 0 W.

8050

350

65 0

Red Clay, light red-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, dark red
when wcL

trace

251

87 37 0 X.
163 26 0 W.

2950

35 1

650

Red Clay, light rwl-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, light red-
hrown, unctuous, and plastic
when wot.

Carbonate op Calcium.

Foraminifera.

Globigerinidfc, Miliolina, Textu-
laridaj, Lagenidie, Rotalidje.

One or two broken fragments of
Biloculina,

(35 '00 %), Globigerinidie, PuU
vinulina.

(5 '00 %), Miliolidfe, Textularidse,
Lagenidie, Rotalidie, Num-
mulinidiE.

(6 ’00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(2 '00 %), Miliolidie, Bulimina
clegans, Lagenidie, Rotalidie,
No7noiiina umhilicatula.

A few fragments of Olohigerina.

Spiroloculina tenuis.

Spiroloculina tenuis.

Other Organisms.

Small teeth of fish, fragments of
Pteropods and Polyzoa.

(16-07 %), small teeth
otoliths of fish, Brachiopodi,
Dentalium, Gasteropodi,
Lamellibranchs, Pteropods,
Echinoderm ; fragments, Alcy-
onarian spicules, a few Coca-
liths.

(2-06 %), Echini spines, Cocce-
liths.

Small teeth of fish, a few (rv-
ments of Pteropods.

* Sc« anal, 46, 77; PI. I. figa. 1, 2, 3, 4.

t See anal. 102; PI. I. figs. 6, 6; PI. II. figs. 1, 2, 2a, 4; PI. IX. fig. 4.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS,

115

flESIDUE.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

No deposit came up in the sounding tube or water-bottle.
On allowing the water to settle, some fine red amor-
phous particles and a few black mineral grains col-
lected, but nothing further was obtained to indicate the
nature of the bottom.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria,
Astvorhizidce, Lituolidae, Dia-
toms.

1

J

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, sanidine,
pumice, magnetite, manga-
nese grains, cosmic spherules.

(98 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms, minute fragments of
minerals.

The trawl brought up a large quantity of the clay, a
number of animals, and many pumice stones mostly sur-
rounded with concentric deposits of manganese. The
pumice contains very large crystals of sanidine, plagio-
clase, and augite. The carbonate of lime organisms
mentioned are extremely rare, being obtained from the
washings of a large quantity of the deposit. The
Pteropods and Globigerinidae. may have been caught by
the nets on their way towards the surface.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Reophax
mdulosa, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; volcanic minerals,
plagioclase, augite, magnetite,
pumice, manganese grains.

(98 '00 %), much amorphous
chocolate coloured matter,
mineral and siliceous remains.

A piece of black manganese about the size of a bean,
and many smaller pieces, were observed.

(5 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
olidae, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, plagio-
clase, augite, magnetite, frag-
ments of pumice, greenish
volcanic glass, black and
reddi.sh grains of manganese.

(37 '93 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The trawl brought up much ooze, many pumice stones,
and a large number of animals. There were several
hundreds of rounded fragments of pumice, containing
large crystals of sanidine, plagioclase, and augite ;
about thirty of the largest had an average diameter of
30 cm., and a very large number about 2 cm. in diameter.
One or two Pteropod, Heteropod, SMA.Ianthina shells
were noticed in the washings of a large quantity.

(5'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules. Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; manganese grains,
felspar, glassy volcanic frag-
ments, magnetite, palagonite,
hornblende, black mica.

(83 '94 %), much red or yellow-
red amorphous matter, minute
remains of siliceous organisms
and minerals.

There was a considerable quantity of clay in the tube.
The colour was lighter than in the last few soundings.
The upper portion, one inch thick, was red and con-
tained no calcareous organisms, while the lower part of
the tube was filled with a light coloured mud con-
taining the organisms indicated in the description.

(10 '00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hizidae, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

1

(o'OO %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular ; hornblende often
surrounded with glass, mag-
netic oxide of iron abundant
and often in crystals, frag-
ments of pumice, manganese
grains.

(85 '00 %), amorphous matter,
fragments of minerals and
siliceous organisms.

The trawl came up torn but contained much clay,
many manganese nodules, pumice stones, and several
animals. The carbonate of lime organisms are

extremely rare and fragmentary (see remai'ks, St. 244).
One large tooth of Lamna, and several smaller teeth,
were obtained.

Radiolaria, Diatoms.

Palagonite, felspar, manganese
grains.

No deposit came up in the tube. The instrument had
been buried 18 inches into the clay, and enough of the
bottom was obtained to define its nature ; there was,
however, insufficient for a detailed description. Radio-
laria are evidently abundant.

!

(10*00 %), Eadiolaria, Diatoms.

!

i

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, phillipsite,
mica, magnetite, hornblende,
manganese grains.

(89 '00 %), much yellow-red
amorphous matter, siliceous
and mineral remains.

The bottom was a Red Clay with a few patches of white
or lighter coloured material near the bottom. There
are no traces of calcareous organisms, but Radiolaria
are abundant.

(10 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Hormosina carpen-
teri, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular; volcanic glass, scoriae,
pumice, manganese grains,
felspar, palagonite.

(89 '00 %), much red amorphous
matter, mineral and siliceous
remains.

About a quart (over a litre) of the clay came up in the
tube; it was of a uniform character throughout.

I

Yokohama to Sandwich Islands — continued.

Yokohaniit to Sniiilwich IkIhiiiU — eonlinitol.

1

1

IIG THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

55

Date.

Position.

= 1
S 2

Tempemturo
of tne Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraniinifera.

Other Organisms. i

1875

O t ft

O

O

Hi

1

, ••252

1

1

j

1

July 12

37 52 0 N.
160 17 OW.

2740

35-3

65-0

Rkd Clay, reddish or light
brown, plastic, fine grained,
grey-brown when dry, break-
ing up with difficulty in
water.

trace

A few small teeth of fish. j

! f25S

■-

!

M 14

38 9 0 N.
15G 25 OW,

3125

35-1

67-7

Red Clay, red-brown when wet,
unctuous, yellowish brown
when dry, coherent, breaking
up with difficulty in water,
lustrous streak.

trace

A few OloMgerina inflata, Mili-
alvm.

254

17

35 13 0 N.
154 43 0 W.

3025

35 0

720

Red Clay, light red-grey when
dry, fine grained, coherent,
lustrous streak, breaking up
with great difficulty in water,
plastic, unctuous, light red-
brown when wet.

....

'T

255 ‘

i

,, 19

32 28 0 N.
154 33 OW.

2850

35-0

74-0

Red Clay, light red-grey when
dry, coherent, fine grained,
unctuous, plastic, and light
red coloured when wet.

*■* *

•» 1

t256

1

M 21

30 22 0 N.
154 56 OW.

2950

35-2

74 0

Red Clay, light red-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, lustrous
streak, breaking up readily in
water, dark red-brown when
wet.

trace

One or two fragments of Gldbi-
(jerina, Truncatulina pijgmma.

Small teeth of fish (shark).

257

23

27 33 0 N.
154 55 OW.

2875

34-9

76-5

Red Clay, light red colour.

258

.. 24

26 11 0 X.
155 12 OW.

2775

85-2

77 0

Red Clay, bro^vn-grey, coherent,
fine grained, breaking up with
difficulty in water, red-brown
and plastic when wet.

trace

...

A few small teeth of fish (shad).

25»

1

.. 2«

1

23 8 ON.
156 6 0 W.

1 2225

1

34 '9

77 0

Red Clay, light brown with red
tinge, coherent, lino grained,
breaking up in water, dark
brown, jilostic, and unctuous
when wet

trace

Small teeth of fish.

• 8eranal. l.'i, 103, 104, 106, lOG; 1*1. III. figs. 6, C; Tl. IV. fig. 1; PI. IX. figs. 7, 7a.
t See «nal. IG, 107; I’l. IX. figs. 1, la.

X See anal. 17, 108.

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

117

Residde.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms,

Jlinerals.

Fine Washings.

(3 ‘00 %), Radiolaria, a few
Sponge spicules, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular; sanidine, magnetite,
hornblende, manganese grains,
one microscopic crystal of
quartz observed, cosmic
spherules.

(96 '00 %), amorphous matter,
very many fine mineral
particles, glassy fragments,
and fragments of siliceous
organisms.

The deposit does not effervesce when treated with acids,
and no carbonate of lime organisms are observed when
examined by the microscope, with the exception of a
few small teeth of fish. The trawl was much torn
when it came up, but contained a quantity of man-
ganese nodules. The nuclei of the nodules consist of
pumice, volcanic glass, and Carcharodon teeth.

(2 '00%), Radiolaria, arenaceous
Foraminifera, Sponge spicules.
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, manganese, pu-
mice.

(97 '00 %), very many fine
mineral particles, glassy frag-
ments, fragments of siliceous
organisms, some amorphous
matter.

A small dredge was used with swabs, and a tow-net
was attached to the dredge and another at the weights.
There were some clay and manganese nodules in both
the dredge and tow-nets. In the washings of a large
quantity of this deposit there were observed one or
two Glohigerina injlata, and their broken remains, a
few specimens of Miliolina,, arid arenaceous Fora-
minifera.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules. Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; broken down pumice,
felspar, glassy volcanic par-
ticles, hornblende, palagonite,
magnetite.

(98 '00 %), much red coloured
amorphous matter, fine pumice
and minerals, siliceous re-
mains.

A large quantity of the clay came up, and in the water-
bottle there was a twin nodule of manganese about
inches (38 mm.) in largest diameter. An upper and
lower side of the nodule can be seen ; it was covered
with a reticulated Rhizopod, probably Rhizammina
algaeformis.

(1 '00 %), Radiolarian fragments.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; pumice, plagioclase,
felspar, manganese grains,
volcanic glass, hornblende,
augite, palagonite, magnetite.

(98 '00 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral particles
and a few Radiolarian re-
mains.

The deposit obtained at this station is, in every respect,
similar to the previous one. The washings consist
largely of broken down pumice. Among the minerals
are many manganese grainsi

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Trochammiyia, trul-
lissata.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; felspar, volcanic
glass, black mica, hornblende,
magnetite, manganese grains,
palagonite.

(98 '00 %), much amorphous
matter, fine pumice and other
mineral particles and sili-
ceous remains.

A large quantity of the deposit was obtained from the
dredge. The greater part was sifted and all passed
through the finest sieves, with the exception of some
manganese nodules and sharks’ teeth; one piece of
pumice, about the size of a pigeon’s egg, some smaller
pieces of pumice, a few worm-tubes, and three or four
Foraminifera. The sharks’ teeth have a thick coating
of manganese. , One of the pieces of pumice was red in
colour and appeared to be undergoing alteration.

1

The valves of the sounding tube had become jammed and
consequently had not opened on reaching the bottom.
The outside of the tube was marked for nearly 2 feet
with clay of a red colour, and enough was scraped off
with the finger for rough examination. This indicated
much the same bottom as the last, the great propor-
tion being pumice in a very fine state of division, and
there were pieces of black manganese and Radiolarian
remains.

1(1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
I Radiolaria, Astrorhizidee.

1

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, glassy volcanic
particles, magnetite, augite,
vesicular lapilli, hornblende,
manganese grains.

(98 '00 %), much amorphous
matter (pumice), mineral
and siliceous remains.

About a pint (over half a litre) of the clay of a uniform
character came up in the sounding tube. It was of a
similar nature to the last two or three soundings.

(I'OO %), a few Radiolaria,
1 Rhizammina algeeformis,

'• Haplophragmium latidor-

satum.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; vesicular lapilli,
plagioclase, felspar, volcanic
glass, magnetite, hornblende,
augite, palagonite, olivine,
glauconite.

(98 '00 %), much red-brown
amorphous matter, disinteg-
rated pumice, fine minerals,
and remains of siliceous
organisms.

A considerable quantity of the bottom was obtained in
the sounding tube ; it was composed chiefly of red and
brown amorphous matter, disintegrated pumice, and
volcanic ashes. Several pieces of pumice, about the
size of a pea, were obtained when washing a quantity of
the clay.

Yokoliama to Sandwicli Islands— coniMiitec?.

Sanilwich Nlainl* to Tiiliiti. Vokolintiia to Snndwicli iHlaniln — eontinurd.

118 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

Soo Charts 37 and 88, and Diagram 1 9.

k s

2 5

l1

Dat«.

Position.

)epth In
atlionis.

Tempomture
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium. # '

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

c "i

other Organisms. ?

1875

e / //

O

O

£ \

1 ‘

260

July 27

21 11 0 N.
157 27 OW.

310

44-0

76-8

Volcanic Mud.

? i

„ 31

Oil Honolulu,
uear the reefs.

20-40

Coral Sand, light yellow-grey,
free, formed chiefly of frag-
ments of calcareous Alga; and
Foraminifera.

Eesidue dark grey.

88-64

(3-00 %), GlobigerinidiE.

(45-00 %), Miliolidae, Textu-
laridie, Eotalidae, Nummu-
linidae.

(40-64 %), Serpula, fragments |)>
Gasteropods, Lamellibranclu;
and Pteropods, Ostracodei •'
Echinoderm fragments, Alni:i
onarian spicules, Polyzoa, call',
careous Algce. j |

Aug. 6

Beach Sand,
Diauiond Point.

Calcareous Sand, light yellow-
grey, fine white and brown
particles.

Besidue dark brown-grey.

39-76

(15-00 %), Rotalidse, Nummu-
linidae.

(24-76 %), Gasteropods, Lamell|
branch and Echinoderm Wl
ments, calcareous Algae.

.. 11

Honolulu Har-
bour.

4i

Volcanic Mud, dark blue, un-
ctuous, plastic, presenting no
macroscopic elements, blue-
grey and coherent when dry.
^sidue black.

10-00

(5-00 %), Miliolidie, Bolivina
(several species), Eotalidse,
Nummulinidae.

(5-00 %), Gasteropod andLamelli.;
.branch fragments, minute pw-i
tions of calcareous Algae.

261

12

20 18 0 N.
157 14 OW.

2050

35-2

78-5

Volcanic Mud.

. 19

Hilo Bay,
HawaiL

6

Volcanic Mud, dark brown, fine
grained, breaking up readily
in water, slightly coherent.
Eesidue dark brown.

5-00

(2-00 %), Miliolidae, Rotalidie.

(3-00 %), Ostracodes, Echini!
spines, Polyzoa, calcarenai 1
Algae. i;

t262

M 20

19 12 0 N.
154 14 OW.

2875

35-2

77-5

Volcanic Mud, grey when dry,
gritty, breaking up on drying
to an almost impalj)able pow-
der, brown-grey when wet.

l;

I,

263

.. 21

17 33 ON.
153 36 OW.

2650

35-1

77-5

Volcanic Mud, red-grey, slightly
coherent, gritty, i)resenting no
macroscopic elements.

r

ji

: :264

23

14 19 ON.
152 37 OW.

3000

35-2

77-5

Red Clay, light red-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, presenting
no mncroscojiic elements,
breaking un with difficulty in
water, red-brown when wet.

trace

A few teeth of fish, Cephalopol ^
beaks,

1

!|

1

1 1

• S«* ri. XXVI, fig. 6, t Sec PI. XXVII. fig. 1. X See anal. 109.

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

119

T

Residue.

i

Additional Obseevations.

eri Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

T

No trace of any kind came up in the tube to indicate the
nature of the bottom. In the trawl were a piece of
black volcanic ash and a portion of branching coral
(Gorgonia) ; on the iron of the beam was a trace of
calcareous volcanic mud.

56 (3'00%), Sponge spicules, Lituo-
[ lid®, Diatoms.

(2’00 %), m. di. OTO mm.,
rounded ; volcanic glass,
felspar, magnetite, mica,
hornblende, augite, pala-
gonite, pumice.

(6 ‘SO %), a small quantity of
flocculent amorphous matter,
mineral and siliceous remains.

All the minerals are of volcanic origin.

m' (I’OO %), one or two Diatoms.

(58 '00 %), m. di. 0'40 mm.,
angular and rounded ; olivine,
felspar, augite, hornblende,
magnetite.

(1‘24 %), amorphous flocculent
matter and a few mineral
remains, a few fragments of
Diatoms.

The white and red particles making up the sand are
rounded, and measure about 1 mm. in diameter. The
minerals consist almost exclusively of unaltered crystals
of olivine, and some vitreous particles.

0 1(1 ’00%), Sponge spicules, one
' or two Diatoms.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; magnetite, plagio-
clase, felspar, hornblende,
augite, brown volcanic glass,
pumice, palagonite.

(84 ’00 %), a considerable

quantity of blue coloured
amorphous matter and minute
mineral particles.

The mud here described came up on the anchor. It is
of a dark blue colour and contains several varieties of
small Foraminifera and many small calcareous particles
mixed up with debris of volcanic rocks and ashes,
and coal from ships. The blue mud extends only as far
as the reef, for just outside there is a pure Coral Sand.
On treatment with acid a large quantity of sulphuretted
hydrogen is liberated.

The tube came up quite empty, but on the outside, one
foot above the valves, there was a slight trace of a
reddish mud, containing many black and white mineral
particles and many remains of siliceous organisms, in-
cluding Diatoms. One piece of Glohigerina was the
only evidence of carbonate of lime.

^0 (3’00 %), Sponge spicules and
Diatoms.

1

1

(20 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; magnetite, plagio-
clase, augite, olivine, glassy
volcanic particles, palagonite.

(72'00 %), a considerable

quantity of minute mineral
fragments, some amorphous
matter, and a few remains of
siliceous organisms.

The mud is chiefly composed of volcanic debris.

O' \2'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
( ^ spicules, Haplophragmium
• 1 lalidorsatum, Diatoms.

(70‘00 %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
angular ; olivine, brown splin-
ters of volcanic glass, plagio-
clase, augite, magnetite.

(28 "00 %), many fine mineral
particles, a small quantity of
amorphous matter.

Only a small quantity of the deposit came up in the tube.
This consisted chiefly of volcanic debris ; some green
crystalline particles had a coating of dull black.

0i|3'00%), Radiolaria, Sponge
. 1 spicules, Haplophragmium

( 1 lalidorsatum, Trochammina
1 trullissata, Diatoms,
i

01 1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Radio-
j laria, Astrorhizidse, Lituolidse,
I Diatoms.

1

1

1

1

(50'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; brown volcanic
glass, plagioclase, magnetite,
augite, hornblende, olivine,
phillipsite.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0’06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, palagonite,
magnetite, hornblende,
augite, black mica, phillipsite.

(47 '00 %), fine minerals, some
amorphous matter, and some
' siliceous remains.

(98 '00 %), much fine amorphous
matter, remains of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

The deposit consists mainly of volcanic debris, much finer
than at the previous station. There is also less olivine
here than in the previous deposit.

The valves of the sounding tube had not opened, and con-
sequently it contained no deposit. The tube was
coated on the outside for about two feet with Red Clay ;
this was scraped off and subjected to examination, but
gave no indication of carbonate of lime. Palagonite
was abundant. In the bag of the trawl were seven or
eight small manganese nodules, and some small
hardened pieces of the bottom, but no clay proper.
Some pieces of the bottom had a slight coating of
manganese, while others were perforated by worms,
the tracks of which were, in some cases, coated with
manganese. The manganese nodules were not of the
usual rounded character but were very irregular. In
addition to these there were small sharks’ teeth and
Cephalopod beaks.

(■

I

I

I

Yokohama to Sandwich Islands— coHimwcrf. Sandwich Islands to Tahiti.

Samlwich UlniuU to Tahiti— coiiti'iiua/.

120

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Chart 38, and Diagram 19.

B3
~ *

Date.

PoaitioD.

fa

J= o

TemiKjrature
of the Sea-
water
(Falir.).

Bottom Surface

Desiguatiou and Physical Characters.

Cakbonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms,

*•265

1875
Aug. 25

t-266

.. 26

267

28

7268

30

269

Sept. 2

270

12 42 0 N.
152 1 0\V.

11 7 ON.
152 3 OW.

9 28 ON.
150 49 OW.

7 35
149 49

ON.

OW.

5 54 0 N.
147 2 OW.

§271

2 34
149 9

0 N.
0 W.

6 0 3.3 0 8.

151 34 OW.

272

2900

2750

2700

2900

2550

2925

2425

350

35- 1

350

34-8

35-2

34-6

35-0

3 48 0 8. 2600 35T

152 56 0 W.

273

5 11
152 56

0 8.

0 W.

2350

79-2

R.adiolarian Ooze, red-brown
or chocolate coloured, soft to
the touch, homogeneous, red-
dish when dry, breaking up
with difficulty in water, co-
herent, pulverising to im-
palpable powder, lustrous
streak.

trace

Fragments of Olohigerina and
Pulvinulina.

80-0

Radiolarian Ooze, light grey,
coherent, gritty, breaking up
with difficulty in water, red-
brown when wet.

trace

80-0

Radiolarian Ooze, light yellow-
grey, fine, coherent, presenting
no macroscopic elements, yel-
low-red when wet.

trace

Fragments of FuUcnia ohliqui-
loculata.

81-0

Radiolarian Ooze, red-brown
when wet, fine grained, red-
grey when dry, breaking up on
the lightest touch to an almost
impalpable powder.

trace

81-2

Radiolarian Ooze, brown when
wet, fine grained, coherent,
light yellow-grey when diy,
presenting no macroscopic
elements.

Residue red-brown.

20-00

(17‘00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina tumida.

(I’OO %), Pullcnia quinqueloba,
Rotalida;, Nonionina umbili-
caiula.

79-5

Globigerina Ooze, white with
light yellow tinge, slightly
coherent, chalky.

Residue pale fawn.

71-47

78 '7

Globigerina Ooze, white,
slightly coherent, chalky.
Residue pale fawn.

81-27

79-0

Radiolarian Ooze, brown-grey,
slightly coherent when dry,
dark red-brown when wet.
Residue dark red-brown.

10-19

34-5

80-7

Radiolarian Ooze, brown-grey
when dry, slightly coherent,
fine grained, presenting no
macroscopic elements, dark
brown whtm wet

Residue dark red-brown.

2-00

(65-00 %), Globigeriuidae,
vinulina.

(I'OO %), Lagenidee, Rotalidai.

Pul-

(70-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina,.

(3-00%), Miliolidie, Textular-
ida:, Lagenidai, Rotalid®,
Nummulinida;.

(8-00 %), Globigerinid.-e,
vinulina tumida.

Pul-

(1-00%), Globigerinida;,
vinulina tumida.

Pul-

Small teeth of fish.

One or two small teeth of fish.

(2-00 %), small teeth of fill.
Ostracode valves, Echiii
spines.

(5-47 %), small teeth of fiii,]
Echini spines, Coccoliths.

(8'27 %), small teeth of fii,? '
Lamellibranchs, Ostmaila, ji
Echinoderm fragments, Polj-j
zoa, Coccoliths.

(2-19 %), teeth of fisb, Eohid|^
spines, Coccoliths. "

(1-00 %), teeth of fish, 1
liths.

* .See sn*l. 28.

t Sec anal. 30.

t See ri. XV. fig. 4

§ Sec PI. XV. figs. 2a, 2b.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

121

Eesidite.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Obsekvations.

O' (50 '00 %), Kadiolaria, very few
arenaceous Foraminifera,
Sponge spicules, casts of
organisms, Diatoms.

(55 '00 %), [Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Eaplophmgmium
latidorsatum. Diatoms.

1C (50 ■ 00%), Eadiolaria, Sponge
I spicules, Troehammina ga-
leata, Diatoms.

)0 (65‘00 %), Eadiolaria, Diatoms.

0i(50'00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Lituolidee, Diatoms.

;5'00 %), Eadiolaria, Diatoms.

’ j' lO’OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules {Hyalonema), Astror-
hizidae, Lituolidae, Textu-
laridae. Diatoms,

60 "00%), Eadiolaria,
hizidae. Diatoms.

Astror-

10 '00 %), Eadiolaria, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0‘06mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, augite, horn-
blende, magnetite, small
prismatic zeolitic crystals,
manganese gi’ains, magnetic
spherules.

(1 "00 %), m. di. O'lO mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, very few vol-
canic particles.

(1 '00 %), m. di. 0 '13 mm. , angu-
lar ; felspar, manganese
grains, magnetite, volcanic
particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, palagonite, man-
ganese grains, black mica,
glassy volcanic particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm., angu-
lar ; manganese grains, glassy
particles, felspar, analcim,
palagonite, magnetite.^

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., angu-
lar ; a few glassy volcanic
particles, felspar, one or two
manganese grains.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular ; magnetite, pala-
gonite, mica, glassy volcanic
particles, felspar, phillipsite.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular ; phillipsite, rounded
manganese grains, volcanic
particles.

(49 '00 %), amorphous matter,
minute fragments ot pumice
and other minerals, fragments
of siliceous organisms.

(44 '00 %), much amorphous
matter, Eadiolarian and other
siliceous remains, some fine
mineral particles.

(49 '00 %), much fine amorphous
matter, Eadiolarian and other
siliceous remains, some
mineral particles.

(34 '00 %), Eadiolarian remains,
amorphous matter, and a few
mineral particles.

(29 '00 %), Eadiolarian remains,
amorphous matter, and some
fine mineral fragments.

(22'53 %), fine amorphous
matter and remains of sili-
ceous organisms.

(8 '73 %), amorphous matter
and siliceous remains.

(28 '81 %), Eadiolarian remains,
amorphous matter, and some
minute mineral fragments.

(67 '00 %), much amorphous
matter, Eadiolarian remains,
and fine mineral fragments.

The dredge and the two tow-nets attached to it came up
filled with the dark coloured ooze, from which were
obtained a few small pieces of pumice and one man-
ganese nodule. One or two fragments of OloMgerina
and Pulvinulina were the only calcareous organisms
observed. There are very many remains of Ethmodiscus.

The most of the ooze was of a red-brown colour, but
there were some very light spots. Eemains of Eth-
modiscus are abundant.

Only a small quantity came up in the sounding tube,
much lighter in colour than in the last few soundings.
Much of the ooze was rolled in little pellets. Many
manganese grains were observed, one (broken) larger
than a good sized marble.

About a pint (over half a litre) of ooze of a red-brown colour
came up in the tube ; near the top were some straw-
coloured patches. The difference between the layer
seems to be due to the manganese. One spherical
granulated manganese grain, about the size of a pea,
was noticed.

In the upper part of the tube were some yellow coloured
patches indicating a surface layer about an inch in
thickness. The colour appears to be due to the smaller
number of manganese grains in the upper layer. The
Foraminifera are much corroded.

There were about six inches (15 cm.) of ooze in the tube,
the lower part pure white and gradually becoming
brown on the upper surface. The white lower layer is
a nearly pure Globigerina Ooze, while the upper brown
layer seems to be composed of equal parts of siliceous
and calcareous organisms. Coccoliths are abundant.

In the washings from the trawl were some large deep-sea
Keratosa, and a fragment of pumice about the size of a
pigeon’s egg.

Compare this with the deposit obtained on August 30th.
It is dark red-brown in colour, showing light coloured
patches at the upper surface. In the trawl there were
a rounded piece of pumice, slightly impregnated with
manganese, and two or three irregular manganese
nodules which, on brealdng, presented nuclei of
pumice.

The Gloligerinss are large, but much broken. There are
present a gieat number of manganese grains, some of
them of considerable size.

(DEEP-.SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. 1890.)

16

Sandwich Islands to Tahiti — cotvtimoed.

OfTT»hltl. Snndirich loInniU to Taliiti— eon/inu^d.

122

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 38 and 39, and Diagram 19.

is

11

Date.

Position.

B ■

52

Tompomture
of the Sen-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

C ISa

jltottom

1 Surface

*274

1875
Sept. 11

Of ff

7 -25 0 S.
152 15 OW.

2750

O

35-1

O

80-2

Radiolarian Ooze, red-brown
or chocolate eoloured, fine
grained, unctuous, yellow-red
when dry, slightly coherent,
earthy, clayey, eharacters not
well pronounced.

Residue red.

-t275

14

11 20 0 S.
150 30 OlV.

2610

35-0

80-0

Red Clay, when wet dark red
or deep choeolate coloured,
gritty, deep brown when dry,
slightly coherent, earthy.

:-276

1

. 1

1

16

13 28 0 S.
149 30 OW.

2350

35-1

80-0

Red Clay, brown when dry,
slightly coherent, pulverising
easily into a granular powder,
earthy, sublustrous streak.

Residue dark brown or
chocolate coloured.

277

17

15 51 0 .S.
149 41 OW.

2325

35-1

79-0

Red Clay, light red-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, chocolate
coloured and plastic when wet.
Residue chocolate coloured.

I 278

, 18

17 12 0 .S.
149 43 OW.

1525

36-5

79-5

Volcanic Mud, grey when dry,
slightly coherent, gritty, grey-
blue when wet.

Residue blaek.

•••

28

i

Papietc

Harbour.

20

Coral Sand, grey, made up of
white and black particles fine
grained.

Residue black.

279

Oct. 2

17 30 26 S.
149 33 45 W.

420

1

79-0

Voix-anic Mud, blue-grey when
dry, slightly coherent, dark,
blue when wet.

Residue black.

279a

.. 2

17 29 53 a
149 34 OW.

590

79-0

Voix-ANic Mud, blue-grey,

slightly coherent, breaking up
readily in water, dark blue
ami plastic when wet.

R^idue blue.

CARBONATE OF CALCIUM.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

3-89

trace

28-28

9-43

20-47

83-34

22-30

(2-00 %), fragments of GloMger-
ina and Pulvimdina.

25-28

(5-00 %), Globigerinidse.

(10-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularidae,
Lagenidin, Rotalidte, Num-
mulinidie.

* H** anal.
tfWanal. 18, 89, 90, 91
: .H#« anal,
n. .XVI. fig, 1

(10-28%), Otolithsoffwh,&»^^ ' ' •
Gasteropod.s, LanioUiliru'da ; |
I’teropods, Hetcroinxls, Oktn-
codes, Echinoderm and C<>nl
fragments, I’olyzoa, .-i'7
onarian spicules, calaf^
Algfc, Coccolitlis, Rhabdoiitii I

no. Ill, 112; I’L IV. fig. 2; I'l. VI. figs. 8, 11, 11a, 16, 16a; I>). VIII. figs. 4, 5, 12, 13; IM. IX. figs. 2, 6, 6, 10; PI. XXIII. fig. 12. T

(25-00 %), Globigerinida3, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolida", Textularid®,
Lagenidaj, Rotalidse, Numinu-
linidse.

(7-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina tumida.

(1 -00 %), BilociMna depressa,
Lagena, Rotalidse, Nmiionina
umbilicatula.

(10-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pair
vinulina.

(3-00%), Textularidoe, Lagenidie,
Rotalidse.

(5-00%), Miliolidic, Textularidse,
Rotalidse, Nummulinidaj.

(7-00 %), Globigerinidaj.

(7-00 %), Miliolida;, Textu-
laridnj, Lagenida:, Rotalida;,
Nummulinidie.

Other Organisms.

(1-89 %), a few small teotb of
fish, Gasteropods.

Small teeth of fish.

(2-28 %), teeth of fish, Ceph
beaks, Gasteropods, Ostn
Echini spines.

(1-43 %), teeth of fish, Echki|
spines. I

(7-47 %), Serpula, Gasteropxh
(larval), Lamellibranch uxi
Pteropod fragments, 0«tn
codes. Echini spines, Polyica,
Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

8-34 %), Serpula, Gasterop<^ :
liamellibranchs, Ostrsfodo, i
Echinoderm fragments, Poly i
zoa, Aleyonariau spicules, Coni i
fragments, calearcous Alg*. I
i

(8-30 %), Otoliths of fish, j
pula, Gasteropoda, Lamtii;
branchs, Pteropocis, HcKro- 1
pods, Ostracodcs, Echinodfn ^
fragments, Polyzoe, (bnl |

fragments, Aleyonarisnspicnhi ^

Coeeoliths.

19, 20. 21, 8.3, 92, 93, 94, 11.3, 11 1, 116 116, 136; PI. IV. figs. 6, 7. 8 ; PI. V. fig. 12; PI. VI. figs. 1, la, 19; PI. VII. figs. 6, 7; PI. I.X. fig ^
; PI. XVIII. fig.. 2, 3, 4 ; PI. XIX. figs. 1, 2, 4 ; PI. XXI. fig. 1 ; PI. XXII. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4 ; PI. XXIII. figs. 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

123

Residue.

;eii I Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

11 (50 ’00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hizid®, Lituolid®, Sponge
spicules, Diatoms.

00 (I'OO %), a few fragments of
Radiolaria and arenaceous
Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), Radiolaria, Astrorhizid®,
Lituolid®, Sponge spicules.

57 (I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, PJiizamraina alyas-
formis. Diatoms.

(3 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Hypcrammina ram-
osa, Lituolid®, arenaceous
Textularid®.

5o!

70

72

(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olid®, arenaceous Textularid®,
a few Diatoms.

(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olid®, arenaceous Textularid®,
Diatoms.

(2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Litu-
olid®, arenaceous Textularid®,
Diatoms.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; felspar, augite,
magnetite,'magnetic spherules,
manganese grains, many small
prismatic crystals of phillip-
site, pumice.

(lO'OO %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular and rounded; almost
exclusivelymade up of crystals
of phillipsite, augite, felspar,
magnetite, manganese.

(5 '00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular; phillipsite spherules,
felspar, plagioclase, augite,
hornblende, magnetite, glas.sy
volcanic fragments, manga-
nese, magnetic spherules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; magnetite, volcanic
glass, palagonite, felspar.

(20'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.
angular ; altered volcanic
glass, augite, plagioclase,
felspar, a great number of
black volcanic particles some
of them mametic.

(12'00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, felspar,
augite, hornblende, glassy
volcanic fragments, magnetite,
manganese grains, titanite.

(15 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; plagioclase, felspar,
augite, olivine, magnetite,
volcanic rock fragments,
palagonite.

(15'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; volcanic glass, oli-
vine, plagioclase, felspar, mag-
netite, augite, hornblende.

(41 'll %), very many small
crystals of phillipsite, frag-
ments of pumice and siliceous
organisms, relatively little
amorphous matter.

(89 '00 %), composed essentially
of small crystals of phillipsite,
small manganese grains, and
amorphous matter.

(65 '72 %), very many small
crystals of phillipsite, frag-
ments of other minerals,
manganese and amorphous
matter.

(88'57 %), much amorphous
matter, mineral and siliceous
remains.

(56 '53 %), many fine mineral
particles, amorphous matter,
and fine remains of siliceous
organisms.

(2 '66 %), amoiqihous matter,
and a few remains of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

(60 '70 %), many mineral frag-
ments, amorphous matter,
and siliceous remains.

(57 '72 %), many minute mineral
particles, amorphous matter,
and fine siliceous remains.

The trawl and attached tow-nets contained a few animals,
much ooze, a quantity of manganese nodules, some
earhones of Cetaceans, sharks’ teeth, and pumice frag-
ments. The nucleus of one nodule is composed of
amorphous clayey matter, bordered with zeolitic crys-
tals. A glassy volcanic pebble, the outer rim ti'ans-
formed into palagonite, was also obtained.

Not a single fragment of pelagic Foraminifera can be
observed; there are, however, a few arenaceous Fora-
minifera, and a good many small teeth of fish, but
only a few Radiolaria. The crystals of phillipsite are
frequently grouped so as to form small yellowish or
dark globules made up of a more or less considerable
number of microliths. One small fragment of quartz
was observed.

The trawl brought up about half a ton (508 kilogrammes)
of manganese nodules,* some small pieces of pumice,
some angular basaltic pebbles, many sharks’ teeth (one
very large) ; some of these are thickly and others
slightly coated with manganese. The most numerous
minerals are crystals or globules of phillipsite, which
sometimes have a diameter of 0 '20 mm. The percentage
of carbonate of lime is the mean of two analyses.

The deposit in the lower part of the tube was of a
chocolate colour, and contained only traces of carbonate
of lime (small teeth) and no Radiolaria or Diatoms.
The mud in the upper part was of a light grey colour,
the transition between the two being gradual. In the
upper layer the organisms mentioned were observed.

The minerals are all volcanic.

The hulk of the deposit is made up of fragments of corals.
These and the other particles measure 0'5 mm. in
diameter.

This sounding is 705 fathoms from the edge of the reef.

Not much of the deposit was brought up. The upper
layer was slightly red, but otherwise the bottom is
similar to that taken in 420 fathoms.

he|:clei of the nodules consist of fragments of basaltic rocks or lapilli, vitreous and generally ve.sicular, the vesicles coated witfi green delessite and chahasite,
irisr' tic zeolites; dolerite; augite-andesite; palagonite; clayey matter; sharks’ teeth and bones of Cetaceans. Sometimes palagonite is seen transforming into clayey
r. I all cases these nuclei are very much altered. The nodules were mostly from 1 to 2 cm. in diameter.

Sandwich Islands to Tahiti — continued. 0(f Tnliiti.

Tahiti to Valparaiao. OIT Tahiti — eonlinufit.

124

Soe Charts 33 and 39, and Diagram 19.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

^3

E3

s*

Sr,

Date.

Poailitai.

;r i

.c o

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fnh r.).

Bottom Surface

Designation and Physical Characters.

Caebonate op Calcium.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other

Organisms. ^

279b

1875
Oct 2

279c,

280

•281

+282

17 29 38 S.
149 31 7 W.

620

79-0

17 29 11 S.
149 34 32 W.

680

79-0

18 40 0 S.
149 52 OW.

1940

35-3

77-2

22 21 0 S.
150 17 OW.

2335

34-9

74-5

23 46 0 S.
149 59 0 W.

2450

351

73-2

Volcanic Mud, green-gi-ey,

Slastic when wet, grey when
ry, slightly coherent, break-
ing up readily in water.
Besidue green.

Volcanic Mud, blue-grey,
slightly coherent, plastic and
green coloured when wet.
Besidue green.

Globigeiuna Ooze, grey with
red tinge, slightly coherent,
breaking up in water, yellow-
brown when wet.

Besidue black.

Red Clay, red when dry, gritty,
slightly coherent, breaking up
in water to fine powder, red-
brown when wet.

Red Clay, red when dry, gritty,
slightly coherent, breaking up
in water to fine powder, red-
brown when wet.

22-66

19-47

53-36

trace

trace

(5-00 %), Globigerinidse.

(9-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularid®,
La^enida;, Rotalidte, Num-
mminidfe.

(7-00 %), Globigerinidse.

(5-00 %), Miliolidfc, Textularidse,
Lageuidaj, Eotalidre, Num-
mminidfe.

Pul-

(45 -00 %), Globigerinidse,
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Biloculina depressa, La-
genidae, Trioncatuliiia, Nonio-
nina umbilicatula.

a few Miliolidm.

(8 -66 %), Otoliths of fish, Serpidl
Gasteropods, Lamellibranchi
Pteropods, Heteropods, Ostit
codes, Ecliinoderm freest
Coral fragments, ftlyztt
Alcyonarian spicules, ca-
careous Algse, Coccolithi!
Rhabdoliths.

(7-47 %), Otoliths of fish, Serptik.,
Gasteropods, Lamellibranclui’
Pteropods, Heteropods, Ostn,
codes, Ecliinoderm and Con
fragments, Polyzoa, Alej
onarian spicules, calcaieoa
Algal, Coccoliths, Rhabdolitii

(6-36 %), teeth of fish, GasUre-
pods, Lamellibranch fng-
ments. Echini spines, Cooea
liths, Rhabdoliths.

A few small teeth of fish.

• *n*l. 22. 2«, 117, 118, 119; PI. IV. figs. 3, 4, 6; PI. V. figs. 1, la, 2, 3, 3a, 4, 5, 5a, 13; PI. VI. figs. 9, 9a, 10, 10a, 13, 13a 15, 15a, 17; PI. XXL fig. 2.

+ fW n. XXVI. fig 2.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

125

RESIDUE.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

4 (2 '00 %) Sponge spicules, As-
trorhizidie, Lituolid.se, arena-
‘ ceous Testularidse, Diatoms.

3 (2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, As-
trorMzidse, Lituolidas, arena-
ceous Textularidse, Diatoms.

4 ,(2'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Bhizammi'm, Litu-
olidse, easts of calcareous
organisms. Diatoms.

2 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
oMae.

•00 %), Sponge spicules,
Radiolaria, BMmmnnina
algmformis, Lituolidse, Dia-
toms.

(15'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular; volcanic glass, plagio-
clase, felspar, magnetite, horn-
blende, augite, mica.

(40'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular; altered volcanic glass,
plagioclase, felspar, magnetite,
augite, black volcanic particles
some of them magnetic.

(25‘00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
hornblende, mica, olivine,
magnetite, fragments of vol-
canic rocks, manganese grains.

(50'00 %), m. di. 0‘12 mm.,
angular and rounded ; mag-
netite, palagonite, horn-
blende, augite, felspar,
pbiUipsite, black mica.

(50'00 %), m. di. 0’15 mm.,
rounded ; palagonite, plagio-
clase very abundant, augite
microlitbs, magnetic particles,
great number of small rounded
red transparent grains some of
them palagonite, or altered
oUvine, or felspar coated with
iron and manganese.

(60 ‘34 %), many fine mineral
fragments, amorphous matter,
and remains of siliceous organ-

(38 '53 %), many fine mineral
particles, amorphous matter,
and minute remains of siUceous
organisms.

(19 '64 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral and siliceous

(48 "00 %), amorphous red
coloured matter, many fine
mineral particles, and remains
of siliceous organisms.

(48 ‘00 %), much fine red or
chocolate coloured matter,
many fine mineral fragments,
and remains of siliceous

organisms.

A considerable quantity of the mud was obtained, similar
in every respect to the last. The upper layer was
distinctly red.

The deposit is similar to the three preceding ones, the
minerals being finer and more angular. There was a
red coloured surface layer in this as in the last.

Two soundings were taken. After treatment with acid
there remain very perfect casts of the organisms in a
red coloured material which also covers the shells. All
the mineral particles are covered with a thin coating
of manganese and iron. In the washings from the
tow-net there were some fragments of volcanic rock in
a high state of decomposition. There were also in the
tow-net two or three manganese nodules, one about two
inches (5 cm. ) long and very irregular. These nodules
seem to be formed of portions of the bottom and are
perforated in all^ directions by worm-tubes. In the
sounding tube was a piece of wood perforated by
worms. One of the nodules had a nucleus composed of
clay and of volcanic ashes; among this volcanic debris
were fragments of green hornblende, reddish augite,
plagioclase, and magnetite. These minerals are im-
bedded in a mass which appears in some places to be
zeolitic.

No deposit was obtained in or on the sounding tube. In
the bag of the trawl, however, there were about two
gallons (9 litres) of Red Clay. In the washings there was
a great number of dark red and brown spherical and
irregular bodies, which are coated with a substance of
a zeolitic nature. In the trawl was an immense
number of manganese nodules and sharks’ teeth. Some
of the manganese nodules , measure 18x12x3 inches
(45 X 30 X 7 '5 cm. ). These, along with most of the
smaller ones, have only a slight coating of manganese,
the interior being filled with a volcanic tufa. Among
the nodules are several fragments of pumice passing
into clayey matter. The nodules were overgrown with
Hyperammina vagans and other Rhizopods. There
appears to be evidence that volcanic disturbances
have taken place at the bottom near this locality.

Only a small quantity of the deposit, similar in every
respect to that obtained at the previous station, came
up in the tube. The greater part of the washings was
composed of the red and yellow rounded bodies noticed
on the 6th. There were many fragments of manganese,
and several small pieces of pumice.

r <

I

Off Tahiti — continued. Tahiti to

Tnhiti to Vnlj»«miiio—

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

127

Residue.

intl

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

9 ; (I'OO %), Sponge spicules, Radi-
olaria, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(10 ’00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, AstrorMzidae, Litu-
olidie, arenaceous Textu-
laridse. Diatoms.

5 '1'00%), a few Eadiolaria,

I one or two Sponge spicules,
Bhizammina algmformis (frag-
; ments), Lituolidse.

7 'I'OO %), a few Eadiolaria,
i Sponge spicules, Astrorhizidae,
LituoUdie, arenaceous Textu-
laridse.

(10 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; plagioclase, augite,
phlllipsite, magnetite, manga-
nese grains, glassy volcanic
particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; volcanic glass, fel-
spar, palagonite, hornblende,
phillipsite, black mica, mag-
netite.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; glassy volcanic par-
ticles, felspar, olivine, augite,
palagonite, pbiUipsite, horn-
blende, magnetite, cosmic
spherules.

(I'OO %),m.di.0'06mm., angular;
manganese grains, magnetite,
palagonite, felspar, olivine,
augite, a few glassy volcanic
particles, magnetic spherules.

(2'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; fibro-radiating glob-
ules and loose crystals of
phillipsite, sanidine, plagio-
clase, augite, magnetite, mag-
netic spherules, small con-
cretions of manganese, and
fragments of volcanic glass
and rocks.

(42 '39 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral frag-
ments, and remains of siliceous
organisms.

(23 '19 %), fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

(71 '75 %), much fine amorphous
matter, a few minute frag-
ments of minerals and sili-
ceous remains.

(72 '87 %), much fine amorphous
matter, minute mineral and
siliceous remains.

(97 '00 %), a large quantity of
clayey matter, coloured by
manganese, very small crystals
of phillipsite, and minute
mineral particles.

Nearly a foot (30 cm.) of the deposit came up in the tube;
the upper surface was a light yellow Globigerina
Ooze. In addition to the observed organisms, there
were a good many manganese grains, and yellow and
red crystals. Passing down the tube the ooze became
gradually darker, till at the bottom there was a dark
chocolate coloured clay, containing manganese in
rounded pellets, and many yellow crystals (phillipsite);
some of these are in the form of balls. Twinned
crystals of phUlipsite were observed.

Many of the Foraminifera are coated on the outside with
a deposit of a crystalline nature ; all stages of this
deposition can be seen in the deposit. Pulvinulina
menardii is absent. Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths are
very abundant.

Only a small quantity came up in the sounding tube.
Crystals of phillipsite are present, as on the 9 th. Man-
ganese grains are abundant. The trawl brought up
some clay and a barrelful of manganese nodules.
Among these were numerous sharks’ teeth, and eight
or nine earbones of Cetaceans. The bony material of
the teeth has been completely removed. Some of the
nuclei of the nodules are altered basaltic fragments,
others volcanic glass, others augite-audesite or horn-
blende-andesite. All the glassy fragments are cemented
to the manganese coating by zeolites crystallised in
situ. There are some angular pebbles, generally basalt
or augite-andesite, and rounded ones of granite or frag-
ments of clastic rocks composed of quartz, decomposed
felspar, and mica (arkose).

Two layers were to be observed in the contents of
the sounding tube. The upper two inches were very
dark red, the lower four or five inches light yellow,
smooth, and firm. In the top layer only a few
Foraminifera and Eadiolaria were present, a sample
scarcely efl'ervescing with acid. The lower layer, how-
ever, effervesced considerably, and the microscope
revealed a few Foraminifera and immense numbers of
very fine Coccoliths. There is much less manganese
in the lower than in the upper layers. The trawl
brought up large numbers of manganese nodules,
sharks’ teeth, earbones of Cetaceans, one or two
pieces of pumice, and a granite nodule 3 x 2 x J inches
(7 '5 X 5 X 1 '2 cm.). There were also some clayey con-
cretions of the bottom, perforated by worm -tubes, lined
with manganese.

About a quart of this deposit came up, containing an
immense quantity of manganese, several of the nodules
measuring from 0'5 to 1 cm. in diameter. In one or
two instances these nodules are joined together. The
Foraminifera are fragmentary except Uvigerina
asperula^ which is the most commonly occurring. The
crystals of phillipsite are very abundant in this deposit.
Among the mineral particles are a number of small
volcanic fragments, which appear opaque under the
microscope. Associated with these there are small
volcanic particles altered to brownish palagonite.

I"

|f

Tahiti to Valparaiso — continued.

Tahiti to Val)iaraiso — eonlinuerl.

128

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

n

See Chart 38, and Diagrams 19 and 20.

Nurntwr of
HUtlon.

Date.

Position.

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium., '[i

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms.

288

1875
Oct. 21

O 0

40 3
132 68

0

0 s.
0 w.

2600

34-8

O

54-5

Red Ci.ay, brown-gi-ey, very co-
herent, presenting no macro-
scopic characters, dark red-
brown and plastic when wet.

trace

Globigerina (fragments).

A few small teeth of fish. i*

V

1

:i

*289

39 41
131 23

0 s.
ow.

2550

34-8

54-5

Red Clay, pale brown-grey,
coherent, fine grained, dark
red-brown and plastic when
wet.

h

9 .

V

290

„ 25

39 16
124 7

0 s.
ow.

2300

34-9

52-5

Red Clay, light brown-grey,
coherent, fine grained.

1

291

39 13
118 49

0 s.
ow.

2250

34-6

53 0

Red Clay, light brown-gi-cy,
coherent, fine grained.

" t

292

29

38 43
112 31

0 s.
ow.

1600

35-2

53-2

Glohioerina Ooze, light brown-
grey, slightly coherent.

Residue red-brown, very
fine.

83-75

(75-00 %), Globigcrinidse, Pul-

(2-00 %), Miliolida:, Textularida;,
Rotalidse.

(6-75 %), fragments of hunt;
libranchs, Ostraoode wlntj
Echini spines, CoccolithI
Coccospheres.

■

t293

Nov. 1

39 4

105 5

0 s.
ow.

2025

34-4

.53 -7

Globigerina Ooze, brown, co-
herent, dark red-brown or
chocolate coloured and plastic
when wet.

Residue dark brown.

44-68

(35-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-

eiyt /-J ->i/y

(3-00 %), Miliolidic, Textularida;,
Lagenida;, Rotalida;, Nonionina
umbilicatula.

(6-68 %), Ostracode nlntj •
Echini spines, Coocolithi
Rhabdoliths.

1

1

:294

.. 3

39 22
98 46

0 s.
ow.

2270

34-6

67-5

Red Clay, chocolate coloured
when dry, coherent, homo-
geneous, rich chocolate colour
and plastic when wet.

trace

Globigerinida; (fragments), Uvig-
erina asperula, Rotalidse.

A few small teeth of fish. |

1

1

1

i

• See anal. 129, 147; I’l. III. fig. 7; I’l. IX. fig. 8. t Sec anal. 47, 130; PI. XVII. fig. 2; PI. XIX. fig. 3. t See PI. XXVII. fig. 4.

I

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

129

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

OC

(1'00%), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Thurammina pap-
illata.

0 I (1 '00 %), a few Radiolaria.

25

32

(I'OO %), Sponge spicules, a few
Radiolaria and arenaceous
Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), a few Sponge spicules,
Astrorhizidse, arenaceous Tex-
tularidae.

09

(I’OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; manganese grains,
phillipsite, felspar, augite,
glassy volcanic particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0"20mm., angu-
lar; magnetite, augite, olivine,
felspar.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0 05 mm.,
angular ; crystals and irregu-
lai' fi-agments of plagioclnse,
•sanidine, augite, rhombic
pyroxene, magnetite, altered
glassy and other volcanic par-
ticles, grains of manganese.

(3 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular; sanidine, plagioclase,
augite, altered olivine, splinters
of volcanic glass, man-
ganese grains, magnetite.

(3'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm., angu-
lar ; manganese grains, fels-
par, plagioclase, augite,
phillip.site, crystals, quartz,
magnetite, glassy volcanic
particles.

(98 '00 %), much dark brown
fine amorphous matter, a few
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms, and manganese grains.

(98 '00 %), much fine dark
brown amorphous matter,
manganese grains, and minute
mineral particles.

(14 '25 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter coloured
by manganese, minute mineral
particles, and small fragments
of siliceous organisms.

(51 '32 %), fine dark red-brown
amorphous matter, fine
mineral particles.

(97 '00 %), much fine amorphous
matter of a dark chocolate
colour, and some fine mineral
fragments.

The clay was not so dark coloured as at the last station.
In one place there were one or two spots of a yellow
colour. A few small manganese nodules overgrown with
Hypcrammina vagans were observed. The tube had
been buried about 18 inches (45 cm.) in the deposit.

No bottom was in the tube or on the outside. The ti-awl
brought up a great quantity of manganese nodules,
but no deposit ; on the iron work were some patches
of cla3^ On examining this it was found to contain
very many yellow crystals of phillipsite, a few pelagic
Foraminifera and their broken parts, and a few Cocco-
liths and Rhabdoliths. A great many manganese
grains were noticed. Among the nodules in the trawl
were a few earbones of Cetaceans and fragments of
bones. One pebble was a fragment of diabase contain-
ing altered plagioclase, augite, replaced by a chloritic
mineral, quartz, epidote, black mica, titanic iron and
leucoxene.

No deposit came up in the tube. 'About a gramme of the
clay was found adhering to the bottom of the water-
bottle, insufficient for detailed examination. Under
the microscope it showed the yellow ciwstals of
phillipsite, manganese gi'ains, some Coccoliths, a good
many fragments of pelagic Foraminifera, and a
Uvigerina.

Inside the tube there were two or three small pellets of
Red Clay. On breaking the.se down and examining them
with the microscope, Olohigerina and Palmnulma
remains were found. These are small compared with
those further north. One or two 2'extularia, a good
many Coccoliths, portions of Rhabdoliths, a good many
manganese grains, and a few yellow crj'stals of phillipsite
were also observed. In the bag of the trawl there was
only one manganese nodule, the size of a marble, to
which was attached an egg capsule.

Coccoliths are comparatively abundant. In this deposit
are found crystals of plagioclase, loose or coated with
volcanic glass, in the form of rhombic tables, also
crystals of augite and rhombic pyroxene, and frag-
ments of palagonite. The trawl line carried away in
heaving in.

The most abundant of the pelagic Foraminifera is a thick-
shelled Olohigerina hulloides. The trawl brought up
about a dozen manganese nodules, two sharks’ teeth,
and a small grey pebble of augite-andesite. The
largest of the nodules is about the size of a pigeon’s
egg. Several have nuclei of palagonite, others appear
to be made up entirely of manganese. The teeth and
pebble are slightly coated with manganese.

The lower part of this deposit did not effervesce with
acid ; only one or two fragments of pelagic Foraminifera
and a few broken pieces of sharks’ teeth were observed.
In the upper portion there were a few whole and a good
many broken pieces of pelagic Foraminifera, one or two
.small Coccoliths, and fragments of Rhabdoliths. The
great mass of the washings was composed of small
pellets or particles of manganese (one small nodule the
size of a pea was noticed), along with crystals of phil-
lipsite and fragments of palagonite.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

17

Tahiti to Valparaiso — continued.

Tnliiti to Val|«ra!ao—

i:?0 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soe Chart 38, and Dia^iius 20 and 21.

1

1 =
1 S.2

Hate.

Position.

e «
- E

5 ®

Temperature
of the Sea-
water
(Kahr.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

i

Carbonate op Calcium. i

1

Bottom

Surface

i

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms. |

1

1875

I Q 4 //

O

1

1 ^

1

\

295

Nov. 5

38 7 OS.
94 4 OW.

o

o

35-3

1 58-5

j

Globioeuina Ooze.

Biloculina depressa, Textularidse,
Uvigerina, Globigerinidae,

Rotalidoj.

Cephalopod beaks, Ptoropods,'
Ostracode valves, Eohiii:
spines.

•■296

38 6 OS.
88 2 OW.

1825

35-3

59-8

Globigerina Ooze, light brown-
grey when dry, somewhat co-
herent.

Besidue dark red-brown.

64-34

(55-00 %), Globigerinida?, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidaj, Textularidie,
Lagenidie, Eotalidae, Nummu-
linidte.

(7-34%), Otoliths and teeth ot
fish, Serpula, Ostracedes, 1
Echini spines, Coccolithi,
Rhabdoliths. j

t297

1

1

i.

11

37 29 0 S.
83 7 OW.

1775

35-5

57-0

Globigerina Ooze, yellow-grey,
slightly coherent.

Besidue rich brown.

71-15

(60 -00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

(5-00 %), Miliolidie, Te.xtularidie,
Lagenidfe, Rotalidae, Nonw-
nina umbilicatula.

(6-15 %), Echini spines, Cocoo-i !
liths, Rhabdoliths. |i

1

1 298

.. 17

34 7 0 S.
73 56 OW.

2225

35-6

59-0

Blue Mud, light blue-grey when
dry, coherent, presenting no
macroscopic elements, fine
grained, plastic when wet.

Besidue blue-grey.

5-65

(4 -00 %), Miliolidie, Bolivina
texlilarioides, Lagenidaj, Qlobi-
gerinidie, Pulvinulitia caruiri-
ensis, Nonionina mnbilicalula.

(1-65 %), Ostracodes, Echini
spines, Coccoliths. i

II

j

,

Dec. 11

Off Valparaiso.

41

Blue .Mud, blue-grey when dry,
coherent, jiresenting no macro-
scopic elements, fine grained,
breaking up in water, blue
and plastic when wet.

trace

Miliolina scmiiiulum, Textu-
laridm, Globigerina bulloides,
Rotalidic, Nonionina.

!■

1 i
1
1
1

Echinoderm fragments, s fe* j 1
Coccoliths. j

J

* 8c« tnal. 48. t Sco anal. 49, 131; I’l. III. figs. 8, 0 ; PI. IX. fig. 9.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

13l'

RESIDUE.

cd-

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

Radiolaria, Astrorhizid*, Lituo-
lidie, arenaceous Textularidae.

(1'00%), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidfe, Lituo-
lidte, arenaceous Textularidee.

86 (I'OO %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidfe.

05 (4'00 %), Radiolaria, Reophax,
casts of Foraminifera, Dia-
toms.

Particles of volcanic glass some
of them black, and minute
rock fragments.

(O'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm., angu-
lar ; plagioclase, augite, al-
tered olivine, many white
glassy volcanic splinters, pala-
gonite, phillipsite in single
crystals and fihro -radiating
aggregations, magnetite, man-
ganese grains.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; manganese gi’ains,
plagioclase, magnetite, a few
isolated yellow crystals of
phillipsite, augite, glassy vol-
canic particles.

(1 '00 %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
pumice, augite, quartz, mica,
hornblende palagonite, glau-
conite.

(31 '66 %), much fine amorphous
matter, a few mineral frag-
ments, and remains of siliceous
organisms.

(26 ’85 %), a quantity of dark
red-brown, very fine grained,
amorphous matter, some
mineral fragments.

(89’35 %), much blue-grey
amorphous matter, some
mineral and siliceous remains.

The water in the sounding tube on being allowed to
settle deposited some brown coloured sediment, com-
posed of Olobigcrina, Pulvinulina, Echini spines,
Ostracode valves ; a good many small manganese par-
ticles, and many small red mineral fragments were
also observed, as also a few Uvigerina. Altogether,
this indicates a red coloured Globigerina Ooze. In
the tow-net at the weights there were an angular
pebble about one inch (25 mm.) long, and a great
many small rock fragments, measuring from 1 to 5 mm.
in diameter, some of them augitc-andesite.

Two layers were noticeable in the tube, a straw coloured
upper and a dark brown lower. The upper layer con-
tained the organisms noted, while in the lower layer
the organisms were few and manganese abundant. A
small nodule (the size of a pea) was observed. In the
washings of the ooze from the trawl there were a few
volcanic pebbles, some of them ti'ansformed into pala-
gonite.

There was no trace of deposit in the tube, except a few
shells of Globigerina at the valves. The trawl brought
up a large quantity of manganese nodules (3 to 4
quarts = 3 '4 to 4 ’5 litres) varying from the size of a pea
to that of a hen’s egg. One of the tow-nets at the trawl
was full of a yellow coloured ooze in which were many
rounded manganese nodules. The nuclei of some of
the larger of these nodules are composed of a yellow or
dark green material easily cut with a knife, showing
the last stage of decomposition of palagonite. There
were some lumps of the ooze, in the tow-net, showing
the beginning of the nodule formation.

A section of about a foot (30 cm.) of mud of a blue colour
was in the tube ; on the surface there was a layer of a red-
. dish colour which gave no trace of carbonate of lime on
treatment with acid. The tow-nets at the trawl had
each a little mud of a red or brown colour which did
not effervesce with acid ; evidently from the surface
layers of the deposit. In a tow-net there was a man-
ganese nodule, flat and round, about one inch (25 mm.)
across and one and a quarter inches (31 mm.) thick,
with a neueleus of pumice, also portions of a Cepha-
lopod beak, and two pieces of twigs. Many excreta
of Echinoderms are present. Imperfect casts of Fora-
minifera remain after treatment with dilute acid.

00

(I'OO %), Lituolidae, arenaceous
Textularidae, Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, white or yellow-
ish mica, olivine, magnetite,
quartz (rare).

(98‘00 %) much gi-eenish
amorphous matter, fine
minerals, and a few siliceous
remains.

No effervescence is noticed when the mud is ti-eated with
dilute acid, but a strong smell of sulphuretted hydrogen
is evolved. The mica and olivine are both altered and
yellowish or nearly opaque. The particles are very
small for a shore deposit.

Tahiti to Valparaiso — continued.

OuU uf PrhM t*>

S«Diijr Putut through

M*icvlUii Strkil. Valparaiio to Oulf of Pent*.

132

See Charts 40 and 41, and Dia<;ram 21.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

E2

a X

■r.

c *
c

j: 0

Tcmpenituro
of the Sua-
wiitcr
(Kahr.).

Date.

Poeitlou.

Deslguation and Physical Characters.

Bottom 1 Surface

CARBONATE OP CALOIOM.

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

: 1875

•299 Dec. 14

t300

J302

1303

17

28

30

301

31

33 31 0 S. 2160
74 43 0 \V.

35-2

62 '0 I Blue Mud, palo blue-grey, co-
herent, fine grained, plastic,
red-brown, and compact when
wet.

Residue red-brown.

33 42
78 18

0 S.
0 W.

1375

35 5

42 43
82 11

0 S
0 W.

n.'IO 35-6

62-5

55 0

Globigerina Ooze, yellow-
white, slightly coherent, yel-
low-brown and somewhat plas-
tic when wet.

Residue red-brown.

Globioerina Ooze, palo j’cllow-
brown, slightly coherent, yel-
low-red and gritty when wet.
Residue red-brown.

45 31
78 9

0 S.
0 W.

1325

36-0

54-8

46 S3 15 .S.
76 12 0 W.

45

57-2

Blue Mud, light blue-grey,
slightly coherent, breaking up
in water, blue-grey and plastic
when wet.

Residue grey.

Quartz Sand, green-grey, fine
grained, dark grey when wet.
Residue dam grey, almost
black.

• 8««anal. 132, 133, 134; PI. III. fig. 4.
f See anal. 50; PI. XXVI. fig. 1.

15-40

54-09

82-31

25-79

2-72

I

PuX-

(10-00 %), Globigerinidae,
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidee, Lagenidse,
Rotalida;, Nonioimia umbili-
catula.

Pul-

(45-00 %), Globigerinidaj,
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidoe, Pullenia quinque-
loha, Rotalidse, Nonionina
umbilicatula.

Pul-

(70-00 %), Globigerinidaj,
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolida', Textu-
laridaj, Lagenidae, Pullenia,
Rotalidae, Nonionina umbili-
catula.

Pul-

(20-00 %), Globigerinidaj,
vinulina micheliniana.

(2-00 %), MiliolidiB, Textularidaj,
Lagenidoj, Pullenia, Rotalida:.

Tcxtularidte, Lagenida:, Globige-
rinida:, Rotalida:, Nummuli-
nida:.

Other Organisms.

(2-40 %), Ostracodes, Echinodorn,
fragments, Coccoliths.

(4-09 %), Pteropod
Echinoderm f ragmen t.s~ Polj-
zoa, Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths.

(9-31 %), teeth of fish, Lamelli-
branchs, Ostracodes, Echino-
derm fragments, Cocoditlu(
Rhabdoliths.

(3-79 %), Ostracodes, Echini |
spines, Polyzoa, Coccolithi, |
Rhabdoliths. ;

Lamellibranch fragments. Onto .
codes. Echini spines.

t Sec nnal. 51, 95, 135; PI. XVI. fig. 4 ; PI. XVII. fig. 4.
S See PI. XXVI. fig. 4.

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

Residue.

ntl Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals

5'00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Lituo-
lida;, Diatoms.

I'OO %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
' olidse, arenaceous Tex tularidae.

1 ’00 %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
hizidae, Lituolidm, Textu-
larid®, casts of Foraminifera,
Sponge spicules. Diatoms.

"00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Reophax difflagifor-
mis, Textularidaj.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0 06 mm.,
angular ; glassy volcanic
particles, felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite, magne-
tite, quartz, small particles of
andesitic rocks.

(2'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular ; felspar, plagioclase,
magnetite, augite, small vol-
canic lapilli, palagonite, man-
ganese grains.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm.,
angular ; felspar, quartz,
augite, pumice, palagonite,
manganese grains, glauconite,
zircon.

(lO'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; brown vesicular vol-
canic glass, felspar, plagio-
clase, augite, hornblende,
magnetite, many particles of
pumice, quartz, glauconite.

(96'28 %), m. di. 0'17 mm.,
rounded; quartz, yellow-green
mica flakes with apatite inclu-
sions, felspar, fragments of
ancient crystalline rocks and
schists, hornblende, green
chloritic substance covering
the quartz and the other
mineral particles.

Fine Washings.

(78'60 %), much amorphous
matter, fine mineral and
siliceous remains.

(63 '21 %), grey coloured amor-
phous matter, fine mineral
particles, and a few remains of
siliceous organisms.

(I'OO %), a few fine mineral par-
ticles.

(42 '91 %), amorphous brown
coloured matter, fine mineral
and siliceous remains.

(15 '69 %), red-brown amorphous
matter, mineral and siliceous

Additional Observations.

A section of about four inches (10 cm.) came up in the
sounding tube; the uppermost inch was of a red colour
containing no calcareous organisms, the lower portion
being a blue-grey compact mud containing the organisms
noted, two. or three pieces of pumice, and several man-
ganese grains. One of the tow-nets at the trawl was
half full of a red-brown mud, and some of this was in
the bag of the trawl and adhering to the nodules, &c.
In the trawl there was over a quart . (over a liti'e) of
nodules and fragments of pumice. Some of these
nodules are manganese throughout ; others are formed
of pumice surrounded by a deposit of manganese, while
one had a nucleus of altered basalt. In addition there
were a hard angular piece of granite, small hai'dened con-
cretions of the bottom, and a fragment of a Cepbalopod
beak. On one of the nodules was attached a large Scal-
pellum darwinii. In the washings from the trawl were
observed great numbers of Rhizammina algm/ormis.

Only a small quantity of ooze came up in the tube. A
considerable quantity came up in the trawl, amongst
which were several small basaltic pebbles having a
slight coating of manganese, and three or four pieces of
a hardened tufa of a red coloui', flat, and coated with
manganese to the thickness of i or J an inch (6 or 12
mm.). The ooze contains also a good many black
particles and pebbles about the size of peas.

A considerable quantity of ooze was obtained in the
sounding tube. In it were small pieces of manganese,
pumice, and other mineral particles. In the trawl was
about a peck (9 litres) of the ooze, in which were a
number of manganese nodules, with nuclei of fragments
of basalt with a vitreous base pa.ssing into palagonite,
overgrown with worm tubes and Hyperammina vagans,
some volcanic pebbles, and a piece of granite with a j
slight coating of manganese. There was also a fragment '
of a siliceous rock resembling flint, composed of cal- I
cedony and grains of crystalline silica. Eed and j
yellow casts of the Foraminifera remain after treat- I
ment with acid. Some particles of quartz are large
and rounded. |

The tube brought up a considerable quantity of stiff light ,
blue-grey mud containing the organisms noted. The !
surface of the section was of a yellowish colour and !
much softer than the deeper layers. The Foraminifera
are fewer and pumice particles more abundant in the
lower layers.

Gulf of Pefins to
Sandy Point through

Valaparaiso to Gulf of Penas. Magellan Strait.

Oulf of I’chiui to S illily I'oiiit through Magellan Htmit — continufil.

1

134 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

See Chart 'll.

9 .
u S3

is

Date.

PoaitioD.

Depth In
Fathoms.

Temperaturo
o( the Sea-
water
(Kalir.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate op Calcium. ||

Bottom ^
1

Surface

Percent. |

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms. (j

1876

O t tf

o

305

Jon. 1

47 47 0 S.

165

55-5

^ Blue JIuds, blue-grey when

4-16

(3 -00 %), Miliolida;, Textularid®,

(1-16 %), Dentalium, Gastewf

74 47 OW.

dry, coherent, slate coloured

Lagenidaj, Olohigerina hul-

and Lamellibranch fragmi“D

305a

„ 1

47 48 30 S.

125

• ••

55-0

and plastic when wet.

loides, Rotalidie, Nummu-

Ostracodes, Echinoderm

74 47 OW.

Besidue blue-grey.

linidse.

ments, Polyzoa.

305b

1

47 48 0 S.

160

• St

55-7

74 46 0 W.

306

0

48 17 0 S.

565

57-0

'I Blue Muds, blue-grey, co-

trace

Miliolidse, Textularidie, Trun-

Serpula, Gasteropoda, Lamel

74 33 OW.

1 herent, fine grained, dark

catuliim lohatula, Nonionina

branchs, Ostracodes, Echiji

306a

M 2

48 27 0 S.

345

46 0

57-5

j blue-grey and jdastic when

umhilicatula.

derm and Coral fragments. '

74 30 0 W.

J wet.

307

.. i

49 24 30 S.

140

530

Blue Mud, light blue-grey,

trace

Truncatidina tenera, Nonionina

G asteropod and Lamellibraci

74 23 30 W.

coherent, breaking up readily

scapula.

fragments. Echini spines. ;

in water.

308

FI 5

50 8 30 S.

175

51-7

Blue Mud, vellow-grev, slightly

28-84

(6-00 %), Globigerinidfe.

(13-84 %), Serpula, Gasteropodij

74 41 OW.

coherent, breaking up in water.

(9-00 %), Miliolida?, Textularidse,

Lamelli branchs, OstnewB!

green-brown when wet.

Lagenidte, Rotalidje, Nonionina

Echinoderm fragments. j

1

Besidue green-brown.

umhilicatula.

309

8

50 56 0 S.

40

47 0

50-5

'l Blue Muds, light blue-grey.

trace

Truncatulina lobaiula.

Gasteropoda.

74 15 OW.

1 coherent,' dark blue-grey and

309a

8

50 .'16 0 S.

140

50-6

1 plastic when wet, unctuous.

74 14 0 W.

j

310

.. 10

51 27 80 S.

400

46-5

50 5

Blue Mud, light blue-grey, co-

trace

Miliolina scminulum, Truncatic-

Lamellibranch fragments, Oitn j

74 3 0 W.

herent, fine grained, dark blue-

Una lohatula, Nonionina um-

codes. ,

grey and [ilastic when wet.

hilicatula.

1

311

11

52 45 30 .S.

245

46 0

50-0

Blue Mud, yellow-grey with

34-07

(8-00 %), Olohigerina bulloidcs.

(16-07 %), Otoliths of

73 46 0 W.

green tinge, coherent, breaking

(10-00 %), Miliolida;, Tcxtularidne,

Gasteropoda, Lamelliorifi'h|

1

up in water, green-brown when

Lagenida*, Rotalidae, Nonionina

Ptcropods, OstracodMj Mb" 1

wet.

uinbilicatiUa.

derm fragments. i

Bcaidue yellow-green.

1

-1

I

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

135

Residue.

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

1 Minerals.

1 Fine Washings.

(3-00 %), Sponge spicules,

Astrorhizidee, Lituolidse, Tex-
tularidfe, Diatoms.

1

(65'00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
rounded and angular; mica,
quartz, plagioclase, horn-
blende, rhombic pyroxene,
glauconite, small fragments of
crystalline rocks.

(27 '84 %), amorphous matter,
many tine mineral particles,
and some sihoeous remains.

These three deposits are similar to each other, but
vary as to amorphous matter, number of shell frag-
ments, and mineral particles. Many of the Foramini-
fera shells are filled with glauconite, which remains as
casts on treatment with acid. At 'the second station
many of the mineral fragments measure from 0 '5 to 2
mm.

i2'00 %), Sponge spicules,
Astrorhizidae, Textularidse,
Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
rounded and angular; ortho-
clase, plagioclase, quartz,
hornblende, tourmaline,

splinters of schisto-crystalline
and volcanic rocks, glauconite.

(97 '00 %), mnch fine clayey
matter, some mineral and
siliceous remains.

Two soundings were taken on this date. The deposits
are similar, the former containing perhaps larger traces
of carbonate of lime, while the latter disintegrates
more readily in water. The organisms noted were
obtained from the washings of the trawl.

1 '00 %), Sponge spicules, a few
Diatoms.

(75 '00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
rounded and angular; quartz,
felspar, plagioclase, green
hornblende, chlorite, zircon,
epidote, particles of crystal-
line rooks.

(24 '00 %), fine clayey matter of
a blue-grey colour, fine
mineral fragments, a few
remains of Sponge spicules
and Diatoms.

There was very little effervescence with acid indicating
only traces of carbonate of lime. The minerals are
small, the largest being only about 0 '5 mm. in diameter.

IfOO %), Sponge spicules, Textu-
laridae, glauconitic casts, a
few Diatoms

(35'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
felspar, plagioclase, augite,
hornblende, black and white
mica, zircon, glauconite,
fragments of crystalline rocks.

(34'16 %), clayey matter,

mineral particles, a few

siliceous remains.

A few glauconitic casts remain after treatment with acid.
Some pebbles and rock fragments, measuring from
1 mm. to 4 cm. in diameter, were embedded in the de-
posit.

'00 %), Clavulina communis.

(30 '00 %), m. di. 0'20 mm.,
angular and rounded ;

quartz, plagioclase, felspar,
brown hornblende, augite,
pumice, magnetite, lapilli.

(69 '00 %), fine clayey matter,
minute mineral fragments.

Some rock fragments, measuring over 1 cm. in diameter,
were noticed. The felspar contains brown glassy in-
clusions. The mineral particles seem to be the product
resulting from the disintegration of a coarse-grained
modern volcanic rock or a coarse volcanic ash, but if
this be the case glassy particles are very rare.

( 00 %), Sponge spicules, Am-
modiseus incertus, a few
Diatoms.

(3 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
rounded ; quartz, olivine, fel-
spar, zircon, mica, hornblende.

(96 '00 %), much blue-grey
clayey matter, and some fine
mineral particles.

The mud is of a much finer character than that obtained
at the previous stations.

( 00 %), Sponge spicules,
rextnlaridffi, casts, Diatoms.

(2'00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
felspar, plagioclase, horn-
blende, angite, zircon, glau-
conite, glaucophane, epidote,
altered glauconite.

(62 '93 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral fragments, and
some siliceous remains.

Imperfect casts of Foraminifera remain after treating the
deposit with acid.

Gulf of Penas to Sandy Point tlirougli Magellan Strait — continued.

FalkUud Ulauda to Kio de U PUtA. Sandy Point to Falkland Iilanda.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS. 137

RESIDUE.

1 ........

Additional Observations.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(2 ’00 %), fragments of Sponge
spicules and Diatoms.

1

(90‘00 %), m. di. 0'60 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, felspar,
mica, hornblende, augite,
glauconite, pumice, particles
of crystalline and schistose
rocks, epidote, garnet.

(6 '87 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, flocculent
organic matter, and many
minute mineral particles.

The dredge brought up some sand, sandy concretions, v
and many animals, also some pieces of carbonised
wood. The particles of crystalline and schistose rocks
are often black, and more or less rounded. Many of
the mineral and rock particles are covered with chlo-
ritic matter as well as with limonite.

'

-

This deposit is the same in all respects as that described
for Station 313, except perhaps that there is a little
more glauconite.

(3 00 %), Sponge spicules,

Diatoms.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, felspar,
hornblende.

(56'88 %,) amorphous matter
and fine particles of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

"With the exception of the Foraminifera and Ostracodes,
the organisms are fragmentary; some are macro-
scopic.

j(2'00 %), Sponge 'spicules,
1 Lituolidse.

1

1

!

(70'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
rounded and angular ; frag-
ments of clastic rocks, black
mica, quartz, felspar, augite,
magnetite, glauconite, horn-
blende.

(13'39 %), a small quantity of
amorphous matter, with many
minute fragments of minerals
and siliceous organisms.

There was nothing in the sounding tube. The trawl line '
parted between the weights and the trawl while being
hauled in. The gravel and animals obtained came up
in the tow-net attached to the weights. Among the
pebbles were glauconitic and phosphatic concretions.

!(2’00 %), Radiolaria, Astrorhiza,
imperfect casts, Diatoms.

'

1

(50‘00 %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular and rounded; quartz,
pumice, felspar, hornblende,
augite, mica, magnetite, glau-
conite.

(15'31 %), amorphous matter,
with many fine mineral
particles and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The sounding tube had sunk over a foot (30 cm. ) into the
bottom, but brought up only a small quantity of the
mud. This was of a blue colour with here and there
some lighter coloured patches. There was no evidence
to show that the trawl had ever touched the bottom.

3 '00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
^ spicules, Astrorliizidae, Lituo-

1

(40 "00 %), m. di. 0'12 mm.,
rounded ; quartz, monoclinic
and triclinic felspars, horn-
blende, pumice, glauconite.

(50'59 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

The sounding tube had sunk nearly 14 inches (35 cm.)
into the deposit and brought up about a litre of the mud.
This was of a blue-grey colour throughout, with the
exception of the thin watery surface layer, which had
a brown colour. Some of the particles of felspar are
kaolinised while others show no alteration.

1 2'00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
I hizidse, LituoHdae, a few
Diatoms.

(70'00 %), m. di. 0'15 mm.,
rounded; quartz, felspar, pla-
gioclase, hornblende, augite,
magnetite, pumice, glauco-
nite.

(16'11 %), amorphous matter
and many minute mineral
particles.

The sounding tube brought up only a small concretion
about 15 cm. in diameter. In the trawl there were five
or six similar concretions and a little of the Blue Mud
described. The concretions are phosphatic and contain
glauconite. Many of the Foraminifera are macroscopic.
Some of the mineral particles attain a diameter of 1
mm. Many of the minerals, principally the felspar,
are covered by or impregnated with a green chloritic
matter apparently intimately united to the mineral
which it envelops. Felspar is chiefly represented by
plagioclase. Some quartz grains contain inclusions of
liquid carbonic acid.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 18

♦

I

Sandy Point to Falkland Islands. Falkland Islands to Rio do la Plata.

Kalklantl lainnda to

Kio <lo U riatn to Tri.stnn <la Cuiiha. Kio de la I'lata — continued.

138

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Soc Chart 16, and Diagrams 6 and 22.

1'

8.2

la

321

322

•323

32«

Dat«.

1876
Feb. 15

25

26

28

29

325 Mar. 2

Poaition.

Off Monte
Video.

35 2 0 S.
55 15 OW.

35 20 0 S.
63 42 0 W.

35 39 0 a.
50 47 OW.

36 9 0 S.
48 22 OW.

36 44 0 .S.
46 16 0 W.

Si

O.'S

Q .X.

Temperature
of the .Sea-
water
(Fahr.).

_l

Bottom Surface

13

21

1900

2800

2650

33 1

73-5

32-6

32-7

71-5

73-5

71-5

Designation and Physical Characters.

Blue Mud, grey-brown, plastic,
greasy, homogeneous, but con-
taining some large fragments of
Molluscs and terrestrial plants,
sublustrous streak.

Residue brown.

Sand and Shells.

Blue Mud, grey, arenaceous,
slightly pla.stic, finely granu-
lar, sublustrous streak.

Residue blue-grey.

Carbonate op Caloiom.

Per cent.

70-8

Blu» Mud, grey, arenaceous,
j)liLstic, grea.sy, and very finely
granular to the touch.

Residue brown.

Blue .Mud, grey, slightly plastic,
arenaceous, finely granular,
earthy, pulverulent, sublus-
trous streak.

113

Foraminifera.

A few Miliolidas.

3 04

4-04

(2 '00 %), Miliolidae, Textularidae,
Lagenidae, Globigerinidse, Ro-
talidae.

(2'00 %), Olobige.rina Pulvinu-
linu.

Other Organisms.

Fragments of Gasteropoda all
Lamellibranchs, a few Ostrl
eodes and Echini spines.

(1 ’04 %), Otoliths of fish, Gaaten
pods, Lamellibranclw, Plea
pods, Ostracodes, Echinodm
fragments, Polyzoa.

(2 '04 %), small teeth of fish.

.Sec anal. 64, 65.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

189

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

87; (1

!

•00 %), Lituolidse, frustules of
Diatoms.

96 (5 ’00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidae, Litu-
olidse, Diatoms.

961

00

5 ’00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
olidie. Diatoms.

5 ‘00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
hiza, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

(3'00 %), m. di. 0’08 mm., angu-
lar and rounded ; quartz,
pumice, felspar, plagioclase,
hornblende, augite, mag-
netite, particles of volcanic
rocks, a few glauconitic grains.

(94 ’87 %), amorphous matter
and small mineral particles.

(20‘00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
felspar, plagioclase, mica,
hornblende, augite, mag-
netite, glauconite.

(71 ‘96 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

(20'00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
pumice, plagioclase, horn-
blende, mica, magnetite,
glauconite.

(20 '00 %), m. di. 0’08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz
sometimes coated with limo-
nite, pumice, brown glassy
volcanic particles, mica, sani-
dine, hornblende, augite, mag-
netite.

(70 '96 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles.

(75'00 %), amorphous matter
and many fine mineral par-
ticles.

The mud from the anchor in the harbour was the same
as that described for Station 321, only somewhat darker
in colour.

The dredge brought up a large quantity of blue
tenacious mud.

The trawl brought up many dead shells of Pecten,
&c., covered with Annelid tubes, and some sand
formed of grains, about 1 mm. in diameter, of
quartz, felspar, mica, hornblende, augite, and pumice.
The trawl also brought up some sandy aggregations of
a more or less oval shape and grey colour. These con-
tained all the above minerals, quartz particles about
0'5 mm. in diameter predominating. The mineral
particles are agglutinated by a ferruginous clay.

The sounding tube brought up over a quart (over a litre)
of the mud. This was of a blue colour, except a thin
watery surface layer of a red or brown colour. The
calcareous organisms were chiefly confined to the surface
layers. The trawl and attached tow-nets contained a
little of the deposit, the same as the upper layers in the
sounding tube, and in the trawl there were several
large lumps of the stiff Blue Mud of the lower layers.
Some of the Foraminifera are macroscopic. Some
of the quartz grains have a diameter of 1 mm. , and
are covered with limonite. Some of the felspar particles
have vitreous inclusions.

The sounding tube brought up over a litre of the mud of
the same grey-brown colour throughout. A second
sounding was taken and gave the same kind of deposit
at a depth of 2840 fathoms. Some of the quartz
particles reach a diameter of 1 mm. , and are covered
with limonite. The trawl line parted after the trawl
had been some time on the bottom.

The sounding tube had sunk fifteen inches (37 '5 cm. ) into
the bottom and brought up nearly two litres of the
mud, of which the lower layer was reddish rather than
grey. Tliere was also about half a litre of mud in the
trawl and attached tow-nets. No eServescence was
observed when the deposit was treated with acid.
The magnetite is not always isolated, but. is often
found inclosed in particles of volcanic rocks, or as
inclusions in hornblende and augite.

Falkland Islands to

Rio de la Plata — continued. Rio de la Plata to Tristan da Cunha.

Rio lie lit Plata to Trintaii ila Cunlm — eoiitiniu<l.

140

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

!S*

See Chart 16, aiid Diagram 6.

^ .

1

■ H

"A

1

Date.

Pusition.

)epth In
atnoma.

Tomperaturo
of the Sea-
water
(Falir.

Designation and Physical Characters.

" ^

CARBONATE OF CALOIUM. '

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organisms, ]

1 326

1

1876
Mar. 3

O f

37 3
44 17

«r

0 s.
0 w.

2775

O

32-7

O

67-8

Blue Mud, grey-brown, arena-
ceous, plastic, finely granular,
drying into slightly coherent
earthy masses.

Residue grey-brown.

3-11

(3-11 %), small teeth offish, j

‘ 327

1

*

36 48
42 45

0 s.
ow.

2900

32-8

70-2

Red Clay, gi-ey-brown, finely
granular, slightly coherent,
earthy.

32S

6

37 38
39 36

0 s.
0 w.

2900

32-9

68 0

Red Clay*, grey-brown, plastic,
unctuous, coherent when dry,
finely granular, sublustrous
streak.

329

• • "

37 31
36 7

0 s.
0 w.

2675

32-3

64-5

Red Clay', grey-brown, plastic,
unctuous, homogeneous, dry-
ing into fine-grained coherent
masses, sublustrous streak.

0-70

Fragments of pelagic Foramini-
fera.

330

.. 8

37 45
33 0

0 s.
0 w.

2440

32-7

64-2

Red Clay, grey-brown, homo-
geneous, coherent, lustrous
streak.

Residue brown.

10-36

(6-00 %), fragments of Globi-
gerinidae, Pulvinulma.

(4-36 %), Ostracodes, one ortn^p
fragments of Echini spisf* |
Coccoliths.

1

331

.. »

37 47
30 20

0 s.
0 w.

1715

35-4

64-5

Globigeiuna Ooze, white with a
slight rose tint, granular, pul-
verulent.

Residue brown.

.78-38

(60-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidae, Textu-
laridaj, Lagenidie, Rotalidae.

(15-38 %), Ostracodes, Ecluiii
spines, Polyzoa, Coccolitk
Coccospheres, Rhabdoliths.

•382

.. 10

37 29
27 31

0 s.
0 w.

2200

34-0

64 0

Globigeiuna Ooze, grey with
a rose tinge, homogeneous,
slij'htly coherent.

Residue brown.

65-67

(55-00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
■oinvXvna.

(3-00 %), Miliolida;, Textularidaj,
Lagenidie, Rotalida;.

(7-67 %), fragments of PUiv- |
pods. Echini spines, Co» j
liths, Coccospheres, RhaW*- fl
liths. 1

■\
(
1
i
1

333

18

35 36
21 12

0 .s.
0 w.

2025

35-3

67-0

GLonioEitiNA Ooze, white,

sliglitly coherent.

Residue red.

88-97

(75 -00 %), Globigerinida;, Pul-
vinulina.

(3-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularida;,
Lagenido!, Rotalida:.

i

(10-97 %), fragments of Pf«; 1
pods, Ostracodes, ErtiB j|

^ines, Polyzoa, CoooolilH a
Coccospheres, Rhalidolithi- B

i

* See anal. 52.

I

A

I

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

141

\

1 Residue.

Additional Observations.

■ Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

1 Fine Washings.

(5 00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorliizidoe, Litu-
olid®, frustules of Diatoms.

(20 '00 %), m. di. 0'08 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
pumice, white mica, horn-
blende, felspar, magnetite.

(71 '89 %), amorphous matter,
with many fine ■ mineral
particles and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The sounding tube had sunk 15 inches (37 '5 cm. ) into the
bottom and brought up a quart and a half of the deposit.
It had a red, rather than a grey, tinge, and not nearl}’'
so dark in colour as the soundings nearer the coast.

j(5'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
‘ spicules, Astrorliizidse, Litu-
oUd£e, Diatoms.

]

1

(5'00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular and rounded ; quartz,
pumice, mica, hornblende,
augite, magnetite, magnetic
spherules.

(90'00 %), amorphous matter,
with a large quantity of fine
mineral particles and frag-
ments of siliceous organisms.

Over a quart (over a litre) of the deposit was obtained in
the sounding tube. The upper layers had a dark slate
colour, while the lower had a tinge of red and were more
compact. No effervescence was noticed when treated
with acids, and the remains of calcareous organisms
appear to be quite absent.

j '5’00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
i spicules, one or two arena-
ceous Foraminifera, frustules

1 of Diatoms.

1

I

(3 '00 %), m. di. O'lO mm., angu-
lar and rounded ; quartz, mag-
netite, pumice, basaltic scoriae,
felspar, augite.

(92 ’00 %), amorphous matter,
with a large qirantity of
minute mineral particles and
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

The sounding tube brought up over a quart (over a litre)
of the clay, of which the upper layers were slightly
darker than the lower. The particles of basaltic
scoriae attain in some cases a diameter of ] mm.

|5'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
spicules, one or two arena-
’ ceous Foraminifera, frustules
j of Diatoms.

(1‘00 %), m. di. 0’07 mm.,
angular ; quartz, plagioclase,
volcanic scoriae, magnetite,
mica.

(93 '30 %), amorphous matter
with many minute mineral
particles and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The sounding tube brought up over a quart (over a litre)
of the clay. The whole had a slightly red tinge, the
upper layers being rather darker than the lower. A
second sounding gave a depth of 2750 fathoms, and the
deposit brought up was quite the same as that described.

iil'OO %), Radiolaria, Diatoms,
i'

(I'OO %), m. di. 0’06 mm., angu-
lar ; felspar, quartz, mica,
magnetite, glassy volcanic
particles, manganese.

(87 ’64 %), a large quantity of
amorphous matter with

minute mineral particles.

The sounding tube had sunk about 15 inches (37 '5 cm.)
into the bottom, and brought up about two quarts' (over
two litres) of the clay, of which the lower layers had a
blue rather than a red tinge. These lower layers con-
tained very little, if any, carbonate of lime. One worm
tube had a deposit of manganese in the in.side.

*2 '00 %), Sponge spicules, Ra-
i diolaria, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
' olidse, imperfect casts of
1 Foraminifera.

j

']

(1‘00%), m. di. 0’06 mm.,
angular ; quartz, felspar, oli-
vine, hornblende, black mica,
volcanic scoriae.

(18 ‘62 %), amorphous matter,
with many minute mineral
particles, and fragments of
siliceous organisms.

The tube had sunk a foot (30 cm. ) into the bottom and
brought up about a quart (over a litre) of the ooze. The
lower layers were more compact than the upper. The
trawl came up fouled. In one of the tow-nets at the
trawl there were a great many dead empty shells of
Foraminifera which evidently came from the bottom.
Some of the quartz particles are about 1 mm. in diameter,
and sometimes rounded.

•00 %), Radiolaria, Astror-
j liizidse, Lituolidse, Diatoms.

i

(1 ’00 %), m. di. 0 '06 mm. , angu-
lar ; quartz, felspar, horn-
blende, augite, magnetite,
pumice.

(30 '33 %), amorphous matter,
minute mineral particles,
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

Although the sounding tube had penetrated the bottom
to a depth of 15 inches (37 '5 cm.), yet only a small
quantity of the deposit was brought up. One of the
tow-nets at the trawl was full of ooze of the same nature
as that brought up by the sounding tube. In the dredge
there was a piece of red volcanic scoria, and on passing a
large quantity of the deposit through fine sieves four |
or five fragments of rocks were obtained with a
diameter of about 5 mm. , one formed principally of red
orthoclase, the others lapilli, probably basaltic.

■00 %), a few Radiolaria,
Astrorhizidse, Lituolidse, im-
perfect casts of Foraminifera.

I

(1 '00 %), m. di. 0'06 mm., angu-
lar ; monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, hornblende, augite,
glassy volcanic particles,

scoriaceous and magnetic

particles.

(9 '03 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, minute
fragments of siliceous organ-
isms.

Judging from the marks found on the outside, the sound-
ing tube had sunk nearly a foot (30 cm.) into the deposit ;
in the inside of the tube there was, however, only a small
quantity of the ooze. There was a little ooze in the
tow-nets at the weights and trawl and in the bag of
the trawl. About six quarts (nearly 7 litres) altogether
of the ooze were obtained. This was the same as that
procured by the sounding tube.

i

Kio“de la Plata tb Tristan da Cnwha.— continued.

Tristnn ila Cuiihn to Ai»c^n»ion laUml. Hio do In Plata to Trintan da Cunha— e<mtini<af.

14*2 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

I

I

I

J

1

REPOE-T ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

143

RESIDUE.

t. '

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

Additional Observations.

I'OO %), a few Radiolaria, im-
perfect casts of Foraminifera,
AstrorMzidse, Lituolidse.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular; sanidine, plagioclase,
hornblende, mica, magnetite,
glassy volcanic particles.

'00 %), Sponge spicules,

Radiolaria, Lituolidae, imper-
fect casts of Foraminifera.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
grains and crystals of
magnetite, glassy volcanic
fragments, pumice, manga-
nese grains.

'00 %), Radiolaria, Lituolidae.

. few large Radiolaria, frag-
ments of Sponge spicules,
&.strorhi2ids, LituoUdm.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lO mm.,
angular ; fragments of brown
glassy volcanic rock with
the conchoidal fracture of
obsidian, sanidine, magnetite,
vesicular felspathic lapilli,
small particles of manganese.

M. di. 0'06 mm., angular ; a few
particles of felspar and mag-
netite.

(12'79 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles, a
few fragments of siliceous
organisms.

(4 '23 %), amorphous matter,
many fine mineral particles,
some fragments of siliceous
spicules.

(18 '98 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, with minute fragments
of minerals, manganese, and
Radiolaria.

Traces of flocculent matter.

The sounding tube had sunk about a foot (30 cm.) into
the bottom and brought up a litre of the deposit. Of
this there were two layers separated by a thin dark
line, an upper layer of a light brown colour and about
8 inches (20 cm.) in thickness, composed essentially
of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera, and a lower, milk
white and over an inch (25 mm. ) in thickness, chiefly
made up of amorphous calcareous matter and Cocco-
liths. On analysis the upper layer gave 84'65 percent,
of carbonate of lime, the lower 85'77 per cent. The
annexed analysis is the mean of these two results.
The passage between the two layers appeared to be
quite abrupt, so far as could be judged from a careful
examination of the contents of the sounding tube. The
tow-nets at the weights and at the trawl contained a
little of the ooze, which was the same as the upper
layer above described. A fragment of the hardened
deposit about 1 cm. in diameter was taken from the
washings from the trawl.

The sounding tube had not apparently sunk far into the
bottom as there were no traces of mud or ooze on the
outside, and in the inside only about half a pint (0 '3
litre) of the ooze. In the dredge and attached tow-nets
there were about 10 litres of the ooze and three pieces
of pumice, measuring fully an inch (25 mm.) in dia-
meter, and more or less rounded. They are white and
scoriaceous, although the pores are generally small and
contain only a few porphyritic minerals, felspar and
augite. These porphyritic minerals in many instances
project above the rounded smooth surface of the
pumice. Some of the shells of the arenaceous Fora-
minifera are formed of agglomerations of microliths
of hornblende, little fragments of felspar and mag-
netite, and of vitreous particles. Many of the shells of
the pelagic Molluscs are black and brown from a coat-
ing of manganese, and are macroscopic. A Pteropod
Ooze, it must be remembered, only indicates a relative
abundance and not a predominance of these shells in
the deposit.

The sounding tube brought up only a small quantity of
the deposit. The splinters of volcanic rook are some-
times 0 '5 mm. in diameter, and make up almost the
whole of the mineral particles in the deposit. Note
the absence of Pteropod and Heteropod shells in this
deposit.

The sounding tube brought up about half a pint (0 '3 litre)
of the deposit, which contains very little amorphous
calcareous or clayey matter, and is chiefly composed of
the shells of pelagic Molluscs and Foraminifera. Many
of the shells are fully 1 cm. in length, some of them
black or brown with a thin coating of manganese, some
transparent. The tow-nets had not been at the bottom,
and the dredge seemed just to have touched. This is
the shallowest depth far removed from land of any
kind met with during the cruise.

Rio de la Plata to Tristan da Cunha — continued. Tristan da Cunha to Ascension Island.

OlT Awf'iuioii. Triatnn ila Ciiiiha to Ascension Island — conlinntd.

144

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

See Charts 16 and 43, and Diagram 7.

*3 .

sl

1|

Date.

Position.

>cpth in
r'athoms.

Temperature
of tlic .Sea-
water
(Falir.).

Designation and Physical Characters.

Carbonate of Calcium.

Bottom

.Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

other Organisms.

•338

1876
■Mar. 21

21 15 0 S.
14 2 OW.

1990

O

36-3

O

76-5

Globioekina Ooze, white, with
slight rose tinge, granular,
homogeneous, resembling chalk
when dry.

Eesidue reddish-brown.

92-54

(80-00 %), Glohigerinidte, Pul-

(1-00 %), Miliolidte, Textularidffi,
Lagenidse, Rotalida3, Nummu-
linida;.

(11 -54), Otoliths of fish, Gasta
pods, Lamellibranchs, Pte
pods, Heteropods, Xeysavalr
Osti'acodes, Echinoderm fri
ments, Polyzoa, Coccobt
Rhabdoliths.

339

17 26 0 S.
13 52 OW.

1415

37-2

76-0

Pteropod Ooze, white, with a
faint red tinge, gi-anular, pul-
verulent.

Eesidue red.

95-61

(70-00 %), Globigerinidae, Pul-

'IW* ■>! ■}/ 7i*'M/T

(2-00 %), Miliolidffi, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidae.

(23-61), Otoliths of fish, Gsstt
pods, Pteropods, Hetewpo
Ostracodes, Echinodenii fc
ments, Coccoliths, C«
spheres, Rhabdoliths.

310

24

14 33 0 S.
13 42 0 W.

1500

37-6

77*2

Pteropod Ooze.

Olohigerina, Pulvinuli'iui.

Pteropods, Coccoliths, Btiil
liths.

341

25

12 16 0 .S.

13 44 0 W.

1475

38-2

79-0

Pteropod Ooze.

Globigcrina, PulvinuUna.

Pteropods, Coccoliths, Ekll
liths. 1

342

„ 26

9 43 0 S.
13 51 OW.

1445

37-5

80-0

Pteropod Ooze.

Miliolidie, Textularidas, Lage-
nidaj, Olohigerina, Rotalidse.

Otoliths of fish, Pteio|
Heteropods,Ostracodss,Eci
derm fragments, Coiw^
Rhabdoliths.

■;43

.. 27

8 3 0 .S.
14 27 OW.

425

40-3

80-8

Globioerina Ooze, white.
Eesidue brown-black.

96-80

(75-00 %), Glohigerinidte, Pul-
vinuli'im.

(5-00 %), Milioli'iw., Textularidai,
Lagenida*, Rotalidtc.

(16-80 %), Lamellibrancb^
val), fragments of Fieri]
Heteropods, Ostracodes, ■
noderm fragments.

, 30

From Long
Beach.

...

CoitAi, .Sand, white, with some
black and pink particles.
Eesidue grey.

98-04

A few fragments of Pohjtrema
rubra.

(98-04 %), fragments of Ci,
pods, Lamellibranchs, t,
derms, Polyzoa, Milb
and calcareous AIgte.

April 2

From the
Anchorage.

1

7

Coral Sand, light yellow, with
bosses of living calcareous
Algji'.

Eesidue heavy black and
fine cream coloured matter.

96-66

(5 '00 %), MilioliTta^ Amphistc-
(jina.

(91 -56 %), Gasteropods, U
branchs, Ostracodes, I
derm fragments, P(
Millepores, calcareous

• .Sec anal. 53, 09a, 68, 69; PI. XI. fig. 1 ; PI. .XII. fig. 1 ; PI. XXIII. figs. 10, 11, 13.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

145

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

S (I'OO %), Sponge spicules, Ra-
diolaria, imperfect casts of
Foraminifera, Astrorhizidie,
Lituolidce, a few Diatoms.

9 |(1'00 %), Radiolaria, Sponge
I spicules, Lituolidse.

i few Radiolaria, Lituoliclm.

I'OO %), one or two Radiolaria,
fragments of Sponge spicules,
HaploTphragmium .

Minerals.

Fine Washings.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
magnetite, magnetic spher-
ules, pumice, a few manganese
grains, bronzite spherules.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm., an-
gular ; fragments and crystals
of sanidine and plagioclase
often inclosed in wtreous
matter, augite, magnetite,
gi-eenish chloritic particles,
manganese grains.

Manganese grains.

Manganese grains.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0',20 mm.,
angular ; much plagioclase
and sanidine, hornblende,
magnetite, augite, very rarely
quartz and olivine.

(1-00%), m. di. I'OO mm.,
rounded and angular ; a few
fragments of volcanic rocks
and vesicular lapilli.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'50 mm.,
angular and rounded; felspar,
magnetite, augite, olivine,
scoriaceous particles and other
fragments of volcanic rocks.

(5 '46 %), amorphous matter,
with small mineral particles
and fragments of scoriae and
siliceous organisms.

(2 '39 %), amorphous matter,
fine mineral particles, and
a few minute fragments of
siliceous spicules.

A trace of amorphous matter.

(1'20 %), a small quantity of
flocculent matter and minute
fragments of minerals.

(0'96 %), a small quantity of
flocculent matter and a few
fragments of minerals.

(2 '44 %), flocculent organic
matter and minute fragments
of minerals.

Additional Observations.

This is one of the purest Globigerina Oozes obtained
by the Challenger and is almost wholly composed of
the dead shells of surface organisms. The general ap-
pearance of the deposit is represented in PI. XII. fig. 1.
On comparison with fig. 3 it will be noticed that the
majority of the shells are, in this deposit, much
smaller and thinner than in the deposit nearer the
equator. The younger specimens are much more
numerous and the species which predominate are
different. These remarks hold good also for the
specimens taken on the surface. A few pumice frag-
ments were found in the washings of a large quantity
of deposit.

The tube had sunk nearly 10 inches (25 cm.) into the
bottom and brought up over one litre of the deposit.
Many of the Pteropod and Heteropod shells are quite
black and others have a brown colour from a coating of
manganese. The shells of the pelagic Molluscs were
more abundant in the surface than in the deeper layers
of the deposit, only a few being observed in the ooze at
the lower end of the tube. Many of the Foraminifera
are brown coloured from a deposit of oxide of iron on
their surface. Note that the shells of Pteropods and
Heteropods are abundant in this deposit, but are rare
at the preceding station, which is 575 fathoms deeper.

The sounding tube came up with some traces on the out-
side which indicated that it had sunk about a foot (30
cm. ) into the bottom. The deposit is similar to that at
Station 339.

The sounding tube came up empty, with the exception
of a few Pteropod shells, Foraminifera, and small
particles of peroxide of manganese. On the outside of
the tube there were several black streaks, which on
examination were found to be due to peroxide of
manganese.

The hydra sounding tube was used, and brought up only
a small quantity of the deposit which was chiefly
composed of Pteropods, Heteropods, and pelagic
Foraminifera. Many of the Pteropods are covered
with a thin coating of peroxide of manganese. Many
of the shells are macroscopic. There was an insufficient
quantity for analysis.

The sounding tube brought up two pieces of Coral coated
with manganese. There was a little ooze on one of
the swabs, from which the analysis and description is
taken ; probably the percentage of carbonate of lime is
too high. The dredge was empty.

This sand is chiefly composed of calcareous Algae, frag-
ments of Gasteropod and Lamellibranch sheUs, with a
few fragments of Millepores, Echinoderms, very rarely
Polyzoa, and Foraminifera. The fragments are aU
rounded and poli.shed by the action of the waves, and
have a mean diameter of about 1 '3 mm.

The sand of Long Beach would appear to have its
origin from the broken fragments of calcareous Algie
carried bjr the waves from this locality and similar
depths around the island.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

19

Tristan da Cunha to Ascension Island— cowiMiwcd. Gif Ascension.

Ht. Vincont tow»r\!* Aior»'«». A*consion lalnmltnSt. Vincent. Olf Asccnaion — eoniintud.

146

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGER.

See Charts 6, 12, and 43, and Dia^train 7.

Tcnipe
of the
wa
(Fnl

rature

1

1-^

Date.

PoaiUon.

js 3
■S.5

Sea-

ter

to.).

Designation ami Physical Character.

Carbonate op Calcium. i

Bottom

Surface

Per cent.

Foraminifera.

Other Organism f

. . (;

■*— i

. 344

1876
April 3

9 * ff

7 54 20 S.
14 28 20 W.

420

O

O

82-0

Calc.\reous Volcanic Sand,
mottled brown, black, and
white.

Eeaidue mottled black, yel-
low, and brown.

71-65

(50-00 %), Globigerinidie, Pul-
vinulina.

(5-00 %), Miliolidfe, Textularidie,
Lagenidse, Rotalidae.

(16-65 %), Otoliths of fish, fiw. 1
ments of Gasteropods aad
Lamellibranchs, Pteropodi
Ostracodes, Echinodem ftjf. |
ments, Polyzoa, Corals. ^ >

345

3 45 OS.
14 25 OW.

2010

36-8

82-8

Globioerina Ooze, white with
slight rose tinge, granular,
pulverulent, chalky.

Eesidne red.

93-90

(80-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidae, Rotalidae.

(11-90%), fragments cf Echini '
spines, Coccolitha, RlnWs-
liths. j

346

6

2 42 OS.
14 41 OW.

2350

34 0

82-7

Globioerina Ooze, light grey,
granular, slightly coherent,
chalky.

Eeaidue brownish.

85-42

(75-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(2-00 %), Miliolidoe, Textularidie,
Lagenidse, Rotalidse.

(8-42%), fragments of Echini jl
spines, Coccoliths, Ehabdo- i
liths.

( i

347

.. 7

0 15 OS.
14 25 OW.

2250

36-2

82-0

Globioerina Ooze, grey,

granular, slightly coherent.
Eeaidue red-brown.

84-48

(75-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-

^yi'170/J'i'nyy

(2-00 %), Miliolidie, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidse, Num-
mulinidse.

(7-48 %), Ostracodes, Echini 1 1
spines, Coccoliths, RhjMn' !
liths. !

•348

3 10 0 X.
14 51 OW.

2450

84-0

Globioerina Ooze, brown-
grey, homogeneous, granular,
pulverulent.

Eeaidue black.

83-13

(73-00 %), Globigerinidse.

(2-00 %), Miliolidse, Textularidse,
Lagenidse, Rotalidse, Xummuli-
nidse.

(8-13 %), Lamellibranchs. 0t(n
codes, Echinoderm fraimenti. |
a few Coccoliths and RhiW> J
liths.

I

S53

May 3

26 21 0 X.
33 37 0 W.

2965

37-6

70-7

Red Clav, unctuous, homo-
geneous, caking into light
brown coherent lumps, plastic
when wet.

Eeaidue brick red.

11-12

(7-00 %), Globigcrina, Pulvinu-
Una.

(1-00 %), Miliolina, Lagena,
Rotalidse.

(3-12 %), Otoliths and small twti j
of fish. Echini spines, i fit '
Coccoliths. '

354

!

82 41 0 X.
36 6 0 W,

1675

37-8

70 0

GixmioERiNA Ooze, light grey
with rose tinge, granular, pul-
verulent.

Eeaidue rose coloured.

90-58

(80-00 %), Globigerinidse, Pul-
vinulina.

(1 -00 %), Miliolidse, Lagenidse,
Rotalidse.

(9-58 %), Otoliths and teeth rfj
fish, Cirriped plates, fii)5B«i>,
of Lamcllibranch shells, Ofttsi
codes. Echini spines,
liths, Rhabdoliths. I

See PI. XII. Hg. 3.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

147

Residue.

Siliceous Organisms.

Minerals.

(I'OO %), two or three Eadio-
laria and a few thin brown
' imperfect casts.

;i'00 %), Eadiolaria, imperfect
casts of Foraminifera.

2 "00 %), Eadiolaria, Sponge
spicules, Astrorhizidse, Litu-
olidse.

2‘00 %), Eadiolaria, imperfect
casts of Foraminifera, Litu-
olidae.

I’OO %), Eadiolaria, Astror-
hizidee, Lituolidae, Diatoms.

I'OO %), a few Eadiolaria and
Sponge spicules.

(25'00 %), m. di. 0'60 mm.,
angular ; volcanic materials,
lapilli, plagioclase, horn-
blende, augite, olivine, mag-
netite, palagonite, many
glassy volcanic fragments
and coloured altered particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, magnetite.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'07 mm., angu-
lar ; monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, hornblende, magne-
tite, magnetic spherules,
fragments of volcanic rocks
with microliths of plagioclase,
glassy volcanic particles.

(I'OO %), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; sanidine, magnetite,
magnetic spherules, horn-
blende, manganese.

(1'00%), m. di. 0'06 mm.,
angular ; felspar, hornblende,
magnetite.

Fine Washings.

(2 '35 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, a few minute frag-
ments of minerals and siliceous

organisms.

(I'OO %), m. di. O'lOmm., angu-
lar ; monoclinic and triclinic
felspars, rounded gi'ains of
quartz, hornblende, black
mica, magnetite and magnetic
particles, volcanic glass, man-
ganese grains.

(4 '10 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, minute mineral
particles.

(11 '58 %), amorphous matter,
small mineral particles, and
minute fragments of siliceous
organisms.

(12 '52 %), amorphous matter
and minute mineral particles.

(14'87 %), amorphous matter,
with many very minute frag-
ments of minerals and sili-
ceous organisms.

(86 '88 %), flocculent clayey
matter, with many minute
fragments of minerals and
Eadiolaria.

Additional Observations.

The sounding tube brought up a few pieces of dead shells
and Corals. In the dredge and tow-net attached there
was a little of the sand described. Many of the frag-
ments of rock, shells, and Corals, were quite black from
a coating of manganese. Some of the small rock frag-
ments are black vesicular basalt, transforming into
palagonite.

The sounding tube brought up about half a quart (over
half a litre) of the ooze of a uniform colour throughout.
The pelagic Foraminifera, which make up the greater
part of this deposit, are relatively of very large size
compared with those from higher latitudes.

The sounding tube had sunk about a foot (30 cm. ) into the
deposit, but with the exception of a few streaks on the
outside, it brought up no specimen of the ooze ; in the
dredge and attached tow-nets there were about five
litres. The percentage of carbonate of lime is the mean
of three determinations from different parts of the col-
lected deposit.

About one litre of the ooze came up in the sounding
tube. Some of the Foraminifera in this deposit have
their sm’faces dotted with grains of manganese. A few
shells are coated with manganese, and the Fora-
minifera are filled with a red substance which
remains as an internal cast after treatment with
dilute acid.

A sounding was taken at this spot in 1873 (see Station
102), but only a small quantity of the deposit was then
obtained. In the present instance a dredge and tow-
net attached were used and brought up altogether
over 11 litres of the ooze. Many of the Foraminifera
are covered and filled with a black or dark brown
substance. This dark substance, to which the colour
of the deposit is due, is probably carbonaceous, and
probably comes from the rivers of the western coast
of Africa.

The colour of the deposit is due to the hydrate of iron.
The sounding tube had sunk 14 inches (35 cm.) into
the bottom and brought up over a litre of the clay.
The deeper portions were darker coloured and contained
less carbonate of calcium than the surface layers. The
manganese grains and fishes’ teeth were more abundant
in the lower layer. The shells of the Foraminifera seem
to be undergoing decomposition, and many of the
shells split into concentric layers. Some of the
mineral particles have probably been carried by the
Harmattan winds from Africa. This deposit resembles
those taken in the same region in 1873.

'00 %), Eadiolaria and Sponge
spicules.

(1 00 %), m. di. O'lOmm., angu-
lar ; sanidine, plagioclase,
rounded fragments of quartz,
magnetite, augite, manganese
grains.

(7 '42 %), flocculent amorphous
matter, with many minute
mineral particles and some
fragments of Eadiolaria.

The sounding tube brought up about half a liti'e of the
deposit. The residue of this deposit resembles in most
of its characters the clays in this region of the ocean
sound at greater depths. The augite is feebly dicro-
scopic. The Foraminifera are not so large as those
nearer the equator.

Oft' Ascomion-coiUinucd. Ascension Island to St. Vincent. St. Vincent towards Azores.

148

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

h. Remarks on the Variation of the Deposits with Change of Conditions along
THE DIFFERENT LiNES OF SoUNDINGS AND DrEDGINGS.

With the view of enahliug the reader to obtain a general idea of the more important
variations which take place in the nature and composition of marine deposits with a
change in the conditions, special reference will now be made to the different lines of
soundings and dredgings of the Challenger Expedition across the various oceanic basins,
and along the coasts of continents and oceanic islands. In doing this we shall in a
special manner point out the variations which appear to be due directly to differences in
depth and of distance from coast influences. A somewhat graphic representation of
these lines of soundings is presented in the Diagrams at the end of the Volume, where
the percentage of carbonate of lime in the deposits is placed beneath the name at each
station, and where the temperature conditions and submarine reliefs are also shown.

1. Atlantic Ocean.

England to Gibraltar. — A number of preliminary soundings and dredgings were
made along the coasts of Spain and Portugal, at the outset of the Expedition, with the
view of testing the various kinds of apparatus. (See Charts 2 and 3).

The deposit at 560 fathoms, off the mouth of the Tagus, was a Green Mud or Sand,
consisting of Foraminifera, Coccoliths, fragments of Echinoderms, Molluscs, and Polyzoa,
angular fragments of quartz, felspar, mica, magnetite, and many glauconitic particles.
The calcareous organisms made up about 32 per cent, of the deposit, and, after treatment
with dilute hydrochloric acid, many dark and pale green, perfectly formed, glauconitic casts
were observed. The percentage of carbonate of lime in the deeper deposits remained
about the same, but the glauconitic particles were not nearly so abundant. The mineral
constituents of this deposit are chiefly derived from the disintegration of continental
land, and are similar in all respects to those found later on to prevail along the borders
of the great continents. Passing outwards from the shore, the deposit altered to a Blue
Mud, which, as the shore was again approached, became a Green Mud in about 1000
fathoms, and Green Sands in lesser depths. In the Green Muds the glauconitic casts
were found to be abundant, while they were almost if not entirely absent in the Blue Muds.

Gibraltar to Madeira. — Between Giliraltar and Madeira six soundings and three
hauls of the trawl were obtained, in depths varying from 1090 to 2000 fathoms (see
Charts 2 and 3). The deposit at each of the stations at which a sample was obtained
was a Globigerina Ooze. The percentage of carbonate of lime ranged from 53 to 75, and
consisted almost entirely of pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths. The
residue, insoluble in dilute acid, consisted of a few Radiolaria, minute particles of quartz,
felspar, augitc, glassy volcanic fragments, and clayey matter.

R.EPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

149

Off Madeira. — The deposits about the Dezertas and Madeira (see Chart 4) were
Volcanic Muds, with from 30 to 40 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting chiefly of
pelagic Foraminifera, except in one instance in 670 fathoms, where there was a Calcareous
Sand with 96 per cent, of carbonate of lime made up of fragments of shells. Corals,
Polyzoa, &c. The mineral particles in the deposits were angular fragments of felspar,
magnetite, lapilli, basaltic scoriae, and volcanic glass.

Madeira to Tenerife. — One sounding in 1975 fathoms w^as taken between Madeira
and Tenerife (see Charts 2 and 5); only a small quantity of material was obtained
sufficient to indicate that the deposit was a Clobigerina Ooze.

Around the Canary Islands. — A number of soundings were taken around and among
the Canary Islands (see Chart 5). Like those off Madeira, the deposits were chiefly
Volcanic Muds, the percentage of carbonate of lime varying from 10 to 45. The mineral
particles were angular fragments of vesicular basalt, augite, sanidine, magnetite, olivine,
and volcanic glass.

Tenerife to Sombrero. — The character of the deposits in the section from Tenerife to
Sombrero (see Chart 6) presented marked differences. All the deposits in depths less
than 2600 fathoms contained over 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and for these the
names Clobigerina and Pteropod Oozes have been adopted. Pteropod Ooze is confined to
two deposits from depths of 1525 and 1420 fathoms, the former on the eastern, the
latter on the western side of the section, in which very many Pteropod and Heteropod
shells occurred; in 1420 fathoms the proportion of carbonate of lime was the greatest,
being 80 ‘69 per cent. In 1525 fathoms fragments of a large dead Alcyonarian Coral coated
with manganese peroxide, and attached to large manganese nodules, were obtained in the
dredge. Only a few fragments of Pteropods were found in the Clobigerina Ooze ranging
between 1890 and 2025 fathoms, the carbonate of lime in the Clobigerina Ooze being
made up chiefly of the dead shells of pelagic Foraminifera. The Pteropod Ooze, however,
contained all the pelagic Foraminifera, together with Pteropod and Heteropod shells. In
depths greater than 2600 fathoms, the quantity of carbonate of lime decreased as the
depth increased, and below 3000 fathoms there were only a few traces in the
deposit.

Siliceous organisms, such as spicules of Sponges, Eadiolaria, and Diatoms, were not
abundant ; generally they did not appear to make up more than 1 or 2 per cent, of the
whole deposit, with the exception of the two deposits at 1525 and 1420 fathoms, above
referred to, where the proportion probably rises to from 6 to 20 per cent., owing to the
large number of Sponge spicules.

The mineral particles, which were mostly of volcanic origin, seldom exceeded O'lO mm.
in diameter, and consisted of felspars, hornblende, augite, magnetite, glassy fragments, and
palagonite. In the deposits from the eastern portion of the section there were numerous
small rounded particles of quartz covered with limonite. These would appear to be mostly

150

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

wiiid-bornc particles, carried by the Harmattan and other winds from the coast of Africa.
The Red Clay found in the greater depths was almost entirely composed of amorphous
and clayey matter and fine mineral particles not exceeding 0’05 mm. in diameter. In the
dredging on the 7th March in 2435 fathoms, there were several round compact manganese
nodules, several millimetres in diameter, and three or four sharks’ teeth coated with
peroxide of manganese.

With reference to the distribution of the deposits in this section the Red Clays occupy
two areas of the ocean bottom, one to the east and one to the westwards, separated by an
elevated area known as the Dolphin Rise, covered with Globigerina Ooze. A general
idea of this section, with the relation of the percentage of carbonate of lime to depth and
the distribution of the deposits, can be formed from Diagram 1.

Off Sombrero Island. — Three soundings were taken ojff Sombrero Island, in 450 to
590 fathoms (see Chart 7). These were designated Pteropod Oozes, for, although
containing a large percentage of pelagic and other Foraminifera, there was also present a
relatively large number of Pteropod and Heteropod shells. The average percentage of
carbonate of lime was 84 •27. The mineral particles were similar in quality and quantity
to those in the deposit in 1420 fathoms in the preceding section.

St. Thomas to Bermuda. — In the section from St. Thomas to Bermuda (see Charts 6
and 7), the deposits at the depths of 625 and 390 fathoms on the plateau to the north
of the Virgin Islands were Pteropod Oozes, with 69 and 74 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
containing a few small mineral particles and some amorphous matter. These deposits
resemble in most respects the deposits in similar depths off Sombrero, and, although
named Pteropod Oozes, differ considerably from deposits bearing the same name obtained
at greater depths far removed from dry land. The deposits from depths greater than
2700 fathoms contained from 4 to 18 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted of
broken shells of pelagic Foraminifera ; these were mostly confined to the surface layers.
A few inches beneath the surface the deposit showed only a very slight sign of effer-
vescence when treated with dilute acid. There is a gradual decrease in the depth from
2960 fathoms, north of St. Thomas, onwards to Bermuda, and the corresponding increase
in the percentage of carbonate of lime is strikingly exemplified. At 2960 fathoms there
was 3 per cent, of carbonate of lime, at 2859 fathoms there was 18 per cent., at 2700
fathoms there was 22 per cent., at 2600 fathoms 29 per cent., at 2475 fathoms 54 per
cent, at 2250 fathoms 70 per cent., at 1820 fathoms 82 per cent., and at 950 fathoms
89 per cent., while the deposits immediately surrounding the island of Bermuda in some
insLanees contained as much as 93 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the percentage being
greater the nearer the reef and the less the depth. The mineral particles in all the
deposits in this section were exceedingly minute, rarely exceeding 0'07 mm. in diameter,
and consisted of fragments of pumice, felspars, magnetite, and augite. The relation of
depth and percentage of carbonate of lime is seen at a glance Ijy referring to Diagram 2.

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

151

Off Bermuda. — During the two visits to Bermuda a number of soundings and
dredgings were made around the islands and inside the reefs (see Chart 8). At a depth of
200 fathoms, about 2 miles from the reefs, the deposit was composed of large fragments
of Coral, Foraminifera, Echinoderms, Polyzoa, Molluscs, Algse, and concretionary lumps,
some of which were 2 or 3 centimetres in diameter. At 380 fathoms, 3 miles from
the reefs, the fragments were smaller, and, in addition to the above, there were many
Pteropod and Heteropod shells. At 950 fathoms, 4 miles from the reefs, the particles
were still smaller, and there was a considerable admixture of pelagic Foraminifera.
At 1950 fathoms, 5 miles from the reefs, the deposit was a nearly pure Globigerina
Ooze, made up chiefly of pelagic Foraminifera, with only a small proportion of
species living on the bottom and fragments from the reefs. All these deposits
contained from 81 to 93 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The residue, after treatment
with dilute acid, consisted of a few siliceous spicules, of felspar, augite, magnetite, and
glassy fragments. None of the mineral particles exceeded 0'07 mm. in diameter. At
2650 fathoms, 30 miles from the reef, the deposit was a Globigerina Ooze, containing
over 60 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and Eed Clay at still greater depths. The
appearance of the deposits off the Bermudas, in depths of 200, 380, 950, and 1950
fathoms, is represented in the four figures of Plate XIII., and these show a gradual
change in the size and nature of the calcareous organic remains with increasing depth
and distance from the islands, although the percentage of carbonate of lime remains
nearly the same at all depths.

Inside the reefs, in depths of 4 to 10 fathoms, there were Coral Muds and Sands,
consisting for the most part of triturated fragments of calcareous Algge, Corals, Polyzoa,
mixed with which were Foraminifera, Serpida, Gasteropods, and Lamellibranchs. These
gave on analysis from 86 to 95 per cent, of carbonate of lime. A few Sponge spicules,
imperfect casts of Foraminifera, and Diatoms were also present ; the mineral particles were
few but relatively large, fragments of quartz and volcanic glass being the most abundant.

Bermuda to Halifax. — The deposits between Bermuda and the coasts of North
America (see Chart 9) showed, irrespective of depth, a regular decrease in the quantity
of carbonate of lime as the American shores were approached. While over 50 per
cent, of carbonate of lime occurred at 2600 fathoms, about 100 miles from Bermuda,
in 1240 and 1250 fathoms, near the American shores, only 15 and 16 per cent, were
found. The large pelagic Foraminifera made up the principal part of the carbonate of
lime in the deposits around Bermuda, but they disappeared almost completely from the
bottom when within the influence of the Labrador current. Rhabdoliths likewise
disappeared from the bottom along with the larger tropical pelagic Foraminifera, while
Coccospheres were found in the deposits under the Labrador current. The remains of
siliceous organisms were uniformly though sparingly represented, with, however, specific
differences in the cold and warm regions.

152

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The mineral particles increased in size and number as the American continent was
approached, where they consisted of fragments of quartz, monoclinic and triclinic felspars,
hornblende, augite, magnetite, mica, and glauconite. An ideal section, with depths and
percentages of carbonate of lime, is given in Diagram 2. On the 7th May a large block
of syenite weighing 490 lbs. (222 kilogrammes), which had become jammed between the
arms of the dredge, was brought up from 1340 fathoms. In this and the other dredgings
within the iiiHuence of the Labrador current, over 100 miles from the shore, many stones
were dredged, most of them being rounded pebbles or large grains with rounded angles ;
nearly two-thirds of the smaller fragments were milky quartz, w^hilst the larger fragments
were quartzite, compact limestone, dolomite, mica-schist, and serpentine rocks, some of
them with glacial striations. These deposits along the American coast were Blue Muds
with a redtlish surface layer, in which quartz and fragments of ancient rocks were abun-
dant, making up from 40 to 70 per cent, of the deposits in 1240, 1350, and 1340 fathoms,
while these minerals were not detected in the deposits around Bermuda.

Halifax to Bermuda. — The deposits from Halifax southwards to Bermuda (see
Chart 9) were Blue Muds containing from 16 to 32 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The
larger pelagic Foraminifera and Rhabdoliths became more abundant as Bermuda was
approached, while the siliceous organisms became fewer. The mineral particles were of
the same nature as those in the deposits in the previous section, being larger and more
abundant in the more northern stations which are under the influence of the Labrador
current.

Bermuda to the Azores. — With the exception of the deposit from Station 67, 2700
fathoms, which contained 54 per cent, of carbonate of lime, all the deposits in the section
between Bermuda and the Azores (see Chart 6) from depths greater than 2400 fathoms
contained less, and all from depths less than 2400 fathoms contained more, than 50 per
cent, of carbonate of lime. In the greatest depths, 2850 and 2875 fathoms, there were
only 8 and 10 per cent. The highest percentage of carbonate of lime was 83'31 in
1675 fathoms. In the greater depths the carbonate of lime consisted chiefly of fragments
of pelagic Foraminifera and Coccoliths ; in depths less than 1600 fathoms, the shells of
pelagic Mollu.scs and fragments of Echinoderms were more or less abundant, and along
with pelagic and other Foraminifera made up the principal part of the carbonate of lime
in the deposits. Radiolaria and Sponge spicules never made up more than 1 or 2 per
«;eut. of the deposit.

In the deep water immediately to the south of the banks of Newfoundland, there
were fragments of quartz, monoclinic and triclinic felspars, and fragments of mica-schist
and other ancient continental rocks. These were believed to be ice-borne fragments,
although apj)arently south of the soutliern limit of the ice region in the North Atlantic
as shown on the charts. On approaching the Azores these fragments disappeared more
or less completely from the bottom, and the mineral particles then consisted almost

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

153

entirely of volcanic minerals and pumice. Except the pumice, the mineral particles seldom
exceeded 0‘10 mm. in diameter, and generally they were much smaller. A few fragments
of tufa coated with peroxide of manganese were dredged (see Diagram 3).

Off the Azores. — The afternoon of the 2nd July was spent in dredging in 50, 90, and
450 fathoms, in the straits between Pico and Fayal (see Chart 10). The deposit was a
Volcanic Mud, containing pumice, fragments of volcanic rocks, plagioclase, sanidine,
augite, magnetite, hornblende, black mica, and pelagic and other Foraminifera, Pteropods
and other Molluscs, Coccoliths, Polyzoa, Seiyula-tuhe^, and a few Radiolaria and siliceous
Sponge spicules. In some instances the pumice stones were completely coated with
Serpula, Polytrema, and calcareous Algae.

The deposit at 900 fathoms between Pico and San Miguel was a Pteropod Ooze with
52'22 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The mineral particles were smaller than at the
other stations in this section, but were of the same nature. At 1000 fathoms, between
San Miguel and Santa Maria, the deposit was chiefly made up of pumice and volcanic
minerals, with 8 per cent, of carbonate of lime.

Azores to Madeira. — Globigerina Ooze was found throughout this section between
the Azores and Madeira (see Chart 6), containing from 55 to 80 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. Pteropod shells were present in the shallower deposits, but absent in depths
greater than 2000 fathoms, although one fragment was observed in the deposit from 2675
fathoms. The relatively high percentage of carbonate of lime at 2660 and 2675
fathoms, viz., 66 and 62 per cent., is worthy of note, compared with deposits from
similar depths south of the banks of Newfoundland. The carbonate of lime here
consisted almost wholly of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera in a very fragmentary
condition. The fragments of siliceous organisms did not exceed 1 per cent, in any of the
deposits.

The deposits in this section were remarkable for the large quantity of pumice which
they contained ; one or two fragments of quartz were observed but no particles of con-
tinental rocks could be detected (see Diagram 3).

Madeira to Cape Verde Islands. — The deposit to the west of the island of Palma (see
Chart 6) in 1125 fathoms was a brown Volcanic Mud, containing about 6 per cent, of car-
bonate of lime. The size of the mineral particles rarely exceeded 0T5 mm. When the
mud was passed through sieves the washings which remained were almost wholly made up
of dead shells of Pteropods and Heteropods. In the dredge there were a few living animals
and several large fragments of a dead Gorgonoid Coral, coated with manganese peroxide,
similar to that obtained in 1525 fathoms about 200 miles further south on the Tenerife-
Sombrero section. The next sounding was in 2300 fathoms, a little to the west of the
position where the depth of 1525 fathoms was obtained in February. Here the deposit
was a Globigerina Ooze, containing 57 per cent, of carbonate of lime. Later on the same
day, 21st July, a sounding and dredging were obtained in 1675 fathoms, in nearly the
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 20

154

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

same locality jus on tlic 18th of February; the dredge again brought up more of the
black Coral fragments coated with manganese. In 2300 and 2400 fathoms farther south
a Globigcriua (Ooze with 64 and 58 per cent, of carbonate of lime was obtained ; there
were no Pteropod or Heteropod shells in these deposits. The mineral particles were
chreflj’ volcanic, with a mean dijimeter of 0'07 mm., but here also small rounded grains
of qujirtz were found, which, with similar particles observed in the sounding from 2675
fathoms to the north-west of Madeira, appear to be wind-borne fragments, carried
from Africa by the Harmattan winds. Soundings in 2075 and 1795 fathoms gave a
Globigerina Ooze with 60 and 57 per cent, of carbonate of lime. About 1 per cent, of
these deposits was made up of Radiolaria and fragments of other siliceous organisms,
the remainder being composed of volcanic minerals, a few grains of quartz, and clayey
matter.

The mineral particles throughout' this section were of volcanic origin, decreasing in
size and quantity after leaving Madeira, and increasing in both respects as St. Vincent
was approached.

Off Cape Verde Islands. — The deposits in the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands (see
Chart 11) from 200 down to a depth of 1150 fathoms were Volcanic Muds, with a varying
]>roportion of carbonate of lime, from 8 to 56 per cent., in which Pteropod and Heteropod
shells were abundant. In the harbour of St. Vincent the deposit in depths of 7 to
50 fathoms was a Calcareous Sand, with 87 to 94 per cent, of carbonate of lime, chiefly
made up of Foraminifera shells and calcareous Algae. In some places the shells of
Amphistexjina lessonii made up fully two-thirds of the whole deposit ; Polystomella,
Discorhina, and Orhicidina were also abundant. The mineral particles in these deposits
decreased in size and abundance with distance from the land.

Cape Verdes to St. Pauls Rocks. — The line of this section runs south-east from St.
Vincent towards Cape Palmas on the Guinea coast ; thereafter it bends round and runs
nearly due west to St. Paul’s Rocks (see Chart 12).

Tlie deposits at the two depths, 2575 and 2500 fathoms, near the African coast, con-
tained respectively 30 and 6 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the small percentage in the
latter being due to the abundance of continental debris, but at all the other stations the
de]>osit wa.s a Globigerina Ooze with over 50 per cent. ; at 1850 fathoms in Mid- Atlantic
the amount reached 90 per cent. In all the deposits the carbonate of lime consisted
chiefly of pehigic Foraminifera and Coccoliths, with a few fragments of Echinoderms and
other organisms ; Rhabdoliths jilso were present in considerable quantity except at
Stations 101 and 102. An analysis of the mud from the dredge at Station 102 (2450
fathoms) gave 83 per cent, of carbonate of lime, while the specimen from the sounding
tube gave only 66 ’27 per cent. A careful examination of a large quantity of this deposit
showed tlijit nearly the whole of the carbonate of lime present came from the dead shells of
surface organisms. It is estimated that of the 83 per cent, of carbonate of lime, 75 per

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

155

cent, comes from pelagic Foraminifera, 6 per cent, from Coccoliths, and 2 per cent, from
other calcareous Foraminifera, fragments of Echinids, and Ostracodes. Pulvinulina
menardii and Pulvinulina tumida were the predominant forms, but Glohigerina sac-
culifera, Glohigerina duhia, and Glohigerina conglohata, and Sphseroidina dehiscens were
also very abundant. It is worthy of notice that the majority of the shells were very
large, and the more delicate surface forms, as Hastigerina and Candeina, appeared
to be quite absent. The smaller fragments were almost wholly made up of broken pieces
of larger shells. The small specimens and primordial chambers, so common in shallower
deep-sea soundings, were nearly absent. In the same way Ehabdoliths were not complete,
if present at aU, and the Coccoliths were very minute. The typical Glohigerina hulloides
did not appear to be present. The Foraminifera here were, as has been stated, thick-
shelled and of large size, and it was precisely in this region that the largest specimens
of' pelagic Foraminifera were obtained on the surface by means of the tow-net. Many
of the shells were broken and appeared to be in a crumbling condition.

The mineral particles in the soundings along the African coast sometimes reached
07 mm. in diameter, but in Mid- Atlantic they seldom exceeded 0‘06 mm. Quartz and
glauconite were present only in the deposits near the African continent. In the other
deposits the mineral particles consisted of fragments of felspars (sanidine), magnetite,
hornblende, and volcanic rocks. Kadiolaria, Diatoms, Sponge spicules, and arenaceous
Foraminifera never made up more than 2 per cent.

The deposits in this section were of a grey or reddish colour, except in a few of the
soundings near the African coast, where they were of a dark slate colour, owing,
apparently, to the presence of fine mud or river detritus.

Off St. Paul’s Rocks. — The ‘soundings close to St. Paul’s Rocks (see Chart 13) showed
either a hard and rocky bottom, or a Glohigerina Ooze containing numerous fragments of
the rocks of the island, and olivine, enstatite, serpentine, magnetic grains, and actinolite.
The deposits from 1900 and 2275 fathoms, at a considerable distance on either side of St.
Paul’s Rocks, were Glohigerina Oozes with 84 and 72 per cent, of carbonate of lime
respectively, chiefly made up of remains of pelagic Foraminifera, while Pteropods, though
present in considerable numbers in the Glohigerina Oozes in lesser depths in the immediate
vicinity of the islands, appeared to be entirely absent. In those depths also the mineral
particles, which make up from 15 to 30 per cent, of the whole deposit near the islands,
were few and small, not exceeding 1 per cent, and 0‘07 mm. in diameter. The mineral
particles from 1900 fathoms were similar in character to those found nearer the islands,
and had evidently mostly come from St. Paul’s Rocks.

St. Paul’s Rocks to Fernando Noronha. — Between St. Paul’s Rocks and Fernando
Noronha (see Chart 12) there is a deep depression, the greatest depth recorded being
2475 fathoms. At this depth there was 36 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the deposit,
while at the depths of 2275 and 2200 fathoms there were respectively 72 and 81 per

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

15()

cent. This is a good instance illustrating the diminution of carbonate of lime in the deposit
with increasing depth, as here the surface conditions were the same, and the character of
the mineral particles alike in all the soundings. The mineral particles consisted of
felspai-s, hornblende, augite, magnetite, and vitreous particles. Radiolaria, Diatoms, and
fragments of other siliceous organisms did not make up more than 1 per cent, of the
deposits.

Ofi’ Fernando Noronha. — At Fernando Noronha (see Chart 14) dredgings were taken
close to shore, in depths varying from 7 to 25 fathoms. The bottom was covered with a
calcareous sand or gravel, of a mottled red and white colour, the fragments varying from
2 to 3 cm. in diameter, and consisting chiefly of calcareous Algae, with fragments of
Echinodenns, Molluscs, Polyzoa, Corals, Polytrema, Amphistegina, and other Foramini-
fera. There were also numerous volcanic pebbles.

Fernando Noronha to Pernambuco and Bahia. — Between Fernando Noronha and
the American coast there is a deep depression, in which a depth of 2275 fathoms was
obtained, and comparatively deep water extends to within 30 miles of the American
shore. With one exception, the deposits in the section from Fernando Noronha to Per-
nambuco (see Charts 12 and 15) were Globigerina Oozes, with from 37 to 80 per cent, of
carbonate of lime. The exception was a Ked Mud from 500 fathoms, the first of the kind
obtained since leaving England.

The deposits along the coast of Brazil difiered in colour from those which the
Challenger found along other continental shores. Here they were red, due, apparently
to the large quantities of ochreous matter carried into the sea by the Brazilian rivers.
Usually the colour of deposits along continental shores is blue, with a surface layer of a
red or brownish colour. The carbonate of lime in the soundings off this coast varied from
60 to 6 per cent, according to depth, distance from the coast, and whether or not opposite
the embouchures of rivers. The mineral particles consisted of fragments of quartz,
plagiocla.se, felspars, sometimes kaolinized, epidote, mica, augite, hornblende, fragments
of rocks and vitreous particles, the size varying from 0'05 to 1 or 2 mm. in diameter.
Radiolaria and Diatoms were nearly, if not quite, absent from these deposits, and when
]>rescnt they, along with siliceous Sponge spicules, did not appear to make up over 1 per
cent, of the whole deposit. The apparently complete absence of glauconite along this
coast was also remarkable.

If this ami the two preceding sections be examined, by reference to Diagram 4, it will
he observed that two elevations, crowned by St. Paul’s Rocks and Fernando Noronha
rcsjtectivcly, divide the Atlantic at this [>art into three basins or depressions.

OJf Bahia. — During the stay at Bahia the pinnace was engaged several days dredging
in the bay. In some places the deposit was a white quartz sand containing fragments of
felspar, mica, magnetite, hornblende, and other minerals, and also fragments of Echino-
«lcrms, Polyzoa, Scrpula, and other organisms. In other places it was a dark blue mud.

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

157

containing, along with fine amorphous matter, all the above-mentioned minerals and
organisms.

Bahia to Tristan da Cunha. — Between the coast of America and Tristan da Cunha
(see Chart 16 and Diagram 6) the greatest depth obtained was 2350 fathoms. There
were many indications of an extensive plateau surrounding the Tristan group, with depths
varying from 1425 to 2000 fathoms.

The deposits in depths less than 2100 fathoms on the Tristan plateau, except when
close to the islands, contained from 85 to 95 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which was
almost wholly composed of the shells of pelagic organisms. The three soundings in
depths greater than 2100 fathoms towards the American coast contained from 35 to 55
per cent, of carbonate of lime. The deposit was a Globigerina Ooze throughout the
section. The carbonate of lime came from pelagic Foraminifera, but it was observed that
as the ship proceeded southward the Foraminifera in the deposits became dwarfed, and
some tropical species disappeared. There were quartz fragments in the deposits near the
American shores, but these disappeared or were exceedingly rare in the deposits towards
the centre of the South Atlantic. The mineral particles were very few and very small,
never exceeding 1 per cent, and a mean diameter of O'lO mm.

Around the Tristan da Cunha Islands. — Many hauls of the dredge and trawl were
taken around and between the islands of the Tristan da Cunha group (see Chart 17) in
depths of 60 to 1100 fathoms. There was generally a coarse shelly bottom, composed of
fragments of Polyzoa, Lamellibranch and Casteropod shells, Brachiopods, Echinoderms,
Pteropods, Serpula, and a few pelagic and other Foraminifera. In 360 fathoms close to
Tristan the deposit was a Volcanic Sand composed essentially of mineral particles, with
about 7 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The minerals were exclusively of volcanic origin,
and had a mean diameter of 0'5 mm. Mineral particles of the same nature but smaller
were present in the shelly bottoms around Nightingale Island.

Tristan da Cunha to Cape of Good Hope. — Between the Tristan plateau and the
Cape of Cood Hope there is a wide and deep depression (see Chart 16 and Diagram 6),
where depths of 2550 and 2650 fathoms were obtained. The deposits at these depths
contained 35 and 26 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of pelagic Foraminifera and
their broken parts. The mineral particles consisted of rounded and angular fragments of
quartz, orthoclase, hornblende, tourmaline, and augite. These mineral fragments, a few
of which were fully 1 mm. in diameter, indicate that these soundings are within the area
which is occasionally affected with Antarctic ice. The two soundings in 2325 and 1250
fathoms, near the coast of Africa, contained 47 and 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
The mineral particles seldom exceeded 0‘15 mm. in diameter, and consisted of quartz,
glauconite, felspar, augite, and magnetite. About 1 per cent, of these deposits was made
up of Eadiolaria, Diatoms, and Sponge spicules ; glauconitic casts were observed after
treatment with dilute acid, but these were not in sufficient abundance to warrant the

THF VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

loS

ileposits being called Green Muds, altliough very pure glauconitic muds and sands were
dredged in the shallow water of tlie Agulhas Bank, to be referred to in describing the
section from Cape of Good Hope to Prince Edward Island.

SfOid}/ Point to Falkland Islands. — On the return voyage the Challenger entered
tlic Atlantic by the Strait of Magellan. The deposit at 55 fathoms, as well as in two
other soundings, 70 and 110 fathoms (see Chart 42), was a coarse sand, the grains about
one millimetre in diameter, consisting of quartz, jasper, felspars, mica, hornblende, augite,
glauconite, pumice, and particles of crystalline and schistose rocks.

Falkland Islands to Rio de la, Plata. — The deposit in 1035 fathoms in this section
was a sandy gravel (see Chart 42). The trawl line carried away and the trawl was lost,
but the tow-net attached to the line at the weights contained some of the gravel. The
larger particles were from 1 to 2 cm. in diameter, brown coloured, flattened, ellipsoidal,
<lerived from ancient continental formations, such as schist, gneiss, arkose, and sandstone,
together with milky and hyaline quartz, felspar, augite, magnetite, microcline, horn-
blende, and glauconite. The glauconite was globular, ovoid, elongated, or vaguely
triangular, with rounded angles ; many of the particles were not so homogeneous as true
glauconite, and appeared as aggregates of minerals cemented by a green matter. Some-
times they showed a schistoid structure, and often it was difficult to say whether the
fragments were glauconite or pieces of rocks strongly impregnated with a chloritic sub-
stance. iUixed up with the above-mentioned sandy particles were calcareous Foraminifera,
fragments of Molluscs, Brachiopods, Echinoderms, and Polyzoans. In 2040 fathoms the
deposit was a Globigerina Ooze containing 33 per cent, of carbonate of lime. At 2425
fathoms there was a Blue Mud containing about 40 per cent, of mineral particles with a
mean diameter of 0T2 mm., and 6 per cent, of carbonate of lime derived from bottom-
living Foraminifera and small teeth of fish, the remainder of the deposit being composed
of the remains of siliceous organisms, fine mineral particles, and clayey matter.

In GOO fathoms the deposit was a Blue Mud, green-grey in colour, containing 12 per
cent, of carbonate of lime. In the sounding tube and in the trawl there were several
small concretions, from 1 to 3 cm. in diameter, nodular, more or less elliptical, and vary-
ing in colour from grey -green to yellow-green. They were agglutinations of the clastic
materials forming the deposit, cemented together by a clayey matter united with a
chloritic mineral, but were not very coherent. Cut into thin sections, they were seen to
be fonned of angular fragments of quartz (TO to 0‘5 mm. in diameter), of felspars, some
of which were triclinic, of hornblende, of glauconite, and of garnet. The amorphous
matter cementing this sand was finely granular, and impregnated with a green or
yellowish chloritic substance, with vague outlines and non-birefrangent, the same as that
obsor\'ed upon the isolated grains of the mud. With these sandy agglutinations were
associated rounded elliptical fragments with a diameter of from 1 to 2 cm.; they were
green, fine grained, could be scratched with steel, and at first sight appeared to have the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

159

grain and structure of glauconite. Examined with the microscope, they presented a
greenish fundamental mass, with scattered colourless and irregular particles (0’05 mm.
in diameter), and black and brown points which appeared to be organic. With polarised
light the colourless particles with vague contours were seen to be crystalline, and were
probably felspar or quartz. Other fragments with a coarser grain were seen, under the
microscope, to be composed of felspar and quartz perfectly discernible, cemented and
surrounded by chlorite,

0^ Monte Video. — In leaving the Eio de la Plata two hauls of the trawl were
obtained in 13 and 21 fathoms (see Chart 16). The deposit in the former depth was a
blue tenaceous mud containing large fragments of Molluscs and plants, and many sandy
particles ; in the latter, sand and shells.

Rio de la Plata to Ascension. — In 1900 fathoms, ofi' the mouth of the Eio de la Plata
(see Chart 16), the deposit was a Blue Mud, containing about 3 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, which consisted chiefly of a few shells of pelagic Foraminifera. The six following
soundings showed depths ranging between 2650 and 2900 fathoms. Four of these con-
tained not more than a trace of carbonate of lime, and no remains of calcareous organisms
were observed; the other two had 3 and 4 per cent. The remains of siliceous organisms
made up about 5 per cent, of the deposits. The mineral particles had a mean diameter
of OT mm. or less, and consisted of fragments of quartz, plagioclase, augite, grains of
magnetite, mica, and a very large number of fragments of pumice and volcanic scorias.
The fragments making up these deposits appear to have been mostly derived from the Eio
de la Plata, the influence of whieh on the deposits could be distinctly traced several
hundred miles seawards.

When the depth diminished as the Tristan plateau was reached, the character of the
deposits likewise changed. A sounding in 2440 fathoms gave 10 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. All the other soundings, on the plateau surrounding Tristan da Cunha and extend-
ing north to the Island of Ascension, ranged from 2200 to 1240 fathoms. The percentage
of carbonate of lime varied from 66' to 98 per cent., the proportion being greater in the
lesser depths. In depths less than 1500 fathoms the deposits appeared to be largely made
up of the dead shells of pelagic Molluscs, such as Pteropods, Heteropods, and pelagic
Gasteropods, and they have in consequence been called Pteropod Oozes. In depths of
2000 fathoms and deeper these shells were almost completely removed from the deposits,
which then consisted chiefly of pelagic Foraminifera.

Off Ascension. — A sounding in 420 fathoms, about 5 miles distant from Ascension
Island (see Chart 43), was a Globigerina Ooze with 97 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
made up of pelagic Foraminifera and pelagic Molluscs. Another similar deposit, nearer
to the island, contained a much higher percentage of volcanic minerals, the proportion of
carbonate of lime being 71 per cent. These deposits might be equally well classed as
Pteropod Ooze.

1«0

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Ascension to Cape Verdes. — On this trip three dredgings, four soundings, and eight
serial temperatures were obtained (see Chart 12 and Diagram 7). The depths ranged from
2010 fathoms to 2450 fatlioms, and the deposit in each case was a Globigerina Ooze,
containing 94 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the former depth and 83 per cent, in the
latter dei>th. Only one or two small fragments of Pteropod shells were observed in
tln'sc deposits, in which the carbonate of lime consisted chiefly of the shells of pelagic
Foraminifera, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths. The remains of siliceous organisms did
not make up more than 2 per cent, of the whole deposit. The mineral particles were
exceedingly minute, and consisted of fragments of felspars, hornblende, augite, and
magnetite.

Cape Verdes to England. — On the 3rd May 1876, in lat. 26° 21' N., long. 33° 37' W.,
a sounding was obtained in 2965 fathoms (see Chart 6), the bottom being Red Clay con-
taining in the surface layers 12 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted of a few
sliells of the larger pelagic Foraminifera and their broken fragments. The mineral
particles did not exceed OT mm. in diameter, and consisted of a few grains of felspar,
quartz, hornblende, magnetite, volcanic glass, and manganese peroxide. The principal
part of the deposit consisted of flocculent clayey matter, with exceedingly minute frag-
ments of minerals, Radiolarians, and Sponge spicules.

On the 6th May, in lat. 32° 41' N., long. 36° 6' W., another sounding was obtained in
1675 fathoms, the deposit being a Globigerina Ooze containing 91 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, which consisted of pelagic Foraminifera, Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths, and a few fragments
of Pteropods and Echinoderms. The residue, after the removal of the carbonate of lime
by dilute acid, resembled in most respects the Red Clay found at greater depths in the
.same region of the Atlantic.

2. Southern and Antarctic Oceans.

Cape of Good Hope to Prince Edward and Marion Islands. — On the 17th December
1873, the Challenger left Simon’s Bay for the southern cruise. A sounding and dredging
were taken in 98 fathoms (see Chart 18 and Diagram 8). The deposit consisted of a green
glauconitic sand, containing 50 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which was derived chiefly
from shells of Foraminifera, fragments of Mollu.scs, Polyzoa, Serpula, and Echinoderms.

On tlie 18th the ship sounded and dredged in 150 fathoms. The deposit was nearly
the same as on the preceding day, tlie carbonate of lime being a little higher, viz., 68
per cent. Glauconite is exceptionally abundant in these deposits on the Agulhas Bank ;
the grains arc about one millimetre in diameter, and are isolated or agglomerated into
phosphatic nodules .several centimetres in diameter. Besides these grains, the Foraminifera
arc often filled with a pale green glauconitic substance, which only rarely shows all the
typical characters of glauconite. This green material remained as an internal cast of the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

161

shells when the deposit was treated with dilute acid. In these deposits there was much
green-coloured amorphous matter, some of it not unlike vegetable tissue, which, when
heated on platinum, charred like an organic substance, became black, then red. In these
Green Sands the mineral particles formed a large percentage, being 40 and 20 respectively,
and the remains of siliceous organisms including the green-coloured casts were estimated
at about 6 per cent, (see PL XXIV. fig. 1 for glauconitic particles).

On the 19th a sounding and dredging were obtained in 1900 fathoms (see Chart 18).
The deposit was a Globigerina Ooze, containing 90 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which
consisted almost entirely of pelagic Foraminifera. In the dredge were several irregular
brown-coloured phosphatic nodules from 1 to 4 cm. in diameter, containing 49 per cent,
of tricalcic phosphate.

On the 24th, a sounding and temperatures were obtained in 1570 fathoms. The
deposit was a Globigerina Ooze containing 92 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and a few
Diatoms, Eadiolaria, and mineral particles chiefly of volcanic origin. The pelagic
Foraminifera in this sounding belonged to the small and thick-shelled varieties
peculiar to colder waters, although they were not of the typical Arctic or Antarctic
varieties. Probably many of the finer particles were washed out of the sounding tube.

Off Marion Island. — The dredgings between Marion and Prince Edward Islands (see
Chart 19), showed that the bottom, in depths less than 100 fathoms, was overgrown with
great masses of Polyzoa, the dredges and swabs being filled and covered with them. Mr
Busk records thirty species of Polyzoa from this locality, fifteen of which are new. In 140
and 310 fathoms there was a Volcanic Sand containing 15 to 20 per cent, of carbonate of
lime shells, many Diatoms, and many volcanic minerals and lapilli of vitreous basaltic rocks.

Marion Island to Crozet Islands. — The deposit at 1375 fathoms (see Chart 18) was
a Globigerina Ooze, containing 86 per cent, of carbonate of lime, the residue being almost
wholly remains of Diatoms and Eadiolarians. At 1600 fathoms there was 35 per
cent, of carbonate of lime, 35 per cent, of minerals and amorphous and clayey matter,
and 30 per cent, of Diatom and Eadiolarian remains, and this deposit was in consequence
called a Diatom Ooze. There were a few rounded quartz particles in each of the deposits,
but the great majority of the mineral particles were of volcanic origin. The carbonate
of lime in these deposits consisted chiefly of Globigerina shells and Coccoliths. Orhulina
shells were not observed in the deposits, nor at the surface, and Ehabdoliths were not
observed in the deposits since leaving the Cape, so that these stations are probably
beyond the southern limit of these organisms.

Off Crozet Islands. — The deposit at 600 fathoms (see Chart 20) was a Diatom Ooze
with 36 per cent, of carbonate of lime, chiefly made up of shells of pelagic Foraminifera,
the residue consisting principally of Diatoms and other siliceous organisms with many
fragments of volcanic minerals. At 210 and 550 fathoms the bottom was hard ground,
gravel and shells.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

21

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lG-2

Off Kerguelen Island. — During the month of January 1874, the Challenger took
many soundings and dredgings in the bays and several miles off the east coast of Ker-
, guelen (see Chart 21), in depths varying from 20 to 130 fathoms.

Ill all cases the deposit was a green Volcanic Mud ^ with a strong smell of sulphuretted
h}’drogen, and composed principally of mineral particles and the siliceous skeletons of organ-
isms. Generally these muds did not effervesce with acids ; sometimes, however, a few spots
of effervescence were observed. The carbonate of lime never appeared to make up more
than 1 or 2 per cent, of the deposit, and consisted of a few fragments of Echinids, Mollusc
shells, Polyzoa, and Foraminifera. These last were Miliolina, Uvigerina, and Discorhina ;
only one or two pelagic Foraminifera were noticed in these muds. The mineral particles
made up from 20 to GO per cent, of the deposit, and consisted of fragments of felspar,
plagioclasc, augitc, magnetite, hornblende, olivine, sometimes decomposed with red tint,
lapilli, pumice, and brown volcanic glass. The size of these particles* was from 0'5 mm.
to O’l mm. in diameter, the larger sized particles being found in those soundings nearest
the coasts. The frustules of Diatoms made up in every case a large part of the deposit,
and along with the siliceous spicules of Sponges, probably as much as 50 per cent, in some
of the samples. The soundings farthest removed from the coast contained generally much
the larger proportion of siliceous remains. These muds contained but little clayey matter,
and when dried were grey-green, slightly coherent, and earthy in aspect.

Off Heard Island. — On the 2nd February, after leaving Kerguelen Island, a success-
ful sounding and dredging were obtained (see Chart 18) at Station 150 in 150 fathoms,
on a hard bottom. The bottom was covered with a coarse gravel ; the dredge brought
up a large number of stones, fragments of rocks of irregular form, varjing from 1 to 7
centimetres in diameter, with the angles more or less rounded, but much less so than
those of ordinary rolled pebbles. They w'cre blue-black, and the majority had a compact
structure and were fine grained, while others were porous with a rough surface, all belonging
to the felspathic basalts (dolerite). Among these volcanic fragments were noticed two or
three pieces of granite and one of sandstone. The majority of these stones were over-
grown Ijy Foraminifera, Sponges, Actiniaria, Brachiopods, Ascidians, Serpula, and
I’olyzoa. It was roughly estimated that 20 per cent, of the deposit was made up of
the remains of calcareous organisms, and that 15 per cent, came from Sponge spicules
and other siliceous remains, and that GO per cent, consisted of the mineral particles, and 5
of amorplious clayey matter.

The deposit in the sounding and dredging in 75 fathoms off Heard Island (see Chart
22) was a greenish black Volcanic Sand, composed essentially of black volcanic sand and
remains of organisms. There was only 2‘58 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of shells
u[ Mdiolina, Discorhuia, Uvigerina, and one or two Glohigerina, along with fragments of
I’olyzoa, ilolluscs, Echinoderms, &c. The mineral particles made up 80 per cent,, and
* Green Mud should liave been green Volcanic Mud in the Tables (see p. 78).

EEPOE.T THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

16^3

liad a mean diameter of about 0‘3 mm.; they formed a black sand consisting chiefly of
fragments of brown and red glass — sometimes decomposed, sometimes massive and
enclosing microliths of olivine, and sometimes porous — with fragments of felspar, plagio-
clase, augite, and magnetite. There was also 5 per cent, of Diatoms, Sponge spicules,
and Eadiolaria.

Heard Island to Melbourne. — In the cruise between Heard Island and Australia
(see Charts 23 and 24, and Diagrams 9 and 10) four kinds of deposits were met with,
viz.. Blue Mud, Diatom Ooze, Globigerina Ooze, and Keel Clay.

The first of these was found in depths of 1675, 1800, and 1300 fathoms at the most
southern latitude reached by the Challenger, between lat. 64° and 66° S. (see Chart 23),
and therefore a short distance north of the great Ice-barrier and the Antarctic Continent.
These Blue Muds contained less than 12 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted
chiefly of the dead shells of Globigerina dutertrei, and less than 20 per cent, of
the remains of siliceous organisms, chiefly Diatoms. The mineral particles consisted of
quartz, felspars, hornblende, garnet, glauconite, mica, tourmaline, and fragments of
granitic, amphibolic, and other rocks. From the depth of 1675 fathoms the dredge
brought up many kinds of rocks and pebbles, some of them showing distinct marks of
glaciation, and many of them having a coating of peroxide of manganese on that part
which had projected above the mud when lying at the bottom. The rocks belonged to
the following lithological types : — granites, quartziferous diorites, schistoid diorites,
amphibolites, mica-schists, grained c[uartzites, and partially decomposed earthy shales.

To the northward of the stations at which Blue Mud was found, between lat. 64° and
53° S. (see Charts 23 and 24), in depths of 1260, 1975, and 1950 fathoms, the deposit
was a Diatom Ooze, usually of a yellowish straw colour, which when dried had the as]3ect of
flour, the particles being extremely fine, and the whole taking the impress of the fingers
when pressed, gritty particles being now and then recognisable. One of the .samples
contained as much as 22 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting chiefly of the dead
shells of Globigerina bulloides, Globigerina injlata, and Globigerina dutertrei. The
mineral particles were similar to those in the Blue Muds just mentioned, and appeared to
make up from 3 to 15 per cent, of the deposit, the remainder of the deposit (from 62 to
88 per cent.) consisting of the frustules of Diatoms and the skeletons of Eadiolaria.
The dredgings in these deposits yielded, in addition to all the varieties of rocks mentioned
in the Blue Muds further south, several fragments of pumice stone, basaltic volcanic rock,
palagonite, and one or two fragments of a compact limestone and sandstone.

Between lat. 53° and 47° S. two soundings were obtained in 1800 and 2150 fathoms
(see Chart 24). The deposit in each case was a whitish Globigerina Ooze, containing
respectively 85 and 88 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted chiefly of Cocco-
liths, Coccospheres, and pelagic Foraminifera belonging to the species : Globigerina
bulloides, Globigerina injlata, Globigerina dubia, Pidvinulina micheliniana, and

1G4

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Orhulitia umversa, together with other Foraminifera and fragments of Echinoderms.
The mineral partieles appeared to make np 1 per cent, of the deposit, and consisted of
hornblende, magnetite, felspar, vitreous fragments, and a few quartz grains. There was
from 2 to 1 0 per cent, of Diatoms and Radiolaria in these Globigerina Oozes.

The remaining variety of deposit (Red Clay) was obtained in lat. 42“ S. at a depth of
2600 fathoms (see Chart 24). It contained 18 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting
of entire shells and fragments of Glohigerina hulloides, Globigerina inflata, and Glohi-
gcrina mbra, PulvinuUna micheliniana, Orhulina universa, a few other Foraminifera,
Coecoliths, Polyzoa, and fragments of Echinoderms. The mineral particles only formed
1 per cent, of the deposit, and consisted of felspars, hornblende, augite, magnetite,
pumice, fragments of volcanic glass, and grains of peroxide of manganese, with a mean
diameter of about 0'08 mm., while a few rounded fragments of quartz reached a diameter
of 0’5 mm. The remainder of the deposit consisted essentially of amorphous and clayey
matter with very minute fragments of minerals and pumice. There was a larger per-
centage of carbonate of lime in the upper layers of the deposit than in the deeper ones.
The trawl brought up 10 or 12 litres of manganese nodules, pumice stones, rolled pebbles
of gneiss, fragments of palagonite, earbones of Cetaceans, and sharks’ teeth.

From the foregoing description it appears that the deposits forming at the most
southerly points reached by the Challenger are composed chiefly of continental debris
earned into the ocean by the floating ice of these regions, and that this material makes
up le.ss and less of the deposit as the distance from the Antarctic Continent increases until
it almost disappears about lat. 46° or 47“ S., although at other longitudes in the
Atlantic and Pacific continental debris from the Antarctic Continent appears to be carried
fully ten degrees farther to the north. The deposits along the Antarctic Ice-barrier,
which have been called Blue Muds, resemble in many respects the deposits formed at
similar depths off the Atlantic coast of British North America. The nature of the rock
fragments dredged in these latitudes conclusively proves the existence of continental
land certainly of considerable extent within the Antarctic Circle. One of the fragments
of gneiss dredged from a depth of 1950 fathoms measured 50 by 40 centimetres, and
weighed more than 20 kilogrammes. In the region occupied by the Diatom Ooze,
northward of the Blue hluds, the predominant feature of the deposit is due to the
innumerable frustulcs of Diatoms and skeletons of Radiolaria which have fallen from the
surface and .subsarflice waters of the ocean. Farther north again the pelagic Foraminifera
{)rcdominate in the deposit, except at the depth of 2600 fathoms, where the greater part
of them has been removed by the solvent powers of the sea-water, as is usual at the great
dcptks of the ocean.

South of lat. 50° S., Diatoms were frequently met with in the surface nets in
enormous abundance. The most abundant were various species of Chxtoceros,
but there were also many other genera. The tow-nets were on some occasions

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

105

so filled with, these that large quantities could be dried by heating over a stove,
when a whitish felt-like mass was obtained. Mixed up with these Diatoms there were
many species of Eadiolaria. Coccospheres and Ehabdospheres, which were found so
abundantly in the surface water of the warmer parts of the Atlantic and Southern
Oceans, were not met with south of lat. 50° S., either on the surface or in the deposits
at the bottom. The same remark applies to Orhulina universa, Pulvinulina, and several
species of Glohigerina. South of lat. 50° S., the only pelagic Foraminifera found on the
surface were Glohigerina hulloides, Glohigerina dutertrei, and Glohigerina inflata, and
these were the only pelagic species found in the deposit at the bottom (see Diagrams
9 and 10).

3. Pacific Ocean.

Melbourne to Sydney. — The deposits from the shallow water between Melbourne and
Moncoeur Island (see Chart 25) were shelly sands with 82 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
coming chiefly from fragments of Polyzoa ; these fragments were usually over 5 mm. in
diameter. Mineral particles formed about 5 per cent., and consisted for the most part of
quartz, mica, and felspars. Green casts of the shells were left after treatment with dilute
acids.

Soundings were taken in 2200 and 150 fathoms to the north of Cape Howe, the
shallower depth being several mdes nearer shore. In the former case the deposit was a
Glohigerina Ooze, with 62 per cent, of carbonate of lime largely coming from the remains
of pelagic Foraminifera. The trawling in 150 fathoms showed that the bottom was
covered with Polyzoa, shells, and gravel.

Ofif^ Sydney. — The deposits in depths of from 120 to 1200 fathoms off the Australian
coast (see Chart 26) were Green Sands and Muds, containing a considerable quantity of
glauconite, and resembling in many respects the deposits at similar depths off the south
coast of Africa. The deposits from 120 and 290 fathoms were Green Sands, those from
greater depths Green Muds. The carbonate of lime ranged from 46 to 50 per cent.,
and consisted of the shells of Glohigerina, Orhidina, Pulvinulina, Pullenia, Miliolina,
Textularia, Discorhina, Cristellaria, and other Foraminifera; Coccospheres and Ehab-
doliths ; fragments of Pteropods and other pelagic Molluscs ; Ostracode valves, fragments
of Echinoderms, Polyzoa, and other calcareous organisms. The mineral particles in
these deposits were about 0T2 mm. in diameter, and consisted of rounded fragments
of quartz, felspars, hornblende, magnetite, mica, volcanic glass, in addition to glauconite.
There were a few Eadiolaria and Sponge spicules. Many of the Foraminifera shells were
filled with green glauconitic matter which remained as internal casts after treatment with
dilute acids, A quantity of the glauconitic grains and casts were carefully collected
after removing the calcareous organisms by dilute acid, and an analysis of these is given
in the description of glauconitic deposits (see PI. XXIV. fig. 2 for glauconitic casts).

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

IGG

Sydney to New Zealand. — The two soundings in 2G00 fathoms contained respectively
7 and 19 i)cr cent, of carbonate of lime. In 1975 fathoms there was 77 per cent., in
1100 fathoms 84 per cent., and in 275 fathoms 8S per cent, (see Chart 27). The car- •
bonatc of lime in all these consisted essentially of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera, with
Coccoliths, Coccospheres, and Rhabdoliths. In the deeper deposits there is, it will be
noticed, less and less carbonate of lime, and this is due to the gradual removal
of tlie more delicate and smaller shells (see Diagram 11). While these small shells
and Coccospheres made up most of the deposit at 275 and 400 fathoms, they were very
rare at a depth of 2600 fathoms, though they appeared to be quite as abundant at the
surface over the one locality as over the other. The mineral particles were very minute
in these soundings, and consisted chiefly of felspars and glassy volcanic fragments. As
tlie entrance of Cook Strait was approached, the mineral particles derived from the coast
of New Zealand increased both in number and size, and the pelagic shells diminished,
while glauconite, which was absent in the soundings from the middle of the section,
again made its appearance. At 150 fathoms the deposit was a Blue Mud with 26 per
cent, of carbonate of lime.

Off New Zealand. — The deposits off the east coast of New Zealand in 1100 and 700
fathoms (see Chart 27) were Blue Muds, with a thin characteristic layer of a reddish
colour on the surface. They contained only from 4 to 10 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
the chief part of the deposit consisting of amorphous and clayey matter and fine mineral
particles derived from the neighbouring land. The mineral particles were uniform in
size and nature in both localities, but while they were estimated at 21 per cent, in the
former, in the latter deposit they made up 25 per cent. Siliceous organisms were few.
The dredge brought up pumice stones at both stations.

New Zealand to Tonyatahu. — The deposits off the Kermadec Islands in 520, 630,
and 600 fathoms (see Chart 27 and Diagram 12) were Volcanic Muds, containing very
many large blocks of pumice. A very large fragment of a huge new Hexactinellid
Sponge, Poliopoyon yiyas, was brought up from 630 fathoms attached to pumice stones ;
it mca.surcd about 2 feet by 3 feet 6 inches.^ The deposit at 2900 fathoms was a Bed
Clay, which gave no trace of effervescence when treated with dilute acid, showing that
it did not contain any carbonate of lime. The mineral particles were very small, the
bulk of them being less than 0‘05 mm. in diameter, and consisted of felspar, magnetite,
and hornblende ; there were, however, some large fragments of pumice, and the great bulk
of the fine w.'ishings of the deposit was composed of very minute fragments of pumice.

Cff Tonyatahn. — When outside a line joining Mallenoah and Atataa Islands dredgings
were obtained, first in 18 fathoms, and then in 240 fathoms (see Chart 28). The deposit
at both these depths was a Coral Sand containing from 86 to 90 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, composed of fragments of Coral, calcareous Algae, Orhitolites and many other

‘ C’l Ijy lO'C decijiietres.

HEPOPvT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

167

Foraminifera, fragments of Polyzoa, Echinoderms, and Molluscs. At tlie greater depth
farther from the reef, the fragments were smaller and the pelagic shells more abundant
than in the depth of 18 fathoms nearer the reef. Mineral particles constituted about 3
per cent, in both cases ; the fragments were volcanic, with a mean diameter of about 0'5
mm. The general appearance of these deposits in 240 and 18 fathoms is represented in
PI. XI Y. figs. 1 and 2.

Off the Fiji Islands. — Off the Fiji Islands (see Charts 29 and 30) the deposits were,
with one exception. Coral Muds and Sands containing from 86 to 90 per cent, of carbonate
of lime, principally composed of calcareous Algse and Polyzoa with a large proportion of
Foraminifera. In the Coral Sand from 12 fathoms, off Levuka, there were no pelagic
Foraminifera, while the minerals were comparatively numerous and large, having a mean
diameter of 0'5 mm. In the Coral Muds from greater depths the percentage of pelagic
Foraminifera increased, while the minerals were few and small, rarely exceeding 0'08 mm.
in diameter. The exception referred to above was that of the deposit from 610 fathoms
— a Globigerina Ooze with 80 per cent, of carbonate of lime (see PI. XIY. figs. 3c« and
3&). In this instance the major part was composed of pelagic Foraminifera, while nearly
all the organisms of the shallower deposits were present, though in minute fragments and
relatively less abundance. The mineral particles and siliceous organisms were more
numerous than in the shallower depths, while there were fewer particles derived from the
reefs. Ehabdoliths were observed only in this deposit, and a few brown casts of calcareous
organisms remained after treatment with dilute acid. Several pieces of pumice were
obtained from 210 and 610 fathoms.

Fiji Islands to the New Hebrides. — The deposits at 1350 and 1450 fathoms (see
Chart 27 and PI. XII. figs. 4a, 46) were Globigerina Oozes of a reddish colour, and
closely resembled in that respect the Red Clays. They contained 44 and 62 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, consisting of Rhabdoliths, Coccoliths, the shells of Globigerina, Orbu-
lina, Hastigerina, Pulmnidina, Sphasroidina, Pidlenia, and some bottom-living species.
A few of the Globigerina shells had still the delicate spines attached as in the specimens
taken on the surface. The absence of Pteropod, Heteropod, and other pelagic Mollusc
shells from these deposits is somewhat remarkable, for they were very abundant on the
surface, and at a similar depth and latitude in the Atlantic they were usually present in
considerable numbers. The Foraminifera shells were in some instances quite white, or
had a rosy tinge as if lately fallen from the surface, but the great majority were brown
coloured, and in some instances black from a deposit of oxide of manganese on their
surface. When one of these dark coloured shells from 1450 fathoms is broken three
zones can be distinguished, at the centre an internal cast of the shell, then the white
carbonate of lime shell itself, and outside this an external cast of the same nature and
aspect as the internal one, to which it is connected by little red pillars which have been
formecl in and fill up the foramina of the shell. These casts do not appear to be formed

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

]GS

by a simple filling of the shell, but seem to be due to a chemical combination. There
were in these deposits none of the smooth pale yellow and green casts so abundant in the
Green ]\Iuds along continental shores. If these red coloured casts be treated with warm
hydrochloric acid and the iron thus extracted, a number of colourless globules are
obtained, which have resisted the action of the acid. It has been found that these casts
consist of hydrated silicate containing alumina, lime, magnesia, and alkalies. The mean
diameter of the minerals rarely exceeded OTO mm., and were usually much smaller;
these were felspars, black mica, augite, hornblende, and magnetite. The great bulk of
the residue after removal of the carbonate of lime, however, consisted of pumice stone in
a fine state of division, wdth amorphous matter. Eadiolaria and Diatoms made up about
1 per cent, of the whole deposit.

The trawhng at 1350 fathoms gave many rounded fragments of pumice, from 6 to 8
cm. in diameter, covered with oxide of manganese, and the branch of a tree several feet
in length which was carbonised in some places (see Diagram 13).

There were many very productive hauls with the surface nets between the Fiji Islands
and the New Hebrides — Pteropods, Hetcropods, and pelagic Foraminifera being specially
abundant. With the exception of a very large cylindrical species of Coscinodiscus,
Diatoms were very rare both on the surface and at the bottom. It was observed that the
larger Foraminifera, such as S'pliseroidina dehiscens, Pidvinulina menardii, and thick-
shelled OrhidinaB, were procured in greatest abundance when the tow-net was dragged at
a depth of 80 or 100 fathoms.

New Hebrides to Raine Island. — The deposits between the New Hebrides and Raine
Island (see Chart 27 and Diagram 13) varied greatly with depth, and were very in-
teresting. At 2G50 fathoms not a trace of carbonate of lime could be detected either by
the microscope, or by treating the Red Clay with weak acid. At 2450 fathoms there
Avas 1 or 2 per cent, of carljonate of lime, consisting of a few broken fragments of Fora-
minifera. At 2440 fathoms there was a Red Clay on the surface with 5 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, but three inches beneath the surface a much lighter coloured deposit
containing a very large number of Foraminifera, and 32 per cent, of carbonate of lime.
At 2325 fathoms there was 32 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting of the dead shells
of pelagic Foraminifera and a few Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths. The condition of things
at 2440 fathoms Is worthy of special remark. It very frequently happened during the
cruise that the deeper layers contained less lime than the surface ones, but only on
two or three occasions did it happen that there were more calcareous shells in the deeper
layer of the deposit as in this case. The surface layer, it will be observed, was the same
in nearl}" all respects as the deposit in 2450 fathoms 80 miles to the eastward, and the
deeper layer resembled that at 2325 fathoms still farther to the eastward, or the deposits
in a lesser depth towards Raine Island, which contained over 50 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, so that possibly a subsidence of the bottom had taken place subsequent to the

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

169

formation of the deeper layer. It is clearly illustrated in this section between Api and
Eaine Islands, that all the other conditions remaining the same or nearly so, the quantity
of carbonate of lime found in a deposit is less the greater the depth. It is believed that
this basin below 1300 fathoms is probably cut off from the colder water farther south, and,
indeed, from general oceanic circulation, below that depth, in this respect approaching to
the condition of enclosed seas. In all such basins the surface shells appear to be removed
from the deposits at lesser depths than in areas where there is no interruption to free
communication arising from the existence of submarine barriers.

The mineral particles in these deposits consisted chiefly of angular fragments of
volcanic rocks and minerals, all of small size except the pieces of pumice which were
numerous in all the dredgings. There were many manganese particles, and, at the
sounding in 1400 fathoms, some of the Foraminifera shells were filled with the peroxide,
so that a complete internal cast of the shell was left after treatment with dilute acid.
The deposit in 130 fathoms, off Api Island, was a Volcanic Sand containing 13 per cent,
of carbonate of lime.

Off Raine Island. — The soundings and dredgings in 135, 150, and 155 fathoms (see
Chart 27) showed that the deposit was a Coral Sand, com^^osed of white and brownish
coloured fragments of Corals, Molluscs, and Foraminifera shells, with a considerable
admixture of calcareous Algae. Mr. H. B, Brady found in this deposit a larger number
of species of Foraminifera than in any other taken during the cruise. Many of the
shells were probably washed from the shallower water of the adjoining reefs. The deposit
contained 87 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and it was estimated that more than one-half
of this consisted of pelagic Molluscs and pelagic Foraminifera. The mineral particles in
the deposit consisted of fragments of quartz, felspars, mica, augite, and olivine, and were
estimated at 4 per cent.

By treating this deposit with dilute acid, casts of the Foraminifera shells are obtained,
the majority of which are of a brick red colour, although a few are of a yellowish, or even
greenish, tinge (see PI. XXIV. fig. 3). They are not so compact or well marked in outline
as the white and pale straw-coloured casts usually met with in glauconitic muds, and have
very frequently a porous aspect, from the removal of the carbonate of lime which has, in
many instances, been associated with the red material forming the casts. If some of the
Foraminifera be treated with dilute acid, the action stopped after it has continued for some
time, and the substance dried and examined by reflected light, a number of casts of the organ-
isms are seen in carbonate of lime looking quite like milky quartz. If, however, the action
be continued, it is seen that they are composed of carbonate of lime as they entirely disappear,
leaving a small residue of a reddish colour, or very areolar casts of the shells in the same
red substance. Examined in thin sections, it is observed that the shells are filled with a
red, yellowish, or greenish matter, frequently extending into the foramina. The shell is
at once distinguished from the cast by its structure, transparency, and optical properties.
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 22

170

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

It is sometimes observed that two or three shells or fragments are cemented by the same
red substance forming the casts. This substance when sufficiently transparent appears of
a yellowish red colour, and gives sometimes aggregate polarisation, but is never extin-
guished between crossed nicols. Often the casts enclose small mineral particles. With
very high powers it is seen that the structure of the grey carbonate of lime casts is
granular, and between crossed nicols it is evident that the grains are crystalline. This
is one of the few instances in which it has been possible to point out the deposition of
carbonate of lime in the shells forming deposits, and it evidently took place in the deeper
layers.

Cape York to Arrou Islands. — The deposits in 6 and 7 fathoms around and near Booby
and Wednesday Islands (see Chart 31) consisted of quartziferous sand with from 60 to
78 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the form of large numbers of Foraminifera, fragments
of calcareous Algse, Polyzoa, and shells. None of the Foraminifera, however, were
})elagic sjjecies. It was estimated that from 15 to 30 per cent, of the sands consisted of
mineral grains ; these were from 0’5 to 1 mm. in diameter. Between Cape York and
the Arrou Islands the depth in the Arafura Sea never exceeded 50 fathoms, usually
ranging from 28 to 40 fathoms. The deposit was a greenish mud in all cases, containing
from 25 to 50 per cent, of minerals, consisting of fragments of quartz, mica, felspars,
glauconite, &c., about 0'2 mm. in diameter. In the dredgings there were fragments of
sandstone and other continental rocks. The carbonate of lime in these deposits formed
from 23 to 38 per cent., and consisted of the shells of Textidaria and Rotalia, fragments
of Echinoderms, Polyzoa, and Molluscs. Siliceous organisms made up 2 to 3 per
cent.

Arrou Islands to Banda. — The deposits at 800 and 580 fathoms, between the Arrou
and Ki Islands (see Chart 32), were Green Muds containing respectively 14 and 40 per
cent, of carbonate of lime ; at the shallower depth there were indications of two layers,
the bottom la}^er being more clayey with a blue tinge.

The deposits at Stations 192 and 192a were most interesting. At the first of these
( 1 40 fathoms) the sounding tube brought up a specimen of Blue Mud, containing about
8 per cent, of carbonate of lime, and in the second (129 fathoms) the trawls, besides
pumice stones, contained several large concretions or fragments of a calcareous rock,
differing very considerably from the deposit.

The Concretions or Rock Fragments were of two kinds. First, many more or less
rounded agglutinations loosely held together, and from 1 to 7 cm. in diameter. Second,
several large honeycombed pieces of rock, several decimetres in diameter, and requiring
a sharp IjIow from a liammer to Ijrcak them.

Those belonging to the first variety are grey or brown, sometimes slightly greenish,
granular, and it can be seen with the lens that they are essentially composed of
Foraminifera. An examination of thin slides of these nodules shows that they arc

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

171

agglutinated or coagulated by an argillo-calcareous cement which is not in great
abundance. Some of the shells are entirely filled with pale green glauconite, others
only partially. The intervals between the shells are not filled up with the cementing
matter, and these concretions appeared to be the last phase of disintegration.

Those of the second variety are very irregular in shape, and consist of large pieces of
a hard rock traversed in all directions by large and small perforations, with a diameter
var5ung from 1 to 4 centimetres. These blocks have thus a cavernous or coarse cellular
appearance. The perforations are covered, like the surface of the rock, with organisms, as
Sponges, Polyzoa, &c., and rough to the touch. The smaller perforations have sometimes
the appearance of having been produced by lithophagous Molluscs. These concretions
have the hardness of calcite ; the fragments freshly broken are white-grey. A microscopic
examination shows that they are mainly composed of various species of pelagic Foramini-
fera. Treated with dilute acid the concretions decompose with effervescence, leaving a
residue of 20 ’44 per cent., essentially composed of amorphous matter and glauconitic
casts of the Foraminifera, these last being brown or green and feebly transparent. The
greenish casts present most of the characters of true glauconite. In the residue there
are also a few grains of felspar and quartz. A section of these concretions resembles in
most respects a section of a hardened Globigerina Ooze from tropical regions, and near
a continental shore (see PI. XII. fig. 2). In this case, hov/ever, the shells are nearly
all filled and cemented by the finely granular carbonate of lime, while in a Globigerina
Ooze they are empty. It is not improbable that these large concretions or rock-frag-
ments are hardened portions of a deep-sea deposit formed at a much greater depth, and
subsequently elevated into the position in which they were found, probably by the same
elevation as that which upheaved the neighbouring islands.

The deposit at 2800 fathoms was a fine-grained Volcanic Mud containing only a trace
of carbonate of lime in the form of a few Pulvinulina shells. Mineral particles of
volcanic origin made up about 60 per cent.; these were angular fragments of felspars,
volcanic glass, augite, magnetite, and andesitic lapilli, having a mean diameter of
0'2 mm. There was also 5 per cent, of Sponge spicules, Radiolaria, and Diatoms. At
200 and 360 fathoms close to Banda (see Chart 33) the deposits consisted essentially of
volcanic materials with a few pelagic Foraminifera. The dredge brought up several frag-
ments of volcanic rocks and 23umice measuring from 2 to 1 0 centimetres in diameter. Corals,
siliceous Sponges, and calcareous Algae.

In 17 fathoms off Banda the bottom was a sand or gravel with 52 per cent, of
carbonate of lime made up of Foraminifera, Gasteropod, and Lamellibranch shells,
Echinoderm fragments. Corals, and calcareous Algae,

Banda to Amboina. — The deposit in 1425 fathoms (see Chart 31) was a Blue Mud
containing 31 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The surface layer, about half an inch in
thickness, was brownish in colour, while the deeper ones were blue and very compact.

172

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Pelagic Foramiiiifera aud Coccolitlis were abundant. The mineral particles consisted of
quartz, mica, volcanic glass, magnetite, felspar, pumice, and fragments of rocks.

The trawl brought up a considerable quantity of mud, which, with the exception of
a few lumps, all belonged to the brownish surface layer. Mixed up with the mud were
many large fragments of pumice, pieces of wood, leaves, and fragments of cocoa-nuts and
other fruits. As was usually the case when the trawl brought up mud from the imme-
diate surfoce layer, there was a large quantity of the weed-like branching Ehizopod
described by jMr. II. B. Brady under the name of Rhizammina algseformis, and in
addition many deep-sea animals.

Off Amboina in 15 to 20 fathoms the deposit consisted chiefly of Gasteropod and
Lamellibranch fragments, while Ileterostegina corngdanata, var. granulosa, was largely
represented. In addition there were mineral fragments consisting of quartz, felspars,
aud particles of volcanic rocks.

Molucca Passage. — After leaving Amboina two soundings were obtained in the
^lolucca Passage, in 825 and 1200 fathoms (see Chart 31 and Diagram 14). The
souuilings were not successful, but from the latter depth sufficient material was obtained
to indicate that the deposit was a Blue Mud. At 825 fathoms the trawl brought up large
irregular fragments of a honeycombed conglomerate, overgrown with Serpula, Polyzoa,
and Sponges. The largest fragment measured 12 by 8 inches (30 by 20 centimetres),
aud was not unlike that obtained at Station 192a, but was much harder and the
organisms were less apparent. Thin sections examined by the microscope showed that
the conglomerate was composed of Foraminifera and calcareous Algae cemented together
into a hard crystalline limestone, which on analysis yielded 94 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. This rock, unlike that from Station 192a, would seem to have been formed in com-
paratively shallow water near land. A few Coral fragments were also brought up in the
trawl.

Celebes Sea. — Four soundings were taken in the Celebes Sea at 2150, 2600, 250,
and 2050 fathoms (sec Chart 31 and Diagram 14). The deposit at 2150 and 2600
fathoms wa.s a Volcanic Mud, the great bulk of which was composed of broken-down frag-
ments of pumice aud clayey matter, while at 2050 fathoms, near the coast of Mindanao
Island, it was a Blue ]\Iud with a considerable proportion of quartz grains among the
mineral jjarticles. There were only slight traces of carbonate of lime, the highest per-
centage (P75) being found in 2050 fathoms; this was derived from a few fragments
of Pteropods and pelagic Foraminifera shells. In each case there were two layers, the
upper layer oozy and of a reddish colour, the lower compact aud of a blue colour. At
250 fathoms the deposit was a Green j\Iud ; only a small quantity was obtained, in-
sufficient for detailed examination. The trawling in 2150 fathoms (Station 198) yielded
several fragments of volcanic rock, some palm fruits, and pieces of wood and bark.
( rlobigerina, Pulvimilina, Orhulina, aud Pullenia shells were very numerous in the

KEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

173

deeper hauls with the surface tow-nets. Some of the spines on the Glohigerinx were
very long and delicate, being eleven times the diameter of the shell.

Sulu Sea. — The two soundings in the Sulu Sea at 2550 and 2225 fathoms (see Chart
31 and Diagram 14) were Blue Muds, containing in the former a trace, in the latter 15
per cent., of carbonate of lime, derived principally from pelagic Foraminifera. The
greater part of the deposits is made up of amorphous and clayey matter. At 2225
fathoms there were two layers, upper red, lower blue ; little difference could be detected
between them except that of colour. There was evidence of the same arrangement in
layers in the deposit in 2550 fathoms.

Passages among and hetiveen the Philif'pine Islands. — Several soundings were taken
in these passages in October and November 1874 and January 1875 (see Chart 31 and
Diagram 14). At 700 and 705 fathoms the deposit was a Blue Mud, with 3 to 11 per
cent, of carbonate of lime. The mineral particles were larger and more numerous in the
latter than in the former. The deposit from 375 fathoms was a Green Mud containing
36 per cent, of carbonate of lime largely made up of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera ;
glauconite, numerous casts, and many oval arenaceous bodies, believed to be the excreta
of Echinoderms, were observed. The minerals were few and small, and embraced
felspars, augite, hornblende, magnetite, and altered volcanic rock fragments. At 100
and 115 fathoms the bottom consisted of Green Mud with from 50 to 56 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, derived from shells of pelagic Foraminifera, fragments of Gasteropods,
Lamellibranchs, Echinoderms, and Polyzoa. The mineral particles were of a similar
nature to those at 705 fathoms with the exception of glauconite, which is absent in the
greater depth but present in considerable quantities in these Green Muds. These minercal
particles make up from 30 to 40 per cent. After treatment with dilute acids a great
many pale and dark green casts of the organisms were observed. These with Sponge
spicules, Radiolaria, and arenaceous Foraminifera were estimated to form 3 to 4 per
cent. The deposit in 95 fathoms was a Blue Mud containing about 36 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, which consisted of a large number of pelagic and other Foramini-
fera, fragments of Echinoderms, Molluscs, and Polyzoa. This and the following station
are within an area known as the Euplectella ground, where the greatest number
of these Sponges was obtained. The siliceous organisms formed fully 10 per cent.
Glauconite is found among the minerals, while abundant casts of the organisms remain
after treatment with dilute acid. This seems to be a Green Mud in process of formation
and resembles that obtained off the coast of Australia, near Sydney.

China Sea. — In the voyage to Hong Kong and back two soundings were obtained
in 2100 and 1050 fathoms (see Chart 31 and Diagram 14). The deposits were Blue
Muds, containing in the former a trace, in the latter 22 per cent., of carbonate of lime
chiefly composed of pelagic organisms. The mineral particles made up from 5 to 10 per
cent., consisting of c[uartz, felspars, hornblende, augite, magnetite, and volcanic glass;

174

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

siliceous organisms made up 5 to 10 per cent. Two or three rounded nodules of pumice,
1 to 3 centimetres in diameter, were obtained from 1050 fathoms.

Mecuigis Island to Admi)'alty Islands. — In this section (see Chart 31 and Diagram
1 5) the deposits presented some points of considerable interest. At 500 fathoms, near
]\leangis Island, the deposit was a Blue ]\Iud with 34 per cent, of carbonate of lime, made
up principally of pelagic Foraminifera, and over 20 per cent, of mineral particles, includ-
ing felspars, quartz, augite, hornblende, magnetite, and pumice. In the trawl were many
fragments of trachytic tufa. The deposit from 2550 fathoms was a Red Clay containing
no carbonate of lime, and comparatively few mineral particles, which were volcanic, the
great ma.ss of the material being made up of fine amorphous and clayey matter. The
trawl brought up from this depth several fragments of pumice about the size of a hen’s
egg; these all contain porphyritic minerals, and are in some cases slightly impreg-
nated with manganese. At 1675 and 2000 fathoms were found Globigerina Oozes
with 49 and 35 per cent, of carbonate of lime respectively. Mineral particles were
few and small, and consisted of felspars, pumice, augite, and magnetite. Fewer Cocco-
liths and Rhabdoliths were present in the greater depth. The trawl brought up from 2000
fathoms a considerable number of pumice stones varying in size from that of a marble to
that of a hen’s egg. The surfaces of most of these were impregnated with manganese.

At 2000 fathoms nearer the coast of New Guinea the deposit was a Blue Mud containing
13 per cent, of carbonate of lime, chiefly derived from remains of surface Foraminifera.
The mineral particles were exceedingly few and small, and consisted of fragments of fel-
spar, augite, volcanic glass, and quartz. Two or three small pellets of pumice and several
worm tubes were obtained in the sounding tube. The deposit in 1070 fathoms, between
New Guinea and the Admiralty Islands, was a Blue Mud with a reddish surface layer, and
contained 17 per cent, of carbonate of lime. No difference could be detected in composi-
tion between the two layers. Mineral particles made up 10 per cent., but the mass of
the deposit wa-s fine amorphous clayey material. The trawl brought up a large quantity
of mud, large pieces of pumice, fragments of wood and fruits, Pteropod and lanthina
shells, and nearly two hundred specimens of deep-sea animals ; the net was covered with
a branching Rhizo})od. The pieces of pumice varied in size from that of a pea to that of
a hen’s egg, and were slightly impregnated with manganese, and overgrown by Serjmla
and Jhjperammina vayans. Siliceous organisms made up 4 per cent.

Jlurnholdt Jkty,New Guinea. — The deposit in 37 fathoms was a Blue Mud containing
29 per cent, of carbonate of lime, derived from pelagic and other Molluscs, bottom-living
and pelagic Foraminifera, Ostracodcs, fragments of Echinoderms, and calcareous Algm.
The mineral ]»artifles with a mean diameter over 0'05 mm. are estimated to make up 20
|)cr cent., while the fine washings largely consist of smaller mineral particles. A ""few
green en.sts of Foraminifera remained after treatment with dilute acid.

(yY Ad tnirahy Islands. — From 16 to 25 fathoms in Narcs Harbour (see Chart 34)

EEPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

175

the bottom consisted of Cora] Sands and Muds yielding on analysis about 87 per cent, of
carbonate of lime, coming from fragments of Coral, calcareous Algse, Lamellibranchs,
Gasteropods, pelagic and bottom-living Foraminifera. Many of the large fragments were
overgrown with Serpula and Polyzoa. Mineral particles were few and small, and con-
sisted of pumice, felspar, volcanic glass, augite, magnetite, quartz, and some manganese
grains. A few imperfect casts of the organisms remained after treatment with dilute
acid. From 150 fathoms, about a mile from the reef, traces of a greenish coloured Volcanic
Sand were obtained.

Admiralty Islands to Japan. — The deposits between the Admiralty Islands and
Japan (see Chart 31) were of very high interest, chiefly from the large number of Radio-
laria present in them, and also from the almost complete absence of carbonate of lime in
the deeper soundiugs. In depths greater than 2400 fathoms there was either no
carbonate of lime in the deposit or only a small percentage, as for instance in 2450
fathoms in lat. 2° N., where there was 6 per cent., due to the presence in the deposit of
a few broken fragments of pelagic Foraminifera shells. On the other hand, there was
79 per cent, of carbonate of lime in the deposit at 1850 fathoms on the Caroline Islands
plateau, which was a Globigerina Ooze made up principally of the shells of pelagic
Foraminifera, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths. The absence of the shells of Pteropods,
Heteropods, and other pelagic Molluscs from this deposit is worthy of note, as well as the
absence of the Foraminifera shells from all the deeper deposits, as these organisms were
very numerous at the surface throughout the whole region. As already stated, siliceous
shells and skeletons were especially abundant in some of the deposits in this section,
more numerous than in any deposits previously met with during the cruise. In one
instance these beautiful little organisms made up about four-fifths of the deposit, which
was in consequence called a Radiolarian Ooze. This was the case in the deepest
sounding, viz., 4475 fathoms, the greatest depth from which a specimen of the bottom
had hitherto been obtained. On this occasion the sounding tube had sunk about 3 or 4
inches (8 or 10 centimetres) into the bottom and brought up a section to that extent.
The layer, which formed the upper surface at the bottom of the sea, was of a reddish or
chocolate colour, and contained, besides the Radiolarian and Diatomaceous remains,
numerous small round pellets of manganese peroxide, fragments of pumice, and clayey
matter. The deeper layers were of a pale straw colour, and resembled both in appearance
and touch the Diatom Ooze from the Antarctic Ocean. These deeper layers had a
laminated structure, and were very compact and difficult to break up, being composed of
felted masses of Radiolaria and frustules of Diatoms.

Pumice was very abundant in all the deposits, the trawl frequently bringing up
numerous rounded pieces, many of them partly decomposed and coated with manganese
peroxide. The mineral fragments in the deposits appeared to be chiefly derived from
the pumice, except in the soundings close to the Japan coast. All the deeper deposits

17(5

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

were brown or chocolate coloured, due to the presence of manganese. A glance at Dia-
gram 16 shows the relationship between the depth and percentage of carbonate of lime.

The surface fauna and flora was especially rich and abundant throughout. In the
region of the Counter Equatorial Current, between the Equator and the Caroline Islands,
pelagic Foraminifcra and ]\Iollusca were caught in great numbers in the surfaee-nets,
surpassing in this respect an3hliing previously observed. This fact is most probably in
relation with another, which ma3" be pointed out. In this region the soundings in 2325
and 2450 fathoms contained respective!}" 52 and 7 per cent, of earbonate of lime,
whereas at 2300 fathoms, in lat. 14° 44' N., only a few broken fragments of Glohigerina
shells could be detected on microscopic examination, and at 2450 fathoms, in lat.
19’ 24' N., there was not a trace of carbonate of lime shells in the ooze. This shows
ajtparently that where there are numerous calcareous shells at the surface their remains
may be found at greater depths at the bottom than where relatively less abundant
at the surface. The pelagic Foraminifera appear to float about in great banks ; one day
immense numbers of Pidvinulina would be taken in the net, the next day Pullenia
would be most abundant, and Pidvinulina nearly or quite absent from the hauls. The
heavier shelled specimens were usually taken when the nets were dragged 100 or 150
fathoms beneath the surface. Between latitudes 10° and 20° N., Oscillatoriae were very
numerous at the surface, and Diatoms, espeeially a large eylindrical Ethmodiscus, Castra-
canc, were more abundant than in the tropical waters of the Atlantic far from land.
The great abundance of Radiolaria and Diatoms is speciall}" noteworthy.

Off Japan. — The soundings taken off the coast of Japan and in the Inland Sea (see
Chart 35) proved to be Green and Blue ]\Iuds. Those in the Inland Sea, from depths of
8 to 15 fathoms, were Blue Muds containing from 4 to 11 per cent, of carbonate of lime,
consisting of a few Foraminifera, fragments of Echinoderms, Molluscs, &c. There were,
however, no pelagic Foraminifera shells, nor were any of these organisms found in the
surface-net gatherings during the cruise in the Inland Sea. The bulk of these deposits
was made up of mineral matter, 40 to 50 per cent, being composed of fragments over
O’Oo mm. in diameter, while the great mass of the fine washings consisted of finer
mineral i)articles. IMany Diatoms were observed.

The deposits from 345 to 775 fathoms off the coast wnre Green Muds containing from
a trace to 5 per cent, of carbonate of lime, of which pelagic Foraminifera formed a
considerable proportion. lUineral particles over 0’05 mm. in diameter made up from 50
to 80 per cent., and consisted of felspars, magnetite, augite, hornblende, glauconite,
quartz, volcanic glass, and pumice. In all these cases the mean diameter was about
0'20 mm., while green coloured casts of the Foraminifera remained after treating a
I'urtioii of the deposits with dilute acid. The Green ]\Iuds from Stations 236 and 236a
might equally well be designated Blue I\Iuds, owing to the relatively small quantity
of glauconite and the presence in some quantity of quartz fragments.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS,

177

The deposits from depths greater than 1000 fathoms off the coast were Blue Muds
containing from a mere trace to 4 per cent, of carbonate of lime, consisting to some
extent of remains of pelagic organisms. In these deposits there were two layers — the
upper red and the lower of a green or blue colour. Mineral fragments formed from 10
to 30 per cent, of the whole; these were of a volcanic nature. From 1875 fathoms
the trawl brought up several pumice stones and many large blocks having the same
mineralogical composition and clastic elements as the mud itself ; these appeared to be
indeed simply conglomerated portions of the bottom. Hardened conglomerations of
deposit were also obtained from 420 fathoms.

Japan to the Sandwich Islands. — The deposits between Japan and the Sandwich
Islands (see Chart 36) were most interesting. The deposit in 1875 fathoms, off Japan,
has already been noticed. In all the greater depths there was no carbonate of lime in the
deposits, but it is instructive to notice that at two stations where the depth was less than
the average, viz., 2300 and 2050 fathoms, there was respectively 17 and 56 per cent, of car-
bonate of lime, consisting chiefly of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera ; this clearly shows,
as has been already pointed out, that the amount of carbonate of lime deposited is in
inverse relation to the depth, when as in this instance the surface conditions are the same
or nearly so. It is to be noticed, however, that in 2225 fathoms close to the Sandwich
Islands there was only a trace of carbonate of lime. A sounding (Station 247), where
the depth was 2530 fathoms, was remarkable. In the upper part of the section brought
up by the sounding tube there was a reddish clay without any carbonate of lime ; this
layer was about an inch in thickness, and was somewhat sharply marked off from the lower
layers, which were of a much lighter colour, and contained about 10 per cent, of carbonate
of lime in the form of shells of pelagic Foraminifera. This condition of things might be
explained by supposing that after the lower layers had been laid down, a subsidence of
the bottom had taken place to the extent of 200 or 300 fathoms. All the deposits from
the Japan coast to the 170th meridian of west longitude contained a very large number
of the remains of surface-living siliceous organisms, chiefly Radiolaria. As the Sandwich
Islands were approached, the siliceous organisms almost disappeared from the deposits,
which were then almost wholly composed of the triturated fragments of pumice and
amorphous clayey matter. For the relative depths and percentages of carbonate of lime,
see Diagrams 17, 18, and 19.

There were eleven trawlings and two dredgings during the trip, but on four occasions
the line parted and the trawls with a considerable length of line were lost. The others
were fairly successful and productive. On all occasions the bag of the trawl contained
numerous pieces of pumice and many manganese nodules. Some of the rounded
fragments of pumice were quite fresh and unaltered ; others had undergone profound
alteration, and were frequently coated with successive layers of the peroxide of manganese.
These pieces of pumice seem to have formed the centres of most of the manganese

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 23

178

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

nodules taken in the North Pacific, but on several occasions tbe nuclei were teeth of
sharks — Oxijrhina, Lamna, and Carcharodon — and in one instance a siliceous Sponge
{Farrea) occupied the centre of the nodule. On the 12th July, from 2740 fathoms, the
dredge contained a large tubfull of these dark brown manganese nodules, which, when
rolled out on the deck, somewhat resembled in appearance a lot of potatoes, the largest
being about the size of cricket balls.

Off Sandwich Islands. — The deposits near the Sandwich Islands (see Chart 37) were
Volcanic Muds and Coral Sands. At 310 fathoms only a trace of mud was got on
the beam of the trawl, while in the trawl was a piece of black volcanic ash and a portion
of branching Coral (Gorgonia). In Honolulu Harbour the bottom at 4^ fathoms was
a Volcanic Mud with 10 per cent, of carbonate of lime. This mud extended only to the
reefs, for beyond the bottom consisted of Coral Sand with 88 per cent, of carbonate of
lime. The minerals, however, were in both cases of volcanic origin.

Sandwich Islands to Tahiti. — The deposits between the Sandwich Islands and
Tahiti (see Chart 38) presented many points of great interest. The mineral particles
consisted of minute fragments of felspars, augite, hornblende, magnetite, and vitreous
particles, magnetic (cosmic) spherules, and crystals of phillipsite, together with many
pumice stones, palagonite, and manganese nodules. At each station these minerals varied
much as to their relative abundance.

Between Hawaii and the 7th parallel of north latitude the depths ranged between
2650 fathoms and 3000 fathoms; the first two soundings were Volcanic Muds, the next
in 3000 fathoms a Red Clay, the remaining four being Radiolarian Oozes consisting very
largely of the remains of Radiolaria and Diatoms, these organisms becoming more
numerous as the distance from Hawaii increased. There was hardly a trace of carbonate
of lime in these deposits. The next three soundings were between the 6th parallel north
and 1st parallel south latitude, the depths beiug 2550, 2925, and 2425 fathoms, and the
deposits contained respectively 21, 71, and 81 per cent, of carbonate of lime, chiefly in
the form of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera. The reason why such a relatively high
percentage of carbonate of lime was found in these depths is probably explained by the
fact that the pelagic Foraminifera and Molluscs were exceedingly abundant in the
Equatorial and Counter Equatorial Currents which occupy the surface at these stations.
In these deposits the Radiolaria and Diatoms were likewise numerous. The next three
soundings, between 3° and 8° S., ranged between 2350 fathoms and 2750 fathoms, and
were made up largely of Radiolaria and Diatoms, but contained in the surface layers a con-
siderable number of pelagic Foraminifera shells. When the tube penetrated deeply into
the deposit the deeper layers did not show any traces of carbonate of lime. The deposit at
1 1' 20' S. and 150^ 30' W. in 2610 fathoms was a dark chocolate-coloured clay, containing
an immense number of crystals of phillipsite, and together with these many fragments
of palagonite and small nodules of manganese peroxide. The crystals of phillipsite made

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

179

up the principal part of the deposit ; these had been present in many of the previous
deposits, but never in such abundance as in this instance. There was no carbonate of
lime, and Radiolaria, which had been so abundant in previous deposits in this section, were
only represented by a few specimens. The same remark as to the absence of Radiolaria
applies to the next two stations, where the depths were 2350 and 2325 fathoms respec-
tively, but there was in these 28 and 9 per cent, of carbonate of lime, which was due to
the presence of calcareous Foraminifera. The deposit in 1525 fathoms was a Volcanic
Mud containing 20 per cent, of carbonate of lime (see Chart 38 and Diagram 19).

In every instance the dredgings and trawlings yielded some manganese nodules and
pumice, but on two or three occasions the manganese nodules were in extraordinary
abundance. From 2750 fathoms on the 11th September there was over a peck of heavy,
very compact, oval-shaped nodules. The largest were 10 centimetres in width and 5
centimetres in depth ; the upper surface was smooth, while the under one was rough and
irregular. Although differing in size, most of these nodules had the same shape, indeed
it may be remarked that there is generally a close resemblance both in composition and
shape and sometimes in size among the nodules from any single dredging. Among the
nodules were sixteen sharks’ teeth of considerable size, two being those of Carcharodon,
nine Oxyrhina, and five Lamna; some of these were deeply imbedded in deposits of
manganese. There were in addition to the above eight earbones of Cetaceans belonging
to the genera Globiocephalus, Mesoplodon, and species of Delphinidae.

On the 16th September, from 2350 fathoms, the trawl brought up more than half a
ton of manganese nodules, which filled two small casks. The great majority of these
nodules were small and nearly round, resembling a lot of marbles with a mean diameter
of three quarters of an inch. The nuclei of these nodules were generally palagonite or
other volcanic material, but very frequently small sharks’ teeth or fragments of bone.
Among the nodules were counted two hundred and fifty sharks’ teeth, without taking
into account those less than half an inch in length. Three of the teeth belonged to
Carcharodon, being from 2 to 2^ inches (5 to 6 ‘3 centimetres) across at the base of the
dentine. Ten resembled those of Carcharias, and the remainder were referred to the
genera Lamna and Oxyrhina. The Cetacean bones among the nodules consisted of two
tympano-periotic bones of Mesoplodon, eight separate petrous bones, and six tympanic
buUse belonging to Globiocephalus, Dclphinus, and Kogia (?).

Off Tahiti. — So irregular was the ground from the reef out to 35 fathoms that
dredging was almost, if not quite, impossible; still by means of the swabs and tangles
some Corals were obtained. From 35 to 40 fathoms down to 150 fathoms dredging
was equally difficult. Here a number of Sponges, Alcyonarians, Corals, and other
invertebrates were obtained. Beyond 150 fathoms the bottom was a Coral Sand with
volcanic minerals and pelagic shells. The soundings taken by the ship at depths of 420,
590, 620, and 680 fathoms showed the presence of a Volcanic Mud, containing from 19

180

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to 25 per cent, of carbonate of lime, derived from coral debris, fragments of Pteropods,
Gasterojiods, Coccolitlis, with pelagic and other Foraminifera. The mass of the deposits
was formed of fine mineral fragments (see Chart 39).

Tahiti to Valparaiso. — As might be expected from the undulating nature of the
bottom, and the varying distance from land, the deposits presented considerable variety
during the trip between Tahiti and Valparaiso (see Chart 38). In all depths less than
2000 fathoms the deposit was a Globigerina Ooze with over 50 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, the highest percentage being 84 in IGOO fathoms. As the 40th parallel south was
approached the purely tropical species of pelagic Foraminifera — such as Globigerina con-
globata, Splueroidina dehiscens, Pulvimdina tumida, Pullenia obliquiloculata — disap-
peared both from the surface waters and from the deposits at the bottom. At the depth
of IGOO fathoms above referred to the deposit was chiefly composed of the following
species, which were mostly dwarfed : — Globigemna buUoides, Globigerina injlata, Globi-
gerina dubia, Globigerina sequilateralis, Orbulina universa, Pulvinulina canariensis,
Pidvinulina micheliniana, and Pulvinulina menardii. There were a few fragments of
Pteropods in the deposit from 1500 fathoms, but with this exception the shells of pelagic
Mollusca were entirely removed from the bottom.

In depths greater than 2000 fathoms there was less than 50 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, viz., 4G per cent, at 2075 fathoms, 2G per cent, at 2375 fathoms, still less in 2400
fathoms, and scarcely a trace in 2G00 fathoms, thus showing a gradual diminution in the
number of calcareous shells with increasing depth (see Diagrams 19, 20, and 21).

At several stations the sounding tube had penetrated over a foot into the deposit,
and on two occasions, viz., at 2075 and 2270 fathoms, there was much less carbonate
of lime in the lower layers than in the upper ones ; but on another occasion, in 2335
fathoms, the arrangement was the reverse of this, a Red Clay with only a few calcareous
shells occupying the surface, and a Globigerina Ooze with very many calcareous shells
forming the deeper layers. There were very few remains of siliceous organisms in all
the.se deposits, in which respect they are in marked contrast to the deposits of the Central
and West Pacific.

The deposits in 2225 fathoms (see Chart 38) and 21G0 fathoms off the coast of South
America (.see Chart 40) were Blue I\Iuds, similar in all essential respects. The former
contained G, the latter 15, per cent, of carbonate of lime, which con.sisted chiefly of the
shells of Glolngerina and Orbidina and Coccolitlis. The mineral particles consisted of
cjuartz, mica, felspars, augite, hornblende, palagonite, and glauconite. It is worthy of
note that glauconite was not ob.served in the deposits after leaving the coast of Jajian till
approaching Val[»nraiso, in 2225 fathoms, and with some exceptions the same remark
applies to quartz grains. The trawlings on both occasions were very productive, some
pumice stones and a few manganese nodules being obtained from 21G0 fathoms. At 41
fathoms a Blue Mud was obtained, containing only a trace of carbonate of lime, in which

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

181

the mineral particles were very few and very small for a shore deposit ; the mass of the
mud was amorphous and clayey matter of a green-blue colour.

The various dredgings and trawlings were successful with one exception, when the
line parted and a trawl with 1600 fathoms of line were lost. . The number of animals was
not large. From 2550 fathoms there were several siliceous Sponges and Annelids, and
two specimens of Brisinga, along with some Shrimps and a Scopelid Fish [Bathypierois
longicauda, Gunther) which probably did not come from the bottom. In several trawlings
in depths between 2000 and 2385 fathoms there were again several siliceous Sponges, a
Holothurian {Oneirophanta mutabilis, Theel), Hymenaster echinulatus, Sladen, several
Annelids and Hy droids, together with a few Fish and Crustaceans which probably came
from intermediate depths. In depths less than 2000 fathoms animals were not much
more abundant. The best haul was in 1825 fathoms, including the following: —
Ophiomusium lymani, Wyv. Thomson ; Ophioiholia supplicans, Lyman ; Cystechinus
wyvillii, A. Agassiz ; and Polystomidium patens, Hertwig. In addition to the animals
here mentioned there were of course at all the stations many Foraminifera living on the
bottom — some attached to the nodules, some living in the mud, with either arenaceous
or calcareous tests. There were many surface animals taken in the tow-nets during
each day of the cruise, but the number of forms was much less than in the tropical
waters.

By far the most interesting result of these trawlings and dredgings was the great
number and variety of sharks’ teeth, bones of Cetaceans, manganese nodules, volcanic
lapilli, and zeolitic minerals procured in all the greater depths, especially towards the
centre of the Pacific, all of which will be referred to in detail in subsequent chapters.

Valparaiso to the Gulf of Penas. — The deposit at 1375 fathoms, 20 miles to the
eastward of Juan Fernandez (see Chart 40), was a Globigerina Ooze containing 54 per
cent, of carbonate of lime, which consisted of the shells of Foraminifera, a few fragments
of Pteropods, Echinoderms, and Polyzoa. The mineral particles were chiefiy of volcanic
origin, and among them were very many fragments of palagonite.

The trawl contained over one hundred deep-sea animals, and fragments of palagonite,
pumice, and tufa. The trawl appeared to have caught in something at the bottom, for
the accumulators were stretched to their utmost before it was finally freed. When it
came to the surface the net was not torn, but the beam was scored and marked with
streaks of black manganese peroxide. The fragments of tufa in the trawl were coated
with manganese on one side, and appeared to have been torn away from larger masses, so
that here as well as at several other stations there were indications that the bed of the
ocean was uneven, probably from volcanic disturbance.

At 1450 fathoms, 330 miles westward from Chiloe Island, the deposit was again a
Globigerina Ooze containing 82 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The mineral particles
were chiefiy minute fragments of basic volcanic glass and palagonite, and peroxide of

182

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

maugancse. The pelagic Foramiuifera in the deposit were chiefly shells of Glohigerina
with a few of Orhulina and Pulvinulina, and all these were very small and dwarfed,
in this respect agreeing with those taken on the surface by means of the tow-nets.

The trawl again brought up a large number of animals and some manganese nodules.
Some of these latter appeared to have been fragments torn from larger masses, and some
had nuclei which seemed originally to have been portions of the ooze itself. This associa-
tion of manganese nodules with altered volcanic fragments in a Globigerina Ooze was
frequently observed during the Expedition.

The deposit in 1325 fathoms was a Blue Mud containing 26 per cent, of carbonate of
lime, made up of pelagic and other Foraminifera, fragments of Polyzoa, Echini spines,
Ostracode shells, and fragments of other calcareous organisms. The mineral particles
consisted chiefly of quartz and fragments of rocks and minerals derived from the
continent.

Gulf of Penas to Sandy Point through Magellan Strait. — The deposits in the
Messier and Sarmiento Channels and Magellan Strait were in all cases Blue Muds con-
taining generally very little carbonate of lime, and consisting mostly of debris from the
neighbouring mountains. At Stations 308 and 311 there was 29 and 34 per cent, of
carbonate of lime respectively. These deposits were forming in more or less open water,
or in water afiected by the ocean ; the former was situated at the junction of Trinidad
Channel vith Conception Channel, the latter in the open water of Sea Beach (see Chart
41 ). Pelagic Foraminifera were only represented by a few stray specimens of Glohigerina,
and on the surface only a few of these shells were noticed, the deposits and surface
fjatherinnrs in these enclosed channels thus being in marked contrast to what are found
in the open sea, at some distance from land. The mineral fragments proper made up
from 1 to 75 per cent, of the muds, and consisted of quartz, felspars, hornblende, mica,
pumice, magnetite, and lapilli. Casts of organisms were observed in one or two cases.

In addition to the Challenger collections, the deposits from many lines of soundings,
carried out by other ships, have passed through our hands ; several thousand samples of
deposits from nearly all regions of the great ocean basins and from many enclosed seas
have thus been examined in the same way as the Challenger specimens. The general
results are exhibited on Chart 1, which will be specially referred to when dealing with the
geographical and bathymetrical distribution of deposits in a subsequent chapter. How-
ever, it may here be pointed out that the examination of these additional specimens
confirm all the general conclusions indicated in the foregoing remarks on the Challenger
sections across ocean basins and enclosed seas. They indicate a greater abundance of the
remains of carbonate of lime organisms in the deposits from tropical regions, — those of
pelagic surface-living organisms abounding in the deposits from deep water removed from
the shores of continents and islands, and those of bottom-living or attached organisms

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

183

abounding in the deposits from shallower waters near shore. The number of species of
pelagic shells found in the deposits decreases in proportion as the colder waters of the
polar regions are approached, till in the Globigerina Ooze of the Norwegian Sea only two
species of pelagic Foraminifera are present.

Everywhere a general, if fluctuating, decrease in the quantity of carbonate of lime in
the deposits is indicated with increasing depth, till in the greatest depths of the ocean
hardly a trace of calcareous shells can be detected in the Eed Clays or Kadiolarian Oozes,
This absence of carbonate of lime from the deeper deposits evidently does not in any way
depend on the conditions at the surface of the ocean, for the tow'-nets showed that the
calcareous organisms were as abundant over the areas where none of these dead shells
were found in the deposits as over those areas where they made up the principal part of
the deposit in shallower depths. However, in latitudes where these shells are less
numerous at the surface, the dead shells are removed from the deposits in lesser depths
than in latitudes where they are more abundant. In like manner, on approaching the
coasts, excepting always those shores which are fringed by coral reefs, a similar decrease
in the percentage of carbonate of lime is observed, in this case, however, due to the pre-
ponderance of land debris in terrigenous deposits.

Glauconitic grains, glauconitic casts of the calcareous organisms, glauconitic and phos-
phatic nodules, have been found in a large number of samples of deposits from the
deeper water along a great many continental shores, associated with mineral particles
derived from the disintegration of continental rocks. As in the case of the Challenger
explorations, these materials have been found only in exceptional circumstances towards
the central regions of the great ocean basins, as for instance where the sea is occasionally
affected by floating ice or by winds blowing directly from desert lands.

In the deepest water of the Indian Ocean, and in portions of the Pacific Ocean, Eadio-
larian Ooze, Eed Clay, zeolitic and manganiferous deposits have been discovered in quite
similar positions and conditions to those that were investigated by the Challenger
naturalists in the Pacific, and the same may be said of Globigerina Ooze, Diatom Ooze,
Pteropod Ooze, and the several varieties of terrigenous deposits in other regions.

CHAPTER III.

ON EECENT ^iIARINE FORMATIONS AND THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF DEEP-SEA
DEPOSITS: THEIR COMPOSITION, GEOGRAPHICAL AND BATHYMETRICAL

DISTRIBUTION.

a. Recent Marine Formations in General.

In the preceding chapters we have described the methods employed in the study of
Marine Deposits ; thereafter we have given detailed descriptions of all the specimens of
these deposits collected during the Challenger Expedition, and have pointed out some of
the principal variations which these undergo with change of depth and other conditions.

In the present chapter we shall discuss the various kinds of marine formations now in
process of being laid down on the floor of the ocean, and, as the Challenger investigations
lay for the most part in the great ocean basins, we shall deal more especially with the
difierent types of deposits discovered in the deep sea. Indeed, shallow-water and littoral
formations will only be referred to incidentally and by way of illustration in the present
work, which is devoted to a consideration of Deep-Sea Deposits.

What are we to understand by the deep sea ? In this Report the term “ deep sea ”
is applied to all depths of the ocean exceeding 100 fathoms (183 metres). We have been
led to adopt this somewhat arbitrary limit from a number of considerations. The 100-
fathom line is well delineated on all charts. All soundings in depths less than 100 fathoms
are regarded by marine surveyors as useful for navigational purposes, and their positions
are in consequence carefully entered on the charts along all coasts. In this way it
haj)pens that the 100-fathom line is at the present time the best defined of all the
bathymetrical contour lines. Soundings beyond 100 ftithoms were exceptional until
within the last thirty years, when, in connection with telegraphic construction, it became
nece.ssary to ascertain the relief as well as the nature of the bottom from soundings
along many lines across the great oceans.

Although there is no sudden or well-marked change in the nature of the deposits at a
depth of 100 fathoms, still along all coasts bordering the great oceans this appears to be
the average depth at which, in proceeding seawards, great abundance of fine amorphous
particles settle permanently on the bottom. At about this depth the bottom is in
general rarely disturbed by the action of currents or waves, and sunlight and vegetable
life are nearly, if not quite, ab.sent ; * beyond 100 fathoms we have, as a rule, muds
and oozes, while within the 100-fathom line .sands and coarser deposits prevail.

' 8«e P. Nf. Duncan, “On Some Thai lojihy tea [(arasitic within recent Madreporaria,” Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. x.w. pp.
238 W7, 187C.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

185

Notwithstanding some exceptions, due to special conditions, as, for instance, on deep
ridges between oceanic islands, where gravelly deposits are found, or in bays, fjords, and
enclosed seas, where mud is met with in shallow water, it may be said that, along all
coasts situated in or fronting the great oceans, 100 fathoms is the average depth at
which fine mud or ooze commences to form. At about this depth the deposits on the
whole assume a greater uniformity of composition and grain, and the signs of mechanical
action tend to diminish or completely disappear. The greater the extent and depth
of the ocean, the greater the depth to which wave-movement extends, and consequently
the greater is the depth at which the mud-line is formed around the coasts,^ but the
average depth of this mud-line may be taken as approximately about 100 fathoms.

Not only is the 100-fathom line important as a dividing line between Deep-Sea and
Shallow-Water Deposits, but in the physical relief of the globe it appears to mark the
outer and upper limits of the continental masses, all within that line (the continental
shelf) belonging to the continental plateaus, while beyond the 100-fathom line there
is a relatively rapid descent of the sea-floor to the level of the depressed regions of the
oceanic basins. This is shown by the fact that, while the area of tfie ocean between the
shore-line and a depth of 100 fathoms is estimated at over ten millions of square miles,
the area between the 100-fathom line and the 500-fathom line — in other words, the area
of the ocean’s bed taken in by a descent of the next 400 fathoms — is estimated at only
about seven millions of square miles.

Marine Deposits as a whole may be arranged, from the point of view of their relative
geographical and bathymetrical position, into three groups, viz., (l) Deep-Sea Deposits,
formed beyond the 100-fathom line; (2) Shallow-Water Deposits, formed between the
100-fathom line and low-w^ater mark ; and (3) Littoral Deposits, formed in the space
between high and low water marks. From the point of view of their composition, as
well as of their geographical and bathymetrical position. Marine Deposits may be separ-
ated into two great divisions, viz., (I.) Pelagic Deposits — those formed towards the
centres of the great oceans, and made up chiefly of the remains of pelagic organisms along
with the ultimate products arising from the decomposition of rocks and minerals ; and
(II.) Terrigenous Deposits — those formed close to continental and other lands, and
largely made up of transported materials immediately derived from the disintegration of
the land masses.

The relations of these large groups to each other, and their subdivisions, are exhibited
in the following scheme, which is the first attempt at a systematic classification of Marine
Deposits as a whole.^

1 Stevenson, “ On the Destructive Effects of the Waves of the Sea on the North-East Shores of Scotland,” Proc. Eoy.
Soc. Edin., vol. iv. pp. 200, 201, 1859.

2 A very large number of names have been given to deposits in the littoral and shallow-water zones by geologists,
physical geographers, and marine surveyors, viz., muds, oozes, sands, boulders, gravels, with various qualifying
words indicating their colour, physical aspect, or composition, such as blue, red, yellow, black, soft, coarse, angular,

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 24

186

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Mai'ine Deposits.

1. Deep-Sea Deposits, beyond 100
fathoms.

Shallow-Water Deposits,
tween low-water mark
100 fathoms.

3. Littoral Deposits, between high
and low water marks.

Red Clay.
Radiolarian Ooze.
Diatom Ooze.
Globigerina Ooze.
Pteropod Ooze.

Blue Mud.

Red Mud.

Green Mud.
Volcanic Mud.
Coral Mud.

Sands, gravels, muds, &c.

I Sands, gravels, muds, &c.

Pelagic Deposits, formed
in deep water removed
from land.

II. Terrigenous Deposits,
formed in deep and
r shallow water close to
land masses.

In the above classification of Marine Deposits it will be observed that those forming
in the shallow-water and littoral zones surrounding the land masses are not included in
the term Deep-Sea Deposits, and in consequence the deposits of these zones do not fall
to be considered in detail in this Report. Shallow-water and littoral formations had

rounded, siliceous, calcareous, &c. The same terms have been applied also to Deep-Sea Deposits, with the addition of
further modif}dng expressions. Murray in his preliminary report adopted various new names for the deep-sea deposits
collected by the Challenger Expedition, and these were more fully defined in a subsequent paper by Murray and
Renanl. Schmelck applies the following terms to the deeper dejjosits of the Norwegian Sea — Biloculina Clay,
Transition Clay, and Grey Clay ; and to the shallower deposits — Rhabdammina Clay and Volcanic Clay. Delesse
used the terms — Calcaire tendre ou crayeux. Vase, Vase sableuse. Vase calcaire. Sable vaseux. Vase gi’aveleuse, Argile,
Gravier, &c. Agassiz makes use of the terms — Volcanic Shore Deposit, Siliceous Shore Deposit, Coral Ooze, Clay, Modi-
fied Globigerina Ooze, Modified Pteropod Ooze, Fine Telluric Silt. (See Murray, Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv. pp. 471-532,
187fi ; Murray and Renard, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii. pp. 495-529, 1884; Schmelck, Norwegian North Atlantic
Expe*lition, Chemistry, part ix., Christiania, 1882 ; Delesse, Lithologie du Fond des Mers, 2 vols. and atlas, Paris, 1871 ;
Agassiz, Tliree Cruises of the “ Blake,” 2 vols., Boston and New York, 1888 ; Issel, Note geologiche sugli alti fondi
marini, Pull. Soc. beige de Geologic, etc., 1888, p. 19; Tlioulet, Oceanographic (Statique), Paris, 1890; Giimbel, Die
mineralogisch-geologische Beschaffenheit derauf der Forschungsreise S.M.S. “ Gazelle ” gesammelt Meeresgrund-Abla-
gerungen, Forschungsreise S.M.S. Gazelle, Theil ii., Physik und Chemie, Berlin, 1890.) Nearly all the above terms
are more or less indefinite and uncertain in their application, and, with the exception of our own nomenclature, no
systematic attempt has l>een made to define the sense in which they should be used ; the same is the case with other terms
not here referred to. The classification which we have adopted was suggested some years ago in our joint paper, and
generally accepted in the principal text-books of geology (Geikie, de Lapparent, Credner, etc.) ; this nomenclature is by
no means all that could lx: desired as to the choice of the terms employed, for sometimes these indicate the composition
of the depfsiit, sometimes only the colour. We believe, however, that it is better, in the present state of our know-
le<lge, to retain terms now in use than to intrfxluce new ones, to which it would be difficult to attach more definite
meanings. With the help of the definitions given in this work future olwervers should have no difficulty in recognising
any specimen frrjm the deep sea as Ixilonging to one or other of the types named in the above classification and
described in detail in this cliapter.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

187

indeed been treated, more or less fully, by many writers on Geology and Physical
Geography long before the recent deep-sea investigations were undertaken, and hence
there is less necessity to dwell on them in this place. Our remarks will therefore be
limited to indicating the principal physical conditions and essential characters of the
deposits in each of the above-mentioned zones.

Littoral Deposits. — These deposits are formed between high and low water marks,
and if we take the length of the coast lines of the world at 125,000 miles,^ and the
average width of this zone at half a mile, then, at the present time, these deposits are
now forming over an area of 62,500 square miles ^ of the earth’s surface. The littoral
zone is the one in which boulders, gravels, sands, and all coarser materials accumulate,
though occasionally muds may be met with in sheltered estuaries. Generally speaking,
the nature of these deposits is determined by the local character of the adjoining lands
and the nature of the organisms living on the neighbouring coasts in shallow water.
The heavier materials brought by rivers from high terrestrial regions, or thrown up
by the tides and waves of the sea, are here arranged with great diversity of strati-
fication through the alternate play of the winds and waves. Twice in the twenty-four
hours the littoral zone is covered by water, and exposed to the direct rays of the sun
or the cooling effects of the night. There is a great range of temperature, mechanical
agencies produce their maximum effects, and the whole of the physical conditions are of
the most varied character, while the fact that the zone is inhabited by both marine
and terrestrial organisms introduces still greater diversity. The evaporation of the
sea-water that flows over marshes and shallow basins leads to the formation of saline
deposits in this zone.

Shallow- Water Deposits. — These deposits are laid down in the zone of the ocean
comprised between low- water mark and the 100-fathom line ; they cover, consequently,
about ten millions of square miles of the earth’s surface. Fundamentally they have the
same composition as the deposits of the littoral zone, with which they are continuous
at their upper limit, while at their lower limit they pass insensibly into the Deej)-Sea
Deposits in the seaward direction. The fragments of which these deposits chiefly con-
sist are smaller than those of the littoral zone and larger than those of the deep-sea
regions. Gravels, sands, and coarse materials prevail, but in cup-shaped depressions and
enclosed basins there are muddy deposits. While some of the deposits are wholly com-
posed of inorganic debris derived from the disintegration of the adjoining lands, others
are almost wholly made up of organic remains, as, for instance, in the vicinity of coral
reefs. The mechanical effects of erosion are everywhere present, produced by the com-
bined action of tides, currents, and waves, these being well marked in the shallower
depths of the zone, and less and less so as the 100-fathom line is approached. There is
a great range of temperature, varying with latitude and the seasons of the year. The

^ About 200,000 kilometres.

^ About 160,000 square kilometres.

188

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

forms of vegetable and animal life are very numerous, the former being especially so
in the shallower water where there is abundant sunlight. Zoologists have divided this
region into several sub-zones, such as Laminarian, Coralline, and Coral zones.

Deep-Sea Deposits. — The deposits of this vast zone or region extend from the 100-
fathom line down to the greatest depths of the ocean, and they cover considerably more
than one-half of the earth’s surface. Gravels and sands, which prevail in shallow water,
are only accidentally met with in the deep-sea areas. Muds, organic oozes, and clays are
the characteristic deposits, and in their physical properties they present great uniformity.
In special regions where the surface waters are aifected by floating ice a greater diversity
is introduced from the varied nature of the transported materials. Tides, currents, and
waves produce some mechanical eflFects at the upper limits of the deep-sea region, but on
the whole there is an absence of the phenomena of erosion, and mechanical actions would
appear to be absent except in the case of submarine eruptions. The depth is too great
for sunlight to penetrate, and vegetable life, if present, is limited to the deposits near the
100-fathom line. Animal life, on the other hand, appears to be present everywhere
throughout the deep sea, being more abundant, however, in the shallower depths near
continental shores. The temperature is below 40° F. throughout the larger part of the
area, and if subject to variation with latitude or change of season, these changes affect
only the depths immediately beyond the 100-fathom line. Throughout the whole
region there is a very uniform set of conditions. In the shallow- water and littoral
zones, owing to the rapid accumulation and the mechanical effects of transport and
erosion, the effects of chemical modification are not apparent in the deposits, but in
Deep-Sea Deposits, in consequence of the less rapid rate of accumulation, absence of
transport, the nature and the small size of the particles, many evident chemical reactions
have taken place, resulting in the formation in situ of glauconite, phosphatic and
manganese nodules, zeolites, and other secondary products. As we descend from the
100-fathom line into deeper water and approach the central regions of the great ocean
ba.sins, tlie deposits undergo a change, arising from a diminution in the number and size
of particles derived directly from the land, together with an increasing abundance of
amorphous matter arising from the ultimate decomposition of minerals and rocks, and
accompanied in all moderate depths by an increase of the remains of pelagic organisms.
We thus pass insensibly from those Deep-Sea Deposits of a terrestrial origin, which
we call “ Terrigenous,” to tho.se Deep-Sea Depo.sits denominated “ Pelagic,” in which
the remains of calcareous and siliceous organisms, clays, and other substances of secondary
origin, play the })rincipal role.

With these introductory observations on Marine Deposits in general, we now proceed
to consider the sj)ecial subjects of this Report, — the nature, composition, and distribution
of Deep-Sea Deposits.

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

189

h. The Different Types of Deep-Sea Deposits.

I. Pelagic Deposits.

We have just indicated that the deposits of the deep sea may be divided into two
great groups distinguished by the terms “ Pelagic ” and “ Terrigenous.” Pelagic deposits
are situated at a considerable distance from land, and for the most part in the greatest
depths of the ocean. It is only in exceptional circumstances that sandy or other particles
immediately derived from the land make up any considerable portion of these deposits.
The most characteristic minerals are derived from volcanic eruptions, floating pumice,
or are of secondary origin formed in situ. The remains of pelagic organisms that have
fallen from the surface form the principal part of many of these deposits, as indicated
by the names : Pteropod, Globigerina, Diatom, and Radiolarian Oozes. ‘ In some of the
deeper regions of the ocean these organic oozes are replaced by Eed Clays, formed for
the most part by the disintegration of rocks and minerals in situ.

Generally speaking, the physical conditions in the areas occupied by the pelagic
deposits are very uniform ; the temperature is near the freezing-point of fresh water,
and the range never exceeds 7° F., being constant throughout the year at any one
locality. Sunlight and vegetable life are absent, and, although animals belonging to all
the principal groups are present, there is no great wealth either in the number of indi-
viduals or of the species, though many of the latter may present archaic characters. There
are but few indications of change of any kind, and the rate of accumulation of some of
these pelagic deposits must be exceedingly slow, so that we apparently And the remains
of Tertiary species lying on the sea-floor alongside those of species inhabiting our
present seas. With some doubtful exceptions, it has been impossible to recognise in the
rocks of the continents formations identical with these pelagic deposits.^

Before commencing the description of the different types of Deep-Sea Deposits, it may
be well to repeat that while it is easy to distinguish one kind of Deep-Sea Deposit from
another when dealing with typical samples, this becomes less and less easy when, with a
change of conditions, a deposit gradually changes its characters and slowly assumes those
of another. In this way it happens that there is at many points in the ocean a gradual
transition from the one t5rpe of deposit into another, and generally it may be said that
there is no sharp and distinct line limiting the areas occupied by the various kinds of
deposits either in depth or geographical extension, as might be supposed from an
examination of our map representing the distribution by means of colours.

We commence the consideration of pelagic deposits, taking first the most characteristic
type, — the clays formed in the greatest depths and greatest distance from dry land.

^ J. B. Harrison and A. J. Jukes-Browne, The Geology of Barbados (published by authority of the Barbadian Legis-
lature), 1890 ; H. A. Nicolson, Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc., vol. vi. p. 56, 1890 ; G. J. Hinde, Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.,
ser. yi. vol. vi. p. 45, 1890.

190

THE VOYAGE OF H.IM.S. CHALLENGER.

Red Clay.

This deposit is spread over the greater depths of the ocean remote from land ; it is
the most widely distributed and probably the most characteristic of all the Deep-Sea
Deposits. The nature and origin of this Red Clay has been the subject of much
discussion and speculation ever since the deposit was first discovered in the Atlantic by
the Challenger naturalists in depths exceeding 2400 fathoms, on the voyage between
Tenerife and the West Indian Islands. It was at first believed to be the most minutely
divided material, the ultimate sediment, so to speak, produced by the disintegration of
the land, which, held in suspension in sea-water, was distributed to great distances
by ocean currents. In 1874 Wyville Thomson expressed the opinion that the Red
Clay was primarily of organic origin, being “ essentially the insoluble residue, the ash,
as it were, of the calcareous organisms which form the Glohigerina ooze, after the
calcareous matter has been by some means removed.” He further suggested “that
clay, which w'e have hitherto looked upon as essentially the product of the disintegration
of older rocks, under certain circumstances, may be an organic formation like chalk,”
and that the fine smooth homogeneous clays and schists familiar to the student of
palaeozoic geology had an origin similar to that of the Red Clay.^ These views were
subsequently supported by Professor Huxley and other writers.^ In 1877 John Murray
published his reasons for believing that the clayey matter in Marine Deposits far from
land is principally derived from the decomposition of aluminous silicates and rocks spread
over the oceanic basins by subaerial and submarine eruptions,® and this view will be the
one adopted in the present wwk, although M. Renard is inclined to attribute a more
important role to submarine eruptions than is admitted by Murray. Colloid clayey
matter coming in suspension from the land may, it is admitted, play some part in the
formation of this deposit.

In the Tables of Chapter II. there are 70 of the samples procured by the Expedition
de.scribed under the head of Red Clay. In depth these range from 2225 fathoms at
Stiition 259 to 3950 fathoms at Station 238, the average depth being 2730 fathoms.

The name Red Clay is retained not only on account of its historical interest, but
bccau.se it appears sufficiently expressive of the nature and appearance of the deposits
included under the appellation. The amount of clayey matter and the colour vary
greatly in different samples, but the hydrated silicate of alumina is always present, so as

' /'roc. Roy. Hoc., vol. xxiii. p. 47.

* Huxley, Manual of the Anatomy of the Invertebrated Animals, London, 1887 ; see also Nature, vol. xi. pp. 95, 116 ;
voL lii. p. 174.

* “On the Distribution of Volcanic Debris over the Floor of the Ocean,” &c., Proc. Roy. Hoc. Edin., vol. ix. pp.
247-261. Wyville Thomson (Voyage of the Challenger, “Atlantic,” vol. ii. p. 299) allows that these volcanic
materials form an im[<ortant element in the Red Clay, but he still holds that the source he originally suggested has
contribute*! no inconsiderable share towards the formation of this deposit. [Subsequently, however, he abandoned the
view that calcareous shells contained silicate of alumina. — J. M.]

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

191

to give to the sediment a more or less clayey character, and red is the prevailing colour.
In the North Atlantic and some other regions the colour is brick-red from the presence
of peroxide of iron intimately mixed with the clay, which often covers the minute mineral
particles with a red coating. In the South Pacific over large areas and in the Indian
Ocean the deposit assumes a dark chocolate colour, from the presence in great abundance
of very minute round grains of peroxide of manganese.^ It sometimes happens that the
deposit has a bluish, rather than a red, tinge ; this is the case when the specimen is from a
region adjacent to a continent where large rivers throw their detrital matter into the ocean,
and the colour is largely due to the presence of sulphide of iron and organic matter, as in
the characteristic Blue Muds. When the carbonate of lime in the sample reaches 20 or
25 per cent, the colour becomes grey from the admixture of the white Foraminifera shells,
although the residue on removal of the carbonate of lime has a distinct red colour. It
was to specimens of this nature that the name “ Grey Ooze ” was applied by Murray and
Thomson in the preliminary reports on the results of the Challenger Expedition.^ The
immediate upper layer when brought up in the dredge or sounding tube is thin, watery,
and often has a lighter colour than the deeper layers, which are much more dense.
It occasionally happened that the sounding tube penetrated nearly two feet into the
deposit, and in such cases the lower end of the tube was filled with a very stiff, hard,
compact clay. Sometimes there was considerable difference in colour and chemical
composition between the different layers — usually depending on the greater or less per-
centage of carbonate of lime present. In the North Pacific the upper or surface layer was
generally darker than the under layers, but this was not the case in the other regions.
In some places the deposit had a mottled appearance, there being some spots where the
red or chocolate colour was discharged and the clay had assumed a yellow colour. A
mottled appearance is sometimes, however, due to the presence in great abundance
of small manganese nodules and grains of pumice, or of altered volcanic glass and rocks.

Like clays in general, the Red Clay is soft, plastic, and greasy to the touch ; it can
readily be moulded into any form between the fingers after the manner of dough. It
exhales when breathed on the peculiar odour of clay. Like all clays containing iron it
generally becomes redder when burned ; it sticks to the tongue when dry, and requires a
great heat to render it perfectly free from water. W^hen dried it cakes into a hard com-
pact mass that can only be broken with the blow of a hammer or other hard instrument.
Should the hardened fragments be placed in water they break down slowly, as is the case
with other clays. A fragment placed before the blow-pipe will fuse into a black, often
magnetic bead, behaving in this respect like the variety of clay known by the name of
“ felspathic mud this property may be attributed to the minute volcanic mineral
particles which are always present in varying proportions. If one of these half-dried
lumps be rubbed briskly with the back of the finger-nail or any hard, smooth body, the
1 See PI. XXII. fig. 1. 2 p^Qc, Eoy. Soc., vol. xxiii. pp. 32-49, 1874.

I

102 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

surface assumes the glazed appearance and characteristic shining streak peculiar to all the
varieties of clay.

In the great majority of cases the Eed Clay presents a homogeneous appearance to the
naked eye and is smooth and soapy to the touch, but not unfrequently there are numerous
pellets of peroxide of manganese, zeolitic crystals, fragments of pumice and minerals,
which if they be not visible to the naked eye can be readily detected by the gritty feeling
when the deposit is passed between the fingers. Although as a rule homogeneous when
examined in small quantity, still if examined in masses the layers of Red Clay would
undoubtedly present a very heterogeneous character, although the paste or matrix might
appear homogeneous, for in some regions of the South Pacific thousands of sharks’ teeth,
bones of Cetaceans, large and small fragments of pumice, and other volcanic materials, are
imbedded in the deposit, together with manganese nodules formed around these remains,
or having other substances as nuclei. In all the red clay regions the dredge gave
e\'idence that occasionally one or other of these foreign matters was present in considerable
abundance, and at Station 281 there was evidence of a thin layer of true volcanic ashes.^

The basis or permanent substratum of the deposit is the hydrated silicate of alumina
(2Si0.2,Al203 + 2H2O), composed of colourless amorphous particles without crystallo-
graphic outlines or trace of mechanical action, behaving as isotropic between crossed
nicols. Like all ordinary clays, however, it is impure from the admixture of foreign
substances, the hydrated silicate of alumina never making up even in the purest samples
more than one-half of the deposit, and generally much less, as shown by the analyses.
It is well known that a pure clay is only found in those cases where it has been
transported : clay formed in situ is never pure ; it always contains an admixture of the
different minerals, or of decomposition products, of the altered rocks, from which the clay
has had its origin, and the greater part of the materials of a Red Clay from the deep sea
appears to have originated in this way.

When a specimen of Red Clay from the greatest depths of the ocean is treated with
dilute hydrochloric acid, either no points of effervescence are observed, or at the most
only a few isolated spots, and chemical analysis does not show more than 1 or 2 per
cent, of carbonate of lime to be present. A microscopical examination in such cases will
.sometimes show a few broken fragments of pelagic Foraminifera. An examination of
specimens from lesser depths in the same region will, however, reveal a considerable
number of these calcareous organisms, and they may be sufficiently abundant to make
up 20 per cent, of the whole deposit. The carbonate of lime present in the Red Clay
consists principally of the remains of calcareous organisms which live in the surface
waters of the region from which the specimen has been collected, and among these
|K*lagic Foraminifera are the most abundant, such as species of Glohigerina, Pulvinulina,
Spluproulina, and Pullenia, together with a few Coccoliths or Rhabdoliths. To these

> Soe PI. XXI. fig. 2.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

193

may be added a few bottom-living Foraminifera, such as Miliolina, Textularia, and
others, with remains of Echinoderms, Molluscs, and a few teeth of fish and Cephalopod
beaks. It is very seldom, if indeed it ever happens, that the shells of Pteropods,
Heteropods, and Coccospheres are found in a characteristic Red Clay from the deep sea.

In the above 70 samples Globigerinidae are represented in 43 cases, bottom-living Fora-
minifera (Miliolidse, Textularidse, Lagenidse, Rotalidse, Nummulinidse) in 34 cases, teeth
of fish in 34 cases, Echinoderm fragments in 22 cases, Ostracodes in 10 cases; Lamelli-
branchs, Gasteropods, Brachiopods, otoliths of fish, Polyzoa, Cephalopod beaks, and bone
fragments are more sparingly represented, while remains of Pteropods, Coccospheres,
Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths occur in a few exceptional cases.

The carbonate of lime in these Red Clays ranges from 0 in 13 cases, and traces in 21
cases, to 28‘88 per cent, at Station 30, in 2600 fathoms — the average percentage of car-
bonate of lime in these 70 samples being 6 ‘70 per cent. The relation of the carbonate
of lime to depth is shown thus —

18 samples from 2000 to 2500 fathoms contain on the average 8‘39 per cent. CaCOg
42 „ 2500 to 3000 „ „ 716

7 „ 3000 to 3500 „ „ 0 88

3 „ over 3500 „ „ 2'38 „ „

One doubtful sample from 3875 fathoms, where there was almost certainly an ad-
mixture of carbonate of lime from another station, causes the rise in the last subdivision
over 3500 fathoms; otherwise the carbonate of lime would be represented merely by
traces at these depths.

The remains of pelagic organisms with siliceous shells, skeletons, and frustules, are
widely distributed in the Red Clay areas, though occasionally they would appear to be
entirely absent from the deposits of these regions. When the Radiolarian remains
increase in number so as to form a very considerable portion of the deposit, as in some
tropical areas of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, the Red Clay passes into Radiolarian
Ooze ; when the Diatom remains in like manner increase, as in the Southern Ocean, the
Red Clay passes into a Diatom Ooze, and in other regions into a Globigerina Ooze, or
Blue Mud. The siliceous spicules of Sponges are found sometimes sparingly, some-
times in considerable abundance, in nearly all samples of Red Clay.

The mean percentage of siliceous organisms is 2 ‘39. Radiolaria were observed to be
present in 61 cases. Sponge spicules in 49 cases. Diatoms in 32 cases, arenaceous
Foraiminifera (Astrorhizidse, Lituolidse, Textularidse) in 49 cases, and glauconitic casts of
calcareous organisms in 2 cases.

According to the Challenger researches, life appears to be universally distributed over
the floor of the ocean, but to be much less abundant on the red clay areas than on any of
the other kinds of Marine Deposits, and apparently to reach its zero in the greatest depths

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 25

194

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

far from land. Even in the greatest depths, however, the remains of arenaceous
Foraminifera and Annelids are to be found, while fishes and representatives of nearly
;dl the invertebrate groups, such as Hexactinellida, Monaxonida, Asteroidea, Echinoidea,
Criuoidca, Actiniaria, Polyzoa, Ophiuroidea, Holothurioidea, Tunicata, and Lamelli-
branchiata, have been dredged and trawled from the red clay areas. The fragments
of all the hard parts of these organisms may be met with sparingly in specimens of Ked
Clay, but not in nearly such abundance as might be expected.

When there are no remains of calcareous organisms in a Red Clay, or when in the
laboratory these have been removed by dilute hydrochloric acid, the deposit or resulting
residue is found to contain, in addition to the hydrated silicate of alumina and the
remains of siliceous organisms above referred to, a large number of inorganic elements
of a varied nature, derived from widely difierent sources. In the above-mentioned 70
samples, the average percentage of residue is 93 ‘30. The most constant and widely dis-
tributed of these extraneous materials are fragments of pumice belonging to the acid,
neutral, and basic types of volcanic rocks. Rounded and angular fragments of these
were dredged and trawled in great numbers from all depths, and in nearly all regions
of the ocean, varying in size from masses larger than a man’s head down to the minutest
particles. These were met with in all states of disintegration, some having undergone
little decomposition, while others were surrounded by zones of alteration, or were so
decomposed that the structure of the areolar pumice could with difficulty be recognised ;
this was especially the case when the fragments were surrounded with a coating of
peroxide of manganese or formed the nuclei of manganese nodules.^ All the mineral
species usually found in the different varieties of pumice are accordingly present in the
Red Clay, such as sanidine, plagioclase, augite, hornblende, magnetite, &c., and these,
together with the glassy splinters and fragments of the pumice, are universally present
and chiiracteristic of these deposits. Palagonite, which arises from the decomposition
of the basic volcanic glasses, is likewise universally distributed, and in some regions of
great extent there are numerous fragments of basaltic glass, basalt, and augite-andesite.*
The peroxides of iron and manganese are found throughout the Red Clays in the form
of minute grains or coatings, sometimes one of these oxides and sometimes the other
predominating, each giving its characteristic tint to the deposit. When these oxides
arc deposited as concretions ai’ound organic remains and other nuclei, they form the
now familiar manganese nodules, especially abundant in those red clay deposits
where the debris of basic volcanic rocks arc present }ind have undergone great alteration.®
Minute black magnetic s{)herules, often with a metallic nucleus, which are regarded as
having, together with other particles, a cosmic origin, are probably everywhere j^resent

• Murray, /'ror. Koy. Sor. Eriin., vol. ix. pp. 249-252, 1877.

« .See Pi’. XVI. fig*. 1-.3; PI. XVII. fig8. 1, 2; PI. XVIII. figs. 1-4; PI. XIX. figs. 1, 2, 4; PI. XXI. figs. 1, 2.

» Sec PI. XXVIII. figs. 1-6; PI. XXIX. figs. 1-4.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

195

in Deep-Sea Deposits, though they are much more abundant in some of the red clay
regions than in other deposits.^ Dr Gibson has shown that the manganese nodules from
these Eed Clays contain a very large number of the rarer metals.®

Besides the constituents that have just been enumerated, which must be regarded as
characteristic or essential components of a Red Clay, there are others to be noted that are
accidental or exceptional. In the Atlantic off the western coasts of Northern Africa, it
is well known that the Harmattan winds carry at certain seasons of the year large
quantities of dust far out into the Atlantic Ocean, and in the Red Clays of this region
these wind-borne particles make up a very appreciable portion of the deposit. In like
manner the wind-borne particles from the desert regions of Australia can be traced in
the red clay deposits to the west and south of that island continent.^ There are many
well-observed instances of volcanic ashes from subaerial eruptions having been carried
immense distances by the winds before they fell upon the land or the ocean, and we find
evidence of these in pelagic deposits. It is in every way probable that similar eruptions
take place under water, and the ashes therefrom are in like manner widely distributed
over the floor of the ocean.^ We have some excellent examples of these showers of ashes,
whether from submarine or subaerial sources, on the red clay areas. One of these is
figured in PI. IV. fig. 3, where the coarser particles have fallen on the Red Clay with
manganese nodules, and these again have been covered with finer and finer layers of the
same materials, the whole being solidified into a compact mass, which subsequently has
undergone great alteration.®

Among the secondary products arising from the decomposition of the basic volcanic
rock-fragments present in these deposits are zeolitic crystals resembling in all

essential particulars, these being especially abundant in some Red Clays from the South
Pacific and Indian Oceans.®

Wherever the surface waters of the ocean are affected annually, or occasionally at
long intervals, by floating ice, the icebergs bear a variety of mineral matters from the
land of colder latitudes to great distances, and ultimately falling to the bottom they
form part of the Red Clay and other deposits in great depths. These ice-borne fragments,
consisting of quartz, felspar, green amphibole, epidote, zircon, tourmaline, &c., and frag-
ments of ancient continental rocks, such as granite, mica-schist, &c., can be traced in the
deposits of the Southern Ocean north of latitude 40° S., and in the Western North
Atlantic they are widespread as far south as the latitude of the Azores.

In the great majority of the typical Red Clays the size of the mineral particles ranges
from OT to 0‘85 mm. in diameter, and particles of this size do not as a rule make up more
than 1 or 2 per cent, of the whole deposit. It occasionally happens that particles larger
than 0*05 mm. in diameter do not make up as much as 1 per cent, of the deposit. On

1 See PI. XXIII. = See Appendix II. s See PI. XXVIII. fig. 2.

^ See PI. XXVI. figs. 2-4 ; PI. XXVII. figs. 2, 3. ® See also PI. XXL fig. 2. “ See PI. XXII. figs. 1-4.

106

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the otlier hand, in some areas the unaltered splinters of pumice, the fragments of volcanic
;ishes, and minerals from floating ice, may augment considerably in size and abundance
and make up 20 per cent of the deposit. One of the great characteristics of the Red
Clay, however, is that the mineral particles over 0'05 mm. in diameter are few in
number, and these have generally undergone alteration. The extreme fineness of the
mineral particles, indeed, permits the relatively small quantity of pure clay to give a much
more }>lastic character to the deposits than if these particles were of large size.

The mineral particles' in the Challenger samples of Red Clay make up on an average
5’56 per cent, of the whole deposit; they are generally angular, being recorded as
rounded and angular in eight cases and rounded only in one case, and have a mean
diameter of 0'08 mm. They are mentioned as occurring in the following order of
abundance; — magnetite (in 62 cases), manganese grains and fragments (55), felspar
(53), glassy volcanic particles (45), augite (43), pumice (34), manganese nodules (32),
pellets, j)ieces, and nodules of pumice (31^), hornblende (31), palagonite (22), quartz
(21), plagioclase (20), mica (19), phillipsite or zeolitic matter (lO), cosmic spherules (8),
•sanidine (7), scoriae (6), glauconite (6), olivine (5), lapilli (5), rock fragments (5), zircon
(3), tourmaline (3), epidote (2), garnet (-1).

The Challenger trawlings and dredgings obtained sharks’ teeth in 1 1 cases, and ear-
bones and other bones of Cetaceans in 6 cases.

It has been stated that in marine deposits the species of unaltered particles of minerals
with a diameter of not more than 0*02 mm. can in many cases be determined (see p. 25),
and the fragments of pumice even less than that can also be recognised, but the particles of
this size are usually very intimately associated with the clay of the deposit, and generally
pa.ss away in decantation with the imj^alpable matter, which we have denominated “ fine
washings.” These fine washings consist essentially of the hydrated silicate of alumina,
mixed with an immense number of recognisable and unrecognisable particles of minute
dimensions, derived from all the other materials which combine to form the deposit, such
as minerals. Diatoms, and Radiolarians. It is quite natural to conclude that the mineral
particles, mixed wdth the clayey matter in the fine washings, are of the same nature as
tho.se of larger size which can be identified, and that quartz, felspar, &c., may be present
in a very fine state of division as ultramicroscopic bodies, but this cannot be made out
witli the microscope, chemical analy.sis only gives an indication.^

' St-e I'l. XXVI. figs. 2-4 ; PI. XXVII. figg. 2, 3. * In five cases distinctly stated to be covered by manganese.

* It if- known that clny has the power not only of absorbing and of redlining certain liquids, but that it even
f>o<^3eswa a similar projarty in the case of certain solids of very small dimensions. If, for example, clay be agitated in
water, microacojfic grains of carbonate of calcium and particles of an organic nature will remain in suspension as long
as the wafer is ngitate«l, but as soon ns the water is at rest these are dejK)sit<-d. These jfarticles are thoroughly pene-
trated by the water, ami form a colloid gelatinous mass ; the jiarticles are found to be in contact, and .so attached the
one to the other that it is not jiossible by the agitation of the water to deUich them. This mutual attraction or
inteqa-netmtion takes jiloee not only with imrticlcs of the same nature, with clay for examjfle, but in the case of clay
with hydrated [MToxi«lc of ir<jn, clay with chalk, clay with organic particles, so that it is dillicult, if not imiwssible, to

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

197

The mean percentage of fine washings in the 70 samples of Red Clay is 85'35 ; the
following table shows the relation between depth and percentage of fine washings : —

18 samples from 2000 to 2500 fathoms, . 80’44 mean per cent, fine washings.

42 „ 2500 „ 3000 „ . 85'80

7 „ 3000 „ 3500 „ . 95-28

3 „ over 3500

. 80-281

» >9

The following table shows

the average composition of

the Challenger samples

of Red Clay. It will be noticed that what we have called fine washings make up by far
the larger part of the deposit, and it may be stated that the examination of many

samples from other expeditions has yielded very similar results

Pelagic Foraminifera,

4-77

Carbonate of Lime, . . -

Bottom-living Foraminifera,

0-59

Other organisms.

1-34

— 6-70

'Siliceous organisms, .

2-39

Residue,

Minerals, . . .

5-56

Fine Washings,

. 85-35

93-30

100-00

Having thus pointed out the general results arising from

a careful macroscopic and

microscopic examination and analysis of a large number of Red Clays from many
different regions of the ocean, it now remains to inquire how far these are confirmed and
supported by chemical analysis. It seems rather unnecessary to dwell upon the difficulties
connected with the interpretation of chemical analyses of mixed substances, of altered
minerals, and of amorphous matters without any determinate composition like those
which make up the greater part of Deep-Sea Deposits ; there cannot be a discussion of the
analytical data in the same sense as if, for example, we had to do with an analysis of a
crystalline rock. But when we take into account the data furnished by macroscopic and
microscopic examination, we are able notwithstanding to draw some conclusions from the
analyses of these deposits.

The following table is compiled from the analyses made by the late Professor Brazier,
as previously stated.^ The various deposits were submitted to the action of hydrochloric
acid, and the portion dissolved in the acid was analysed separately ; the residue of this
operation was afterwards treated with solvents, hence we divide the analytical tables
into two divisions, the first containing the data relating to the part soluble in hydro-
chloric acid, the second those referring to the insoluble portion.

separate these matters by decantation ; hence arises in part the heterogeneity of these fine washings (see E. W. Hilgard,
“ On the Flocculation of Particles,” &c., Anur. Journ. Sci., ser. iii. vol. xvii. p. 205, 1879 ; F. Senft, Die Thonsuhstanzen,
p. 41, Berlin, 1879).

^ See p. 193 about sample from 3875 fathoms. - Chap. i. p. 28; for details of analyses, see Apjiendix I.

Portion soluble in HCl. Portion insoluble in HCl.

198

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

o

bo

O

«r

b

O

<

o

in

S

o

Eh

a

O

O

b

IM

^ CO

O

o

<?

Cl CO 0> CO

9>

o

CO CO CO CO

o *

Ip

o

Si

o o

o

CO CO 05 <N 05

CO w
<N eo

2 S S

C-l OJ CO CO

OJ OJ CO CO

CO lO lO CD

B B

bb

S 5

o o

04 CO CO kO

kp

o

o

o

q

o

U4

o

5

o

05 rH

CO CO CO kO

^ oo
w cb

^ ^

kb 05 05 05

CO kO 00 CO

^ S c3 ^ S

S S ?! gj 2

O CO

<N to

•aoninHj
no «foq

’*nioqi«,4

o? qvl»a

•non»lH

gOkOkOOpHkO-^kOCIiAOQOOOOOO
^'y05^Cpl'»^«^&cio^C0^‘pkpkpc^

-T

h'e-2

‘a

p<

O rH Cl CO kT5 CO

o

o

g

8

8 S

kO 9 kO
O

8

8

O

S3

o

o

O

g

g

o

kO

S3

kO

k£i

t'*

04

04

Si

fo.

eo 04

<S « 8

§

04 S

S3

S3

|h»

04

CO

8

CO

04

S3

S3

S3

8

of

o

o

t'-

oo

05 o

18

19

20

27

160

CO

04

253

ko

CO

CO

CO

i

oi

64

04

S3

04

4—

04

Si

Si

00

04

and 17 are of material obtained from the dredge ; Nos. 12, 14, 19, 22, and 23 from the trawl ; No. 16 from tow-net at dredge ; the rest from the sounding tube.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

199

If we take into account tlie methods followed by Professor Brazier in making these
analyses^ we should expect to find all the clayey matter under the heading, “Portion
soluble in Hydrochloric Acid.” He treated the deposits with hydrochloric acid, evaporated
them to dryness and re-dissolved them as far as possible ; the insoluble residue was, after
weighing, treated with boiling caustic potash, and so much of the residue as w^as then
dissolved was looked upon as silica of easy combination, and classed along with the bodies
soluble originally in hydrochloric acid. It is evident that the silica with alumina and
iron remaining insoluble in the potash was simply indecomposable quartz or silicates.
After such a treatment the clayey matter should pass entirely into solution, and to
estimate the quantity of this substance we have merely to take account of the data
given in the columns showing the substances soluble in hydrochloric acid. It must be
remembered, however, that a certain part of the alumina indicated in the soluble portion
does not exist as argillaceous matter in the deposit, but comes from the action of the
acid and caustic potash upon the aluminous silicates and rocks present in the Red Clay.
It has been pointed out that these fragments of rocks and minerals are often highly
altered, of very small dimensions, and must necessarily have been partially attacked by
the strong reagents used in this method of analysis. It follows then that the figures
representing the alumina in the column of soluble substances are too high, if regarded as
coming exclusively from matter existing in the form of clay.

The first conclusion arrived at after an examination of the general results presented
by the analyses, is the great variety of chemical composition in the deposits comprised
under the head of Red Clay. This was already indicated as the result of macroscopic and
microscopic examination, but is proved in a very clear way by the figures showing the
percentages of matters soluble and insoluble in hydrochloric acid, which vary in each one
of the specimens analysed, and show, moreover, that argillaceous and other matters
must be present in variable proportions. If we consider the soluble portion, which
should give data for estimating the quantity of clay, and take as a point of departure the
formula (Al203,2Si02,2H20), which is that of pure clay, we find that there is always excess
of silica. This is the case even in Station 19, 3000 fathoms, where the alumina is
represented by the highest figures ; admitting that all the alumina is here in the form of
clay, we obtain 6'81 per cent, excess of silica. However, as has been already stated, this
relatively small quantity of clay suffices to give to a deposit formed of very small particles
a decidedly plastic and argillaceous character.^ The excess of silica can be explained,
as we have already indicated, by the presence in the deposit of the siliceous remains of
Diatoms, Radiolarians, and Sponges, and probably also from silicic acid in the hydrated or
colloid form which is probably always present when clay is forming, still the excess must

^ See chap. i. p. 28.

2 In some analyses of clays from the geological formations, presenting all the characteristics of clay, the total
amount of alumina is very low; we may quote the plastic clay of Offenbach (14'65 % AlgOg), “ Tegel” of Baden (12-64 %),
Oligocene clay of Hillseheid (14'06 %), Wealden clay of Salzbergen (14-51 %), Devonian dolomitic clay of Quistenthal
(11-09 %). See J. Roth, Allgemeine und chemische Geologie, Bd. ii. p. 583, Berlin, 1887.

200

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

likewise necessarily come from the decomposition of certain silicates under the action of
the ncid in the analyses, for instance, from the zeolites, the altered volcanic minerals,
glasses, and lapiUi. A part of the water shown in the column under the head of loss on
ujnition must also be regarded as belonging to the constitution of clay, another part to
hydrated oxide of iron, and to the decomposed volcanic rocks present in the deposit,
especially hydrated glasses, of which palagonite is the most constant, and a third part
must be referred to the organic substances present.

The percentage of oxide of iron in the soluble portion is very variable, but is occasionally
present in greater quantity than the alumina, and shows, as the microscopic examination
had already done, that we are dealing with a ferruginous clay. The ferric hydrate is
the pigment that colours the clay in the majority of cases, as the hydrated peroxide of
manganese does in some special regions. We can indeed by the aid of acids remove these
two substances, and thus decolorise the clay. Although in clay iron replaces alumina in
many cases, still it appears from the results of microscopic examination that here at least a
considerable portion of the hydroxide of iron exists in a free state in the Eed Clay, or
intimately mixed with manganese as is generally the case in Deep-Sea Deposits.

The carbonate of calcium is present for the most part in the form of shells and
skeletons of organisms ; the proportion is, however, reduced to a minimum in the Red
Clays and Radiolarian Oozes, if a comparison be made with most of the other Deep-Sea
Dejx)sit8. As to the carbonate of magnesium indicated in all the analyses, it might be
that a part came from the debris of organisms where it would be in isomorphic mixture
with carbonate of calcium, but the percentage of carbonate of magnesium appears to be
proportionally too high to that of the carbonate of calcium to admit this interpretation.
It seems therefore probable that the carbonate of magnesium comes from the sulphate
of magnesium contained in the sea-water acting on the carbonate of calcium and replacing
a part of this carbonate which forms the debris of organisms deposited on the floor of the
ocean. In this case we should have an incipient dolomitisation.

The sulphate of lime present in all the analyses doubtless comes from the
sulphate of lime contained in sea- water, which impregnates the deposit when freshly
collected, and is precipitated with great facility from sea-water when the deposit is placed
in alcohol; large crystals of this substance are formed in this way in the bottles in which
the deposits were preserved with a small quantity of spirit. It seems well to remember
that in the inter[)retation of all analyses of Deep-Sea Deposits, we have always to take
account of the facility with which certain sea-salts are retained in clayey matter. One of
the striking properties of this substance is to absorb with avidity and to retain sea-water
and its salts ; to such an extent is this the case that they are difficult to remove even after
repeat<Kl washings. In the case of a Globigcrina Ooze we have made some experiments
bearing on this point, and have shown that after repeated washings with cold water the
deposit retained more than 1 per cent, of alkalies not combined with sedimentary materials.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

201

AVith reference to the percentage, often rather high, of phosphate of- lime, it must
be referred to the remains of organisms, such as teeth of fish, bones of Cetaceans, and
sometimes to small concretions of phosphate of lime, which are met with in some of the
deposits ; we know from the analyses of clayey matters that phosphates are generally
present in these substances. The phosphate of lime may also be due to the pseudomorphic
interchange between carbonate of lime and soluble salts of phosphoric acid.

Manganese, which is one of the most constant elements in the Eed Olay, is not shown
in all the quantitative analyses, but the pyrognostic reactions show its presence every-
where, and it forms in these deposits, along with iron and earthy matters, the ill-defined
variety known by the name of wad, and is associated with nickel, cobalt, and barium,
and nearly all the rare metals, as shown by Dr. Gibson’s analyses. We will return to this
subject when dealing with the manganese nodules and their mode of formation.

Regarding now the insoluble part of the deposit, it will be seen that here too there
is an excess of silica. It is not possible to explain this excess by the presence of the
siliceous remains of organisms, for these do not resist the action of caustic potash. In
certain cases the presence of quartz must be admitted, for the quantity of bases is not
sufficiently high, but these grains of quartz do not belong normally to the Red Clay
which is much more generally due to the decomposition of volcanic materials, in which
quartz is relatively rare or absent. We have seen that special conditions, such as
atmospheric currents and glacial phenomena, may serve to account for the presence of
quartz in certain regions where Red Clays are in process of formation. The microscopic
examination of the Red Clays has shown the presence in these deposits of orthoclase,
plagioclase, and bisilicates, which contain variable proportions of lime, magnesia, alumina,
iron, and manganese ; these substances appear in the analyses as the insoluble portion,
and must be in the form of anhydrous silicates. The percentage of the alkalies not
having been determined, and the presence of volcanic glasses, render it impossible to
estimate the relative abundance of the different minerals. The analyses, however, confirm
what has been said as to the presence of silicates and silicated rocks in the sediments.

A second series of analyses,' made according to the methods pointed out on pages 27
and 28, is tabulated here, the results of which, it will be seen on examination, approach
those obtained from the preceding analyses.

station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

SiO^

CO2

AI2O3

Fe.20s

FeO

MnO.2

CaO

MgO

K2O

Na^O

H2O

Total.

9

3150

24

56-89

20-28

10-02

...*

1-31

2-56

1-91

0-81

6-7-2

100-50

29

2700

25

42-15

9-8-2

20-27

7-06

13-22

2-15

1-12

0-72

3-75

100-26

281

2385

26f

43-32

13-96

17-50

4-36

5-96

5-89

1-66

1-74

6-41

100-80

286

2335

27

39-10

1-50

15-40

17-93

5-75

8-37

2-37

1-27

1-40

8-89

101-98

* Traces of barium, manganese, and phosphoric acid. t In No. 26 the finer parts had been washed away.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.) 26

•202

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The origin of the clayey materials, and the products of the decomposition of the rocks
and minerals spread over the floor of the ocean, will be discussed in detail later on, but
from what has been stated above it will be evident that the Eed Clay must be regarded
as essentially a chemical deposit universally distributed in the ocean basins, but only
appearing with its typical characters in the greatest depths far from continental land.
Microscopic examination and chemical analysis have shown that volcanic rocks and
minerals are to be found everywhere distributed in oceanic formations, and that in many
regions the most frequent among these belong to the basic series all containing alumina.
It is known that these very rocks — basalts, andesites, &c. — give by their decomposition
argillaceous matters, so that we are led to conclude that this clayey deposit is chiefly the
result of the decomposition in sit to of these substances, as will be shown at greater length
in Chaptei-s V. and VI.

Even admitting that chemical decomposition at the bottom of the sea is not more
active than at the surface of the continents, the rocks and mineral fragments would
undergo much the same alterations at the bottom of the sea as on the surface of the
terrestrial masses, where silicates and aluminous rocks are observed to be decomposed
under the influence of water, and transformed into clayey materials, almost always
mixed with the other products of decomposition of the rocks and silicates, giving origin
to clay. These reactions taking place in the greater depths at the bottom of the sea,
where the waters are not subject to any rapid movements, the products of decomposition
are not transported to great distances, as is the case on the continents, and therefore,
as has been already stated, these clays must be impure. The diffusion can not, moreover,
be very rapid, and the chemical bath can act in a slow and constant manner on the
solitl materials with which it is in contact. Without entering here into the discussion of
the question, we seem justified in regarding the greater part of the fine material, as well
as the zeolites and nodular masses, of the red clay deposits as having been formed in situ
through chemical action. This result, as will be shown, is not out of harmony with what
we know of the distribution of the material borne down to the ocean from the land.

As far as our knowledge at the i)resent time extends, Red Clay would appear to be the
most extensive of all Marine Deposits, being estimated to cover about 51,500,000 square
miles, or more than one-fourth of the total area of the globe, as will be seen by an inspection
of the accompanying map (Chart 1) showing the distribution of Marine Deposits.

In the Atlantic the area occupied by Red Clay is much less than that occupied by
Globigerina Ooze, being estimated at about 5,800,000 square miles. It is found in five
detached areas — two in the North Atlantic, one in the eastern, the other in the western
|K*rtion of the b:isin, sej)arated by the Dolj)hin Ridge ; three in the South Atlantic, two
some distance off the South American coast, the other off the African coast, .separated by
the Cliallenger Ridge running north and south towards the centre of the South Atlantic

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

203

basin. The Red Clay of the Atlantic is usually of a reddish colour, the dark chocolate-
coloured variety, with its zeolitic crystals formed in situ, found in the Pacific and also in
the Indian Ocean, not having been met with in the Atlantic.

In the Indian Ocean, again, the area covered by Red Clay is less than that covered
by Globigerina Ooze, being estimated at 4,900,000 square miles. It is found to extend
from off the western shores of Australia and the East Indian Islands, south of the equator,
across the ocean towards Madagascar, reaching also to a small extent into the Southern
Ocean to the south and west of Australia. In the North Indian Ocean there is a small
detached patch in the deep water of the Arabian Sea, between the Maidive and Laccadive
Archipelagoes and the coast of Africa.

In the Pacific the Red Clay attains its most typical and most extensive development,
covering by far the greater portion of the sea-bottom. Its area is estimated at about
40,800,000 square miles. The whole of the deep water of the eastern portion of the
Pacific basin is occupied by Red Clay, and it extends more or less uninterruptedly over
the western portion, approaching the shores of Japan in the north and of New Zealand in
the south. It covers also a considerable tract in the Southern Ocean, where there is a
detached area situated some distance off the coast of Chili. There are several detached
patches occupying the deeper water between the various groups of islands of Oceania,
viz., two small areas in the Coral Sea between the New Hebrides and the north-east coast
of Australia ; another between New Caledonia and New Zealand ; another between the
Solomon Islands and the Marshall and Gilbert groups ; another between the north coast
of New Guinea and the Caroline group, a considerable area in the deep water between
the Philippines, Japan, Bonin Islands, Ladrone Islands, and Pelew Islands ; a consider-
able area is also found between Australia and New Zealand, extending into the Southern
Ocean.

Radiolarian Ooze.

This deposit, like the Red Clay, is confined to the greater depths of the ocean,
indeed, as will be presently pointed out, it has a greater average depth than the Red
Clay. The name was adopted during the cruise of the Challenger by Mr. Murray for
those deposits which, while resembling Red Clays in most respects, differ from them
in containing a much larger number of Radiolarian shells, skeletons, and spicules, together
with Sponge spicules and the frustules of Diatoms. There is in short little, if any,
difference between these deposits and Red Clay, except what may be attributed to the
greater or less abundance of these remains of siliceous organisms. The colour is red,
chocolate, or occasionally straw coloured ; it is less plastic than the Red Clay, at least
the typical examples are so. The peroxides of iron and manganese are everywhere
present, as are also fragments of pumice, augite, felspars, hornblende, magnetite, pala-
gonite, chondritic and other cosmic spherules. Manganese nodules and palagonitic

204

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fragments are very abundant in some samples, as are also teeth of sharks. With
reference to the organisms living on the Red Clay and the Radiolarian Ooze, they
appear to be the same in nearly all respects in the two regions both as to the species
and their relative abundance.

The deposit was first met with in the Western North Pacific, during the voyage
from New Guinea to Japan, in the deepest sounding taken during the cruise, and, with
one or two exceptions, the greatest depth hitherto discovered, and still the greatest depth
from wliich a specimen of the bottom has been procured. As this was a highly character-
istic Radiolarian Ooze, we will refer to the sample collected at some length. Two sound-
ings were taken at this station (Station 225, lat. 11° 24' N., long. 143° 16' E.). The first
.sounding was in a depth of 4575 fathoms, when only a little of the deposit came up 6n
the outside of the tube. This sounding not being a satisfactory one, a second was taken,
when the depth was ascertained to be 4475 fathoms. The tube had sunk fully three
inches into the deposit ; the upper layers were of a red colour, and contained much more
peroxide of manganese than the lower ones, which were of a pale yellow or straw colour,
in this respect, as well as in other physical aspects, very much resembling the Diatom
Oozes found in the Southern Ocean during the cruise towards the Antarctic regions. The
whole of the lower part of the deposit when it came up had a very compact and laminated
appearance ; the laminated fragments could be easily broken with the fingers, but it was
difficult to separate the various components of the deposit the one from the other by
sliaking the whole in a bottle with water. The Radiolaria, Diatoms, and Sponge spicules
appeared to be most abundant in the lower layers. The deposit effervesced a little with
dilute hydrochloric acid, and one or two fragments of pelagic Foraminifera were found
during the microscopic examination of a large portion of the sample, along with two
specimens of Ilaplophragmivm fjlohujeriniforme.

'J'he most abundant mineral particles are angular and more or less rounded fragments
of volcanic glass in various stages of alteration and of a red-green or yellow colour ; they
are glossy, and break like resin; some are vesicular, and the vesicles are coated with
prismatic zeolites. Besides these altered fragments of volcanic glass, there are grey-black
lapilli of andesite and colourless splinters of pumice. There are also fragments of plagio-
clases suiTounded with vitreous matter, crystals of augite, grains of magnetite, and a few
cosmic chondritic and native iron spherules.*

Argillaceous matter is not very abundant in this sample of Radiolarian Ooze, but
there are large numbers of little particles formed by agglomerates of the deposit. These
particles have an irregular form, and do not break up under the action of strong hydro-
i-hloric acid, which merely removes the iron along with other colouring substances ;
microwopic examination shows that they are aggregates of the bottom made up of
Kadiolarians, Sponge spicules, and minute volcanic particles. The tenacity of these little

' Se« PI. XXIII.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

205

aggregations appears to be greater than that of somewhat similar ones from other stations,
and may be due to the cementation of the isolated particles by colloid siliceous matter.
In this specimen there are finally some very peculiar white-coloured aggregations com-
posed of minute rhombohedral crystals, which when treated with dilute acids decompose
with liberation of carbonic acid, but a flocculent residue is left behind, as well as micro-
scopic granules ; we are inclined to consider these crystals as calcite or dolomite. The
general appearance of this deposit under the microscope is shown on PI. XV. fig. 3, and
the fine washings are represented on PI. XXVII. fig. 5.

Professor Haeckel and Dr. Dreyer have recognised in the material from this station
no fewer than 338 species of Eadiolaria, belonging almost entirely to the two legions :
Nassellaria and Spumellaria, only two species being noted belonging to the Phmodaria,
while the Acantharia are quite absent, as is nearly always the case in the deep sea,
owing to the acanthin skeleton being easily decomposed.^ The Nassellaria are by far the
most abundant in this deposit, the number of species compared with that of the
Spumellaria being as 2 to 1 ; about three-fourths of the Nassellaria, and half of the
total Eadiolaria, belong to the orders Spyroidea and Cyrtoidea.

A detailed account has been given of this, the deepest sounding, because we consider
it the most typical Eadiolarian Ooze that has yet been discovered. It is estimated that
about 80 per cent, of this sample is made up of the remains of siliceous organisms. The
specimens from lesser depths in the Central Pacific and from the tropical regions of the
Indian Ocean are less pure. Whenever a Eed Clay is estimated to contain 20 per cent,
of the skeletons of Eadiolaria and siliceous organisms other than Diatoms, it has been
classed as a Eadiolarian Ooze. There seems to be little doubt that the Eadiolaria are,
like the calcareous Foraminifera, slowly dissolved by the sea- water after the death of the
organisms, for the skeletons and spicules are frequently seen reduced to the merest
threads, or in some parts the fenestrated spheres of some species are wholly removed.^

In the Tables of Chapter II. nine deposits collected by the Challenger Expedition are
described as Eadiolarian Oozes, and numerous other samples have been subsequently
procured by other expeditions in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The above-mentioned
nine samples range from 2350 fathoms at Station 273 to 4475 fathoms at Station 225,

^ Haeckel states that “ the skeletons of the Phaeodaria consist of a compound of organic substance and silica,” and
regards “ acanthin as a substance related to chitin ” (see “ Report on the Radiolaria,” Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. xl. pp.
Ixix, Ixx); he says further that “ the Acantharia are entirely wanting [in deep-sea deposits], for their acanthin skeleton
readily dissolves” (l.c., p. civ.). Murray records one species of Acantharia (Pantopelta icosaspis) from the Diatom Ooze,
Station 157, 1950 fathoms, Southern Indian Ocean (see Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. v. pp. 433, 4, 1889).

2 If we take into account the molecular state of the silica forming the skeletons of Radiolarians, it is easily con-
ceivable that they may pass into solution in the sea-water after the death of the organisms, but this dissolution cannot
be very rapid, as will be seen from the following experiment. Some of the Eadiolarian skeletons from Station 266
were treated in a water-bath in a solution of 2 grms. of carbonate of potash, the water being renewed as evaporation went
on. This operation was continued for thirty hours with the result that of 0'4725 grm. of Eadiolarian skeletons, dried at
110° C., 0‘0607 grm. of silica passed into solution, equal to 12-84 per cent. Owing to the difficulty of separating the
Radiolarians from the argillaceous matters, it must be pointed out that we were not dealing with pure Eadiolarian
skeletons. See also Schulze, “ Report on the Hexactinellida,” Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. liii. pp. 26, 27.

206

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

the average depth being 2894 fathoms, which is deeper than the average depth of the
Red Clay samples, viz., 2730 fathoms.

The carbonate of lime in these nine samples ranges from a trace in five cases to 20 per
cent, in 2550 fathoms at Station 269, the average percentage being 4'01. This carbonate
of lime is chiefiy made up of pelagic Foraminifera, but the shells of bottom-living species
of Rotalidae and Nummulinidse are also present. Teeth of fish are mentioned in seven of
the samples, and otoliths of fish, Ostracode shells, Echinoderm fragments, Gasteropod
shells, and Coccoliths, occur, but never in great abundance.

The residue after the removal of the carbonate of lime by dilute acid, which is red
or red-brown, ranges from 80 to nearly 100 per cent, in the nine samples, the average
l)eing 95’99 per cent. In this residue the remains of siliceous organisms are estimated
to make up from 30 per cent, at Station 273 in 2350 fathoms to 80 per cent, at Station
225 in 4475 fathoms. The remains of Radiolarians make up the principal part of these
siliceous organisms, but Diatoms and Sponge spicules are also present, and among
arenaceous Foraminifera, species of Lituolidse and Astrorhizidse can nearly always be
observed.

The mineral particles with a mean diameter of over 0‘02 mm. are all angular, and
average O’l mm. in diameter. They make up from 1 per cent, of the deposit in most
cases to 5 per cent, at Station 274 in 2750 fathoms, the mean percentage of mineral
particles present in the nine samples being 1’67 of the whole deposit.

The fine washings range from 17 per cent, in 4475 fathoms to 67 per cent, in 2350
fathoms, the average being 39‘88. These fine washings are largely made up of the
minute undeterminable fragments of siliceous organisms.

The following table shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of
Radiolarian Ooze : —

1

Pelagic Foraminifera,

3-11

Carbonate of Lime, . . <

Bottom-living Foraminifera,

Oil

Other organisms.

0-79

Siliceous organisms, .

. 54’44

Residue,

Minerals,

1-67

Fine Washings, ....

. 39-88

95-99

10000

When this average composition is compared with that of the Red Clay, it will be
observed that the difference lies almost wholly in the large pereentage of the siliceous
organisms present in the residue.

The constitution of the Radiolarian Ooze as revealed by the above microscopic
examination is confirmed by the two following analyses : —

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

207

Portion

SOLUBLE IN

HCl.

Portion

INSOLUBLE

IN HCl.

d

o

sj

O

ft

No.

Loss.

SiOj

AI2O3

Fe203

Mn02

CaCOs

CaSO^

Ca32P04

MgCOs

Total.

SiOj

AI2O3

CaO

MgO

Total.

265

2900

28

4-30

38-75

6-75

11-20

0-57

2-54

0-29

0-65

2-46

63-21

21-02

6-19

3-09

1-85

0-34

32-49

274

2760

29

7-41

46-50

8-32

14-24

3-23

3-89

0-41

1-39

1-50

79-48

9-52

2-20

0-75

0-39

1-25

13-11

No. 28 is of material oMained in the dredge, No. 29 as it came up in the trawl.

These analyses again show, from the totals of the soluble and insoluble portions and by
the percentages of the various substances, a great variability in the deposit, depending
upon the nature of the materials mixed up with the skeletons of the Eadiolaria and other
siliceous organisms. On comparing these analyses with those of the Eed Clay, we find h
much larger percentage of soluble silicic acid in this deposit than in the Eed Clay, the
deep-sea deposit with which it is most nearly analogous. In one of the above analyses
the soluble silica rises to 46'50 per cent.; admitting that a part comes from the hydrated
silicates forming the argillaceous matter, from the zeolitic crystals which are very
abundant in this deposit, or from the action of the acid and potash on the anhydrous
silicates, still a very large part of the silica in the soluble portion of the analysis must
come from the skeletons of the Eadiolarians, Diatoms, and Sponge spicules. In fact,
the examination of these siliceous remains between crossed nicols show them to be
composed of amorphous silica ; their loss on ignition shows also that they contain water
in variable proportions, like opal, some specimens of which lose on calcination from 8 to 9
per cent., and in some cases as much as 20 per cent, of their weight. This hydrated
silica, more or less easily attackable by various chemical agents, is almost entirely removed
by caustic potash.^

The water shown in the analyses must also be regarded as being associated partly
with the silica in the siliceous organisms, as well as in combination with the iron and
alumina. The percentages of alumina and iron indicate that clay and limonite are
present in considerable quantities. What has been said with reference to the analyses
of the Eed Clays applies also here to the manganese, carbonate, sulphate, and phos-
phate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. The relatively small quantity of carbonate
of calcium is explained by the great depth of the Eadiolarian Oozes, for, as has
already been pointed out, carbonate of lime gradually disappears from the deposits
with increasing depth. The division referring to the insoluble part shows anew the
presence of insoluble silica, of silicates, and of silicated rocks containing alumina, iron,

1 For a description of the various Eadiolarian. spicules and their chemical composition, see Haeckel, “ Eeport on
the Eadiolaria,” Zool. Chalk Exp., part xl. pp. Ixviii et seq. See also Thoulet, “ Sur les spicules siliceux d’eponges
vivantes,” Gomptes Rendus, tom. xcviii. p. 1000, 1884, and the Challenger Eeports on the Hexactinellida, Tetractinellida,
and Monaxonida.

208

THE VOYAGE Of H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

ciilcium, and magnesium ; indeed the presence of these silicates was revealed by the
microscopic examination of the mineral particles.

The following analysis of a Radiolarian Ooze was made by Dr. Sipocz : —

Station. |

c «*

5 §

No.

Lo.ss on
Ignition.

SiOj

AI3O3

Fe„Os

MnO

CaO

MgO

P2O5

CuO

Co

K2O

Na^O

Total.

‘266

2750

30

16-62

52-85

8-22

6-94

1-74

6-61

4-84

3-99

0-16

tr.

tr.

tr.

100-87

Tliis analysis likewise shows a high percentage of silicic acid, and from the large quantity
of water shown by the loss on ignition, the major part of this silica, as well as of the iron
and alumina, must be in the form of hydrate. The phosphoric acid, and a part of the
calcium, are due to the presence of phosphate of lime in the organic remains. The
rather high percentage of magnesia is probably explained by the presence in the deposit
of fragments of rocks, containing magnesia and lime, such as the numerous fragments
of altered volcanic minerals and glass noticed in the microscopic examination. The
foregoing analyses then corroborate the results obtained by the macroscopic and micro-
scopic examination of the Radiolarian Ooze ; that is to say, we find the deposit com-
posed of a mass of mineral matters analogous to those met with in the Red Clays, but
this deposit is distinguished from the Red Clay by a greater abundance of hydrated
silica due to the presence of the organisms which give their name to the deposit.

In addition to the samples of Radiolarian Ooze obtained by the Challenger, other
areas of this deposit were discovered by the U.S. ship “Tuscarora” in the Pacific, and
by H.M.S. “Egeria”in the Indian Ocean. No specimens of this deposit have as yet
been met with in the Atlantic Ocean, and for a variety of reasons it is, indeed, unlikely
that a Radiolarian Ooze vdll be discovered in the Atlantic. By reference to Chart 1 it
will be seen that the patches of Radiolarian Ooze in the Pacific are confined to the
central and western regions of that ocean, the seven patches shown on the map covering
about 1,161,000 square miles. In the Indian Ocean there is a great patch of this deposit,
in the deep water of the central eastern region surrounding the Cocos and Christmas
Lslands, the area of w'hich Is estimated at about 1,129,000 square miles.

Diatom Ooze.

Just as the name Radiolarian Ooze was introduced by Mr. Murray to distinguish those
deposits in which Radiolarian remains })layed a prominent part, so the name Diatom
Ooze Wits applied during the Challenger Expedition to distinguish those deposits in which
Diatom frustules were excej)tionally abundant. Dr. Joseph Hooker,^ during Sir James

• BoUnjr of the Antarctic Voyage of H.M.SS. “ Erebna” and “ Terror,” I. “ Flora Antarctica,” p. 503, London, 1847;
Kejrf'rt of British Amociation for 1847, pp. 83-95, London, 1848.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

209

Clark Ross’s Antarctic voyage, had pointed out the great abundance of Diatoms in the
Antarctic Ocean, and in the deposits forming near the great Ice Barrier, but the Diatom
Ooze was first met with in its most characteristic form during the voyage of the Challenger
between Kerguelen and the Antarctic Ice Barrier, in 1260 fathoms. It was afterwards
collected at a good many points in the same region by the Expedition, and subsequently
by H.IVLS. “Egeria” in the South Indian Ocean. In the North Pacific, south of the
Kurile Islands, the “ Tuscarora ” discovered deposits somewhat similar to the Diatom
deposits of the southern hemisphere.

The deposit when collected and when wet has a yellowish straw or cream colour ;
when dried it is nearly pure white, and resembles flour. Near land it may assume
a bluish tinge from the admixture of land detritus. The surface layers are thin
and watery, but the deeper ones are more dense and coherent, breaking up into
laminated fragments in the same way as the deeper layers of a Radiolarian Ooze. It
is soft and light to the touch when dried, taking the impress of the fingers and
sticking to them like fine flour, and in most respects has the same physical appearance
as the purest samples of Diatomite of fresh-water origin. Small samples appear quite
homogeneous and uniform, but in all the soundings there were fragments of minerals
and rocks, and gritty particles can generally be felt when the substance is passed between
the fingers.

It effervesces with dilute acids, and may contain from 3 to 30 per cent, of carbonate
of lime, which consists chiefly of the shells of pelagic Globigerinm, but other Foraminifera,
fragments of Molluscs, Polyzoa, Echinoderms, Ostracodes, otoliths of fish, and Cephalopod
beaks are usually present in greater or less abundance.

In the Challenger colleetions there are five specimens of Diatom Ooze, all from the
Southern Ocean. These range from 600 fathoms at Station 147a to 1975 fathoms at
Station 156, the average depth being 1477 fathoms. In colour these deposits are dirty
white, pure white, yellowish, or grey.

The principal part of the deposit is made up of the dead frustules of Diatoms
belonging to many genera and species, together with Radiolarian remains. Sponge
spicules, and fragments of these siliceous organisms. The estimated proportion of
siliceous organisms ranges in the five different specimens from 20 per cent, in 600
fathoms to 60 per cent, in 1975 fathoms, averaging 41 per cent.; this is without taking
into account the remains of these organisms in the “fine washings,” which are largely
made up of their comminuted fragments. Diatoms and Radiolarians were, of course,
present in all cases, and Sponge spicules were recognised in all or nearly all the samples ;
arenaceous Foraminifera were also observed whenever a large quantity of the deposit was
examined.

The following is a list of the Diatoms observed in a typical Diatom Ooze from the
Antarctic, viz., Station 157, 1950 fathoms : —

(peep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

27

•210

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

*Xanci(Ia subtilis, Greg.

ThalassiotJu'ix longissima, var. antarctica,
Cl. et Gruu.

*Sy?iedm lanceolata, Cstr.

„ nitzschioides, Grun.

,, Jiliformis, Grim.

Thalassionema nitzschiodes, var. lanceo-
lata, Grun.

*Tmchysp1ienia australis, Petit, var.
antarctica, Schwarz.

*Diatoma rhomhicum, 0’Me.,var. oceanica,
nov.

Nitzschia constncta, var. antarctica, nov.
^Rhizosolenia styliformis, Brightw.

,, furcata, n.sp.

*Corethron criophilum, Cstr.

Ilemiaulus antarcticus, Ehrenb. = Eucam-
p>ia halaustium, Cstr. , and var. minor.
Asteromphalus hooherii (Ehrenb.), Ealfs.

,, forma buchii, Ehrenb.

,, forma humboldtii, Ehrenb.

,, forma cuvierii, Ehrenb.

,, forma denarius, Janisch.

,, darwinii, Ehrenb.

Ilyalodiscus radiatus, O’Me., var. arctica,
Grun.

* Actinocyclus oliveranus, O’Me.

Coscinodiscus margaritaceus, Cstr.

* ,, lunse, Ehrenb.

,, excentricus, Ehrenb.

* Indicateo the peculiarly Antarctic species.

Coscinodiscus atlanticus, Cstr., and var.

„ lineatus, Ehrenb.

,, lentiginosus, Janisch.

,, ,, var. maculata,

Grun.

Coscinodiscus africanus, var. wallichianas,
Grun.

Coscinodiscus subtilis, Ehrenb.
t ,, ,, var. glacialis, Grun.

,, tumidus, Janisch.

,, ,, var. fasciculata,

nov.

Coscinodiscus radiatus, Ehrenb.
t , , decrescens, var. polaris, Grun .
+ Coscinodiscus decrescens,\Qx. repleta,Qr\m.
„ fasciculatus, A.S.

,, griseus, var. gallopagensis,
Grun. (?)

Coscinodiscus curvulatus, maculata, nov.

„ tuber culatus, Grev., var.
excentrica, nov.

Coscinodiscus tuberculatus, var. antarctica,
nov.

Coscinodiscus elegans, Grev.

,, robustus, Grev.

„ ,, var. minor.

„ antarcticus, Cstr. (nov.
Grun.).

Coscinodiscus denarius, A.S.

,, marginatus, Ehrenb.

t Species also recorded from the Arctic zone.

A.S all the Diatom de^josits, so far Jis we know, are confined to the Southern or
.Antarctic Oceans, or to the northern parts of the North Pacific, none of the species of
Fo/aminifera, Kadiolaria, or Diatoms characteristic of the tropical regions arc found in
them ; Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths arc absent, except in a few of the more northerly
samples in the southern hcrni.sphere.

The carbonate of lime varies from 2'00 per cent, in 1975 fathoms to 30 ‘34 per cent,
in GOO fathoms, the average being 22'9G per cent. By far the larger part of this

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

211

carbonate of lime is due to the presence of the dead shells of pelagic Foraminifera, the
other carbonate of lime organisms present not making up more than 3 or 4 per cent, of
the whole deposit in any case.

The mineral particles vary greatly in nature, size, and abundance in the Diatom Oozes,
sometimes volcanic rocks and minerals, sometimes those of ancient and sedimentary
formations predominating. This was to be expected, for all the Challenger samples of
this deposit lie within the region of floating ice in the southern hemisphere. The
minerals range from 3 per cent, in 1950 fathoms to 25 per cent, in 600 fathoms, the
average being 15 '6 per cent. The mean diameter is 0*12 mm., but rocks and minerals
from the Antarctic Continent and islands are found of all dimensions, and are spread
over the whole region from their source in the shallow water near the Ice Barrier to
north of the latitude of 40° south, for they were dredged in considerable numbers by
the Challenger in all the Diatom ooze areas. These consist of fragments of granite,
granitite, chloritic sandstone, micaceous sandstone, amphibolite, gneiss, schists and slates,
and other ancient and recent volcanic rocks.

The fine washings range from 12’53 in 1260 fathoms to 27'92 in 1975 fathoms, the
average being 20*44 per cent.

The average composition of the five samples of Diatom Ooze is as follows ; —

Pelagic Foraminifera,

. 18-21

Carbonate of Lime, . . -

Bottom-living Foraminifera,

1-60

Other organisms.

3-15

22-96

Siliceous organisms, .

. 41-00

Residue,

Minerals, .....

. 15-60

Fine Washings, ....

. 20-44

77-04

100-00

The Challenger’s trawlings revealed the presence of a large number of deep-sea animals
living at the bottom in the Diatom ooze areas; at Station 157, 1950 fathoms, a single
haul of the trawl procured over 150 specimens belonging to 77 species and 68 genera.

The following is an analysis of an average sample of the deposit from Station 157,
1950 fathoms : —

Portion soluble in HCl.

Portion insoluble
IN HCl.

station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiOa

AI2O3

F6203

MnOj

CaC03

CaS04

Ca32P04

MgC03

Total.

SiOs

AI2O3

Fe203

157

1950

31

5-30

67-92

0-55

0-39

19-29

0-29

0-41

1-13

89-98

4-72

212

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lu tliis analysis, even better than in those of the Radiolarian Ooze, the large part
taken by the remains of siliceous organisms in the composition of the deposit is rendered
’evident by the quantity of soluble silica. In the portion soluble in hydrochloric acid and
treated with potash the soluble silica amounts to 67*92 per cent. Having regard to the
low percentage of alumina and peroxide of iron, with which the silica and water lost
on ignition might be combined, it must be admitted that amorphous silica exists in a free
state, and that the water must be combined with • silica, thus forming hydrated silica,
analogous to that which, as we have seen, forms the skeletons of Radiolarians. As the
quantity of water is variable for hydrated silica, and as the loss on ignition compre-
hends also organic substances, it would be useless to lay too much stress on the
figures, but it may be said that they represent approximately the mean hydration of
opals, viz., about 8 per cent. In this case the soluble silica may be said to make up
about three-fourths of the deposit. With the exception of 19*29 per cent, of carbonate
of calcium, which is chiefly derived from pelagic Foraminifera and shells of Molluscs, &c.,
the deposit may be regarded as very pure, for all the substances soluble in hydrochloric
acid, except the silica, are represented by very small quantities, in comparison with what
is met with in other deposits. In the specimen analysed there can have been but little
argillaceous matter or ferric hydrate, and in the insoluble portion the anhydrous silicates
are represented by only 4*72 per cent. The specimen taken for this analysis may have
been exceptionally pure, for it must be remembered that in the large quantity dredged by
the Challenger at this station there were many fragments of rocks of considerable size,
and associated wdth these we would expect to find a larger quantity of argillaceous matter
than is indicated in the above analysis.

Another analysis of material from the same station is, properly speaking, one of those
portions comprised in our Tables under the headings “siliceous organisms” and “fine
washings.” The substance analysed had been treated with hydrochloric acid to remove
the calcareous organisms, and therefore consisted as nearly as possible of siliceous organ-
isms, chiefly Diatoms, but mixed w’ith these were a few Radiolaria and Sponge spicules.

station.

,

Depth in
Fatlioiiia.

No.

Loss.

SiOa

AI2O3

FC203

CaO

MgO

BaO

•K,0

Na.^0

PjOs

Total

157

1050

82

5-85

90-56

1-31

0-88

0-33

0-30

0 20

0-15

0-40

tr.

99-98

In this analysis, again, the high percentage of silicic acid shows the true nature of the
deposit, and considering the percentage of water (loss) and the low percentage of all the
bases, it may be concluded that almost all the portion of the deposit here under considera-
tion is com|>o8cd of a form of hydrated silica derived from Diatom frustules and remains of
other siliceous organisms, mixed with a very small quantity of ferruginous clayey matter.

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

213

Taking the Challenger researches in conjunction with those of Sir James Ross’s
Antarctic Expedition and other observations, it seems to be, indicated that a great zone
of Diatom Ooze of varying width surrounds the South Polar regions, as represented on
the accompanying chart. This zone lies for the most part between the Antarctic Circle
and the latitude of 40° S., and may be estimated to cover about 10,880,000 square miles
of the sea bottom in these regions. There is a small patch of Diatom Ooze in the
North Pacific, which may be estimated at about 40,000 square miles.

Globigerina Ooze.

This name was in the first instance applied to the mud collected when sounding
out the greater depths of the Atlantic Ocean in connection with telegraph cables, because
a large percentage of this mud or ooze was made up of the small Foraminiferous shell
named Globigerina bulloides. The term Globigerina Ooze, which has become quite
familiar and well established, is at once appropriate and distinctive, and is now adopted
for all those deposits which are chiefly made up of the Foraminiferous shells belonging
to the family Globigerinidse. The first specimens of the ooze were probably procured by
Lieutenant Berryman of the United States Navy in the North Atlantic, and were
described in some detail by Ehrenberg and Bailey in 1853. Many subsequent writers
have described specimens that were afterwards procured from other regions of the
ocean. Were all the deposits which contain 10 or 15 per cent, of these Foraminiferous
shells classed as Globigerina Ooze, then this deposit would be by far the most extensive
of the deep-sea deposits, for some species of these shells are present in greater or less
abundance in all the types of marine formations from Equator to Poles. Near land,
however, their presence is sometimes wholly masked by the abundance of land debris
or exuviae of shallow- water organisms, and in the greatest depths of the ocean these shells
are absent, or at least do not accumulate on the bottom so as to form a calcareous
deposit. In this Report, as a general rule, a deposit has not been classed as a Globigerina
Ooze unless it contains over 30 per cent, of carbonate of lime, principally made up of the
dead shells of these Foraminifera. There was at one time much discussion as to whether
those Foraminifera, which are in this Report called pelagic, lived at the surface of the sea
or on the bottom of the ocean; this question has been, we believe, definitely settled in
favour of the former view, as will be pointed out in detail later on. The following is a
list of the pelagic Foraminifera that were taken in the surface nets during the cruise of
the Challenger, and it is the dead shells of these species which, having fallen to the
bottom of the sea, make up the principal part of the carbonate of lime present in the
great majority of pelagic deposits, and especially in all those denominated Globigerina
and Pteropod Oozes : —

214

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Globigenna sacculifera, Brady.

„ xquilateralis, Brady.

„ conglohata, Brady.

,, dubia, Egger.

,, I'ubra, d’Orbigny.

,, bulloides, d’Orbigny.

„ injlata, d’Orbigny.

,, digitata, Brady.

„ cretacea, d’Orbigny (?).

„ dutertrei, Brady.

OrbuUna universa, d’Orbigny.

Hastigeiina pelagica (d’Orbigny).
Pullenia obliquiloculata, Parker and J ones.
Sphaeroidina dehiscens, Parker and Jones.
Candeina nitida, d’Orbigny.
Cymbalopora { Tretomphalus) bulloides
(d’Orbigny).

Pulvinulina menardii (d’Orbigny). ‘

,, tumida, Brady.

„ canariensis (d’Orbigny).

„ micheliniana (d’Orbigny).

„ crassa (d’Orbigny).

The majority of these species are limited to those deposits immediately nnder warm
tropical waters, while only a few of them are met with in deposits from the colder regions
of the ocean ; it follows that the predominating species in a deposit vary according to
latitude, or more correctly according as the surface oceanic currents have a tropical or
polar origin, along with other surface conditions of the locality.

The colour of the deposit is white, milky-yellow, rose, brown, or greyish, depending
on the nature of the inorganic substances mixed up with the Foraminifera. The pre-
vailing colour is milky-white or rose-coloured far from land, and dirty white, blue, or
grey near land, when there is a considerable quantity of detrital matter from rivers in
the deposit. It has sometimes a mottled aspect from the presence of manganese grains
or volcanic ashes, lapilli, and fragments of pumice. It is fine grained and homogeneous ;
in tropical regions many of the Foraminifera are visible to the naked eye, while in
temperate regions the form of the organisms is, as a rule, indistinguishable without the
aid of a lens. When dried a Globigerina Ooze is usually pulverulent, but some specimens
which have a low percentage of carbonate of lime cohere slightly.

In the Tables of Chapter II. there are 118 samples of deposits described as Globi-
gerina Ooze. These come from depths ranging from 400 to 2925 fathoms. In addition
to these there are a few doubtful cases where a Globigerina Ooze was indicated.

3 .samples come from depths of less than

2

13

35

49

„ between

}} f>

ft

tf * V

500

500 and 1000
1000 „ 1500
1500 „ 2000
2000 „ 2500

fathoms.

IG

over 2500 fathoms.

The average depth of the above samples is 2002 fathoms ; taking the doubtful samples
into account, the average depth would be 1996 fathoms, and excluding those samples

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

215

from depths less than 500 fathoms, the average depth would be 2049 fathoms. So that
the result from these figures agrees with the impression derived from a large experience
in the examination of deep-sea deposits, viz., that the depth at which Globigerina Ooze
is found in its most typical development is about 2000 fathoms, and it will be noticed
that of the 118 Challenger samples 84 come from depths between 1500 and 2500
fathoms.

In addition to the pelagic Foraminifera many other organisms contribute to the car-
bonate of lime present in a Globigerina Ooze, some of these living in the surface waters
of the ocean and others having their habitat at the bottom of the sea ; among the former
are pelagic Molluscs and pelagic calcareous Algse. The shells of pelagic Molluscs —
Pteropods and Heteropods — are sometimes present in great abundance in tropical and
subtropical regions, and then the Globigerina Ooze passes gradually into a Pteropod Ooze
in the shallower depths. Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres are regarded as calcareous
Algse, and their remains or broken fragments, Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths, sometimes
make up fully 15 per cent, of Globigerina Ooze. In the samples of Globigerina Ooze
procured from high northern or southern latitudes the shells of pelagic Molluscs, Cocco-
liths, and Rhabdoliths, are wholly absent. The remains of calcareous organisms which
habitually live on the bottom of the sea, such as Molluscs, Echinoderms, Annelids, Corals,
Polyzoa, and bottom-living Foraminifera, are nearly always to be found in a Globigerina
Ooze, from whatever region the specimen may have been procured.

The carbonate of lime in the Globigerina Oozes in the Tables ranges from SOT 5 per
cent, at Station 97 in 2575 fathoms to 96*80 per cent, at Station 343 in 425 fathoms,
the average percentage being 64*47. Arranged in depths of 500 fathoms, the samples
contained for each zone the following average percentages : —

3 samples under 500 fathoms, 87*07 mean per cent. CaCOg.

2

)>

from 500 to 1000

>9

68*47

99

99

13

}P

„ 1000 „ 1500

)9

63*69

99

99

35

„ 1500 „ 2000

99

72*66

99

99

49

))

„ 2000 „ 2500

99

61*74

99

99

16

)9

over 2500

99

49*58

99

9f

This table shows generally a decrease in the quantity of carbonate of lime with
increasing depth, but this fact would be still more strikingly exhibited had the samples
been all from one region of the ocean, in which the surface conditions were the same, or
had the samples from the shallower depths near continents and islands been eliminated,
for in these there is always a large admixture of accidental matters derived from land.

The estimated percentage of carbonate of lime due to the presence of the dead shells
of pelagic Foraminifera ranges from 25 to 80, the average being 53*10 ; it will thus be
seen that the great bulk of the carbonate of lime present in Globigerina Oozes is referred

21G

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to the remains of these organisms, which predominate everywhere, and especially in the
deposits from the medium depths of the ocean far from land.

The carbonate of lime attiibuted to the presence of the shells of Foraminifera that
live on the bottom of the sea is estimated to average only 2'13 per cent. The carbonate
of lime derived from organisms other than Foraminifera, such as Molluscs, Echinoderms,
Corals, Sponges, otoliths of fish, calcareous Algae, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths, ranges
from 1‘16 to 3177 per cent., the average being 9 ‘2 4 per cent., and it may be said that
these organisms are especially abundant in the shallower depths of the ocean near land.

In the Tables Globigeriuidae are mentioned in all cases (118), Pulvinulina (117),
Coccoliths (116), Echinoderm fragments (114), Rotalidae (107), Miliolidae (105), Rhab-
doliths (105), Lagenidae (77), Textularidae (71), Ostracodes (64), Pteropods (36),
Nummulinidae (33), otoliths of fish (28), Lamellibranchs (24), Gasteropods (20), Polyzoa
(19), teeth of fish (18), Heteropods (11), Serpula (10), and Coccospheres, calcareous
Algae, Alcyonarian spicules, Cirripeds, Dentalium, Brachiopods, Cymbalopora, and
Cephalopod beaks (1 to 6 cases).

With a more careful and detailed examination in each case, it is probable that the
number of times the above-named organisms occur in the 118 samples would be greatly
increased in the majority of instances. However, the above numbers indicate fairly well
the relative frequency with which the remains of these calcareous organisms are met with
in a Globigerina Ooze during the examination of an average sample. These results, which
are confirmed by the examination of a large number of deposits in addition to those of the
Challenger, show, as already stated, that by far the larger part of the carbonate of lime
in the Globigerina Ooze is derived from the shells of organisms that live in the surface
waters of the ocean, principally pelagic Foraminifera, Molluscs, and calcareous Algae.

The residue is the complement of the carbonate of lime ; where the latter is least the
former is highest, and vice versa. In the above 118 samples the residue ranges from 3 ’20
to 69‘85, and averages 35 ‘53 per cent. The colour of the residues of the Globigerina
Oozes is brown in 65, and red in 30, cases, while in other cases it is chocolate, red-brown,
rose, fawn, black, grey, and green.

The residue consists of —

(«) Siliceous Organisms. — These range from 1 per cent, in the majority of cases to 10
jx*r cent, in 4 cases, the average being 1’64 per cent. The Radiolarian remains are the
most abundant and the most frequent, then follow the remains of Sponge spicules and
the frustules of Diatoms. The arenaceous Foraminifera and the glauconitic and other
easts of cah^areous organisms are also included under this heading.

I'he remains of Radiolarians, Diatoms, and siliceous Sponges are almost always
present in the Globigerina dei>osit8, but it frequently happens that one or other of these
gn)Uj« cannot be detected until a considerable quantity of the deposit has been examined
after removal of the cjirbonate of lime with dilute acid; in some cases all the siliceous

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

217

organisms have apparently disappeared, probably as silicate of lime (Ca0Si02), for it may
be presumed they were once present in the ooze.^ At other times they are found to be
all present in considerable abundance, and in some localities may make up over 10 per
cent, of the whole deposit,

(6) Minerals. — In the Challenger samples the mineral particles range from 1 per cent,
in the majority of cases to 50 per cent, at Station 318, and they average 3‘33 per cent.
The particles themselves range in size from 0’06 mm. to 0'80 mm., the average being
0'089 mm. in diameter. They are in the majority of cases angular, but in 3 cases they
are recorded as rounded, and in 18 cases as rounded aud angular.

In the purest samples of Globigerina Ooze, mineral particles are exceedingly rare, and
consist for the most part of a few minute fragments of felspar, augite or hornblende,
magnetite, volcanic glass, sometimes more or less altered, with which are associated a
small quantity of clayey matter and the oxides of iron and manganese. In the less pure
samples the residue as a whole increases in bulk and the mineral particles become more
numerous, monoclinic and triclinic felspars, augite, olivine, hornblende, and more rarely
white and black mica, bronzite, actinolite, chromite, glauconite, quartz, and cosmic dust
being then met with. Some of these mineral particles are only present in deposits which
are passing, from nearness to land, into terrigenous deposits. In the 118 samples,
magnetite is recorded 95 times, felspars (86), augite (82), glassy volcanic particles (63),
hornblende (58), quartz (49), pumice (45), manganese (37), mica (31), plagioclase (24),
sanidine (21), olivine (19), lapilli (18), glauconite (13), palagonite (10), and enstatite,
bronzite, pyroxene, garnet, actinolite, tourmaline, zircon, microcline, serpentine, phillipsite,
and magnetic spherules (1 to 5 times). Phosphatic and manganese nodules are some-
times dredged from Globigerina Oozes.

(c) Fine Washings. — This portion of the residue varies from 1'20 to 64 ‘62 per cent,
of the whole deposit, the average being 30 ‘5 6 per cent. The following table gives the
average percentage of fine washings in the samples from each zone of 500 fathoms : —

3 cases from depths less than 500

2

from

500 to 1000

13

>9

1000 „ 1500

35

9J

9)

1500 „ 2000

49

}>

99

2000 „ 2500

16

))

over

2500

fathoms, 9 "60 mean per cent.
„ 13-50

„ 30-85

„ 22-72

„ 32-76

„ 47-73

Although not quite regular, this shows a gradual increase in the abundance of fine wash-
ings with increasing depth. In the same way, but not quite regularly, the abundance of
minerals and their size are shown in the 118 samples to be greater in the shallower depths.

^ See Murray and Irvine, “Silica and Siliceous Organisms in Modern Seas,” Proc Roy. Soc. Edin., 1891. It is
manifest that, wherever alkaline sea-water is in contact with oozes made ixp of dead siliceous and calcareous organisms,
solution of silicic acid must take place, alkaline silicates being formed — Si02-I EC03=ESi03-f COg (see also chapter IV.).
(deep sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890). 28

•218

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

As has been already stated, the residue of a Globigerina Ooze is in all essential
particulars the same as a Red Clay from the adjacent regions of the ocean’s bed. The
trawl and dredge brought up from Globigerina Oozes large pumice stones in 12 instances,
manganese nodules 6 times, sharks’ teeth and earbones of Cetaceans 4 times, and more
rarely phosphatic concretions, pebbles, and aggregations of the deposit. Numerous
animals belonging to the fishes and all the invertebrate marine groups have been dredged
and trawled from the Globigerina Oozes, life being apparently much more abundant on
these than on the Red Clay and Radiolarian deposits.

The following shows the average composition of the 118 Challenger samples of
Globiijerina Ooze : —

O

Carbonate of lime,

Pelagic Foraminifera,

- Bottom-living Foraminifera,
Other organisms.

53-10

2-13

9-24

64-47

Residue,

Siliceous organisms,
- Minerals, .

Fine Washings,

1-64

3-33

30-56

35-53

100-00

The analyses of a large number of Globigerina Oozes, presented in the table on the next
page, support the above views as to the composition of the deposit.

The important role [)layed by the remains of calcareous organisms in these deposits
is indicated by the high percentage of the portion soluble in hydrochloric acid, and
•especially by that in the column CaCOg; although the carbonate of calcium varies greatly
in the different specimens of Globigerina Ooze, the annexed analyses show that it usually
forms more than one-half of the whole deposit, and often rises to a much higher limit.
'Fhis high percentage of carbonate of lime might be said to efface in a manner the
.small quantity of other substances mixed with the calcareous organisms. However, the
columns showing the lo.ss on ignition, silica, alumina, and iron, indicate small quantities
•if argillaceous and ferruginous matters, associated with the remains of siliceous organisms.
It may be observe<l that the loss on ignition docs not augment with the proportion of
carbonate of lime, but rather with an incrciise of silica, alumina, and ferric oxide, so that
the larger part of the loss on ignition is rather to be referred to the water combined with
these substances than to organic matters. The sulphate and pho.sphate of calcium in
these analyses are to be attributed, as in the case of the Red Clay, to the presence of
sea- water salts and of phosphatic organic remains. ’I'lierc does not seem to be any
relation between the ])ercentages of carbonate of lime and carbonate of magnesia as
might l>e exj*ected if the carbonate of magnesia played a role in the original constitution

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

219

)

(

■

(

1

220

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of the Glohigerina shells present in these deposits. Take for example a sample with
about the highest percentage of carbonate of lime, 91 ’32 (Station 302), where there is 0*30
per cent, of carbonate of magnesia, while in that with the least carbonate of lime, 37‘51
per cent. (Station 64), there is 1'13 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia.

In examining the insoluble portion of the analyses, it will be seen that, generally
speaking, this portion indicates that the mineral particles are relatively less numerous
than in a Red Clay. In some samples, however, the percentage of silica indicates the
presence of quartz and of silicates in some abundance. In all these respects the analyses
confirm the macroscopic and microscopic examination in showing the presence of silicates,
similar to those in other pelagic deposits, in the residue of a Glohigerina Ooze. This view
is confirmed Ijy the following additional analysis of a Glohigerina Ooze from the Tropical
Pacific, at Station 176, in 1450 fathoms : —

Station.

S T.

'Z £

w 2

No.

SiOj

AIjO,

Fe-jOj

MnOj

CaO

MgO

KjO

NaaO

CO2

H.,0

Cu

Ni

Co

PA

Total.

176

1450

56

17-71

4-86

6-80

1-69

35-08

1-64

0-32

0-65

29-10

2-95

tr.

tr.

tr.

tr.

100-80

In comparing the figures in this analysis with those given in the previous table for a
sample from the same station, there is a coincidence in most cases, but in some cases there
are small divergences which cannot be accounted for by different methods of analysis, and
this shows how samples from the same station may vary in composition. This remark is
applicable also to the results indicated in the Tables of Chapter II,, which again are
<lirtercnt from the results of this complete analysis. It will thus be seen that, notwith-
standing the care taken in selecting a medium sample, we are in reality not dealing with
a homogeneous substance ; this is true for all the deposits, as might be expected, and as
we have already pointed out. However, the examination of the preceding analysis leads
to the same general results as the others ; that is to say, the percentage of carbonate of lime
is that of a Glohigerina Ooze. Along with the carbonate of lime organisms there is a
residue composed of argillaceous matters united with hydrated silica, siliceous organisms,
and anhydrous silicates containing alumina, iron, magnesia, and alkalies, referable to
minerals and fragments of rocks of volcanic origin.

In order to know as exactly as possible the nature of this mineral matter mixed with
the remains of Glohujerinw, the residues of two samples of Glohigerina Ooze have been
submitted to a detailed examination. The samples were in the first place boiled for a long
time in distilled water to remove the soluble .salts. They were then treated with dilute acid

• Tliir fart may be eaaily cxplniiiol : admitting that the carbonate of magnesia comes from the action of the
milidiate of magnesia in tlie sea-water on the Glohiycrina shells, it will be seen that this action must he stronger on a
given quautity of shcllii, when the rate of their dejKjsition is slow than when they arc abundant, and accumulate rapidly
in the dej»o»it. It may, however, l>e urge<l that the carlwnate of magnesia has accumulated in the greater depths simply
from the removal of the ciirlx>nate of lime in solution.

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

221

added in successive small quantities, while the substance was stirred continually, care being
taken to have but a very feeble acid reaction during the operation. In this way there
was obtained, after complete elimination of the carbonates and phosphates, an impalpable
residue presenting a deep brown colour, similar to a Red Clay when wet and yellowish
brown when dry. The physical characters resemble those of an impure argillaceous sub-
stance coloured by iron ; before the blow-pipe it melts into a black vesicular glass, like
ferruginous felspathic mud. These two residues from the Globigerina Ooze of Stations
224 and 338 were then analysed, with the following results : —

a

.S 'S

o

’•P

d

m

CD ci

No.

SiOj

AI2O3

FejOs

M11O2

CaO

MgO

K2O

Na^O

H.n

Ba

P2O5

Total.

224

1850

57

64-16

15-13

8-19

tr.

1-66

1-79

1-01

0-90

7-10

tr.

tr.

99-94

338

1990

59

50-47

18-01

12-75

3-00

1-71

2-44

1-11

1-05

10-93

tr.

tr.

101-47

These two analyses of residues of Globigerina Ooze show, as might be expected,
remembering the variability of the deposits, considerable dilferences in all the substances
estimated. It may be held, however, that these two residues, from the point of view of
their constitution, present a very close analogy with the Red Clay of greater depths.
In short, according to the percentages of water, alumina, and silicic acid, there must
exist in the Globigerina Oozes an argillaceous matter coloured by oxides of iron and
manganese, and mixed with this clay alkaline and other silicates, as shown by microscopic
examination. The composition of this residue is, in fact, similar to a Red Clay. The
materials have the same origin in both cases, — the inorganic portion of a Globigerina
Ooze being, indeed, analogous to a Red Clay.

This conclusion receives further confirmation from the following analysis (No. 59a)
of the portion of the residue soluble in hydrochloric acid, the results of which show
the presence of argillaceous and ferruginous matter in these calcareous deposits. The
Globigerina Ooze at Station 338 was submitted to the action of boiling hydrochloric acid
and a certain quantity of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese was dissolved. After this
operation there remained 2 ’21 grms, of insoluble residue, and the amount dissolved and
re-precipitated by ammonia represented 0‘0487 grm. of silica, 0’0404 grm. of alumina, and
0‘0917 grm, of peroxide of iron.

SiOz . . . . . 26'94 per cent.

ALA 22-34 „

FeA ..... 50-72 „

100-00

The atomic relations of the silica and alumina are here those in which these two

222

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

bodies are met with in clay. The part soluble in hydrochloric acid consists thus of
clay, in addition to carbonates, sulphates, and phosphates, with ferric hydrate and a small
quantity of manganese. In this analysis it is evident that the percentage of iron is"
very high, which is due to the fact that the hydrate of iron is proportionally more
easily attacked by hydrochloric acid than clay properly so called.

The loss on ignition cannot be entirely attributed to water ; a part must be referred
to organic matters and carbonic acid, and a determination was made with the object of
estimating the quality of this organic matter in the Globigerina Ooze from Station 224,
1850 fathoms, the analysis of the residue of which is given above.

(No. 58) 0'9905 grm. of the substance dried at 100° C. lost on ignition 0‘0537 grm. =

5 '42 per cent.

0'9588 gnn. of the substance dried at 100° C. lost on ignition 0'0558 grm. = 5*82 per
cent.

(I.) 0'4413 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., burnt with oxide of copper, gave
0 0453 grm. of carbonic acid, corresponding to 0'01235 grm. of carbon.

(II.) 0'9012 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., mixed with oxide of copper and burnt
in a current of carbonic acid (barometer, 743'95 mm., mean temperature, 22°*5 C.) gave
6*4 cubic centimetres of nitrogen = 0 '0753 grm.

The percentage composition of this organic substance is thus : —

C . . . . . 2'80 per cent.

N . . . . , . 0-785 „

The proportion of carbon and nitrogen in this organic substance is 53 '48 : 15, which
is the proportion of these two elements in albumen.

To conclude then, it may be said that the foregoing analyses confirm the macroscopic
and microscopic observations in showing a Globigerina Ooze to be a deposit formed
essentially of the remains of calcareous organisms, while the portion insoluble in dilute acid
consists of matters similar to those met with in a Red Clay, and having the same origin.

From the state of our knowledge up to the present time it appears that Globigerina
Ooze is one of the most widely distributed of the marine deposits, the area which it
covers being estimated at about 49,520,000 square miles, inferior only to that of the
Red Clay. It attains its maximum development in the Atlantic Ocean, occupying
by far the larger j)ortion of the sea- floor of this ocean, and stretching from within
the Arctic Circle to the Southern Ocean as far as G0° S. latitude. The total area of
Globigerina ( )oze in the Atlantic from north to south is estimated at about 22,500,000
.vjuare miles.

In the Indian Ocean, Globigerina Ooze is estimated to occupy about 12,220,000
.square miles, covering nearly the whole of the western portion of the basin, extending into

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

223

the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal in the north and into the Southern Ocean in the
south.

In the Pacific Ocean, the area covered by Globigerina Ooze is estimated at about
14,800,000 square miles. In the western basin of the Pacific it extends from the
Southern Ocean, in about 55° S. latitude, along the shores of New Zealand and Australia,
in a very irregular and broken manner, to the eastern shores of Japan in the north ;
there is a detached area in the Central Pacific around the Society Islands, a smaller
area extending north-west from the Sandwich Islands, and numerous small detached
patches around the coral island groups. In the south-eastern part of the Pacific, Globi-
gerina Ooze extends westwards from off the Chilian coast of South America, encircling
an extensive area of Red Clay, and joins the area of the western basin south-east of New
Zealand, so that it may be said to extend almost uninterruptedly from the shores of
Japan to the south-west coast of South America.

An examination of the bathymetrical contour hues on Chart 1 shows that the
Globigerina Oozes occupy all the medium depths of the ocean removed from continents
and islands, and is especially developed in those regions where the surface of the sea is
occupied by warm currents, the only development of the deposit in the Arctic regions being
in the track of the northern extension of Gulf Stream waters, where in the Norwegian Sea
this deposit is estimated to cover about 193,000 square miles, the greater part of which
is within the Arctic Circle. It will also be noticed that the deposit is found at greater
depths in tropical regions than in more northern or southern latitudes.

Pteropod Ooze.

This name was employed by Mr. Murray during the cruise of the Challenger to
designate those deep-sea deposits in which a very large part of the calcareous organisms
consists of the dead shells of Pteropods and Heteropods, along with the shells of other
pelagic and larval Molluscs. One of the most remarkable facts discovered by the Chal-
lenger is, that though the remains of these pelagic Molluscs are abundant everywhere in
the surface waters of the tropical and subtropical regions of the ocean, yet their dead
shells are wholly absent from the deposits in all the deeper waters. A few traces of
them may be met with occasionally in depths as great as 2000 fathoms, but it is only in
lesser depths that they make up any appreciable part of a Globigerina Ooze, or are so
abundant as to justify the distinctive name of Pteropod Ooze. As in the warmer regions
the appearance of Pteropod and Heteropod shells in a deposit is associated with a depth
limit and other oceanic phenomena of great interest, it seemed desirable to emphasise
their occurrence in this way. A Pteropod Ooze is then distinguished from a Globigerina
Ooze, with which it has so many points of resemblance, by the presence of these shells.

The following is a list of the Pteropod and Heteropod shells that may be found in a
Pteropod Ooze ; —

224

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Pteropoda.^

Limacina injtata (d’Orbigny).

„ triacantha (Fischer).

,, helicina (Phipps).

,, antarctica. Woodward.

,, helicoidcs, Jeffreys.

„ lesueuri (d’Orbigny).

,, australis (Eydoux and Souleyet).
,, retroversa (Fleming).

,, trochiformis (d’Orbigny).

„ hulimoides (d’Orbigny),

PeracUs reticulata (d’Orbigny).

„ hispinosa, Pelseneer.

Clio (Creseis) virgula (Rang).

,, ( „ ) conica (Eschscholtz).

„ ( „ ) acicula (Rang),

,, ( „ ) chierchiae (Boas).

„ {Hyalocylix) striata (Rang).

„ (Styliola) suhula (Quoy and Gaimard).

Clio andreae (Boas).

,, polita (Craven, MS,).

„ halantium (Rang).

„ chaptali (Souleyet).

,, australis (d’Orbigny).

„ sulcata (Pfeffer).

,, pyramidata, Linne.

„ cuspidata (Bose).

Cuvierina columnella (Rang).

Cavolinia trispinosa (Lesueur).

,, quadridentata (Lesueur).

,, longirostris (Lesueur).

,, globulosa (Rang).

,, gibbosa (Rang).

,, tridentata (ForsMl).

,, uncinata (Rang).

,, injlexa (Lesueur).

Heteropoda.^

Carinaria cristata (Linne).

,, fragilis, St. Vincent.

,, lamarckii, Peron and Lesueur.

,, depressa, Rang.

,, australis, Quoy and Gaimard.

,, galea, Benson.

,, cithara, Benson.

,, punctata, d’Orbigny.

,, gaudichaudii, Eydoux and

Souleyet.

,, atlantica, Adams and Reeve.

„ cornucopia, Gould.

Atlanta peronii, Lesueur.

,, turriculata, d’OiLigny.

,, lesueurii, Eydoux and Souleyet.

,, involuta, Eydoux and Souleyet.

,, irtjlota, Eydoux and Souleyet.

Atlanta inclinata, Eydoux and Souleyet.

,, helicinoides, Eydoux and Souleyet.
„ gibbosa, Eydoux and Souleyet.

„ gaudichaudii, Eydoux and Soule-
yet.

,, fusca, Eydoux and Souleyet.

„ depressa, Eydoux and Souleyet.

„ rosea, Eydoux and Souleyet.

,, quoyana, Eydoux and Souleyet.

,, mediterranea, Costa.

„ violacea, Gould.

,, tessellata, Gould.

„ primitia, Gould.

,, cunicula, Gould.

„ souleyeti. Smith.

Oxygyms keraudrenii (Lesueur).

„ rangii, Eydoux and Souleyet.

In addition to the shells of the species in the above lists, there arc a number of other
.•'hells not usually met with in the deeper Globigerina Oozes, which may be recognised as

* Pelotnecr, Report on the Ptcropoda, Zool. Chnll. Exp., pt. Ixv.

* Hmitli, Report on tlie Ileteropoda, Zool. Chall. Exjh, pt. Ixxii.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

225

contributing to the formation of a Pteropod Ooze, viz., the shells of lanthina, larval
Gasteropods, and the remains of some of the more delicate shells of pelagic Foraminifera,
Candeina nitida, for instance. In one or two soundings of less than 1500 fathoms
far removed from land, the Pteropod, Heteropod, and other delicate shells here referred
to, appear to make up fully 30 per cent, of the deposit. In all deposits near continents
and islands, where tropical oceanic waters occupy the surface, they are more or less
abundant, though not unfrequently their presence is completely masked by the large
quantities of other matters making up the deposits. In consequence of this it arises that
a Pteropod Ooze formed in shallow water far from land differs very widely from one
formed near to a continental shore or around an oceanic island. In oceanic regions the
deposit approaches in constitution to a Globigerina Ooze, being, however, more friable
and granular, and less homogeneous and uniform, from the presence of these larger
shells, but the mineral particles are the same as in a Globigerina Ooze from the same
region. Near the coast line the Pteropod deposits resemble the terrigenous deposits
in the large number of shore materials and organisms which enter into their composition,
the mineral particles being to a great extent the same as in Blue Muds, Green Muds, and
Volcanic Muds, or fragments from coral reefs and calcareous organisms from shallow water
may make up a large part of the deposit.

In the Tables of Chapter II. 13 samples of Pteropod Ooze are described. These range
in depth from 390 fathoms at Station 24 to 1525 fathoms at Station 3, the average being
1044 fathoms.

2 are fi’om depths less than 500 fathoms.

3 „ from 500 to 1000 „

7 „ „ 1000 „ 1500

1 „ over 1500 „

The carbonate of lime ranges from 52'22 per cent, in 900 fathoms to 98'47 per cent, in
1240 fathoms, and averages 79 '25 percent. In these samples it is estimated that the car-
bonate of lime derived from pelagic Foraminifera averages 47T5 per cent, of the whole
deposit, that from the bottom-living Foraminifera 3T5 per cent., and from the other organ-
isms, including the Pteropods, Heteropods, and Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths, 28 ’95 percent.

Globigerinidse, Pidvinulina, Pteropods, and Coccoliths are present in all cases (13),
Miliolidse, Rotalidse, Echinoderm fragments, and Rhabdoliths (12), Textularidse, otoliths
of fish, Gasteropods, Heteropods, and Ostracodes (11), Lageniclse and Lamellibranchs (10),
Polyzoa (8), Dentalium and Coral fragments (4), Nummulinidse and Coccospheres (3),
and Cirripeds, Alcyonarian spicules, and Cephalopod beaks each in one case.

The residue left on removal of the carbonate of lime is red or brown in the majority
of cases, while the deposit itself is white or dirty white in most instances. The average
percentage of the residue is 2075, being complementary to the quantity of carbonate of
lime present.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1890.)

29

2:^0

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

The remains of siliceous organisms in these samples range from 1 per cent, in 6 cases
to 20 per cent, in 1525 fathoms, and the average is 2’89 per cent. They consist of
Sponge spicules, Radiolaria, Diatoms, casts of Foraminifera, and arenaceous Foraminifera.

The mineral particles are all angular, and range from less than 1 to 10 per cent., the
average being 2'85 per cent. In size they vary from 0‘06 to OTO mm. in diameter,
the average being 0'08 mm. These mineral particles consist of magnetite and augite in
11 instances, felspar and hornblende (8), sanidine, volcanic glass, and lapilli (6),
])lagioclase and mica (5), pumice (4), manganese (3), quartz (2), and olivine, altered
mineral particles, and cliloritic scales (l).

The fine washings range from a trace in 1240 fathoms to 4178 per cent, in 900
fathoms, the average being 15’01 per cent.

The average composition of the ChaUeiiger samples of Pteropod Ooze is as follows : —

Pelagic Foraminifera,

47-15

Carbonate of lime, .

<

Bottom-living Foraminifera,

3-15

Other organisms.

28-95

Siliceous organisms, .

2-89

Residue, .

-

Minerals, . . . .

2-85

Fine Washings,

15-01

2075

10000

By comparing this with the table showing the average composition of Globigerina
Ooze on page 218, it will be observed that Pteropod Ooze differs from Globigerina Ooze
in the residue being less abundant and, chiefly, in the relatively large percentage of
calcareous organisms other than Foraminifera.

The Challenger dredges and trawls brought up pieces of pumice in 4 instances from
these deposits, and manganese nodules and organisms coated with manganese in 3 cases,
jis well as a large number of deep-sea animals.

The following three analyses of samples of Pteropod Ooze are from Station 22, 1420
fathoms. Station 23, 450 fathoms, and Station 24, 390 fathoms.

!

Portion

SOLUBLK IN IICl.

Portion insoluble in HCl.

station.

= ■!
•- a

A O

tA

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiO,

1

AI3O3

FcjOs

MnOj

CaCOs

CaSOi

Caa2P04

MgCO,

Total.

22

1420

60

3-80

' 414

4-42

...

80-69

0-41

2-41

0-68

92-76

1 AL203,Fc203,Si02>

. . . 3-45

23

4C0

61

4-00

2-60

1-80

300

...

84-27

1-00

g.tr.

1-28

93-95

I Al303,Fc303i SiOj)

. . . 2-05

24

800

62

2-00

3-65

0-80

3 06

...

82-66

0-73

2-44

0-76

94-10

1 AlgOa^Fe-jOs^SiOa, .

1

. 3-90

In No. 62 the flner ]mrU hod been washed away.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

227

These analyses represent the composition of the three deposits as almost identical.
In the first place, they are specially characterised by the high percentage of carbonate of
lime, much higher than the average percentage in a Globigerina Ooze, which in this case
must be attributed to the presence of Pteropod, Heteropod, and other delicate and larger
shells, which are absent or rare in the last-named deposit. Having regard to the small
quantities of alumina, silica, and iron, there can be but little argillaceous and ferruginous
matters present, and the loss on ignition can most probably be referred to the organic
matter associated with the calcareous shells. There is nothing special to remark regard-
ing the sulphate and phosphate of lime, and carbonate of magnesia. These have, it is
evident, the same origin as in the case of the Globigerina Oozes; it may be noted, how-
ever, that the magnesia does not augment with the proportionally great increase of
carbonate of lime.^

As the soluble portion rises to a mean of more than 93 per cent, of the whole
deposit, few anhydrous minerals could be expected in the insoluble portion, and indeed
no quantitative analysis has been attempted of the 3 per cent, of which it is made up.

With reference to the Pteropod Ooze, it may be here stated that with the view of
determining whether or not these shells contained mineral matters other than carbonate of
lime, an analysis was made of a number of the shells of Cavolinia taken at the surface of
the sea and still containing the animal. After having removed with all possible care the
whole of the animal matter, these shells were analysed, and we were able to detect, in
addition to the carbonate of lime, only traces of iron and of organic matter.

From all the foregoing considerations, then, we arrive at the conclusion that a Pteropod
Ooze differs from a Globigerina Ooze only in the larger percentage of carbonate of lime,
and it has already been pointed out that this is due to the greater abundance of the more
delicate shells of pelagic organisms.

Pteropod Ooze was found by the Challenger Expedition only in the Atlantic Ocean.
It was met with in its most typical form on the central ridges of the Atlantic, where the
depths did not exceed 1400 fathoms; in these regions it is estimated to cover about 400,000
square miles of the sea-floor. Had the Challenger been fortunate enough to discover
similar ridges far from land in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Pacific, they
would in all probability have been found to be covered by Pteropod Ooze. In nearly all
cases these shells are very numerous in the shallower depths near tropical lands, but
usually they are not in sufficient abundance to give a distinctive character to the deposit,
being masked by the large quantity of other more rapidly accumulating materials either
of an organic or inorganic nature. In some exceptional cases, however, as off coral reefs
and oceanic islands, they are sufficiently abundant to allow of the deposit being called a
Pteropod Ooze, for instance, off the Antilles and the Azores in the Atlantic, and off some of

1 See pp. 200, 201.

•228

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the autl other islands of the Pacific. Indeed many inter-tropical islands are apparently
surrounded, between depths of 400 and 1400 fathoms, by deposits which might in most
c-ases be called Pteropod Oozes. In northern temperate and polar regions this deposit
could not occur, as the shells do not live in the surface waters of these regions in sufficient
abundance.

II. Terrigenous Deposits.

At the outset of this chapter it was pointed out that all marine deposits might be
divided into two great groups, viz.. Pelagic and Terrigenous (see pp. 185 and 186). It was
likewise stated that the terrigenous deposits were for the most part made up of materials
immediately derived from the great land masses, which had been subject, in a greater or
less degree, to the mechanical effects of erosion. A very large part of the terrigenous
deposits does not, however, fall to be considered in detail in this work, which is limited to
a description of deep-sea deposits, or, according to our definition of the term, to those
deposits forming in the ocean beyond a depth of 100 fathoms. The terrigenous deposits
of the littoral and shallow-water zones surrounding the land are primarily of the same
nature as those forming in the deep-sea zone. In consequence, however, of the different
physical conditions prevailing in these three zones, the deposits are more diverse,
heterogeneous, local, and coarser in the shallower zones than in the deeper one, for the
deposits become more and more uniform, homogeneous, fine grained, and widely distri-
buted as the deep water of the ocean basins is approached.

It is well known that fresh water carries a much larger amount of sediment in
suspension than salt water, and that wherever a mixture of these waters takes place along
the borders of the continents almost the whole of the sediment falls rapidly to the bottom,
thus contributing a great mass of material to the terrigenous deposits in process of forma-
tion.* ^lurray and Irvine^ have shown that a considerable quantity of clayey matter can
be held in suspension in sea-water, the amount being greater in waters of a low, than in
waters of a high, temperature, and they point out that Radiolarians and Diatoms probably
obtain their silica from this source. This does not, however, in any way lessen the import-
ance of the fact that the great bulk of detrital matters borne from the land to the ocean
is deposited in somewhat close proximity to the coasts. The combined effect of rivers,
winds, waves, currents, and tides on the materials of the land and shallow-water areas, is
to transport all the fine particles out to depths in which they may fall to the bottom in
comparatively still water, and where they may accumulate in the form of various kinds
of muds. AVc have seen that while the depth at which these muds form in enclosed seas

* Th. SchetTCT, Pwjij. Ann, Bd. Ixxxii. p. 419, 1851 ; Fr. Schulze, IhuL, Ikl. cxxix. p. 368, 1866 ; Sidell in Abbot
and IlaniphivyB’ Report on the MiHsiKaippi, Aj)p. A. No. 2, 1876 ; llilgnrd, Amer. Joum. Sci., ser. iii. vol. xvii. p. 205,
l'*7y ; Brewer, “ On the Sulwidence of Particlea in Lifjuiile,” Mem. Nat. Actul. Sci., Washington, vol. ii. p. 165, 1883.

* “Silica and Siliceous Organisms in Modern Seas,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., 1891 ; see also Chapter VI.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

229

or estuaries may be only a few fathoms, yet along all the continental shores facing the
great ocean basins the average depth of the mud-line may be taken at 100 fathoms.

It is then with deposits formed chiefly of the fine detrital matters beyond the 100-
fathom line, which are termed deep-sea terrigenous deposits, that we have especially to
deal in this place. They are laid down on what may be called the continental slope,
or that area of the earth’s surface extending from the 100-fathom line down to the
depressed level of the ocean basins at an average depth of two and a half miles. At
their lower limit they pass gradually into the pelagic deposits without any sharp line of
demarcation, and at their upper limit they are continuous with the shallow-water
deposits of the continental shelf.

The terrigenous deposits as a whole are estimated to cover an area of 28,662,500
square miles of the ocean’s floor, as follows : —

Terrigenous deep-sea deposits (laid down on the continental

slope beyond 100 fathoms), 18,600,000 sq. m.

,, shallow-water ,, (laid down on the continental

shelf within 100 fathoms), . 10,000,000 ,,

,, littoral ,, (laid down between tide

marks), .... 62,500 ,,

Blue Mud.

This name has been adopted for the deposits most frequently met with in the
deeper waters surrounding continental land, and in all enclosed or partially enclosed seas
more or less cut off from free communication with the open ocean. The materials of
which the Blue Muds are principally composed are derived from the disintegration of
continental land, and are very complex in character. When collected this deposit is blue
or slate coloured, with an uj^per red or brown coloured layer, which had been in immediate
contact with the water. The blue colour is due to organic matter and sulphide of iron
in a fine state of division, and these muds have, as a rule, when taken froni the sounding
tube or dredge, a smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. The red or brown colour of the thin
watery upper layer is evidently due to the presence of ferric oxide or ferric hydrate, but
as the deposit accumulates this oxide is transformed into sulphide and ferrous oxide in
the presence of organic matter in the underlying layers. When dried the deposit becomes
grey or brown, owing to the oxidation of the sulphide of iron. Sometimes the samples
are homogeneous, at other times the aspect is heterogeneous, owing to the presence of
large fragments of rocks and shells and small fragments of calcareous organisms. When
wet the deposit may be plastic, and behave like a true clay, but as a rule these muds may
be described rather as earthy than as clayey. They may contain from only a trace to
35 per cent, of carbonate of lime.

‘230

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Amoug the Challenger deposits described in the Tables of Chapter II. there are
58 examples of Blue ]\Iud. These range from 125 to 2800 fathoms, the average depth
l)cin£3: 1411 fathoms.

O

12 ai’e from depths less than 500 fathoms.

6

»

from

500 to 1000

if

15

if

i>

1000 „ 1500

»

6

»

)i

1500 „ 2000

a

20

»

if

2000 „ 2500

if

9

»

over

2500

a

27 of these examples are called blue-grey in colour, and 18 grey.

The carl)onate of lime ranges from the merest trace in 2650 fathoms and lesser depths
to 34’34 per cent, in 500 fathoms, the average being 12*48 per cent. This would seem
to indicate a gradual decrease in the quantity of carbonate of lime with increase of
depth, as in the case of purely pelagic deposits, but arranging the percentages in groups
of 500 fathoms, it will be seen that there is a marked departure from this rule, as might
indeed be expected, considering the varied origin of these coast deposits and the varying
amount of river detritus and oro^anic remains in different situations.

O

Under 500 fathoms,

From 500 to 1000 „

„ 1000 „ 1500

„ 1500 „ 2000

„ 2000 „ 2500

Over 2500 ,,

10‘61 average per cent. CaCOg.
10-85
18-94
9-41
10-86
10-53

Of the organisms which yield the carbonate of lime in these Blue Muds the pelagic
Foraminifera make up on an average 7*52 per cent., the bottom-living Foraminifera 1*75
per cent., and other carbonate of lime remains 3*21 per cent. In some cases the pelagic
Foraminifera make up as much as 25 per cent, of the whole deposit, while in others no
trace of them can be detected. The bottom-living Foraminifera may make up 10 per cent.,
and, again, the other calcareous remains 16 per cent, of the deposit. The shells of pelagic
species, which make up so large a part of a Globigerina Ooze, are not abundant nor
univci’sally distributed in the Blue ]\Iuds, the remains of shallow-water or bottom-living
organisms predominating in many ca.ses. The organisms most frequently mentioned are the
shells of Globigerinidm, Rotalidac, Lagenidai, Miliolidae, Textularidm, Nummulinidae, Lamel-
libranchs, Gasteropods, Ostracodes, Echinoderm fragments, Coccoliths, and Rhabdoliths.

The residue left after treating the deposits with dilute hydrochloric acid is chiefly
brown f)r grey ; in 19 ca.ses it was a shade of l)rown, in 15 a shade of grey, in 7 it was
green, and in 5 it was blue. In 9 cases there was no carbonate of lime or only traces,
and con.scqucntly no residue apart from the deposit itself. The mean percentage of

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

231

residue is 87 ‘52, and the range with respect to depth is the reverse of that given for the
carbonate of lime.

With reference to the siliceous organisms in the Blue Muds, these are estimated in
the Tables as ranging from 1 per cent, in several instances to 15 per cent, in two cases,
the average for the whole being 3 ’27 per cent. These organic remains consist of the
frustules of Diatoms, Radiolarians, Sponge spicules, arenaceous Foraminifera, and casts of
the carbonate of lime organisms in glauconite or some allied silicate.

The mineral particles are mostly derived from the adjacent lands, and consist largely
of the fragments and minerals of the various rocks forming the continents. The size of
the mineral and rock particles varies much with the position ; they are as a rule larger
near the shore, and smaller as the deep sea is approached, except in those regions
affected by floating ice. More than half of the deposit is in many cases made up of the
mineral particles, consisting largely of rounded grains of quartz.

In the Challenger samples the mineral particles are stated to be angular in 32 cases,
rounded in 3 cases, and in 21 cases to be angular and rounded. The size varies from
0'06 to 0’30 mm. in diameter, and the average diameter is 0'115 mm. The percentage
is very variable, ranging from 1 per cent, in several cases to 75 per cent, in one
instance, the mean percentage being 22*48.

It may be noticed here that quartz particles, which are relatively rare, not discernible,
or absent in typical pelagic deposits, are the most abundant among the mineral particles of
these terrigenous deposits, which are further characterised by the presence of particles of
older crystalline or schisto-crystalline rocks, quartzite, sandstones, limestones. Among the
minerals we observe, besides quartz, orthoclase and plagioclase, green hornblende, augite,
white and black mica, epidote, chloritic scales, zircon, tourmaline, &c. Glauconite cannot
be considered characteristic of Blue Muds, but is to be found in nearly all of them,
though in limited quantity compared with what is met with in those other terrigenous
deposits called Green Muds.

The fine washings range from 16*11 per cent, to 97*00 per cent., the average being
61*77 per cent. The fine washings in the Blue Muds are probably always less abundant
than in the Red Clays and Radiolarian Oozes.

The following table is arranged to show the average percentage of the minerals and
fine washings, as also the average size of the mineral particles, for successive groups of
500 fathoms : —

Under 500 fathoms,

Minerals.

29-08

Size.

0-137 mm.

Fine Washings.

53-22

500 to 1000

30-18

0-102 „

56-48

1000 „ 1500

19-77

0-118 „

58-29

1500 „ 2000

23-33

0-115 „

62-25

2000 „ 2500

18-00

0-119 „

66-23

Over 2500 „

16-89

0-087 „

69-46

232

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

It will be noticed that the fine washings increase with the depth, while the abundance
of mineral particles and their mean diameter are irregular, though on the whole they
diminish in size and abundance with greater depth and greater distance from land, where
the sea is not afiected by floating ice. It must be noticed also that in the neighbour-
hootl of some continental shores, where there are many volcanic rocks, the deposits are
made up to a great extent of the disintegrated parts of these rocks, and thus cannot be
distinguished from the Volcanic Muds formed around volcanic islands.^

The following table shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of
Blue ]\Iud, and it will lie seen that, compared with the similar table for Ked Clay, the

percentage of minerals is much higher and the fine washings less abundant

: —

1

r Pelagic Foraminifera, .

7-52

Carbonate of lime, <

Bottom-living Foraminifera, .

1-75

1

[ Other organisms,

3-21

12-48

1

( Siliceous organisms,

3-27

Residue, . . ^

Minerals,

. 22-48

1

[Fine washings,

. 61-77

87-52

100-00

The following are analyses of two samples of Blue Mud, one from the Pacific, the
other from the Atlantic : —

'

POimoX SOLUBLE IN

HCI.

Portion insoluble in HCI.

_o

5

r.

Doiitli in
Fathoms.

No.

I Loss on
1 Ignition.

OJ

p

AI..O3

FC3O3

MnO.

CaCOa

CaSOj

Ca-32POj

MgCOa

Total.

SiO..

AI0O3

FeoOa

CaO

MgO

Total.

■•213

1

2050

63

4-92 23 •52

:

775

7-50

g. tr.

1-75

0-68

tr.

1-14

42-24

39-84

7-33

3-73

1-63

0-31

52-84

I3-23

j

1900

04

5-0O : 28-20

5-50

5-61

2-94

0-42

1-39

0-76

44-82

36-00

8-05

2-77

2-51

0-25

49-58

No. 63 Ls of niau-rial obtained from the trawl, No. 64 from tow-net at trawl.

These two analyses show a striking difference when compared with those of jielagic
deposits. The quantity of insoluble residue is much greater than the average in deposits
from similar depths further removed from land, for it will be seen that it makes up in
these two wises about one-half of the deposits. This indicates a higher percentage of
mineral jairticles not decomposaljle by hydrochloric acid, and may be attributed to the
presence of the minerals and rocks from continental lands, in which quartz plays the
most important part, thus being in accord with what we have just said as to the origin of
this deposit. In the portion soluble in acid we have the hydrated silicate of alumina and
ferric oxide, but in these two analyses the percentages of these substances are less than

> See PI. XI. fiK'. 2 ; PI. XXVII. fig. 4.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

233

the average found in a Red Clay. The excess of silica must, as in the other deposits,
be attributed to the presence of siliceous organisms. The carbonate of lime is due, as in
pelagic deposits, to the shells of calcareous organisms ; the presence of carbonate of mag-
nesia and sulphate and phosphate of lime is to be interpreted in the same manner as in the
case of these substances in the pelagic deposits.^ In the insoluble portion the excess of
silica must be attributed to quartz, but besides there are present anhydrous silicates, which
microscopic examination showed to be monoclinic and triclinic felspars, mica, augite,
magnetite, hornblende, and the debris of pumice.

An additional analysis of a sample of the Blue Mud from Station 323, in 1900
fathoms, gave the following results : —

station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

SiOa

AloOs

FeaOg

Phosphoric and
Sulphuric Acids.

CaO

MgO

K2O

NajO

Loss on
Ignition.

Total.

323

1900

65

59-54

19-42

7-15

traces.

1-68

1-93

1-35

2-68

6-24

99-99

If this analysis be compared with the preceding one from the same station, some
differences will be perceived, the total amount of silica in analysis No. 64 being 64'20
per cent., and in No. 65, 59'54 per cent. ; alumina, 13'55 per cent, and 19*42 per cent.
Although the general result may lead in the two cases to the same interpretation as
to the essential mineralogical composition of the deposit, these divergences show how
much different samples of the deposit may vary even from the same dredging, and how
difficult it is to pronounce upon the mineral nature of a deposit solely by chemical
analysis. The variations in the composition of the deposit from the same trawling or
dredging may arise from some portions being from deeper layers than others, or from
differences of depth and position when the instrument was being dragged over several
miles. The mode of collection and preservation, by separating the finer and coarser parts
of the same sample, may also give rise to differences in the analyses. This remark may
be applied to all the deposits, as already stated, but particularly to the terrigenous
deposits which, according to the conditions of formation, are seldom so homogeneous as
the pelagic deposits.

The Blue Muds surround nearly all coasts and fill nearly all enclosed seas, like the
Mediterranean, and even the Arctic Ocean ; of all the terrigenous deposits they occupy
by far the largest area of the earth’s surface, being estimated to cover about 14,500,000
square miles, of which the Arctic Ocean would contain about four millions of square miles,
the Pacific three millions, the Atlantic two millions, the Indian one and a half millions,
the Southern one and a half millions, and the Antarctic about two and a half millions of
square miles. The geographical position of these muds is represented on Chart 1.

^ See pp. 200, 201.

(dSJP-SEA deposits CHAI.L, EXP. 1890.)

30

234

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Red Mud.

Along the Brazilian coast of South America the terrigenous deposits oflf shore arc
different from the deposits found in similar positions along other continents, in that they
are all of a red-brown or brick-red colour, in place of blue or green coloured, as is
usually the case. The red colour of the deposits appears to be produced by the large
quantity of ochreous matter carried into the ocean by the Amazon, Orinoco, and
other South American rivers, and distributed by oceanic currents along these coasts.
Although organic matters are probably as abundant in these as in the deposits along
other coasts, still they do not seem to be sufficient to reduce the whole of the peroxide
of iron to the state of protoxide, nor does sulphide of iron accumulate here as in the
case of the Blue Muds, in both of which respects these Red Muds resemble the Red Clays
of the abysmal regions. It is a remarkable fact that we do not find in these red deposits
a trace of the green coloured glauconitic casts of Foraminifera and other calcareous
organisms, nor any of the glauconite grains which usually accompany these casts in
other terrigenous deposits. There are a few spicules of siliceous Sponges, but frustules
of Diatoms and the remains of Radiolarians are exceedingly rare, or wholly absent. As
regards the calcareous organisms, and mineral particles other than glauconite, they do
not appear to differ from those present in the Blue or Green Muds.

Of these Red Muds 10 samples are described in the Tables of Chapter II. These are
from depths varying from 120 to 1200 fathoms, the average depth being 623 fathoms.

3 are from less than 500 fathoms.

5 ,, between 500 and 1000 ,,

2 „ over 1000 „

In colour they are all red-brown. The carbonate of lime in these samples ranges from
5 75 to 6079 per cent., the average being 32'28 per cent. The amount of carbonate of
lime in the different samples is more in relation to the nearness or distance from the
mouths of rivers than to the depth from which the samples were taken. The carbonate
of lime derived from the sliells of pelagic Foraminifera ranges from 3 to 30 per cent., the
average being 13‘44 percent.; that derived from bottom-living Foraminifera ranges from
1 to 8 per cent., and averages 3'33 per cent.; that from other organisms ranges from 175
to 4075 per cent., the average being 15‘51 per cent.

'riic residue is in all cases reddish brown or yellow; it ranges from 39‘21 to 94’25
per cent, of the whole deposit, the average being 6772 per cent. Siliceous organisms
are relatively very rare, and in no case are they estimated to make up more than 1 per
cent, of the wliole deposit ; they consist almost exclusively of Sponge spicules and a few
arenaceous Foraminifera. With some doubtful exceptions. Diatoms were not observed
during the examination of these deposits.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

235

The mineral particles range from 10 to 25 per cent., the average being 21 T1 per
cent. The particles are rounded and angular ; in size they vary from 0 '07 to 0*30 mm. in
diameter, the average being 0'15 mm. Quartz is the most abundant mineral, and the
other minerals are similar to those found in the other terrigenous deposits along con-
tinental shores.

The fine washings range from 28‘21 to 68‘25 per cent., the average being 45‘61
per cent.

By arranging the amount of minerals, their size, and the fine washings according
to depth, it is seen that the mineral particles are larger and the amount of fine washings

less in the shallower depths.

Minerals.

Size.

Fine Washings.

Under 500 fathoms, . 20 per cent.

0‘30 mm.

33 "37 per cent.

500-1000

,, . 20 ,,

0T26 „

49-04

Over 1000

jj • 25 ,,

0-075 „

49-24

The following table shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of Red
Mud : —

( Pelagic Foraminifera, .... 13 '44

Carbonate of lime, \
1

Bottom-living Foraminifera,
[ Other organisms, .

r Siliceous organisms.

.

3-33

15-51

32-28

1-00

Residue, . . <

Minerals, .

[ Fine washings,

.

21-11

45-61

67-72

10000

The following analysis was made to determine the chemical composition of a Bed
Mud, from Station 120, 675 fathoms: —

g 1 station.
° 1

Deptli in
Fathoms.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiOa

AI2O3

Fe^Oa

CaO

MgO

NaaO

K2O

SO3

CO,

Cl.

Total.

675

54

6-02

31-66

9-21

4-52

25-68

2-07

1-63

1-33

0-27

17-13

2-46

101-98

In combining the carbonic acid with the oxide of calcium indicated by the analysis
we obtain 38 '93 per cent, of carbonate of calcium, with an excess of oxide of calcium,
which may come from the silicates containing lime, or from the phosphate and sulphate
of lime. There must be, according to the analysis, a relatively large quantity of argillaceous
matter and hydrated peroxide of iron in the deposit, and free silica in the form of quartz
or hydrated silica from organic remains. The presence of alkalies indicates that alkaline
silicates are among the minerals, as indeed was shown by microscopic analysis, but a good

•236

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

deal of the percentage of alkalies must be referred to the presence of sea-salts retained in
the deposits, as is shown by the following experiment.

In speaking of the analyses of Red Clay and Globigerina Ooze, it was pointed out
that, in their examination, the sea-salts that might be retained in the deposits should be
taken into account. In order to arrive at an approximate notion on this point, the
following determinations were made with a specimen of the Red Mud from Station 120,
675 fathoms, of which we have just given the analysis. The substance was washed with
warm and cold distilled water till the water no longer gave the reaction of chlorine. It
was afterwards pulverised and treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids. 1 ’4088 grms.
of substance dried at 100° C. gave 0‘0496 grm. of chloride of sodium and potassium, and
0T013 grm. of chloroplatinate of potassium, which corresponds to 0'0195 grm. of oxide
of potassium and 0'0099 grm. of oxide of sodium —

[No. 55.] Na.jO . . . .070 per cent.

K2O .... 1-38

In comparing this analysis with that given above, so far as regards the alkalies, it will
be seen that there is about 1 per cent, more oxide of sodium in the unwashed than in
the washed sample, which is doubtless due to the presence of chloride of sodium.

The Red Muds probably occupy along the Brazilian coast about 100,000 square miles
of the sea-bed. Similar red deposits are formed in the Yellow Sea off the Chinese coast
near the mouth of the Yang-tse-kiang.

Green Muds and Sands.

In their composition, origin, and distribution these deposits resemble in many
respects the Blue and Red Muds. Their chief characteristic is the presence in them of
a greater or less abundance of glauconitic grains and glauconitic casts of the calcareous
organism.s. There is also in these muds, mixed with glauconite, a greenish amorphous
matter, which in part at least appears to be of an organic nature, for it blackens on being
heated on platinum foil, lea\nng an ash coloured by oxide of iron. These muds and
.sands are almost always develoi)ed along bold and exposed coasts, where no very large
rivers pour their detrital matters into the sea.

The collections of the “Tuscarora” indicate that in depths of 100 to 400 fathoms, ofi'
the coast of California, there are l>lack sands which, if the specimens be in the state in which
they were collected, are almost wholly composed of particles of dark green glauconite.
The average <liametcr of the grains is about 0’6 mm., and mixed with them are a few
Foraminifera and mineral j)articles of the same dimensions. It is rare, however, to find
pure glauconitic sands like these, for the deposits contain, as a rule, many remains of
cxilcareous organisms, mineral particles from the continental rocks, and a considerable

EEPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

237

quantity of clayey matter. This fine clayey or detrital matter appears always to be
less abundant than in a characteristic Blue Mud. These Green Muds and Sands do not
occur in very deep water ; deposits which may be classed under this head are usually
met with between the depths of 100 and 900 fathoms. It is true that glauconite is
found in both lesser and greater depths than these, but not in sufficient abundance to
constitute a Green Mud or Sand. Along coasts where Green Muds are laid down pelagic
conditions appear to approach much nearer to the shores than where the Blue Muds
prevail; to such an extent is this the case, that were it not for the presence of glauconite
and the nature of the mineral particles, many of the Green Muds might equally well be
called Globigerina Oozes.

Whenever there is a large quantity of ferric hydrate in a terrigenous deposit, as
off the Brazilian shores, or whenever the deposit is chiefly made up of river detritus
that bears evidence of having accumulated at a rapid rate, glauconitic matter is either
absent or only developed to a very small extent, and, as has already been pointed out,
it is rare or absent in pelagic deposits. On the other hand, when there is a large
number of the fragments of ancient rocks that have apparently been for a long time
exposed to the action of sea-water, and have consequently undergone much alteration,
then glauconitic grains and glauconitic casts of the calcareous organisms are usually
abundant ; phosphatic coneretions are also found in the same positions, and there is always
evidence of other organic matters. These conditions are as a rule met with along high
and bold coasts removed from the embouchures of large rivers, as has already been stated.

Green Muds. — In the Tables of Chapter II. there are described 22 samples of Green
Mud. The depths range from 100 to 1270 fathoms, the average being 513 fathoms.

13 are from less than 500 fathoms.

6 ,, depths between 500 and 1000 „

3 ,, over 1000 „

In the majority of cases the colour is green, or a tinge of green ; two samples are
described as of a grey colour.

The carbonate of lime ranges from a trace in several cases to 56*18 per cent., the
average being 25*52 per cent. In depths under 500 fathoms the mean percentage is 23*9*2,
from 500 to 1000 fathoms it is 25*77, and in depths over 1000 fathoms, 32*73, so that
there is an increase of carbonate of lime with increasing depth and distance from the
shore. The carbonate of lime derived from the shells of pelagic Foraminifera ranges
from 1 to 35 per cent., the average being 14*59 per cent. ; that derived from bottom-
living Foraminifera ranges from 1 to 15 per cent., the average being 2*94 per cent. ;
that derived from the remains of other organisms ranges from 1 to 31*18 per cent., and
averages 7*99 per cent.

238

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The residue of the Green Muds, after the removal of the carbonate of lime, ranges
from 43‘82 to 100 per cent., the average being 74’48 per cent., and is of a distinct green
colour.

The siliceous organisms range from 1 to 50 per cent., the average being 13‘67 per
cent., and consist of the remains of Diatoms, Eadiolaria, Sponge spicules, arenaceous
Foraminifera, and the glauconitic casts of the calcareous organisms.^

The mineral particles range from 1 to 80 per cent, of the whole deposit, the average
being 27 '11 per cent. With the exception of the glauconite grains they are mostly
angular, varying in diameter from 0'06 to 0*20 mm., the average being 0*13 mm.
Quartz, monoclinic and triclinic felspars, magnetite, hornblende, and augite are the most
abundant, but the presence in these Green Muds of tourmaline, zircon, and garnet is
very characteristic, and we may say the same of the fragments of continental rocks
which are also very frequent.^ It may be noticed that in the Green Sands there are
frequently nodules and smaller concretions of phosphate of calcium.®

The fine washings vary from 9 '69 to 84'05 per cent., the average being 33 '70 per
cent.

The following table gives the average percentage of minerals and fine washings and
the average size of the minerals allocated to depth : —

Under 500 fathoms, .

From 500 to 1000 fathoms.
Over 1000 fathoms, .

Minerals.

29 '60 per. cent.

26*16

17-50

9J

Size.

0'145 mm.
0'126 „
O'lOO „

Fine Washings.

24*17 per cent.

44*89

47*76

99

99

It will be seen that the percentage of minerals and the size decrease with increase of
depth, while the percentage of fine washings increases.

In the dredge pumice was obtained in two cases, pebbles in one, and hardened pieces
of the bottom in one case.

The following shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of Green
Mud

/ Pelagic Foraminifera, .... 14‘59

Carbonate of lime, Bottom-living Foraminifera, . . . 2 94

( Other organisms, ..... 7‘99

2552

Residue,

f Siliceous organisms,
y Minerals, .

( Fine washings.

13-67*

27-11

33-70

74-48

100-00

* See PI. XXV. « See PI.* XXVI. * See PI. XX. fig. 1.

* The larger nunil>cr of oiliceouB organifiniH compared with these in Blue and Red Muds (see pp. 232 and 235) is
due to the glauconitic caste of the Foraminifera.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

239

Green Sands. — In addition to the deposits called Green Muds in the Tables of
Chapter II. , there are 7 samples which have been called Green Sands. These differ from
the Green Muds chiefly in being more granular in appearance, owing to the relatively
small quantity of amorphous matter present in them. They are found usually in shallower
water than the muds, and in positions where the particles are occasionally at least set in
motion by the action of waves and currents. All these samples are from depths less than
900 fathoms, the average depth being 449 fathoms. The average percentage of carbonate
of lime in these Green Sands is 49 '78 ; — 21 ‘00 per cent, of this derived from pelagic
Foraminifera, 15 per cent, from bottom-living Foraminifera, and 13 ‘7 8 per cent, from the
remains of other calcareous organisms — being thus much higher than in the Green Muds.

The residue is greenish in colour, and makes up 50 ‘2 2 per cent, of the whole deposit.
The siliceous organisms average 8 per cent., due to the presence of glauconitic casts of
calcareous organisms, while the mineral particles average 30 per cent., and the fine
washings 12’22 per cent. The average size of the mineral particles is 0‘2 mm., somewhat
larger than in the Green Muds.

The following shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of Green
Sand : —

Carbonate of lime,

Residue, .

Pelagic Foraminifera,

21-00

Bottom-living Foraminifera,

15-00

Other organisms, .

13-78

Siliceous organisms.

800

Minerals, ....

30-00

Fine washings,

12-22

49-78

50-22

10000

The following analyses are of two of the best examples of a Green Sand and a Green
Mud met with during the Expedition, the one being from Station 164b, in 410 fathoms,
off the coast of Australia, the other from Station 141 in 98 fathoms, off the Cape of
Good Hope : —

Portion soluble in HCl.

Portion insoluble

IN HCl.

station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiOa

AI2O3

Fe203

CaCOj

CaS04

Ca32P04

MgCOs

Total.

SiOa

AI2O3

FcaOa

CaO

MgO

Total.

U1

98

66

9-10

8-35

2-30

4-70

49-46

1-07

tr.

2-02

67-90

21-35

0-95

0-35

0-22

0-13

23-00

164b

410

67

3-30

9-28

2-50

12-30

46-36

0-58

0-70

0-57

72-29

21-99

1-58

0-42

0-30

0-12

24-41

No. 67 is of material from the dredge.

In the first place, there is to be noted the relatively high percentage of carbonate of

240

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lime, much higher than what is usually met with in a Blue Mud, this being due, as has
just been pointed out, to the presence of pelagic shells, which here approach nearer to
the coasts than where blue mud deposits prevail. The insoluble portion, it will be seen
from the analyses, must be almost exclusively made up of grains of quartz, since the
alumina, the iron, the lime, and magnesia do not form more than a small fraction of this
insoluble residue. The high percentage of insoluble silica shows that the mineral
particles come from continental rocks, and not, as in the case of typical pelagic forma-
tions, from the disintegration of volcanic products. The felspar fragments indicated by
the microscopical examination are also derived from 'ancient crystalline rocks, in which
potash is a dominant base, and which doubtless furnish by their alteration one of the
necessary elements in the constitution of glauconite, so characteristic of these Green
Muds. We will refer to this fact in the chapter on the mineralogical composition and
mode of formation of glauconite.

The Challenger met with Green Muds and Sands off the coast of Portugal, off the
east coast of North America, off the Cape of Good Hope, off the coasts of Australia,
Japan, and South America. By other expeditions they have been discovered off the
Californian coast of America, off the eastern coast of Africa, and in many other regions.
The Green ]\Iuds and Sands would appear to form an interrupted band along many
continental shores at the upper edge of the continental slope, and the estimated area
occupied by these deposits is about 1,000,000 square miles of the sea-bottom, including
those occurring in the shallow-water zone in depths less than 100 fathoms.

Volcanic Muds and Sands.

Around oceanic islands of volcanic origin the deposits consist in a large measure of
the rocks and minerals arising from the disintegration of the volcanic rocks of the
islands. Near shore, within the region of wave action, these are largely sands, composed
of volcanic material and the fragments of calcareous organisms, the mean diameter of
which may be from 0’5 mm. to several millimetres according to situation. In deeper
water, further from the islands, the mineral particles become less abundant and smaller,
while pelagic organisms, such as Glohigerina shells, Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths, and
Ptcropo<l shells, increase in number, so that the deposit assumes the character of a mud
in which there is a considerable quantity of clayey and calcareous matter. They are
light grey, brown, or l)lack in colour, and have an earthy rather than a clayey character.
Tlu«e deposits may be found along any coast where volcanic rocks prevail, but they
are chanu-teristically developed around the volcanic Islands of the great ocean basins.
In general appearance and composition they present great variety, depending on position,
depth, and the organic remains that take part in their formation. In some regions

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

241

they pass insensibly into Blue and Green Muds, in others into Coral Muds and Sands,
or with increasing depth into Globigerina, Pteropod, and Diatom Oozes or Red Clays —
their chief characteristic being the relative abundance of volcanic materials.

Volcanic Muds. — There are 38 examples of Volcanic Muds among tho Challenger
soundings and dredgings, described in the Tables of Chapter II. In depth these range
from 260 to 2800 fathoms, the average depth being 1033 fathoms. Of these —

9 are under 500 fathoms.

13 „ from 500 to 1000 ,,

7 „ „ 1000 „ 1500

3 „ „ 1500 „ 2000

2 „ „ 2000 ,, 2500

4 „ over 2500 „

The colour of these deposits was in the majority of cases brown or grey. In
depths between 2000 and 2800 fathoms there was only a trace of carbonate of lime, but
in one sample from 260 fathoms there was 56‘59 per cent., the average percentage in
these Volcanic Muds being 20'49. Arranged in groups of 500 fathoms, the mean per-
centages of carbonate of lime are as follows

In less than 500 fathoms.

From 500 to 1000 ,,

„ 1000 „ 1500

„ 1500 „ 2000

„ 2000 „ 2500

Over 2500 ,,

24;69 average per cent. CaCOg.

26-04

20-34

3?

31-30

33

trace.

trace..

The carbonate of lime derived from pelagic Foraminifera is in some cases as high as
35 per cent., the average being 10*50 per cent. ; that from bottom-living Foraminifera
ranges as high as 10 per cent., the average being 2-82 per cent. ; that from the remains
of other organisms ranges to 21-59 per cent., and averages 7*17 per cent.

The amount of residue varies from 43 "41 to nearly 100 per cent., averaging 79-51
per cent., and is usually brown or black. The siliceous organisms range from 1 to 5 per
cent., the average being 1-82 per cent., and consist of Radiolaria, Sponge spicules,
Diatoms, and arenaceous Foraminifera. True glauconitic casts or characteristic glauconitic-
grains have not been observed in typical Volcanic Muds.

The mineral particles make up from 5 to 75 per cent, of the whole deposit, the
average being 40-82 per cent. The particles are nearly always angular, and have a mean
diameter of 0-11 mm., the range being from 0-06 to 0-20 mm. Quartz is mentioned only
once and glauconite twice, but, as above stated, typical glauconite grains may be said to
be absent.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

31

242

TIIE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The fine washings vary from 15 ‘3 7 to 6070 per cent., the average being 36 ’87
per cent.

The following table shows the average percentages of minerals and fine washings and
the average size of the mineral particles, arranged in groups of 500 fathoms, and it will
be observed that there is no definite relation between the size and abundance of either

of these and the depth ; —

Minerals. Size.

Under

500

fathoms.

42*00 per cent.

0*126

mm,

From

500 to 1000

99

27*22

0*09

99

J9

1000 „ 1500

99

55*00

0*11

99

99

1500 „ 2000

99

28*33

0*09

9 9

99

2000 „ 2500

99

45*00

0*20

99

Over

2500

9 9

57*00

0*125

99

Fine Washings.
31*51 per cent.
45-07 „

23*49 „

38*70 „

52*00 „

40*00 „

The following table shows the average
Volcanic Mud : —

composition of the

Challenger samples of

Carbonate of lime,

Residue,

Pelagic Foraminifera, .
Bottom-living Foraminifera,
Other organisms, .

Siliceous organisms.
Minerals,

Fine washings.

10-50

2-82

7*17

20-49

1-82

40-82

36-87

79-51

100-00

Volcanic Sands. — Within depths of 500 fathoms there are in the Tables of Chapter II.
7 samples which are called Volcanic Sands. These sands are found in positions where the
particles making up the deposit are set in motion by the action of waves and currents, so
that the finer materials are carried away into deeper or stiller water. It thus arises that
these sands differ from the Volcanic Muds chiefly in the absence of the fine clayey and
calcareous matter so abundant in the muds. The seven samples above referred to range from
100 to 420 fathoms, the average depth being 243 fathoms. The percentage of carbonate
of lime in these samples ranges from 6*93 to 71*65, the average being 28*79. Of this
carbonate of lime the proportion due to the presence of the shells of pelagic Foraminifera
is estimated to range from 2 to 50 per cent., the average being 13 per cent. ; that
derived from the shells of Ijottom-living Foraminifera ranges from 1 to 5 per cent., and
averages 3*80 per cent.; that due to the presence of other organisms varies from 2*93 to
16*65 per cent., the average being 11*99.

The residue of these sands is black or brown in colour, and makes up from 28*35 to
93 07 per cent, of the whole of the deposit, the average being 71*21 per cent.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

243

The siliceous organisms range from 1 to 3 per cent., averaging 1‘40 j^er cent.

The mineral particles consist of angular and rounded particles with a mean diameter
of 0‘34 mm. They make up from 25 to 80 per cent, of these sands, the average per^
centage being 60.

The fine washings vary from 2"35 to 18 '86 per cent., the average being 9’81 per cent.

The following table gives the average percentage composition of the Challenger samples
of Volcanic Sand, and comparison with the similar table given for the Volcanic Muds
shows the difierence to consist chiefly in the larger number of mineral particles and the
less abundance of the fine washings.

Pelagic Foraminifera, .

. 1300

Carbonate of lime,

Bottom-living Foraminifera, .

3-80

Other organisms, .

. 11-99

28-79

Siliceous organisms.

1’40

Residue,

Minerals, ....

. 60-00

Fine washings.

9-81

71-21

100-00

The mineral fragments in these muds and sands are variable as to their nature, being
determined by the mineralogical composition and structure of the volcanic rocks or
volcanoes in the neighbourhood of which they are formed. The most characteristic are
sanidine, plagioclases, augite, hornblende, rhombic pyroxenes, olivine, and magnetite.
Among the lapilli the most frequent are those belonging to the basaltic and andesitic
series of rocks, especially those belonging to the vitreous varieties, and they are often
decomposed into palagonitic matter. The pumice fragments usually present may, from
the manner in which pumice floats, be derived from distant sources, and from the lands
in the immediate neighbourhood of the deposit. Generally the fragments of minerals
enumerated above are more or less enveloped by vitreous matter frequently altered by
hydration. These points will be dealt with in greater detail when describing specially the
rocks and minerals of marine deposits.

The following table gives the analyses of three Volcanic Muds : — -

Portion soluble in HCl.

Portion insoluble in HCl.

station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiOa

AI2O3

FejOs

Mn02

CaCO^

CaS04

Ca32P04

MgCOs

Total.

SiOa

AI2O3

Fe203

CaO

MgO

Total.

VIlB.

640

68

4-94

10-76

5-91

7-02

35-68

1-05

0-52

2-04

62-98

19-17

4-30

5-38

2-58

0-65

32-08

VIlT.

1750

69

6-30

11-71

5-71

7-14

41-43

1-15

g.tr.

1-43

68-57

15-84

3-71

3-43

1-43

0-72

25-13

VIII.

620

70

6-22

16-22

5-00

11-69

tr.

32-22

0-27

1. tr.

0-83

66-23

17-90

4-22

3-77

1-44

0-22

27-55

‘244

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The soluble portiou may be considered as formed of hydrated silica, argillaceous matters,
ferruginous materials, and especially of carbonate of calcium derived from the debris of
organisms, as in the case of the other deposits previously described. The result most clearly
brought out from an examination of these analyses is that obtained from a consideration of
the insoluble materials. Taking into account the percentages of the various bases, and
remembering the silicates present in these Volcanic Muds, it is very easily seen that the in-
soluble silica must be combined with the alumina, ferric oxide, lime, magnesia, and alkalies,
but as the alkalies have not been estimated, it is impossible to carry these deductions further.
However, the analyses support the conclusions arrived at from the microscopic examination
of these sediments, which shows the existence of a large quantity of silicates of recent
volcanic origin, and that quartz, if present, plays but a very subordinate part.

The Volcanic JMuds and Sands are found around all the oceanic volcanic islands and
off those coasts where volcanic rocks occur ; they are estimated to cover an area of about
750,000 square miles, in which is included the area of the islands themselves.

Coral Muds and Sands.

Just as around volcanic islands the deposits are principally made up of the debris
from volcanic rocks, so off coral islands and coral reefs the deposits are chiefly made up
of the fragments of organisms living in the shallow waters and on the reefs, such as
calcareous Algte, Corals, Molluscs, Polyzoa, Annelids, Echinoderms, and Foraminifera.
These fragments form a coarse sand or gravel in the shallower waters, but beyond the
limits of wave action there is a fine mud consisting principally of triturated particles of
calcareous matter. With greater depth and increasing distance from the land, Pteropod
and Ileteropod shells, as well as pelagic Foraminifera, make up more and more of the
deposit, till the Coral Muds and Sands pass finally into a Pteropod Ooze or Globigerina
Ooze, in which reef fragments can with difficulty be recognised. The pelagic organisms
are, then, with difficulty detected in the deposits close to the reefs, and reef fragments
are rare in the deeper deposits at a considerable distance from the shallow water around
coral reefs or islands. This transition in the character of the deposits from the reef-edge
to the deeper water of the open sea, is illustrated in the figures on Plates XIII. and XIV.,
where the deposits at various depths around the island of Bermuda and off the Fiji and
Friendly Islands are figured.

Coral Muds. — There are 16 Coral Muds described in the Tables of Chapter II.,
ranging in depth from 140 to 1820 fathoms, the average being 740 fathoms.

9 are from depths under 500 fathoms.

1 „ „ of 500 to 1000

3 ,, ,, ,, 1000 ,, 1500 ,,

3 „ ,, over 1500 „

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

245

In colour the muds are of various shades of white, due to the large amount of
carbonate of lime, which ranges from 77‘38 per cent, in 1500 fathoms to 89‘68 per cent,
in 380 fathoms, the average being 8 5 ‘5 3 per cent. The following shows the average
percentage of carbonate of lime at various depths, arranged in groups of 500
fathoms, and it will be observed that there is little or no relation to depth ; —

Under 500 fathoms,

From 500 to 1000 ,,

1000 „ 1500

Over 1500 „

87 ’34 mean per cent. CaCOg

89-36

84-59

82-78

>5

55

The carbonate of lime derived from pelagic Foraminifera ranges from 10 to 56 per
cent., and averages 31-27 per cent. ; that derived from bottom-living Foraminifera
ranges from 2 to 40 per cent., the average being 14-64 per cent. ; that derived from
other organisms varies from 26-31 to 59-68 per cent,, and the mean percentage is
39-62.

The residue is always of a brown or reddish colour, and varies from 10-32 to 22-62
per cent,, the average being 14-47 per cent. This residue consists of clayey matter,
oxides of iron, and mineral particles, generally of volcanic origin, together with a few
siliceous organisms.

Siliceous organisms do not make up more than 1 or 2 per cent, of the whole deposit,
the average in the above samples being 1-36 per cent. Sponge spicules are always
present, and Diatoms and Radiolaria can generally be recognised during the examination
of a sample.

The mineral particles are estimated in each of the above samples to make up 1 per
cent. ; they are always angular, and have an average diameter of 0-07 mm.

The fine washings vary from 8-32 to 20-62 per cent., the average being 12-11 per
cent.

Arranged in groups of 500 fathoms, the following table shows the estimated average
amount of fine washings and minerals, and the mean diameter of the latter ; it will be
noticed that no relation to depth is indicated except the greater abundance of fine wash-

ings in deep water : —

Minerals.

Size.

Fine Washings.

Under 500

fathoms.

. 1 per cent.

0-065 mm.

9-96 per cent.

From 500 to 1000

55

. 1 „

0-060 „

8-64 „

„ 1000 „ 1500

55

. 1 »

0-077 „

13-41 „

Over 1500

55

. 1 »

0-067 „

14-88 „

The following shows the average composition of the Challenger
Mud

samples of Coral

246

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Carbonate of lime,

Residue,

Pelagic Foraminifera, .

■ Bottom-living Foraminifera,
Other organisms, .

Siliceous organisms,

- Minerals,

Fine washings.

31-27

14-64

39-62

85-53

1-36

1-00

12-11

14-47

100-00

Coral Sands. — In addition to the Coral Muds, there are 5 samples that are called
Coral Sands in the Tables of Chapter II. These scarcely differ from the Coral Muds in
composition except in the fact that the more finely divided calcareous matter is less
abundant than in the Coral Muds, and the fragments of calcareous organisms are on the
whole larger. These sands are indeed met with in positions where we have reason to
believe that the particles composing the deposit are frequently set in motion by the
action of waves or currents, being found in depths of less than 300 fathoms, the average
depth of the above samples being 176 fathoms. Their colour is white or dirty white.

The average percentage of carbonate of lime in the samples is 8 6 ‘8 4. The carbonate
of lime derived from pelagic Foraminifera averages 36'25 per cent., from bottom-living
Foraminifera 20 per cent., and from tlie remains of other organisms 30 "59 per cent.

The siliceous organisms and mineral particles are more abundant than in the Coral
Muds, but on the other hand the proportion of fine washings in the residue is much less.

The following shows the average composition of the Challenger samples of Coral

Sand : —

Pelagic Foraminifera, .

. 36-25

Carbonate of lime,

Bottom-living Foraminifera, .

. 20-00

Other organisms, .

. 30-59

86-84

Siliceous organisms,

5-00

Residue, . . . ■

Minerals, ....

3-75

Fine washings.

4-41

13-16

100-00

The following analysis of a Coral Sand from Station 172, 18 fathoms, off Tongatabu,
shows the usual compo.sition : —

d

o

3

n

s

5^

No.

CaO

MgO

AlA

FcA

PaO(j

o

o

Organic

Su1)stancc.

Mn

Alkalies.

SiOg

Total.

172

18

71

60-27

3 00

1-42

42-28

2-78

tr.

tr.

tr.

99-75

Tliis analysis shows that the chemical composition corresponds in a general manner
with what has been said of the nature of this deposit from a macroscopic and micro-

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

247

scopic examination. The carbonic acid must be combined with the lime and magnesia.
The low percentage of iron and alumina, and the traces of silica and other substances,
show that there can be very few mineral particles in this Coral Sand.

Coral Muds and Sands cover a large area in all coral reef regions, estimated at about
2,700,000 square miles, including those from shallow water and also the area of the
islands and of the lagoons and lagoon-channels. The coral reef region of the Pacific is
by far the most extensive, and there Coral Muds and Sands attain their maximum
development, being estimated to occupy about 1,500,000 square miles ; in the Atlantic
they cover about 800,000 square miles, and in the Indian Ocean about 400,000 square
miles.

c. Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution of Marine Deposits.

The distribution in space and depth of the various types of marine deposits in the
difierent oceans has been pointed out in detail in the foregoing descriptions. On Chart 1
this distribution is represented by means of colours, while the depth is on the chart
indicated by cross-shading. In laying down the limits and extent of each type of deposit
all the information available at the present time has been made use of. It may be
admitted that the distribution of the various types of deposits as thus exhibited is to a
large extent hypothetical, owing to the fact that there are large stretches in some oceans
in which there are as yet no soundings ; especially is this the case in the Eastern and
Northern Pacific and in the great Southern Ocean to the south of the latitude of 50° S.
When the depth of the ocean is known, and the composition of several samples from
different depths has been ascertained, the nature of the deposits over the whole area can
be indicated with a large degree of certainty.^ Should future investigations make known
any great differences in the depths from those shown on the chart, it may be taken for
granted that the nature and composition of the deposits will be different from what is
represented on this chart.

It may be urged, however, that our knowledge as to the depth of the ocean has in late
years become very extensive, and that we have a large number of soundings in all the
great oceans and inland seas. It is not likely that any great alteration will be made by
future researches in the average depth of the ocean, although the position of the contour
lines may undergo very considerable alterations, and volcanic cones rising high above the
general depressed level of the sea-bed will certainly be discovered in many regions. It
is indeed remarkable how little the position of the contour lines shown in the Challenger
charts have been shifted by recent lines of soundings across the Atlantic, Indian, and
Pacific Oceans.^

1 See pp. 30-32.

2 Murray, “On some recent Deep-Sea Observations in the Indian Ocean,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. iii. pp. 553-561,
1887 ; “ On Marine Deposits in the Indian, Southern, and Antarctic Oceans,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. v. pp. 405-436,
1889 ; Buchanan, “ The Exploration of the Gulf of Guinea,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. iv. pp. 177 and 233, 1888.

t

248

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Many thousands of samples of terrigenous deposits have been examined from the
shallower depths of nearly all oceans and enclosed seas. Of pelagic deposits more than
2000 samples from depths exceeding 1000 fathoms — over 1600 from the Atlantic,
300 from the Indian Ocean, and 400 from the Pacific — have passed through our hands.
Even when the sample of a deposit has not been examined, the information furnished
by marine surveyors and telegraph engineers is often sufficient to make known the type
of deposit in the locality. The chart showing the distribution of the deposits, together
with the following table, giving the approximate areas occupied by each type of deposit,
have been constructed from a great number of reliable data, so that the broad outlines
of distribution here presented are not likely to be much modified by future discoveries.

The total area of the surface of the globe has been estimated at 196,940,700 square
miles, of which dry land occupies about 53,681,400 square miles, and the waters of the
ocean 143,259,300 square miles.^ In the following table the approximate extent of the
areas of the sea-floor occupied by each type of marine deposit is given, together with
the mean depth.

Table showing the Mean Depth and the Estimated Area Covered by Marine Deposits

on the Floor of the Ocean.

Littoral Deposits (between tide-marks),
Shallow-water Deposits (from low-water
mark to 100 fathoms),

Mean Depth in Area in Square
Fathoms. Miles.

62,500

10,000,000

Terrigenous Deposits (in
deep and shallow water*/
close to land),

Pelagic Deposits (in deep
water removed from
land),

Coral Mud,

7401

2,556,8002

Coral Sand,

176 i

Volcanic Mud,

1033 1

600,000 2

Volcanic Sand,

243 3

Green Mud,

513 1

850,0002

Green Sand,

449 3

Red Mud,

623

100,000

Blue Mud,

1411

14,500,000

Pteropod Ooze,

1044

400,000

Globigerina Ooze,

1996

49,520,000

Diatom Ooze,

1477

10,880,000

Riidiolarian Ooze,

2894

2,290,000

Red Clay,

2730

51,500,000

• Murray, “ On the Ileiglit of the Land and the Depth of the Ocean,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. iv. pp. 1-41, 1888 ; vol.
vi. p. 26.^, 1890.

* Tlicac areas differ from those given in the descriptions, in which are included deposits from the shallow-water

zone.

CHAPTER IV.

MATERIALS OF ORGANIC ORIGIN IN DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

The dead shells and skeletons, or other hard parts of marine organisms might, in the
strict sense of the term, be regarded as belonging to the mineral kingdom. By their
structure, as well as by their origin, these organic remains are, however, differentiated
from mineral substances properly so called. Their organic nature is at once recognised
by the most casual observer, and so abundant are the remains of some species on the
floor of the ocean, that their names have been employed to designate certain types
of deep-sea deposits, such as Globigerina, Pteropod, Radiolarian, and Diatom Oozes.
We therefore devote this chapter to a consideration of the organic substances which
take part in the formation of modern marine deposits.

a. Maeine Fauna and Flora in General.

Before discussing the materials of organic origin in deep-sea deposits, it is desirable
to glance at the light cast by recent investigations on the abundance and distribution of
living plants and animals in the ocean, and thereafter to indicate the changes wrought
by their functional activity, and by the decomposition of their dead bodies, in ocean waters
and in deep-sea deposits.

It would appear to have been deflnitely established by the researches of the last
flfty years that life in some of its many forms is universally distributed throughout the
ocean. There do not seem to be any barren regions, where life is altogether absent, as
was supposed by the older naturalists. It has long been well known that along all coasts
the shallow waters teem with marine plants and animals, some of them living on or
attached to the bottom, while others swim freely about in the surface and intermediate
waters. The researches of the Americans along the eastern coast of North America, of
the Norwegians off the coast of Norway, and of the British in the North Atlantic, had also,
previous to the Challenger Expedition, revealed the existence of an abundant fauna in
deep water.

(deev-sea deposits chall. exp. — ^1891.)

32

250

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The Challenger’s dredging and trawling operations have shown that, not only in
shallower water near coasts, hut even in all the greater depths of all oceans, animal life is
exceedingly abundant. A trawling in a depth of over a mile (1000 fathoms. Station 78)
yielded two hundred specimens of animals, belonging to seventy-nine species and fifty -five
genera. From a depth of about two miles (1600 fathoms. Station 147) a single haul of
the trawl procured over two hundred specimens of deep-sea animals, belonging to
eight}^-four species and seventy-five genera. A trawling in a depth of about three miles
(2600 fathoms. Station 160) yielded over fifty specimens, belonging to twenty-seven
species and twenty-five genera. These are but a few, and not the most striking, of the
examples that might be cited. From the contents of their stomachs it was evident
that the great majority of these lived on, or in the immediate neighbourhood of, the
bottom. Even in depths of four miles, fishes and animals belonging to all the chief
invertebrate groups have been procured, and in the sample of ooze from nearly five
and a quarter miles (4475 fathoms) there was evidence that living creatures could exist
at that depth. In the deeper waters far removed from the coasts the genera and
species are almost all new to science, while at similar depths near continents the species
and genera are both more numerous, and include many more forms identical with, or
closely allied to, shallow-water species. These results have been confirmed by subsequent
investigations in special regions by French, German, Italian, Norwegian, and British
expeditions.

Haeckel has introduced the useful term “ Benthos” to designate all those animals and
plants li\’ing fixed to, or creeping over, the bottom of the ocean, and in accordance with
the classification given on pages 185 and 186 we would propose that the Benthos be
divided into neritic Benthos and deep-sea Benthos. The neritic Benthos may be sub-
divided into littoral Benthos and shallow-w^ater Benthos. The deep-sea Benthos may
again be sulxlivided into bathybial Benthos for those animals living on deep-sea terri-
genous deposits, and abyssal Benthos for those living on pelagic deposits.

Not only is life everywhere distributed over the floor of the ocean, but experiments
appear to show that it is present everywhere throughout the whole body of oceanic waters
at all depths from the surface to the bottom, most abundant at and near the bottom and
at and near the surface, while much more sparingly represented in the waters of inter-
mediate depths. In the spring of 1891, Alexander Agassiz conducted experiments with
closing tow-nets from the U.S.S. “ Albatross,” off the Pacific coast of America. At
intermediate depths greater than 200 fathoms he did not procure any animals in the
open ocean, but a few specimens were obtained from these intermediate waters in the
Gulf of California.* As all the surface animals must after death fall towards the bottom,
we should ex[>ect to ca[)ture such specimens, at least sparingly, in tow-nets dragged at
intermediate depths, and such captures seemed to be clearly indicated in the Challenger
‘ Hull. Miu. Comp. ZooL, vol. xxi. pp. 186-200, June 1891.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

251

experiments. The researches of the Challenger in this direction have been confirmed and
extended by those of Chun, Hensen, Haeckel, and other naturalists.^ The researches
carried out on board H.M.SS. “Triton” and “Knight Errant” in the Faroe Channel,
and by the yacht “Medusa” in the deep lochs of the west of Scotland, conclusively
show that some animals which, in their larval condition, are captured in the surface and
subsurface waters, are found in the adult condition at the bottom in depths of 100 to
400 fathoms. It wms also found that at definite depths in the intermediate waters
different species were captured on the same day, but at different depths on the following
day, thus showing an oscillation of the great floating banks of animals or Algse.^ When
the tow-nets could be dragged within a few feet of the deposit without touching the
ground, immense hauls of Crustaceans, largely Copepods and Schizopods were always
obtained.

Haeckel has extended the connotation of the term “ Plankton ” ^ to include all
animals living in the waters of the ocean, in contradistinction to Benthos — those living
on the bottom of the sea. Murray ^ has shown that the organisms living in mid-ocean in
the great oceanic currents are quite different from those in the surface waters near land,
and Haeckel proposes to designate the former oceanic Plankton, and the latter neritic®
Plankton. We would suggest that the term oceanic Plankton be subdivided into pelagic
Plankton for the animals living in the waters from the surface to 100 fathoms, zonary
Plankton for those living in the intermediate zones between 100 fathoms from the
surface and 100 fathoms from the bottom, bathybial Plankton for those living within 100
fathoms from the bottom in the transitional area covered by deep-sea terrigenous
deposits, and abyssal Plankton for those living within 100 fathoms from the bottom
over pelagic deposits.

While, however, life is universally present on the ocean’s bed and throughout
the mass of oceanic waters, it by no means follows that it is uniformly distributed either
over the first or throughout the second. It is well known that in shallow waters certain
species are found on some banks or in some deep muddy pits, while they are absent in
other localities under apparently, at the present time, similar physical conditions. The
productiveness or fertility of certain stretches of the sea-bottom in shallow water would
appear to be due to some unknown antecedent conditions. It is the same in the deep
sea, for otherwise it seems impossible to account for the almost constant success of the

^ Chun, “ Die pelagische Thierwelt in grosseren Meerestiefen und ihre Beziehungen zu der Oberflachen-Fauna,"
Bibliotheca Zoologica, Heft i., 1888 ; “ Die pelagische Thierwelt in grossen Tiefen,” Verhandl. d. GesellscJi. Deutsch.
Naturf. u. Aerzte, Bremen, 1890 ; Ilensen, “ Einige Ergebnisse der Plankton-Expedition der Humboldt-Stiftung,”
Sitzb. d. Berliner AJcad. d. Wiss, 1890, pp. 243-253 ; Haeckel, Plankton-Studien, Jena, 1890.

® Tizard and Murray, “ Exploration of the Faroe Channel, during the summer of 1880, in H.M.’s hired ship Knight
Errant,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xi. pp. 638-677, 1882 ; Murray, “ On the Effects of Winds on the Distribution of
Temperature in the Sea- and Fresh-water Lochs of the West of Scotland,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. iv. pp. 345-365, 1888.

^ First introduced by Hensen in 1887, loc. cit.

^ “ The Great Ocean Basins,” Nature, vol. xxxii. pp. 581 and 611, 1885.

® son of Nereus.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

!2.j2

trawliugs in some spots and the comparatively unsuccessful results in others at the
same depth and with apparently similar surroundings. From the results of deep-sea
dredgings and trawlings, up to the present time, there seems no doubt that life is on
tlie whole more abundant at the bottom near continental shores than at similar depths
towards the centres of the ocean basins.

The operations with tow-nets in surface, subsurface, and intermediate waters lead to
nearly identical conclusions with reference to the pelagic fauna and flora, or Plankton, as
those with reference to the fauna or flora on the deposits, or Benthos. Sometimes the
captures in the tow-nets may be very insignificant, while, at a little greater or less
depth, or at a ditfercnt time of the day, the same nets may yield an abundant harvest.
Many of the species occur at times in floating banks of vast extent, and at other times
only a few specimens may be taken at the same locality. On the whole, the Planktonic
species are more numerous in tropical waters, while in polar waters, although
tlie species are less numerous, the individuals of the species have often an enormous
development. The Challenger observations appear to indicate clearly that in warm
oceanic currents the abundance of life is greater than in the regions of the Sargasso Seas.
The pelagic fauna and flora are, again, different and probably more abundant along
coasts affected by river water than in purely oceanic regions. Ascending currents of
water from the deeper regions near land are sometimes heavily laden with marine
organisms whose usual habitat is in deep water about the level of the mud-line sur-
rounding the continental and other coasts.

Owing to this unequal distribution of organisms in ocean water and on the floor of
the ocean, it is not possible to arrive at any satisfactory approximation of the total
number of living organisms or the total amount of organic matter in the sea, but it is
evident that these must, on the lowest estimate, be enormous. Assuming that the lime-
secreting organisms were as abundant throughout the whole region as in the path
followed by his tow-nets, ]\Ir. Murray ^ has estimated that at least sixteen tons of
carbonate of lime, in the form of shells of living organisms, were present in a mass of
tro[)ical oceanic water one square mile in extent by 100 fathoms in depth. Hensen has
even made a praiseworthy attempt to count the number of individuals of each species in
certain tow-net gatlierings, and from tliese data to estimate the total numbers of each
species as well as the amount of organic matter in the whole ocean.^ All these calculations
are interesting and valuable for the time and j)lace of the experiments, but unreliable or
insuflicient when used as a basis hm any wide general conclusions or deductions. When
considering the amount of organic matter in the ocean, it must be remembered that a large

' I'roe. Roy. Soc. K'Un., vol x. p. fjOS. In sonie ten litres of water from the Red Sea, Murray and Irvine recently
found msp<-ndwl carlxinate of lime (sheila of organisms) equivalent to 51 tons in a mass of ocean water one square mile
by 1U» fathoms in depth.

* Menum, “ UelK-rdie Restimmung dea Phuiktons, oder die im Meerc treihenden Materials an Pflauzen und Thieren,”
Bericht d. Comm. z. wks. Untera. dcrdeutschen Meere in Kiel, 1887.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

253

amount of such material is annually borne to the ocean by rivers from the dry land or
washed from the coast line into deep water. The Challenger dredgings near land
furnished abundant proof of this in the presence of leaves, fruits, and branches of trees,
with occasional fragments of land shells and other organic substances. Alexander
Agassiz dredged a great abundance of decaying vegetable matter from deep water in the
tropics, off the Pacific coast of America.^

h. Albuminoid and otheb, Organic Matters in Deep-Sea Deposits.

In nearly all deep-sea deposits traces of albuminoid organic matters can be detected
by chemical analysis. Organic material can be observed after fragments of bones or
shells have been removed by dilute acid, when there often remain small flocculent masses
— sometimes taking the form of the calcareous shells — which, heated on a platinum j)late,
burn, leaving a black cinder. In shallower water, for instance in some Green Muds, there
is a greenish matter which likewise burns and appears to be of vegetable origin. The
presence of sulphides and sulphuretted hydrogen in all harbour muds, muddy bays near
land, and, indeed, in nearly all the terrigenous deposits, such as the Blue Muds, is a
sure indication that soluble and insoluble albuminoid and other organic matters are dis-
tributed throughout these muds and are in process of decomposition. Probably sulphides
are present in all deep-sea deposits, but they are most abundant in muds near land where
there is rapid accumulation, and where a large quantity of organic matter is borne down
from the continents. In the Red Clays and the other truly pelagic deposits, the quantity
of organic matter is much less, and, owing to the slow accumulation, the sulphides are
probably oxidised as soon as formed, and never make up any considerable portion of the
deposit.

The food of the deep-sea animals living on the floor of the ocean consists of the dead
bodies of oceanic plants and animals that have fallen to the bottom from the surface
and intermediate waters. The stomachs of Echinoderms, Annelids, and other organisms
were always found to be completely filled with the surface layers of the ooze, mud, or
clay of the region from which they were dredged, and there can be no doubt that the
nutriment contained therein was sufficient for the necessities of life.^ Even the Crus-
taceans dredged from areas where fine mud commences to settle on the bottom, about
or beyond the 100-fathom line, appear to live largely on the minute particles of organic
origin which there settle on the bottom along with the argillaceous matters. A very
large proportion of marine deposits must in this way be passed through the intestines of
marine animals, and in this sense, though not in the sense suggested by Thomson and

^ Bull. Mus. Comp. Zodl., vol. xxi. p. 197.

^ Murray, “ Marine Deposits of the Indian, Southern, and Antarctic Oceans,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. v. p. 425, 1889.

254

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fluxley,* clcep-sea clays and muds might be said to be of organic origin. In the
Glol)igeriua limestones of Malta the tracks of Echinoderms and Annelids, which had
eaten their way through the deposits, may now be seen in the solid rocks.* In
examining the samples of Blue ]\Iuds, and especially those near the mouths of rivers,
many oval-shaped bodies, about 0‘5 mm. in length, were observed. These were
described by some observers as Foraminifera. Mr, Murray, after numerous observations,
came to the conclusion that they were mostly the excreta of Echinoderms, principally of
Holothurians.® When these pellets are voided by the animal they are covered by a
slimy substance ; many of them may indeed be united in a chain. In some deposits this
dung is exceedingly abundant, but as a rule it is imjDossible to recognise these oval bodies
in any of the organic oozes, and in the Red Clays only some doubtful examples have been
met w’ith. They appear to fall asunder when the deposit is granular, like a Globigerina
Ooze, or when long exposed wdthout being covered up, as in the case of the Red Clays.

It is abundantly evident, then, that much organic matter is mixed with the marine
deposits, especially with the surface layers. In the Blue Muds the decomposition of
this matter in the deeper layers leads to the reduction of the oxides in the red upper
layer and to the formation of sulphides, which give a blue colour to the deposit, but in the
Red Clays and Red Muds the quantity of organic matter is insufficient to completely
effect this change, and the deposit as a whole remains of a red colour.*

The changes connected with the decomposition of albuminoid matter in marine
deposits must also be associated, at least in their initiatory stages, with the formation of
glauconite in the chambers of Foraminifera and other calcareous organisms, and the
production of glauconitic grains in Green and Blue Muds along continental shores. In
like manner the formation of phosjjhatic grains and nodules may be connected with
changes brought about by the decomposition of organic substances in terrigenous
deposits.

c. Changes Produced by Organisms in the Constitution of Sea-Water and Deep-

Sea Deposits,

When we remember the large number of marine organisms in the ocean, and the
organic materials carried into the sea from the land, it is evident that the functional
activity of these organisms, — together with the nitrogenous organic matter arising

* .See p. 190. * Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 449-488, 1890.

* .See under Additional Ol)servation8, pp. 101, 10.3.

‘ J. Y, Buclianan Hays : — “Tlie mud Below the surface layer, in localities where ground life is abundant, remains
blue, l»eing protected by the oxiilution of what is above it" (“ Sulphur in Marine Muds,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xvii.
p. 37, IStto). This does not ajjjjcar to be the correct interpretation, for Blue Muds, accumulating by additions at
the 4urfaw, must all jwuw through the stage of the red upper or surface layer. The blue colour of the deeper layers must
Ije due to a sulMe^iuent change from the reduction of the higher oxides in the red upper layer, and the formation of
saipbide of iron through the decomposition of the organic matter present in the deeper parts of the deposit.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

255

from the decomposition of their waste products and dead bodies, — cannot but work
continual and extensive changes in the internal constitution of the sea-water salts and of
the materials in suspension in sea- water or lying on the floor of the ocean, the intensity
of these changes varying with the temperature, the amount of sunlight, and other
conditions.

Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus may fairly be regarded
as entering into the composition of the tissues and fluids of all marine organisms ; in
addition, carbonate of lime, silica, and other substances entering into the composition of
the hard parts may be regarded as essential to the life of numerous species of animals
and plants.^ When marine organisms cease to live the resolution of their complex com-
pounds at once begins. The carbon and hydrogen pass off mainly as carbonic acid
and water, the nitrogen forms ammonia, and the sulphur and phosphorus give rise to
volatile sulphuretted and phosphuretted compounds ; in short, decay takes place accom-
panied by all its well-known phenomena.^ The skeletal structures of the organisms
become altered at the same time, and, passing into solution, may ultimately be wholly
reduced, in the presence of sea-water, into their ultimate inorganic components. At
the bottom in great depths the process of decay might be an exceedingly slow one
were the only available oxygen that which is present in solution in the sea. There
is evidence, however, of some remarkable chemical reactions which it is desirable here
to indicate.

The analyses of sea-water inform us that earthy and alkaline sulphates make up a
very large part of the total sea- water salts. When these are exposed to the action
of carbon, or of organic matter, which, of course, contains carbon, the sulphates are
reduced and sulphides formed ; the carbon unites with the oxygen, formerly combined
with the metal and metalloid, to form carbonic acid.® Thus for every molecule of
sulphate decomposed in this way one molecule of sulphide and two molecules of carbonic
acid are formed. As, practically, all the carbon of marine organisms must thus ulti-
mately be resolved into carbonic acid, the quantity of that acid produced in this
way must be enormous, and cannot but exert a great solvent action not only on the
dead calcareous structures, but also on the minerals in the muds on the floor of the
ocean. Were these reactions to end at this stage the bottom of the sea would soon
become so poisoned by sulphides as to be unfit to support either animal or vegetable
life. As soon, however, as the sulphides are produced, the carbonic acid, which is formed
at the same time, decomposes the sulphides, forming earthy and alkaline carbonates,

1 Pouehet and Chabry, “ De la production des larves monstrueuses d’Oursin, par privation de cbaux,” Gomptes
Bendus, tom. cviii. pp. 196-198, 1889; “ L’eau de mer artificielle comme agent t4ratogenique,” JoMrnnZ de VAnatomie,
1889, pp, 298-307.

^ These changes are not, of course, due to simple oxidation, hut are brought about in a large measure by the influ-
ence of organisms familiarly named Bacteria, it being now generally accepted as a fact that all putrefactive changes are
brought about or initiated by these minute organisms.

3 Murray and Irvine, Proc- Roy. Soc. Edin., voL xvii. p. 93.

25G

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

.sulphuretted hydrogen being given off ; the latter passing into the circumambient water
is oxidised into sulphuric acid, which in turn decomposes the carbonate of lime dissolved
in the sea-water or existing in the form of calcareous shells, sulphate of lime being finally
formed. The nitrogenous or albuminoid matters present in animal tissues and fluids
break up ultimately, by a series of complex reactions, into ammonia and nitrogen ; the
former is either liberated, or, combining with the carbonic acid, passes into solution as
carbonate of ammonia, or becomes oxidised into nitrates. Further, the sulphur and
})hosphorus are given off in combination with hydrogen, becoming finally oxidised into
sulphuric and phosphoric acids, which, decomposing the alkaline and earthy carbonates
l)resent in sea-water, give rise to sulphates and phosphates.

]\Iurray and Irvine have shown by direct analyses that the ammoniacal salts, formed
as indicated by the above reactions, are everywhere present in the ocean, due to the
decomposition of albuminoid matter, ammonia being always one of the products. This
change is accelerated by a high and retarded by a low temperature, consequently
tropical or warm water contains much more ammonia than is found in the waters
of temperate zones.^ The carbonate of ammonia, arising from the decomposition
of animal products in presence of sulphate of lime in the ocean or in the bodies of
animals, becomes converted into carbonate of lime and sulphate of ammonia. The whole
of the lime salts in the sea may be thus available for the coral- and shell-builders.^
The much more rapid decomposition of the nitrogenous organic matter in the tropics
may probably explain the greater development of coral reefs, and generally of all lime-
secreting organisms, in tropical than in colder seas.

The low' temperature at the bottom of the ocean and possibly also the pressure
retard putrefaction, but it is evidently incorrect to state that putrefaction does not exist
ill great depths,^ for everywhere there are signs to the contrary. This opinion has
a}»parcntly been founded on some interesting but inconclusive experiments made by
Regnard w'ith fresh w'ater,^ w'here the absence of sulphates excludes the supply of
oxygen, w'hich in sea-water, as has been shown, is the great factor in oxidizing organic
remains.

From the reactions referred to above some idea may be formed of the nature and
extent of the changes that are continually going on in the ocean, and they are referred
to in this place in order to indicate the circumstances wdiich must be taken into con-
.nidcration when treating of the presence or absence, the quantity, condition, and
distribution of organic remains and other materials in deep-sea deposits.

* Murmy and Irvine, Proc. Ihnj. Soc. Edin., vol. xvii. p. 89.

* Murmy and Ir\’ine, lor. ril., p. 90.

* Pelaeneer, “ Exploration de« Mere profondca,” Ound, 1890.

* Il«-|fnnril, “ Influence dca hautea pressions sur la putrefaction,” Rev. Scientif., tom. xliii. p. 284, 1889.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

257

d. Calcaeeous Organic Kemains in Deep-Sea Deposits.

Calcareous Algse. — Species of Algae which secrete carbonate of lime are abundant in
the shallow waters of the ocean. In the tropical regions especially there are large and
massive species of Lithothamnion, Lithophyllum, Halimeda, and other genera that make
up a large part of some coral reefs and of the surrounding Coral Sands and Muds. Two
hundred fathoms is probably the extreme limit at which any of these organisms live in
the ocean, but the broken-down fragments of calcareous Algae have been found in depths
of over 2000 fathoms in the neighbourhood of coral reefs. In the Tables of Chapter II.
they are noted in all the Coral Muds and Sands, in six different samples of Globigerina
Ooze, and in very many samples of Volcanic Muds and Sands.

Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres. — The precise nature of these minute organisms was
for a long time obscure, but they are now regarded, and no doubt rightly, as pelagic Algae.
There is considerable difference in the size and form of both the Coccospheres and Rhabdo-
spheres ; three of the principal forms are repre-
sented in the annexed woodcuts. The interior of
the spheres is filled with transparent albuminoid
matter, in which no nucleus was detected by the
Challenger naturalists. When the calcareous rods
and discs are removed by dilute acid, small
gelatinous spheres remain behind, on the outer
surface of which the Coccoliths and Rhabdoliths
were implanted or embedded. Rhabdospheres
are especially developed in equatorial and tropical
regions, and are rarely met with in regions where
the temperature of the surface water falls below
65° F. Coccospheres, while abundant in tropical
waters, are found further north and south than
the Rhabdospheres ; they are present even where the temperature on the surface is as
low as 45° F., indeed, Coccospheres attain their greatest development in temperate
regions. These organisms are absent or rare in coast waters affected by rivers ; they
especially flourish in the pelagic currents of the open ocean, and therefore belong to the
pelagic Plankton. In Arctic and Antarctic waters Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres are
replaced by similar minute Algse, which do not, however, secrete rods and discs of car-
bonate of lime on their outer surfaces.^ Coccospheres and Rhabdospheres are, then,
nearly everywhere present in the surface waters of the tropical and temperate regions

1 Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. i. pp. 436, 938, 939.

(DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. — 1891.)

33

•258

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of the open ocean ; they are usually found entangled in the gelatinous matter of the
Radiolarians, Diatoms, and Foraminifera, and are seldom absent from the stomachs of
Salpie, Pteropods, and other pelagic animals.

Rhabdoliths and Coccoliths — the broken-down parts of Rhabdospheres and Cocco-

Fic, 20.— A Rhalxlosphere. From the surface

Fig, 21. — A Khabdosphere. From the surface

spheres — play a most important part in all deep-sea deposits, with the exception of
those laid down in polar and subpolar regions. In terrigenous deposits they are much
less abundant than in pelagic deposits ; in some Blue Muds and other terrigenous deposits
they are either rare or absent, while in all Globigerina and Pteropod Oozes they make
up a large portion of the carbonate of lime in the deposit. Perfect Rhabdospheres are
never found in the deposits ; they are very easily broken up into Rhabdoliths, which are
at times very abundant. Coccospheres are found in considerable numbers in deposits
from the temperate regions in all moderate depths, but they are rare in the deposits from
tropical regions, where the spheres, from not being so compact, break up more readily
into Coccoliths (Cyatholiths), and they are generally, like other calcareous remains, absent
from Red Clays and Radiolarian Oozes.

Tlie general appearance of these minute fragments under the microscope, when
the finer parts of a Globigerina Ooze are examined, is represented on Plate XI., fig.
U, showing Rhabdoliths and Coccoliths from Station 338, lat. 21° 15' S., in 1990
fathoms, fig. 4 Coccospheres and Coccoliths from Station 166, lat. 38° 50' S., in 275
fathoms.

Foraminifera. — Of all the organic remains met with in marine deposits by far the most

REPOKT ON THE BEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

259

frequent are the shells of Foraminifera ; it maybe safely said that these organisms or
their fragments are present in every average sample of marine mud, clay, ooze, or sand.
For our immediate purpose the Foraminifera of marine deposits may be divided into
two great groups according to their mode of life, one comprising all those bottom-
living species which habitually live on or move about on the floor of the ocean, belonging

to the Benthos, and the other comprising all those pelagic species which habitually live
in the surface and subsurface waters of the open ocean, therefore belonging to the pelagic
Plankton.^

The Challenger observations have clearly established that many species belonging to

> These two groups of pelagic and bottom-living Foraminifera are distinguished in the Tables of Chapter II. under
the heading “ Foraminifera ” by different estimated percentages for each group (see p. 26).

‘200

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the genera (rlobitjerina, PulvinuUna, Sphseroidina, and Pullenia, have a pelagic mode of
life, wliich were aforetime believed under all circumstances to inhabit the oozes at the
bottom of the sea. All the pelagic or oceanic species, a list of which is given on page
214, have calcareous shells; they especially flourish in the pure currents of the open

Fi<!. 23. — Olobif/eriiia bidUjuUji, d'Orbigiiy. From tlie .surface.

off-aii, and they arc but rarely taken in the tow-ncts in bays or estuaries or along coasts
that arf niufh affected by river water. The annexed woodcuts show four characteristic
njrfaeo specimens of Orbu/inn, (llohifjerina, and llaslujeHna. Nearly all the species
are oonfined to trojdcal and subtropical waters; they gradually disappear from the surface-
nets a.s the polar regions arc approached, the dwarfed forms Globir/erina pachyderma

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

261

and Glohigerina dutertrei being the only species met with in Arctic and Antarctic waters.
The distribution of these pelagic Foraminifera shells in deep-sea deposits corresponds with
their distribution at the surface of the sea, with certain exceptions as to depth, to be
referred to immediately. This coincidence, between the distribution of the living organisms
at the surface of the sea and of their dead shells in deep-sea deposits, is of itself sufficient
to demonstrate that these Foraminifera live only in the surface and subsurface waters.

Fig. 24. — Hastigerina pelagica, d’Orbigny. From the surface (•*1'’-).

Did they live on the bottom for a portion of their lives (Meroplanktonic), then the dis-
tribution of their shells would resemble that of the shells of other animals belonging to
the Benthos. But we have seen that their distribution resembles in every way that of
pelagic organisms, and these Foraminifera must therefore, for this as well as for many
other reasons, be regarded as Holoplanktonic. In the calcareous oozes from tropical
regions the shells of all the species inhabiting the surface waters are observed in enormous
abundance, but these same species are never met with in deposits from polar regions,
thus showing that these pelagic shells are not drifted to any great distance from their

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

*J62

normal habitat by oceanic currents ; in this way it is possible after a careful examination
of the species present in a Globigerina Ooze to tell approximately the latitude from
which the deposit was collected.^

The pelagic Foraminifera are especially characteristic of all deep-sea deposits from
average or moderate depths, or from 200 to 3000 fathoms, in some equatorial regions.
Near shore and in polar regions their presenee is masked by the abundance of other
materials, so that if present they do not as a rule make up a large part of the deposit,
but

Fio. 25. — Ilastifierina pelagica, d’Orbigny. From the surface (^^).

the major part of the deposits, or at all events of the carbonate of lime that is present.
In all the greatest depths of the ocean in the tropics, and in the lesser depths of the
ocean in extra-tropical regions, the shells of these pelagic Foraminifera are either not
present in the deposits, or are met with only in a fragmentary condition ; like the Cocco-
spheres, Rhabdo.^^pheres, Pteropods, and calcareous shells of other pelagic organisms, they
have been wholly dissolved either in falling through the water or shortly after having
reached the bottom.'^

' 8ec 1.. 31.

’ See Mtirray, I’roc. Hoy. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 535, 187G; Proc. Hoy. Soc, Edin., vol. x. p. 509, 1880; Royal Institution
lA-ctun-, Lon lon, March 10, 1888, j). 7; Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. i. pp. 923, 4; Murmy and Indne, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xvii. p. 8.3, 1889.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

263

There are not more than twenty or twenty-two species of pelagic Foraminifera, yet
so numerous are the individuals of the species that they usually make up over 90 per
cent, of the carbonate of lime present in the calcareous oozes of the abysmal regions of
the ocean. The individuals belonging to even a dozen of these species far outnumber
the individuals belonging to all the other known genera and species of Foraminifera.
This is true not only with regard to their abundance and great importance in the now-
forming deep-sea deposits, hut also to their great development in Tertiary and other
geological formations.^

The bottom-living Foraminifera — those belongiug to the Benthos — are more abundant
in the shallow- water, than in the deep-sea, deposits, and occasionally a single species may
occur in such abundance in shallow depths in some regions as to make up the greater
part of a deposit, as, for instance, Amphistegina at the Cape Verdes, Orhitolites at the
Fiji Islands, and Heterostegina at Amboina,^ but the extent of such deposits is very
limited when compared with a Globigerina Ooze, or any other deep-sea deposit. When-
ever bottom-living species of Foraminifera are, compared with pelagic species, abundant
in a deposit, they indicate comparatively shallow water and proximity to land. The
species of Foraminifera that live on the bottom in deep water are habitually under
very uniform conditions,® and consequently their shells do not vary in size and thickness
with change of latitude like those of the pelagic species, the animals of which are subject
to great changes of temperature and salinity in the surface waters.

Many of the arenaceous Foraminifera form their tests of minute calcareous shells of
Globigerinidse or their fragments, together with other calcareous fragments in the sands,
muds, clays, or oozes at the bottom, and many instances are given of the wonderful power
of selection possessed by certain species. The tests of Pilulina and Technitella are con-
structed of masses of Sponge spicules felted together, and the same is the case with
Marsipella, in which the spicules are laid together side by side and strongly cemented.
Psammosphsera, Storthosphmi'a, Pelosina, Pilulina, and Technitella are distinguished
from each other primarily by the kind of material they individually select for the con-
struction of the test. In the Lituolidae there is a certain amount of selective power, the
nature of the foreign material depending more or less on the character of the sea-bottom ;
for instance, in pure Globigerina Ooze the dead shells of the smaller Foraminifera are
used, and in the tropics the calcareous debris of coral reefs, while the tests of Badiolaria
and the frustules of Diatoms are sometimes employed in considerable numbers. The pre-
ference for Sponge spicules, broken or entire, also exists among the Lituolidse.

1 See Murray, “The Maltese Islands, with Special Reference to their Geological Structure,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol.
vi. pp. 449-488, 1890.

* See pp. 63, 89, and 97, Chapter II.

3 The following are a few of the cosmopolitan species which extend into deep water : — Biloculiim ringem, Miliolina
seminulum, Rotalia soldanii, Truncatulma lohatula, Nonionina umbilicatula, Nodosaria farcimen, Cassidulina crassa,
Gristellaria rotulata, Lagena globosa, Lagena Ixvis, Lagena sulcata, &c.

264

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The casts of Foraminifera in glauconite and other silicates are especially abundant in
some teiTigenous deposits, and will be specially referred to when discussing the chemical
deposits in Chapter VI.

Sponge Spicules. — The spicules of calcareous Sponges (Calcarea) are occasionally met
with in the deposits, but they are rare and only locally present.^

Corals. — All the groups of the Coelenterata which secrete carbonate of lime contribute
to the formation of marine deposits. In the neighbourhood of coral reefs the remains
of Madreporaria and Hydrocorallinae may frequently make up the principal part of Coral
Sands and Muds, and their fragments may be carried into the surrounding deep water.
Certain species of Stylasteridae, Flahellum, &c., are inhabitants of deep water, and may
be detected in deposits of all depths, but they never form a large part of a deep-sea
formation.-

Alcyonaiian Spicules. — These spicules are very frequently observed when examining
the deposits from shallow water, and occasionally are present in considerable abundance
in Globigerina or Pteropod Oozes. When they are locally abundant in deep water, as at
Station 182,® it would seem as if some specimens of Alcyonaria had lived at the spot
where the sounding w^as taken.^

Annelida. — The calcareous tubes of the Serpulidae in some coral reef regions, as
for instance at Bermuda, form very massive structures,® and these tubes with their
broken-down fragments can be recognised in nearly all marine deposits down to depths of
300 fathoms. A few species live in very deep water, and fragments of their tubes are
sometimes observed in the Red Clays, Globigerina Oozes, and in other kinds of pelagic
deposits.®

Crustacea. — When w’e remember the enormous numbers of Crustacea inhabiting
all parts of tlic ocean, it is somewhat remarkable that their remains are so rarely met
with in marine deposits. Chitin, which enters largely into the composition of the
crustacean exoskeleton, is well known to be dissolved only with difl&culty in acids or
alkalies, and it might be supposed that it would protect the calcareous portions of the
skeleton from solution in sea-water. The disappearance of the crustacean exoskeleton in
all likelihood arises from its areolar structure, which admits of relatively rapid solution
after the death of the animal, and the putrefaction of its soft parts.

In two or three cases the tip of a claw has been observed in the dredgings from both
shallow and deep water, but with these exceptions, the remains of all the higher groups

* See Pol^'jaeff, Report on the Calcarea, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 24.

* See Moseley, Report on the Corals, ZooL Chall. Exp., pt. 7.

* See p. 91, Chapter II.

* Sec W' right and Studer, Report on the Alcyonaria, Zool. Chall. Exp., pts. 64 and 81.

* See Murray, Proc. Iloy. Hoc. Edin., vol. x. p. 612, 1880,

* M'Intcwh says : — Serpula philippeiuis reaches 1050 fathoms, a Vermilia 1450 fathoms, Placostegus challmgeriee 2375
fsthoms, Placotteyut omatuM 29<X) fathoms, and Placostegus benthalianus the still greater depth of 3125 fathoms (see
M'lntosh, RejKJit on the Annelida, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt 34, p. 508).

EXPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

265

of the order are quite absent. The valves of Scalpellum, Balanus, etc., are frequently
met with, but never in any abundance. The most constant remains are the valves of
certain species of Ostracoda which secrete thick calcareous shells. These animals
evidently lived on the bottom where their shells are found, and, although limited in
numbers, extend to the most profound depths. It is seldom that any specimen of a

Fig. 26. — Krithe producta,'Rxa.&j. Fig. 27. — Cythere dictyon, Brady.

calcareous ooze from the deep sea is examined without several of the valves of these
organisms being observed, Krithe producta and three species of Cythere are almost
universally present in deep-sea deposits.^

Echinodermata. — Representatives of the various orders of Echinoderms are wide-
spread over the sea-bottom at all depths, and one would expect to find their remains
somewhat abundant in the deposits now forming in the ocean ; like the Crustacea, how-
ever, the areolar nature of the shells seems to determine the removal of the hard parts in
solution shortly after the death of the animal. It is seldom that a large sample of
Globigerina Ooze or Pteropod Ooze can be examined without some fragments of Echini
spines being observed, but it is the exception to meet with any other remains in the
deep-sea deposits. In Coral Muds and Sands and other deposits near land, fragments
of the shells and spines of Echini, Starfish, and Ophiurids are frequently present, and
in moderate depths fragments of Crinoids have been noticed,^

Polyzoa. — There are many species of Polyzoa or Bryozoa which secrete carbonate
of lime, and in some localities the fragments of these compound organisms make up a
large part, if not the greater part, of the deposits, as, for instance, in 110 to 150 fathoms
ofiT Tristan da Cunha, and in 50 to 300 fathoms off Marion and Prince Edward Islands.
In both shallow and deep water fragments of Polyzoa are nearly always to be observed,
but in the pelagic deposits they make up but an insignificant part of the carbonate of
lime present.^

1 See Hoek, Report on the Cirripedia, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 25 ; Brady, Report on the Ostracoda, Zool. Chalk Exp.,
pt. 3.

2 See Agassiz, Report on the Echinoidea, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 9 ; Sladen, Report on the Asteroidea, Zool. Chall.
Exp., pt. 51 ; Lyman, Report on the Ophiuroidea, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 14 ; Carpenter, Report on the Crinoidea, Zool.
Chall. Exp., pts. 32 and 60.

® See Busk, Report on the_Polyzoa, Zool. Chall. Exp., pts. 30 and 50 ; Waters, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 79.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 31

•266

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Brackiopoda. — These organisms are found living even in the greatest depths of the
ocean ; occasionally they are dredged in large numbers in depths down to 300 fathoms,
but in deep water it is only rarely that their remains can be detected in the deposits.^
Pteropoda and Heteropoda. — A large number of these pelagic Molluscs secrete
carbonate of lime shells, and this is especially the case in tropical waters. In polar
regions the place of the shelled species is taken, with the exception of one or two small
species of Limacina, by shell-less species. The shells of the tropical species make
up a large part of some tropical and subtropical deposits from moderate depths, in which
there is a relatively small quantity of land debris. Like the pelagic Foraminifera, these
]>elagic iMollusca attain their greatest development in the warm oceanic currents, and
diminish both in the numl^er of species and the size and mass of the shells as the colder
currents of the polar regions are approached. Like the pelagic Foraminifera, also, the
distribution of the living animals at the surface corresponds with the distribution of their
dead shells over the sea-bed, with certain limits as to depth. The dead shells are not
universally distributed over the floor of the ocean, for in all the deposits from the greater
depths of the ocean they are absent, or only rare fragments are met with, and as a general
rule they disappear from deep-sea deposits with increasing depth in the same way as the
shells of pelagic Foraminifera, the more delicate and fragile ones being found only in
the lesser depths. In the deposits of polar regions these shells are very rarely, if ever,
observed in the deposits, and certainly never make up any sensible part of the carbonate
of lime in the muds or oozes. A list of the species, whose shells may constitute a large
part of a Pteropod Ooze, is given on page 224.^

The Pteropoda and Heteropoda live in the surface and subsurface waters of the ocean,
are Holoplanktonic, and belong exclusively to the pelagic Plankton. It has never been
suggested that they lived exclusively, or for any portion of their lives, at the bottom
of the sea, as was long maintained with reference to the pelagic Foraminifera. It is
interesting then to point out that the shells of these pelagic Molluscs follow the same
order witli respect to distribution in depth as the shells of pelagic Foraminifera. They
are abundant, and the shells of all species appear to be represented, in the shallower
deposits, but witli increasing depth the more delicate shells first disappear, and then the
thicker and more massive ones. In depths of 2300 fathoms they are wholly removed
from the deposits, or only an occasional fragment is encountered. In the surface waters,
however, the living animals are quite as abundant over the region where the shells are
absent, as over the region where they are present, on the bottom. In whatever way we
may account for the removal of tlie Ptcro2>od shells from the deeper deposits of the ocean,
the same rea.soning is evidently applicable to the removal of the shells of pelagic Foramini-

• See Davidson, Report on the Brachiopoda, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. 1.

• Sec Pelscneer, Report on the Pteropoda, Zool. Chall. Exp., ]>t. 65 ; Smith, Report on the Heteropoda, Zool.
Chall. Exp., pt. 72.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

267

fera. Some of the more delicate Foraminiferous shells, like Candeina, disappear at the
same depths as the Pteropod shells, but the denser shells of Sphseroidina and Pulvinulina
persist to greater depths. In all cases the greater the surface of shell exposed to the
action of sea-water in proportion to its total mass the sooner does the shell appear to be
dissolved. In Molluscan shells the conchioline may for a time protect the calcareous
structures, but when putrefaction sets in it accelerates solution.

Gasteropoda and Lamellihranchiata. — The pelagic species, lanthina rotundata,
having the same habitat and distribution as the Pteropods, may be found associated with
these pelagic shells, but it never occurs in any great abundance in deposits. Many larval
shells of Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs are also frequently present along with Pteropod
shells in the shallower deposits not far removed from coasts. The shells of adult
Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs are well known to form extensive beds in many shallow-
water areas, and the shells of these Molluscs make up a considerable proportion of the
carbonate of lime in all deposits near the shores of continents and islands. In nearly all
the pelagic deposits the shells of Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs, or their fragments,
can be detected when any considerable quantity of the deposit is examined, but they
never form more than a small percentage of the carbonate of lime present.^ On the whole
the Gasteropods and Lamellibranchs are poorly represented in the abyssal regions, and
their shells are thin and fragile. In this respect alone there is a wide difference between
the Pteropod and Globigerina Oozes of recent seas and the white chalk of the Cretaceous
period, which was evidently laid down in much shallower water than these organic oozes.

Cephalopoda. — The only fragments of this order that have been observed in deep-
sea deposits are the beaks, and these are occasionally found even in a small specimen
from the sounding tube ; they can nearly always be picked out from the washings when
a large quantity of ooze is passed through fine sieves. In some shore dredgings, however,
fragments of cuttle-fish bones have been met with.^

Fishes. — When we remember the enormous numbers of fishes that inhabit the ocean,
the rarity of their remains in nearly all marine deposits is a very striking fact.^ In
only three or four instances were any fish bones, other than otoliths and teeth, observed
in the deposits brought up in the dredges and trawls. In 1875 fathoms, off the coast of
Japan, two vertebrae were found, and on other occasions a scapula and a vertebra. The
otoliths of fish are, however, tolerably abundant in all the calcareous oozes, and are
frequently present in Red Clays. That otoliths can resist the solvent action of sea-
water better than the other bones probably arises from the dense structure of these
bones, and possibly also from the difference in their composition when compared with
the other bones of fish, the otoliths being mostly composed of carbonate of lime, while

1 See Watson, Report on the Gasteropoda, ZooL Chall. Exp., pt. xlii. ; Smith, Report on the Lamellihranchiata,
ZooL Chall. Exp., pt. xxxv.

* See Hoyle, Report on the Cephalopoda, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. xliv.

3 See Gunther, Report on the Eishes, ZooL Chall. Exp., pts. vi., Ivii., and Ixxviii.

268

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the other fisli bones are largely made up of phosphate of lime associated with much
albuminoid matter. The otoliths of a cod gave on analysis —

Lime (CaO), ..... 53'08

Carbonic Acid (CO.,), .... 43‘85

Magnesia (MgO), . . . . 2'7l

Phosphoric Acid (PgOg), . . . trace

Alumina (AlgOg), .... 0:22

Silica (SiOg), 0‘33

♦

10019

Tlie teeth of fish are rather rare in terrigenous deposits and tolerably abundant in
some pelagic deposits ; in certain regions of the Central Pacific and in the other oceans
in great depths far removed from land, the teeth of sharks were most exceptionally
abundant in many of the deeper trawlings and dredgings. These sharks’ teeth, it will
be observed, are from red clay areas as a rule, it being the exception to find any of
the large sjiecimens in the calcareous oozes or terrigenous deposits. In general all that
remains is the hard dentine or enamel, the whole of the vaso-dentine having disap-
peared. In this respect the condition of these teeth diflFers from that of those belonging
to the same species from the Tertiary deposits in Malta, Carolina, Australia, and from
one tooth dredged by Agassiz from the existing sea-bed in relatively shallow water ofi’
the coast of North America in all these the vaso-dentine and the base are almost
always preserved. In the following list details are given as to the number, size, and
condition of the teeth procured by the Challenger Expedition in the trawlings and
dredgings in the order of the stations —

Atlantic Ocean.

Station 16, 2435 fathoms. — Two Oxyrhina teeth, the larger inches (38 mm.) in
length ; one Lamna, about an inch (25*4 mm.) in length.

Station 106, 1850 fathoms. — One Lamna tooth, 1| inches (68 mm.) in length.

Southern Indian Ocean.

Station 160, 2600 fathoms. — Two Carcharoclon teeth, one broken, over 1^ inches
(38 mm.) in length, and three small Lamna teeth.

Pacific Ocean.

Station 237, 1875 fathoms. — Two vertebra) and several large otoliths of fish.

Station 241, 2300 fathoms. — One small Lamna tooth, a little over half an inch
(127 mm.) in length.

• Ma^Ie by J. O. Rosh. ’ See AgasHiz, Three Cruises of the Blake" voL i. p. 276, 1888.

* Dr. AlWrt Gunther of the British Museum examined these teeth and was satisfied that the determinations were,
as far as possible, correct.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

269

Station 244, 2900 fathoms. — One Lamna tooth, f inch (19 mm.) in length.

Station 248, 2900 fathoms. — One Lmnna tooth, about an inch (25*4 mm.) in length,
slightly coated with manganese.

Station 252, 2740 fathoms. — One Carcharodon tooth, fully If inches (44‘4 mm.) in
length, imbedded in the centre of a nodule, the layers of manganese around the tooth
varying from ta f inch (12 '7 to 19 mm.) in thickness ; also four small Oxyrhina teeth
imbedded in nodules.

Station 256, 2950 fathoms. — Four Oxy^'hina teeth, the largest 1-g inches (38 mm.)
in length, and five Lamna teeth ; three of the teeth were very deeply imbedded in man-
ganese depositions.

Station 274, 2750 fathoms. — One large Carcharodon tooth, fully 2 inches (51 mm.)
in length, and broken piece of another large Carcharodon tooth, both deeply imbedded
in manganese ; also nine Oxyrhina and five Lamna teeth, ^ the largest 1^ inches (38 mm.)
in length, some deeply imbedded, along with several fragments of teeth and numerous
small teeth of other fish.

Station 276, 2350 fathoms. — Over 250 sharks’ teeth and fragments were counted
from this station, including four large Carcharodons, from 2 to inches (51 to 64 mm.)
in length, and fragments of similar large teeth ; fourteen smaller serrated teeth,^ similar
to Corax or Carcharias; sixty teeth like Lamna, ^ of various sizes, the largest 1^ inches
(38 mm.) in length ; thirty Oxyrhina teeth, the largest, Oxyrhina trigonodon,^ \\ inches
(38 mm.) in length; fifteen teeth which may possibly be the central fangs of Otodus ;
and over one hundred small teeth, less than inch (12'7 mm.) in length. The majority
were more or less deeply imbedded in manganese. There were also two tabulated teeth
of Tetradon, and four large otoliths of fish, similar to those of the Tunny.

Station 281, 2385 fathoms. — 116 sharks’ teeth and fragments were counted from
this station, including' eleven Carcharodons, one, the largest obtained during the cruise,
being fully 4 inches (10 cm.) in length, belonging to- Carcharodon mcgalodon,^ the
others 2 inches (51 mm.) and less in length;^ and over one hundred teeth of Oxyrhina,
Lamna, &c., the largest 2 inches (51 mm.) in length.'^ Most of the teeth had a slight
coating of manganese, while a few were deeply imbedded;

Station 285, 2375 fathoms. — Over 1500 sharks’ teeth and fragments of consider-
able size were counted from this station, in addition to immense numbers of very
small teeth and fragments. There were fifteen nearly perfect Carcharodons,^ the largest
3^ inches (83 mm.) across the base and 2^ inches (64 mm.) in length, and about twenty
fragments of similar teeth ; twenty small teeth, like Corax or Galeus or Hemipristis ; ^
about two hundred perfect Oxyrhina and Lamna teeth of various sizes, in addition to

1 See PI. VI. figs. 8, 16. 2 See PI. V. fig. 12. 2 . See PI. VI. fig. 19. « See PI. VI. fig 1.

5 See PI. V. fig. 1, 6 See PI. V. figs. 2--5. ^ See PI. V; fig. 13 ; PI; VI. figs. 9, 10, 13, 15, 17.

« See PI. V. figs. 6, 7. » See PI. V. figs. 10, 11. See PI. V. figs. 2-7 ; PI. VI. figs. 12, 18, 20, 21, 23.

‘270

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

many hundred fragments and teeth of small size. The majority of the teeth were more
or less thickly coated with manganese, the smaller ones apparently to a greater extent
tlian the larger ones. The hard dentine of one of the Carcharodon teeth was found to
contain 33 ‘66 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to 73 '48 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate,
and 2 "28 per cent, of fluorine. The inside of the tooth was filled with deposits of man-
ganese, iron, and clayey materials, resembling the manganese nodules in composition,
and containing only 0 83 per cent, of phosphoric acid.

Station 286, 2335 fathoms. — Over 350 sharks’ teeth and fragments were counted
from this station, including about thirty Carclmrodons^ half of them perfect, the largest
nearly 3 inches (76 mm.) in length; about two hundred Oxyrhina Lamna teeth,^
the largest of the former 2^ inches (64 mm.), and of the latter If inches (44'4 mm.), in
length ; and over one hundred small teeth, Hemipristis, &c.® All the teeth were more
or less deeply imbedded in depositions of manganese. Three of the Oxyrhina teeth
yielded 32'58 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 71 T2 per cent, of tricalcic
phosphate, while the black material which filled the interior of the teeth yielded only
7 ‘97 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 17’39 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate.

Station 289, 2550 fathoms. — One perfect Oxyrhina tooth., about inches (28'6 mm.)
in length, deeply imbedded, and fragment of a similar tooth.

Station 293, 2025 fathoms. — One Carcharodon tooth, about If inches (44'4 mm.) in
length, and one Oxyrhina tooth, about If inches (31 ‘6 mm.) in length, the former with,
the latter without, a coating of manganese.

Mammalia. — The remains of Mammalia were exceedingly rare in the great
majority of the Challenger’s dredgings and trawlings. In all the terrigenous deposits
and calcareous oozes they were not observed, but the “ Blake ” expedition dredged oflf the
coast of North America a few bones, and one or two sharks’ teeth belonging to the same
species as some of those noted in the foregoing list. Numerous remains of Cetaceans
were collected by the Challenger in the same trawlings in which the sharks’ teeth were
obtained, principally the dense earbones and beaks of Ziphioid whales, but besides these
were a few fragments of the other more areolar bones, evidently in the process of being
dissolved by the action of the sea-water. A microscopic examination of the nuclei of
the manganese nodules revealed the fact that many of these concretions had been formed
around bone fragments, the structure of which had almost disappeared. The following
list gives the number, condition, and nature of these Mammalian remains in the trawlings
and dredgings at the several stations where they were procured —

* SectionH of one are given in PI. X. figs. 4, 4a.

* 8ce PI. VI. figs. 14, 22 ; PI. X. fig. 5 (section).

* See PI. V. figs. 8, 9.

* All these lx>nes were examined and determined by Professor Sir William Turner ; see Report ou the Cetacea,
Zool. Cball. Exp., |^>ort iv.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

271

Atlantic Ocean.

Station 131, 2275 fathoms. — A tympanic bulla, 2^ inches (63 mm.) in length, closely
corresponding with that of Zi'phius cavirostris}

Southern Indian Ocean.

Station 143, 1900 fathoms. — A small indeterminable fragment of bone, about the size of
a marble, consisting of cancellated tissue, and coated and impregnated with manganese.

Station 160, 2600 fathoms. — Several tympanic bullae, three apparently allied toMesoplo-
don^ another belonging to Delphinus, and a petrous bone apparently of a Globiocephalus;
also a nodulated mass of bone, coated and impregnated with manganese, and three small
fragments, one a flat bone.

Pacific Ocean,

Station 274, 2750 fathoms, — Tympano-periotic bone of Globiocephalus,^ another of
one of the Delphinidse,^ another like that of a Mesoplodon, and six separate petrous
bones and four separate tympanic bullse belonging to the smaller species of Cetacea ;
also a small fragment of bone forming the nucleus of a manganese nodule.

Station 276, 2350 fathoms, — Two tympano-periotic bones of Mesoplodon, closely
resembling Mesoplodon layardi,^ eight separate petrous bones and six tympanic bullse,
one of the latter belonging to Globiocephalus and another allied to Kogia, the rest
apparently those of Delphinus.

Station 281, 2385 fathoms, — Six tympanic bones, 1 to I5 inches (25 to 32 mm.)
in length, and three petrous bones, all belonging to the family of dolphins.

Station 285, 2375 fathoms. — Four tympanic bones, 2‘7 to 4‘7 inches (7 to 12 cm.)
in length, belonging to the genus Balsenoptera f another closely allied, 3^ inches (9 cm.)
in length ; twenty-five smaller tympanic bones and eighteen petrous bones, belonging to
the genera Mesoplodon, Delphinus, and Globiocephalus; a petro-mastoid bone, 4 inches
(10 cm.) in length, probably belonging to one of the Baleen whales ; and numerous small
fragments of bone thickly coated with manganese.

Station 286, 2335 fathoms. — About ninety tympanic bullae were recognised, and
various fragments coated with and imbedded in manganese, which appeared to be portions
of tympanic bones, in addition to forty-two detached petrous bones. A bulla nearly
6 inches (15 cm.) in length, and a fragment of a similar bone, belong probably to
Balsenoptera antarctica two bullae, one 3‘6 inches (91 mm.) the other 3*4 inches (86
mm.) in length, belong probably to Balsenoptera rostrata ® (possibly Balsenoptera huttonil) ;
several bullae, about 3 inches (76 mm.) in length, belong to Balsenoptera, probably an
extinct species.® Two bones, 3 inches (76 mm.) in length, probably belong to the

1 Figured in Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. iv. pi. ii. fig. 10.

2 See PL VIII. fig. 11. 3 gee PI. VIII. figs. 4, 5, ^ See PI. VIII. figs. 12, 13.

5 See PI. VII. figs. 6, 7. « See PI. VII. fig. 1. ^ See PI. VII. fig. 2.

® See PI. VII. fig. 3. ® Figured iu Zool. ChaU. Exp., pt. iv. pi. ii. fig. 11.

272

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Bala;uula3.' Eight bullaa, 2 to 3 inches (G4 to 76 mm.) in length, somewhat resemble
those of Ziphius cavirostris, thougli without the unciform lobe.^ About forty specimens,
1'6 to 2‘3 inches (41 to 58 mm.) in length, belong to the genus Mesoplodon ; the two
largest, in which the petrous bone was united with the tympanic, could not be deter-
mined, but the rest ajDparently belong to Mesoplodon layardi.^ Twenty-four specimens,
1 to 1‘7 inches (25 to 43 mm.) in length, belong apparently to the Delphinidse ; the
longest resembles the bulla of Glohiocephcdus,^ others belong to the genus Delpliinus,
while the smallest are like those of the common porpoise. One specimen belongs to the
genus Kogia,^ and other two are closely allied to it.®

The larger petrous bones, the longest being 2 inches (51 mm.) in length, probably
belong to the genus Mesoplodon, the others to the genus Delphinus, while two specimens
are smaller than those of the common porpoise.^ There were fourteen specimens consisting
of the petrous and a portion of the elongated mastoid element continuous with it, varying in
length from 2‘5 to 3 '6 inches (64 to 91 mm.), belonging apparently to the Baleen whales.®

There were also numerous fragments of other bones, including a beak of a Ziphioid
whale,® measuring over 8 inches (20 cm.) in length, and three smaller fragments of beaks
of Ziphioids ; numerous flat fragments, portions of the brain case,^® and one or two probably
bits of the shaft of a rib. An irregular mass of spongy bone 8x4x3 inches (20 x 10
X 8 cm.), not nearly so much impregnated with manganese as the rest, and two smaller
fragments," one 5x5 inches (13 x 13 cm.), are apparently portions of the expanded wings
of superior maxillae. Nearly two hundred small fragments, forming the nuclei of man-
ganese nodules, exhibited evidence of bone structure.

A portion of the spongy mass of whale’s bone was completely analysed by Professor

Dittmar, F.R.S.," with the following results : —

Moisture, ...... 306

Combined water, ...... 3’66

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . 27 49

Carbonic acid, ...... 414

Fluorine, 0 71 = (F2 — 0), ..... 0 41

Lime, ....... 3900

Magnesia, ....... 201

Ferrous oxide, ...... 104

F’crric oxide, ...... 4 83

Binoxide of mang.anese, . . . . . 161

Alumina, ....... 270

Silica and substances insoluble in hydrochloric acid, . 9 08

Alkalies and 1os.h, ...... 0 97

10000

* .See I’l. VII. figii. 4, 6. * Fif^ured in Zool. Chnll. E.\p., pt. iv. ]>1. ii. fig. 12. ^ See PI. VIII. figs. 1, 2.

* .S«.-e PI. VIII. fig. 0. * .See PI. VIII. fig. 7; also figured in Zool. Clmll. E.xp., j»t. iv. pi. ii. fig. 1.3.

Figiind in Zwl. Chall. Exj»., jd. iv. pi. ii. fig. 14. ^ See PI. VIII. figs. 8, 9, 14. * See PI. VIII. fig. 3.

* S<je PI. X. fig. I. Sec PI. X. fig. 2. *' * See PI. X. fig. 3. *'■' See Appendix III.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

273

The insoluble residue consisted apparently
hydrochloric acid seemed to be a mixture of —

of amorphous silica.

The part soluble

Phosphate of lime,

60 0 per cent, of the whole substance.

Carbonate of lime.

9-4

>3

Fluoride of calcium.

1-4

>)

Binoxide of manganese, ,

1-6

Ferric oxide, ....

and minor constituents.

4-8

if

A portion of a flat whalers bone, much impregnated with manganese, was submitted
to analysis. A small portion in the centre, comparatively uncoloured by the manganese,
was used for the following determinations : —

Moisture, ....

2-87 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, ....

29-13 „

Fluorine, .....

1-44 „

Lime, ......

36-05 „

Substances insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

2-91 „

There was an appreciable quantity of manganese present, and also a trace of cobalt. The
outer manganiferous portion was completely analysed, with the following results ; —

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid, .
Total water, ....
Manganous oxide.

Loose oxygen, ....
Ferric oxide, ....
Alumina,

Lime, .....
Magnesia, ....
Potash, .....
Soda, . . . . . .

Phosphoric acid,

Carbonic acid.

Traces of copper, chlorine, fluorine, and loss.

5- 76
9-77

20-22

3-49

6- 54
1-66

19-71

7- 42

0- 55

1- 12

18-59 = 40-90 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.
3-87
1-30

100-00

The manganese is probably present mostly as hydrated binoxide, and partly as pro-
toxides.

Another portion of a flat whale’s bone, in which the manganese was pretty well
diffused throughout, was used for the following determinations : —

Moisture,

Combined water.
Phosphoric acid.
Fluorine,

(deep SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. — 1891.)

5- 49 per cent.

6- 88
13-05

0-65

35

274

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Oiie-half of an earbone of Balwna (?) was analysed, and for that purpose the man-
ganese filling the cavity of the bone was scraped out and analysed separately. The
white siliceous-looking core gave the following results : —

Insoluble in acid,

Moisture,

Combined water.

Phosphates of iron and alumina.
Phosphoric acid.

Carbonic acid.

Fluorine, l‘4 = (Fg— 0), .
Sulphuric acid, .

Chlorine,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Alkalies and loss,

0-06

2-21

2-22

0-42

34'13 = 74‘5 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.
6-61
0-81
0-81
trace
49-85
0-77
2-11

100-00

The contents of the cavity gave on analysis the following results : —

Insoluble in acid.
Total water,
Manganous oxide.
Loose oxygen.
Ferric oxide.

Lime,

Magnesia,

Alumina,

Silica,

Phosphoric acid,
Potash, .

S(xla,

Nickel and copper,

13-66

27-00

27-13

3- 13
8-34

4- 34
4-03
6-54

1- 31

2- 39
107
2-39

traces

101-33

The insoluble residue was apparently all amorphous silica. The soluble portion
apparently consists of hydrated scsquioxides of manganese and iron and decomposible
silicates.

The inner, alrao.st uncoloured, portion of an earbone of Balmioptera was used for
the following determinations: —

Moisture,

1-60

CVmibined water,

1-34

Phosphoric acid.

31-21

Fbioriiie,

1-89

j)er cent.

II «

„ =68-13 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

II

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

275

The inner portion of the large Ziphius beak gave the following results : —

Moisture,

. 1'14 per cent.

Combined water.

278

Carbonic acid.

6-81 „

Phosphoric acid,

33-30

Fluorine,

1-65

= 72'69 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

Station 289, 2550 fathoms. — Three large tympanic bones, 3 to 4 inches (8 to 10 cm.)
in length, apparently belonging to the genus Balsenop>tera, and two nodules with bony
nuclei.

The inner portion of an earbone of Balsenopteva was used for the following deter-
minations : —

Moisture, . . . . 1'61 per cent.

Phosphoric acid, . . . 3273 „ = 71 '44 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

Fluorine, .... 1'61 „

Station 293, 2025 fathoms. — One small indeterminable fragment of bone, impregnated
with manganese.

Station 299, 2160 fathoms. — One bilobed tympanic bulla, with the petrous bone
attached, apparently of a Glohiocephalus.

On comparing the preceding analyses of these deep-sea bones and teetld with analyses
of recent and fossil bones,^ it is found that as regards the phosphoric acid there is not much
divergence, except where there is much manganese in the specimen : in deep-sea bones
the percentage varies from 27 to 34, in recent bones 22 to 34, and in fossil bone 33 ;
the same is the case with the lime : in deep-sea bones 36 to 49 per cent., in recent bones
30 to 41 per cent., and in fossil bone 48 per cent.„

The most striking difierence is in the fluorine, the percentage of which in recent
bones is only 0‘004 to 0'032 per cent., in fossil bone 1’50 per cent., while in deep-sea
bones it varies from 0'65 to 1‘89 per cent., and in deep-sea teeth it reaches 2‘28 per cent.
These deep-sea specimens of bones and teeth thus resemble fossil bones in the large per-
centage of fluorine they contain. This fluorine might be assumed to be the original fluorine
of the bones rendered more abundant by the removal of the lime salts, but more probably
it owes its origin to a continuous, though slowly progressing, double decomposition between
the phosphate of the bone and the trace of dissolved fluorides in the sea-water.

Some of the bones and teeth were in a much better state of preservation than others ;
in some the coating of manganese was very thin, and the Haversian canals and lacunae
were but little impregnated by that substance, so that a fractured surface was greyish
white ; in others, not only were the bones thickly encrusted, but the canals and lacunae
were nearly all infiltrated with the manganese, as will be seen by reference to the illustra-
tions on Plate X., so that the fractured surface was brown or black, and the bones very
' See Analyses Nos. 137 to 153, Appendix III. ^See Analyses Nos. 153A, B, C, D.

•27C

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

brittle. The great majority of the large cancellated bones of the whales appear to have
been wholly removed from the deposits through the chemical action of the sea-water.

With respect to the distribution of the earbones and fragments of other Cetacean
bones, it will be observed that no specimens were obtained north of the equator either in
the Atlantic or Pacific. From terrigenous deposits only one earbone was dredged, viz., at
Station 299, 21 GO fathoms, over 100 miles from the South American coast, where the deposit
was a Blue Mud. These Cetacean bones are also rare in Globigerina Ooze, being obtained
in only three instances, viz., one bulla at Station 131, 2275 fathoms, in the South Atlantic
(the only Cetacean bone procured in the Atlantic); a fragment at Station 143, 1900 fathoms,
100 miles south-east of the Cape of Good Hope; and another fragment at Station 293,
2025 fathoms, in the South Pacific. With the above exceptions all the bones of Cetaceans
j)rocured during the Challenger Expedition were dredged from Bed Clays and Eadiolarian
Oozes, and these are all situated in the Central South Pacific, excepting Station 160, 2600
fathoms, in the Southern Indian Ocean, 500 miles southwest of Australia.

The preservation of the earbones and fragments of beaks of Ziphioid whales is to be
accounted for by the great density of these portions of the skeleton, and the consequent
small amount of surface presented to the action of sea-water when compared with the
cancellated bones. Professor Sir William Turner points out that he could not identify
any of the bones as belonging to the great Sperm Whale {Physeter macrocephalus),
although the track of the Challenger, where these hauls of Cetacean bones were made, was
through the part of the Pacific frequented by that huge Cetacean.

The distribution of the sharks’ teeth in the deposits is similar to that of the bones of
Cetaceans, although they were dredged more frequently. They are most abundant in
the red clay areas far removed from land, and especially in those of the Central South
Pacific ; they were less frequently taken in the organic oozes of the deep sea, and only
in one or two instances in the terrigenous deposits surrounding continental or other
land. It seems undoubted that many of the teeth of sharks and the bones of the
Ziphioid whales belong to Tertiary and extinct species.

In the foregoing paragraphs we have indicated the various kinds of organic structures
of a calcareous nature which enter into the composition of marine deposits, and we have
to some extent pointed out their bathymetrical and geographical distribution. Those
structures, like the bones of fish and marine mammals, or even the exoskeletons of Crus-
tacea, wliich are very areolar in structure, and contain a large quantity of phosphate of lime
a.ssociatcd witli much albuminoid matter, appear to be able to resist the solvent action
of sea-water only for a relatively short time, so that tliey disaj)pear from marine deposits
much more rapidly than the bones with a denser structure. The otoliths of fish, the
hard dentine of sharks’ teeth, and the dense earbones and beaks of certain whales, resist
for a longer time the solvent ar^tion of the sea- water, and may therefore accumulate and

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

277

be preserved in the deposits. But from what has been said as to the condition of these
])ones, it cannot be doubted that even the densest specimens would ultimately quite dis-
appear if continually exposed at the bottom of the sea. In deposits where there is a more
rapid accumulation, it is not improbable that these bones and teeth would be covered up by
detrital matters, before being wholly dissolved, and being thus protected some remnants
of them might be preserved in the beds now formiug at the bottom of the ocean.

In the case of shells and other skeletal structures, like Corals, Molluscs, Foraminifera,
and calcareous Algse, there is likewise a difference in the extent to which they can resist
the destructive effects of exposure to sea-water. Those which have a porous structure,
with a large quantity of albuminoid matter in the shell or skeleton, disappear much more
rapidly than those compact shells with a close texture, which consequently expose a
relatively much smaller surface to the action of the surrounding water. As already
indicated, the conchioline, that is, albuminoid matters associated with the calcareous
structures, would at first, as shown by Bischoff, protect the calcareous structures ; but
when putrefaction sets in, the areolar structure and the decomposing organic matters
would accelerate the solution of the calcareous shells and skeletons. In all cases, how-
ever, calcareous structures of all kinds are slowly removed from the bottom of the ocean
on the death of the organisms, unless rapidly covered up by the accumulating deposits,
and in this way protected to a certain extent from the solvent action of the sea-water.
It is evident from the Challenger investigations that whole classes of animals with hard
calcareous shells and skeletons, remains of which one might suppose would be preserved
in modern deposits, are not there represented ; although they are now living in immense
numbers in the surface waters or on the deposits at the bottom, in some regions all
trace of them has been removed by solution. A similar removal of calcareous organic
structures has undoubtedly taken place in the marine formations of past geological eras.^
In the warm waters of the tropical regions of the ocean there is the greatest develop-
ment of lime-secreting organisms. This is rendered evident not only by the vast organic
accumulations known as coral reefs, but by what has been said above as to the number of
pelagic species of calcareous Algse, Foraminifera, and Molluscs, which inhabit the surface
and subsurface waters of the tropics, and whose dead remains form organic accumulations
at the bottom of the sea far exceeding in extent and importance those of coral reefs. On
the other hand, there is a restricted development of these calcareous structures both in
the cold waters of the deep sea and in those of the temperate and polar regions ; it is
observed that in the shells and skeletons of deep-sea animals there is a marked deficiency
in carbonate of lime, and the same holds good, in a general sense, with the organisms in
polar waters. The probable cause of this distribution has been indicated when treating
of the changes produced by organisms in the constitution of sea- water salts. ^

1 Murray, “ The Maltese Islands, with special reference to their Geological Structure,” Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. vi.
p. 482, 1890. 2 See pp. 254-256.

‘278

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lu tropical and temperate regions there is likewise a much greater accumulation of
carbonate of lime remains on the bottom than at like depths towards the polar areas,
where the surface waters have a low temperature throughout the year. At the present
time, then, it is evident that there is a decided tendency for carbonate of lime deposits to
accumulate towards the equatorial regions of the ocean. In the central parts of the
equatorial regions of the ocean basins this carbonate of lime is almost exclusively derived
from the shells and skeletons of pelagic organisms whose habitat is in the warm surface
and subsurface waters. That these pelagic shells should be abundant on the bottom in
tro})ical regions at nearly all moderate depths, and wholly or almost wholly absent from
the deposits in all the greater depths, has been regarded as one of the most remarkable
facts brought to light by the Challenger investigations. This fact, however, admits of a
ready explanation, if it be remembered that all these shells are subject to solution imme-
diately on the death of the organisms, that only a small number of them — the more
delicate ones — are wholly removed in falling through a moderate depth of water, while a
very large proportion are wholly dissolved in falling through a depth of four or five miles.

Mr. Murray made a large number of experiments during the expedition with the view
of ascertaining the rate of fall of pelagic organisms in sea-water. The experiments were
conducted in a long glass cylinder, and the rate was found to vary greatly according to
the shape of the shell and the albuminoid matter associated with it. According to the
results of these experiments it would take from three to six days for the shells to reach a
de})th of 2500 fathoms. In the deeper layers the rate of fall would probably be much
slower than in the surface layers, owing to the shells being less compressible than water. ^
It has also been shown that solution of carbonate of lime shells takes place more rapidly
under pressure.'* In this dissolution of the carbonate of lime shells the reaction referred
to on pages 255 and 25G appears to play an important role. Besides it must be remembered
that in the greater depths of the ocean, those shells which may reach the bottom are not
covered up so rapidly l>y other shells falling from the surface, as they undoubtedly are
in the shallower de})tlis, where large numbers reach the bottom, and there accumulate.
'I’he practically motionless water in contact with the large quantity of carbonate of lime
in moderate de2)ths would in addition soon become saturated, and consequently be
unable to take up more carbonate of lime, for sea-water can only take up a relatively
small quantity of carbonate of lime in addition to what it normally contains. The water
in contact with the deeper deposits, in which there is but little carbonate of lime, would
not become thus .saturated. These considerations also ex})lain why the whole of the
carbonate of lime shells are removed from the deposits at lesser depths in extra-tropical
regions, where there are fewer living calcareous organisms at the surface, than in the tropics
beneath the warm oceanic currents, where the surface shells are much more abundant.®

• Murriiy and Irvine, I’ror. Roy Hoc. lulin., vol. xvii. p. 98.

• Iteid, I'roc. Roy. Hoc. Kdin., vol, xv. pp. 151-157, 1888. ’ Murray and Irvine, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xvii. p. 97.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

279

The gradual disappearance of the carbonate of lime remains from deep-sea deposits
with increasing depth is exhibited in the following table giving the mean percentages
of carbonate of lime in 231 samples of organic oozes, Eed Clays, and Coral Muds from
the Challenger collections, arranged in groups of 500 fathoms : —

14 cases under 500

fathoms.

average per

cent. CaCOs,

86-04

7 „

from 500 to 1000

5?

33

33

66-86

24 „

„ 1000 to 1500

y

33

3 3 •

70-87

42 „

„ 1500 to 2000

))

33

33

69-55

00

„ 2000 to 2500

33

3 3

33 • •

46-73

65 „

„ 2500 to 3000

33

33

33 • •

17-36

8 „

„ 3000 to 3500

3 3

33

33 • •

0-88

2 „

„ 3500 to 4000

33

3?

33 • •

0-00

1 „

over 4000

33

35

33 •

trace.

The fourteen samples under 500 fathoms are chiefly Coral Muds ; in the seven
samples from between 500 and 1000 fathoms there are many mineral particles from
neighbouring continents and islands. In all the depths beyond 1000 fathoms the
carbonate of lime is almost exclusively derived from the shells of pelagic organisms
that have fallen to the bottom from the surface waters, and it wiU be observed that in
all the greatest depths of the ocean all of these pelagic calcareous shells have dis-
appeared from the deposits.

Many years ago Sorby ^ called attention to the importance of observing the form in
which carbonate of lime is built up in animal structures : whether the shells be com-
posed of aragonite or of calcite. According to him some shells are found to be com-
posed wholly of calcite, while others are composed of aragonite or of layers of calcite
and aragonite.^ The prismatic aragonite is much less stable than calcite, and consequently
much more soluble. It has been stated by geologists that in some geological formations
the aragonite shells were completely removed from the rock while the calcite shells were
preserved. Some observers ^ have attempted to apply the same reasoning to the dis-
appearance of the calcareous shells from the deeper deposits of the oceanic basins, it
being held that the aragonite shells, or the aragonite portions of shells, have been removed
in solution while the calcite shells, or the calcite portions of shells, are preserved in the
deposits. It does not appear to us that any suflicient explanation of the facts to which
we have just referred can be found in this direction. It is exceedingly difficult to
determine by optical means whether or not any of these pelagic and microscopic shells
are aragonite, and it is equally difficult to apply the specific gravity test with accuracy.

1 Sorby, Presidential Address to the Geological Society, February 1879.

2 See also F. Leydolt, Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Wien, Bd. xix. pp. 10-32, 1856 ; G. Rose, Abhandl. d. k. Akad.
Wise. Berlin, 1858 (Phys. KL), pp. 63-111.

3 Th. Fuchs, Sitzb. d. k. AJcad. Wiss. Wien, Bd. Ixxvi. pp. 329-334, 1877 ; Neues Jahrbuch fur Min. etc., Jahrg.
1882, Bd. ii. pp. 487-584.

280

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

So far as we can judge, these shells appear to he formed of calcite. But whether the
shells be calcite or aragonite they all disappear in the greatest depths of the ocean,
while only those with very thin or very porous shells are removed from the shallower
deposits. Aliy shells may be preserved in marine deposits if they be rapidly covered up
by other shells, or may be removed if long enough exposed to the solvent action of
normal sea-w’ater. So far as we have been able to observe, the crystalline form of the
carbonate of lime in these shells does not enter into the problem as to the causes of
their gradual removal from marine deposits with increasing depth.

If we take the Challenger deposits as representative of those covering the whole
floor of the ocean, then the average proportion of carbonate of lime in deep-sea
deposits as a whole is about 37 per cent., and of this carbonate of lime it is estimated
that fully 90 per cent, is derived from the remains of pelagic organisms that lived in the
surface waters, and therefore belonging to the pelagic Plankton.

Coral LIuds, Coral Sands, Pteropod and Globigerina Oozes are estimated to cover
over 52,000,000 square miles of the sea bottom, and the average percentage of carbonate
of lime in these deposits, taking the Challenger samples as a basis, is 76 ‘44.

Beyond the fact that the sounding tube and dredge have occasionally penetrated
about 18 inches or two feet into these deposits, there is little, if any, information as to
the depth or thickness of these beds, but judging from what has taken place in past
geological periods they may undoubtedly have a very great thickness.^

The following table exhibits the percentage of carbonate of lime in each of the types
of deep-sea deposits according to the analyses of the Challenger samples, together
with the average depth of each type of deposit, and the estimated area which each type
covers on the sea-floor, the extent of the areas being founded on a consideration of all
available information on the subject.

Table showing the Mean Depth, Mean Percentage of Carbonate of Lime, and the Estimated Area of the

various Deep-Sea Deposits.

1

Mean Depth in
Fathoms.

Mean Percentage of
CaCOg.

Area, Square Miles.

i Piod Clay, .....

2730

6-70

61,500,000

Iladiolarian Ooze,

2894

4-01

2,290,400

10,880,000

Diatom Ooztj, ....

1477

22-96

fJlobigerinii Ooze,

1996

64-53

49,520,000

I’teropo<l Ooze, ....

1044

79-26

400,000

Coral .Mud, .....
Coral Sand, . ...

Other terrigenous deposits. Blue

740 1
176 /

86-41

2,556,800

Muil, Arc. .....

1016

19-20

16,050,000

1

* ilurrav, Scot. Oeoyr. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 468-473, 1890.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

281

e. Siliceous Organic Eemains.

I

1,

I

I'

I

t

1

!

I:

i'

'!

I;

111

ii

i'l

1'

ti

The organisms whose siliceous remains are met with in deep-sea deposits belong to
three groups ; the Diatomacea and Eadiolaria, both of which have a pelagic habitat, and
belong to the neritic and oceanic Plankton, and the siliceous Sponges, which live on the
bottom of the sea, and belong exclusively to the Benthos. Diatoms and Eadiolaria are
as widely spread throughout the waters of the ocean, and their dead siliceous shells and
skeletons are as widely distributed over the sea-floor, as the remains of calcareous
organisms. Siliceous Sponges are also universally distributed on the sea-bed, and their
skeletons contribute to the materials of marine deposits. The remains of these siliceous
organisms do not, however, bulk so largely in deep-sea deposits as the calcareous remains,
still in some regions they are so abundant as to make up a very large part, if not the
principal part, of a deposit, as, for instance, in the case of Diatom and Eadiolarian Oozes.

Diatomacea. — These siliceous Algse are met with everywhere in the surface and sub-
surface waters of the ocean. It is rare, one may say impossible, to drag a very fine tow-
net through sea- water anywhere without capturing a number of these minute organisms.
A considerable number of attached forms are carried from land surfaces into the ocean by
rivers, and in all the shallower depths of the sea such attached forms may be procured,
but the species that play so large a part in deep-sea deposits are free-swimming and
pelagic. These pelagic species can generafly be recognised in the tow-net gatherings
from the sea-surface, if the net used be of very fine texture ; when a coarse net is used
they can usually be found in the stomachs of the pelagic animals obtained. At times
they occur near the surface in enormous numbers, in great floating banks many miles in
extent and several fathoms in depth. When the nets are drawn through these banks
they are filled with a brown-coloured slimy and felt-like mass, composed principally of
the frustules of Diatoms. In the tropics the banks are found at the very surface at
night, and during the day their superior limit may be 10 or 15 fathoms below the sur-
face. Floating banks of Algae were met with by the ChaEenger in the Southern and
Antarctic Oceans, in the Sulu Sea, in the Arafura Sea, and off the coast of North
America, by H.M.S. “Triton” off the Shetland Islands, and in other regions by previous
and later observers. The dried surface collections made from one of these banks by the
Challenger in 54° south latitude gave on analysis : ^ —

Silica soluble in acid,
Silica insoluble in acid,
Alumina,

Organic matter,

Water,

1 Made by W. S. Anderson.
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

I'OO

76-00

1-38

16-75

4-87

100-00

282

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

The largest forms hitherto discovered are from tropical or subtropical surface waters,
e.g., Ethmodisci, Castracane= Coscinodiscus gazellae, Janisch, Coscinodiscus imperator,
Janisch, Coscinodiscus praetor, Grove, Coscinodiscus nobilis, Grun., Coscinodiscus sol,
Wallich. The most delicate species are especially tropical or subtropical, e.g., the peri-
j)heral rotate rim of Coscinodiscus sol, many Rhizosolenise, and Chsetocerotidse ; this
applies equally to the degree of tenuity of the siliceous test as a whole, to the nature of
its ornamentation as determined by the difficulty of microscopical resolution, and to the
siliceous appendages when present.^ This great development of Diatoms at the surface of

Fig. 28.— Fnistale of Elhmodiscus wyviUeanus, Castracane Fia. 29. — Portion of Prustule of Ethmodiscus sp. (^).

the sea takes place especially in brackish water, or in sea- water where the salinity is relatively
low, as, for instance, in the Antarctic and Arctic Oceans, and in estuaries or off the mouths
of great rivers. In the warm and salter waters of the ocean Diatoms are less abundant,
and the frustules as a rule are much thinner than in the colder and less salt waters of
the polar regions or in the warm brackish waters off continental shores in the tropics.

In deep-sea deposits the remains of these pelagic Diatoms can generally be detected
if a considerable quantity of the deposit be carefully examined. In some Pteropod and
Globigerina Oozes and Coral Muds, however, no trace of Diatoms have been observed
after the removal of the carbonate of lime from a large sample and a subsequent careful
examination of the residue ; they are also extremely rare in, or absent from, some of the
deep-.sca clays. In terrigenous muds, especially when near the mouths of great rivers,
they frequently occur in great abundance.

• Mr. John Rattray, M.A., F.R.S.E., a diatomist who ha.s examined many of the Challenger deposits, says in an
ilS. letter to Mr. ^lurray; — “No dead tests are to be considered absolutely indestructible in time. Delicate Chieto-
cerotidic are not found in oceanic deposits nor in geological strata. Coscinodisci disrupt along lines passing through, and
not lietween, the hexagonal markings; the extremities of a Rhizosolenia sejiarate from the more destructible, spirally-
ornamented, intermediate, cylindrical areas, an<l are alone preserved. In any one oceanic deposit, where the degree of
■olrent power must lie the same for all forms, the degree of persistence varies directly as the strength of the siliceous
parts, e.g., cingula arc less persistent than valves. On comparing the same species from widely-separated areas, the
Isilance of evidence goes to show that more robust forms occur in more ]>olar areas, and more delicate ones in more
ef|uatorial atvas. The dilferences oljservable are slight, but specimens of Coscinodiscus Icntiginosus, Coscinodiscus suhtilis,
&c., point to their real existence.”

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

283

In the typical Diatom Ooze from Station 157, 1950 fathoms, about forty-eight species
have been recognised, and it is estimated that the recognisable species together with
their minute broken parts, make up fully 50 per cent, of the whole deposit ; in some
specimens of Diatom Ooze this percentage of Diatom remains is still higher. In the case
of some deep Eed Clays of the tropical Pacific, for instance. Station 229, 2500 fathoms,
in lat. 22° N., 36 species of Diatoms have been recognised, but in this deposit it is esti-
mated that the Diatom remains do not make up over 2 per cent, of the whole deposit.
In the case of a Blue Mud off the coast of Japan, Station 237, 1875 fathoms, in lat.
34° N., 61 species of Diatoms have been recognised, still it is estimated that here again
they do not make up more than 3 or 4 per cent, of the whole deposit. In a Eadiolarian
Ooze, Station 269, 2550 fathoms, in lat. 5° 54' N., there have been recognised 51 species
of Diatoms, and it is estimated that here their remains make up about 15 per cent, of
the whole deposit. It will thus be noted that although Diatom remains may, in a
Diatom Ooze, make up fully one-half of the whole deposit, and in a Eadiolarian Ooze
15 per cent., in other kinds of deposits they seldom make up over 2 or 3 per cent. It
is true that in the fine washings of a deposit a relatively large number of very minute
broken-down fragments of Diatoms may be recognised, so that could these be determined
with certainty, a larger percentage might be given in many cases to these Diatom remains.
It is also to be noted that in tropical regions (e.^.. Station 269), where the remains make
up only 3 or 4 per cent, of the deposit, the number of species may be greater than in a
deposit from high southern latitudes (e.^.. Station 157), where the remains make up fully
two-thirds of the whole deposit ; fourteen species are recorded as common to these two
deposits.^ It seems diflScult to account for the absence of Diatom remains in some
deposits, except on the supposition of their removal by exposure to the action of sea-
water ; this subject will be referred to further on.

Radiolaria. — The Eadiolaria are quite as widely distributed in oceanic waters as the
Diatoms, but while Diatoms are probably more abundant near shore and in brackish
waters, the Eadiolaria on the other hand flourish in purely oceanic regions. One whole
legion — the Acantharia — has a skeleton composed of acanthin, a substance related
apparently to chitin,^ and the representatives of this legion are almost wholly absent from
the deposits at the bottom of the sea. The most abundant species in the deposits belong
to the legions Nassellaria and Spumellaria. The species belonging to the fourth legion —
the Phseodaria — are frequently met with in the deposits, but not so abundantly as might
have been expected, this probably arising from the fact that many of the species of the
Phseodaria contain a large quantity of organic matter in the composition of their shells,
and thus owing to their areolar structure are more easily dissolved than the shells
composed of pure silica.®

^ Mr. Comber recognises 48 species and 4 varieties in Station 157, and 44 species and 1 variety in Station 269, and
1 1 species common to the two Stations.

^ See Haeckel, Report on tbe Radiolaria, Zool. Chall. Exp., part xl. p. Ixx.

^ Haeckel, loc. cit., p. Ixix.

284

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Fio. 30. — Ttiscarora belknapi, Murray
(one of the Phoeodaria). North
Pacific, 500 fathoms.

The species of Racliolaria are most abundant in tropical waters of rather low salinity,
especially in the western and central Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans. In the
Diatom Ooze at Station 157, in 1950 fathoms, lat. 53° 55' S., 84 species of Radiolaria
have been recognised, while in the Radiolarian Ooze at Station 225, in 4475 fathoms,
lat. 11° 24' N., 338 species have been found, and of these only six species are common

to the two stations, two belonging
to the order Spheeroidea, three
to the Discoidea, and one to the
Cyrtoidea. The results of numer-
ous tow-net experiments appear
to show that the Pheeodaria, and
many of the Nassellaria, live in
deep water, at a temperature as
low as 40° F. In a Radiolarian
Ooze the percentage of Radiolaria
may be as high as 60 or 70 per

Fio. 31. — Challengeria naresii, Mnnay . .

(one of the Phaeodaria). North Cent., and in a Diatom Ooze OP
Pacific, 500 fathoms. i-i. ~i n

Globigenna Ooze, as high as 10
per cent., but generally the percentage is very much less. In terrigenous deposits the
Radiolarian remains seldom make up over 2 or 3 per cent, of the whole deposit.

Sponge Spicules. — The spicules of siliceous Sponges are universally distributed in the
different kinds of deep-sea deposits, the Hexactinellid spicules prevaihng in deep water
and the Tetractinellid and Monaxonid spicules in the shallower depths. In some regions
siliceous Sponges were dredged in great numbers, for instance, off Kerguelen, in 120
fathoms, over one hundred specimens of Rossella antarctica w’ere obtained in ’one
haul of the trawl ; at Zebu, Philippines, numerous specimens of Euplectella and other
Sponges were obtained in 100 fathoms ; off the Ki Islands, in 129 fathoms, there were
eighteen species of Hexactinellida and a large number of individuals ; in the Atlantic
near the Cape Verdes there was procured in 1525 fathoms a large specimen of Poliopogon
amrxdou (2x2 feet), attached to the branches of an Alcyonarian Coral ; off the Kermadecs,
in 630 fathoms, there was obtained another Poliopogon {Poliopogon gigas), measuring
3^x2 feet, which was but a fragment of what appeared to be an enormous Sponge ; in
the Faroe Channel a large number of specimens of Pheronema {Holtenia) were dredged
from a depth of 530 fathoms by the “ Porcupine.” In the deposits from areas like the
above, where these silieeous Sponges flourish in large numbers, the spicules are particu-
larly abundant, and make up a large proportion of some specimens of the deposit. With
the exception, however, of the samples obtained from among these patches, terrigenous
or pelagic deposits do not as a rule contain a large percentage of Sponge spicules, the
average proportion in any of the types of deep-sea deposits not exceeding 2 or 3 per

REPORT OR" THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

285

cent, of the whole deposit. The silica of these spicules is intimately associated with
organic matter, the spicules being composed of alternate layers of opal or hydrated
silica and organic substances.^ The percentage of water in the various analyses of
Sponge spicules varies from 7 to 13 per cent.^ There is abundant evidence to show that
these spicules are slowly dissolved in the sea- water after the death of the animal.®

Fig. 32. — PoUopogon amadou, Wyville Thomson (^).

In addition to the Diatoms, Radiolarians, and Sponge spicules, there are large
numbers of Foraminifera, Annelids, Crustacea, and Molluscs, which form their shells,
tubes, and houses of Sponge spicules, Radiolarians, Diatoms, and other materials

1 See Schulze, Report on the Hexactinellida, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. liii. ; Ridley and Dendy, Report on the
Monaxonida, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. lix. ; Sollas, Report on the Tetractinellida, Zool. ChaU. Exp., pt. Ixiii. ; Thoulet,
Gomptes Rendus, tom. xcviii. pp. 1000, 1001.

^ Sollas, loc. cit:, pp, 47 et seq.; Thoulet, loc. cit.

* Schulze, loc. cit., pp. 26, 27.

286

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

tbund in marine deposits, but these do not in any case make up a large percentage of
the whole deposit, and being composed of foreign particles need not be specially
referred to here. The glauconitic casts of Foraminifera and other calcareous organisms
frequently form a considerable part of Green Sands and Muds ; these, together with other
casts, will be referred to in detail further on.

The greater abundance of siliceous organisms in the surface and subsurface waters of
some regions of the ocean than in others leads us to enquire if there may not also be a
variation in the quantity of available silica in the waters of difierent regions. In the
analyses of samples of sea-water, silica has always been found whenever specially
looked for, and a relatively large number of attempts have been made at a quantitative

Fio. 33.— Characteristic forms of the dermal spicules of Hexactinellida. a, spicule of Walteria Jlemmingii, Schulze ; b, of
SympageUa nux, Schmidt ; c, d, of Jlyalonema sieboldi, Gray ; e,f, g, of liossella antarctica, Carter.

determination. When these analyses are examined they can be arranged into a maximum
set of determinations, showing 1 part of silica in 9000 to 82,000 parts of sea-water, and
a minimum set, showing 1 part of silica in 120,000 to 1,460,000 of sea- water. Murray
and Irvine have pointed out that in all probability the maximum results were obtained
from unfiltered waters, and the minimum from filtered waters, for sea-water, when care-
fully filtered, gives an average proportion of 1 part of silica in 250,000 parts of sea-water,
and this amount of soluble silica appears to be almost constant in purely oceanic waters,
coast w’aters, and in many river waters. The amount of soluble silica in sea-water is thus
so small that it seems almost impossible to admit that this is the exclusive source from
which the numerous siliceous organisms in oceanic waters obtain the material to form
their shells. The quantity of water that would require to be in contact with, or pass

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

287

through, each Diatom or other organism to enable it to form its siliceous frustule or
skeleton would be enormous. In the case of the carbonate of lime organisms it has been
shown that they can obtain the material for their shells from the other salts of lime in
solution in sea-water.^ In the case of the silica, however, the total silica in solution in
sea-water can only be present in the one condition, so that an analogous interpretation is
impossible. Is there then any other source from which these organisms may derive their
silica ?

It appears to have been generally accepted by recent writers that all the clayey
matter held in suspension in river water is thrown down when the river water enters,
and is mixed with the waters of, the ocean, and there is little doubt that this view is
in the main correct.^ It is an undoubted fact that almost all the clay held in suspension
in fresh water falls rapidly to the bottom on mixture with sea-water. It appears,
however, that this precipitation takes place more rapidly at a high than at a low tem-
perature ; ® for instance, a sample of sea-water with clay in suspension was divided into two
portions and allowed to stand for twenty -four hours, the one portion at a temperature of
50° F. and the other at 80° F. ; at the end of that time in the former case 0‘0188 gramme
per litre remained in suspension, and in the latter only 0‘0083 gramme per litre. It would
also appear that a small quantity of clayey matter may be held in suspension for an
indefinite time, even in the saltest and warmest waters of the ocean. A large sample of
water (14 litres) from the North Atlantic, lat. 51° 20' N., long. 31° W., contained 0 ‘00 5 2
gramme per litre, or about 1601 tons of clay in a cubic mile of sea- water. A similar
sample from the centre of the Mediterranean gave 0'0066 gramme per litre, or 2031
tons of clay per cubic mile. Another sample from the German Ocean gave nearly
identical results as in the water from the Mediterranean. It is true that the soluble
silica in a cubic mile of sea-water (17,000 tons) greatly exceeds the quantity of silica in
the suspended clay found in the above experiments, but Murray and Irvine suggest that
it is not improbable that the clayey matter in suspension contains silica in a more
available form than the silica in solution, from the clay being locally abundant in certain
layers, in place of being dissolved in 250,000 times its weight of water, as would be the
case with silica in solution.

If, then, the pelagic organisms which secrete silica for their frustules, shells, and
skeletons, obtain it from the hydrated silicate of alumina or clay held in suspension in
sea-water, as well as from the silica in solution in sea- water, we may in this way have
some explanation of the fact that these organisms abound in brackish waters and waters
of a low salinity and low temperature, where, for the reasons stated above, this finely-

1 Murray and Irvine, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xvii. p. 91.

2 See E. W. Hilgard, Anner. Journ. Sci., ser. 3, vol. vi. p. 338, 1873 ; W. H. Sidell in Humphreys and Abbot’s
Report on the Mississippi, App. A. No. 2, pp. 495 et seq., 1876 ; J. D. Dana, Manual of Geology, 3rd ed., p. 677, 1880.

® Murray and Irvine, “ On Silica and the Siliceous Remains of Organisms in Modern Seas,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xviii. pp. 229-250, 1891.

288

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

divided matter is more abundant than in the wannest and saltest waters of the ocean.
In this connection it may be observed that there is a relatively low salinity, as well as
low temperature, in the Arctic, the Antarctic, and Southern Oceans ; in the western
Pacific and eastern Indian Oceans there is also a relatively low salinity, and in both
tliese regions Radiolaria and Diatoms are especially abundant.

In the case of siliceous Sponges, which are rooted for the most part in the oozes and
clays, the silica of their skeletons may be derived from the silica in solution in sea-water,
or from the colloid silica set free during the decomposition of the felspathic rock fragments
and minerals in the deposits.

We have frequently referred to the fact that the remains of Diatoms and Radiolarians
cannot be detected in many of the calcareous oozes, although they live in abundance in
the surface and subsurface waters of the region. It is most probable that they were at
one time present in the deposit and have been removed in solution.^ That both siliceous
and calcareous organisms, when together in the organic oozes, are acted upon by sea-water,
is shown by the following experiments : — A portion of mixed Diatom and Globigerina
Oozes was placed in a litre of sea-water and some mussel flesh added, so as to obtain as
nearly as possible the conditions attending decomposing organic matter on an ocean floor.
After a week’s exposure, during which time the organic matter had become putrid, the
water was carefully filtered from the sediment, and the silicic acid determined in the
filtrate. The amount found was equal to 0'025 grm. per litre, or, according to the
amount of water, 1 part of silica had been dissolved from the Diatom Ooze in 41,000
j)arts of sea-water. This action of silicic acid in decomposing carbonate of lime was
further proved by exposing 2 grms. of the mixed oozes to boiling water for half an hour, '
the amount of silicic acid present in a soluble condition after that period amounting to
0’014 grm., or 1 part in 80,000 of water. To check this result, and at the same time to
determine whether the decomposing action of silicic acid upon carbonate of lime was con-
tinuous, the same sample of the mixed oozes was heated with successive quantities of sea-
water, wlien it was found that each portion of water contained soluble silica.

f. Relative Frequency of Organic Remains in Deep-Sea Deposits.

Detailed statements have been given above of those stations at which the remains of
vertebrates have been obtained in the dredgings and trawlings of the Challenger Expe-
dition. The relative frequency of organic fragments observed during the examination of
the small samples of the deposits from the sounding tube may now be noted. The
frequency of occurrence is in the first instance given for the deep-sea deposits as a
whole, and secondly, for the pelagic deposits as a whole. These numbers are solely

* See Murray and Ir\’ine, iVoc. Hoy. Hoc. Edin., vol. xviii. p. 249.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

2S9

derived from the examination of the Challenger samples, but may fairly be taken as an
index of the relative frequency of occurrence of these organic fragments in all deep-sea
deposits.

There are 348 Challenger deposits fully described in the Tables of Chapter II., and
the order of frequency is as follows, the number of times the various organic remains
were observed being indicated in brackets : —

Globigerinidee (306 times), Eadiolaria (274), Sponge spicules (271), Eotalidse (269),
Echinoderm fragments (266), pelagic Pulvinulwse (263), Lituolidse (244), Miliolidse
(241), Coccoliths (235), Lagenidse (211), Textularidas (201), Diatoms (181), Ehabdoliths
(179), Ostracodes (173), Astrorhizidse (145), Lamellibranchs (121), Pteropods (119),
Niimmnlinidse (112), Gasteropods (109), otoliths and bones of fish (102), Polyzoa (91)^
casts (78), teeth of fish (65), Heteropocls (61), Serpula, and other worm tubes (53),
arenaceous Textularidae (34), calcareous Algae (27), Alcyonarian spicules (24), Coral
fragments (23), Coccospheres (20), Dentalium (19), arenaceous Foraminifera, families
not given (15), Brachiopods (8), Cephalopod beaks (8), Cirripedia (7), Chilostomellidae
(1), and Crustacean fragments (l).

There are 215 purely pelagic deposits fully described, and confining our attention to
these, viz., the Eed Clay, Eadiolarian, Diatom, Globigerina, and Pteropod Oozes, the
order is somewhat different, as follows; — Eadiolaria (197 times), Globigerinidse (186),
Pulvinulina (168), Eotalidse (160), Coccoliths (155), Sponge spicules (155), Echinoderm
fragments (153), Lituolidse (150), Miliolidse (142), Ehabdoliths (126), Lagenidse (109),
Diatoms (99), Textularidae (97), Ostracodes (88), Astrorhizidse (82), teeth of fish (60),
Pteropods (51), Nummulinidse (48), casts (46), otoliths of fish (43), Lamellibranchs (41),
Gasteropods (39), Polyzoa (33), Heteropocls (22), arenaceous Foraminifera (12), Serpula,
and other worm tubes (11), Coccospheres (10), arenaceous Textularidae (10), Dentalium
(7), Coral fragments (7), calcareous Algae (6), Alcyonarian spicules (5), Brachiopods (5),
Cirripeds (4), and Cephalopod beaks (4).

g. Coral Eeefs.

A description of coral reefs and islands, and a discussion of their peculiar features, do
not fall within the scope of this work. The subject of coral reefs, and the bearing of
deep-sea investigations on the question of their origin, has been dealt with by Mr Murray
in several Memoirs.^ It may, however, be here pointed out that a recent writer,^ among

1 Murray, “ On the Structure and Origin of (Joral Reefs and Islands, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. x. pp. 505-518,
1880 ; “ Structure, Origin, and Distribution of Coral Reels and Islands,” Lecture before Roy. Inst, of Gt. Brit., March
16, 1888 ; “ The Great Ocean Basins,” Nature, vol. xxxii. p. 613, 1885 ; also Narr. Chall. Exp., vol. i. pp. 781, 782, 1885 ;
Murray and Irvine, “ On Coral Reefs and other Carbonate of Lime Formations in Modern Seas,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,
vol. xvii. pp. 79-109, 1890.

^ R. Langenbeck, “ Die Theorieen iiber die Enstehung der Koralleninseln und Korallenriffe, &c.,” p. 158, Leipzig,
1890.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

37

290

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

other forced iirp;umeiits, urges, as a direct proof of the correctness of the Darwinian theory
of cond reefs, that the “ Tuscai’ora ” found hard coral rock in great depths at several places
in the Pacific (for instance in 209G, 935, and 1390 fathoms). The “Tuscarora” samples
have all passed through our hands. We have examined the samples referred to, and in all
ciises they are Globigerina or Pteropod Oozes, and of course furnish no proof whatever of
subsfdence. Dr W. B. Carpenter fell into the same error with respect to the “ Tuscarora ”
soundings in a paper published in 1875,^ where he argues that all the submarine eleva-
tions, on which “ white coral ” (Globigerina Ooze) was reported, must once have been
coral reefs at the surface, hence furnishing a proof of Darwin’s views as to the formation
of coral atolls through subsidence. In these cases the terms applied to the specimens of
the deposits by the marine surveyors have led the writers to adopt an erroneous inter-
}>retation.

' Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., vol. xix. p. 511, 1875.

CHAPTER V.

MINERAL SUBSTANCES OF TERRESTRIAL AND EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL ORIGIN

IN DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

The materials of organic origin in deep-sea deposits having been considered in the
preceding chapter, we shall now turn our attention to the mineral particles, properly so
called, which form a more or less considerable part of all marine deposits.

When these mineral particles are regarded from the point of view of their origin, or
rather of the source from which they have been immediately derived, they may be
divided into three groups : —

1. Mineral particles more immediately derived from the mechanical disintegration

of the solid crust of the earth, and distributed by terrestrial forces over the
bed of the sea.

2. Mineral particles derived from extra-terrestrial regions, which play but an

insignificant part in the mass of marine deposits, but are highly interesting
from their origin, nature, and distribution.

3. Mineral particles and substances formed in situ at the bottom of the ocean, as a

result of chemical interaction with substances in solution in sea-water and
materials of organic and inorganic origin undergoing deeomposition at the sea-
bottom, which may therefore be called chemical products.

These last (No. 3) will be dealt with in detail in Chapter VI., the present chapter
being devoted to a consideration of the first two groups.

I. Materials derived directly prom the Solid Crust of the Earth.

If the materials derived directly from the solid crust of the earth, or from the under-
lying layers, be looked at from a general point of view, they may be divided into two
categories, corresponding in a certain way with the two great groups into which we
have divided marine deposits, viz.. Pelagic Deposits and Terrigenous Deposits. The first
of these categories comprises all those rocks and minerals projected in a fragmentary
form from subaerial and submarine volcanoes during the present geological period.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

•_>92

or during relatively recent periods. The small dimensions and areolar structure of
these fragmental volcanic materials admit of their being universally distributed over
the Hoor of the ocean, and from the very fact that they are easily distributed by
meteorological and oceanic agencies, they are especially characteristic of pelagic deposits.
The second of these categories comprises all the rocks and minerals derived immediately
from the disintegration of all continental and other lands by ordinary meteorological
agencies, especially from the disintegration of crystalline, schisto-crystalline, and clastic
rocks, which form the larger })art of the continental masses. These disintegrated
materials are carried to the ocean by rivers and by winds, and are distributed to the
deep sea by waves, tides, currents, and floating ice, but not so widely as the fragmental
volcanic materials of the first category ; they are essentially characteristic of those
deix)sits formed near continental shores and islands, which we have called Terrigenous
Deposits.*

(a.) Recent Volcanic Products.

It is merely necessary to cast a glance at the synoptical Tables of Chapter II. to be
convinced of the universal distribution of volcanic products in marine deposits. In
runniug the eye down the column indicating the mineral particles, it will be seen that in
nearly all the samples of the different types of deposits minerals and rocks occur which
we recognise, from the study of terrestrial volcanoes, as having been derived from
eruptions of the present or of relatively recent geological periods. It is not the same,
however, with those rocks and minerals to which we attribute a continental origin,
properly so called, for these last are especially abundant near land, and are almost
wholly absent in the central parts of the great ocean basins. The fragmentary volcanic
materials, while very often associated with the continental rocks and minerals near
shore, are especially abundant in, and characteristic of, deposits far from land. It could
not w'ell be otherwise, if the structure, conditions of formation, and mode of ejection of
these volcanic materials be borne in mind. Whilst there may be a limit, towards the
oj>en sea, to which the minerals and fragments derived from the disintegration of the
continental masses can be transported, there is no such limit for the rocks and minerals
l>rojected as dust, lapilli, and masses of pumice by terrestrial volcanoes, and though they
may have a more restricted distribution, the same is the case with ejectamenta of sub-
marine eruptions.

In this connection it is but necessary to recall the distribution of active and recent
volciinoes over the earth’s surface to show how favourably the ocean basins are situated
for receiving the fragmentary materials ju’ojected into the air or the sea during eruptions.

* Although we V»elieve that there are no esaential difTerences between the older and recent eruptive rocks, in the
•enM formerly admitted by jtelrographers, there i« no doubt that each of these two groups, in the generality of the cases
under consideration, offers some jieculiarities on which rests the subdivision adopted in this and other chapters.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

293

The Pacific is surrounded by a zone of volcanic activity, and scattered over its surface
there are many active and recent volcanoes — in fact, two-thirds of the active volcanoes
of the world are situated in, or at no great distance from the shores of, this ocean. The
Atlantic, Indian, and Southern Oceans also offer numerous centres of volcanic activity,
either in the oceanic islands or on the coasts of the adjoining continents. In short,
one may say that all the important volcanic vents of the globe are situated in or near
to the great oceans or the enclosed seas which penetrate between continental masses
of land.

In addition to terrestrial volcanoes, it must be admitted that the bottom of the ocean
is frequently the seat of volcanic eruptions. Although the conditions of observation are
much less favourable than in the case of terrestrial volcanoes, still the evidences of sub-
marine eruptions are very numerous. In many instances the volcanic eruptions in the
open sea have been accompanied by sulphurous emanations, by steam, columns of water,
flames, ashes, scoriae, and pumice, and the formation and disappearance of islands.
Santorin and Graham Island in the Mediterranean, some islands in the neighbourhood of
the Azores, and in recent years Falcon Island in the South Pacific,^ are but a few of the
instances that might be cited of submarine eruptions. Earthquake waves have, in a great
number of instances, been placed in direct relation with submarine eruptions.^ The recent
extensive soundings throughout the great ocean basins have revealed the presence of conical
mountains, rising to various heights above the general level of the sea-bed, but not reaching
the surface of the waters. These conical mountains must, from their resemblance in form
to volcanic islands, and from the volcanic materials that have been dredged in their neigh-
bourhood, be regarded as the results of submarine eruptions in deep water. We know"
that masses of lava have flowed for weeks from volcanic islands into the ocean, but at the
present time there is little knowledge of the spaces covered by lava-flows on the sea-bed
itself. However, the study of ancient geological formations has familiarised us with the
idea of such lava-beds or tufas intercalated between marine sedimentary layers, and
there can be no doubt that the same order of phenomena occurs in our present seas.

It would appear, then, that the fragmentary volcanic materials which we find carpet-
ing the floor of the ocean have been derived from both subaerial and submarine eruptions,
and that, both from actual observations and theoretical considerations, the oceans of the
present and recent geological periods are especially well situated for receiving the pro-
ducts of these eruptions. It is difficult, however, to distinguish the products of subaerial
from the products of submarine eruptions. In certain cases the dimensions and numbers
of vitreous lapilli, dredged from great depths far from land, indicate that these fragments
came from centres of submarine eruption not far removed from the points where they
were dredged. In the case, however, of large fragments of pumice or of tufa made up

^ See Nature, vol. xli. p. 276, 1890.

^ E. Rudolph “ tiber submarine Erdbeben und Eruptionen,” Beitrdge zur Geophysik, 1887, pp. 226 et seq.

294

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK,

of a fall of volcanic ashes, likewise obtained in the dredges, it is often impossible to say
whether they came from a submarine or a subaerial eruption.

Pumice. — On account of its abundance and the wide area of its distribution, pumice
merits the fii*st consideration among the volcanic materials of marine deposits. This
rock is merely a vesicular variety of a number of lithological species, and the wide distri-
bution of this variety is dependent on its spongy structure. Mr Murray was the first to
point out the important role played by pumice in the formation of pelagic deposits and
in the origin of the soil of coral atolls,^ and the same considerations, with further develop-
ments, were afterwards dwelt upon in a joint paper by ourselves.^

During the Challenger Expedition fragments of pumice were frequently taken in the
tow-nets while floating on the surface of the sea, and were often found to be covered with
Cirripeds and other marine animals. Long lines of pumice fragments were also ob-
served on coral reefs just above high-water mark. From New Zealand, South America,
Japan, and other countries, immense quantities of pumice are carried to the ocean by
rivers. The Expedition, however, did not meet with any of those prodigious fields of
floating pumice which have many times been recorded by voyagers as being so vast as to
impede the progress of their ships, — for instance, after the famous eruption of Krakatoa
in 1883,® and in the South Pacific in June and July 1878 by Captain Turpey, and by
Captain Harrington in March 1879.* The pumice sent to us by Captain Turpey was dark-
green in colour, and was believed to have been derived from a submarine eruption. The
fragments of pumice, which float on the surface in great fields, or in long parallel lines,
are carried enormous distances by oceanic currents, and, being rubbed and knocked
against each other by the action of the waves, they ultimately assume a rounded appear-
ance, as if they had been rolled like river pebbles. While this rubbing, knocking against
each other, and rounding goes on, a very large number of the triturated fragments that
are broken away from the outer surfaces fall as minute splinters to the bottom of the sea,
contributing largely to the formation of pelagic deposits. The larger aud smaller
fragments of pumice slowly become waterlogged and sink to the bottom. Mr Murray

* Murray, Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. p. 247.

* Murray and Renard, Proc. Roy. Sac. Edin., vol. xii. p. 495. See also Helge Biickstrdm, “Ueber angeschwemmte
Bimsteine und Schlackcn der nordeurojmischen Kiisten,” Bihang till. K. Svemka Vet. Ak. Handl., Bd. xvi. Afd. 11, No. 5.

® Tlie Bay of Ijampoong, in the Strait of Sunda, was blocked by a vast accumulation of pumice projected in a few
hours by the eruption of Krakatoa. This floating barrier of pumice had a length of 30 kilometres, a breadth of
1 kilometre, and a depth of 3 to 4 metres ; it was raised about 1 metre above, and plunged 2 metres below, the
surface of the water. These numbers indicate that at this point 160,000,000 cubic metres of volcanic matters were thus
accumulated. This elastic and moving wall undulated with the flux and reflux of the waves, and the fragments of
which it was formed were carried by currents to thousands of miles from the eruption, and scattered finally over the
surface, an<l, as we now know, also over the bottom, of the ocean {Gomptcs Rendus, tom. xc. p. 1101, 1883). See also
Charles Meldrum, Brit. A»s. Rrjiort for 1885, pj). 773-779, 1880; S. M. Rendall, Nature, vol. xxx. p. 288, 1884.

* Cn])tnin Turj»ey says that in some parts of the sea these pumice stones were in such large numbers that the small
lioaU which the ship drew after it rose out of the water and were drawn along as if on a bed of rocks. Captain
Harrington says that many of the patches assume<l the apj)earance of islands, ami were large enough to retard the pro-
gress of the Teasel considerably, their appearance being alanning.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

295

made a series of experiments with pumice stones dredged from the North Pacific sea-bed
at a depth of 2900 fathoms. After these fragments, which were about the size of a hen’s
egg, had been out of the sea for seven years, they were placed in vessels of sea-water
and floated lightly. They slowly sank in the water, some reaching the bottom of
the vessel in three months, and others taking nine months. Similar experiments were
made with the basic variety of pumice collected by Captain Turpey on the surface of the
South Pacific, and it took one year and eight months before some of the fragments sank
to the bottom of the vessels.

The great majority of the pumice fragments dredged by the Challenger from the sea-
bed were more or less rounded, and varied from the size of a man’s head or a cricket-ball
down to the size of a pea or mustard-seed ; many fragments, however, were angular. It
is probable that nearly all these fragments of pumice floated a short time after their
ejection at the surface of the sea, and then sank to the bottom. From their great
abundance near volcanic centres, it is probable that some fragments float only for a very
short time. The general appearance of some of the larger fragments of pumice from
deep-sea deposits is represented on Plate L In all the specimens the surface layers have
undergone more or less alteration into a soft, brown-coloured, clayey substance ; but in
the case of the specimens represented in figs. 5 and 6 the structure of the pumice is
almost completely lost except in the very centre, while the outer layers are composed
of black depositions of the peroxides of iron and manganese — in short, these fragments
have been transformed into manganese nodules with pumice nuclei.

There were great numbers of pumice stones in the dredgings around the Azores in
the Atlantic, off the Kermadecs in the Pacific, around some of the Philippine Islands,
and off the coast of Japan, and in general close to all recent volcanoes. In the North
Pacific, hundreds of miles from land, at depths of 2300, 2900, and 2050 fathoms, the
trawl and dredge brought up hundreds of these more or less rounded pumice stones. In
general they were rather abundant in the Eed Clays and Radiolarian Oozes, but less so
in the Blue Muds and calcareous oozes, except where these were close to active volcanoes.
It may be said, however, that in no case was a large quantity of any pelagic deposit
passed through sieves without a number of pumice fragments, of small or large size, being
detected, and minute particles can generally be observed when a relatively small sample
of the deposit is under examination.

The most numerous specimens, collected floating at the surface or lying on the bottom
of the sea, belong to the well-known variety of liparitic pumice. They are whitish or
greyish, generally with elongated fibres ; when little altered they present a silky aspect,
but in many instances decomposition has transformed them, even to the very centre,
into a friable earthy mass, which can be reduced by the finger nail, when the pumice is
wet, to amorphous earthy matter with a muddy consistence. When fragments of this
variety are examiued under the microscope, they are seen to be composed of a colourless

290

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

glass, with numerous closed, often elongated, vesicles, and with a few individualised
mincralogical elements. This variety is rich in silica, and hence is referred to the litho-
logical types of liparite or trachyte. The minerals which are embedded in the vitreous
mass, or project from the weathered surfaces, are sanidine, plagioclases, black mica,
augite, and magnetite, and with the microscope many microliths belonging to the same
species can be observed. Quartz is very rare ; sometimes rhombic pyroxene is present.

A second variety, but less abundant than the liparitic variety, is that known as
andesitic pumice. In external characters andesitic pumice stones nearly approach the
liparitic ones, and might at first sight be confounded with them ; they have the same
grey colour, are sometimes fibrous, and decompose in the same way. They are especially
distinguished by the minerals which they contain, the most important being augite,
plagioclases, and magnetite, while microliths of augite and hornblende are sometimes
seen in the transparent base. Olivine is absent, and the silica in this andesitic pumice
is estimated at 60 per cent. A specimen of this variety, from 2300 fathoms in the North
Pacific, was analysed, with the following results : —

Station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiO^

AlgOg

FejOg

MnOg

CaO

MgO

KgO

NagO

Total.

241

2300

80

4-95

60-95

15-97

9-08

g.tr.

2-92

1-40

1-61

2-34

99-22

The surface of the fragment analysed was extremely friable — almost earthy. Beneath
this decomposed layer the centre was still formed of a whitish mass, having the appear-
ance of a fresh rock, but, as showm by the analysis, especially by the percentage of
water, which rises to nearly 5, this central portion had also undergone a profound
alteration.

A third variety of pumice met with in deposits is basaltic or basic pumice. In a
large measure we owe our knowledge of the nature of this variety of pumice to the
investigations of Cohen' on the lavas of the Hawaian Islands and of Niafou in the
Friendly Islands, as well as on some floating pumice collected between New Britain and
New Ireland. He has pointed out that volcanic products from several areas of the
Pacific far removed from each other have a true basic character, and belong to the
ba.saltic glas.ses. The pumice stones collected from numerous stations in the Pacific
during the voyage of the Challenger have exactly the same characters as those described
by Cohen. These are vitreous vesicular rocks of a rather deep colour, yellowish or
approaching to bottle-green. The pores affect in general a more rounded or spherical
form than those of the preceding varieties of pumice. The vitreous partitions between
the vesicles arc not very thick, and when the specimens are but little altered they show

* E. Cohen, “Uel>er Lnven von Hawaii und einigen anderen Inseln des grosaen Ocean, etc.,” Neues Jahrbuch fiir
.^finrraloyie, etc., Jahrg. 1888, Bd. ii. p. 2.3.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

297

iridescent colours on the fractures. Under the microscope there can be seen in the
dark-green transparent glass the skeletons or sharply-terminated individuals of olivine,
augite, and plagioclase ; there is little or no magnetite, but sometimes black or opaque
concretions. The percentage of silica is on an average about 50, therefore much less
than in the acid varieties. The following is an analysis of one of these deep-coloured
specimens from a dredging in 1400 fathoms in the South Pacific. After having washed
the fragment with oxalic acid, to take away traces of manganese which covered the
specimen, and then repeatedly with boiling distilled water, to extract the sea-salts and
to detach the mud adhering to it, the following results were obtained : —

Station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

HoO

SiO^

TiO^

FeO

MnOg

CaO

MgO

K^O

NagO

Total.

184

1400

79

1-70

50-56

0-80

10-30

4-95

7-59

0-14

9-35

9-27

1-24

2-81

98-71

On comparing the above results with those obtained by Cohen they present a perfect
analogy, within the limits that may be expected for analyses of rocks of the same family,
so that this specimen represents the basaltic lavas of Hawaii in its mineralogical composi-
tion, and the same may be said of all the dark-coloured specimens that have been dredged
from the sea-bottom in the Pacific, and to a less extent in other oceans.

Minute fragments of the different varieties of pumice noted above can be detected in
all marine deposits, and in some areas the greater part of a Ked Clay, or of the residue of a
calcareous ooze after removal of the carbonate of lime by dilute acid, may be made up of
minute fragments and splinters of pumice. These microscopic fragments may be derived
from the trituration of floating pumice, or from its disintegration on the sea-bottom,
or, again, they may have been ejected as showers of ashes from subaerial or submarine
eruptions, and have been widely distributed by aerial or marine currents.

In general, when mineral particles are reduced to infinitesimal dimensions, and are
irregularly fractured, they lose their distinctive characters ; the crystallographic form
and the optic properties are no longer recognisable, but with vitreous pumice fragments
the recognition of the particles is still possible when they are even less than 0'005 mm.
in diameter. The most reliable diagnostic character of these pumice particles is to be
found in their peculiar structure. The enormous numbers of vesicles in the pumice,
due to the expansion of the dissolved gases in the original magma, present a special
structure and characteristic fracture which can be recognised even in the minutest
fragments. This property can easily be tested by pulverising a piece of pumice in an
agate mortar, when it will be noticed on examination under the microscope that the
minutest particles bear the impress of this vesicular or filamentous structure. The
appearance arising from several pores being drawn out so as to be mere streaks, renders

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.' 38

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

*J98

the fragment at first sight like a striated felspar, or even like the remains of certain
microscopic organisms. In following under the microscope the contours of these vitreous
splinters, it will be observed that they are generally terminated by curved lines, and
present a riddled appearance, all the sinuosities being curvilinear.^ They also present in
most cases near the vesicles the optical phenomena of tension, analogous to those observed
in “ Rupert’s drops.” From the differences in the form of the vesicles, and the nature
of the fracture, it is even possible in some eases to determine the variety of pumice from
which the minute splinters have been derived.

It must be pointed out that the trituration of floating pumice, and the decomposition
of pumice at the bottom, both tend to bring about a more or less complete isolation of
the individual minerals which formed an integral part of the pumice rock at the time of
its eruption ; these volcanic minerals are thus spread over the bed of the sea in the same
way as the vitreous splinters of the pumice. It may therefore be very difficult to recognise
a difference between volcanic dusts projected as ashes from a crater, and the pulverulent
debris derived from the wear and tear of floating pumice at the surface of the ocean and its
disintegration in the deposits. In the case of showers of ashes some mechanical processes
may, however, produce a sorting of the mineral particles from the areolar vitreous particles,
as for instance when these are transported by winds or marine currents. On account of
their lightness, the vitreous particles are carried to greater distances than the fragments
of crystallised minerals coming from the same eruptions. It follows from this, that at
any given point the pumiceous particles may quite well predominate in a marked manner
over the minerals. This may explain why in some deposits the vitreous particles appear
to mask, by then* number, the volcanic minerals with which they are associated.

As examples of the aspect and of the characters which these minute particles of
pumice affect in the sediments, we have represented on PI. XXVI. fig. 4 the residue
(mineral particles) 6f a Blue Mud from the South Pacific, Station 303, 1325 fathoms.
Almost the whole field of the figure is here occupied by pumice particles. Two varieties
can be distinguished : first, basaltic (designated in our Tables brown vesicular glass), the
minute fragments of which are perfectly characterised by their slightly brownish tint, by
their leas lengthened structure, and by the relatively small number of vesicles. The
little pumice fragments of the more acid variety are distinguished by their elongated
fibres and pores, their very irregular borders, and their almost colourless tint, which ma)’^'
be said to be more or less greyish. This figure gives a good idea of the characteristic
appeaninces just described ; it also shows the predominant part taken by microscopic
splinters of jmmice among the mineral particles of this deposit. PI. XXVII. fig. 3 shows
the extremely fine mineral particles in a Red Clay from the North Pacific, Station 240,
2900 fathoms. The splinters of pumice figured liere belong especially to the acid variety.

> A. Penck, “ Htiulien iiber lockere vulknninche AuHwiirflinge,” ZritHchr. d. d. geol. Geselhrh., 1878, jiji. 97-129 ;
.1. .S. Diller, “Volcanic Snnd which fell at Uiinhalnshka, Alaaka, Oct. 20, 1883,” Science, vol. iii. p. 651.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

299

Basic Volcanic Glass. — In many regions of the deep sea the Challenger Expedition
collected numerous lapilli and pebble-like fragments of compact volcanic glass, which,
although more or less limited and localised in their distribution, appear to be the most
important volcanic products in deep-sea deposits after the pumice fragments above de-
scribed. While these glasses are known only from a few geological formations, and from
a few eruptions of recent volcanoes at the surface of the continents, they, on the other
hand, appear in abundance and in most typical form among the products of submarine
eruptions, as if the deep oceans had been in some way specially favourable to the develop-
ment of this lithological type. We devote, in consequence, a considerable space to the
description and illustration of these glassy particles and the products of their alteration.
All the chief varieties found at the different stations are included in these descriptions,
and in their structure they pass, on the one hand, into basic pumice, and on the other
into basaltic fragments with a vitreous base.

The most characteristic of these lapilli of basic volcanic glass collected by the various
trawlings and dredgings vary from the size of a walnut to that of a pea, and minuter
fragments descend to the mean dimensions of the mineral particles found in the clays
and oozes, when their nature becomes masked from their small size ; it is only by
following the transitions from the larger partieles, upon which the characters are sharply
impressed, to the smaller, that it is possible to recognise the minute splinters disseminated
in the deposits. In nearly all cases, whatever their size, these fragments have under-
gone a more or less profound alteration, their primitive vitreous matter being trans-
formed by hydrochemical agencies into a secondary product, which is designated pala-
gonite in all our descriptions. Frequently these fragments form the centres of manganese
nodules, and generally they are more or less incrusted by manganese depositions ; some-
times they are isolated in the deposits, or associated with other lapilli, volcanic ashes,
and free zeolitic crystals. They are most abundant in certain red clay areas of the
Pacific, but may be found in all the types of deep-sea deposits. The form of the fragments
is generally rounded, elliptical, or flattened, but they are sometimes quite irregular. The
larger fragments have, as a rule, a vitreous centre, with external highly-altered zones ;
the smaller fragments are frequently entirely transformed into palagonite.

When one of the larger fragments is taken from the centre of a manganese nodule,
or found in a free state, the external surface is always covered by a resinoid yellowish
green or reddish brown coating. When the fragment is broken, the interior is seen
to be a true unaltered glass. This vitreous material is compact or scoriaceous, and
resembles in some respects acid volcanic glasses, like obsidian, but the fracture is less
conchoidal. The rock breaks into little splinters, due to a latent perlitic structure and
to microscopic fissures, and a shock often produces a pulverisation of the mass. The
fragments are dark green or brown, with a pronounced vitreous aspect and resinoid lustre,
and they melt easily before the blow-pipe into a dark glass. Their density ranges

300

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

between 2 ’8 and 2 '9 ; the greyish green powder is very magnetic, and always gives
the reaction of manganese. There is a marked contrast in the hardness between the
vitreous centre, which has a hardness of about 5, and the altered palagonitic envelope,
which when dried may have a hardness of about 4 ; but when freshly taken from the
sea this resinoid secondary substance can be cut with a knife like new cheese. The
powder of the vitreous glass is attackable by acids, with separation of gelatinous silica,
leaving a residue formed principally of minerals which had been enclosed in the vitreous
mass. These minerals, however, are rarely visible to the naked eye, and consist of
minute yellowish grains of olivine, augite, and some small lamellae of plagioclase.

When seen by the naked eye, the central vitreous mass is almost always bordered
or penetrated by the yellowish brown, resinoid, slightly transparent, palagonite. This
secondary substance has not such a brilliant aspect as the glassy interior, sometimes even
presenting an earthy aspect ; it forms zones around the vitreous nucleus, and each zone
is distinguished by a different colour, marking the progressive transformations of
the basic ghiss. The unaltered centre is usually more or less irregular, but presents
a form in relation with that of the whole fragment. It is evident that the decomposi-
tion has taken place from the periphery towards the centre, and that each stage is
marked by the diflferent coloured zones, which may be black-brown, red, red-brown, pale
yellow or gi'een, yellowish white, or almost colourless, the uncoloured portions having a
soapy aspect. The external zones are in general paler and more delicate than those
towards the interior ; they are so thin in some cases that they can only be recognised
under the microscope. The specimens collected at Station 302, 1450 fathoms, in
the South Pacific, present this zonary character due to the decomposition of the basic
glass in the greatest perfection, so that they resemble the finely-zoned structure of some
agates. In vesicular specimens the progress of this decomposition is not so well shown
as in the compact specimens ; generally they are entirely transformed into palagonite,
and no trace of the original glass has been left.

It has been already stated that these fragments frequently form the nuclei of
manganese nodules, and it is interesting to observe that they are very rarely found
without a more or less thick coating of manganese, whilst lapilli of felspathic basalt, of
augitic or hornblendic andesite, or fragments of ancient rocks like gneiss and granites,
are often found in the same deposits without any, or but a very slight, coating of
manganese. This might be interpreted by supposing that these basic fragments had
lain for a much longer time u])on the bottom of the sea than the other fragments, and
that the manganese had thus had time to deposit round them in much thicker layers, or it
may be held that they are more rapidly altered, and yield in the process the concretionary
manganese which covers them. It may even be, we think, that traces of these highly
alterable basic glas.ses have been preserved in consequence of the manganese coatings
having held together in position the fragments which, were they free, would crumble and

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

301

be transformed into argillaceous matter. Some manganese nodules have tlieir nuclei
almost entirely composed of little angular fragments of basic glass, most of which are
entirely transformed into palagonite. It is barely necessary to observe that this trans-
formation would take place much more rapidly and more completely the smaller the
vitreous splinters, so that it is only in those stations where the specimens are large that
the traces of the unaltered glass are preserved in consequence of their forming the nuclei
of the manganese nodules ; the minute splinters distributed throughout the deposit, being
entirely converted into palagonite, can only be recognised by the aid of the microscope,
after having followed the transitions which these specimens of different sizes undergo
in the process of decomposition. These basic vitreous fragments, and the palagonitic
particles resulting from their decomposition, are so frequently associated with numerous
nodules of peroxide of manganese in deep-sea deposits, as to at once suggest a relation of
cause and effect, which is confirmed by the analyses showing the presence of manganese
in the unaltered vitreous fragments.

When these fragments of basic glass are examined in thin sections under the
microscope, the vitreous part is seen to be perfectly transparent, with more or less deep
colours ranging from grey-brown to brown and yellowish brown ; it is perfectly isotropic
and with a homogeneous structure, but is occasionally traversed by more or less irregular
lines of fracture, which indicate vaguely a perlitic structure. These fractures can be
seen in PI. XVII. fig. 3, and the general aspect of the sections is shown in PL XVI.
figs. 1-4.

The minerals observed in the vitreous base are olivine and plagioclase, often separate,
rarely associated ; augite is relatively rare, and so also is magnetic iron. In addition to
the species distinctly recognisable, there are frequently very large numbers of crystal-
lites, whose accumulation in certain sections of the rock masks or renders opaque the
vitreous matter enclosing them. The mineral most frequently met with in these sections
is olivine, which is observed in the form of very minute, very regular, and generally
almost colourless, crystals. Often their proportions are so very small that, in spite of
the thinness of the preparations, they are still entirely encased in the vitreous matter.
The faces of these crystals are generally ooP, 2Poo, ooPoo, ooPco. Frequently they have
exactly the same form as fayalite. In a certain number of cases they occur as skeletons of
crystals. It is possible to follow in thin slides all the transitions between these embryonic
forms and the sharply-terminated crystals, the latter almost always containing a rather
large number of inclusions of a brownish, glass, similar to the surrounding base.
Sometimes these inclusions are so large that the crystal forms around it merely a
simple border. On PI. XVI. the various peculiarities presented by olivine in these
basic glasses are represented in detail.

After olivine, the mineral most frequently occurring is plagioclase-felspar ; it is some-
times found in the form of lamellae, similar to those observed in eruptive rocks of the

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

basaltic series (see PL XVII. fig. 3), but tlie most characteristic forms, and probably also
the most frequent, are extremely thin rhombic tables. As by the disintegration of the
palagonite these little crystals of plagioclase are sometimes detached from the matrix
and found in a free state in the clay, we have been able to study them in an isolated
condition, and to determine with exactitude their form and nature. It may be
mentioned in passing that these rhombic tables of felspar play an important role among
the minerals present in the deposits of those regions where the basic glasses are
abundant. When these tables embedded in the vitreous fragments are examined by
means of transparent slides, they are seen to be so thin that the vitreous material
still covers them on all sides, and at first sight one might regard their contours as traces
of regular fractures of the mass in which they are enclosed ; this aspect is represented
in PI. XVII. fig. 2, where near the base of the figure two of these little crystals can be
seen in a mass of red altered glass, their contours being almost entirely hidden by the
enclosing matrix. In othe^ preparations they are better developed, and on account of
their thickness can be readily recognised, as, for instance, in the vitreous altered
fragment represented in PI. XIX. fig. 1. The lapilli here represented is remarkable for
the abundance of these rhombic lamellae, the fundamental vitreous mass being decomposed
into palagonite ; in certain points the manganese has infiltrated and masked the palagonitic
matter by its deep brown tint. On this background the unaltered sections stand out in
relief, with the exception of some parts of their surface still covered by a thin vitreous
layer or coloured by man^nese.

These plagioclase crystals show a colourless transparent mass, in which the following
forms may be observed : — The most frequent forms are flat tabular crystals, with the
clinoi)inakoid especially developed. Individuals of the columnar type, elongated in the
direction of the edge P/M, are rare. These tabular crystals consist essentially of a
combination of the clinopinakoid with P and x, more rarely with P, u, and y, and
occasionally x and y appear together. In the first case the crystals have the form of a
rhomb, in the second cjise they are elongated through the predominance of either x or P.
Tlie dimensions of those crystals which were examined and measured lie between 0‘61
mm. broad and 1 mm. long as maximum, and 0‘015 mm. broad and 0’042 mm. long as
minimum. Tlie extinction of the plagioclase is negative. Its value was found to vary
between 22° and 32° on the clinopinakoid, and between 8° and 16° on the basal plane.
The average values of many measurements made on good crystals are as follows : —
24° 12', 25° 6', and 29° 6' on the clinopinakoid ; 10° 42' on the one side, and 10° 18' on
the other side, of the twinning line, as this is shown on the basal plane. Polysynthetic
individuals, made up of repeated twins on the albite plan, were very rarely observed.
The felspar, in its optical jiropcrtics, is thus seen to be between labradorite and bytownite.
The twin growths are particularly frequent, and interesting on account of the structure
of the individual.s. In addition to those of the albite type, others were observed in

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

303

which the edges P/M and Vjk could be definitely determined as the axes of twinning.
The plane of composition was principally either P or M when penetration twins were not
observed.

Crystallites are very often observed in these vitreous lapilli although no crystal has
as yet been developed, and these elementary crystalline forms occur under various
aspects. In certain cases they are merely parallel streaks, traversed by others at right
angles, thus forming groups whose dimensions do not exceed 0’05 mm. At other times
these fibres are simply parallel, and not crossed by others. In other cases they diverge
at the two extremities of the group ; the arborescent disposition found among the
microliths of certain pechsteins has, however, never been observed. Finally, they may
be disposed as little fans, or irregularly interlaced and forming .balls ; sometimes the
vitreous matter has undergone the initial stage of globulitic devitrification. When these
crystallites are examined with a very high magnifying power, they are observed
to be transparent, with a brownish tint. Around crystals of olivine they generally
assume a regular disposition, the crystallites being arranged parallelly and perpendicularly
to the crystallographic axis of the mineral. This layer of crystallites is sometimes
composed of five or six rows ; at other times there are but one or two (see PI. XVI.
fig. 2). In certain of the preparations of these vitreous lapilli the products of crys-
tallitic devitrification are so crowded together that they render the base almost entirely
opaque. Around these groups of crystallites the brown glass is observed to be sensibly
decolorised, as is often the case when the pigmentary matter of the base is concen-
trated in crystals or microliths.

Black opaque spots without metallic reflection are often present, being more or less
mammillated and elongated (see PI. XVI. fig. 1). When these spots are along lines
of fissure they are almost certainly more or less dendritic infiltrations of manganese
(see PI. XVII. figs. 1-3), but when embedded in the unaltered vitreous material they
must be regarded as segregations of the fundamental mass, and, under very high powers,
they can often be resolved into groups of crystallites, closely packed the one against the
other. This is proved by the examination of the periphery of these black spots, for when
the crystallites which constitute the groups can be observed upon the borders, they appear
to be individualised. It has just been remarked that manganese is infiltrated into the
fissures of these basic glasses ; the dissemination of this substance is so great, indeed,
that it is sure to be found in all the preparations of rocks dredged from points
where these vitreous fragments occur in abundance. It is possible, without the
aid of chemical reaction, to recognise the manganese by its microscopic characters.
The colour of the altered vitreous parts is red or brownish yellow, and they present the
zones of decomposition, together with embedded crystals. The parts invaded by the
manganese are brownish, and the transparency is then almost lost, or they may become
in places quite opaque. The infiltrations of manganese do not affect polarised light.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

a04

In the sections of these basic glasses that have been examined, augite among the
basjiltic elements plays the least important role. If this mineral be present its form is
not sharply defined ; its sections are greenish, sometimes violet coloured. Its cleavages
are not distinct, and the crystals are small, containing inclusions of the vitreous mass.
Magnetite is generally absent.

The various minerals enumerated above are not found together in all the preparations,
but it cannot be denied that we find in them the whole series of transitions from these
basic glasses to felspathic magma basalts. However, in these vitreous fragments the
substance which serves as a base is incomparably better developed than in those basalts,
and the crystals disseminated in the glass are A'^ery small in comparison with those
observed in typical basaltic rocks ; besides, the crystallites are as numerous in the basic
glasses as in the basaltic rocks. It might be said that when the basic vitreous rock is
porous, the crystalline elements are better developed, and that the transition to the
basalts or limburgites takes place rather through the types of areolar basic glass than
through the types of compact structure.

The progress of the decomposition of the basic glasses into palagonite can be distinctly
followed in thin sections under the microscope. The unaltered part, as already stated, is
in transmitted light characterised by a great homogeneity of structure ; no trace of
perlitic scaling can be observed ; the colour is clear, brownish or greyish in different
specimens. The palagonite, on the contrary, is but little homogeneous ; the zonary
and perlitic structures are sharply accentuated ; the colour is a beautiful red, sometimes
remarkably brilliant, and may pass into reddish yellow, yellow, dirty brown, green,
and finally to a milky white, in which last case transparency gives place to semi-
opacity. This resinoid substance is still further distinguished from the unaltered
vitreous matter by optical properties : while the latter is always isotroj)ic, the
former presents between crossed nicols the phenomena of chromatic polarisation ; the
})alagonite is coloured brilliant yellow mixed Avith red ; the tints have a wavy disposi-
tion, and the layers are seen to be formed by an aggregate of crystalline fibres dis-
posed more or le.ss perpendicularly to the surface of the lapilli in process of decomposi-
tion. This fibrous arrangement is also evident by the well-marked traces of the black
cross of spherulitic aggregates observed in the palagonitic zones. This secondary substance
is seen to line or to infiltrate all the fi.ssures of the vitreous fragment, more or less pro-
foundly according to the degree of alteration ; it surrounds all the external borders, and
is generally zonarj', but the zones are capricious, sometimes imitating those of concre-
tionar}’ minerals, like the zinc blends or certain agates. One of the best examples in this
respect is the specimen figured on FI. XIX. fig. 3, as seen by reflected light. The
fragnient is enveloped in black-brown opaque manganese, seen on the right, left, and
bottom of the figure. Directly in the centre is a fragment of black-grey, homogeneous,
unaltered basic glass ; around this nucleus arc found the various zones of decomposition,

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

305

taking the form of the elongated internal nucleus. The internal zones are brownish,
marked by deeper coloured lines of separation, due to infiltration of manganese ; then the
palagonite affects a whiter tint, followed by other well-marked zones of a greenish colour.
Finally the external zones become more vague, take on a soapy aspect, and become
charged with matters containing manganese, but through this brownish mass the ill-
defined external limits of the original vitreous fragment can be traced. These various
zones are especially well seen under the microscope, but, as we have already pointed out,
they can be observed on a macroscopic examination.

When these vitreous fragments in process of decomposition are studied in transmitted
light, the stages of the alteration are still more evident. The altered substances are
not only seen to penetrate and to modify the vitreous mass, but the decomposition only
attacks the easily alterable glass, and does not generally affect the embedded crystals.
This is well shown in PI. XVI. figs. 3 and 4, where the palagonite is seen with its
characteristic tint to advance into the glass while leaving the crystals of olivine intact
and in place. PI. XVII. fig. 3 gives a similar example, but here little lamellae of
plagioclase remain as witnesses of the primitive nature of the substance in which they
are enveloped. This figure, which rejDresents the nucleus of a manganese nodule, from
Station 302, 1450 fathoms. South Pacific, shows the zonary aspect of the brown pala-
gonite formed at the expense of a brownish homogeneous volcanic glass, shown in
the lower two-thirds of the figure, this glass being especially rich in small crystals of
plagioclase. In the interior it has not undergone alteration, but the fractures are seen
to be infiltrated with manganese. In the palagonitic zones the same felspathic lamellae
are observed as in the vitreous portion ; at the lower part of the figure a crystal of
plagioclase is seen, one-half of which is in the altered and the other half in the
unaltered portion of the rock. In this figure the striking contrast between the
glass without structure and the concretionary texture of the decomposed portion is well
represented.

In certain cases the alteration has reached a much more advanced stage, as repre-
sented, for instance, in PI. XVII. fig. 1. The vitreous matter, which formerly occupied
the whole of the space, has been so far decomposed that there now remain only two
isolated vitreous fragments, characterised by their greyish tint ; all the other portions
of the specimen have been transformed into yellowish palagonite. In the same figure
manganese is seen to be infiltrated into the fractures, and presents, especially at the upper
part of the figure, a dendritic arrangement. It also often happens that the secondary
substance has penetrated to the very centre of the vitreous fragment, as represented in
PI. XVII. figs. 2 and 4 ; in these cases nothing remains of the basic glass, and it is
observed that the perlitic structure is sometimes developed in a remarkable manner. No
better example of this could be produced than that shown in PI. XVII. fig. 4, where each
of the sinuous and more or less curvilinear fissures preserves its parallelism ; the fissures

(deep-sea DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. 1891.) 39

306

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

are marked by infiltrations of manganese bringing out very characteristic undulations,
which may be aptly compared to a transverse section of mahogany.

^^^len the vitreous matter is areolar, it is evident that the alteration of the glass into
palagonite must progress more rapidly than in the case of a more compact glass, and, as
might therefore be expected, the primitive vitreous material has almost completely disap-
peared, and the fractures due to the perlitic structure are so pronounced that the entire
fragment must have fallen to pieces were it not held together by the enveloping man-
ganesCi PL XVIII. fig, 4 shows the decomposition that takes place in some specimens
of these basic glasses, and the same thing is well represented on the left hand side of
figure 3 on the same plate. In these preparations, which must be made rather thick to
prevent the nucleus falling to pieces, the palagonite is divided into little fragments
following: the sinuous lines of fracture. We often find in the sediments numerous
splinters of palagonite with rounded or curved surfaces, along with zeolitic globules
formed of the circular microscopic geodes, which probably once filled the circular pores of
an original areolar fragment of rock, as shown in PL XVIII. fig. 4 ; PL XVII, fig. 2 also
ofiers an excellent example of the same palagonitisation of the mass. PL XVIII. fig. 1
represents a still further advanced state of alteration ; in this, throughout the funda-
mental mass of manganese, triangular, elongated, or irregular splinters of altered
glass are observed. The sections of these are yellowish, often zonary near the borders ;
to a primary zone another succeeds of a deeper tint produced by the interposition
of a black manganese pigment ; then, near the centre, the colour becomes lighter, and
often there exists an internal concretionary zone surrounding an empty space. In
])olarised light these sections of volcanic glass still show traces of a black cross and of
chromatic polarisation ; they are almost entirely transformed into zeolitic matter. Where
the centre has disappeared, it is possible that in polishing the thin sections the hard
centre wa.s eliminated from the softer surrounding mass, but we are not disposed to
admit this supposition as probable from our examination of specimens in reflected light
previous to preparation. The view is rather held that the decomposition has advanced
so far that the centre was reduced to an almost earthy mass, and has thus been elimi-
nated, the border composed principally of zeolitic matter alone remaining.

In a .sub.scquent chapter we shall return to the role played by zeolitic substances in
these b.'usic glasses, but it may be pointed out here that in the pores of the less compact frag-
ments the colourless zeolites with radiate fibres give the black cross of spherulitic aggregates.
Tliese zeolites are arranged in the interior of the vacuoles upon a layer of carbonate of
iron, and it is sometimes po.ssible to observe crystals like phillipsite, brevicite, or even
chabasite, but in the great number of cases these zeolitic aggregates are finely zonary,
or at the same time zonary and fibro-radiate, as may be observed in PL XVIII. fig, 4.
The part of the ])orcs not filled with zeolites is generally invaded by manganese and the
mud of the deposit, filled with microscojiic concretions of peroxide of manganese.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

307

After the above description of basic glasses and of palagonite, it is important to show
that our determinations are supported in all points by the results of chemical analysis.
We give first the analyses of three compact, black, vitreous fragments from Stations 276,
285, and 302, all in the South Pacific. The fragments analysed presented all the
characters above indicated for fragments of compact basic glass, in which by means of the
lens small crystals of olivine alone could be distinguished.

Station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

SiO^

AI2O3

FeO

MnO

CaO

MgO

K2O

NagO

P2O5

Total.

276

2350

93

46‘76

17-71

1-73

10-92

0-44

11-56

10-37

0-17

1-83

101-49

285

2375

82

49-97

11-68

2-45

10-60

traces

11-20

12-84

0-25

1-60

0-33

100-92

302

1450

95

46-84

17-78

1-64

10-79

0-34

11-87

9-24

0-28

2-02

100-80

It is evident, after the examination of the above figures, that the determination of these
fragments as belonging to the basic glasses is established in an incontestable manner ;
they must be referred to the lithological family comprising the basalts.

It remains now to indicate the results of the analysis of the palagonitic matter
which covered the fragment made use of in Analysis No. 93.

Station.

Depth in
Fathoms.

No.

SiOg

AI2O3

MnaOg

CaO

MgO

K2O

Na20

H2O

Total.

276

2350

94

44-73

16-26

14-57

2-89

1-88

2-23

4-02

4-50

9-56

100-64

In comparing this analysis with that of the anhydrous silicate (Analysis No. 93) from
which this palagonitic matter was derived, it may be observed that the latter is produced
by the hydration of the former; it contains, in fact, 9 '56 per cent, of water. The
transformation which has taken place seems to tend to the formation of a zeolitic sub-
stance ; lime and magnesia are eliminated, the protoxide of iron passes into peroxide,
alkalies derived from the action of sea-water enter into combination, the quantity of
alumina remaining almost constant.

Palagonitic Tufas. — This name was introduced by Sartorius von Waltershausen to
designate certain tufas found in Iceland, Sicily, Galapagos Islands, and other regions,
composed principally of fragments of basic volcanic glass, like those described above, along
with other volcanic lapilli chiefiy belonging to the basic series. These tufas are known
to have been deposited under water, and in some cases the materials were probably
derived from submarine eruptions.^ In many regions of the deep sea tufas in every way
analogous to these palagonitic tufas were discovered by the Challenger Expedition,
associated with extensive depositions of peroxide of manganese, and frequently forming
the nuclei of manganese nodules.

^ See A. Penck, “ Ueber Palagonit- und Basalttuffe,” Zeitsch. d, d. geol, Gesellsch., 1879, pp. 504-577.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

\iOS

The brecciaform character of these eruptive products is clearly represented by some
of the figures on the accompanyiug plates, where these lapilli are shown as they appear
aggregated in some of the deposits. The nuclei of the nodules of manganese from
Station 276 and other stations in the South Pacific are in some instances crowded with
splinters of basic glasses or palagonite. These fragments do not always belong to
the same types ; they present differences of stiucture and of mineralogical composition,
such as might be found in volcanic tufas, but they have not the homogeneity of an
accumulation of fragments derived from the trituration of a lava-flow. It is sufficient to
cast a glance at PI. XXL fig. 1 to be convinced of the correctness of the above observa-
tions ; this figure represents a thin section cut from the interior of an elongated man-
ganese nodule, in which numerous fragments of basic glass, of felspathic basalt, and
volcanic minerals may be observed, all presenting the character of lapilli. Not only the
essentially vitreous nature, the mineralogical composition, and the structure, but also the
form of the splinters — angular and without trace of wear and tear — all prove that these
particles have not been submitted to the mechanical action of water. Commencing at
the top of the figure there are large crystals of plagioclase surrounded by vitreous matter
or by microliths ; descending towards the centre of the figure is a large number of small
angular fragments of basic glass, scoriaceous, yellowish, transparent, coated by zeolites, or
black and opaque, and containing lamellae of plagioclase ; in the manganese to the right
near the centre are small zeolitic crystals, and lower down is a large lapilli of black
opaque volcanic glass ; next to it is a section of very vesicular pumice, opposite which is
a fragment of basic glass ; near the lower part of the figure are accumulated plagioclases
and splinters of volcanic glass more or less surrounded by zeolitic zones. In fact the
aggregation of about fifty volcanic fragments in this nodule affords a very striking and
t}q)ical example of the tufaceous character of these fragments of basic rocks as found at
the bottom of the sea. This is also clearly shown by the palagonitic fragments
enclosed in a manganese nodule, represented in PI. XVIII. fig. 1. It seems necessary,
then, to conclude that the angular form is original and due to the mode of projection,
these splinters of basic glass being thrown out in the form in which they are now
found. It does not seem possible to admit that they are clastic in the ordinary sense
of the word, for there is no reason for believing that in the depths from which they
were collected the mechanical movements of the sea are capable of producing the accu-
mulation and fragmentation of these splinters. Still another argument in favour of
the view as to tlie origin of these fragments here advocated, is their association with
numerous volcanic fragments of very small dimensions ; these latter are undoubtedly
ashes, and it is neces.sary to admit the same mode of formation for them as for the
larger fragments.

Tlie cementation of these minute particles and lapilli by zeolites presents still
another point of resemblance with palagonitic tufas. Not only have the zeolites

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

309

crystallised in the internal pores and vesicles of these vitreous fragments, but they
may be seen as coatings lining the empty spaces of the palagonite, as represented in
PL XVIII. fig. 4. These secondary minerals also cement several adjoining lapilli, in
a manner like that represented in PI. XVIII. figs. 2 and 3. When several splinters of
basic glass, or even several vitreous basaltic fragments, are enclosed in a manganese
nodule, each one of them is usually bordered by a colourless crystalline zone. This zone,
which follows the contours of each fragment, is composed of little prisms fixed at one
extremity and fibro-radiate, the whole presenting a mammillated or festooned appearance.
These zeolitic prisms become entangled by their free extremities with a similar zone
surrounding an adjacent fragment. PI. XVIII. fig. 2 gives a good example of this
cementation by zeolites ; five splinters of porous, greenish, and highly altered basic
glass are in this manner united by zeolitic bands developed in the intervals between
the lapilli. Fig. 3 of the same plate shows portions of two lapilli, where the basic glass
with plagioclase is altered into a palagonitic substance, and each fragment is surrounded
by a crystalline zone of zeolites ; here the little prisms which carpet the two opposite
sides do not unite, and the space between them is filled by earthy matters of a more or
less brownish colour, and by deposits of manganese. These microscopic crystals of
zeolites are often so minute, and their free extremities so entangled in a neighbouring
zone, that it is difficult to determine the species. In some exceptional cases, however,
as in the interior of the microscopic geodes of scoriaceous glasses, sections of a cjuadratic
aspect can be observed, with terminal crystalline faces, which recall in all points the
crystals of phillipsite found free in the surrounding clay. It is important to notice
that these zeolitic crystals are always fixed, and have but one free extremity, for by this
means it is possible to distinguish them from crystals of phillipsite formed in a free
state in the clay. It frequently happens, in fact, that the palagonite becomes com-
pletely disintegrated, the broken-down fragments being found among the materials of
the deposits, and amongst them are bands of zeolites and globules of the same nature
as those which formerly filled the vesicles in the form of geodes. It cannot be doubted
that these zeolites have formerly lined the lapilli, when it is remembered that these
fragments of the bands have crystalline faces only at one extremity, and in the case of
the globules that all the crystals of which they are composed have their heads turned
towards the centre of the geode.

The hydrochemical modifications determining the decomposition of these fragments
of glass into palagonite, and at the same time the formation of zeolites, have likewise
resulted in the complete transformation of these lapilli into ferruginous argillaceous
matter. Granted the facility with which these easily alterable glasses undergo hydration,
and their perlitic structure, the lapilli should break up into minute particles, if they be
not surrounded by more or less thick layers of manganese. If they remained isolated in
the mud, we should expect to find, in the form of broken-down particles, the microscopic

310

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fmgmeuts of these palagonitised glasses, on which the chemical action would continue to
be exercised more easily as the materials became more and more subdivided. We should
also expect to find, in a more or less isolated condition, the crystals formerly imbedded in
the glasses, as these ofler more resistance to decomposition than the indeterminate
silicate which formed their base. This is what is actually observed, for in the free state
in the deposits there are found minute lamellar crystals of plagioclase, often in the form
of rhombic tables, sometimes augite, more rarely olivine, magnetite, and fragments of
the zeolitic bands just referred to.

It is true that many of these minerals, such as plagioclase, augite, and magnetite,
might be projected as volcanic cinders, or be derived from floating pumice, and being
surrounded with a vitreous coating this might subsequently be transformed into pala-
gonite ; but when these fragments are associated with fibro-radiate and globiform zeolitic
minerals, it seems fair to conclude that the great majority of them have been derived
from the disintegration in situ of brecciaform vitreous lapilli. The other part of the
residue, that is to say, the palagonitic matter itself, must necessarily be reduced by
transformation into argillaceous matter' more or less charged with iron and manganese.
The rocks of this type on laud surfaces show transformation on a large scale into red
argillaceous matter, as, for instance, the argillaceous deposits of Iceland, and the red
earths of a large number of islands in the Pacific. We shall have to speak again of
these transformations when describing the chemical deposits at the bottom of the sea,
l)ut it may now be pointed out that the hydrochemical modifications indicated for basic
glasses must, in a certain measure, hold good also for the basalts with a vitreous base,
which are so closely allied to' the basic glasses.

It is difficult to offer an opinion as to the geological age of the eruptions which gave
origin to these tufas, for nothing is known with regard to their stratigraphical relations ;
all we do know is that they are spread out on the superficial layer of the sea-bed at the
points from which they were dredged. Remembering the profound analogies between
these tufas and palagonitic tufas, some of which belong to the Tertiary Period, and their
a.ssociation in the deposits of the Pacific with sharks’ teeth and earbones of Cetaceans,
some of them similar to those of Tertiary species, it is probable that these tufas go back
JUS far as the Tertiary Period. There is no certainty, however, on this point, since
eruptions giving rise to basic glasses analogous to those described still take place in the
region of the Pacific, where the submarine tufas collected by the Challenger are best
rejjresented. The smallest palagonitic particles found free in the deposits may possibly
have come from eruptions much more recent than the large lapilli of the same substance,
for minute vitreous pjirticles would, on account of their microscopic dimensions, more
rapidly undergo decomposition into hydrated silicate tluin would be possible for the
more voluminous fragments enclosed jus nuclei in some manganese nodules or free in
the deposits.

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

311

These observations relative to the time at which the eruption of these lapilli took
place are also applicable in a certain way to all the volcanic rocks found in a frag-
mentary condition in pelagic deposits. Some of these lapilli are allied in fact by
insensible transitions to the vitreous type described above. Such, for instance, are
fragments of felspathic basalt with a highly developed vitreous base ; they are associated
with the basic glasses, and probably belong to the same age.

In other cases some fragments of basalt, of augite-andesite, of trachyte, appear to be
the products of eruptions of a more recent date, for, although there may be among them
fragments coated with thick layers of manganese, there are others which have only a
thin coating of that substance, and it seems legitimate to conclude that the greater or
less thickness of the deposits of manganese indicates in a manner the relative length of
time that the fragments have lain on the bottom of the sea. The relative age indicated
by these different layers of manganese, which surround volcanic fragments and remains
of organisms, will be fully referred to when treating of manganese nodules.

In the descriptions of the Challenger specimens, in Chapter II, , palagonitic materials
are mentioned twenty times in Red Clay, four times in Radiolarian Ooze, once in Diatom
Ooze, ten times in Globigerina Ooze, three times in Blue Mud, four times in Volcanic
Mud, and twice in Volcanic Sand. It will thus be observed that it is especially in the
pelagic deposits, and among these in the red clay areas, that the palagonitic substances
were most frequently observed.

Basaltic and other lapilli. — We may be brief with the description of basaltic
lapilli, which are often found associated with the lapilli of basic glass, and form along
with them centres of manganese nodules. Some basaltic fragments are less angular than
those found in the manganese nodules, and might even be taken for rolled pebbles, from
their smooth surface and rounded exterior, and these, from the thin coating of manganese
with which they are covered, have not, in all probability, the same origin as those
forming the nuclei of nodules. Basaltic fragments are as frequent in the deposits as the
palagonitic lapilli, but their determination is not always so easy, especially when they are
small and altered, for their characters are much less sharply marked than those of the
palagonitic materials. In consequence we have often distinguished the basaltic frag-
ments, in the Tables of Chapter II., under the vague names of scoriae, lapilli, and glassy
volcanic particles, it being impossible to be more specific. However, many of the little
fragments thus indicated belong undoubtedly to basalts, generally to basalts with a
vitreous base, to felspathic basalts ; basalts with leucite or nepheline cannot be said with
certainty to have been observed.

Basaltic fragments are found under the same conditions as the basic glasses,
their dimensions are the same, and they are specially numerous in the same stations
where the palagonitic tufas were dredged. They are distinguished from the vitreous
lapilli by their mineralogical composition, which is that of ordinary basalts — olivine.

312

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

plagioclase, augite, and magnetite — with or without a vitreous basCi Generally they are
fine grained ; rarely they are seen to have the structure of dolerites. A great number
are scoriaceous, the vesicles being filled with zeolites, or carpeted by zeolitic zones, as
in the case of the palagonitic lapilli. They are often associated with volcanic ashes,
in which the mineralogical elements of basalts predominate. Their alteration is less
advanced than in the case of the basic glasses, which is undoubtedly due to the facts
that they contain more crystalline elements, and are more compact. However, if they
possess a vitreous base, or are porous, the hydrochemical decomposition appears to have
advanced rapidly from the periphery towards the centre.

This decomposition attacks not only the base, but also the olivine and augite,
transforming them into secondary products ; the plagioclases, however, offer a greater
resistance to this alteration, as may be seen by reference to PL XIX. figs. 2 and 4.
The two fragments there represented come from Station 276 in the South Pacific; it
will be at once seen how much they are altered, and how much their structure is masked
by deposition of secondary products. Fig. 4 shows a felspathic basalt with a decomposed
vitreous base coloured by manganese ; the lamellae of plagioclase alone seem to have
remained intact, and they are sharply marked off from the fundamental mass. The
pyroxene enclosed in the base is entirely decomposed, and often transformed into deles-
site ; in order to recognise this mineral, it is necessary to clean the preparation with an
acid, when the form of the sections of pyroxene is revealed, but the optical properties
are effaced.

Olivine is the element in which the decomposition is most advanced ; to such a point
is this the case that it would be even impossible to recognise it except for the cleavages
and the form of its sections. These sections are shown in PI. XIX. fig. 4, where they
appear regularly terminated with geometrical inclusions of the vitreous base with a
fibrous structure, and covered with the red colour of hematised olivine. In the basalt
represented in PI. XIX. fig. 2, the alteration has attacked the olivine to such an extent
that the crystal is almost destroyed ; not only is it hematised, but it seems to be broken
up and everywhere invaded by infiltrations of manganese disposed in large brown or
opafjue jiatches. No better exami)le could be given of the state of decomposition of the
volcanic rocks and minerals so frequently met with in deep-sea deposits.

The vitreous base of some of the basaltic specimens is the first portion of the rock
to undergo alteration, and it generally j)rescnts the same palagonitic ajopearance as the
ba.sic glasses, forming irregular patches of variable dimensions, or thin veins Ijetween the
crystallised minerals. When thus altered this base assumes a zonary structure, presenting
a l>eautiful red tint, and reacting between crossed nicols ; in fact it behaves in every
way like j)alagonite. Generally manganese infiltrations follow with the progress of the
decomposition, and the structure of the base is then entirely masked, as may be observed
by reference to PI. XIX. fig. 4. When it happens that this fundamental vitreous

/

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

313

mass is still sufficiently intact to permit observation with high powers, it is sometimes
seen to be devitrified by globulites, by trichites, and other embryonic crystalline elements.
In short, the basalts met with in deep-sea deposits do not offer any peculiarities of
structure or of composition different from those met with in similar rocks found on sub-
aerial surfaces ; that which more especially characterises them is their advanced state of
alteration.

Fragments of limburgitey more or less palagonitised and filled with whitish zeolites,
are also found under the same conditions in deep-sea deposits as the lapilli already referred
to, from which they are distinguished by their mineralogical composition. In these,
crystals of porphyritic augite and olivine are observed in an altered vitreous base. When
the fundamental mass is still fresh it offers all the characters of the glass in the basic
lapilli ; when it is altered it presents all the characters of palagonite. These fragments of
hmburgite are relatively rare, and are easily confounded with the basic glasses and the
vitreous basalts into which they pass. We have only found them sharply characterised
at a few stations, and especially at Station 157, 1950 fathoms, in the Southern Indian
Ocean, where they were associated with pebbles of ancient and recent volcanic rocks.

The fragments of augite-andesite, or of andesite with rhombic pyroxene, occur very
frequently, and with the same external characters as the lapilli of the preceding types.
They may be distinguished by their composition, the absence of olivine and the presence
of sanidine and quartz separating them from the basaltic lapilli. Sometimes they contain
rhombic pyroxene, and are associated frequently with tufaceous andesitic cinders. In
the Tables of Chapter II. they are stated to occur at Stations 147 and 150, in the Southern
Indian Ocean; Station 214, among the Philippines; Stations 276, 293, and 295, in the
South Pacific. Some rare lapilli of hornblende-andesite were also met with ; these had
a fundamental mass with a fine greyish black grain, enclosing plagioclases, hornblende,
and sometimes sanidine.

It may be said that, generally speaking, fragments of acid rocks are especially rare
among the recent volcanic rocks in the Challenger dredgings. An exception must, how-
ever, be made with respect to pumice, for we have seen that its mode of transport may be
quite different from that of the fragments and lapilli just referred to. Just as the lapilli
of basic rocks are abundant in certain regions of the Pacific, for example, so, with the ex-
ception of pumice, are trachytic and liparitie lapilli rare in these same positions. At certain
stations, however, the nature of the mineral particles, the relative abundance of sanidine and
of hornblende, the occasional presence of quartz, and especially of splinters of acid glass, all
indicate that eruptions of trachytic cinders and lapilli must have taken place at the bottom
of the sea. But it is difficult to be quite certain upon this point, for after what has been
said above with reference to the distribution of pumice, its origin, and its disintegration,
it may quite well happen that what is regarded as trachytic ashes from a submarine
eruption may be nothing else than the residue derived from the disintegration of liparitie

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 40

314

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

pumice. Finally, it may be pointed out that just as the lapilli of compact basic glasses
are abundant in a pelagic deposit, so are the splinters of obsidian, properly so called, rare
in the same soundings or dredgings.

Volcanic Ashes. — The minuter glassy and mineral particles of a volcanic eruption are
usually called volcanic ashes, and differ only from the lapilli, with which indeed they are
often associated, by their smaller dimensions. They may, however, occur without these
larger fragments, and they have as a general rule a much wider dispersion ; indeed their
distribution in deep-sea deposits is as extensive as that of pumice. By casting the eye
down the columns of mineral particles in the Tables of Chapter II., it may be seen that
fragments which might be called volcanic ashes are much more widely distributed than
the lapilli or fragments of rocks. This arises from the circumstance that these volcanic
miueral particles may have a double origin : they may have been projected as isolated
grains by subaerial or submarine eruptions, or they may be derived from the mechanical
disintegration or the chemical decomposition of pumice or lapilli, of which they formerly
were constituent parts. In other words, they may be volcanic ashes in the proper sense
of the term, or the residue of pumice and of lapilli more or less destroyed. All that was
.said at the commencement of this chapter with regard to the distribution of pumice
applies equally to these incoherent particles. It will suffice to recall the phenomena
witnessed in Iceland in 1874 and in Krakatoa in 1883, together with many similar
instances, with reference to the projection of ashes, to understand the vast extent over
which these particles may be spread. Granted the origin of these fragmental materials
from the pulverisation of liquid lava, their transportation by air and by water, one would
expect to find these volcanic dusts everywhere in the deep-sea deposits ; and remember-
ing the rapidity with which they must have cooled, they should be present as vitreous
particles, with the minerals which were ejected with them, in more or less embryonic
form, and generally covered with a vitreous coating. This is, in fact, what is observed
in pelagic deposits.

It seems important here to recall what is understood by recent volcanic particles
in opposition to mineral particles derived from the decomposition of ancient rocks of
continentid origin, which make up the larger part of terrigenous deposits. The researches
of the bust few years seem to have shown that the subdivision, before generally admitted,
into Tertiary and Post-Tertiary volcanic rocks, and into Plutonic or Pre-Tertiary rocks,
cannot now bo maintained. If we have, however, designated as recent rocks those
s{x>ken of up to this j)oint in the present chapter, it is only because their position at the
bottom of the sea and their lithological nature appear to require this classification. We
seem to Ikj justified in regarding these volcanic ashes as recent volcanic products like the
pumice and the lapilli, with which they are associated in deep-sea deposits. It becomes
ver)^ difficult to make this distinction among the mineral particles, especially when
the products of recent eruptions are mixed in the terrigenous muds with the debris of

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

815

continental rocks, and the difficulty increases still more when, far from the coasts, the
terrigenous materials transported by icebergs and atmospheric currents are encountered.
However, what permits us to pronounce upon the relative age of these particles,
derived from showers of ashes or from the alteration of rocks of recent eruptions, is their
position in the deposits ; they are distributed in all the pelagic deposits in process of
formation. They are found in the superficial muddy layers forming the bottom of the
sea at points where mechanical actions could not have torn them from the subsoil and
transported them to a distance ; indeed, we must regard the bottom of the ocean as every-
where covered by deposits made up of free particles which have accumulated during
long ages upon the solid rocks constituting the true subsoil. It must then be admitted
that the muddy layer into which the dredge or trawl can sink only a few feet from the
surface is of recent age, or at the most Tertiary in certain points of the Pacific, where
numerous vertebrate remains were procured. We have still another proof of the recent
age of these volcanic ashes in the fact that the vitreous particles have in many instances
stfil preserved their original fresh characters, whereas in the older geological formations
similar particles have undergone profound alteration. The same argument holds good
for the isolated mineral particles associated with the vitreous splinters. Although altera-
tion has commenced in an appreciable manner in many of these minerals and fragments,
it may be said that in the majority of cases it is not far advanced.

In the year 1883 we published a memoir^ on the characters of volcanic ashes and the
products of the disintegration of pumice and lapilli found in marine deposits. These
characters have been in part given under the heading of pumice. In addition to the
characters due to form there pointed out, the abundance of embryonic crystals and
of skeletons of crystals may be regarded as likewise characteristic of these particles.
The presence of crystals arrested in their development may easily be accounted for if we
remember that the vitreous material which encloses them has been suddenly cooled, and
that molecular changes have consequently been suddenly interrupted.

The mineral particles in a deep-sea deposit having been derived from a great variety
of sources, it is as a general rule impossible to say which of the volcanic particles have
been derived from the basic, neutral, or acid series of rocks, and owing to this mixture
chemical analysis is not available as a means of interpretation. Sometimes, however, it
is possible to state with considerable certainty that the volcanic particles have been
derived from a shower of ashes from a single eruption, as, for instance, in the case
represented in PI. IV. fig. 3 from the South Pacific, Station 281, 2385 fathoms. Here
the coarser particles have fallen upon a Red Clay, the point of junction being represented
by the dark line in the centre of the section, finer and finer particles lying in layers
above these just as they have fallen more slowly through the water. In PL XXL
fig. 2 the larger mineral particles of this volcanic ash are shown at the line of junction

* Proc. Boy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii, pp. 474 et seq.

316

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER:

between the ash and Red Clay, the left of the figure representing the ash and the
right the Red Clay. In the volcanic ash all the minerals are clastic, irregularly dis-
posed, with almost no interposition of clay. This accumulation has a greenish tint
due to the presence of a large number of fragments of augite, hornblende, delessite or
chloritic substance. The outlines of almost aU the crystals are blunted as if broken.
Hornblende is represented by fragments of a brownish or dark greenish colour, with the
characteristic cleavages, strongly pleochroic. The crystals of augite are greenish or
brown-violet ; very often augite is present in the form of aggregated microliths
surrounded by delessite. There is also a large number of sections of felspar belonging
to plagioclase or sanidine ; they are colourless, more or less irregular, and generally
transformed into zeolitic matter. Moreover, there are in this ash rather small lapilli,
principally formed of an aggregation of green microliths of augite and small fragments
of basalts, or of highly-altered basic glass. Finally, there are numerous grains of
magnetite, of manganese, and of olivine transformed into hematite. All these mineral
particles are cemented by colourless zeolitic substances.

The general appearance of these particles under the microscope is further represented
in some of the lithographic plates at the end of the volume. Plate XXVI. fig. 2 shows
numerous minute vitreous splinters transformed into palagonite and coloured by manga-
nese and iron, along with augite, plagioclase, magnetite, from a Red Clay, Station 282, 2450
fathoms. South Pacific. Fig. 3 of the same plate represents the mineral particles of a
Red Clay from the South Pacific, off the coast of Australia, Station 165a, 2600 fathoms.
There are numerous angular fragments of volcanic glass with elongated pores and ragged
outlines among the particles of felspar, hornblende, grains of manganese, and minute
rounded particles of quartz. The rounded fragments of quartz coloured with limonite,
represented in this figure, are evidently wind-borne particles from the continent of
Australia. PI. XXVII. fig. 2 represents the mineral fragments and fine washings in a
Red Clay from the South Pacific, Station 178, 2650 fathoms. Besides the crystals of
felsj)ar and augite there are numerous vitreous, colourless, volcanic particles with
elongated pores, and in addition to these a very large number of extremely minute
[)articles of the same nature, which make up the principal part of what we denomi-
nate in this w’ork “ fine washing.s.” These smaller microscopic particles are more or
less angular, forming an impalpable powder, and it will be seen that they cover the
field of the figure between the larger mineral particles. PI. XXVII. fig. 3 shows again
abundance of vitreous particles of pumice, along with volcanie minerals, from a Red Clay
in the North Pacific, Station 240, 2900 fathoms. As in all the preceding residues, the
mineral jjarticles are angular ; the vitreous particles are sharply characterised by their
ragged outlines and their strueture, and among them are some vitreous grains trans-
formed into palagonite. PI. XXVH. fig. 4 presents once more an abundance of volcanic
particles from a Red Clay, South Pacific, Station 294, 2270 fathoms. The vitreous

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

317

particles present the same characters as in the preceding figures, associated with crystals
or splinters of felspar, plagioclase, augite, and magnetite. Among the particles may be
observed bipyramidal crystals of quartz, which may have come from the disintegration
of a liparitic rock. In PI. XXYII. fig. 5 the aspect of the minutest particles of
the fine washings of a Eadiolarian Ooze is represented, from Station 225, 4475 fathoms.
West Pacific. In addition to the debris of organisms, there may be observed little
fragments of volcanic minerals, or splinters of colourless glass with a porous appearance.
PL XXVI. fig. 1 represents the mineral particles from the residue of a Globigerina Ooze,
in the South Pacific, Station 300, 1375 fathoms; these are observed to have the same
characters as in the case of the Eed Clays, consisting of vitreous particles associated with
splinters of felspar, plagioclase, magnetite, augite, and minute grains of manganese
peroxide.

If now we pass to the mineral particles in terrigenous deposits, we may still in some
instances recognise an abundance of vitreous particles, as, for instance, in the deposit
called a Blue Mud, in the South Pacific, Station 303, 1325 fathoms, represented in
PL XXVI. fig. 4. Here the mineral particles are almost exclusively formed of splinters
of a brownish glass, more or loss vesicular, the pores being generally rounded, but
associated with these are colourless particles with a filamentous structure, which are
probably derived from acid glasses. The predominance of vitreous particles and volcanic
minerals in a Blue Mud is also represented in PL XL fig. 2, showing the mineral particles
from Station 237, 1875 fathoms, North Pacific. Here there are seen besides the
fragments of plagioclase, sanidine, augite, hornblende, and magnetic grains, many
splinters of vitreous matter which are present under three different aspects — some
transparent, slightly violet, or almost colourless, fibrous with cylindrical pores, as may
be seen in the lower part of the figure and near the upper left hand side ; other
vitreous splinters are deep brown, almost opaque, with large, more or less circular, pores ;
and again these vitreous particles are transformed into a reddish brown resinoid
substance, resembhng palagonite, as may be seen on the right hand side of the figure.
In PL XXVII. fig. 1, which represents the mineral particles in a Volcanic Mud, off the
Sandwich Islands in the North Pacific, Station 262, 2875 fathoms, we have a most
typical example of these vitreous fragments. The Whole field of the microscope is
occupied by vitreous particles, slightly brownish in colour, with relatively few pores,
but presenting the characteristic fracture and outlines of these glassy fragments.

All the figures to which we have referred represent these particles in an isolated
condition in the deposit. In the compact tufas which were dredged from the bottom of
the sea they present a slightly different aspect.

In the Tables of Chapter II. vitreous particles are recorded in 45 specimens of Eed
Clay, 6 of Eadiolarian Ooze, 4 of Diatom Ooze, 63 of Globigerina Ooze, 6 of Pteropod
Ooze, 20 of Blue Mud, 3 of Eed Mud, 10 of Green Mud, 20 of Volcanic Mud, 3 of

31S

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Volcanic Sand, 7 of Coral Mud, and 1 of Coral Sand. This enumeration indicates
the wide, even the universal, distribution of these particles over the floor of the
ocean.

Recent Volcanic Minerals in General, — After what has been stated above, there can
be little doubt as to the mode of origin and relatively recent age of the numerous vitreous
particles scattered over the floor of the ocean. It has been indicated that the mineral
particles and the more or less complete crystals, which are mixed with these vitreous frag-
ments in deep-sea deposits, have in all probability a similar age and origin, having been
derived from the disintegration of the pumice and lapilli of submarine and subaerial
eruptions. While this is probably the correct interpretation for the mineral particles of
those pelagic deposits in which all, or nearly all, the inorganic residue is made up of
volcanic products, it cannot be held to apply to those deep-sea deposits around continental
shores, in which the fragments of crystalline, schisto-crystalline, clastic, and organic rocks
of various ages make up a large part of the deposit.

With reference to the origin of the mineral particles, we, in all cases, rely principally
upon their association with larger fragments of rocks containing these minerals in the
same deposit or in the same region of the ocean. Thus, when we discover in the free
state crystals of plagioclase and augite, still in part covered by vitreous matter,
associated in the same deposits with palagonitic lapilli or altered pieces of pumice, we
conclude that these isolated minerals are of the same age as, and have had a similar
origin to, the fragments which accompany them. In the same manner, if we find
orthoclase, mica, or quartz, for example, along with fragments of granite, gneiss, and
schist, we are led to conclude that the minerals in a free state in the mud have been
transported by the same agents that have carried the rocks accompanying them, to which
we assign a continental origin. This distinction has all the more force reinembering
what has been said as to the universal distribution of volcanic materials in the form of
pumice, lapilli, and ashes, and the more limited distribution of the terrigenous minerals,
which are transported only to a relatively restricted zone surrounding continental shores.

In some cases continental fragments may be carried much further than here
indicated, and may be mixed with the volcanic fragments w’hich are characteristic of
pelagic deposits. In these ciises *the distinction between minerals derived directly from
continental rocks and tho.se derived from volcanic products becomes exceedingly difficult,
and we must then rely upon the peculiarities which the minerals present, especially the
siliciites of eruptive rocks, according as they have crystallised in rocks of the ancient or
of the more recent series. We will point out the distinctive characters which may serve
as a guide in this chissification, but it must be remarked that these characters have no
alxiolutc value, and that lx;tween the same species of minerals constituting the two series
of rocks the diflerences are rather quantitative than qualitative. However, when these
special details are taken into considenition along with the mineralogical and lithological

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

319

associations, as well as the position with reference to distance from coasts, there is an
excellent means of forming an opinion relative to the origin of the mineral particles
that may be met with in deep-sea deposits. On pp. 19-23 we have indicated the
properties most easily observed in free mineral particles, in the form of more or less
perfect crystals or irregular splinters, that may serve to determine the species. It
remains here to point out some special characters of volcanic minerals, which permit us
to distinguish them from minerals of continental origin. Under each species, arranged
alphabetically, are given the distinctive peculiarities on which we have relied in deter-
mining the species as having come from recent eruptions.

Amphibole, Basaltic hornblende, fragments of well-crystallised individuals, sometimes
regularly-bounded crystals coated with volcanic glass, generally compact, no fibrous
structure, well-marked cleavage, high lustre on the planes of cleavage, black by reflected
light, brown or reddish brown by transmitted light, strong pleochroism and absorption,
zonary structure, numerous vitreous and gaseous inclusions, coating of magnetite and
characteristic corrosion. Felspars, {a) Monoclinic, Sanidine, often in crystals, with
glassy habit, colourless and transparent, tabular parallel to M, or elongated parallel to
the edge P/M, separation-planes parallel to the orthopinakoid, numerous gas and
vitreous inclusions often crowded together in the same crystal, having sometimes
geometrical outlines, and often regularly disposed in the interior of the crystal, often
covered by or imbedded in a glassy coating, (h) Triclinic, Plagioclase, glassy habit,
transparent, few decomposition products, crystals in the form of thin rhombic tables
parallel to M, gaseous and vitreous inclusions. Olivine, regularly-formed crystals coated
with volcanic glass or palagonite, often skeleton crystals, inclusions of vitreous particles,
rarely decomposed into serpentinous matter, often reddish by decomposition of ferric
oxide. Pyroxene, (a) Rhombic, Hypersthene, reddish or brownish fragments, or bounded
by cleavage planes, or vaguely-outlined crystals, prismatic, intergrowth with monoclinic
pyroxene. Bronzite, glass inclusions, no intergrowth with monoclinic pyroxene. (6) Mono-
clinic, Augite, often regularly-formed crystals, or fragments coated with volcanic glass,
fresh, rarely decomposed into chloritic substance or into uralite, frequent glass inclusions.
Quartz. — In exceptional instances quartz was observed as small crystals bounded by the
planes of the hexagonal prism and pyramid ; these may have been derived from liparitic
ashes, or from the disintegration of liparitic rock fragments. In other cases a few quartz
grains containing glass inclusions were observed, hence in all probability of volcanic
origin.

It is evident that the distinctive characters given above are especially in relation with
the less advanced degree of decomposition, which is itself a consequence of their recent
eruptive origin. These characters have never been used exclusively, but always in con-
junction with the mineral associations and positions in the deposits. There are other
mineral particles in the sediments, which, in the free state, do not offer any distinctive

320

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

characters to admit of even an approximate classification as to their origin. Among these
are magnetite, black mica, apatite, epidote, zircon, delessite, and zeolites, such as analcim
and chabasite. Some of these, as epidote and zircon, would not likely be found in any
abundanee among the debris of recent rocks ; their presence, however, is possible. As to
the secondary minerals and products of alteration, like glauconite, oxides of iron and
manganese, zeolites, phosphates, and carbonate of lime casts, they will be considered in
detiiil in the succeeding cliapter.

Although it may be difficult to determine the relative abundance of the different
kinds of mineral particles in each type of deep-sea deposit, still it may be stated gene-
rally that volcanic minerals, whieli bear distinctly the impress of their origin, are not
only universally distributed throughout deep-sea deposits as a whole, but that they
abound in the pelagic deposits properly so called, where they form essential constituents.
In these pelagic regions the minerals are angular, generally of small dimensions, have
a relatively fresh aspect, and are attached to vitreous particles or to rocks of volcanic
origin. In certain cases these same volcanic minerals occur in the free state in
Volcanic ^luds and Sands close to the coasts, but then the dimensions and physical
characters permit us to distinguish them from minerals of the same nature found in the
deposits forming at depths beyond the mechanical action of the sea.

Some of the figures on the plates at the end of the volume represent the aspect of
these volcanic minerals in the deposits of the littoral and shallow-water zones. PI. XXVI.
fig. 5 shows such particles from the littoral zone at the Sandwich Islands, where they are
almost exclusively composed of broken crystals of olivine ; this uniformity of the minerals
proves that we are dealing with a deposit from a position in which the action of wind
and water effects a separation according to specific gravity. A similar separation of
minerals is never observed in deep-sea deposits, where the elements are much less
voluminous, as may be seen l>y reference to figs. 1 to 4 on the same plate. PI. XXVII.
fig. 6 represents rounded grains of quartz, glauconite, tourmaline, and zircon, from Station
189, 28 fathoms, in tlie Arafura Sea. PI. XXVI. fig. 6 represents the volcanic minerals
of a sliallow-water deposit off the Admiralty Islands. As in fig. 5 the grains are large ;
some are distinctly rolled, and among them are plagioclase, hornblende, augite, olivine,
magnetite, fragments of volcanic glass, palagonite, rounded lapilli, and quartz. PI. XI.
fig. 2 shows the volciinic mineral particles in a deposit further removed from the coast,
but not in pelagic conditions j)roperly so called ; these are from a Blue Mud, Station
237, 1875 fathoms, off Japan. Among the particles are plagioclase, sanidine surrounded
and enclosed by a blackisli opaque glass, hornblende, augite, little plates of black mica,
magnetite, and fragments of volcanic glass more or less decomposed. In PI. XXVII.
figs. 1 to 3, and PI. XXVI. figs. 2 to 4, the characters under which these volcanic
minerals appear in pelagic deposits arc represented, and may be compared with the
figures above referred to.

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

321

(b) Rocks and Minerals derived directly from the Continental Masses.

The widespread mineralogical products in marine deposits, derived from the ejections of
submarine and subaerial volcanoes, have been dealt with in considerable detail in the pre-
ceding section, and it is now necessary to consider the products of the second category,
with a more restricted distribution, referred to at the beginning of this chapter, viz., those
derived immediately from continental masses and emerged lands. In the first instance,
we may direct our attention to the fragments of continental rocks, and their distribution
in marine deposits, and afterwards consider the mineral particles derived from the dis-
integration of continental rocks.

Fragments of Continental Rocks. — It is unnecessary to treat in detail the fragments
of rocks and minerals met with in the littoral and shallow- water zones. It is evident that
these are, for the most part, derived from the adjoining coasts, by the action of tides,
waves, currents, and winds upon the submerged and emerged rocks which crop out in the
shaUow-water and littoral zones, or they have been transported from the far interior of
the continents by the action of rivers and the ice with which rivers may sometimes be
covered. In this work we have especially to deal with the deposits formed in the deep
sea, that is beyond the 100-fathom line, or beyond what we have called the mud-line,
where currents, waves, and other mechanical agents, play but an insignificant role. From
d priori considerations we would not expect large fragments of the continental rocks to
be carried seaward beyond the mud-line, except in what might be called abnormal condi-
tions. The larger fragments met with in such abundance in the shallow-water and littoral
zones are, by the mechanical and chemical actions of the region, continually subject to
disintegration and decomposition; the minute products of their destruction are transported
by currents into the stiller waters of the deep-sea region, where they slowly settle to the
bottom, forming muds and oozes. The minute fragments thus transported seawards are
rarely fragments of rocks, being principally made up of the more resistant crystalline
particles, together with clayey and other amorphous matters. Indeed, under all
normal conditions, it is rare to find fragments of rocks among the mineral constituents
of a deposit, even in depths of a few hundred fathoms, and thirty or forty miles
seaward, even although the shallow-water zone towards the land be of great extent,
and covered with continental blocks of all dimensions and of varied lithological con-
stitution.

It is well known, however, that continental blocks are in exceptional circumstances
carried to great distances fixed in the roots of trees, or entangled among the other
materials that are borne as natural rafts into the ocean from great rivers. Eivers
affected with ice during some part of the year are also the means of distributing

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 41

322

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

continental rocks over the ocean to considerable distances from their embouchures, but
icebergs eflect this distribution to a much wider extent than any other agent with which
we are acquainted.

In the examination of the deposits collected by the Challenger and other ex-
peditions, fragments of continental rocks and minerals were rarely if ever found in
any of the regions of the great ocean basins far from land, except in, or in the
immediate neighbourhood of, those regions affected by floating ice and icebergs in
the northern and southern hemispheres. It is true that these fragments of rocks have
been found some distance beyond the known limits of floating icebergs, but it is
evident that floating ice must have had a wider extension formerly than at the
present time. In the Quaternary Period, for example, the great extension of glaciers
indicates that the icebergs derived from them must have been more numerous,
while the climatic conditions must have contributed to their wider distribution in low
latitudes.

During the voyage of the Challenger, the fragments of ancient rocks and minerals
were met with in more or less abundance in the following regions : —

Between Bermuda and Halifax : ^ large block of syenite, diabase, quartziferous
diabase, basalts ; fragments of gneiss and of mica-schists ; quartzite containing
tourmaline, zircon, kaolin, chloritic substance ; dolomitic limestone.

Between Bermuda and Azores : ^ sandstone containing mica ; mica-schist.®

Between Tristan da Cunha and Cape of Good Hope : * the presence of large
fragments of quartz, orthoclase, hornblende, tourmaline, and augite, indicates
that the Challenger here passed over a region occasionally affected with float-
ing ice.

Between Heard Island and Melbourne.® During this trip towards the Antarctic
regions, blocks, pebbles, and fragments of ancient rocks were found to make
up a considerable proportion of the whole of the deposits, the following having
been observed : — Granite containing orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, black mica ;
granitite containing orthoclase, plagioclase, quartz, black mica, and hornblende ;
gneiss containing quartz, black and white mica, garnet ; amphibolite with large
crystals of green hornblende and quartz ; metamorphic quartzite speckled
w’ith black mica ; fine grained micaceous sandstone, with white mica ; fine
grained chloritic sandstone ; red sandstone ; slates containing sericite, rutile,
and quartz.

Between Tahiti and Valparaiso.® Although the Challenger w^as considerably to the

> .S<-e pp. 151, 152. 3 See p. 152.

* The French ship “Talisman” dredged fragments of continental rocks even further to the south and east (see
Fouijud anti Ls’-vy, Comptts Rendiu, tom. cii. pp. 793-795, 1880).

• See p. 157. ® See pp. 163, 164.

See p. 180.

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

323

north of the known limit of icebergs in this trip, still there were several frag-
ments which appear to have been derived from icebergs : —

Station 285, rounded fragments of granite, arkose ;

,, 286, granite pebble ;

,, 289, fragment of diabase ;

,, 299, angular piece of granite ;

,, 302, piece of granite coated with manganese, fragment of flint.

If the positions of the fragments above enumerated be compared with a map showing
the distribution of icebergs in the present seas, it will be observed that they are all
within, or just beyond, the limits of the iceberg regions, and it cannot be regarded as
other than a remarkable fact that the Challenger should not have found any fragments
of continental rocks in the central portions of the ocean basins, except in the localities
indicated. The position, then, in which these blocks and fragments of continental
rocks were found is in itself sufficient evidence that they have been transported by
floating icebergs and icefields of the present or of recent geological times. This view is
confirmed by the nature and character of the transported material. The blocks are of
all sizes, from several feet in diameter to the smallest dimensions ; their angles are
sometimes rounded or softened, at other times sharp, and the larger fragments are
frequently covered on one or more surfaces by glacial striations. In their nature the
fragments are very heterogeneous, being derived from almost all the varieties of the rocks
that crop out on the surface of the continents. This great variety in the dimensions and
lithological nature of the continental debris spread over the floor of the ocean towards
the polar regions of either hemisphere is exactly what we would expect to find in
materials transported by floating ice. The glaciers, which give birth to the icebergs, in
passing over the continental surfaces would necessarily carry away large and small frag-
ments of all the continental rocks cropping out at the surface. The icebergs, in widely
distributing these continental materials, would produce in the deep sea a deposit con-
taining fragments of granite, gneiss, quartzite, schists, dolomites, crystalline limestones,
and even fragments of volcanic rocks. The heterogeneity of such a deposit is thus in
striking contrast, so far as its mineralogical constituents are concerned, to the homo-
geneity presented by truly pelagic deposits, in which, as we have seen, volcanic materials
alone make up the inorganic portion of the deposit.

While icebergs are the only agents that are capable of effecting this wide distribution
of continental rocks and minerals, Mr. Murray has shown that both seals and penguins
carry to sea large numbers of stones and rounded pebbles in their stomachs, to which the
sealers give the name of “ballast.”^ These animals may therefore, to some extent, dis-
tribute rock fragments to great distances from the land. Should any of them be killed

* See Zool. Chall. Exp., pt. viii. pp. 126, 127 ; also Turner, Report on the Seals, Zool. Chall. Exp., pt, Ixviii. p. 136.

324

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

or (lie at sea, their soft parts, and even their bony structures, might be entirely removed
in solution, while the stones and pebbles contained in their stomachs would remain as a
part of the deposit.

It has been pointed out that minute fragments of rocks, especially particles of quartz
and other continental minerals, have been found in some of the deep-sea deposits at
(Treat distances from the coasts of Africa and Australia. This abnormal distribution is
to be accounted for by the great distance to which winds may carry dust from desert
regions on the continental surfaces, as, for instance, the Sahara and the interior of
Australia.

It will thus be seen that the area to which continental debris may be transported
over the floor of the ocean varies greatly in different localities. It is least along high
and bold coasts in tropical and subtropical regions ; it is more extensive off the mouths
of great rivers, off the coasts of desert regions, and in enclosed seas, but is most extensive
towards the polar regions, where blocks of all sizes and kinds are widely distributed by
icebergs and other kinds of floating ice.

Minerals derived from the Disintegration of Continental Rocks. — ^An examination of
terrigenous deposits shows that the prevailing minerals around continental shores are
those that might be derived from the disintegration of emerged lands. The size of these
minerals, as well as their abundance, is in direct relation with their greater or less
distance from the coasts, except in iceberg regions. They have frequently a rolled aspect,
their angles being softened, and they recall by all their peculiarities the same mineral
species which constitute most of the geological layers making up the continental masses.
Quartz plays the principal role. The normal position of these minerals is coincident with
the distribution of terrigenous deposits, and if exceptionally they are found in pelagic
deposits, they have been in these cases transported by icebergs, by atmospheric currents,
or other agencies to which we have just referred in speaking of the distribution of con-
tinental rocks.

In some cases there are special characters which may serve as a guide in attempting
to establish the terrigenous origin of these particles, but it must not be denied that this
subject is surrounded with many difficulties. It is often difficult to determine the age
of certain rocks by a study of their lithological composition ; in a much higher degree,
therefore, is tlie determination of the isolated minerals which constitute these rocks a
matter of great uncertainty. In all these cases the most certain guide is the mineralo-
gical association witli the rock fragments in the deposits. There are some minerals which
have not been recognised in recent eruptive rocks, or at least are extremely rare in these
mas.ses, wliilc on the contrary they are extremely abundant in the rocks of the ancient
eruptive series; tourmaline and muscovite arc examples. If minerals, about which
there is uncertainty as to tlieir age and origin, be associated with fragmentary masses of
cr}'stallinc and sedimentary rocks of the ancient series, we may conclude with very great

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

825

probabDity that these minerals have been derived from the disintegration of rocks found
at the surface of the continents. These determinations rely not so much upon any
isolated characters, as upon the union of a variety of conditions, such as geographical
position, size and form of the grains, specific nature of the minerals, characters indicating
the mode of transport, and especially the lithological and mineralogical associations.

After these general remarks we may give an enumeration of the principal species of
minerals which are considered as having a terrigenous origin, along with some of their
most striking peculiarities. It must be remembered, however, that these characters are
not absolute, and that their value is important only when taken along with associated
rocks and minerals.

Amphibole, Common Hornblende, generally greenish, rarely brownish, more or
less distinctly prismatic, fibrous structure, rarely zonary or containing inclusions,
cleavage planes not well marked nor very shining, associated with debris of crystal-
line or schisto-crystalline rocks. Actinolite, found as columnar or fibrous aggregates,
associated with large fragments of actinolite-schists. Glaucophane, small prismatic
fragments, pronounced violet-blue colour, associated with land debris and fragments
of mica-schists and gneissic rocks. Apatite, although mineralogically no distinction
possible from apatite derived from volcanic rocks, the larger grains of this mineral,
often elongated or rounded fragments, occur associated with debris of older rocks.
Calcite, fragments of compact limestones. Chlorite cannot be determined by its
proper characters as originating from older rocks, but frequently occurs with debris
of schistose rocks, with amphibolic or schistose fragments, also as coatings of some
continental rocks and minerals. Chromite, with debris of olivine rocks. Dolomite,
as fragments of dolomitic limestones and dolomitic rocks, with blocks and gravel
of older eruptive and sedimentary rocks transported by icebergs. Felspars {a) Mono-
clinic, Orthoclase, generally fragments bounded by cleavage planes following P and M,
often altered grains, no glassy habit, dull and milky, no glass inclusions, some liquid
inclusions, intergrowth with quartz or with triclinic felspar, decomposition into kaolin
or muscovite, no zonary structure nor fissures as in sanidine, associated in the deposits
with debris of crystalline schists, and principally with older eruptive rock fragments.
(6) Triclinic, Microcline, always associated with debris of continental origin. Plagio-
clase, duU and cloudy, generally altered, associated with debris of older eruptive rocks.
Garnet, although mineralogically no distinction possible, must be of continental origin
when coated with green chloritic or serpentinous substance or phyllitic matter, and
occurring with fragments of schisto-crystalline rocks. Glauconite} Magnetite cannot
be distinguished from the same mineral in the recent volcanic rocks and particles,
but often associated with land debris. Mica, White Mica, always associated with older
eruptive rocks and continental debris ; Sericite, associated with fragments of schistose

^ See Chemical Deposits, Chapter VI.

320

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

rocks. These two micas are very characteristic of terrestrial rocks and mineral particles.
Olivine, distinction difficult, but sometimes irregularly-bounded fragments, decomposing
into serpentine, and with fragments of older eruptive rocks. Pyroxene (a) Rhombic,
Bronzite, lamellar aggregates, generally large fragments found with older eruptive
rock debris, with peridotite fragments. (6) Monoclinic, Augite, fragments irregularly
bounded or bounded by cleavage planes, transforming into uralite or chlorite, rarely
vitreous inclusions, associated with fragments of diabase. Diallage, grains bounded
by cleavage planes, associated with mineral particles and fragments of older eruptive
rocks. Quartz, grains generally without crystallographic outlines, rounded or angular,
sometimes covered with oxide of iron, liquid inclusions, some with carbonic acid or
small cubic crystals, needles of rutile, tourmaline, scales of chlorite, hematite, &c.
Occurs always with granitic, porphyritic, schisto-crystalline rocks, or with fragments of
continental sedimentary rocks ; the minerals and rocks associated with the quartz
grains give a clue as to the matrix rock. In some cases grains quite rounded, and
all of about the same dimensions, with thin coating of limonite, found far from coasts in
pelagic deposits, are to be considered as wind-borne.^ Rutile, small grains, or microscopic
prismatic crystals imbedded in schistose rock particles, always associated with continental
debris. Serpentine, compact or fibrous grains, associated with fragments of older
crystalline rocks, principally with peridotic rocks. Tourmaline, often in small prismatic
fragments of crystals, almost always of continental origin and associated with debris of
crystalline schists, granitic rocks, &c.^ Zircon, small quadratic crystals, more or less
rounded, as in the case of tourmaline, almost always of continental origin, and found
with debris of crystalline schists and of older eruptive rocks ; associated frequently
with quartz grains, and other minerals derived from the disintegration of sedimentary
rocks.^

The above are the principal mineral particles in the marine sediments to which we
attribute a continental origin. The mineral characters of many of them are not, how-
ever, of a nature to give certain and satisfactory indications ; especially is this the case
for the particles of apatite, chlorite, chromite, epidote, garnet, hematite, magnetite,
olivine, and pyrites. It is only the geographical position, along with the mineralogical
associations, that permits a satisfactory determination in any particular case. On the
other hand, for several of the species a continental origin seems to be indicated beyond
all doubt ; this is the case with glaucophane, white mica, sericite, tourmaline, zircon,
microcline, and for the great majority of the grains of quartz.

' See Plate XXV^I. fig. 3; these rounded grains of quartz are here a.ssociated with particles of felspar, green horn-
blende, glassy volcanic fnigmcnts, grains of manganese, very rarely fragments or particles of vein quartz, milky, and of
irregular form, found with continental land debris.

* See Plate XXVII. fig. 6; black fragments of prismatic crystals of tourmaline, with rounded grains of quartz
glauiymite, and zircon.

* See Plate XXVII. fig. 4 ; small bipyramiilal crystals, one in the centre, the other a little higher in the figure.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

327

II. MmERAL Substances of Extra-Terrestrial Origin.

Among the many substances contributing to the formation of deep-sea deposits, there
are a few of small dimensions which it has not been possible to refer to a terrestrial origin.
Both on account of their small size and their rarity, they make up only an insignificant
part of any of the samples of the different types of deep-sea deposits, but on account of
the extra-terrestrial origin attributed to them, and their peculiar distribution over the
floor of the ocean, they are exceedingly interesting, have given rise to much discussion,
and therefore merit a detailed description. Mr. Murray first called attention to certain
of these particles from the deep-sea deposits in the year 1876,^ and described them as
cosmic dust, pointing out at the same time that these particles were much more abundant
in all the deep-water deposits far from land, where accumulation must be relatively slow,
than in other regions of the ocean’s bed. The detailed characters of these magnetic
spherules, with illustrations, were given by us in a special paper published in 1883, in
which were also described the brown-coloured spherules or chondres.^

When the magnetic particles are extracted from a marine deposit, in the manner
described on page 17, and placed under the microscope, it will be found that the great
majority consist of magnetite derived from eruptive and other rocks. Many of these are
still attached to silicates or vitreous volcanic matter, which clearly indicate their origin.
But along with these fragments of magnetite or titanic iron, there are other grains
equally magnetic which do not present crystalline contours, and do not occur in the form
of irregular grains ; — it is to these that the name of cosmic dust has been applied.
They may be divided for the purposes of description into two groups : — first, black
magnetic spherules, with or without a metallic nucleus ; second, brown-coloured spherules
resembling chondres, with a crystalline structure.

(a.) Black Magnetic Spherules.

These magnetic spherules rarely exceed 0 '2 mm. in diameter. Their black and shin-
ing surface is formed by a coating which possesses the properties of magnetic iron.
This coating is absolutely opaque and black in thin splinters, has a metallic lustre, is
attracted by the magnet, and is soluble with difficulty in acids. There is often at the
periphery of the spherule a more or less pronounced depression. Such are the general
external characters, which may be verified by reference to the various figures on PI.
XXIII., chiefly devoted to a representation of particles believed to have a cosmic
origin. Fig. 1 shows one of these spherules extracted from the powder of a manganese

^ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. p. 258.

^ Murray and Renard, “ On the Microscopic Characters of Volcanic Ashes and Cosmic Dust, and their Distribution
in Deep-Sea Deposits,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xii. pp. 474-495.

328

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

nodule from the South Pacific, Station 285, 2375 fathoms. This grain is perfectly
spherical, and is drawn so that the little depression is on the opposite side from the
observer ; it shows the aspect presented by these granules in reflected light under the
microscope. The surface with metallic lustre is not perfectly smooth, but appears as if
scattered with a large number of little asperities or pores. Fig. 4 represents a spherule
from the same station identical in form and aspect with the preceding, but showing the
cupule which is seldom absent in these magnetic globules. This cupule, it will be seen,
is a circular depression attaining sometimes a diameter equal to half of that of the
spherule, and appears to be characteristic of these granules ; we shall presently
endeavour to interpret its formation. The spherule represented in fig. 6, from the South
Pacific, Station 276, 2350 fathoms, is much the same as the two others just described,
but is interesting, showing, as it does, the manner in which it reposed at the bottom of
the sea, being surrounded and fixed among little crystals of phillipsite, found in abun-
dance at the bottom of the sea in certain regions. In some cases, which have not been
figured, two spherules are coupled together, the one much smaller than the other,
resembling two drops of molten matter soldered together in solidifying.

Turning now to their internal structure, the nature of the nucleus furnishes the
principal characteristic uniting these spherules to the meteorites. The superficial crust
may be easily detached, by breaking one of the spherules, and is usually found to cover
a nucleus of a metallic nature, as shown in fig. 8, representing a spherule from the South
Pacific, Station 285, 2375 fathoms, in which a part of the outer coating of magnetite has
been removed. In this spherule, which resembles in every respect those previously
referred to, the nucleus is seen with its metallic lustre, grey colour like steel, and slightly
granular. Oxidation has apparently only taken place at the periphery, where magnetic
oxide has been formed, while the centre, protected from further oxidation by this coating
of magnetite, has remained in the state of native iron or alloy of iron. Fig. 5 shows a
similar spherule from the South Pacific, Station 276, 2350 fathoms, in which the thin
shell of magnetic iron has likewise been partially removed to show the metallic nucleus.
This nucleus behaves like iron, being malleable and taking the impress of the pestle ;
treated under the microscope with an acid solution of sulphate of copper it is at once
covered by a coating of copper. Fig. 9 represents a nucleus from the same station
(Station 276), treated in a similar way, showing the coppery coating; it has become
di.scoid under the pressure of the pestle and bears its impress. In some cases the nucleus,
though malleable, does not present this reaction with sulphate of copper solution. Fig. 7
reprc.sents such a nucleus, from the same station (Station 276), wdiich, though treated
with the copper solution, has retained its original grey steel-like colour. This nucleus,
unaffected by the copper, may be schreibersite (NijFe^P), or an alloy of iron, cobalt, and
iii<-kel, {IS in certain meteorites in which the last two metals are present in consideralfie
quantities. It is known, in fact, that cert{iin meteoric irons are insensible to the reaction

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

329

here employed, or it takes place only imperfectly, and this is especially the case where
the bands are rich in alloys of nickel and cobalt. In some of the spherules we ourselves
detected traces of cobalt, though the experiments were always more or less doubtful owing
to the small amount of material at our command, and it must be remarked that the
manganiferous nodules from which the spherules were frequently extracted, or with which
they were closely associated in the sediments, in nearly all cases contained cobalt and
nickel, as may be seen by consulting the analyses in Appendix III.

Fig. 2 represents a magnetic fragment from the same station (S-tation 276), which
presents certain peculiarities, and dijffers from those hitherto noticed.. It& form is irregular,
or only partially rounded its mineral nature is also different, as it has no metallic
nucleus. With reflected light it appears bluish-black, and the surface is less brilliant
than that of the spherules with metallic centres. The interior of this fragment presents
a crystalline structure shown by lines of cleavage and by rather regular fractures with
acute angles ; the direction of the fractures, however, is not constant, but varies at
different points. The fractures cannot be said to have the same character as the
cleavages observed in certain meteoric irons. On, the whole, it is very questionable if
this magnetic fragment be of cosmic origin, and it is merely represented here as a doubtful
specimen.

Fig. 12 represents the appearance of the magnetic particles extracted by the magnet
from a Ked Clay in the Central Pacific, Station 274, 2750 fathoms, after being broken
down in an agate mortar and treated with an acid solution of sulphate of copper.
It is to be observed that a certain number of the particles have been covered by copper,
and are believed to be the flattened metallic nuclei of the black spherules which were
observed in the sample before pounding in the mortar. The black and opaque fragments
are pieces of the outer coatings of the black spherules, together with irregular fragments
of magnetite and titanic iron, derived from the volcanic materials present in the deposit.
While it may be urged that some of these particles of iron have been derived from
fragments of eruptive rocks, there seems to be little doubt that those of a circular form
must have been derived from the black magnetic spherules, and hence are probably of
cosmic origin. Support is lent to this view from the circumstance that magnetic particles
from a volcanic tufa from the sea-bottom, in which no spherules are observed, rarely
contain any of these metallic particles, while they are generally more or less abundant in
the magnetic particles from a Eed Clay in which the black spherules are observed under
the microscope.

Finally, it may be pointed out, with reference to these black magnetic spherules, that
some of them, and especially the smaller specimens, do not contain any metallic nuclei
whatever, being formed throughout of a material similar to the black coating surrounding
the metallie centres. Gustav Rose pointed out long ago that at the periphery of meteor-
ites rich in iron there was a coating of magnetic oxide similar to that present in these

(deep-sea DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. — 1891.) 42

330

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE,

spherules from the deposits. It is easy to indicate the origin of this coating if we grant
the rapidity with which meteorites penetrate the atmosphere. This would determine a
superficial fusion, and the formation of a coating of magnetic oxide, as in the case of these
spherules. Their formation may, indeed, be compared to what is observed in the little
particles of iron that fiy away from the anvil under the stroke of the hammer, and are
transformed in piirt or entirely into magnetic oxide. The non -oxidised nucleus being
placed under protection by the layer of magnetic iron remains in a metallic condition,
and in this way we may account for the presence of these unoxidised metallic particles at
the bottom of the sea.* It is the same phenomenon as takes place with iron in industrial
processes by the coating of Barflf. The superficial fusion and oxidation of the external
coating thus probably took place in the atmosphere at a very high temperature, and on
account of their small dimensions the particles at once assumed a spherical form. The
contraction of the superficial crust on cooling would lead to the formation of the cupule.
Thus the composition of the nucleus, the formation of the black coating and the cupule,
the form, and, in short, all the peculiarities of these spherules, lead us to regard them as
cosmic bodies that must be grouped with the holosiderites.

(6.) Brown-coloured Spherules or Chondres.

If we now turn to the spherules with a crystalline structure, there are many reasons
for l)elieving that they, too, have probably a cosmic origin. It is well known that
clioncb’es are more or less spherical concretions, and are characteristic elements of a great
group of meteorites — the chondrites. Tschermak considers them as drops of matter of
cosmic origin, in fusion, that have become solidified. Chondritic globules have never,
moreover, in spite of all the researches that have taken place, been found in eruptive
rocks, nor, indeed, in any rocks of terrestrial origin.

The distinguishing characters of these globules of silicates from the deep-sea deposits,
and their relations to the chondres of meteorites, may now be referred to in detail. In
the fii-st ])lace, they present ]>rofound analogies in external aspect with the chondres of
meteorites, although, as will be presently pointed out, they differ from them in some of
their cr}’stallographic details. These brown-coloured spherules are either yellowish or
brown, with a pronounced bronze lustre. Under the microscope, in reflected light, this
metallic lustre is seen to be due to a finely lamellated structure ; their surface, in place
of being smooth as in the black spherules, is seen to be striated. Their diameter
rarely attains a millimetre, and their mean diameter may be about 0'5 mm. They arc
not regularly spherical. The cupule, when it exists, is not very deep, but rather

* It may l>e well to recall here that Home meteoric ironn, c.q.^ the meteoric iron of Santa-Catarina (Brazil), do not
ozidiAc under the action of water ; this is the case when the iron contains a relatively large amount of nickel (see
Boniwingault, CompUt Itmdxu, tom. Ixxxvi. p. 513, 1878).

I

ii

EEPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

331

flattened. They are insoluble in hydrochloric acid. The small quantity of material at
our disposal did not permit of complete analysis, but we found them to contain silica,
magnesia, and iron. The external characters show on a small scale so many of the
peculiarities of the chondres of meteorites, that celebrated experts in meteoric stones
pronounced them as such without being aware of the source from which they were pro-
cured. These characters may be best realised by reference to the figures on PI. XXIII.

Fig. 11 represents the external aspect of one of these spherules from a Globigerina
Ooze, Station 338, 1990 fathoms. South Atlantic. It was procured from the residue
after treating about two quarts of the deposit with dilute acid. It is about 1 mm. in
diameter, being magnified twenty-five times in the figure ; it is yellowish brown, but the
bronze metallic reflection is not rendered in the figure. At the upper part a shallow
depression or cupule is seen. The internal structure is leaf-like, excentric, and more or
less radial, and is seen to consist of the apposition of fine lamellse. It might be said
that these lamellse take their origin from a centre situated near the left hand side of the
spherule. This radial, excentric, lamellar structure is one of the characteristics of the
chondres of meteorites ; indeed, this structure has been considered diagnostic of chondritic
forms of bronzite, for example. Microscopic examination by means of transmitted light,
however, only partially confirms this relationship with the chondres of bronzite. The
small size, as well as the friability, of these spherules, make it impossible to cut them
into thin sections ; we were, therefore, limited in our examination to splinters obtained
by breaking these little bodies between two glass slides. In consequence, however, of
their lamellar structure they break into extremely thin plates that are perfectly transparent
except at those points where there are numerous dark, opaque inclusions, believed to
be titaniferous magnetite. Under a magnifying power of 200 or 300 diameters, the
details shown in figs. 10 and 13 can be observed. These thin plates are almost colourless,
or at most they are slightly brownish, and present two systems of crystalline lamellse.
Both of these systems are formed by little prisms, grouped in a parallel fashion, which
on crossing cut each other at angles of about 70° and 110°, as represented in fig. 10.
The small prisms juxtaposed in a parallel manner, and forming what we have called a
system, all extinguish at the same time ; their colours of polarisation are not very
pronounced.

When we published the preliminary results of our researches some years ago, it was
stated that these prisms always extinguished following their longer axis ; later measure-
ments, which we consider as quite definite, have shown that this observation was not exact.
Belying upon the preliminary observation, we believed that they belonged to the rhombic
system, but by operating upon little detached prisms we have observed that while in the
great majority of cases the extinction followed their longer axis, in others the little
prisms are extinguished under a maximum angle of 40°. The lamellae are thus crystallised
in the monoclinic system.

332

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Examination in convergent light does not give precise indications concerning other
optic phenomena that might be used for a more exact determination of the species.
The blackish brown inclusions represented in figs. 10 and 13 present vaguely regular
contours, recalling crystallites, such as magnetite, found in eruptive rocks and in
certain slags. In fig. 10, where they are seen under a magnifying power of about
300 diameters, they have a crystalline aspect ; in all probability these inclusions are
magnetic, more or less titaniferous, iron, and their presence explains why these spherules
may be extracted from the mud by the aid of a magnet. It will be observed that
these dark-coloured inclusions are disposed in a parallel manner following the system
of lamellse, and that they remain constant in this direction, even in thin plates.
At certain points they are so abundant as to completely veil by their accumulation
the structure of the mineral "with which they are associated, as represented in the upper
part of fig. 13. This regular arrangement of the inclusions in the interior of the
lamellae shows an approach to minerals belonging to the group of rhombic pyroxenes.
It is known that the species of this group richest in iron contain tabular or prismatic
inclusions of a submetallic and very characteristic aspect. Enstatite, bronzite, and
even hypersthene, which constitute chondres, are of the rhombic system, but we have
just seen that the mineral constituting these brown spherules belongs to the monoclinic
system, perhaps, to judge from the extinctions, to a monoclinic pyroxene. Up to the
present time, it must be added, no chondres have been found with other than rhombic
pyroxenes, so that there is an important difference between these spherules and the
chondres, if our determination of the mineral of the spherules as belonging to the
monoclinic system be correct. There would, however, be nothing astonishing in the
existence of chondres with monoclinic pyroxene, as this mineral is known to exist, for
example, in eukrite, and it must be remembered that only a small number of the brown
spherules found in the deposits were examined for their optical properties.

The external characters of these spherules, their bronze colour with metallic lustre,
their excentric lamellar structure, in a word, all their properties, except the difference
revealed by optical examination, show profound analogies between these spherules and the
chondres of meteorites, so that we seem justified in attributing to them a cosmic origin,
and this opinion is confirmed by tlieir association with the black magnetic spherules and
their distribution over the floor of the ocean, which will now be referred to in greater
detail.

(c.) Distribution of Cosmic Spheimles in Marine Deposits.

Magnetic or cosmic spherules were found in greatest abundance in the Red Clays
of the Central and Southern Pacific ; in short, in the deepest water, at points furthest
removed from continenUil masses of land. When the magnetic particles are extracted
from about a quart of the clay from these regions, it is usual to observe among these

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

333

between twenty and thirty of the small black spherules, with or without metallic nuclei,
and five or six of the brown magnetic spherules with crystalline structure. In the same
deposits in which these spherules occur in greatest abundance, there were always found
associated with them many manganese nodules, numerous sharks’ teeth, and bones of
Cetaceans, highly altered volcanic lapilli, and usually crystals of phillipsite. If the
coatings of manganese, formed around nuclei of sharks’ teeth, volcanic lapilli, fragments
of earbones of Cetaceans, or other substances, be separated and reduced to a fine powder
in a large mortar, and the magnetic particles be then extracted by means of a magnet,
it will be found that, in addition to crystals of magnetite evidently derived from volcanic
rocks, there are always a few of the black spherules above described ; but our obser-
vations have not detected the presence of the chondritic spherules in the manganese
nodules.

If, however, manganese nodules from a Globigerina Ooze, or any of the shallower
depths, as, for instance, from Station 3, 1.525 fathoms. North Atlantic, and Station 297,
1775 fathoms. South Pacific, be treated in a similar manner, it is generally impossible
to detect any of the black magnetic spherules among the magnetic particles extracted
from the manganese powder.

Again, if a quart of Globigerina Ooze, Pteropod Ooze, Diatom Ooze, Blue Mud, or
other terrigenous deposit, be examined in the same way as a Red Clay or Radiolarian
Ooze from the deep region of the Central Pacific, as a general rule no, or at most only
one or two, magnetic spherules will be observed among the magnetic particles. It is
evident, however, that the cosmic spherules are not absent from these deposits, for if a
diligent search be made with the magnet through a large quantity of the deposit, one or
two can usually be detected ; for instance, the spherule represented in PI. XXIII. fig. 1 1
was procured in the residue of a Globigerina Ooze after dissolving away a very large
quantity of the calcareous matter by dilute acid, and it may be mentioned that no
spherules were obtained during the examination of a large quantity of the deposit from
the same station before the removal of the carbonate of lime.

The general conclusion forced upon us as to the distribution of these magnetic
spherules in marine deposits, after a careful examination of a large number of samples,
is that, while they are universally distributed, they are more abundant in regions where
the accumulation of the deposit is relatively slow, and most abundant where the rate
of deposition is reduced to a minimum, viz., in the deepest water far removed from
continental land.

(d.) Cosmic Dusts in General.

It will be gathered from what has been said in the preceding paragraphs, that we
believe ourselves justified in attributing a cosmic origin to some of the magnetic particles
found in marine deposits, and that we have been led to this interpretation from a careful

334

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

consideration of the external form, internal structure, and distribution of the magnetic
spherules which have just been described. This conclusion is further confirmed by the
fact that these spherules do not present any analogies with terrestrial bodies which, up
to the present time, have been found in sedimentary or igneous rocks, while, as stated
above, they present striking analogies with meteoric bodies, known with certainty to have
fallen from extra-terrestrial space.

The question of cosmic dusts has been discussed by Nordenskjold,^ Daubr^e,^
Tissandier,® and Meunier,^ and these, together with other scientific men, have presented
numerous facts in support of the cosmic origin of certain metallic particles or silicates
collected as atmospheric precipitations. It has been urged, however, with great justice,
against the extra-terrestrial origin of certain reputed cosmic dusts, that they are con-
stituted, from a mineralogical point of view, of the same mineral species as those
forming the rocks appearing at the surface in the neighbourhood of the regions from
which the dusts were collected.

With reference to the particles of magnetic iron very often met with in atmospheric
precipitations, which have sometimes been considered of cosmic origin, it may be pointed
out that these, in all probability, have been derived from some telluric source ; especially
is this the case when they are of irregular form, without a black coating, unaccompanied
by silicates of a spherical form, and associated with organic or inorganic products derived
from our soils. It may also be pointed out that many of these so-called cosmic dusts
differ widely from each other in their chemical and mineralogical composition, which in
itself points to a terrestrial rather than an extra-terrestrial origin.

Although native iron is extremely rare in terrestrial rocks, careful researches have
shown that native iron, even cobaltiferous or nickeliferous, is present in terrestrial rocks,
for instance, in the basaltic rocks of Ireland and Iceland.® In this particular case it may

> The flust collected in Greenland in 1870 by Nordenskjold, and believed by him to be of cosmic origin (Kryokonit),
has l)een examined by von Lasaulx {Min. u. petr. Mittheilungen von Tschermak., Bd. iii. p. 517, 1881), who came to the
conclusion that the mineral particles in fpiestion were of telluric origin. The specimens collected by Nordenskjold in
his second journey in 188.3 were examined by Wiilling (Neues Jahrb. fur Min., etc., Beilageband vii. p. 152, 1890).
According to Wiilfing the greatest part of the dust is composed of terrestrial minerals and organic matter, but he
found some rare magnetic spherules, ()•! to 0‘2 mm. in diameter, of an opaque or transparent substance, which is in
some cases isotnipic, and in others birefrangent ; he refers them to chondres. Wiilfing did not find spherules with
metallic nuclei in the dust he examined.

* In a paper just jtublished, Daubri-e (Comptes Rdulm, tom. cxi. andexii., 1890-1891), alluding to the cosmic
spherules of the deep-sea deposits, expresses the opinion that they may be of volcanic origin, having been formed and
projected by the gaseous explosions. But, so far ns we know, such spherules as those described are not found in
volcanic ashes.

* O. Tissandier, Comptee Rendu*, tom. Ixxxi. p. 57G, 1875; tom. Ixxxiii. p. 76, 1876.

* In their ].aicr: “ Presence de sj)h<5rules magnt-tiiiues analogues k ceux des poussieres atmospheriques, duns des

roches npj«artiTiniit d’ancieiines [xiriodes gt'-nlogiques” {Compte* Rendu*, tom. Ixxxvi. p. 450, 1878), St. Meunier and
Tiniandier descriW some magnetic sfiheniles dredged in deposits on the coasts of Tunis and Algeria and of Po.ssession
Riy, or contained in strata of Cretaceous, Liassic, and Triassic age, also in rocks of the carboniferous or Devonian forma-
tion. P>iit it ajq»cars from their description that all the sjiherules collected in these various conditions seem to be hollow
spherules with a neck. ‘ See Andrews, Brit. Ass. Report for 1852, pp. .34-35.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

335

be urged that the native iron described from deep-sea deposits may have been derived
from the decomposition of the basaltic lapilli or vesicular pumice, which are widely dis-
tributed over the sea-bed. In reply to this objection it may be pointed out that the
native iron in eruptive rocks is never circular in form, nor is it surrounded with a
black magnetic coating, like the spherules from marine deposits. In the reputed cosmic
dusts found in atmospheric precipitations or collected in snow-fields, there are frequently
numerous, more or less hollow, spheres, or particles elongated like a bottle, with a
cracked, brownish, more or less oxidised, surface. These we have found, from a careful
examination, to be extremely numerous in industrial centres as well as in the scorise of
steamships, and when they are broken down in an agate mortar they will sometimes
yield minute particles of native iron. It is true that these particles are carried far
and wide by atmospheric currents, and it has been suggested that the spherules of
the deep sea have been derived from this source, but our examination shows that the
cosmic spherules of deep-sea deposits are markedly different both in form and structure
from the products of our furnaces, steam-engines, and materials of combustion. It has
been stated that the particles of iron on the floor of the ocean may be due to the reduction
of oxides of iron into metal under the influence of organic substances ; the consideration,
however, of the form, structure, and distribution of the spherules does not in any way
warrant this interpretation.

During the past few years we have examined a large number of atmospheric precipi-
tations collected from various parts of the world, for instance, from the Ben Nevis
Observatory, from the coral island of Bermuda, and other isolated situations. In all
these cases the bulk of the solid materials found in the precipitations was undoubtedly
of terrestrial origin, and consisted chiefly of minute mineral particles derived from the
rocks of the district from which the collections were obtained. In one instance from
Ben Nevis there were two black spherules which approached in character those figured
on PI. XXIII. , but they were too minute to admit of any definite opinion being formed,
and the same was the case with one or two black spherules and crystalline flakes from the
collections at Bermuda, which resembled the magnetic spherules and the plates of the
crystalline spherules allied to the chondres, but here too the evidence was inconclusive.

If particles of extra-terrestrial origin be continually attracted to the surface of the
earth, which is in all probability the case, we should not expect them to fall more
abundantly at one part of the earth’s surface than at another. In atmospheric precipi-
tations, and on the surface of the continents, their recognition would necessarily be
difficult on account of their small size, the large amount of telluric matter associated
with them, and the mechanical actions to which they would be subjected. Those, how-
ever, falling upon the ocean would gradually sink to the bottom, and in those areas of
the ocean to which little or no detritus from the continents is carried, and in depths from
which all carbonate of lime organisms are removed, they would, from these very c on

336

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

ditions, accumulate and form a relatively larger proportion of the deposit than in other
regions where the accumulation is more rapid, or where they are submitted to the wear
and tear of mechanical forces. For all the reasons then that have been set forth in the
preceding pages, we appear justified in regarding the small black shining spherules with
metallic nuclei, as well as the chondritic spherules, discovered in deep-sea deposits as
extra-terrestrial bodies allied to meteorites, and in all probability thrown off by them
in their passage through the earth’s atmosphere.

CHAPTER VI.

CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FORMED IN SITU ON THE FLOOR OF THE OCEAN.

The organic remains met with in marine deposits, as well as the' mineral particles
derived directly from the crust of the earth and from extra-terrestrial sources, have been
fully described in the preceding chapters. We have now to direct attention to some
other substances in marine deposits, in the formation of which neither physiological nor
physical phenomena can be said to be dmectly concerned. In the production of the
substances to which w^e shall have to refer in this chapter chemical action plays the
principal role ; these substances indeed owe their origin to the reactions between sea-
water and the heterogeneous solid materials making up the bulk of marine deposits. On
account of the great variety in the composition of the deposits, and the varied conditions
under which the chemical changes take place, it is evident that the reactions resulting
iu the formation of these secondary substances are of a very complex nature. What
we here call chemical deposits are produced in situations rendering direct observation
impossible, and under conditions differiug widely from those obtaining where somewhat
similar products have been formed on terrestrial surfaces.

It has been recently stated that the chemical action of sea-water is less powerful than
that of pure water in bringing about the solution and destruction of silicates and other
minerals.^ However this may be, it is known as a matter of fact that mineral substances
are attacked by sea- water, and in the discussion of this subject it is important to remem-
ber the influence time may exercise in all changes at the bottom of the sea, as well as
the immense quantity of the solvent. The chemical products under consideration nearly
all originate in a sort of broth or ooze, in which the sea-water is but slowly renewed.
Many of them appear to be formed at the surface of the deposit, — at the line separating
the ooze from the superincumbent water, where oxidation takes place. In the deeper
layers of the deposit a reduction of the higher oxides frequently occurs, and at the
surface of the mud or ooze there are many living animals as well as the dead remains of
surface plants and animals. It must be admitted that the reactions referred to are
effected very slowly, although there is evidence that in special localities, and at certain
periods, some of them may be much accelerated.

It is not proposed to enter into any general considerations wdth reference to
such chemical reactions in sea- water, but in each particular case we will give

1 Thoulet, “Solubilite de divers mineraux dans les eaux de la mer,” Comptes Bendus, tom. cviii. p. 753, 1889.

(deep-sea deposits CHiLL. EXP. — 1891.) 43

338

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the interpretation that seems the most probable. As a general rule an attempt will be
made to explain the facts by reference to similar phenomena taking place on the land
surfaces, or in shallow water, which have been for a long time under the direct observa-
tion of geologists and chemists. In sea- water the sulphates are deoxidised by carbon and
hydrogen, — one of the greatest chemical changes which occurs in the sea ; in fresh water,
where sulphates are absent or present in small amount, this reaction cannot take place.
It is probable that the reactions follow a nearly similar order in the shallow waters of
the ocean and in the abysmal regions, but at the same time the intensity of these
reactions, and their subsequent results, may be considerably modified in those deep-
water deposits where there is a great pressure, an absence of mechanical action and of
solar rays.

Tlie chemical products under consideration will be discussed under the following heads :
— I. Clay; II. l\langanese Nodules ; III. Zeolites; IV. Phosphatic and other concretions.

I. Clay.

The fundamental basis of all clayey deposits, whether in geological formations or the
deposits of modern oceans, is the hydrated silicate of alumina — Al203,2Si02,2H20,
which is derived from the decomposition of all the aluminous silicates in rock masses
under the action of water, and especially of water containing carbonic acid. The silicates
of pota.sh, soda, lime, protoxides of iron and manganese are thus decomposed at ordinary
temperatures, and these silicates — the felspars, pyroxenes, amphiboles, for instance — also
contain more or less alumina and magnesia. The first-mentioned bases: — the potash,
.soda, lime, and protoxides of iron and manganese — are transformed into carbonates
and, dissohdng in the water, may be carried away in solution, silica being at the
same time set free ; the silicates of alumina and magnesia, being much less soluble,
remain behind as a residue, are transformed into hydrated silicates, and give rise
on the one hand to clay, and on the other to talc. As all the eruptive and meta-
morf)hic rocks are composed for the most part of aluminous silicates, they all undergo
these changes resulting in the production of hydrated silicate of alumina, and it follows
that these rocks and minerals are the original source of all the clayey material so vridely
distributed in recent and past geological formations.

Although hydrated silicate of alumina may occur, in nature, in a pure state in the
form of crj’stals, they arc exceedingly rare. It usually occurs in an amorphous condition
and mixed with many foreign substances. Even kaolin, which is usually regarded as
pure clay, always contains more or less debris derived from the rock from which it
originated. Kaolin, and clays a})proaching kaolin in composition, have always been
transported suspended in water from their place of origin, and thus when deposited may,
in sjKJcial circumstances, be freed from many of the extraneous particles with which they

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

339

were originally associated. Such pure clays are, however, relatively rare in nature, and they
do not occur as marine, or at all events deep-sea, deposits. The great majority of ordinary
clays contain a large number of impurities, and especially is this the case with all those
occurring in the deep-sea regions. These clays are fusible before the blowpipe. They are
coloured brown, yellow, or red by the oxides of iron and manganese, and, as we shall see,
these oxides may have been derived, as carbonates, from the same rocks as the clayey
matter, but have subsequently been deposited in the clays on oxidation.

The clays of marine deposits may, from the point of view of their origin, be divided
into two varieties ; first, those in which the clayey matter has been chiefly transported
by rivers from continental and other land surfaces, and second, those in which it has
principally been formed in situ from the decomposition of rocks and minerals scattered
over the bottom of the ocean. The former corresponds to the clayey matter in all
terrigenous deposits in close proximity to the land, while the latter corresponds
generally to the clayey matter in all truly pelagic deposits laid down towards the
central regions of the great ocean basins, but as we shall presently show there cannot
be such a strict separation between these two kinds of clay in the deep-sea deposits,
for the clay transported from land surfaces may contribute in some measure to the
formation of deposits far from coasts in the oceanic basins.

It has long been known that nearly aU the fine clayey and other matters, transported
by rivers into the ocean, fall to the bottom at no great distance from the coasts, owing
to the action of the salts contained in the sea-water. They there form, along with
mineral particles, the greater part of the detrital matters present in the terrigenous
deposits of the shallow-water and deep-sea zones. The clay in the Blue and Green Muds
and other terrigenous deposits near the coasts has thus been transported chiefly from the
land or from the shallow- water and littoral zones. The minerals and rocks making up
a part of these deposits may, it is true, yield clay by decomposition in situ, but the
amount thus formed appears generally to be much less than that transported by the
action of rivers, tides, waves, and currents.

Murray and Irvine have shown, by a series of experiments upon fine clay suspended
in sea-water of different salinities and temperatures, that while the great bulk of the clay
is precipitated in brackish water where the salinity only reaches between 1‘005 and I’OlO,
still a small residuum is held in suspension even in water with a high salinity. They
have also shown that temperature has a marked effect upon the amount held in suspension,
as well as upon the rate with which it is thrown down. At a temperature between
40° and 50° F., and a salinity of 1'027, 0’0064 grm. per litre of clay remained in
suspension at the end of 24 hours, while, under the same condition as to time, at a
temperature of 80° F., only 0‘0033 grm. remained in suspension. Again, at a tem-
perature between 40° and 50° F., O'OOIS grm. remained in suspension at the end of
106 hours, and at a temperature of 80°, only 0'0003 grm. at the end of 120 hours. By

340

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

operating upon very large samples of sea-water carefully collected from the central regions
of the Atlantic, Mediterranean, and Indian Ocean, they have shown that a small quantity
of mechanically-suspended hydrated silicate of alumina is always present in the water of
these regions.*

If these observations be confirmed by further investigations, it must be admitted that
a small quantity of clay can be transported to the central regions of the great ocean
basins, and, falling to the bottom, may there make up a part of Eed Clays and of the
clayey matter in pelagic deposits. The amount of clay thus transported must, however,
be very small, for otherwise it would mask the minute fragments of pumice, or the
organic remains, which there make uj) so large a part of the deposits.

In the deep-sea regions far from land the clay on the floor of the ocean appears, for
the most part, to arise from the decomposition in situ of water-borne pumice and other
volcanic rocks and minerals, which make up the principal inorganic constituents of the
deposits of these regions. The vitreous and vesicular nature, as well as the small dimen-
sions, of these volcanic fragments render them in a special manner liable to disintegration
and decomposition, with the production of clay ; especially is this the case with the basic
volcanic glasses. All the deep-sea clays contain a large number of minute glassy and
other mineral particles, and hence they fuse readily before the blowpipe into a black
magnetic bead. The amorphous material observed in these deposits is regarded as the
argillaceous matter; it presents essentially vague characters, resembles a colloid substance,
has no definite contours, is perfectly isotropic, is generally colourless, and forms a
gelatinous-like mass that connects and agglutinates the other materials in the clay or
mud. With these indefinite physical characters it becomes very difficult to estimate
even approximately the amount of pure amorphous argillaceous matter in the samples
of a marine deposit. A very small quantity of this slimy-like matter, however, may
give a distinctly clayey character to a calcareous or siliceous mud or ooze, especially when
the mineral particles in the deposit are of small dimensions.

The clayey matter of marine deposits must then be regarded as a chemical product
arising from the decomposition of the aluminous silicates composing the crust of the
earth, cxj)osed to the action of water, either on the dry land or at the bottom of the sea.
It may be formed in situ on the sea-bottom, and this is especially the case in pelagic
deposits, or the clayey matter may be transported from the land surfaces and coasts to
the ocean basins, and this is what especially takes place in terrigenous deposits. The
amount of clay varies according to the abundance of other substances in deposits, being
lejust in calcareous deposits like Coral lUuds and Pteropod and Globigerina Oozes, where
it Iwcomes masked by the accumulation of carbonate of lime, and greatest in Red Clays

• .Murray nn<l Ir\nne “On .Silica and the .Siliceoufl Remains of Organisms in Modern Seas,” Proc. Poy. Soc. Edin.^
vol. xviii. j»jt. 229-2.'iO, 1S91. Further experiments have shown that sea-water with a salinity of 1’02.5, after remaining
for over thirty <lays al>wdutely at rest, holds up in suspension finely-divided clay in amount equal to 625 tons in one
cuVdc mile of the water (J. M.).

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

341

and Blue Muds, the carbonate of lime shells being removed from the Bed Clays, and
masked in the Blue Muds by the abundance of detrital matter. A description of the
clayey materials in the different varieties of marine deposits has been given in Chapter
III. when discussing the several types of Pelagic and Terrigenous Deposits.

II. Manganese Nodules.

The hydrates of manganese^ along with ferric hydrate are among the most widely
distributed bodies in marine deposits, being especially abundant in those of the
abysmal regions. In the descriptions of the samples of the deposits from the various
stations of the Challenger Expedition, as well as when referring to the organic remains,
we have often had occasion to point out the presence of these oxides as colouring matters,
or as thin or thick coatings on shells. Corals, sharks’ teeth, bones, and fragments of rocks.
It may be said that manganese in this form exists in all deep-sea deposits, for rarely can
a large sample of any mud, clay, or ooze be examined with care without traces of the
oxides of this metal being discovered, either as coatings or minute grains. In some
regions of the ocean the Challenger discovered ferro-manganic concretions in great
abundance, the minute grains giving a dark chocolate colour to the deposit, while the
dredges and trawls yielded immense numbers of more or less circular nodules or botryoidal
masses of these oxides of large dimensions.

Mode of Occurrence. — To mention all the regions where manganese was observed
would take up too much space, but reference will now be made to those stations at which
it was found in greatest abundance or in some special form. Many of the remarkable and
characteristic concretionary shapes assumed by the ferro-manganic nodules are represented
in the Plates at the end of the volume, and these illustrations will be S23ecially referred to
in the following descriptions, in which the associations of the manganese nodules, and the
conditions under which they occur, at each locality will be pointed out with considerable
detail. In these descriptions we shall almost exclusively refer to specimens examined by
us, forming part of the collections brought home by the Challenger. When large hauls
of manganese nodules were obtained members of the expedition were, at the time, per-
mitted to retain specimens for their own use, so that in many instances the nodules, teeth,
bones, and rocks actually dredged were more numerous than here stated.

Atlantic Ocean (outward voyage).

Station 3, 1525 fathoms. — The dredge brought up several large flat pieces of rock,
consisting for the most part of peroxide of manganese. Some of these fragments were

^ In this chapter, and other parts of this work, the terms; manganese, hydroxides of manganese, hydrates of
manganese, peroxide of manganese, black oxide of manganese, are all used for the same black substance.

342

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

fully a foot in diameter, and had a thickness of several inches. The inferior surfaces were
irregular and earthy, while the upper surfaces were mammillated and covered with little
asperities, as is usually the case with the manganese nodules of the deep sea. The colour
of the broken surfiices was black with reddish layers, and when polished they in places
presented a massive appearance, with a dark lustrous aspect. The fragments were com-
posed of successive, more or less concentric, layers, and were evidently torn away from
very much larger masses or nodules by the action of the dredge ; a small portion of
one of the fragments is figured in PI. III. fig. 1.

Along with these manganese fragments were numerous branches of a Gorgonoid Coral
{Pleurocorallium johnsoni). In some instances the axis of the Coral was attached to the
manganese nodules ; at the ujjper right-hand side of PI. III. fig. 1 a portion of the base
of this Coral is seen to be attached to the nodule. All the Coral was dead, and in some
instances had a much decayed and corroded appearance, as shown in PI. III. fig. 2. The
whole surface of the branches was coated by a thin rind of peroxide of manganese,
sometimes about OT mm. in thickness, which cracked off easily on receiving a smart
blow. The axis of the Coral was sometimes 2 cm. in diameter, was generally pure white,
and took on a high polish ; it still retained a considerable quantity of organic matter,
and contained 6 per cent, of carbonate of magnesia. In some instances the interior was
dull white and largely impregnated with manganese following the minute structure of the
branches, thus producing alternate zones of black and white. A portion of one of the
smaller branches is represented in PL III. fig. 3, to which, at the lower part of the
figure, a valve of Lepas is seen cemented to the branch of Coral by means of the man-
ganese depositions. A large living siliceous Sponge [Poliopogon amadou) was attached
to the branches of this dead Coral, along with other living animals. It is not impossible
that the Coral may have lived at the depth from which it was dredged, but if the bottom
has not sunk the other conditions of the locality appear to have changed since the time
when the Coral lived, otherwise it is difficult to account for the fact that all the Coral
obtained here, and at two neighbouring stations, was dead. From the large amount of
organic matter in the axis of the Coral, it cannot be regarded as fossil, but the carbonate
of magnesia indicates that it is, at least, very old.

Station 16, 2435 fathoms. — Three or four manganese nodules, some of them nearly
an inch in diameter, were obtained in the dredge. They are round, with a mammillated
surface ; one of them had a palagonitic nucleus. Fragments of palagonite were also
present in the deposit at this station, as well as at Station 12, 2025 fathoms. Along
witli the nodules there were two or three sharks’ teeth and valves of Scalpellum thinly
coatc<l with manganese.

Stiitiou 61, 2850 fathoms. — In the trawl wore a piece of pumice, about 4 cm. in
length, and several concretionary lumps of tufa, the largest about 7 cm. in length.
The fragments of tufa are quite unlike the deposit, and have a slight coating of

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

343

manganese on the surface, to which specimens of Scalpellum were attached. The
fragments are whitish or yellowish, ellipsoidal, more or less flattened, and divide into
parallel layers. Some of the layers contain larger fragments of minerals than others,
but generally the layers are very fine grained. The mass of the concretions has a soft
and earthy appearance, can be scratched with the nail, and easily broken ; the fragments
are more or less argillaceous, and are traversed in many directions by perforations of
Annelids or Sponges. The surfaces are also frequently furrowed by striae and worm
tracks. Examined by the microscope with transmitted light, they are seen to consist
largely of a great many volcanic minerals cemented by argillaceous matter ; among the
minerals are plagioclases, fragments of hornblende, magnetic iron, and rarely some
glauconite-like grains.

In addition to these concretions were one or two small rounded manganese nodules,
with concentric layers, and a pale earthy nucleus. These were not preserved in the
collection brought home.

Station 71, 1675 fathoms. — In the trawl were several aggregations of the ooze,
3 to 4 cm. in diameter, traversed by worm-tubes, which were lined with a deposit of
manganese. There was also a fragment of compact volcanic rock, more or less rounded,
about 7 cm. in longest diameter ; it had a slight deposit of manganese over the whole
surface, to which a Serpula-tuho, was attached.

Station 85, 1125 fathoms. — There were several large fragments of a dead Gorgonoid
Coral, coated with manganese, similar in every respect to that described from Station 3,
also some fragments of volcanic rock, about 1 cm, in diameter, coated with depositions
of manganese.

Station 87, 1675 fathoms. — Several pieces of a Gorgonoid Coral, similar to the
above, were taken in the dredge and sounding tube.

Station 131, 2275 fathoms, — The trawl brought up the earbone of a Ziphius} to
which a polyp was attached, and a piece of pumice, 3 to 4 cm. in diameter, with an
egg-capsule of a Mollusc attached to it. Both the earbone and pumice were coated with
manganese. The pumice is rounded, white coloured, very fibrous, and contains magnetite
and small crystals of hornblende.

Southern Indian and Antarctic Oceans.

Station 143, 1900 fathoms. — The phosphatic nodules from this station had a slight
coating of manganese (see description of phosphatic concretions).

Station 147, 1600 fathoms. — Several basaltic lapilli, covered and cemented by man-
ganese, were obtained in the trawl.

^ See Zool. Chall. Exp., part iv. p. 39, pi. ii. fig. 10.

344

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Statiou 157, 1950 fathoms. — Among the stones dredged at this station were numerous
glaciated fragments, the largest weighing over 20 kilogrammes. Some of them were
only partially imbedded in the Diatom Ooze, the depth to which they were imbedded
being marked by a sharp line. The portions above the surface of the deposit had a slight
coating of the black oxide of manganese, and this substance was most abundant just at
the line marking the separation between the deposit and the superincumbent water. In
the same deposit some fragments of Hexactinellid spicules had a rather thick coating of
manganese peroxide.^

Station 160, 2600 fathoms. — The trawl at this station contained about 16 litres of
manganese nodules, pumice stones, earbones of Cetaceans, and sharks’ teeth. With
respect to their form the nodules may be arranged into three groups : first, more or less
pyramidal or irregularly grape-shaped ; second, spheroidal or ellipsoidal ; third, flattened,
mammillated, and irregular in form. A typical example of the first group is represented,
natural size, in PI. II. fig. 3. It measures about 5 cm. in longest diameter ; its funda-
mental form may be compared to a triangular wedge, with a curved surface at the superior
part. The surface is entirely mammillated, but the rounded rugosities are not very pro-
nounced, being much softened down, and but slightly projecting, with a diameter of
5 to 6 mm. Upon one face the mammillae are much more abundant than on the other.
Animals are usually attached to the smoother face, and we are inclined to believe that
this face projected above the surface of the deposit, while the rougher one was imbedded
in the clay. The figure represents the smoother face of this nodule, and shows more
or less pronounced reliefs in two directions, following which the fracture usually takes
i»lace with the greatest facility. The first is parallel to the lateral edges of the wedge
along the radii ; the second is more or less parallel to the superior surface of the figure,
and follows a curved direction, answering to the disposition of the layers in the interior
as represented in fig. 3a, showing a section of a nodule similar to that of fig. 3. The first
direction answers to the fracture running from the periphery to the inferior point of the
wedge. This form may indeed be compared to a fragment of a more or less regular
.spherical body, where the fractures had taken* place along the radii, thus leaving a
triangular solid terminated in one aspect by the primitive peripheral face. Fig. 3a
shows the internal structure of this type of nodule, and it will be observed that parallel to
the curved superior surface there are alternating zones, sometimes yellowish white, some-
times black-brown, the hist having the character of earthy manganese. These internal
curved bands follow very regularly the external curved surface, and liave a thickness of
about 2 mm. Notwithstanding their homogeneous appearance, microscopic examination
shows that the light-coloured bands are traver-sed by fine arborescences or dendrites of
manganese. The existence of these dendrites is also shown by attacking the nodule
with hydrochloric acid, and examining the skeleton wdtli a lens ; a portion of a nodule so

* Murray, Scot. Ueogr. Maij., vol.,v. p. 427, 1889.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

345

treated is represented in fig. 36.^ This examination shows likewise that the yellowish
white matter extends into and across the dark bands. It is also to be noted, as seen in
fig. 3a, that these alternate bands are not continued quite to the edge of the section, but
are surrounded by a black layer in which no alternation of light and dark bands is at once
visible, although when a surface of the section is demanganesed, alternating bands may
be distinguished, the lines being very fine. This external black layer is much more
compact than the internal portions of the nodule, and follows perfectly the contours of
the triangular wedge, covering the whole of the periphery. The internal parts are
much more friable and porous than the external layer, and the separation between them
is very well marked and rather sharp. Sometimes there is an interruption of continuity
between the internal concentric alternating layers, which causes this variety to break into
coatings and peel like an onion more easily than the spherical variety. There is no
central nucleus in this pyramidal variety, unless the whole interior be regarded as a
nucleus surrounded by the layers forming the black border. There were some twenty
or tlfirty nodules of this variety, but large numbers, although presenting certain analogies
with these typical forms, are much more irregular.

Of the nodules which we would designate as grape-shaped, it is impossible to give a
morphological description. This arises from the fact that the mammillae are superposed
the one on the other, so as to recall a bunch of grapes, or they may present all the
irregularities of certain volcanic scoriae. The majority of these irregular forms, however,
have internal alternating bands, more or less resembling those shown in fig. 3a. The
peculiarities of this pyramidal and irregular variety of nodules might be explained by
supposing the central parts with the alternating bands to have once formed parts of a
larger nodule, which had been broken up along the radii, and these broken fragments
to have been subsequently surrounded by the deposition of the more compact external
layers.

There were about fifteen nodules belonging to the second, spherical or ellipsoidal,
variety, resembling in form the nodule figured on PI. IV. fig. 8 from Station 276. They
have a diameter of 1 to 5 cm., are much less mammillated than the irregular varieties,
and consequently preserve their spherical form more or less perfectly. They have a fine
concentric structure, like that represented in PI. IX. fig. 7, showing a section of a nodule
from Station 252. The zones surround a central nucleus of volcanic glass, palagonite,
shark’s tooth, or bone ; two palagonite nuclei are shown in PI. XVI. fig. 2 and PI. XVII.
fig. 3. Sometimes, however, there is no apparent nucleus. These nodules are more
compact, heavier, and break less easily than the preceding variety. Their fractures are,
however, very well defined, and always follow the rays and concentric layers. They
take a beautiful metallic polish, and on the polished surface the fine concentric arrange-

1 The dendritic arrangement of the manganese is well seen in the thin sections of the nodules under the micro-
scope, as shown in PI. XXVIII. figs. 1, 2, 4, 5.

(peep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

44

34G

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

incut of the nodule is well seen. One of these nodules, about 4 cm. in diameter, had
attached to it two Ascidians and a Brachiopod (see Fig. 34), so that a portion of the
nodule probably projected above the mud when at the bottom.

A great many nodules belonging to the third, flattened, mammillated, or irregular
variety were present. They vary greatly in size, contour, and internal structure, some
resembling the first, others the second, varieties above described. Those resembling the

first variety are mammillated on the exterior, while the
interior is friable, sometimes mottled, or with ill-defined
black and whitish bands, but not concentric. Those re-
sembling the second variety are less mammillated, are
generally compact throughout, with fine concentric layers,
and, when cut in section and rubbed with a chamois
leather, give a fine black shining submetallic surface.
Sometimes they have a volcanic fragment, or a fragment
of bone, for a nucleus, and then the external form of the
Fio. 34.— Manganese Nodule with two Tuni- nodule resembles closely the shape of the enclosed frag-

catea (Styda squamosa and Styela bythia) _ i i i i i

and a Brachiopod attached. Station 160, ment. Frequently the nucleus appears to be pseudo-

2600 fathoms. Southern Indian Ocean. j^oT^hosed by manganese, especiaUy when it consisted of

carbonate or phosphate of lime. Sharks’ teeth and earbones of Cetaceans also give a
form to the nodules when forming the nuclei.

Two or three nodules, or fragments of nodules, merit a special reference. They
appear to be fragments of the spherical variety, and we have every reason to believe that
the nodules of which they once formed part were broken while yet at the bottom of the
sea. The structure and angular form, as well as the radial and concentric fractures, of
one piece, leave no doubt that it once formed part of a large spherical nodule. The
surfaces of the broken part are covered with fine rugosities, indicating a deposition of
manganese over the fragment after its separation from the original nodule, and upon
these same surfaces of fracture two Brachiopods and a Hydroid have subsequently attached
themselves. Another and smaller fragment, with concentric structure, in which a portion
of the palagonitic nucleus is still to be observed, is wedge-shaped, and has been formed
by a fracture following the direction of the rays of the original nodule. That the nodule
had been broken while yet at the bottom of the sea is proved by the fact that the fragment
is entirely surrounded by a new concentric deposit of manganese about 0‘5 mm. in
thicknes.s. This fragment must then be regarded as having been separated from the
original nodule at the bottom, and to have subsequently become the nucleus of a new
nodule.

About twelve of the nodules contained nuclei of basic volcanic glass or of palagonite.
In some the unaltered gla.ss was surrounded by coloured bauds of palagonite or altered
material, similar to the sjjccimen represented in Bl. XIX. fig. 3 from Station 293. In

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

347

other cases the whole of the glass had been converted into palagonite, and these nuclei,
when freshly taken from the sea, might be cut with a knife like new cheese. In other
cases, again, all that remained of the nucleus was a patch of white matter, soft to the touch,
easily cut with a knife, and having an argillaceous aspect, resembling some of the
outer palagonitic zones of other nuclei. Again, in some of the nodules all trace of the
nucleus seems to have disappeared, but the centre is composed of very compact, black,
shining, highly-oxidised manganese. This centre recalls, by its form and aspect, a
fragment of volcanic glass, which, in the first instance, had become transformed into
palagonitic material, and subsequently a replacement of palagonite by manganese had
taken place. There is nothing improbable in this supposition, when we remember the
pseudomorphism of hydroxide of manganese upon calcite, fluorite, pharmacosiderite, &c.

The Carcharodon and Lamna teeth, as well as their broken fragments, and the
earbones and other bones of Cetaceans, were sometimes covered with but a slight coating
of manganese ; at other times they were surrounded by concentric layers of manganese
fully 1 cm. in thickness. One of the deeply embedded earbones is shown in Id. VIII.
fig. 11, which represents in section a tympanic bulla of Mesoplodon The earbone

determines the external form of the nodule ; the manganese enveloping the bone breaks
up radially and concentrically, and can be easily detached, the layers presenting all the
physical and microscopical characters already described. The bone itself is penetrated
by dendritic ramifications of manganese, and some portions of the substance of the bone
appear to have been wholly removed. The specimen represented in PI. VIII. fig. 10
resembles the petrous bone of a Glohiocephadus. It has but a slight coating of oxides of
manganese and iron, but in some places it is much penetrated by dendrites of those sub-
stances. A large compact fragment of bone, about the size of a cricket- ball, appears to
have been the earbone of a Balaenid or Balaenopterid. The external form of the bone has,
however, been quite lost ; much of the substance seems to have been removed, and dendritic
ramifications of manganese penetrate the surface in all directions. The interior is very
compact, the bluish colour, cherty aspect, and the fracture, recalling what is observed in
some fossil phosphates ; it has not, however, the hardness of chert, nor any of its physical
properties, but merely presents a strong analogy of aspect. The microscopic structure is
identical with that of recent earbones, but most of the organic matter seems to have
been removed.

In many nodules a structure was observed indicating that the nuclei were originally
portions of bone, which have subsequently been entirely removed, and replaced by
manganese depositions.

Among the nodules were over a dozen rounded pieces of pumice, from 0‘5 to 2‘5 cm.
in diameter ; some belong to the felspathic, and others to the basic, varieties. While the
interior of these fragments presented a fresh aspect, the surface to the depth of 1 or 2 mm.
had undergone profound alteration. At the periphery the pumice is transformed into

H48

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

earthy matter of a yellowish brown colour, mixed with depositions of the oxides of iron
and manganese. Two ice-borne fragments of granite, covered with manganese, are noted
as having been obtained at this station, but these have not been preserved in the
collections.

Pacific Ocean.

Station 175, 1350 fathoms. — The trawl brought up a branch of a tree and a large
number of fragments of pumice. The pumice fragments vary much in size, the largest
being 6 to 8 cm. in diameter. They had all undergone considerable alteration, the
surfaces being covered with hydroxides of iron and manganese. The fragments effer-
vesced when treated with acid, owing to the presence of Foraminifera shells, the deposit
having infiltrated in some cases into the pores, as well as the oxides of iron and manganese.
Most of the fragments may be referred to augite-andesite, while others belong to the basic
series and have rounded pores. In thin sections under the microscope it can be seen
tliat in the external altered zones the manganese has been introduced following exactly
the contours of the scoriaceous rock. It might be said that a replacement of the
pumice had taken place, but in a certain sense it is rather an impregnation or mould-
ing. This structure, however, apparently reappears in many of the manganese nodules
at other stations, where all trace of the pumice has disappeared, but where, from all
appearances, the nodules were originally formed around fragments similar to those above
described.

Station 176, 1450 fathoms. — The sounding at this station seemed to indicate that
there was a large amount of manganese in the deposit, associated with numerous fragments
of pumice. Many of the Foraminifera were covered with minute grains of the peroxide
of manganese, while others were filled and coated with a red-brown silicate, containing a
considerable quantity of manganese.

Station 181, 2440 fathoms; Station 184, 1400 fathoms. — The trawl brought up from
these stations pumice stones similar to those described from Station 175, although the
alteration in most ca.ses was not so far advanced.

Station 213, 2050 fathoms. — There came up in the trawl several hardened pieces of
mud or clay of a slate colour, in which were embedded pieces of wood. These hardened
lumps were made up of the same materials as the deposit procured in the sounding tube,
but were traversed by, and in some places coated with, deposits of manganese ; apparently
the lumps came from a deeper layer than that usually procured in the sounding tube.
The trawl may have dragged them up along with the remains of a water-logged tree.

Station 215, 2550 fathoms. — The trawl contained several pumice stones coated with
manganese, all of them less than 4 cm. in diameter.

Station 216a, 2000 fathoms. — A large number of pumice stones, varying from the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

849

size of a hen’s egg to that of a marble, was in the trawl. The surfaces of most of these
were coated with peroxide of manganese, and to the upper portions there were attached
Brachiopods, Hydroids, and Foraminifera.

Station 225, 4475 fathoms. — The sounding at this station indicated a considerable
quantity of manganese, the sample of the deposit containing a very large number of
grains of the black oxide of manganese, many of them of considerable size.

Station 226, 2300 fathoms. — There was over a litre of pumice stones in the trawl, all
coated by layers of manganese.

Station 227, 2475 fathoms. — The sounding at this station indicated a large quantity of
manganese.

Station 230, 2425 fathoms. — More than a dozen rolled pumice fragments, about the
size of a hen’s egg, covered with deposits of manganese, to one of which was attached a
small Brachiopod, were collected.

Station 236a, 420 fathoms. — Several very large hardened pieces of the bottom, per-
forated by worms, whose tracks were frequently coated with manganese, were in the
dredge.

Station 237, 1875 fathoms. — There were several large, very hard and compact, blocks
of the deposit. Black coatings of manganese lined the surfaces of the worm-tubes which
perforated the blocks. Several pieces of pumice had likewise on some portions of their
surfaces deposits of manganese.

Station 241, 2300 fathoms. — Large numbers of pumice stones of all sizes, the
majority covered with deposits of peroxide of manganese, were obtained. Two of
these are represented in PL I. figs 7 and 8. Fig. 7 shows an irregular, white coloured
fragment of liparitic pumice, the outer parts of which have been transformed into earthy
matter, while in many of the fissures there are considerable deposits of peroxide of
manganese, and in some parts concentric zones of manganese may be observed. Fig. 8
shows a black-brown scoriaceous fragment of basaltic pumice, which has an areolar rather
than a fibrous structure, and the rounded vesicles are frequently filled with infiltrated
clay, giving the fragment an oolitic appearance ; crystals of plagioclase, 4 to 6 mm. in
diameter, can be observed at the surface by the naked eye.

Station 242, 2575 fathoms. — There were several manganese nodules, the largest a
little over 1 cm. in diameter, with nuclei of pumice.

Station 244, 2900 fathoms. — The bag of the trawl contained much clay and many
pumice stones or manganese nodules, together with two sharks’ teeth. The nodules in
this instance all consisted of pumice stones, with deposits of manganese on the outside.

Station 246, 2050 fathoms. — In the trawl were procured several hundred rounded
fragments of pumice. About forty of the largest had a diameter of about 30 cm.,
a large number about 2 cm., while in the washings of the ooze there were numerous
fragments down to the minutest dimensions. Most of them were covered with deposits

350

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of mangauesc, and to the outer surfaces were attached Ascidians, Brachiopods, Hydroids,
aud Rhizopods. The appearance of these fragments of pumice is represented in PL I.
figs. 1-4. Fig. 1 shows (one-fourth natural size) a characteristic specimen of the light,
porous, filamentous variety of liparitic pumice ; the form is rounded or egg-shaped, many
of the pores and areolar spaces are filled with the deposit, and the whole surface of the
fragment has undergone a slight alteration into a clayey or earthy substance. A few
crystals are visible to the naked eye projecting from the surface, and large portions of
the surface are discoloured by the peroxide of manganese. Fig. 2 represents a rounded
specimen (natural size) of the same variety as the preceding, to which several deep-sea
organisms are attached. The surface is coloured brownish or black by the hydrated
oxides of manganese and iron. Fig. 3 exhibits a similar specimen, with a segment
removed to show the discoloured altered zone towards the periphery, and the light-
coloured, less altered, internal parts. Fig. 4 represents a similar and smaller specimen
cut in section to show the discoloured altered zone towards the periphery.

Station 248, 2900 fathoms. — The trawl contained a large number of manganese
nodules and many pumice stones, together with a Lamna tooth, 2 cm. in length, and
many other sharks’ teeth of smaller size. Some of the pumice stones had but a slight
coating of manganese, while others were surrounded by concentric layers of this substance
over 9 cm, in thickness. Some of the manganese nodules were 2 to 3 inches in diameter,
composed almost entirely of dense, black, concentric layers of manganese, surrounding one
or more small nuclei. PI. II. fig. 1 represents one of the most characteristic, as well as
one of the most abundant, forms of nodule at this station, about thirty nodules more or
less resembling this one in shape and in size being procured. The general form is
round ; the mammillae are not prominent, but run the one into the other without forming
marked reliefs. Two surfaces of these nodules present a marked difference of aspect ; the
inferior surface, which we believe to have rested in or on the clay, is represented in the
figure, and is seen to be covered with an immense number of little rugosities, or rounded
points, about 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, and the same in height ; these asperities, being
scattered over the whole of the surface, render the nodule rough to the touch and some-
what like shagreen in appearance. On the other, or superior, surface of the nodule, which
appears to have projected above the surface of the clay, the asperities are not nearly so
numerous, and the mammillae are smoother, larger, and less pronounced than on the
surface here represented. PI. IX. fig. 4 shows the internal structure of these large
round nodules, the left half of the figure giving the appearance of a nodule when cut in
section and polished, the right half showing a similar surface after the manganese has
Ijccn removed by steeping it for some time in strong hydrochloric acid. In both these
nodules the nuclei may be referred to fragments of pumice which have undergone profound
alteration. Around these nuclei undulate fine alternating zones of manganese peroxide,
sej)anited by other lighter coloured zones in which this material is less abundant. These

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

351

alternating zones give to the nodule a well-marked concretionary and shelly structure.
What would appear to have been the original nucleus of pumice has likewise assumed a
concentric arrangement. Two processes probably took place : the one a deposition of
manganese layers on the outside in successive bands, and a simultaneous alteration of the
nucleus, which likewise produced a concentric arrangement. The external zones of the
nodule are not so dark coloured as those towards the centre, and the fine, black, undu-
lating, concretionary lines are less numerous, but the whole face of a nodule like this one
takes on a beautiful, black, metallic lustre when polished with the hand or with a piece
of cloth. The demanganesed portion represented in the right half of the figure is of a
whitish colour, and easily pulverised into an impalpable powder. The dark shaded
portions in the left-hand figure represent the zones in which the manganese is most
abundant, and these appear on the right-hand figure as empty spaces on the surface
treated with concentrated hydrochloric acid. PI. II. fig. 4 represents another of these
nodules in section (natural size). In this case there are several nuclei, all probably highly
altered fragments of pumice, surrounded by concentric layers of manganese, and the whole
cemented into one large nodule. This figure shows again the concretionary and shelly struc-
ture, the nodule frequently breaking up into successive scales like an onion. PI. II. fig. 2
represents still another nodule from this station, the central parts of which are occupied
by a siliceous Sponge {Farrea). Although in some places portions of the skeleton appear
to have been removed in solution, still on the whole it is very well preserved ; it is every-
where surrounded by the manganese depositions, and the manganese has even penetrated
into the canals of the spicules. In the stalk-like portion at the lower part of the figure
there were numerous Sponge spicules. Fig. 2a represents a magnified portion of the
Sponge skeleton, which retains its vitreous and brilliant appearance. Among these large
rounded nodules there were several tube-like bodies composed of manganese, 4 to 5 cm.
in length and 1 cm. in diameter, with a hollow centre in which were many spicules of
sDiceous Sponges. PI. I. figs. 5 and 6 represent (natural size) the appearance of a good
many nodules from this station. The nuclei consist of pumice, much decomposed, espe-
cially on the surface in contact with the enveloping layers of manganese, which vary from
a millimetre to several centimetres in thickness. In fig. 5 the pumice at the centre of
the fragment is white, and retains nearly all its characters, but close to the manganese
layers decomposition is much more advanced and it assumes a brown colour. When
examined under the microscope with reflected light, the pores of the pumice are seen to
be filled with an earthy matter, which forms casts of the little vesicles. They do not
disaggregate under the action of hydrochloric acid, but simply undergo discoloration ;
sometimes these granules give a black cross with polarised light, in fact they have a
great resemblance to certain casts of Foraminifera observed at Station 176, 1450 fathoms,
South Pacific. In fig. 6 the pumice has undergone greater alteration than in the specimen
represented in fig. 5, and is surrounded with a thicker deposit of manganese.

352

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

The nucleus of one nodule broke down into a floury material, which under the micro-
scope seemed to be composed of a large number of prismatic crystals belonging to the
monocliuic system. Besides the larger nodules to which we have referred, there was a
considerable number of smaller ones varying from 0’5 to 2 cm. in diameter, almost all
formed round minute fragments of pumice. Frequently numbers of these were cemented
together by the manganese, and appeared to l)e in the process of formation into larger
nodules.

Station 252, 2740 flithoms. — The trawl brought up many hundreds of manganese
nodules along with some rounded fragments of pumice ; there was no clay mixed with
these nodules, having apparently been all washed away as the trawl was hauled up
through the water. The largest nodules were about the size of cricket balls ; they were
more or less round or ellipsoidal, and when rolled on the deck they looked like a pile of
dirty potatoes. PI. III. fig. 5 represents (natural size and in section) the prevailing
form, size, and structure of the nodules from this station. Three zones may be distin-
guished in the figure : — (a) The elongated yellowish white centre or nucleus penetrated
by dendrites of manganese ; it is hard and compact, and rather sharply separated from
the dark layers which surround it. It may be observed that the elongated form of the
nucleus appears to be the cause of the ellipsoidal form of the nodule, the nearly spherical
nodules having a round nucleus, (b) The zone of manganese immediately surrounding
the nucleus has a thickness of about 1 cm., and in it no concentric arrangement can be
observed. This intermediate zone is generally terminated externally by a band of more
compact manganese, sejDarating it in a manner from the more external layers, and appears,
for many reasons, to have formed part of the original nucleus, which may possibly
have been a fragment of pumice. There is almost always an interruption of continuity
between the intermediate and outer zones, accompanied by a layer of light brown clay or
mud. (c) In the outer zone there is a distinct concentric structure, determined by small
alternate layers of manganese and clayey matter ; these layers have each a thickness of
about 1 mm., and the depth of the whole zone is about 7 mm. The manganese in tliis
zone is purer than in the others, and on a polished surface it has a semi-metallic lustre.
PI. IX. fig. 7 represents a section of one of the round nodules. The manganese has here
been removed by placing the face of the section in strong cold hydrochloric acid ; in this
way a clayey skeleton is obtained showing distinctly the structure of the nodule. The
three zones indicated al)ove may again be observed ; the nucleus, however, is small,
having a diameter of only 2 mm. This is surrounded by an area showing no concentri*
arrangement, then follows the outer zone with concentric layers. Fig. 7a represents a
portion of the outer zone (c) magnified 25 diameters. The manganese has been removed
and the empty spaces indicate the positions occupied by the manganese, which had a
dendritic arrangement throughout the earthy or clayey matter. This clayey skeleton is
fine grained, and is with difficulty held together. It may be remarked that the outer

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

853

layers of the external zone (c), with a distinct concentric arrangement, have a very con-
stant thickness of about 7 mm. for the majority of the nodules from this station, while
the inner zones are variable in thickness. On the fracture of these nodules by a blow,
they separated into large concentric scales. PI. III. fig. 5 represents (natural size) a
nodule (7x7x5 cm.) broken to show the nucleus, which in this case is a large Car-
charodon tooth, about 4 cm. in its greatest length ; the tooth is surrounded by concentric
layers of manganese 1‘5 cm. in depth, and the whole nodule has roughly the form of the
tooth. The tooth is black and shining, and is thoroughly impregnated with manganese ;
the vaso-dentine has entirely disappeared from the centre, the hard dentine of the outer
surface alone remaining. There were three or four other nodules with sharks’ teeth
{Oxyrhina and Lamna) occupying the centres. PI. IV. fig. 1 represents the external
form and aspect of a typical nodule from this station. The mammillae vary much in
size, and are applied against and pass into each other without any very marked outlines ;
each mammilla corresponds to a concretionary centre, and, when cut into, these parasitic
concretions are found to be pieces of more or less altered pumice or small sharks’ teeth.
Among the nodules were one or two that appear to have been broken while yet at
the bottom of the ocean, and these fragments have subsequently formed the nuclei of
other nodules. In some eases small fragments of palagonite are found in the centres of
the nodules. The most frequent nucleus, however, is a hard white or yellowish substance,
which, when examined in thin slices, is slightly transparent, but does not show any
special structure to indicate its origin. In the fundamental mass little prismatic bodies
are seen, but they have no characters which permit them to be referred to any mineral
species. The fundamental mass appears to be composed of extremely fine grains, and
sometimes there may be observed among these opaque points of manganese or fragments
of sharks’ teeth ; between crossed nicols the mass behaves like an isotropic body, only
some grains show, sporadically, birefrangence. When these nodules are broken down,
crystals of hornblende, felspar, and magnetite may be extracted from the mass, yet it is
extremely rare to observe these minerals in the microscopic sections. Among the mag-
netic particles are also metallic spherules of cosmic origin. Between twenty and thirty
pieces of pumice were among the manganese nodules ; these were either highly altered
at the surface or surrounded with a coating of manganese 0'5 cm. in thickness.

It may be noticed that an analysis of the clay brought up in the sounding tube
yielded only traces of manganese ; the trawl, however, here yielded one of the largest
hauls of manganese nodules taken during the cruise. It would appear as if the trawl had
been dragged over a considerable surface of the deposit, the nodules being retained by
the net while the clay in which they were imbedded was washed away. If this be the
correct interpretation it is quite possible that the nodules are but sparsely scattered
throughout the deposit, and that they had segregated nearly all the manganese from the
clay. The quantity of manganese in the clay in which the nodules were imbedded in
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 45

3o4

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

auy case was very small compared with the larger indications in the clays at other
stations where the deposit is of a dark chocolate colour. The surfaces of many of the
nodules were covered with Rhizopod tubes and the stolons of Hydroids.

Station 253, 3125 fathoms. — The small dredge, as well as the tow-nets attached to it,
contained clay and manganese nodules. One of the nodules was of large size, and flat or
slab-like in form. It measured 31 x 20 x 6 cm. ; a fourth part of this nodule is shown in
PI. IX. fig. 1. There was a great difference in appearance between the upper and lower
surfaces ; the lower surface, that which rested on the deposit, or was immersed in it, is
very rough and uneven, consisting of numerous closely-set mammillae ; these mammillae
are more numerous near the outer edges of the block, and the whole under surface has a
scoriaceous aspect. The upper surface, on the other hand, has relatively few mammillae,
and these are smooth, rounded, and softened, when compared with those of the under
surface. Small pieces of pumice appear to have fallen on the upper surface of this block,
and to have been cemented to the upper surface of the nodule by subsequent depositions
of peroxide of manganese. In the same way a Nodosarian Foraminifer and worm-tubes,
that lived attached to the upper surface, have become imbedded by the successive additions
of manganese. Attached at different parts of the surface of this nodule were four living
specimens of a Hydroid (Stephanoseyphus), a Tubularian, two small Aetinians, a Serpu-
larian, two Polyzoons, and the whole surface had a reticulated appearance from the
presence of Rhizopod tubes or the stolons of the Hydroids. An Annelid with a muddy
tube was attached to the under surface. Fig. la shows a portion of a section of this
nodule, from which the manganese has been removed to show its structure. The whitish
coloured irregular nueleus is surmounted by successive layers of manganese 3 to 4 cm. in
thickness, while beneath this nucleus the layers are only about 1 cm. in thickness. It will
be observed that many of the layers above the nucleus terminate rather abruptly towards
the periphery, which structure seems to suggest that this nodule was once a part of a larger
ma.ss that had subsequently been fractured and surrounded by the external layers.
The nucleus is irregular and of an elongated form, and in its centre are hollow spaces
filled with clay ; it is very hard and compact, but can be scratched with a knife. When
examined in thin slices this nucleus is yellowish and finely granular, the grains being
about O'OOl mm. in diameter. The whole mass is streaked with colourless lines,
resembling in some respects certain microliths ; it is isotropic, some colourless fragments
being birefrangent ; it did not present cleavages nor crystallographic contours. Two or
three fragments of felspar and some elongated fragments, which appear to be mica,
were observed, as well as some prismatic sections of zeolites. The nucleus is penetrated
by dendrites of manganese in many directions. In all probability this nodule projected
about an inch above the general level of the deposit when at the bottom of the ocean.

In addition to this large nodule was another with a diameter of 8 to 9 cm., re-
sembling in many respects the nodules dredged at Station 252. The mammillae are.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

355

however, more separated, and the surface has a more rugged appearance. The nucleus of
this mass had probably originally been a fragment of pumice. The dredge and tow-
nets contained about twenty fragments of pumice, all rounded, and from 0’5 to 2 cm.
in diameter. Their surfaces were coated with manganese, and in some instances the
fragments were cemented together by the manganese.

Station 254, 3025 fathoms. — One manganese nodule, about inches in diameter?
was procured in the water-bottle, and in the sample of the deposit from the sounding
tube there were numerous black grains of manganese.

Station 256, 2950 fathoms. — A few manganese nodules, sharks’ teeth, and pumice
fragments were obtained in the clay from the dredge. In some instances the sharks’
teeth had but a slight coating of manganese, and in others they were surrounded by con-
centric layers nearly 1 cm. in thickness. One nodule had a nucleus of bone, but most of
the others had apparently formed around pumice.

Station 258, 2775 fathoms. — Two small nodules came up, adhering with some clay to
the under surface of the water-bottle, and in the specimen of clay obtained by the sound-
ing tube were a good many manganese particles.

Station 264, 3000 fathoms. — The trawl brought up seven or eight small manganese
nodules and hardened pieces of the deposit, frequently traversed in every direction by
worm-tubes and coated with manganese. One or two of the nodules had palagonitic
nuclei.

Station 265, 2900 fathoms. — The dredge and tow-nets brought up a large quantity
of Radiolarian Ooze of a dark colour. Almost the whole of this ooze passed through the
finest sieves, but in the siftings were several pieces of pumice, and one small manganese
nodule about 2 cm. in diameter. The nodule had a rugged exterior ; the nucleus con-
sisted of a yellowish homogeneous substance, penetrated in all directions by dendrites of
manganese. Under the microscope this nucleus appeared finely granular, and contained
many Eadiolarian skeletons, but no crystalline particles were observed. This nucleus
was probably an agglomerated portion of the deposit.

Station 272, 2600 fathoms. — The trawl and attached tow-nets brought up some
Radiolarian Ooze, in which was a small piece of basic pumice, and two or three small
manganese nodules ; in some of the nodules the nuclei were composed of pumice, while
in others no nucleus could be recognised.

Station 274, 2750 fathoms. — The trawl and attached tow-nets brought up a quantity
of chocolate-coloured ooze, and over a peck (9 litres) of manganese nodules, earbones of
Cetaceans, sharks’ teeth, and pumice fragments. The manganese nodules were ova],
flattened, or somewhat kidney-shaped, the largest specimens measuring 10x7x4 cm.
PI. IV. fig. 2 represents a typical specimen ; there were about one hundred more or less
resembling this one in form and appearance. These nodules are heavier and more massive
than the generality of those procured at other stations, and they have almost all the same

356

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

shape aiul internal structure. Some of the nodules appear to have been broken in situ,
and a deposit of manganese to have subsequently taken place around the pieces of the
original nodules. The superior surface is smoother than the inferior, as is usually the
case. These nodules with a blow break up more easily following the radii than following
the concentric layers of which they are composed. Plate IX. figs. 5 and 6 represent
transverse sections, and show the peculiarities of internal structure. The nucleus
is, as a rule, small and not sharply marked off from the concentric manganese zones ;
in some cases it is impossible to find any trace of a nucleus. In fig. 5 the face of the
section has been polished, and when the black shining surface is closely examined, it
is seen to be made up of undulating lines or zones superposed the one upon the other.
Hundreds of these fine wavy lines succeed each other without any apparent interposition,
and they are much more numerous than shown in the figure. The nodules at this station
are therefore much more compact than is generally the case, from the hydrates being
less mixed with extraneous substances. The polished surface has a metallic mirror-like
lustre. Fig. 6 shows the face of one of these nodules in which the manganese has been
removed by strong hydrochloric acid ; the clayey skeleton that remains in this case is
so scanty that it does not hold together, in which respect it differs considerably from
the specimen shown in figs. 7 and 7a on the same plate, representing the clayey skeleton
of a nodule from another station. PI. IX. fig. 2 exhibits another nodule from this station
that has been formed around a large triangular tooth of Carcharodon, there being in fact
three centres of concretion, one at each corner of the triangle. Each of these has aug-
mented by successive depositions, and they have united to form a single nodule. The
figure represents the under surface of the nodule, which is rough from the presence of
small mammillae, especially at the borders. PI. IX. fig. 10 shows a portion of one of the
nodules from this station in which the manganese has been removed by hydrochloric
acid ; several tubes of Rhizopods appear between two successive layers of the nodule.
PI. VI. figs. 8, 11, and 16, repre.sent sharks’ teeth from this station, and PI. VIII. figs. 4,
5, 12, and 13, earbones of Cetaceans. Other teeth and bones were much more
thickly covered with layers of manganese and iron hydrates. When the manganese
nodules are reduced to powder, and the magnetic particles extracted by means of a
magnet, these are found to consist of magnetite and small black cosmic spherules with
nuclei of metallic iron. The appearance of these fragments is represented in PI. XXIII.
fig. 12, after they have been pounded in an agate mortar and treated with an acid solu-
tion of sulphate of copper. The nodules also contain fragments of siliceous organisms,
zcolitic crystals, fragments of felspar and other minerals, similar to those found in the
ooze itself.

Station 275,2610 fathoms. — The sounding tube brought up over half a litre of the
<larkcst chocolate-coloured clay procured during the cruise ; the colour was due to small
pellets of manganese and minute grains of the same substance, the centres of which

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

357

appeared black and opaque under the microscope, and the margins red. The deposit con-
tained no carbonate of lime, but enormous numbers of crystals of phillipsite, either simple,
twinned, or aggregated into spherules, were present. Some of these had a coating of
manganese. A few Eadiolaria were observed, but tbeir rarity was in striking contrast with
the extraordinary abundance of these organisms at the previous station to the northward
(Station 274).

Station 276, 2350 fathoms. — The sounding tube had sunk about a foot into the
deposit, and the specimen consisted of two layers, the deeper one being darker coloured
and containing less carbonate of lime than the upper. The trawl contained some Red
Clay along with five or six bushels^ of manganese nodules, sharks’ teeth, earbones of
Cetaceans, pumice stones, and volcanic lapilli. The nodules were on the whole of small
size when compared with those taken at other stations, their mean diameter being between
2 and 3 cm. PI. IV. fig. 8 represents one of these nodules (natural size) ; it is spherical,
with a scaly surface, and exhibits the general form and aspect of the spherical nodules
from this station, although many of them are much smaller, while a few are a little larger.
PI. IV. fig. 7 represents a similar nodule in section. It is seen to consist of three zones ;
an external thin layer, which corresponds to the scales that can be removed from the
outside of the nodules, and is about 1 to 2 mm, in thickness. The median zone is more
massive ; upon a polished surface no pronounced concentric structure can be seen, but the
compactness of the manganese diminishes towards the centre, which is occupied by a
yellowish earthy nucleus, originally a piece of pumice in all probability. PI. IV. fig. 6
shows the upper surface of an irregular form of nodule, several of which were obtained at
this station. They present a scoriaceous aspect, and are sometimes perforated by holes,
the contours being rounded. The interior is formed by a great number of little earthy
concretions, or by a palagonitic tufa, PI. IX. fig. 8 shows another spherical nodule,
from which the manganese has been removed. The external zone retains its normal
concentric structure ; the intermediate zone does not show any concentric arrangement,
but presents a peculiar spongy structure. The nucleus is a fragment of basic volcanic
rock.

The nuclei of the nodules from this station consisted of lapilli belonging to the
basaltic series of rocks, of pumice, of aggregations of the deposit, of palagonitic frag-
ments, of sharks’ teeth, of otoliths of fish, of the earbones and other bones of Cetaceans.
An unaltered fragment of volcanic glass, forming the nucleus of one of the nodules, is
shown in PI. XVI. fig. 1. Nuclei of palagonitic lapilli are represented in PI. XVIII.
figs. 2, 3, and 4, along with the zeolitic crystals which surround and fill the pores.
Other palagonitic lapilli from this station are represented in PI. XIX. figs. 1, 2, and 4.
PI. XXI. fig. 1 represents the palagonitic tufa forming the nucleus of one of the flattened
nodules. The four figures on PI. XXII, represent crystals of phillipsite, isolated and in

1 About 200 litres.

338

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

splierules, also from this station. The external aspect of one of these spherules of
j)hillipsite is shown in PI. XXIII. fig. 3, while figs. 2, 5, 6, 7, and 9, on the same plate,
i*eprosent cosmic spherules extracted by means of a magnet from the nodules or the
clay in which they were imbedded.

There were about 300 sharks’ teeth and fragments of sharks’ teeth, either with a
slight coating of manganese or forming the nuclei of nodules, some of which are repre-
sented in PI. V. fig. 12 and PI. VI. figs. 1 and 19, and about twenty petrous bones and
tympanic bullaj and other smaller fragments of bones of Cetaceans. Two of the tympano-
periotic bones are shown in PI. VII. figs. 6 and 7, and were attached when brought up.
Among the nodules were also four large otoliths of fish, about the size of those of the
Tunny, as well as two of the tabulated teeth of Tetrodon. For many reasons it seems
prolmble that this station is not far removed from the seat of some old submarine eruption.

Station 280, 1940 fathoms. — There were two or three hardened pieces of the deposit,
perforated in all directions by worm-tubes, and coated with deposits of peroxide of
manganese. One piece was 2 inches in length and very irregular in outline ; two smaller
pieces were flat, and to one of them an Esperia was attached.

Station 281, 2385 fathoms. — In the bag of the trawl there were some dark chocolate-
coloured clay, many manganese nodules, large slabs of volcanic tufa covered with man-
ganese, many sharks’ teeth, and a few earbones and fragments of other bones of Ceta-
ceans. There were between two and three bushels^ of manganese nodules. Among these
were several large slabs, from 1 to 2 inches in thickness ; one of them measured 18x12
inches. A portion of one of these slabs is shown in PI. IV. fig. 3. About the middle of
the section will be noticed a dark line ; beneath this line there is a Red Clay that would
seem to have been at one time the upper surface of an old sea-bottom. Here manganese
nodules were in process of formation, some of them nearly imbedded in the Red Clay
forming the lower part of the figure, while others projected partly above the surface. A
fall of volcanic ashes appears to have taken place upon this old sea-bed, and to have
covered the floor of the ocean, in some places at least, to the depth of an inch, as repre-
sented in the figure above the dark line. The minerals making up the ashes lying
immediately upon the Red Clay are coarser than those above. The appearance of these
volcanic minerals at the junction with the Red Clay is represented in PI. XXL fig. 2, the
right-hand side of the figure representing the Red Clay deposit, and the left the volcanic
ash. In most cases the slabs are coated with layers of peroxide of manganese only on
the u})per surface and along the edges, the under surface being composed of red or
chocolate-coloured clay. The nodules imbedded at the junction between the shower of
ashes and the Red Clay have a concentric arrangement, and sometimes have sharks’
teeth as nuclei. In some of the slabs, as has been stated, the layer of ashes is fully an
inch in thickness, in others it is less than half an inch. PI. IV. fig. 4 shows a nodule, on

• About 80 litres.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

359

the upper surface of which there is a layer of ashes only one-eighth of an inch in depth,
covered by a thin layer of manganese. The majority of the nodules at this station have a
layer of this volcanic tufa or ash in the position represented by the figure. None of the
nodules, however, in the position of those represented in PI. IV. fig. 3, i.e., along the
line separating the tufa from the Red Clay, exhibit this layer of ash on the superior
surface. PI. IV. fig. 5 shows a nodule in which a Carcharodon tooth forms the nucleus.
In addition to the nodules above referred to, there were numerous small nodules about
the size of marbles, some of them having tufa in the centre and others with nuclei of
sharks’ teeth or their fragments. Some very irregular flat fragments had Red Clay in
the centre. Sharks’ teeth from this station are represented in PI. V. figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
and 13, and PI. VI. figs. 9, 10, 13, 15, and 17.

The volcanic islands of Rurutu and Tubuai are each distant from this station between
fifty and sixty miles, the former to the west and the latter to the south. One or other
of these islands is probably the source of the volcanic ashes which have fallen upon this
old sea-bed. The arrangement of the volcanic ashes, the coarser particles lying on the Red
Clay and these being covered by finer and finer particles, seems to indicate that they
have been derived from a terrestrial eruption, to have fallen upon the surface of the
ocean, and, in falling through the water, to have been arranged in layers according to
size and specific gravity. After this tufa had consolidated, the bottom would seem to
have been broken up by some disturbance, and the manganese to have been subsequently
deposited over the surface and down the cracks between the different fragments. The
minerals in the Red Clay portion of the slabs are much more highly altered than in the
portion composed of tufa.

Station 283, 2075 fathoms. — In the upper part of the sounding tube was a light-
coloured Globigerina Ooze containing many pelagic Foraminifera ; in the lower six inches
of the tube was a very dark chocolate-coloured clay, containing much manganese in the
form of round balls and many crystals of phillipsite.

Station 285, 2375 fathoms. — The trawl at this station contained several quarts
of dark chocolate-coloured clay, and large numbers of manganese nodules, sharks’ teeth,
earbones and fragments of other bones of Cetaceans, pumice stones, and angular and
rounded pebbles, apparently ice-borne. The specimen of the deposit procured in the
sounding tube contained carbonate of lime in the form of pelagic Foraminifera in the
upper layers, but that in the trawl did not show any effervescence when treated
with dilute acid.

There were between two and three bushels^ of manganese nodules. The great
majority of these were of small size, from 1 to 2 ‘5 cm. in diameter, resembling a lot of
marbles. One large nodule, however, with a large white-coloured nucleus, appeared to
have been broken to pieces in the trawl. The white nucleus had at one time been a

^ About 80 litres.

360

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

portion of a deep-sea deposit, but not like the dark-coloured clay that came up in the
trawl, for it contained numerous casts of GlobigeHna shells, along with many angular
fragments of basic volcanic glass. PI. II. fig. 7 shows the external aspect of four of the
smaller nodules, while PI. II. fig. 5 shows one of the larger nodules, with portions removed
to show the internal structure. The inner concentric layers of the great majority of these
nodules form light brown coloured nuclei, which have frequently been compared to copro-
lites by geologists who have examined them. These lighter layers are less than 1 mm. in
diameter, and are arranged concentrically around altered pieces of volcanic glass, sharks’
teeth or their fragments. The outer layers are of a darker colour, and contain much more
manganese than the inner ones. The appearance under the microscope of the internal
parts of these nodules is shown in PI. XXVII. fig. 3, and in all the figures on PL XXIX.
The t3'pical nodules contain about 37 per cent, of manganese peroxide, and 24 per cent, of
ferric oxide. The structure of bone can be readily recognised in some of the nodules,
while others appear to have been originally formed upon fragments of bone, though now
all traces of the bone have disappeared. One of the largest tympanic bullae from this
station {Balsenoptera) is represented in PI. VII. fig. 1. Altogether about fifty petrous
and tympanic bones of Cetaceans were procured. Many of these were deeply imbedded
in concentric layers of manganese, while in other cases large portions of the bone
had been removed and substituted by depositions of manganese.

More than fifteen hundred specimens of sharks’ teeth and fragments, over 1 cm.
in length, were present, while immense numbers of smaller teeth and fragments were
found in the deposit or in the nodules. Specimens of these teeth are represented in
PI. V. figs. 6, 7, 10, and 11, and PI. VI. figs. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12, 18, 20, 21, and 23.
Some of the larger teeth were surrounded with layers of manganese, but, as a rule, they
were not so deeply imbedded as the smaller teeth and fragments. The internal portions
of the teeth were generally filled with deposits of manganese ; the vaso-dentine and
osteo-dentine had been entirely removed, the hard external enamel-like dentine alone
remaining.

The nuclei of the nodules were occasionally pieces of volcanic rock ; most of these
had undergone considerable alteration, the glassy base having been converted into
palagonite. Many of the specimens showed agate-like bands, similar to the specimen
represented in PI. XIX. fig. 3 from another station. These palagonitic layers were
soft and could be cut with a knife like cheese when taken from the sea, but they have
since become quite Ijrittle. Two of these nuclei are represented in PI. XVI. fig. 3,
and PI. XVII. fig. 7. Among the nodules were several bomb-like fragments about
1 cm. in diameter, with a hard thin exterior, and a hollow interior partly filled with
ferruginous matters. Some of the nodules contained hollow spaces, in which the
manganese fissumed a radiate, crypto-crystalline, structure. The outside of the nodules
was generally covered with Rliizopod tubes, or the stolons of Ily droids, and these could

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

3(31

sometimes be observed in the body of the nodules, incorporated between the successive
layers. There were six rounded or rolled pebbles ; the largest, having in one direction
a diameter of over 3 cm., was a basaltic rock, while the others were fragments of
granitic and gneissic rocks. These pebbles are believed to have been ice-borne, this
station being just beyond the borders of the region of floating ice in the southern
hemisphere.

Twelve rounded pieces of pumice, the largest about the size of a hen’s egg, were
also met with ; the outer portions were decomposed into earthy matter, and covered
with layers of manganese, which also penetrated in the form of dendrites throughout the
whole of the mass.

The magnetic spherules extracted from the deposit at this station, as well as
from the manganese nodules, were numerous ; some of them are represented in PI.
XXIII. figs. 1, 4, and 8.

Station 286, 2335 fathoms. — There were two layers in the sample of deposit obtained
in the sounding tube, an upper dark-coloured layer containing but little carbonate
of lime, and a lower light-coloured layer containing many Glohigerinse and Coccoliths.
The trawl contained about two bushels^ of manganese nodules and pumice stones,
along with a large number of sharks’ teeth and bones of Cetaceans. PI. II. fig. 6
shows five of the nodules from this station. They are formed around sharks’ teeth, or
splinters of teeth, and small particles of pumice, and it will be seen from the figure that
these are cemented into little groups of an irregular form. The striking characteristic
of the nodules at this station is that the great majority of them are formed round frag-
ments of teeth or of bone. Sometimes these organic fragments are surrounded by layers
of manganese of considerable thickness, while at other times there is only a slight coating,
although the bone may have dendrites of manganese ramifying throughout its whole
mass, and the teeth are usually filled with manganese depositions. The manner in which
the manganese penetrates and covers these organic fragments is represented by the figures
on PI. X.

Over 350 sharks’ teeth and fragments were observed among the nodules ; some
of them are represented in PI. V. figs. 8 and 9, PI. VI. figs. 14 and 22, PI. X.
figs. 4 and 5. Numerous bones of Cetaceans were obtained at this station, including
tympanic bullse and detached petrous bones, beaks of Ziphioid whales, fragments of flat
and spongy bones, and numerous other small fragments forming nuclei of the manganese
nodules. Some of these are represented in PI. VII. figs. 2, 3, 4, and 5, PI. VIII.
figs. 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 14, and PI. X. figs. 1, 2, and 3.

A few of the nodules contained nuclei of basic volcanic glass and palagonite. There
were several pieces of rolled pumice, and one large granitic pebble, over 3 inches in
diameter, apparently ice-borne. Among the nodules were numbers of clayey concretions

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

Over 70 litres.

46

302

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of ii greyish colour, perforated by worm tracks, and coated with manganese ; these con-
cretions contained a few Coccoliths and crystals of phillipsite.

Stiition 287, 2400 fathoms. — The deposit in the sounding tube was of a dark chocolate
colour, and contained a considerable amount of manganese, along with crystals of phillip-
site, palagonitic fragments, and small sharks’ teeth.

Station 288, 2G00 fathoms. — The sounding tube had sunk 18 inches into the deposit;
it wjis of a red colour throughout, and contained an immense number of manganese
particles, zeolitic crystals, and palagonitic fragments.

Station 289, 2550 fathoms. — The trawl brought up over a busheP of manganese
nodules, to some of which clay adhered, but at this station no specimen of the deposit
was obtained, either in the bag of the trawl, in the tow-net attached to the trawl, nor in
the sounding tube. This, together with the fact that the sounding tube and the iron-
work of the trawl were scored with manganese, indicates that the nodules must have
been very abundant. They were nearly all of large size, some being 6 or 7 cm. in
diameter. Their surfaces were exceedingly irregular, and they easily broke into segments
following the radii and the concentric layers. The nuclei were generally deeply imbedded,
there being very few sharks’ teeth or earbones with a slight coating of manganese as at
Stations 285 and 286, indeed, only two sharks’ teeth were noticed as nuclei of the
nodules ; there were, however, seven earbones forming nuclei. Some of the nuclei were
formed of basic volcanic glass and palagonite. The internal concentric layers were, in
some of the nodules, of a lighter colour than the external ones, as shown in PI. III. fig. 7,
representing one of the nodules from this station. Another nodule is represented in PI.
IX. fig. 3 ; the upper portion of the figure shows the manner in which the segments
break away from the nodule. In the hollows between the rather large mammillae a
ramifying Rhizopod tube is shown, but on the whole the surfaces of the nodules from this
station were remarkably free from organisms.

Station 290, 2250 fathoms. — The outside of the sounding tube was covered with
black streaks of mangauese ; the leads and ironwork of the trawl were also covered with
similar streaks, as if they had been rubbing on nodules at the bottom. In the bag of the
trawl, however, there was only a single small nodule about the size of a marble, to which
ail cgg-f;apsule was attached.

Station 292, 1600 fathoms. — The dcpo.sit at this station was a Globigerina Ooze of a
dark brown colour from the pre.sence of manganese peroxide. Some of the Foraminifera
shells were covered with black specks of manganese, while numerous grains of manganese
and .some palagonitic fragments were also observed.

Station 293, 2025 fathoms. — The deposit was dark brown in colour from the presence
of nianganc.se grains, and in the bag of the trawl were about a dozen manganese nodules,
Uj which several organisms were attached. Some of these nodules had nuclei of ba.sic

' About 38 litres.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

363

volcanic glass, surrounded by different coloured bands altering into palagonitic
material. One of these is represented in PI. XIX. fig. 3 ; another nucleus, in which the
^dtreous base is transformed into palagonite, is shown in PI. XVII. fig. 2.

Station 294, 2270 fathoms. — In the lower six inches of the sounding tube there was a
dark-coloured deposit, containing a large quantity of manganese, together with palagonitic
fragments, sharks’ teeth, and zeolitic crystals.

Station 296, 1825 fathoms. — The mud in the lower half of the sounding tube was of
a dark brown colour from the presence of manganese grains, and in the trawl were several
small manganese nodules, about the size of peas, together with numerous splinters of
basic volcanic glass and palagonite.

Station 297, 1775 fathoms. — The deposit here was a Globigerina Ooze containing 71
per cent, of carbonate of lime. The trawl contained about 4 litres of manganese nodules,
while about 3 litres were obtained in the tow-net attached to the trawl, along with a
quantity of the yellow-coloured Globigerina Ooze. The weights, 300 fathoms in front of
the trawl, were scored with black streaks, as if they had been dragged over lumps of
manganese. The nodules rarely exceeded 4 cm. in diameter, were round in form, and
not so massive as nodules of a similar size dredged from a Eed Clay. The great majority
had large, whitish, yellowish, or greenish nuclei, evidently originally composed of aggre-
gations of the deposit, for very many casts of Foraminifera were observed in a yellowish
or whitish substance, which is unaffected by dilute acids. In general these nuclei are
soft, but at other times they are harder, and the casts of Foraminifera are very perfect.
One of these nuclei contained iron, alumina, and magnesia, with small quantities of
soluble silica, manganese dioxide, and soda. The portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid,
amounting to 53 per cent., consisted mainly of free silica. The general appearance of
these nodules is represented in PI. III. fig. 8, while in fig. 9 of the same plate one of the
nodules is broken to show the nucleus. In some cases the nucleus consists of a fragment
of basic volcanic glass surrounded by altered palagonitic zones ; in other cases the central
unaltered portion has entirely disappeared, the whole nucleus being converted into
palagonite. Occasionally the nucleus is .composed of a large number of angular fragments
of palagonite with hollow spaces in the centre (see PI. XVIII. fig. 1). When the man-
ganese is removed from these nodules by concentrated hydrochloric acid the skeleton
that remains has a very areolar structure, as represented in PI. IX. fig. 9.

This station is instructive as being one of the few instances in which manganese
nodules were found in a Globigerina Ooze. It may be pointed out that the manganese
nodules are here associated with a considerable quantity of basic volcanic glass, fine
areolar volcanic ash, and palagonitic grains ; indeed, this association of altered basic
volcanic material and manganese is very constant in deep-sea deposits. While there
were perfect casts of Foraminifera observed in the nuclei of many of the nodules, no casts
of these organisms were found in the deposit itself The accumulation of free silica in

THE VOYAGE OF II.M.S. CHALLENGER.

3(U

these nuclei is very remarkable, especially when the small proportion of siliceous organisms
in the deposit is remembered. One of the tow-nets contained several rounded lumps of
the dei>osit, loosely held together by dendritic depositions of manganese and iron, which
seemed to indicate the beffinnins: of the nodule formation.

Station 299, 2160 fathoms. — The deposit at this station was a Blue Mud, but just on
the border-line between Blue I\Iud and Bed Clay. There was over a litre of manganese
nodules in the trawl. Some of these were formed round nuclei of pumice, while in others
no apparent nucleus was present. The in’evailing form, represented in PI. III. fig. 4,
is like an inverted eone with the apex removed. The lower part of the nodule was
very areolar in structure, containing much clayey matter in alternate layers, and con-
centric round a point which would be represented by the apex
of the cone. The upper part of the cone is also made up of
concentric layers, but is much harder and more compact.
Another nodule from this station is represented in Fig. 3.5,
with a Scalpellum attached. There were also in the trawl a
tymj)anic bulla of a Glohiocephalus, with the petrous bone
attached, and a Cephalopod beak, both coated with manganese.

Station 300, 1375 fathoms. — The trawl appeared to have
caught on the bottom, and it was with great difficulty that it
could be released, the accumulators being stretched to their
utmost. The beam of the trawl was scored in several places by
patches of black manganese, as if the beam had caught on
something coated with that substance. Amongst the ooze in
the bag of the trawl were three or four basaltic pebbles, coated
with manganese, and four flattened pieces of volcanic tufa,
coated on one surface by deposits of manganese, G to 12 mm.
in thickne.ss.

Station 302, 14.50 fathoms. — The trawl, as at Station 300,
caught upon the bottom, and was with difficulty released. The
bag of the trawl contained about a peck of ooze, containing
many manganese concretions and volcanic pebbles. Among
manganese nodules were some large flat-shaped fragments,
statmn 290, 2100 fathoms. .South ;ij)pareiitly toi’ii from larger masses. They consisted of alter-
nate layers, and were black-brown throughout. The majority
of tlic nodulcH Inul nuclei of basic volcanic glass, surrounded by altered layers ; one of the
nuclei is rej»resentcd in PI. XVI. fig. 4, and another in PI. XVI 1. fig. 4. Other nodules
aj)jicared to have been formed around small aggregations of the deposit, for in them could
be .seen many easts of Foraminif(*ra.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

365

Atlantic Ocean (homeward voyage).

Station 330, 2440 fathoms. — There were a good many manganese particdes in the
deposit, sometimes in the form of tubes, and one worm-tube appeared to be filled in the
inside with deposits of manganese.

Station 337, 1240 fathoms. — The sounding tube here brought up a number of Pteropod
and Heteropod shells, with a thin coating of manganese, and similar shells were found in
the bag of the dredge.

Station 339, 1415 fathoms. — The larger Pteropod and Heteropod shells in this
Pteropod Ooze were covered on the outside with thin coatings of peroxide of manganese.

Station 341, 1475 fathoms. — The sounding tube came up empty, except for a few
Pteropod and Foraminifera shells, and small particles of peroxide of manganese. On the
outside of the tube were several black streaks, wdiich on examination proved to be due
to peroxide of manganese.

Station 343, 425 fathoms; Station 344, 420 fathoms. — Some pieces of dead Coral,
fragments of rocks and shells, coated with manganese, came up in the sounding tubes.
Some of the small rock fragments are black vesicular basalts transforming into palagonite.

There do not appear to have been any large hauls of manganese nodules from the
abysmal regions other than those made by the Challenger Expedition. H.M.S. “ Egeria ”
in the centre of the Indian Ocean, and the U.S.S. “Tuscarora” in many parts of the
Pacific, have, however, procured in the sounding tube samples of red and chocolate clays
identical with those obtained by. the Challenger in the regions from which the large
numbers of manganese nodules were trawled. It may therefore be assumed that very
wide regions of the deep sea, other than those examined by the Challenger, are covered
with nodules and organic remains similar to those described in the foregoing enumeration.

In the Atlantic no indications have as yet been forthcoming of manganese areas
similar in character and extent to those of the Pacific and Indian Oceans, containing many
sharks’ teeth, earbones of Cetaceans, crystals of phillipsite, and numerous cosmic spherules,
for in none of the samples of deposits procured in the sounding tube are there any of
the dark chocolate-coloured Red Clays.^ The manganese deposits in the Atlantic appear

1 Mr J. Y. Buchanan has desciil^ed some small manganese nodules and manganiferous deposits dredged first
hy himself and subsequently by Mr Murray, in the estuary of the Clyde, Scotland, in 104 fathoms and lesser depths (see
Nature, vol. xviii. p. 628, 1878 ; Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., voL xxxvi., 1891). The small nodrales resemble in some respects
those from the deep sea ; they contain more quartz and larger traces of copper, hut smaller traces of cobalt and nickel.
The state of oxidation of the manganese is, according to Buchanan, very little over MngOj, while in deep-sea nodules
it tails very little short of MnOj. The peroxide of manganese in the deposits of Loch Fyne and other parts of the
Clyde sea-area appears for the most part to have been derived from the chemical works of the district, and not from
the decomposition of the minerals and rocks of the deposits ; one firm alone, Messrs C. Tennant and Co., state that
between the years 1818 and 1846 they threw into the river Clyde over 56,000 tons of chloride of manganese as a wa.ste
product of their manufactures. This view as to the source of the manganese seems to be confirmed by Mr Murray’s
recent extensive dredgings on the west coast of Scotland, for while manganese nodules and coatings are abundant in
many regions of the Clyde sea-area — for instance, on the Skelmorlie Bank, in Loch Strivan, Loch Coil, and Loch
Long — only relatively small traces of manganese peroxide can be found in the more northern lochs of the west coast,
where the rocks and minerals in the deposits are similar in nature to those in the Clyde area.

366

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

to be much more limited, and have chiefly been found in 'more or less close proximity
to volcanic islands. There are, however, indications of an approach to the condition
of the chocolate-coloured clays of the Pacific in the deep water about 20° N. and 50°
W. in the Atlantic.

If now we attempt to summarise the foregoing descriptions, it may be said that these
concretionary masses of manganese assume a great variety of forms in modern deep-sea
deposits. Sometimes the oxides cover consolidated masses of tufa, fragments of rocks,
portions of the deposit, branches of Coral, and remains of other calcareous organisms.
At other times fragments broken off from what must have been huge concretionary
masses were obtained in the trawl and dredge ; this was especially the case in the
shallower waters near to, or on the slopes of, volcanic islands. The prevailing con-
cretions, however, were more or less rounded nodular masses, from 1 to 10 or 15 cm.
in diameter, and hence resembling all concretionary bodies formed in a plastic or liquid
medium. As will have been noticed in the descriptions of the nodules at each station,
they may present great variations in the dredging, but as a rule the nodules at any one
station have a family resemblance, and differ, in size, form, and internal structure, from
those at another station ; so much so that now, after a detailed study of the collections,
it is usually possible for us and our assistants to state at sight from which Challenger
station any particular nodule had been procured.

In a great many cases the external form depends on the shape of the nucleus, but
there are a number of minor peculiarities which afibrd indications of the station to which
the samples belong. The great irregularity of some nodules depends on the fact that the
nucleus is not simple. The concretionary depositions have commenced around several
adjacent foreign bodies ; by the increase of the successive layers around the several
nuclei, the little nodules have come in contact with each other, have become united, and
finally have developed into a large single nodule with several protuberances, assuming
the aspect of double, triple, or quadruple nodules. In the case of very large nodules
the multiple origin becomes for the most part obliterated at the external surface. The
surfaces of the nodules are covered by all sorts of asperities and mammillae, these being
generally more pronounced on the under surface which had been immersed in the deposit.

Sometimes there is no apparent nucleus, and nodules of this character usually
contain more manganese, being dark brown or black to the very centre, and take on a
briglit metallic lustre when polished with chamois leather or a piece of cloth. Almost
always, however, there are one or more recognisable nuclei, around which the manganese
and iron have concreted. It may be remarked that there is no chemical relation between
the manganese and the nucleus to initiate the depositions, for the nuclei may be in-
dilfercntly carbonates, phosphates, silicates, or .silica. Any solid body sufiices for the
support of the original and subsequent concretionary deposits. Basic and acid silicates

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

367

— -like pumice and glassy lapilli, almost always profoundly altered — are perhaps the most
frequent nuclei, then follow teeth of sharks and other fish, otoliths, bones of Cetaceans,
siliceous and calcareous Sponges, and even agglomerations of the deposits in which casts
of Foraminifera can be recognised.

Not only the external form and the presence of nuclei, but also the internal structure,
indicate the concretionary nature of the nodules ; the sections, in fact, show that the
nodules are built up of successive concentric zones. The inner zones follow closely the
form of the nucleus, while those towards the exterior are more regular and have more
ample curves. Some zones are darker than others, and in these the manganese is more
abundant than in the intervening ones, which have a large admixture of earthy and
clayey materials. The zones vary in thickness in different specimens ; sometimes they
are thinnest in the central, and sometimes in the outer, layers. This zonary structure is
well exhibited when the nodules are demanganesed ; the clayey and earthy skeletons that
remain after this treatment resemble strikingly all the varieties of urinary calculi. The
empty spaces in these skeletons show the positions occupied by the eliminated manganese
in the nodules, and it may be seen that the dendrites had passed across the earthy and
clayey zones.

The concretionary arrangement of the nodules is likewise clearly exhibited by the
facility with which the successive zones may be separated into concentric shells or scales
following the earthy layers. In some of the more compact and purer nodules, and in
spaces free from foreign substances, a distinct fibro-radiate disposition may also be
observed, recalling the structure of pyrolusite, and there is nearly always a tendency to a
fracture following the radii of the nodule. Some of the nodules, indeed, have broken up
in this fashion while still at the bottom of the sea, and the separate fragments or wedges
of the original nodule have become the centres or nuclei around which new concentric
layers have been deposited.

Microscopic Characters. — The microscopic characters of the manganese concreted in
the nodules do not present any peculiarities to allow of a specific determination of the
mineral. Like all the oxides of manganese, it appears, in the thin slices of the nodules,
as absolutely opaque ; a black mass sometimes with a brownish tint. There is no trace
of internal structure nor of crystalline form, if we except some small patches in a few of
the denser nodules, whose crypto-crystalline appearance has been compared to pyrolusite.
When mixed with the elayey matters of the deposits the manganese is often seen as
minute roundish grains with a black opaque centre and a brownish coloured border. But
generally the red-brown or chocolate pigment of the deposit is indefinite, and the oxides
of iron and manganese occur with very vague contours. In the nodules the manganese
appears to be amorphous, but as we have said it assumes a dendritic arrangement which
can be well seen under the microscope. All the details of this structure, and the form
of the manganese in the nodules, are represented by the figures on Pis. XXVIII. and

308

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

XXIX., but these figures show rather the structure of the nodules themselves than the
inicrostructure of the mineral. It may be seen from the figures that the manganese is
disposed in fine concentric layers, marked ofi’ by black opaque or brown lines. The fine
black uiidulatory zones may be recognised as having a concretionary arrangement even
with high })owers, as represented in PI. XXIX. fig. 3. The appearance of nodules with
many centres, and other peculiarities of structure, are well shown in many of the micro-
scopic sections. In PI. XXVIII. fig. 3 there are several centres of concretion, organic
and inorganic — fragments of teeth, palagonite, and other volcanic rocks ; the deposition
has commenced around each of them, and they ultimately became united into a single
nodule by successive layers of manganese. In PI. XXIX. fig. 2 another concretion is
represented containing several nuclei ; near the upper part of the figure there is a section
of a shark’s tooth as one of the principal centres, and immediately below this another
hirge nucleus consisting of a volcanic lapilli containing green augite and plagioclase.
PI. XXIX. fig. 4 shows again the zonary arrangement of the manganese around two
centres composed of altered material and their subsequent envelopment in one nodule by
the continuous deposition of manganese, which has enclosed at the same time the clayey
matters with fragments of minerals and organisms.

The microscopic as well as the macroscopic examination shows a well-marked zonary
structure, always combined with a dendritic arrangement. In PI. XXVIII. fig. 1 the
arborescent form of the black manganese is directed parallelly to the radii of the nodule,
and is intercalated in yellowish brown muddy materials. This is quite the ordinary
aspect of dendrites of this mineral ; the figure also shows the zonary structure indicated
by curved bands of a deep brown colour. PI. XXVIII. fig. 2 shows likewise the dendritic
arrangement, but not so well marked ; the large ovoid body occupying the centre of the
figure was probably the primary form of the original nucleus, now mostly transformed
into manganese. In PI. XXVIII. figs. 4 and 5 variations of the same zonary and
dendritic structure are represented.

It may be concluded from the study of the microscopic sections that the deposition
of the manganese has been continuous, for the manganese oxides can be seen to ramify
across the earthy or clayey layers, and are thus continuous with the manganese in the
purer and darker zone.s. In all respects the microscopic examination confirms the views
arrived at from a macroscopic examination as to the structure of the nodules and their
varied nuclei.

Chemical Composition. — To what mineral species or ore of manganese are these
nodules to be referred ? 'I’he numerous analyses given below prove that we have to do
with a hydrated oxide of manganese, mixed with variable quantities of limonite, clay,
and (dher earthy and sandy matters. Among the associated substances there are several
whicli arc in a way jteculiar to the concretionary and reniform manganese ores, for
in.“tance, copper, cobalt, nickel, &c. The general mass of the substance of the nodules

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

369

is dull, dirty brown, earthy, soiling the fingers, and easily scratched with a knife. The
streak is reddish brown or chestnut brown, like the hydrated oxides ; manganite and
hausmanite. The hardness is variable, being greater in the purer specimens, which are
capable of taking on a beautiful polish with a bluish black reflection, like that of
psilomelane. Sometimes little divergent crystalline fibres, resembling pyrolusite, may be
observed. When freshly taken from the sea, they were soft, heavy, and easily pared
down with a knife ; they have on drying become harder, lighter, and much more brittle.
These concretions present in the different specimens the characters found in quite dis-
tinct oxides of manganese, and as we shall see they are made up of a mixture of these
different oxides. Fused with soda they give the reaction of manganate of sodium ;
chlorine is set free when they are attacked by hydrochloric acid. The somewhat low
specific gravity of most specimens is remarkable, this being evidently due to the mixture
of foreign substances, and in some instances to the nucleus of pumice.

The following analyses show clearly the mixed composition of the nodules. Among
the substances indicated by the analyses, the oxides of manganese are the most abundant,
and these may make up more than one-half of the total mass of the nodules. The hydrated
oxide of iron is nearly as abundant as that of manganese, indeed in not a few instances
the peroxide of iron present in the nodules exceeds the peroxide of manganese. In
addition to these oxides of manganese and iron there occur all the constituents found in
the deposits in which the nodules were embedded. This is indicated by the hydrated
sihca often in excess of the alumina, and may be due to the presence of the skeletons of
siliceous organisms. The carbonate and phosphate of lime, as well as the carbonate of
magnesia, point to the presence of carbonate of lime shells and other organic remains.
In the insoluble portion there is evidence of anhydrous silicates, referable no doubt to the
small fragments of volcanic rocks and minerals, answering to silicates of alumina, iron,
lime, magnesia, and alkalies, enclosed along with the deposit in the zones of growth.
Finally nickel, cobalt, and other rare substances are indicated, as is specially shown by
Dr Gibson’s more detailed analysis at the end of the volume (Appendix II.).

(deep-sea deposits cBall. exp. — 1891.)

47

1

I

yp. 76. boiio

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

371

The two analyses, Nos. 106 and. 136, which could not well be tabulated with the
rest, are given apart : —

Station 252, 2740 fathoms (No. 106).

extract-

Total water,

Total carbonic acid,
Total phosphoric acid
able by HCl,

a. In Acetic Acidf

Extract.

h. In Hydrochlo-
ric Acid Ex-
tract from -
Acetic Acid
Kesidue.

Magnesia,
vSoda, .

Silica,

Lead,

Copper,

Cobalt,

Mckel,
Manganous oxide
Loose oxygen.
Lime,

Magnesia, .
Alkalies,
Alumina, .

L Ferric oxide.

0-01

0-272 1
0-25 f
0-40 J

24-90

0-38

0-07

0-45

0-36

0-60

7-47

0-93

19-39

3-95

1-33

1-42

0-34

3-03

16-20

c. In Sulphuric^

Acid ^tract j ferric oxide,

from Hydro- . . .

chloric Acid j
Residue. j

d. Ultimate Eesi- 1 ^

due.

Station 276, 2350 fathoms (No, 136).

Water,

Silica,

Lime, ......

Alumina, .....

Ferric oxide, ....

Magnesia,

Manganous oxide.

Nickel oxide, ....
Oxygen,

1-62

0-83

14-91

98-18

9-51

19-34

3-19

6-36

26-70

1-79

26-46

1-82

6-31

101-48

The analyses Nos. 106 and 136 were undertaken with the view of determining the
degree of oxidation of the manganese in the nodules. The results of Dittmar’s experi-
ments show that the quantity of peroxide-oxygen in the samples examined by him is
slightly greater than what would be required by the assumption that the manganese exists
in the state of binoxide.^ Buchanan arrived at similar results from his analyses of some
nodules,^ We obtained the same result in analysing a nodule from Station 276, 2350
fathoms.® In this case we have been able to determine that the oxidation and hydration
of the manganese answers approximately to Mn02 + 2H2O, and that this hydrated oxide
is united with limonite (2Fe203-l- 3H2O), 26’7 per cent. The estimation of peroxide-
oxygen was also made by Dr (xibson in nodules from Station 285, 2375 fathoms ; the
quantity found by him showed that barely all the manganese might exist as peroxide, and
he points out that the cobalt, nickel, and thallium, present in the nodules, may also exist
as peroxides, and thus account for the excess of oxygen.'*

We thus arrive at the conclusion that these nodules of iron and manganese must be
classed along with the impure variety of manganese known as wad or bog manganese ore.
Under this name are included the manganese ores occurring in amorphous and reniform
masses, made up, in addition to manganese, largely of a mixture of limonite and sandy
materials, together with small percentages of cobalt, nickel, copper, and other substances.
They are related to psilomelane under the formula ROMn02 + H2O, but are mixtures of
different oxides and cannot be considered distinct mineral species. In continental rocks
wad or bog manganese occurs often as a deposit formed under water, and has originated
from the decomposition of other manganese ores, principally manganese carbonates.

1 See Analysis No. 106, App. III.
^ See Analysis No. 136, App. III.

2 Proc. Roy. Soe. Edin., vol. ix. p. 287, 1877.
■* See Appendix II.

372

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Oricfin of the Manganese and Manganese Nodules. — The source of the manganese,
ami the mode of formation of the ferro-manganic concretions in marine deposits, have
been the subjects of numerous publications.

In 1877 Murray^ referred to the association of manganese with abundance of
basic volcanic debris at the bottom of the ocean, and attributed the origin of the man-
ganese nodules to the oxidation of the carbonate of manganese arising from the decom-
position of manganiferous rocks, and its subsequent deposition in concretionary form.

In 1878 Giimbel^ analysed some nodules sent to him by Willemoes-Suhm, a dis-
tinguished naturalist of the Challenger Expedition, who died at sea. He recalls that
Forchhammer had made known the presence of manganese in sea- water, and that Bischof
had shown the presence of the same substance in the ashes of Zostera maritima. But
he does not admit the concentration of manganese under the influence of organisms,
because it is dissolved in sea-water in such small quantity, and because the manganese is
found in great abundance over a large area of the sea-bed. He refers the formation of
the nodules to the influence of submarine springs holding manganese in solution, which
is precipitated on contact with the sea-water. Agglomerates of a rounded form are thus
j)roduced by repeated turnings and rollings in the clay and water.

In 1881 Buchanan suggested that the manganese nodules originated through the inter-
vention of organic substances, which changed to sulphides the sulphates of the sea-water,
thus causing the formation of sulphides of iron and manganese, these becoming subse-
quently oxidised. Recently in 1890 he repeated this view.®

In 1882 Boussingault ^ discussed the formation of coatings of manganese in various
regions, due to the presence of water charged with compounds of this element. He rejects
the views of Buchanan and Giimbel as insufficient to explain the facts, and holds that the
submarine concretions and manganiferous coatings are derived from the carbonates.

In 1883 Dieulafait® rested an explanation on the fact that sea-water collected between
New York and ]\Iarseilles, as well as in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean, deposited in the

* Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. ix. pp. 255-258, 1877 ; also Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxiv. p. 529, 1876.

* Gunil>el, “Die am Grunde dea Meeres vorkommenden Manganknollen,” Sitzb. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wi$s., Math.-

pliys. Cl., 1878, ii. pp. 189-209 ; also Neues Jahrb. f. Min., &c., 1878, p. 869. See also: le mineralogisclie-geologisclie

IleschafTenlieit der auf der Forscliungsreise S.M.S. ‘Gazelle’ gesammelten Meeresgrund-Ablagerungen,” pp. 33-36,
Berlin (no date).

* Brit. Ass. R'TTort for 1881, pp. 58.3-4 ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xviii. pp. 17-39. With reference to this view it
may l>e stated that in our experiments at the Scottish Marine Station it was found that manganese dioxide, when
exjsised to the action of Bul])huretted hydrogen or alkaline or earthy sulphides, becomes reduced to a lower oxide ;
this reaction takes place when the manganese no<lules themselves are so exposed. For example, powdered manganese
nodules were intrcxluced into sea-water, along with decomposing mussel-llesh ; in a few days the sulphates present in the
sea-water had l»een reduced to sulphides, which firstly altered the manganese peroxide to protoxide, which, being soluble
in the carl»onic acid (the j>ro<luct of the oxidation of the organic matter), remained as soluble bicarbonate of manganese
in the sea-water, while the iron sesquioxide present in the nodules was thrown down as insoluble suli>hide. It does
not therefore seem pfissible that the ikkIuIcs can be formed in the way indicated by Buchanan (Murray and Irvine).

* “ Sur l'ap|sirition «lu manganiise a la surface des roclies,” Annales de Chimic et de Physique, 5th ser. tom. xxvii. ]']>.
280-311, 1882.

* “ Ijf manganl-sc dans les eatix de mcr actuclles et dans certains de leurs ddjxjts ; conscfjuences relatives a la craie
blanche de la jM'riode iccondaire," C'omjdcs Rciutus, tom. xevi. p 718, 1883.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

373

bottles a residue rich in manganese. He argues that the manganese exists in the
water in the form of carbonate, and that at the surface gaseous exchanges take place
transforming the carbonate into oxide, which falls to the bottom of the sea where it
takes a concretionary form.^

In 1891 Irvine and Gibson^ pointed out that sulphide of manganese could not be formed
in the manner maintained by Buchanan, as it is readily decomposed by the action of car-
bonic acid, w’hether free or loosely combined as in the bicarbonates of sea- water, carbonate
of manganese being formed, which would go into solution as bicarbonate of manganese.

These various opinions as to the mode of origin of manganese nodules may be sum-
marised as follows : —

1. The manganese of the nodules is chiefly derived from the decomposition of the

more basic volcanic rocks and minerals with which the nodules are nearly
alvrays associated in deep-sea deposits. The manganese and iron of these
rocks and minerals are at first transformed into carbonates, and subsequently
into oxides, which, on depositing from solution in the watery ooze, take a
concretionary form around various kinds of nuclei (Murray).®

2. They are formed under the reducing influence of organic matters on the sulphates

of sea-water, sulphides being produced and subsequently oxidised (Buchanan).

3. They arise from the precipitation of manganese contained in the waters of sub-

marine springs at the bottom of the ocean (Giimbel).

4. They are formed from the compounds of manganese dissolved in sea-water in

the form of bicarbonates, and transformed at the surface of the sea into oxides,
which are precipitated in a permanent form on the bottom of the ocean
(Boussingault, Dieulafait).

Without discussing these diverse opinions it may be stated that we accept the

1 We have been unable, in all our attempts, at the laboratory of the Scottish Marine Station at Granton, to deter-
mine even approximately the amount of manganese present in solution in surface waters from the Atlantic, Mediter-
ranean, Red Sea, and Indian Ocean. Nor have we been able to detect the presence of manganese in the boiler deposits
of several ocean-going steamers ; we have detected carbonate of manganese in the muds of the Clyde sea-area (Murray
and Irvine).

2 “ Manganese Deposits in Marine Muds,” Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin., vol. xviii. pp. 54-59. Mr Irvine and Dr Gibson
say : — “ From the behaviour of manganese, we have come to the conclusion that the formation of sulphide of manganese
cannot be a result of the animal life, or the decomposition of animal matter at the sea-bottom, as supposed by Buchanan,
inasmuch as sea-water containing excess of carbonic acid must be always present. Buchanan does not give any evidence
whatever to show that sulphide of manganese is formed, but appears to rely upon the supposed analogy in the behaviour
of iron and manganese. Under conditions such as those referred to by him, sulphide of iron is necessarily formed.
Unlike sulphide of manganese, sulphide of iron is readily formed in the presence of sea-water, whether mixed with car-
bonate of lime or not, and solutions of carbonic acid or bicarbonates do not decompose it or prevent its formation. Thus in
all cases where, through the life processes of animals, sulphide of iron is formed as a result of the reduction of sulphates
the excess of carbonic acid necessarily formed at the same time must prevent the formation of sulphide of manganese.
This holds equally in the case of the decomposition of the dead bodies of animals at the sea-bottom.”

^ While admitting that a part of the manganese accumulated at the bottom of the ocean may be derived from the
decomposition of volcanic rocks, in the manner described above (No. 1), it appears to me that the greater part must
have be'^n derived from the manganese in solution in the sea-water (A. Renard).

374

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

first interpretation, and we shall endeavour to show that this %dew accords best with all
that is known with respect to the distribution and conditions under which these ferro-
mang-anic concretions are found at the bottom of the ocean.

It may be accepted as a fact that all the hydrated oxides of manganese found at the
surface of the globe as coatings, concretions, or depositions, as well as the greater part of
the hydmted oxide of iron, have their original source in the decomposition of the
crystalline rocks containing these two metals in the form of silicates or anhydrous
oxides. This decomposition takes place generally under the action of water, almost
always containing carbonic acid. It is not necessary to insist upon the wide distribution
of iron in volcanic rocks ; manganese is rarer in these rocks, but is found as a constituent
of pyroxenic, amphibolic, and peridotic minerals, and also of some varieties of magnetic
and titanic iron, which are all so abundantly distributed on the bottom of the sea.

It is well known that, under the influence of water charged with carbonic acid, such
silicates are decomposed at ordinary temperatures, and that the contained protoxides of
iron and manganese are transformed into soluble bicarbonates, leaving a residue in which
the hydrated silicate of alumina plays a large part. As soon as the loosely-combined
carbonic acid is given oflf from the bicarbonates, the carbonates are precipitated and
rapidly absorb oxygen, becoming hydrates corresponding to higher oxides of the metals,
the remaining carbonic acid being of course set free. The metals are now in the form of
compounds which are insoluble in water. Such is the order in which the formation of
manganiferous and ferruginous minerals takes place on land surfaces, forming coatings,
concretions, and dendrites on ancient and recent and other eruptive rocks and minerals.

In the case of the manganese deposits of the deep sea, there are many indications
that an identical interpretation of the phenomena may be given. It may be granted
tliat the manganese in solution in the superficial layers and in the whole mass of the ocean
might contribute a small part to the deposits of great depths, still the great bulk of the
oxides of manganese in these deposits has evidently had another origin. The greater
}»art of the manganese and iron of these deposits almost certainly comes directly, along
with clay, from the alteration of the manganese and iron-bearing silicates scattered
over the bed of the ocean, and especially from those of volcanic origin. In describing
the rocks and mineral particles, and in speaking of the formation of clay, we have
sliown that the alteration which these substances undergo in sea-water may be compared
in all respects with the general processes just indicated. We have laid special stress on
the occurrence in the deposits of volcanic materials, generally in a vitreous condition and
of a spongy nature, or in microscopic fragments. On the other hand, we have shown
tliat nearly all these rocks and minerals are decomposed or in process of alteration, and
that they nearly all contain protoxides of iron and manganese combined with silicic acid,
a.s for instance in augites, hornblendes, magnetite, and the easily alterable basic volcanic
glasses. It is known besides that sea- water contains free or loosely-combined carbonic

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

375

acid, furnished by the decomposition of organic substances, or augmented in certain cases by
gaseous emanations from submarine volcanic centres. Here all the conditions are favour-
able for the formation of manganese nodules. In the plastic materials of the broth-like ooze
or clay we may picture the reactions that take place. The fragments of rocks and minerals
yield earthy and alkaline carbonates, which go into solution along with carbonates of the
protoxides of iron and manganese. The carbonates of the protoxides are in turn decomposed,
absorbing and combining with oxygen in solution in sea-water ; they are precipitated as
sesquioxide of iron and peroxide of manganese in the mud, clay, or ooze, whilst clay and
precipitated silica represent the insoluble portion of the original mineral. The oozy surface
layers of the deposit and the immediately superincumbent water must, from many indica-
tions, be regarded as the seat of these reactions.

At whatever point at the surface of the deposit a particle of peroxide of manganese
be formed and deposited, this will gradually attract from solution all the manganese in
the neighbourhood. It is well known that the higher oxides of iron and manganese
possess in an eminent degree the property of taking a nodular or botryoidal form.
Especially do they affect this concretionary and dendritic disposition when formed in a
plastic or fluid medium, like the deep-sea deposits. In such a plastic mass precipitation
commences generally around some solid substance ; this first deposit initiates attractive
molecular actions, collecting around itself substances of the same nature disseminated in
solution in the water of the adjacent layers of the deposit. In this way have originated
the nodules in the clays of geological formations, in particular the concretions of car-
bonate of iron in shales and septarian nodules in clays.

In the deep sea the points of attraction have been nuclei of various kinds, such as
sharks’ teeth, earbones of Cetaceans, Sponges, and volcanic fragments, as pointed out in
the foregoing descriptions. Concretionary deposits of salts of manganese and iron have
taken place around these centres in definite well-marked layers of different degrees of
purity. There is no reason to suppose that, like, for example, the spherosiderites, the
deep-sea nodules were deposited as carbonates and subsequently converted into oxides
by pseudomorphism ; according to our view the oxides have been formed from solution
simultaneously with deposition.

As these concretionary deposits must necessarily in the process of formation embrace
the surrounding argillaceous matter containing numerous organic and inorganic particles,
it is evident that these substances have been inclosed in the body of the nodules with
increase in size. The foreign materials thus mechanically inclosed during the growth of
the nodules produce zones of a lighter colour, which alternate with darker ones where the
manganese is purer and more compact. From the study of the zonary arrangement in
the nodules, it becomes evident that the deposit of manganese is more rapid or more
abundant at some periods than at others. The dendritic arrangement traversing the
earthy zones, pointed out in the description of the microscopic structure, as well as the

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

37 6

aspect of the demangaiiescd nodules, show, however, that the deposition of iron and
nuinganese during the formation of the nodules has been continuous.

This variation in the abundance of manganese deposited at different times may be
explained by the variable quantity of carbonic acid in the sea-water, or the new additions
of volcanic materials. Everything seems to indicate that these concretions increase in
size with extreme slowness, and during their formation the chemical conditions of the
solvent may have undergone many changes. The emanations of carbonic acid from sub-
marine volcanic regions may have varied in intensity, for it is known that such variations
take place with terrestrial volcanoes, according to the phase of the phenomena and the
distance from the centre of eruption, and in a few deep-sea waters the Challenger found
a great excess of carbonic acid.

It has been shown that large numbers of the nodules have two surfaces, separated
externally by a median line ; the superior surface is relatively smooth, and evidently pro-
jected above the clay or ooze, while the inferior one being much rougher and covered
with asperities was without doubt plunged in the deposit. The layers of -water resting on
the deposit must be regarded as almost stationary, while we know that oozy deposits have
but little consistence for the depth of at least 6 or 12 inches below the surface. There
is a large body of evidence to show that it is in these conditions that the reactions result-
ing in the formation of manganese nodules have taken place.

In certain geological formations phenomena in every way similar to those taking place
in the deep sea are observed ; the concretionary substances are observed to have been
eliminated from the mass of the rock, and to have accumulated in certain points in the
form of nodules. The concentration of silica in the flints in limestones and chalk might
be cited as an example. At Station 252 there is a parallel example in the deep sea ; here
there was a remarkable haul of manganese nodules containing between 20 and 30 per cent,
of manganese peroxide, while the light coloured Red Clay in which they were imbedded con-
tained only a trace of this substance, the oxide being entirely concentrated in the nodules.
Where manganese nodules occur in greatest abundance, however, the clays are generally
of a chocolate colour due to the presence of immense numbers of minute brown grains of
manganese, which serve as a pigment to the deposit.

When we turn to a consideration of the remarkable localisation of the manganese in
certain regions of the ocean, and of the altered volcanic materials which there accompany
the nodules, facts are met with which throw a stronger light on their mode of formation
as well as on the source of the manganese. Should it be admitted, for instance, that the
manganese comes from the surface where the dissolved carbonates would be, by elimina-
tion of tlie carbonic acid, transformed into oxides and precipitated to the bottom of the
sea there to accumulate, this gives no explanation of the geographical distribution, nor of
the mincralogical associations of the nodules at the points where they are most abundant.
We have repeatedly stated that the decomposition of volcanic products gives rise to clay,

REPORT ON" THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

877

and these alterations should also give birth to the oxides of the manganese nodules, they
being in a manner the complement to the formation of clay. These concretions are
characteristic of the great oceanic depths, and especially of the red clay areas. Their
peculiar form, their nuclei, their mineralogical and organic associations, distinguish them
from the similar hydrated minerals of manganese and iron found in shallow water or on
the continents, from which they differ also by the small quantity of barium they contain.
It is with difficulty that traces of barium can be detected in these oceanic nodules, while
it is well known that this is a frequent, sometimes abundant, constituent in terrestrial
manganiferous minerals, and even in some nodules from terrigenous deposits.^ The man-
ganiferous minerals containing baryta must have been derived directly from the action
of water on the ancient series of rocks, and this leads in another direction to the same
conclusions as to the origin of the deep-sea nodules, for recent volcanic rocks contain
little, if any, barium.^

In addition to the silicates, and in certain cases organic remains, some at least of the
manganese nodules contain many relatively rare elements, such as nickel, cobalt, copper,
zinc, lead, thallium, vanadium, as will be seen by reference to Dr Gibson’s analysis. The
source of these elements must be found in the volcanic rocks undergoing decomposition.
They may exist originally either in the silicates or in the magnetic and titanic iron, and,
after the alteration of these minerals, may be for the most part precipitated in the form
of oxide in the presence of the alkaline sea-waters.

At first sight it may appear strange that these masses of manganese in the form of
nodules should be derived from the decomposition of eruptive rocks and minerals, but
care should be taken not to form an exaggerated idea of the quantity of manganese
present in the deposit relatively to the other substances. In the nodules themselves the
percentage of iron often exceeds that of manganese, and in the surrounding deposit the
iron is in much greater abundance, indeed, there may be only a trace of manganese.
Again, the quantity of clay, both in the nodules and in the deposit, is always very
large, sometimes approaching to one-half of the whole.

It must not be forgotten that while the sea-water may dissolve a large number of other
substances, and carry them away in solution, the higher oxides of these metals remain
insoluble and accumulate in the deposits, for they do not enter in notable proportion into
organic circulation ; in consequence of their stability they do not undergo any alteration
from the various solvents contained in the sea-water with which they are bathed.

Among the considerations which go to show that manganese nodules increase at a
very slow rate, the following may be mentioned : —

^ Commander A. Carpenter dredged off Colombo in the Indian Ocean, in 675 fathoms, small round nodules
containing Globigerina shells, and 75 per cent, of sulphate of barium (see E. J. Jones, “ On some Nodular Stones obtained
by trawling off Colombo in 675 fathoms of water,” Journ. Asiatic Soc. of Bengal, vol. Ivi. pp. 209-212, 1887).

^ But the reason of the absence or rarity of barium may not improbably be that the barium is converted by
sea-water into sulphate, which would have no tendency to precipitate along with manganese.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

48

378

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

1. The orgauisins which in many instances cover them continue to live even while

the depositions are taking place. This shows evidently that in the ordinary
progress of the phenomena only minute particles of the substance are deposited
during the life-period of these animals.

2. All the pelagic deposits, in which these nodules are found in abundance, must

increase much more slowly than the terrigenous deposits, and in all those
pelagie deposits, like the Eed Clays, where the calcareous organisms are wholly
removed in solution, the rate of deposition must be exeeedingly slow.

3. The highly-altered state of the basie and other fragments of volcanic glass shows

that they must have lain a long time in the surface layers of the deposit
exposed to the action of sea- water.

4. The greater abundance of sharks’ teeth, bones of Cetaceans, crystals of phillipsite,

cosmic spherules, in the areas where nodules are numerous, than in other
deposits, points also to a slow rate of accumulation, for, a priori, there is no
reason why these should be more abundant in these manganese regions except
the fact that they are not covered over and masked by such an abundance of
foreign materials as at other points of the deep sea. That some of the sharks’
teeth, for instance, are covered by deep layers of manganese, while others lying
alongside of them in the deposit have little or no manganese, indicates that some
have lain on the bottom for a much longer time than others, and that there has
been but little increase in the thickness of the deposit during the interval.

5. We have pointed out that nodules sometimes occur in Globigerina Oozes, as for

instance at Station 297, but here they are not accompanied in the dredgings
and trawlings by sharks’ teeth, earbones of whales, zeolites, nor cosmic spherules,
apparently from the more rapid accumulation due to the presence of the
Foraminifera. In this and other deposits there are, however, many fragments
of altered basic volcanic glass, which indicate proximity to submarine eruptions.

III. Glauconite.

Among the minerals of modern marine deposits, glauconite is one of the most intere.st-
ing as well as one of the most widely distributed. This interest arises from the facts that
it is one of the restrictecl number of silicates formed at the present day on the sea-bed,
and that it is not universally distributed over the floor of the ocean, but is limited to the
deposits forming along continental shores. The glauconitic grains found in marine deposits
pre.sent, moreover, Ixjth in form and size, a complete analogy with those found at different
horizons in the geological series of rocks, from the Cambrian period up to the most recent
Tertiary layers. We are thus dealing with a mineral species that i)lays a very con-

REPORT Ois" THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

379

siderable role both in space and in time, concerning whose mode of formation there has
been much controversy, without any very definite solution being arrived at. We propose,
in the first instance, to point out its mode of occurrence in modern seas, its essential
characters, its geographical and bathymetrical distribution, its organic and mineral
associations, and thereafter to discuss the various hypotheses that have been advanced
concerning its origin in modern seas and in geological formations.

Mode of Occurrence and Macroscopic Characters. — Among the collections made by
the U.S.S. “Tuscarora” along the coast of California are several specimens of dark green
or black sands composed almost entirely of grains of glauconite, a little less than a mil-
limetre in diameter. There were a few Foraminifera and mineral particles other than
glauconite, of about the same dimensions, mixed with these dark green grains. If the
samples which we have examined were in the same condition as when procured from the
bottom of the sea, the deposits along this coast in depths of from 100 to 300 fathoms are
the purest glauconitic sands that have hitherto been discovered in existing seas. The
Challenger collections, and other collections examined by us from different parts of the
world, have not yielded glauconitic sands so free from admixture with other materials
as those among the ‘‘ Tuscarora” soundings. The most typical glauconitic sands of the
Challenger collections contain from 40 to 50 per cent, of Foraminiferous and other
carbonate of lime shells, together wuth the remains of siliceous organisms. As a rule the
glauconitic particles in a sample of Green Sand or Mud are not very apparent till after all
the carbonate of lime shells have been removed by means of dilute acid ; the residue left
after such treatment is usually of a mottled green or brown colour, and consists of
numerous dark green grains of glauconite, together with the casts of Foraminifera and
other calcareous organisms in a paler green, or even brown, colour. This appearance is
represented in PL XXIV. fig. 1, in the residue of a Green Sand from 150 fathoms, ojff
the Cape of Good Hope ; and again in fig. 2 of the same plate, in the residue of a
Green Mud from 410 fathoms, off the coast of Australia. In fig. 3 of the same plate,
the residue of a Coral Sand is represented, from off the Great Barrier Eeef of Australia,
near Eaine Island, and it will be observed that in this deposit the residue is for the most
part made up of the brown-coloured casts of Foraminifera, only a few of them having a
greenish tint, while typical glauconitic grains are absent.

The individual grains of glauconite that occur in marine deposits rarely if ever exceed
1 mm. in diameter, although they may occasionally be agglomerated into nodules cemented
b57- a phosphatic substance several centimetres in diameter, as represented in PL XX. fig. 1.
The typical grains are always rounded, often mammillated, hard, black or dark green,
some of the grains being completely covered with a pale green pellicle ; their surface is
sometimes dull and sometimes shining. They have occasionally the vague form and
appearance of Foraminifera and other organisms ; mixed with the typical grains, how-
ever, as may be seen by reference to the figures on PL XX lY., are numerous pale green

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER,

:iS0

particles which boar distinctly the impress of the calcareous shells. Many, indeed, are
internal casts reproducing with great distinctness and sharpness the form of the chambers
in which the glauconite has been developed. Some of the casts have a brown colour
presenting few of the characters of typical glauconite, and it will be seen that these
pale-coloured or brownish casts predominate in the residue represented in PI. XXIV.
fig. 3. When the residue of a Green Sand is shaken up with abundance of water, it may
be separated by decantation into three distinct portions, the one composed mostly of the
dark green grains of typical glauconite,^ the second in which the pale green casts pre-
dominate,^ and the third consisting for the most part of the white, pale grey, yellow, and
brownish casts,®

When a sample of a typical Green Mud is hardened and cut into a thin microscopic
section, it will be observed that a large number of the chambers of the Foraminifera and
the areolar spaces in Echinoderm spines and other calcareous structures are empty, while
others are partially filled with a small quantity of a brownish semi-transparent substance.
This brownish material may fill one or two of the chambers, or may simply coat their
internal surface ; in this way we may pass from shells only partially to those completely
filled. It may frequently be observed that some of the smaller chambers have a
distinctly green colour, while the larger ones are yellow or brownish ; other shells, again,
are filled with a dark green substance, which presents all the characters of typical glauco-
nite. A transition may thus be traced from the pale brown substance lining some of the
chambers of the Foraminifera to the pale green substance that forms a complete cast ;
this again passes into the dark green glauconitic grains. No external casts formed of matter
deposited on the outside of the Foraminiferous shells have ever been observed, although
exceptionally some shells presented a greenish coating of apparently glauconitic matter.
Very frequently the reddish imperfect casts of the Foraminifera gave the reaction of
phosphate of lime. In PI. XXV. numerous particles of glauconite are represented as they
appear within the shells and in an isolated condition ; in many instances the shell
appears to have been broken or thrown off by the continued growth of the internal
glauconitic nucleus, the further growth eventually transforming the internal cast into an
irregular glauconitic grain with a mammillated and furrowed surface ; the figures on this
plate show all the transitions between these phases in the formation of glauconite. In
many samples of Green ^luds and Sands are numerous minute particles about the same
size as the glauconitic grains, and having the same furrowed and mammillated surface, of
a brownish or green colour, but these from their internal structure are apparently highly
altered grains of crystalline, 8chisto-cr}'stalline, and other rocks (see PI. XXV. figs. 2, 3).
Finally, it may be added, there is often associated with the glauconite in the Green
Muds from tlic shallower depths, an amorphous brownish green substance which either is.

* Stc 8fl and 87.

* See Analysis 85.

* See Analysis 84.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

381

or is associated with, organic matter, for on heating on a platinum plate it burns, becomes
black, and finally assumes the brown colour of oxide of iron.

Microscopic Characters. — The thin slides of glauconite become transparent during
the polishing process, and have a beautiful green tint ; they present no special structure,
being generally pretty homogeneous, except in the case of inclusions of foreign particles.
Sometimes on the edges the colour is a little deeper, but this is an exception, and is
possibly an indication of the commencement of alteration. The normal green tint may
also, in cases of decomposition, pass into reddish or brownish, which is seen as a zone on
the edges or even throughout the whole extent of the grain in section. We have
never been able to observe in glauconite a sensible dicroscopism, and, as already
stated, this homogeneous mass does not show any structure with ordinary light.
In PI. XXV. fig. 1 some sections of glauconite are represented as seen in polarised light.
Between crossed nicols it presents a characteristic aspect ; it never extinguishes at
one time throughout the whole extent of the observed section. It shows aggregate
polarisation, which presents itself in the following manner. The glauconitic particles
have indefinite contours, and appear dotted with little points united the one to the other,
and polarising with a bluish green tint. These deep-coloured points are detached from a
base generally yellow or yellowish green in colour. The dotted parts of a bluish green
colour more or less deep form a rather close network, which is very vague as to
its contours ; this network is seen in characteristic form in the two circular sections
in PI. XXV. fig. 1. The outlines of the sections of glauconite are not clearly defined,
and the relief is feeble. Glauconite is never seen with a zonary structure, except
in cases where alteration has commenced or where it shows, as previously mentioned,
a border of a deeper colour following the external contours ; nor does it present a fibro-
radiate or a concretionary structure. Sometimes the microscope shows vaguely that
around the grains there is a colourless zone of slight thickness, in which the arms of
the cross of spherolithic concretions may be observed. Microscopic examination appears
to show that the substance of glauconite itself is quite homogeneous. Sometimes, how-
ever, and especially when this mineral is enclosed in Foraminiferous shells, it includes,
in the largest or terminal chamber, mineral particles similar to those in the sediment in
which it is formed ; among these particles the most frequent are quartz and magnetite,
the latter of which may be extracted by the magnet. There may also be seen a darkish
powder, the feeble yellowish reflections of which might w’ell indicate pyrites. In some
sections the form of some of the chambers of the shells of Foraminifera appears to be
vaguely outlined. When the grains have undergone alteration, these sections not only
show a brownish or reddish tint, from the presence of hydrate of iron, but this altera-
tion is frequently accompanied by cracks traversing the glauconite in many directions.
The seetions of the glauconitic casts appear in the preparations with all the
characteristic contours of the organisms in which they have been moulded, and the

382

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

microscopic details apply equally to these, at least when they have taken on the
characteristic green colour of glauconite.

Geographical and Bathymetrical Distrihution. — Bailey in 1856 and subsequently
Pourtalbs, during an examination of samples procured off the Atlantic coast of North
America, appear to have been the first to call attention to the occurrence of glauconite in
modern marine deposits, Ehrenberg having previously pointed out its existence in the
chambers of Foraminifera in many geological formations. During the last thirty years
the examination of samples of marine deposits, from nearly all parts of the great ocean
basins, has yielded a large amount of information with reference to the distribution of
glauconite and glauconitic casts over the floor of the ocean. The Tables of Chapter II.
show that in the Challenger samples, glauconite was almost exclusively limited to terri-
genous deposits in more or less close proximity to the continental masses of land, while
it was relatively rare or wholly absent from pelagic deposits situated towards the centres
of the great ocean basins. It is characteristic of, and occasionally very abundant in.
Green Muds and Sands, and is almost always present, though in smaller quantity, in
Blue Muds. It is also present in samples of Globigerina Ooze situated at no great
distance from the continents, in which the debris of continental land is relatively
abundant. It may even be recognised in samples of Eed Clay and other truly
pelagic deposits, if these be in positions to which continental debris is transported
by floating ice, or to which continental dusts are transported by winds. It is
doubtful if any typical examples of glauconite have been discovered in the Volcanic
Muds and Sands surrounding oceanic islands, although a few pale-coloured casts
have been noticed in the muds off the Crozets and the New Hebrides. Glauconite
is also absent from Coral Muds and Sands, except when these are formed off
continental shores. Where the detrital matters from rivers are exceedingly abundant,
and where there is apparently a rapid accumulation, glauconite, though present, is
relatively rare ; on the other hand, along high and bold coasts where no rivers
enter the sea, and where accumulation is apparently less rapid, glauconite appears
in its most typical form and greatest abundance.

The Challenger met with glauconite in greater or less abundance off the coast of
Portugal, off the west coast of Africa, off’ the east coast of North America, the Cape of
Good Hope, the Antarctic Continent, the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, the coasts
of the Philippines, China, and Japan, and the west coast of South America. It has been
fouiul in the Mediterranean, off the north coast of Scotland, off the west coast of North
America, off the east coast of Africa, and in many other regions, by other expeditions.
During the cruise of the Challenger, glauconite was not recognised in any of the deposits
after leaving the coast of Japan till the expedition neared the coast of Chili, thus pre-
senting an excellent illustration, in the case of the Pacific, in support of the general
statement that glauconite is not at the j>resent time in process of formation in the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

883

central portions of the great ocean basins, while it is more or less characteristic of all the
deposits now being laid down around, continental shores.

With reference to its bathymetrical distribution, it appears to be most abundant
about the lower limits of wave, tidal, and current action, or in other words, in the
neighbourhood of what we have termed the mud-line surrounding continental shores. In
the shallower depths beyond this line, that is to say, in depths of about 200 and 300
fathoms, the typical glauconitic grains are more abundant than in deeper water, but
glauconitic casts may be met with in deposits in depths of over 2000 fathoms. No
typical glauconitic sands have, so far as we know, been recorded in process of formation
in the littoral or sub-littoral zones.

Organic and Mineral Associations. — From what has been said above as to the geo-
graphical and bathymetrical distribution of glauconite, it is at once evident that the
mineral species associated with glauconite in marine deposits must be those which we
have mentioned as more or less characteristic of terrigenous deposits, in contradistinction
to those that are the chief mineral constituents of pelagic deposits. It is, further, asso-
ciated with the minuter fragments of the rocks and minerals of continental land, for, as
we have seen, its greatest development takes place just beyond the limit of wave and
current action, or, in other words, where the fine muddy particles commence to make up
a considerable portion of the deposits. It has, consequently, a restricted development
in the shallow-water and littoral zones, where the coarser fragments prevail, and are
continually subject to disintegration and transport by the mechanical forces of the sea.
Glauconite is almost always accompanied by quartz, orthoclase often kaolinised, white
mica, plagioclase, hornblende, magnetite, garnet, epidote, tourmaline, zircon, and frag-
ments of ancient rocks, such as gneiss, mica-schists, chloritic rocks, granite, diabase, &c.
In addition to these minerals there seems always to be associated with glauconite, in
modern deposits, a considerable quantity of organic matter, often apparently of a
vegetable nature. The glauconitic grains frequently contain traces of phosphate of lime,
and make up a considerable part of some phosphatic nodules, so that phosphate of lime
may be said to be one of its constant accompaniments. Volcanic rocks and minerals are,
of course, frequently found in the same deposits as glauconite, for we have seen that
they are universally distributed over the floor of the ocean ; but as glauconite never
occurs, or at least only exceptionally or doubtfully, in true Volcanic Muds and Sands,
those minerals and rocks cannot be regarded as constant associates of glauconite.

From the fact that glauconite is almost always associated with Foraminifera and
other calcareous organisms, and, indeed, originates in the hollow chambers and areolar
spaces of these organic structures, these might be considered as essential to its occurrence,
still it should be pointed out that there is not a trace of glauconite in many Coral Muds
and Sands and in many Pteropod and Globigerina Oozes. When it is found in these
calcareous deposits it is always possible to detect a considerable quantity of mineral

384

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

particles belonging to the ancient or continental rocks in the residue after the removal of
the carbonate of lime. In like manner, when glauconite is found in a Red Clay or
Diatom Ooze, traces of continental debris can always be detected during the microscopical
examination of the mineral constituents. The Red Clays, for instance, off the west coast
of Africa and the coast of Australia, and towards the polar regions, contain apparently
wind-borne or ice-borne particles of quartz, orthoclase, white mica, epidote, zircon, and
fragments of gneissic and granitic rocks ; and it may be urged either that the glauconite
has been transported to these deposits at the same time or has been formed in consequence
of the association with the above minerals. The view that it has been formed in situ
is probably the correct one, for we have seen that it is thus formed in shallower water
deposits like the Green Sands, where its associations are much more distinctly marked
and its progressive development more easily traced. Finally, we may again point out
that glauconite is now being formed in those marine deposits in more or less close
proximity to continental shores, where the debris of ancient rocks makes up a large part
of the deposit, and especially in those regions where this debris has been for a long
time exposed to the action of sea-water, and has consequently undergone profound
alteration.

When describing the Red Muds off the coast of Brazil, it was stated that glauconite
and glauconitic casts appear to be completely absent from these deposits. These Red
hluds differ from the vast majority of terrigenous deposits in the large quantity of
ochreous materials borne to these regions by the rivers of South America. In the
deposits in the Yellow Sea glauconite would also seem to be absent from similar Red
^luds. In these positions all the conditions for the formation of glauconite are, so far as
we can judge, present, with the exception that the iron is all in a higher state of oxidation
than in the Green and Blue Muds ; but in what way this can prevent the formation of
glauconite is difficult to explain satisfactorily.

Geological Distnhution. — The geographical and bathymetrical distribution, as well as
the mineralogical associations of glauconite above pointed out, become especially interest-
ing and instructive when we recall the analogies which they present to what has taken
place in past geological times. It has already been stated that glauconite is one of the
minerals most widely distributed in sedimentary rocks. It is found in the primary
formations of Russia and Sweden among sands and gravels, in the Cambrian sandstone
of North America, in the Quebec group of Canada, and in the coarse Silurian sands of
Boliemia. In the secondary formations its presence is more pronounced — for example,
ill tlie Lias, and especially in the middle and upper layers of the Jurassic system in
Russia, in Franconia, in Suabia, and in England. It has a still greater development in
the sands, marls, and chalks of the Cretaceous formation; it will suffice to recall the
glauconitic rocks of tlie Neocomian, of the Gault, and of the Cenomanian in various
regions, sucli as the glauconitic marls of France, Germany, England, and several parts of

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

385

North America. This abundance of glauconite is continued into the Tertiary formations,
from the lowest up to the highest horizons of the series.

From this rapid enumeration it will be seen that glauconite traverses the whole of
the geological periods, and its formation is continued in modern deposits along many
continental shores explored by the Challenger and other expeditioDS. A remarkable
analogy is also found between the size of the grains now formed in marine deposits and
that of the grains found in the geological series of rocks. It has been stated that some
of the grains in the primary formations are of very large size — several centimetres in
diameter. All the specimens of this kind, however, which we have been able to examine
are found, on microscopic examination, to be made up of an agglomeration of grains rarely
exceeding a few millimetres in diameter, and therefore closely resembling the glauconitic
nodules or aggregations dredged by the Challenger on the Agulhas Bank off the Cape
of Good Hope, in depths of 100 and 150 fathoms.

It is also important here to point out the association that exists in geological formations
between glauconitic and sandy calcareous deposits, and the absence or rarity of glauconite
in formations of pure chalk, or in nearly pure carbonate of lime deposits ; glauconite may
therefore be regarded as having been formed either in deep water not far from the coasts
or in shallow water at parts of the coast where no large quantity of continental debris was
deposited. This fact is significant, as it appears to prove the coast and subcoast character
of these glauconitic deposits in past geological times, which consequently present a com-
plete analogy with the glauconitic deposits of modern seas, both with respect to the
conditions under which they were formed and their mineralogical composition. These
analogies likewise prove the continuity of geological phenomena and the presence of
nearly identical conditions in the sea during long periods in the history of the globe ; they
indicate that the presence of terrigenous matters, directly derived from the disintegration
of continental land, is a necessary condition for the formation of glauconite, and this fact
must be taken account of in any discussion bearing upon the origin of this mineral.

Chemical Composition and Mode of Formation. — While it must be admitted
that we have arrived at certain definite and satisfactory conclusions as to the condi-
tions under which glauconite is found in our present seas, as well as in geological
formations, we are far from having at our disposal all the facts necessary for a complete
explanation of its mode of origin. So many possible reactions may take place in the
deposits being laid down in existing seas, that it is difficult to be certain that any one of
them is necessarily the one which has been followed in the deposition of this silicate in
the terrigenous deposits. The explanations that are given with reference to the formation
of glauconite must then be more or less hypothetical ; it is not to be wondered at that
its origin has remained for a long time enigmatical, and that the researches of numerous
mineralogists up to the present time have not led to any very definite results. The
chemical analyses of glauconite have been very numerous ; but, from the nature of the
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 49

386

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

mineral and the peculiarities of its occurrence, it is impossible to be sure that the analyst
has always been dealing with a pure substance ; indeed, microscopic examination of
Siimples that have been submitted to analysis shows that there is often an admixture of
foreign mineral particles, and that the individual grains of glauconite in the sample do not
always present uniform external characters ; this in all probability accounts largely for
the variable composition. The following analyses of glauconite formed in modern seas
present in their principal features a great analogy with the composition of the same
mineral in geological formations. Amongst the numerous analyses of glauconite that of
a specimen of the chalk of New Jersey by Sterry Hunt^ gives the closest approximation
to the figures obtained in analysing what we consider typical modern glauconite (Station
164b, Nos. 86, 87). But a glance at the analyses shows how much this mineral may vary
in composition, although the physical characters seem to be the same. These divergences
are more marked when we compare the figures of the analyses of paler grains associated
with the darker ones at the same station (No. 84 compared with Nos. 86 and 87). All
that can be said is that the glauconite now forming on the bottom of the sea is, like the
glauconite of geological formations, a hydrous silicate of potash and of ferric oxide, contain-
ing always variable quantities of alumina, ferrous oxide, magnesia, and often lime. If we
compare the figures of the two analyses with the mean composition of glauconite given by
Haushofer,^ we see that all the percentages, except those of silica and perhaps water, difier
greatly from the figures given in our analyses. The analysis No. 88 resembles that of de-
composed glauconite, and the composition of this specimen may be compared with that of
the altered glauconite of Kressenberg, given by Haushofer® ; the high percentages of per-
oxide of iron and water point to a decomposition of this mineral which has been transformed
into limonite, as is often the case in glauconite from the geological strata, with loss of silicic
acid and of pota,sh, but this interpretation can hardly be given for this specimen, which
consisted of casts from a Coral Sand off the Great Barrier Reef of Australia. There can
be no doubt that glauconite is a mixture, and this fact not only renders it difficult to fix
its constitution, but also renders difficult any interpretation of the mode of formation.

We give here the analyses of some specimens of glauconite collected during the
expedition. The substance used for Analysis No. 84 contained 65 per cent, of white, pale
grey, and some yellow casts, 20 per cent, of pale green casts, 11 per cent, of dark green
casts, along with 4 per cent, of mineral jiarticles and siliceous organisms. The substance
used for Analysis No, 8.5 contained 15 per cent, of white, pale grey, and yellow casts,
35 per cent, of pale green casts, 45 per cent, of dark green particles, together with 5 per
cent, of mineral particles and siliceous organisms. The substance used for Analysis
No. 86 contained 10 per cent, of white, pale grey, and yellow casts, 25 per cent, of pale

* Sterry Hunt, Minernl Pliysiology and Physiography, p. 198, Boston, 1886.

* Hausliofer, Journal f. jrrnkt. Chemie, Bd. xcvii. pp. 363-364, and Bd. xeix. pp. 237-8, 1666.
iiausliofer, loc. cit., Bd. xcvii. p. 368.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

387

green casts, 60 per cent, of dark green casts, along with. 5 per cent, of mineral particles
and siliceous organisms. The substance used for Analysis No. 87 contained 30 per cent,
of white, pale grey, and yellow casts, 40 per cent, of pale green casts, 20 per cent, of dark
green casts, together with 10 per cent, of mineral particles and siliceous organisms. The
substance used for Analysis No. 88 contained about 10 per cent, of mineral particles
similar to those mentioned in the description of the deposit (see p. 93), in spite of every
care to obtain the red-coloured casts as pure as possible.

Station.

Depth

in

Fathoms.

No.

SiO^

ai,03

Fe20s

FeO

MnO

CaO

MgO

K2O

Na20

H2O

Total.

164b

410

84

56-62

12-54

15-63

1-18

trace

1-69

2-49

2-52

0-90

6-84

100-41

164b

410

85

50-85

8-92

24-40

1-66

trace

1-26

3-13

4-21

0-25

5 55

100-23

164b

410

86

51-80

8-67

24-21

1-54

trace

1-27

3-04

3-86

0-25

5-68

100-32

164b

410

87

55-17

8-12

21-59

1-95

trace

1-34

2-83

3-36

0-27

5-76

100-39

185b

155

88

27-74

13-02

39-93

1-76

trace

1-19

4-62

0-95

0-62

10-85

100-68

While, then, there is a certain amount of agreement as to the chemical composition of
glauconite, there is a wide divergence of opinion as to the immediate conditions which
determine the formation of this mineral at the sea-bottom. Two principal opinions have
been expressed.’- Before the time of Ehrenberg attention had not been called to the
remarkable fact that the grains of glauconite sometimes carried the impress of the cal-
careous organisms in whose cavities they were moulded. He concluded that this mineral
was always formed through the activity of the creatures whose impress he had discovered.^
This opinion was disputed in 1860 by Reuss,^ who believed that the grains of glauconite
might be concretions, not moulds, formed outside of the Foraminiferous and other shells,
although he admits that some glauconitic grains are internal casts.

From all that we have already stated in this chapter, it appears certain that glauconit^^
is principally developed in the interior of Foraminiferous shells and other calcareous
structures, and that all the transitions can be observed from chambers filled with a
yellowish brown mass to grains that have almost completely lost the impress of the
organisms in which they were formed. From this fact, as well as from direct observations
of the various constituents of the deposits, it is uncertain, and indeed little probable, that
there are any minute grains of glauconite formed in a free state in the mud. We are
therefore inclined to regard glauconite as having its initial formation in the cavities of
calcareous organisms, although we have admitted above that some grains, which might be

1 For the various hypotheses as to the mode of formation of glauconite see Giimhel, “ Uber die Natur und
Bildungsweise des Glaukonits,” Sitzungsh. d. h. Akad. Munchen, Bd. xvi. Math. Phys. KL, pp. 417-449, 1886.

^ Ehrenberg, “ Ueher den Griinsand und seine Erlauterung des organischen Lehens,” Ahh. d. k. Akad. Wiss. Berlin,
1855, Phys. Ahh., pp. 85-176.

^ Reuss, “Einige Bemerkungen liber den Griinsand,” Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. TFiss. Wien, Bd. xl. Naturw. KL, pp.
167-172, 1860.

388

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

regcorded as glauconite, appear to be highly altered fragments of ancient rocks, or coatings of
this mineral on these rock fragments. It appears that the shells are broken by the swelling
out or the growth of the glauconite, and that subsequently the isolated cast becomes the
centre upon which new additions of the same substance take place, the grain enlarging and
becoming rounded in a more or less irregular manner,^ as in the case of concretionary sub-
stances like silica, for example, which forms moulds of fossils. We have already referred
to the size of certain alleged grains of glauconite found in geological formations ; even
if it be admitted that these large-sized grains are single individuals, and not agglomerations
of smaller grains, their occurrence might be explained by supposing them to have been
formed in Gasteropods and other calcareous organisms larger than Foraminifera.^

All the probabilities appear, then, to be in favour of the opinion that this silicate is
formed originally in the cavities of organisms, whose remains are deposited in the sedi-
ments of the sub-littoral and deeper zones of the sea. In the cavities and veins of rocks
in process of decomposition, green substances are frequently deposited, which for a long
time were confounded with glauconite. But chlorite and green earth, for example, which
are formed in this way, are minerals widely different from glauconite, and their formation
may be easily explained by taking into account the mineralogical and chemical changes
going on in these rocks. The initial stages of the formation of glauconite in these shells
are, in all probability, due to the action of organic matter, which incontestably influences
the precipitation of some mineral substances. In this case it must be admitted that the
organic matters, or the sarcode elements of the organisms fallen from the surface or
living on the bottom, ought to remain in the interior of the shells, at least temporarily.
After the death of the organisms their shells are slowly filled with the fine mud in which
they are deposited. The existence of this organic matter in these cavities, and the absence
of all other causes which might there induce the deposition of the silicates, in fact, the

* The increase by new additions of glauconitic material is indicated by the fact that in rare cases the glauconitic
casts of Foraminifera shells are found entirely enveloped by subsequent depositions of that mineral. In such a case it
must be admitted that after the glauconite has broken the chambers of the Foraminifera it has continued to play the
role of centre of attraction, and that the same matter has been continually deposited around this nucleus, thus causing
the primitive form of the cast to disappear.

* Giimlx;!, who does not admit that certain grains of glauconite have been moulds in organisms, because of their
large siise and regular form, without trace of organic impress, suggests the following interpretation: — He compares them
with entooliths, and mainbiins that the gases disengaged by the decomposition of organic matters, contained in the
sediments where glauconite is formed, play a role in the formation of these glauconitic granules. These gases are the
hydrocarlwns, carlxjnic acid, and hydrosulphuric acid, which form bubbles of different dimensions that remain a long
time in the muddy deposits and attach themselves to the grains of sand or aggregates of the mud, grouping themselves
in a varied manner. At the surface of these bubbles reactions bike place, provoked by the action of the gas upon the
Isxlies held in solution in the sea-water, and a deposit of these bodies takes place there; it is usually carbonate of lime
and silica that are thus deposited, and in this case glauconite would form the crust around the bubble. If this crust be
formed it will be; filled by intussusception in the same solution that has given birth to the primordial glauconitic sphere.
If they were bubbles of sulphuretted hydrogen, pyrites would be formed in them at the .same time as the glauconite; if
at the same time there were disengagement of hydrocarbons there would be formed in the presence of iron, magnetite
(by rerluctinii) similar to that found enclosed in the grains of glauconite {loc. cit., pp. 4.35-4.39). We felt bound to notice
these views, but everything connected with them appears very hypothetical.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

389

constant association of these phenomena, appear to demonstrate the existence of a relation
of cause and effect. Formerly the role of organic matter in the formation of glauconite
was specified by saying that it determined a reduction of the iron to the state of protoxide,
but this interpretation is not admissible at the present time, for we have seen by the
analyses that iron exists in glauconite in the state of peroxide. It may be urged that
an infiltration pure and simple of the solution which forms glauconite into the cavities
of the organisms takes place, the same as in a geode. This solution, being attracted by
the organic matter, may act upon the solid matters derived from the mud already
enclosed in the cavities of the organisms. This, however, does not appear to be the
most probable interpretation. In describing the microstructure of the glauconitic grains,
it was pointed out that inclusions of mud, of quartziferous particles, grains of magnetite
and other minerals, were sometimes observed, and that these probably pre-existed in the
shells before the development of the glauconite. It would appear that these enclosed
materials must have undergone with time a molecular modification, whose final term is
seen in the typical dark green granules, presenting feeble double refraction and aggregate
polarisation, and possessed of a greater hardness than the lighter coloured glauconitic
casts of organisms, in which a more earthy nature may be observed. It is certain that
very fine mud is washed into the Globigerina shells, and may penetrate through the
foramina. If we admit that the organic matter enclosed in the shell, and in the mud
itself, transforms the iron in the mud into sulphide, which may be oxidised into hydrate,
sulphur being at the same time liberated, this sulphur would become oxidised into
sulphuric acid, which would decompose the fine clay, setting free colloid silica, alumina
being removed in solution ; thus we have colloid silica and hydrated oxide of iron in a
condition most suitable for their combination. To explain the presence of potash in this
mineral, we must remember that, as we have shown when speaking of the formation of
palagonite under the action of sea-water, there is always a tendency for potash to
accumulate in the hydrated silicate formed in this way, and, as we have stated before, this
potash must have been derived from the sea-water.

If we recall the observations with reference to the geographical distribution and
mineralogical and lithological associations, it seems possible to suggest, with a consider-
able degree of certainty, the relative abundance of potash in the deposits where glauconite
is forming. It was pointed out that glauconite was always associated with terrigenous
minerals, and in particular with orthoclase more or less kaolinised and white mica, and
with the debris of granite, gneiss, mica-schists, and other ancient rocks. We cannot
fail to be struck with these relations, for it is just those minerals and rocks that
must give birth by their decomposition to potassium, derived from the orthoclase and
the white mica of the gneisses and the granites.^ The minute particles of these rocks

^ It has been shown in fact, by Guignet and Telles, that the water of the Bay of Rio Janeiro contains a large amount
of potassium salts evidently due to the presence of ancient rocks in this bay (see Comptes Ueiidus, tom. Ixxxiii. p. 919,
1876).

390

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

aiul minerals, which make up a large part of the muddy matters settling on the bottom
beyond the mud-line around continental shores, would readily yield under the action of
sea-water the chemical elements that are deposited in the form of glauconite in the
chambers of Foraminifera and other calcareous organisms.

Other Casts of Foraminifera. — In the Tables of Chapter II. it will be observed that
imperfect casts of Foraminifera are very frequently recorded in the residues after the
removal of the Foraminifera by dilute acid. In the great majority of instances these are
of a reddish or brownish colour, and appear to be formed of a substance which lined with
a thin coating the internal chambers of the shells. They hold together with some tenacity
in water, but immediately collapse when dried upon a platinum foil, and sometimes they
become black or burn, leaving a small reddish residue. At other times phosphates can be
detected in these imperfect casts. As a general rule, a few red-coloured more or less im-
perfect casts of the internal chambers of Foraminifera may be found in nearly all
calcareous deposits, but internal casts are only present in abundance in those regions
where glauconite is in process of formation, and have been fully referred to above.

At Station 176 in the South Pacific, large numbers of peculiar casts were observed in
a Globigerina Ooze from 1450 fathoms, which are markedly different from the glauconitic
casts. The Foraminifera, in the deposit from this station, presented a very mottled aspect
under the microscope, some of them being white or rose-coloured, as is usually the case in
a Globigerina Ooze, while others were brown or black, from a deposit of the peroxides of
iron and manganese on their outer surfaces. When a section is made through these black
or brown-coloured specimens, three zones can be distinguished : at the centre an internal
cast of the shell, then the white carbonate of lime shell itself, and outside this an external
cast of the same nature and aspect as the internal one, to which it is connected by little
pillars filling up the foramina of the shell (see PI. XL fig. 1). When the carbonate of
lime Ls removed from such specimens, it is seen that the external cast is in general not
thicker than the hollow space left by the removal of the shell, and that this external cast
can be partially separated from the internal one by the use of a little force. The general
appearance of these external and internal casts is represented in PI. XXIV. fig. 4, and
it will be observed that they differ, owing to the j^resence of the external casts united
to internal casts by little pillars, from the specimens represented in the other figures
on the .same plate, w’here we ob.scrve only internal glauconitic casts. The red-coloured
casts from this station offer considerable resistance to the action of acids and mechanical
effort, which seems to show at once that we are not dealing with a cast made up merely
by a simple filling of the shell with fine mud or clay. The red casts, when examined in
thin sections by transmitted light, are yellow or brown, scattered over by a fine granu-
lation, which is not affected between crossed nicols. When treated with warm hydro-
chloric acid we obtain, by elimination of the iron, colourless globules that appear to have
almost completely resisted the action of the acid, and are in all likelihood composed

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

391

principally of silica. When treated with alkaline carbonates, we have found that these
casts contain silica, alumina, lime and magnesia ; traces of alkalies were also detected.
They are evidently composed of a substance differing completely from glauconite, and due
to some special conditions in the immediate surroundings, for in this deposit there were
none of the conditions which are usually present in glauconitic deposits as regards mineral
and lithological associations and geographical position, the deposit at this station being a
Globigerina Ooze containing 61 per cent, of carbonate of lime, a few Radiolarians and
Diatoms, and a great abundance of volcanic debris.

IV. Phosphatic Concretions.

In the foregoing chapters of this work reference has frequently been made to the
presence of phosphate of lime in marine deposits. The bones and teeth from the
central parts of the Pacific, and the manganese nodules which have been formed around
organic centres, frequently yield considerable quantities of phosphate of lime. In the
Globigerina and other organic oozes, there is always a small quantitjq usually less
than 1 per cent., of phosphate of lime, while in the shallower water deposits around
continental shores there is usually a much larger percentage of phosphates. When
describing the glauconitic material of the Green Sands and Blue Muds, it was pointed
out that this substance was frequently associated with phosphate of lime in the interior
of the Foraminifera shells. We now propose to describe in detail certain phosphatic
concretions found in marine deposits, especially in those deposits in more or less close
proximity to continental shores, which present in many instances a most complete
analogy with similar concretions in geological formations. In these descriptions we
will deal especially with the nodules dredged at Station 141, 98 fathoms. Station 142,
150 fathoms, and Station 143, 1900 fathoms, for at these points the most typical
examples were procured ; the two former stations are situated on the outer edge of
the Agulhas Bank, south of the Cape of Good Hope, and the last in the deep water
nearly 100 miles south-east of the Bank.

Macroscopic Characters. — The concretions vary from 1 to 3 cm. in greatest
diameter ; exceptionally they may attain from 4 to 6 cm. in diameter. They are
surmounted by protuberances, penetrated by more or less profound perforations, and
have, on the whole, a capricious form, being sometimes mammillated, with rounded
contours, and at other times angular. Their surface has generally a glazed appearance,
and is usually covered by a thin dirty brown coating, a discolouration due to the oxides
of iron and manganese. This coating, which covers all parts of the concretions, usually
veils the mineralogical nature and aggregate structure. When they are regarded more
closely, the irregularities of the surface are frequently observed to be due to
heterogeneous fragments applied the one against the other, cemented by phosphatic

392

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

material which, as will be presently pointed out, forms the principal mass of most of
these little nodules. When examined on a fresh fracture, the greater part is seen to
be formed of a brownish yellow, slightly shining, compact matter, in which are
embedded black-brown granules of glauconite, that stand out on the broken surface,
together with other mineral grains and remains of microscopic organisms. These
concretions are hard and tenacious, the fundamental mass, in spite of its earthy aspect,
being compact, and having a hardness that does not exceed 5. The fracture is plane
or irregular and slightly granular. The matter forming the matrix presents the
pyrognostic reactions of phosphate of lime ; it is fusible with difficulty on the edges of
the splinters ; moistened with sulphuric acid it colours the blow-pipe flame with green ;
it is soluble in h)"drochloric acid. It may be added that the concretions from the
shallower depths were larger, contained much more glauconite, and presented a green-
coloured external appearance, while those from 1900 fathoms were of a light brown
colour.

Chemical Composition. — The determination arrived at from the above-mentioned
characters as to the phosphatic nature of the substance making up these nodules is
confirmed by the following analyses : —

Station* 142, 150 Fathoms, No. 72.

Ratio of
Equivalents.

Station 143, 1900 Fathoms, No. 73.

Ratio of
Equivalents.

PjOj,

19-96

0-422 1

^2^5’

23-54

0-498

C02,

12-05

0-274 >0-713

CO2, . .

10-64

0-242

S03, . .

1-37

0-017

SO3, . .

1=39

0-017

SiO.^

1-36

SiO.„

2-56

C.1O,

39-41

0-704)0.721

CaO‘,

40-95

0-731

MgO,

0-67

0-017 /

MgO, . .

0-83

0-021

1* G^Ojji

2-54

FC203,

2-79

AlA. •

1-19

AI2O3,

1-43

Loss,*

Loss,

3-65

Insoluble residue.

17-34

Insoluble residue.

11-93

-

95-89

99-71

AnahjinH of Imoluhle Residue, No. 72.

Analysis of Insoluble Residue, No.

SiOj,

77-43

SiOa,

76-58

A1.,0.„ .

12-40

AI2O3,

13-85

7-91

FeaOa,

7-93

CaO,

1-07

CaO,

1-27

MgO,

1-02

MgO,

1-18

99-83

100-81

‘ An accident in the operation prevented the determination of the Loss.

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

393

1

1

Portion Soluble in HCl.

Portion Insoluble in HCl.

1 station. I

Depth.

No.

Loss on
Ignition.

SiO,

ALO3

Fe^Oa

MnOo

CaCOj

CaS04

Ca32P04

MgCOj

Cu

Total.

SiO.4

■^k03jFe203

CaO

MgO

Total.

14S

1900

74

4-10

6-00

3-00

5-80

2-70

16-07

2-62

49-57

0-98

tr.

86-74

8-40

0-60

0-16

tr.

9-16 !

Microscopic Characters. — The microscopic examination of thin sections of the
phosphatic nodules shows that they present special peculiarities, depending on the
nature of the deposit in which they have been formed. The phosphate of lime is the
principal constituent, and presents the same characters in every one of the concretions
examined, but the nodules differ in the nature and abundance of the heterogeneous
particles cemented by the phosphate. These particles, whether of organic or mineral
origin, are seen to be the same as those in the deposits containing the concretions ; for
instance, the nodules from Station 142, where the deposit is a Green Sand, are princi-
pally composed (to the extent of two-thirds) of glauconitic particles, quartz, and silicates
(see PI. XX. fig. l), while in those from Station 143, Globigerina Ooze, the remains of
Foraminifera predominate (see PI. XX. figs. 2-4). In the first case, where the aggrega-
tions are formed of glauconitic and sandy particles, the phosphate pla5^s simply the role
of a cement interposed between the mineral grains. In the second case the phosphatic
matter is more abundant, not only cementing the particles but penetrating through the
cavities of the shells ; it fills up the spaces between the sections of the Foraminifera,
and plays in a manner the role of a fundamental mass, pseudomorphosing, sometimes
entirely, all the carbonate of lime of these organic remains.

The phosphatic concretions from the above-mentioned Green Sand show under the
microscope an agglutination of angular (rarely rounded) quartz grains, along with
rounded glauconitic grains, all of which are abundant in the deposit ; there is neither
pseudomorphism nor penetration of phosphate into the interior of the mineral particles ;
the phosphate plays only a relatively subordinate part, binding together the mineral
particles of the deposit (see PI. XX. fig. 1). It is distinguished by a brownish yellow
tint, and is seen interposed between the minerals as a network of phosphatic matter.
In the microscopic preparations isolated patches of phosphate, scarcely exceeding OT mm.
in diameter, are occasionally to be seen ; one may observe upon these larger patches that
the substance is concretionary ; they do not extinguish uniformly between crossed nicols,
but spots with indefinite contours and vague tints of polarisation appear, like those pre-
sented by very closely aggregated geodic minerals, chalcedony for example, or, better
still, certain zeolites.

The phosphatic concretions from the Globigerina Ooze in deeper water, 1900
fathoms (see PI. XX. figs. 2-4), present considerable differences from those dredged

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 50

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

:}94

ill the Green Sand from 100 and 150 fathoms. In the deep-water specimens there
is an abundance of calcareous organic remains, especially Khizopods, a diminution of
mineral particles, and a great preponderance of phosphatic matter. The phosphate
penetrates the sliells in every part, and pseudomorphoses them in a more or less complete
manner. It also forms large patches, enclosing organisms and minute mineral particles,
which do not show structure, properly speaking ; they are slightly brownish with
transmitted light, and appear to occupy the place of the muddy calcareous matter
usually found between the Foraminiferous shells in a Globigerina Ooze. These phos-
phatic patches are characterised by a certain opacity due to the inclusion of a crowd of
infinitesimal heterogeneous particles. It might be said that the phosphatic matter,
when infiltrating into the mud, had embraced and cemented all the immediately sur-
rounding impurities. Although, as already stated, these patches present no structure,
they are lined by a zone which resembles in character concretionary phosphate of lime
(see PI. XX. fig. 4). It might be suggested that the fundamental mass in solidifying
had concentrated the organic and mineral matters of the deposit, and in so doing had
left behind microscopical empty spaces, which had subsequently been fiilled by infiltra-
tions of a more homogeneous phosphate of lime, and that this was deposited in these
cavities in a manner resembling substances coating some geodes. These later additions
of phosphate of lime, being of purer matter, more transparent, slightly yellowish, have
solidified with the curvilinear contours and fibro-radiate structure of some concretionary
coatings. Between crossed nicols the fundamental mass of these sections can be seen
to remain without sensible action on polarised light, while the zone surrounding the
borders reacts in giving a rather vivid tint. In the same way the external parts of the
concretions offer in thin sections a border of transparent phosphate without inclusions,
and with concretionary structure, as if the later depositions had been formed of a more
homogeneous material (see PI. XX. figs. 3 and 4). The same observation is applicable
likewise to the infiltrations into the hollow spaces of the microscopic Foraminifera shells.

In these tliin sections the Foraminifera that have been aggregated by the phosphate
are sharjily distinguislied from it by the colourless calcareous matter of their shells.
Tlie interior formerly occupied by the sarcode is filled by a honey-coloured phosphate,
the pho.sphate infiltrated by the foramina of the PJiizopods being much purer than that
cementing the particles of the deposit ; but this deposition of phosphate in the interior
of the calcareous shells has sometimes been accompanied by brownish pigmentary
matters, which arc evidently hydrated oxide of iron associated with organic matters
(see PI. XX. fig. 2). The interiors of the Rhizopods in this way appear generally like
yellowish, or in some cases like little black, mas.ses limited by the calcareous enveloi)C of
the shell.

The infiltration of })hosphate is not always limited to the filling up of the
cavities of Foraminifera and other organisms ; a pseudomorphic substitution of the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

395

carbonate of lime of the shell is often observed. According to the structure or
thickness of the calcareous partitions, this substitution is more or less advanced ; some-
times the structure of the shell is more or less well preserved, but frequently it is
quite effaced. When the phosphate has invaded the interior of the Foraminifera, and
the calcareous partitions have not been touched by the pseudomorphism, the sections
of the partitions stand out pure and colourless, showing that the infiltrated matter
has penetrated by the foramina ; at other times the shell assumes a yellow appearance,
showing the first step towards phosphatisation (see PI. XX. fig. 3). When the filling-
up of a Foraminifer, for example, and the pseudomorphism of its shell are complete, the
phosphate, attracted around this little centre, continues to be added at the surface, and
thus a phosphatic granule is formed whose external appearance no longer recalls that of
the organism arcmnd which the phosphate has grouped itself. This observation is not
without importance in the interpretation of the origin of the phosphatic grains. The
study of microscopic sections of these Foraminifera confirms a fact often brought out in
descriptions of phosphatic fossils, viz., that the infiltration of the phosphate has a direct
relation, so to speak, to the fineness of the openings by which this matter must be
introduced. Thus a large number of the Foraminifera may be seen to be filled with
phosphate, while very often in the fundamental mass at the mouth of the shell there are
points where the phosphatisation has not taken place, being still dotted with particles of
carbonate of lime showing clearly the optic phenomena of that mineral. It may be
said that when the sections of shells of Foraminifera no longer exhibit the black cross
between crossed nicols, they are transformed into phosphate.

Sometimes the phosphate of lime takes on an ochreous or brownish tint, showing
that it is mixed, as already indicated, with manganiferous and ferruginous matters
— its usual accompaniments in marine sediments — or with organic matters. Although
the yellowish tint is characteristic, it may also be replaced by a greenish coloration,
when it is sometimes difficult to distinguish phosphate of lime from glauconite.
Means of distinction, however, may be found in the concretionary forms of the
phosphate,' giving it a zonary structure, even recalling by its capricious lines an
osseous structure at first sight, while, on the other hand, the aggregate polarisation
of glauconite affords a means of differentiation, which, after a little practice, may
be applied with certainty. In doubtful cases it is well to have recourse to micro-
chemical reaction, when, with the aid of molybdate of ammonia, the question may be
decided in a sure and rapid manner.

Distribution and Mineral Associations. — Having described in detail these phosphatic
concretions, we may now consider the conditions under which they have been formed.
It has already been stated that these nodules were dredged by the Challenger at
Stations 141, 142, and 143, after leaving the Cape of Good Hope for the southern
cruise. The two former are situated on the Agulhas Bank, on the submarine edge

396

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

of the contiueutal shelf, the deposit in each case being a Green Sand, in depths of
98 and 150 fathoms, while the third station is situated in the deep water to the
south of the Bank, in 1900 fathoms, the deposit being a Globigerina Ooze.

The mineral ogical elements of the Green Sand (Stations 141 and 142) may be
considered as derived from the neighbouring land, consisting of quartz, garnet, green
hornblende, black mica, kc., and the coast character of the deposit is still further
indicated by the large quantity of mineral particles left in the residue after treatment
with acid, and also by the presence in abundance of typical grains of glauconite,
a mineral never found, we may say, in truly pelagic deposits. The analogy
between this sediment and the greensands of geological formations cannot be mis-
construed, and the conditions under which they have both been formed must be
nearly identical. As the distance from land and the depth of the sea increase, the deposit
assumes a more pelagic character, and consequently at Station 143 the mineral particles
are for the most part those found in the open ocean, being mostly of volcanic origin ;
this Globigerina Ooze, however, being formed at a point not very far removed from
land, is not purely pelagic and still contains particles of quartz, indicating with
considerable certainty the proximity of land. This deposit may be compared with
the white chalk of geological formations, but in this case the Ehizopod shells,
constituting the mass of the sediment, are preserved entire, and belong to pelagic
species, while in the chalk the Foraminifera are chiefly bottom-living forms, and have
generally been broken or reduced to powder by agencies posterior to sedimentation.

During the Challenger Expedition, phosphate of lime was procured at many of the
shallower stations around continental shores, but never in such abundance or such
typical development as at these stations to the south of the Cape of Good Hope.^

j\Ir Murray has described similar phosphatic concretions from the dredgings of the
U.S.S. “Blake,” along the Atlantic coasts of North America.^ In one instance the
nucleus of the concretion consisted of a fragment of a manatee bone, but in the majority
of cases the nodules consisted of an aggregation of calcareous organisms cemented by a
brownish yellow phosj)hatic matter, often showing concentric rings, after the manner of
agates, thus indicating deposition from solution.

It may be pointed out that phosphatic nodules are apparently more abundant in
the deposits along coasts where there are great and rapid changes of temperature,
arising from the meeting of cold and warm currents, as, for instance, off the Cape of
Good Hope and off the eastern coast of North America. It seems highly probable that
in these phices large numljers of pelagic organisms are frequently killed by these changes

* In the material (lredg(fd by the German ship “ Gazelle” on the Agulhas Bank, which Mr Murray was permitted
to examine at Berlin, there were numerous phosphatic ami glauconitic nodules identical with those procured by the
Challenger.

* JJuU. Mu*. Comp. Zoijl., vol. xii. pp. 42, 43, 52, 53, 1885.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

397

of temperature, and may in some instances form a considerable layer of decomposing
matter on tbe bottom of the ocean. It is also well known that large numbers of pelagic
creatures are in like manner destroyed where there is a mixture of waters of different
salinities, for instance, where polar and equatorial currents mingle, or where large
quantities of fresh water are thrown into the ocean from floods in great rivers.^ By
taking account of phenomena such as these, which would result in the destruction of
large numbers of pelagic animals at one time, thus covering the deposit in process of
formation with a vast layer consisting of the dead bodies of marine animals, it is believed
that the origin of the thin bands of phosphatic nodules, so frequent in geological forma-
tions, may be accounted for.

The phosphatic nodules observed in existing deposits belong then to the coast zone.
They may be found in all terrigenous deposits, and also along the edge of the abyssal
zone in deposits of a pelagic type, which, however, from their nearness to land, still
contain terrigenous elements. The resemblance of these deposits to those of geological
formations containing phosphorites in greatest abundance — the greensands, glauconitic
chalks, and pure chalks — is so evident that it is unnecessary to insist on it. The mode
of formation of the one must have been almost identical with that of the other, and the
interpretation of the origin of the phosphatic concretions of existing seas should be
equally applicable to those of the Cretaceous and Tertiary formations, for example.^
Keference has already been made to the analogies between the phosphatic nodules of
modern sediments and those of a great number of nodular phosphates of the chalk and
greensand formations, so much so that it might even be asked whether the concretions
described in this chapter might not be derived from ancient formations cropping out at
the bottom of the sea. This doubt is at once removed when account is taken of the
fact, already pointed out in treating of the microstructure of these concretions, that they
contain, cemented and enclosed by phosphates, the remains of organisms and mineral
particles identical with those constituting the actual sediments in which the concretions
are found. These phosphatic concretions must therefore be regarded as having been
formed in situ.

Mode of Formation. — If we ask whence the phosphate of lime found in these nodules
is immediately derived, we may set aside in the first place the hypothesis of a direct
derivation from the interior of the globe, for although it is evident that in certain cases
a small percentage of phosphate of lime in deep-sea muds might be attributed to apatite
coming from volcanic rocks, still even at the highest estimate the amount of phosphate of
lime coming from this source must be very subordinate relative to that derived, for in-
stance, from organic remains. Nor is there any reason in the conditions under which
they have been formed for supposing that the phosphate of lime could have been derived
from submarine springs. Again, we find nothing in the surroundings to induce us to

1 Murray, Scot. Geogr. Mag., vol. vi. pp. 481, 482, 1890. ^ Murray, loc. cit., pp. 464, 465.

398

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

regard the phosphate of lime of these nodules as being a direct deposit from the waters
of the ocean without the previous intervention of organisms ; the small quantities of this
substance found in analyses of sea-water prevents us in the actual state of our knowledge
from liaving recourse to this interpretation. But if phosphates are not deposited
directly from the waters of the ocean, it is incontestable that by the action in the first
instance of vegetable organisms phosphates are without cessation removed from these
waters during vital processes, and a notable proportion is fixed in the hard parts of certain
groups of organisms.

Organic remains must sometimes accumulate in vast numbers on the sea-bed, and
sometimes be buried in the sediments ; it seems to us that the decomposition of such
organic remains is the immediate source of the phosphates in the concretions here
described. We know that Lingulse have secreted this substance since the Cambrian
Period, and indeed this process has been going on from geological periods of the most
ancient date, ever since the conditions had become favourable to the existence of organisms
in the bosom of the ocean. It is evident that the phosphates thus elaborated by organisms
ought, when life abandons the organic structures, to accumulate along with sedimentary
matters upon the bed of the ocean. The deposits there forming are the seat of many
chemical reactions under the joint influence of decomposing organic matter and sea-water.
All the mineral substances here described under the name of chemical deposits are the very
best proof of these reactions, and although not energetic, they are not the less consider-
able as to their effect, granted the duration of the action and the mass of substances
present. In that pulp formed by the calcareous and siliceous organic envelopes, by the
fragments of rocks and minerals reduced to the state of muddy matter, and albuminoid
and other matters derived from higher organisms, the phosphates are re-arranged, with the
result that phosphate of lime in a nodular form is in some places found in considerable
abundance. It may be supposed that this phosphatic matter dissolved in the sea-water
impregnating the mud is endowed with the properties of colloidal bodies, for we know
that phosphate of lime presents incontestable analogies with certain colloids, for example,
with hydrated silica. By admitting that phosphate of lime can effect this colloidal
state, it is sufficient that a centre of concretion should arise to initiate precipitation,
and the nucleus once formed would subsequently enlarge by successive additions.^

Many substances may have played, with respect to the phosphate, the role of centre
of attraction. It may have originated in the first instance, as we have shown, in the fill-
ing up of the hollow spaces of a Globigenna shell ; afterwards it may be deposited around
this shell and agglutinate the surrounding portions of the deposit into a more or less com-

' The {ilioAphnte of lime may be held to be ilirectly derived from the products of decaying bones of dead animals,
upon which carbonic acid exerts a powerful solvent action. At the same time the organic nitrogenous matter of the
liones is decom[M>sed into ammoniacal salts, which would readily dissolve in water containing free carbonic acid,
and form a solution exceedingly prone to re-deposit the phosphate of lime held in solution on any nucleus or in any
cavities or shells.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

399

pact mass. The organic remains on the bottom of the sea often retain for a long time
some of their sarcodic substance, and we are inclined to think that this exercises upon
the phosphate an attraction which might be considered as a feeble echo of that exercised
by living matter. This view might be supported by recalling the frequent incrustations
of phosphates and its concretionary development upon the remains of plants and animals ;
at the same time it must be pointed out that phosphate of lime is sometimes formed
around inert matters to which no affinity would appear to carry it. A solid body of any
kind appears to serve as a nucleus, though phosphatic nodules are by preference formed
around organic centres, but whatever the nature of the nucleus, once the first layer of the
concretionary substance is deposited it no longer remains inert, acting in its turn as a
centre of attraction and grouping round it, just as the solvents furnish material, all the
molecules of the same nature which are found within its radius of attraction.

Recalling now the various particulars stated in the preceding general descriptions,
we may give a resume of the facts upon which we rely for the interpretation of the mode
of formation of the phosphatic nodules dredged to the south of the Cape of Good Hope.
It may be said that the phosphate of lime accumulates in marine muds in the form of
remains of organisms which secreted this body during life, the analyses of oceanic deposits
usually showing the presence of a notable quantity of phosphate of lime. It is upon the
debris of organisms that the solvent action of the sea- water impregnating the sedimentary
pulp is exercised ; we know that nearly all the bones of fishes, Crustacean caraj)aces, and
other organic structures containing phosphates, have been removed in solution. After
having been dissolved, the phosphate, existing in a state analogous to that of colloidal
bodies, is deposited at first in the interiors of Rhizopod shells lying isolated in the muddy
matter and still lined with organic material. This filling up of the Foraminifera shells is
seen perfectly in microscopic sections of the nodules, which show also that the concretionary
substance, having filled the empty spaces, continues to be attracted around these centres
and infiltrates into the muddy mass, enclosing all the impurities and binding together
several centres whose agglomeration forms the nodule. This concretionary process is
accompanied by an after-growth more or less complete of phosphate upon the calcite.
In other cases mineral particles are taken as a centre of concretion, as shown in the
nodules from the Green Sand ; in this case organic matter does not apparently play the
same role in determining the formation of the nodule.^ On the decay of fish bones,
and indeed of all animal structures, ammoniacal salts are formed, and at the same time
phosphoric acid in combination with lime is dissolved in sea- water, the natural result being
the formation of ammoniacal or alkaline phosphates, which react upon any structural form
of carbonate of lime, such as shells, Corals, &c., the phosphoric acid in combination with
the alkaline bodies combining with the lime of the Coral or shell to form phosphate of

^ See Irvine and Anderson, “ On the Action of Metallic (and other) Salts on Carbonate of Lime,” Proc. Roy. Soc.
Edin., vol. xvii. pp. 52-54, 1891.

400

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lime, thus producing pseudomorphism.* But whatever may be the nature of the substance
serving as a first centre for these concretions, we are led to believe that the phosphate of
which they are constituted has passed through living matter. Its cycle may be traced
by saying that, after having been concentrated by living beings, it is rendered to the
mineral world again, after solution by sea- water, in a concretionary form, and is thus
placed in a more stable form in reserve for the future wants of life.

V. Crystals of Phillipsite in Marine Deposits.

It has been pointed out that glauconite is a hydrated silicate now forming in consider-
able abundance in marine deposits ; it has been shown that it never presents itself in a
crystalline condition, and does not occur in a free state, but originates in the hollow
spaces of calcareous organisms. It is limited to terrigenous deposits, and is always
associated with ancient volcanic rocks or crystalline schists, from whose alteration in all
probability its chemical constituents are derived. The hydrated silicate, phillipsite, to
which we now propose to direct attention, is, on the other hand, always present in a
crystalline form, and is found in a free or isolated condition in the deposits. It is
limited to purely pelagic clays or oozes, and is associated with recent volcanic rocks, and
the materials derived from their alteration. We hope to be able to show that these
zeolitic cr}'stals arise from the decomposition of such volcanic rocks.

Crystals of phillipsite were first discovered in deep-sea deposits during the cruise of
the Challenger between the Sandwich and Society Islands, where they were found to
make up 20 or 30 per cent, of some samples of Red Clay. A fact which proves that
they must have been in considerable abundance at many points is that the shells of some
arenaceous Foraminifera were entirely made up of these little crystals. They have been
found distributed over wide spaces in the central regions of the Pacific, and have sub-
sequently been discovered in the deep water of the Central Indian Ocean. Although
found in the various kinds of deposits in the deep water of the Central Pacific and Indian
Oceans far removed from land, they cannot be regarded as characteristic of any type of
deep-sea deposit, although most widely distributed and abundant in some red clay areas.
The [>resence of these microscoj)ic crystals in enormous numbers and in a free state in the
j)clagic deposits pos.sesses a high interest, viewed with respect to the chemical reactions
taking place during the prc.sent period upon the floor of the great ocean basins. Zeolitic
minerals, and phillipsite in particular, are known to occur in the vacuoles, fissures,
and emi»ty spaces of certain crystalline masses or tufaceous rocks of volcanic origin.

• In’ine and AnderBon found tliat a porous variety of Coral had, in tlie cojirse of six months, abstracted from a
solution of phosphate of aniinonia, phosphoric acid sufficient to replace about 60 per cent, of the carbonate of lime
present.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

401

Daubree has shown that zeolites are even in process of formation in the Roman bricks
and concretes of the springs at Plombieres, and around the edges of other thermal wells. ^
But, as far as we know, they have never before been found in an isolated condition — as
simple or twinned crystals, or free radiated aggregates — as we find them in the deposits
of the Pacific and Indian Oceans. The deposits containing these zeolitic crystals present
in these regions a totality of phenomena that appears never to have been realised on the
same scale in the sedimentary formations of any geological period, unless, indeed, it be
admitted that all traces of them have been effaced by posterior changes.

Physical Characters. — On examining the deposits, from the regions in which these
zeolitic crystals occur, under the higher powers of the microscope, there is seen, in the
midst of mineral and argillaceous matters and volcanic debris, an infinity of small prisms
of sharply cut form generally covered with a yellowish deposit. . These microliths appear
to be as numerous in the clay as the little crystals of rutile in certain slates, for example.
They are generally simple and isolated, though in some cases they form aggregates or are
twinned ; there are also spherolithic groups in which several of these zeolitic crystals are
entangled together so as to form crystalline globules of sufficient size to be distinguished
by the naked eye, giving a certain grain to the deposit. We will describe first the
isolated crystals of minute dimensions, which are carried away along with the argillaceous
matters of the deposit in the process of decantation. These microliths are coated with
a thin layer of hydrates of iron and manganese, which gives them, and in fact the whole
deposit, a brown or fawn colour. Their form is better observed after treating them with
very weak acid, which frees them more or less perfectly from the accidental coating sub-
stances. Thus cleaned the smallest crystals are seen to be colourless or slightly milky ;
a large number of micrometric measurements gives them a mean diameter of 0'027 mm.
in length, and 0’005 mm. in breadth. They have a pronounced prismatic, very simple,
form; the elongated faces, which may be taken for the faces of the prismatic zone, form
between them a right angle. They are terminated at the two extremities by two faces
resembling a dome, inclined the one to the other at an angle approaching 120°. It is rather
diflBcult to see other faces clearly ; those just indicated are observed with certainty, but
it may be that the smallest crystals of phillipsite, or at least certain of them, are ter-
minated by four faces instead of two at each extremity. At the two ends of the crystals
traces of two other faces which appear as dwarfed may be seen, but they are too ill-defined
to allow of their existence being definitely made out. As a matter of fact, however, these
four faces do exist in larger individuals, as will be presently pointed out. Their form
indicates that they are single individuals of the monoclinic system presenting the faces
0P(c), 00 Poo (6), ooP(m), elongated following the edge cjh (see PI. XXII. fig. 1), an elon-
gation which determines the prismatic form of the crystals. The faces having the
appearance of forming a dome are those of the prism {in) ; the angle formed by the two

^ A. Daubree, Etudes synthetiques de Geologie exp4rimentale, pp. 180 et seq., Paris, 1879.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

51

402

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

faces mjm answers within several minutes to the angle of the same faces in phillipsite.
Here then we are dealing with the fundamental forms of this mineral, and, at least in
the case of the smallest of these microliths, with non-twinned crystals, which have not
hitherto been pointed out in specimens of this species found in fissures and geodes of
volcanic rocks. In spite of their extreme tenuity, the faces c and b can each give good
reriections, thus showing that these crystals are not lamellar, as might be supyjosed at
first sight, but that they possess a develoj)ment almost equal for these faces. The
attemyjts to determine their optical y^roperties, difficult even in the case of large crystals,
have not given any definite results. The optical properties of phillipsite are very variable,
and, as mth the majority of minerals belonging to the group of zeolites, the tints of
chromatic polarisation are of low order, and in this case the difficulty is increased owing
to the great absorption of light by the optic apparatus when studying between crossed
nicols with high magnifying powers. In fine, the angle of extinction of phillipsite is
relatively small, and as the edges are only a few hundredths of a millimetre in length it
is difficult to measure this angle under the microscope. When the crystals are larger,
there may sometimes be observed at the two extremities four lozenge-shaped faces repos-
ing upon the edge oo 5oo /oP, having then the aspect of orthorhombic prisms terminated
by the faces of a pyramid. AVhat has been said as to the determination of the faces
shows that we are dealing in this case with one of the ordinary twins of phillipsite, the
plane of twinning and the plane of composition being the face oP. It may be added that
this twinned form has not up to the present time been observed in an isolated condition,
exceyit in the case of small crystals of phillipsite from Plombieres, where Des Cloizeaux
lias found forms identical with those here indicated.

The small crystals are seen to pass through all the transitions of size to the larger
simple or twinned individuals, which show a tendency to group themselves irregularly or
according to a crystallographic law. Even the smallest microliths that
yiass off with the first decantation are superposed, grown together, and
interlaced. In certain cases the groups are regular ; they are crossed
twins, recalling perfectly the well-known twin form of harmotone and
of })liilliyisite. The annexed woodcut (Fig. 36) reyiresents one of these
twinned crystals from the South Pacific, Station 276, 2350 fathoms;

Kiff. 36. — CronHed Twin

sution ”*^276,'"'^2.3M it is from tliis station that all the figured specimens of zeolites from
the Pacific have been selected.

fathoms, South 1‘ociflc.

This cruciform twinning is reyieated
so frequently and is so characteristic that it might almost of itself serve to identify
these little cr}*stals as l»elonging to the one or the other of these zeolitic species.

Although the twinning is not rare, the crystals arc more frequently observed forming
irregular groups, as shown in PI. XXII. fig. 4, where the.se crystals are grouped as they
aj»j>ear after isolation from the mud by decantation. The grouped microliths are covered
by a coating of inar)gane.se and iron, which is generally arranged around the centre of the

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

403

group. In this figure only one crossed twin is seen ; the other groups are formed some-
times by two microliths crossing each other at variable angles or juxtaposed, sometimes
by three or four little crystals superposed one above the other, while in certain groups
there is a tendency to affect a spherolithic or radiated disposition around a centre.
Finally in some cases the spherolithic structure is more perfect, as will presently be
pointed out when describing the spherolithic globules formed by radiate crystals of
phillipsite, which are very frequent in the deep-sea deposits already indicated.

We may recall the fact that this globular or spherolithic disposition is to a certain
extent characteristic of several species belonging to the group of zeolites ; mention may
be made of the crystalline botryoidal masses lining the hollow cavities of certain altered
volcanic rocks. In this case the crystals are supported on the rock, while in the case of
the globules of phillipsite the little groups of radiated crystals are formed in a free state
in the mud. In the aggregate of crystals represented in PI. XXIII. fig. 6 the grouped
microhths are seen pressed the one against the other, as if they came from a geode. A
cosmic spherule, on falling upon the bed of the sea, has been enclosed in this agglomera-
tion of little prisms, and has been entangled among zeolitic crystals.

The spherules now to be described are of the same mineral nature as the isolated
microliths, twins, or groups previously spoken of, but they are larger, being distinguish-
able by the naked eye or with the aid of a lens. When the various elements of the mud
are separated by decantation or by means of dense liquids, such as the iodide of mercury
and potassium, the most numerous particles observed are grains resembling a ferruginous
sand. These grains are often spherical, and with the aid of a good hand-glass they
are seen to be terminated at the surface by slightly-reflecting crystalline facets. They
are always soiled by argillaceous mud and coatings of iron and manganese. The mean
diameter of these spheroliths is about 0’5 mm., though in some cases they may attain a
diameter of 2 mm. In reflected light under the microscope the facets, at the surface of
the globules, are seen to be those answering to the two prismatic faces co P of simple
individuals, or to the four faces of individuals twinned following the law already referred
to. PI. XXIII. fig. 3 represents one of these spheroliths, magnified 20 diameters, as
seen by reflected light. Mounted in Canada balsam or copal, the spherules can be rubbed
down, and become sufficiently transparent to be submitted to microscopic examination
by transmitted light, when it is seen that they are made up of little radiating microliths
of phillipsite. PI. XXII. fig. 3 represents a spherule cut approximately through the
centre, showing precisely the internal structure of these zeolitic balls. It is surrounded
by a deep brown or red-brown coating of manganese, while all round the figure are
agglomerated mineral particles of the deposit traversed by dendrites of manganese.
Among these particles are little irregular colourless fragments of minerals of volcanic
origin or debris of organisms. The crystals composing these spheroliths become thin
towards the centres of the globules, and there terminate in an acute angle following the

404

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

edge c/6. They advance more or less regularly following the radii, growing gradually larger
as they approach the periphery ; this structure, however, is not quite what is denominated
tibro-radiate. The individuality of each crystal is too well marked ; properly speaking, it
is a radiate structure. The section cuts some of the crystals more or less parallel to the axis
of elongation, and the extremity is then seen to be terminated by the faces mjm. Zones
of growth may be observed upon these microliths, indicated by inclusions of the limonitic
and manganiferous mud ; in many cases these zones do not present a well-marked direc-
tion, but sometimes the inclusions are arranged and disposed en chevron, which might
answer to the arrangement of the hemitropic lamellae observed upon the face 6 of crystals
of phillipsite. Even in these pretty large crystals of the spheroliths it is very difficult to
discern the optical properties exactly, and this difficulty is increased by reason of the
wedge-shaped form affected by each of the individuals ; in the spheroliths the properties
of the individual crystals, as in the case of a twin, lose all regularity. PI. XXII.
fig. 2 shows one of the spherules cut nearer to the surface, consequently the section
cuts the radial crystals near their external extremity. Sometimes the form of the
sections is a parallelogram more or less elongated, or approaches to a square,
according as they are cut more or less normally to the edge c/6 ; this is what the
crystals of phillipsite should give when cut across in such a section. Sometimes
sections with re-entrant angles are also observed, and are the traces of crossed twins ;
two or three such sections are seen in the spherule figured, at the upper right-hand
side of the figure.

Chemical Composition. — From the physical characters just described, it is evident
that these crystals belong to the species phillipsite, and the results of the following analyses
confirm this determination. The material chosen for the analyses was as pure as it could
be obtained by decantation, or by the aid of dense liquids, without being cleaned with
acid.‘

Station.

Depth.

No.

Loss
on igni-
tion.

SiOj

AI2O3

FegOg

MnO

CaO

MgO

KgO

Na20

H2O

Total

275

2610

89

7-59

47-60

17-09

5-92

0-43

3-20

1-24

4-81

4-08

9-15

101-11

275

2610

90

7-35

49-88

16-52

5-54

0-44

1-38

1-20

5-10

4-59

9-33

101-33

275

2610

91

9-47

48-70

17-58

6-17

1-70

1-02

4-83

3-75

7-95

101-17

The presence of iron and manganese must be placed against the coatings and inclusions
of the crystals. Apart from these foreign matters, the composition shown by the
analyses corresponds closely with the average composition of phillipsite, except in the
case of the alumina, the percentage of which is rather below the average ; this deviation

* In Ajijtcnflix HI. will he found three additional Analyses (Nos. 20, 21, and 92), which were made from impure
material or are incomplete, and need not la: specially referred to here.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

405

may be accounted for when we remember that the substance is not homogeneous, and is
so fine in the grain that perfect separation is impossible even under the microscope. It
may be added that, like other zeolites, these crystals are attacked by hydrochloric acid,
leaving a siliceous skeleton.

Geographical and Bathymetrical Distribution and Mineralogical Associations. —
We have seen that phillipsite is present in nearly all the deposits collected by the
Challenger in her voyage through the Central Pacific, from the Sandwich Islands to near
the island of Juan Fernandez. It has also been detected in some of the deep-sea clays
collected by the U.S.S. “ Tuscarora ” in the Central Pacific, and in the deposits collected
by H.M.S. “Egeria” in the Central Indian Ocean. It always occurs in the deeper
deposits, as will be seen by reference to the Tables of Chapter II., most abundantly
in Ped Clays, more rarely in Radiolarian Oozes, and still more rarely in Globigerina
Oozes.

By reference to what has been said as to the distribution of basic volcanic glasses and
basaltic lapilli, it will be seen that the distribution of these substances coincides with the
distribution of the crystals of phillipsite. If the sounding tube has not demonstrated
that the basin of the Pacific is covered at many points by flows of lava, it is because this
apparatus cannot, any more than the dredge, penetrate below the surface of the sediment,
and these superficial layers are always formed, as might be expected, of fragmental
matters. But granted the accumulation of lapilli and volcanic ashes and sand that are
found there, everything points to the conclusion that, beneath the deposits of mud, the
bottom is constituted over considerable areas by veritable volcanic flows. Whether this
supposition be correct or not, it is incontestable that, at those points far removed from
continental land, and situated beyond the influence of transport by rivers, waves, tides,
and currents, the elements most widely spread in the oceanic sediments are of volcanic
nature, or result from the decomposition of eruptive products. It may be pointed
out also that the volcanic matters predominating among these products of sub-
marine eruption and scattered over this region of the ocean are from their nature
essentially alterable, being mostly basic glasses. The basic nature, and at the same
time vitreous condition, of these fragments is a certain index of alterability and of the
facility with which sea-water can' attack and transform them. These points will be
referred to presently, for they give the key to the mode of formation of zeolites in the
deposits.

Mode of Formation. — If we consider, in the first place, the subaerial rocks where
zeolites are located, it will be seen that they are of the same nature as the volcanic
fragments dredged from pelagic sediments, and that the conditions under which the
zeolites are formed in both cases are analogous. It is a well-established fact that zeolites
are never met with in fresh and unaltered rocks, neither are they ever observed as direct
products of crystallisation in a magma nor as products of sublimation. They are specially

406

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

developed as secondary minerals in the hollow cavities, the vesicles, the fissures, of some
older or recent eruptive masses and in their tufas ; they are sometimes also seen
pseudomorjdiosed on anhydrous silicates. An intimate bond unites the zeolites with
the matters upon which they are implanted or with which they are associated. It might
be said that these hydrated silicates are nothing else than the volcanic minerals trans-
formed under the action of water and in a manner regenerated ; as soon as these crystal-
line rocks or their tufas are exposed to the action of water that penetrates them their
j)orcs are seen to be lined with zeolitic minerals. This filling up is in direct relation
with the degree of alteration of the rocks ; in short, these veins and geodes have
been lined by zeolitic minerals by an exudation, so to speak, of the rock containing
them. It is especially in the geodes of basalts, of phonoliths, of diabases, or in the
respective tufas, that they are met with. The submarine volcanic matters of the
regions already indicated are precisely those that might be considered as the tufas of
basaltic rocks.

The study of the crystals and zeolitic coatings lining the cavities of products of
subaerial eruption indicates clearly that these secondary minerals have been formed by
waters, which have taken from the very rocks through which they have passed the
constituent elements of the zeolites. We may even follow in the various zones of the
geodes the gradual series of alterations that the rocks have undergone under the influence
of the infiltrating water ; it has deposited in the hollow cavities matters with which it
has been gradually charged during its passage through the capillary canals traversing
these eruptive masses. Amygdaloid rocks of the basic series of all geological formations
exhibit the conditions here recalled ; it has even been shown that, in lavas so recent
as those of the Puy-de-D6me and of Gravenoire, these zeolites are present. In a word,
wherever basic volcanic rocks are exposed we are sure to observe minerals belonging to
the group of zeolites, always formed by the solvent action of waters upon the volcanic
masses containing them. This is the case in Auvergne, in Bohemia, in the Siebengebirge,
in the rocks in the neighbourhood of Idar, in Iceland, in the Deccan, in the eruptive
masses in the Trias of Scotland, &c.

It is only in exceptional circumstances that the zeolites are observed in sedimentary
layers. The solutions depositing them may then have taken the elements from the
neighbouring eruptive rocks, or these sedimentary layers may have originated from
tufaceous matters more or less closely resembling tho.se found at the present time on the
bod of the Pacific. It is veiy^ probably in these conditions that zeolites occur in the
argillaceous sehists at Andreasberg and Eule, in the lime.stones at Chappel, Fife, where
a]>oj)hyllite with opal is observed fxWmg Stroi^honemas, and in the sandstones of the Upper
Tcrtiar}' at Crevacuore. But whatever their position, or the nature of the rock in which
they are fonned, these silicates always pre.sent characters indicating hydrochemical
origin. It may also be stated, as the result of a comsiderable number of observations,

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

407

that the mineral masses in which they are localised belong especially to amygdaloid
rocks or to the basic series.

Another very significant fact may be here noticed, viz., that whereas zeolites abound
in basic volcanic rocks they have no such great development in other crystalline rocks.
Thus the paste of granites and porphyries, richer in silicic acid than the rocks just
mentioned, do not contain zeolites, which are replaced by siliceous concretions, by quartz,
chalcedony, and opal. All this demonstrates in a conclusive manner that the waters
infiltrated in volcanic masses do not deposit there matters other than those taken up
from these very rocks, and that the products of the alteration of these rocks furnish the
elements entering into the constitution of the zeolites or other secondary minerals.
Water is, then, only an instrument in this regeneration of minerals. At the moment of
its infiltration it may not have been charged with any of the elements constituting the
secondary products about to be deposited from it ; these elements are found ready in the
eruptive masses from which the waters take them to abandon them almost immediately
in the form of crystals or of amorphous coatings.

The study of contemporaneous phenomena supports the preceding deductions drawn
from the observation of eruptive rocks of past geological periods. Daubree has proved
that at Plombieres water but slightly mineralised has infiltrated into the concrete and
masonry by whose aid the Eomans had retained the spring, and has there determined the
formation of zeolites, among which he has observed crystallised phillipsite. In the vesicles
of the bricks and in the cement, the infiltrating water has deposited minerals identical in
every respect with those observed in the vesicular rocks of the basaltic series. At Plom-
bieres better than anywhere else the conditions under which zeolites may be formed are
easily observed, and it may be there demonstrated with certainty that the waters deposit-
ing the zeolites take the elements from the surrounding medium. There are no traces of
zeolites nor of other contemporary minerals in the sandy gravel traversed by the waters
before reaching the concrete and masonry, and these formations are absent also in the
friable granite found at Plombieres although submitted to identical conditions as the
cement and Eoman bricks. We must conclude from these facts, and especially from this
localisation, that the very material in which the crystals are deposited furnishes to the
water the constituent elements of zeolites, and it is evidently according to the composition
or alterability of mineral matters traversed by water that zeolitic matters are extracted,
deposited, and crystallised. Granite and gravel, richer in silica, offer more resistance to
the solvent action ; the water cannot take anything away nor depose anything there.
These modern phenomena then present an exact repetition of those revealed by the study
of crystalline rocks of geological formations.

We have given these details of Daubree’s observations at Plombieres, which he has
found to be confirmed at several other thermal springs, because these phenomena present
points of comparison which permit us to determine with great probability the origin of

408

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

the submarine zeolites. Keeping in mind the whole range of facts furnished by the
study of zeolitic rocks, and of the formation of contemporary zeolites, we may proceed to
consider the origin of the little crystals of phillipsite from the clays of the Pacific. The
dredgings and soundings in these zeolitic regions show an exceptional abundance of frag-
ments or of lapilli of vesicular basalt, often with a highly-developed vitreous base.
Almost all these rocks belong to the basic series, and among them are found types of the
eruptive series poorest in silica. With these lapilli, which are always observed in a state
of hydration and more or less advanced disaggregation, are associated, with remarkable
constancy, fragments of palagonite representing one of the last phases in the hydration of
basaltic volcanic glasses. Microscopic particles also observed in these clays must have
been projected as volcanic ashes from submarine or subaerial eruptions, and have appa-
rently come from eruptions that have covered the bottom of the sea with eminently
alterable lapilli, similar to those just referred to. These particles are also generally of a
basaltic nature, and their state of extreme division must render them in an exceptional
degree favourable for attack by sea-water.

It is seen, then, not only that the rocks just enumerated are those in which, in
geological formations, zeolites have been developed in a marked degree, but that they
are especially represented by the vitreous varieties. Moreover, it is known, from
observations of geological formations, and from experiments in the laboratory, that these
vitreous varieties are precisely those which, as might be expected, ofier the least
resistance to the action of water, and that water transforms them, in part at least, with
great facility into matters of a zeolitic nature. What may be expected to be the result
of the action of water upon the rocks and minerals found on the bed of the Pacific ?
Evidently the same at the bottom of the sea as that observed in analogous rocks on the
dry land, where we are able to follow the modifications there taking place. As we have
already remarked, the minerals constituting the basalts and basaltic rocks in general
undergo, under the influence of waters that attack them, a series of transformations pro-
duced with constancy in nature, which may be thus summarised. During the decom-
position of these rocks the waters take away from the alkaline silicates almost all they
contain of potash and soda, silica being at the same time liberated ; in silicates with a
base of lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese, almost the whole of the lime and of the
iron is separated with a notable quantity of silica. These various elements tend to
disappear from the primitive mass, being taken away by the waters, but sometimes the
iron and the manganese remain in the residue of the decomposition in a high state of
oxidation. As to the alumina entering into the composition of these silicates, a
frarttion of it is eliminated, but the greater part is concentrated in the residue, in
retaining a certain portion of the silica, and in fixing a certain quantity of the
water. The final product of this decomposition approaches more and more to a hydrated
silicate of alumina, which constitutes an argillaceous mass containing always traces of

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

409

alkalies, especially of potash, and mixed with iron and manganese. The waters may
deposit the elements thus taken up from the rocks upon the immediate borders of the
points from which they have been extracted, or they may be carried further away,
according as the liquid is at rest or in more or less rapid motion.

We will now show that phenomena analogous to these take place at the bottom of
the Pacific ; the differences observed are non-essential, and are explicable when the
location and special conditions are taken into account. Eemembering the nature of the
rocks found to be present on the bottom in the central regions of the great ocean basins,
we would expect to observe there the formation of zeolites bearing characters depending
upon the medium in which they have been developed ; they would be found, not only in
the vesicles of the volcanic fragments in the form of definite crystallographic individuals
or in aggregates, but also in a free state, and not enclosed. The sea-water acting upon
basaltic volcanic material will be charged with elements to be afterwards deposited as
zeolites, the residue being transformed into an argillaceous mass, in which manganese
and iron are concreted in nodules of hydrated peroxide. In this argillaceous ooze the
zeolitic crystals will be deposited, granted that the movement of the water is almost
insensible ; the solutions could not be carried very far, as is often the case in clays
derived from the decomposition of subaerial basalts. These crystals cannot be placed in
positions similar to those upon the solid partitions of crystalline rocks, hence their
special characteristics ; they are terminated on all sides by crystalline faces or form
aggregates and spherolithic globules, the surfaces of which bristle with facets. These
are, indeed, the peculiar characteristics of crystals formed in muddy matters, viz., the
crystals of gypsum and the radiate groups of sulphide of iron formed under conditions
fundamentally resembling those under which these microscopic crystals of phillipsite are
found. Thus the presence of eruptive materials whose decomposition under the action
of water gives origin to zeolites, the co-existence of these with the normal residue of the
alteration of basaltic rocks — clay and ferro-manganiferous concretions, the special charac-
ters of these zeolitic microliths, indeed the whole range of facts observed on the bed of
the Pacific, contribute to the support of the interpretation here proposed, which appears
to give an adequate explanation of the origin of these crystals of phillipsite.

Some points upon which we have not insisted may, however, be raised against the
view here adopted, and in terminating this discussion we may examine some doubts that
naturally enough present themselves. It may be asked, in the first place, whether the
substances extracted by sea-water from silicates of volcanic rocks ought not to be spread
by diffusion throughout the oceanic mass and be lost in this immense reservoir. To
remove this objection, it will be sufficient to recall a fact placed beyond doubt by recent
oceanographical researches, viz., that in great depths the water is not subjected in a
sensible manner to the influence of superficial movements — waves, tides, and currents —
but that there is only a massive movement of extreme slowness, in striking contrast
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 52

410

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

with the agitation of the surface water. As already stated, it is sufficient for the j,

formation of zeolites to have a very slow renewal of the water, and we have at the
bottom of the Pacific this condition, which is observed in the waters infiltrating into the
subaerial rocks and there depositing hydrated silicates. In consequence of the greater |

or less stability of the masses of water in contact with or imbibed by the sedimentary
ooze and volcanic debris, difiusion, if not altogether suspended, operates only in a very i

slow manner in the deeper layers of the sea, and thus permits the dissolved elements to I

be deposited, in part at least, at the points not far removed from where they have been |

extracted. One of the conditions desired for the formation of zeolites — the slow renewal j;

of the water — is then realised at the bottom of the sea, and especially in the muds j,

saturated with water.

Another objection arises from the low temperature of the water at great depths,
which oscillates between 2° to 3° C. above and below zero ; it may be thought that \

these thermal conditions are incompatible with the formation of zeolitic crystals. It !

has generally been admitted that these minerals require for their formation waters j

of a high temperature, but that they can be produced without demanding a great heat
is proved by the zeolites of Plombieres, for, as already stated, they are there developed !

almost at the surface of the ground under the action of waters, thermal, it is true,
but whose temperature scarcely rises to over 40° C. This is very far from the high
temperature which has been hypothetically invoked to explain the deposit of all zeolitic
matters. To judge from the effects produced at Plombieres by waters of a compara-
tively low temperature during the relatively short time separating us from the Koman
period, it is reasonable to suppose that even very much lower temperatures may
produce analogous phenomena, if account be taken of the great alterability of j

basaltic silicates and the state of fine division in which they occur at the bottom
of the sea. That which cool or tepid waters, like those of springs, can produce,
will be realised in sea-water in a certain measure, especially if it has time to
act, for time is a great factor in these reactions ; the ultimate result will be the
formation of crystals scarcely exceeding a fraction of a millimetre in diameter. j

It would be easy to prove, it may be added, that the decomposition of a i

great number of rocks, and the deposition of zeolites under the influence of water, • i
could only take place at a relatively low temperature. It is scarcely necessary to
remark that if a water but little mineralised, like that of Plombieres, is sufficient to

I

attack the substance of bricks and concrete, and there provoke the formation of zeolites i

and other sj>ccics — chalcedony, opal, &c., the water of the sea is able to exercise on t

analogous action upon the natural silicates bathed by it. If it be admitted that pure
water suffices to decompose rocks, with all the more reason may we conclude that sea-
water charge<l with salts is able to attack the mineral matters which it penetrates. It is
well known that water in contact with finely-pulverised silicates gives at once an alkaline f

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

411

reaction, and that afterwards it may act in consequence of the contained alkali. To this
action of water may also be added the much more energetic, though more localised,
phenomena,* arising from acid exhalations, carbonic acid in particular, which form a
habitual accompaniment of volcanic manifestations, and of which the submarine regions
of the Pacific must often have been the theatre.

Relation of Secondary Chemical Products to Rate of Deposition in Deposits. — It
must be admitted that at the present time we have no definite knowledge as to the
absolute rate of accumulation of any deep-sea deposit, although we have some informa-
tion and some indications as to the relative rate of accumulation of the different types of
deposits among themselves. The most rapid accumulation appears to take place in the
TerrigenousDeposits,and especially in the BlueMuds not far removed from the embouchures
of large rivers. Here no great time would seem to have elapsed since the deposit was
formed, so far at least as the materials collected by the dredge, trawl, and sounding tube
are concerned. The various constituents of the mud are little altered, and if great
chemical changes have taken place in the deep layers beyond the reach of our instru-
ments, these are not apparent in the more superficial layers to which our direct knowledge
is at present limited.

In glauconitic deposits, along high and bold coasts, where few rivers enter the ocean, a
large number of the mineral particles have undergone profound alteration, there is a large
admixture of Globigerinse and other pelagic shells, and the glauconite with which many
of these are filled, as well as the presence of phosphatic, calcareous, and barium nodules
or concretions, all indicate that there has been an extensive formation of secondary products.
All the constituents in the superficial layers of these deposits appear to have been for a
long time exposed to the action of sea-water, and for the reasons here stated we must
assume that the Green Muds and Sands have therefore accumulated at a much slower rate
than the Blue Muds.

The majority of Volcanic Muds and Sands appear to accumulate at a relatively slow
rate, judging from the large number of pelagic shells frequently present in them, and the
depositions of manganese peroxide on many of the particles making up the deposits.
Near some active volcanoes, however, there has evidently been a more rapid accumula-
tion, as nearly all the mineral particles are fresh and unaltered, and there is but a slight
admixture of pelagic organisms.

Around some coral reefs the accumulation must be rapid, for, although pelagic species
with calcareous shells may be numerous in the surface waters, it is often impossible to detect
more than an occasional pelagic shell among the other calcareous debris of the deposits.

The Pelagic Deposits as a whole, having regard to the nature and condition of their
organic and mineralogical constituents, evidently accumulate at a much slower rate than

* See R. Bunsen in Taylor’s Scientific Memoirs, Nat. Phil., vol. i. p. 69, 1853

412

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

the ten-igenous deposits, in which the materials washed down from the land play so large
a part. The Pteropod and Globigerina Oozes of the tropical regions, being chiefly made
up of the calcareous shells of a much larger number of tropical species, must necessarily
accumulate at a greater ]-ate than the Globigerina Oozes in extra-tropical areas or other
organic oozes. Diatom Ooze, being composed of both calcareous and siliceous organisms,
has, again, a more rapid rate of deposition than the Radiolarian Ooze, while in a Eed
Clay there is a minimum rate of growth.

It has already been stated that cosmic spherules, sharks’ teeth, the earbones and
other bones of Cetaceans, are much more numerous in a Red Clay than in any other
deposit, and it has been urged that the greater or less abundance of these might be
taken as a measure of the rate of deposition. These spherules, teeth, and bones are
abundant in the Red Clays, because few other substances there fall to the bottom to
cover them up, and they thus form an appreciable part of the whole deposit. In the
organic oozes and terrigenous deposits, however, a large number of additional substances
contribute to form the bulk of the mud or ooze, and the chance of cosmic spherules,
sharks’ teeth, or earbones being dredged from these deposits is proportionally small, and
as a matter of fact only a few have been obtained in these deposits.

The volcanic materials in a Red Clay having, because of the slow accumulation, been
for a long time exposed to the action of sea-water, are profoundly altered, the decomposi-
tion being accomnauied by the formation of clay, massive manganese-iron nodules, and
zeolitic crystals, just as the formation of glauconite, phosphatic, calcareous, and barium
nodules accompany the decomposition of terrigenous rocks and minerals in deposits nearer
continental shores.

It has been argued by Dieulafait and others that the manganese of the manganese
nodules has fallen from the surface and has accumulated in the red clay areas owing to
the non-deposition of other substances. In opposition to this view it must be pointed out
tliat .some of the Challenger’s largest hauls of manganese nodules were not in the red clay
areas, but in Pteropod and Glol)igerina Oozes, or near volcanic cones. These Pteropod
and Globigerina Oozes always contained a large quantity of volcanic glass, in a fine state
of sub-division, and many minute particles of palagonite. In other Globigerina Oozes,
where the rate of dejjosition must have been about the same or less, and where the volcanic
particles were absent or relatively rare, only traces of manganese peroxide could be
detected. For these reasons the abundance of manganese in a depo.sit cannot be looked
upon as an index of the rate of deposition. The conditions in which mangane.se nodules
ami zeolitic crystals occur, frequently suggest the proximity of volcanic phenomena at the
bottom of the sea, and no more instructive work could be undertaken than the exhaustive
e.xamination of one of these areas, that in the South Indian Ocean for example, where the
surroundings suggest that the carbonate of lime shells have been removed from the deposit
some time after deposition as a result of submarine volcajiic action.

APPENDIX I.

EXPLA^fATION OF CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS.

CHARTS.

Chart 1 shows the distribution of IMarine Deposits by means of Colours, and is compiled from the latest
available information (see pages 247 and 248) ; the depths are represented by means of cross-ruling, and
the track of the Challenger is indicated by a dotted line with arrows.

Charts 2 to 43 show the positions of the Sounding and Dredging Stations, nature of the Deposits,
direction and force of the "Wind and Surface Current, the following abbreviations and symbols being made use
of : —

Figures enclosed thus, (IT), indicate the position and distinguishing number of a Sounding,
Dredging, or Trawling Station. Figures in block letter, thus, 2650, indicate the depth in
Fathoms.

The letters under the depth indicate the nature of the Deposit at the bottom : —

gl. oz. signifying Globigerina Ooze.

r. m.

signifying Red Mud.

pt. oz.

,, Pteropod Ooze.

bl. m.

,,

Blue Mud.

di. oz.

,, Diatom Ooze.

calc.

))

calcareous.

rad. oz.

,, Radiolarian Ooze.

s.

9 9

sand.

r. cl.

,, Eed Clay.

m.

99

mud.

crl. m.

,, Coral Mud.

st.

9 9

stones.

crl. s.

,, Coral Sand.

sh.

9 9

shells.

vole. m.

,, Volcanic Mud.

g*

99

gravel.

vole. s.

,, Volcanic Sand.

crl.

9 9

Coral.

gr. m.

, , Creen Mud.

h. g.

9 9

hard ground.

gr. s.

,, Creen Sand.

Arrows thus, , indicate the mean direction of the Wind, the number at the base giving the mean

Force (in Beaufort’s Scale). Arrows thus, / , indicate the direction of the Surface Current,

the numbers at the base giving the rate in miles per 24 hours.

The position of the Ship each day at Noon is indicated by a black dot. When the j^osition at
noon corresponds with a Sounding Station the black dot is replaced by the number of tlie
Station. The day of the month is noted in hair line, thus, 25, and occasionally the month
and year are also given, the month being shown in Roman figures, thus, 1. V. 74.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

53

414

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

Ch.irt

2. From England to the Canary Islands ; also from Cape Verde Islands towards England.

3. In the vicinity of Lisbon.

4. In the vicinity of Madeira.

5. In the vicinity of the Canary Islands.

6. From Canary Islands to St. Thomas, St. Thomas to Bermuda, Bermuda to the Azores, Azores to

Madeira, IVIadeira to Cape Verde Islands ; also from Cape Verde Islands towards England.

7. In the vicinity of the Virgin Islands.

8. In the vicinity of Bermuda.

9. From Bermuda to Halifax, and Halifax to Bermuda.

10. In the vicinity of the Azores.

11. In the vicinity of the Cape Verde Islands.

12. From Cape Verde Islands to Bahia ; also from Ascension to Cape Verde Islands.

13. In the vicinity of St. Paul’s Rocks.

14. In the vicinity of Fernando Noronha.

15. In the vicinity of the Coast of Brazil.

16. From Bahia to the Cape of Good Hope; also from Monte Video to Ascension.

1 7. In the vicinity of the Tristan da Cunha Islands.

18. From the Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of 60° S.

19. In the vicinity of Prince Edward and Marion Islands.

20. In the vicinity of the Crozet Islands.

21. In the vicinity of Kerguelen Island.

22. In the vicinity of Heard Island.

23. In the neighbourhood of the Antarctic Circle, between the meridians of 78° and 98° E.

24. From a position in lat. 59° 56' S., long. 99° 14' E., to Melbourne.

25. From Melbourne to Sydney.

26. In the vicinity of Sydney.

27. From Sydney to Wellington, Wellington to the Fiji Islands, Fiji Islands to Cape York.

28. In the vicinity of Tongatabu.

29. In the vicinity of Matuku Island.

30. In the vicinity of Kgaloa Harbour, Fijis.

31. From Cape York to Hong Kong, Hong Kong to Yokohama.

32. In the vicinity of the Arrou and Ki Islands,

33. In the vicinity of the Banda Islands.

34. In the vicinity of Kares Harbour, Admiralty Islands.

35. In the vicinity of Ja])an.

36. From Yokohama to the Sandwich Islands.

37. In the vicinity of the Sandwich Islands.

38. From the Sandwich Islands to Tahiti, Tahiti to Valparaiso.

39. In the vicinity of Tahiti.

40. From Valparaiso to Port Otway.

41. From Port Otway through Magellan Strait.

42. From ilagellan Strait to Falkland Islands, Falkland Islands to Monte Video.

43. In the vicinity of Ascemsion.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

415

DIAGRAMS.

Diagrams 1 to 22 show the vertical distribution of Temperature, the relief of the Bottom of the Sea, the
nature of the Deposits, and the percentages of Carbonate of Lime. In these Diagrams horizontal lengths or
distances from Station to Station are on a scale of 200 miles to the inch, and the depths are on a scale
of 500 fathoms to the inch, so that depths or heights, as compared with horizontal distances, are
exaggerated in the proportion of 400 to 1. In looking, therefore, at the Plan as one of tlie bed of the
area, it must be remembered that the inclines as observed were 400 times less steep than they are repre-
sented. The Diagrams show the isotherms for every five degrees, which were obtained by plotting the
temperature observations on paper of equal squares and drawing the curves (the observations and curves
are published as Part III. of the Physics and Chemistry of the Expedition).

In the Diagrams the thick Horizontal lines represent lines of equal temperature in Fahrenheit

00

Scale. The figures above each Vertical line, thus, q , indicate, the number of the

lO

o

cq

Station, 68°, the Surface Temperature, and, 2650, the Depth in fathoms. The figures below
each Vertical line indicate the temperature at the Bottom, the type of Deposit being-
given with the percentage of Carbonate of Lime underneath.

Diagi’am

1. Longitudinal section from Tenerife to Sombrero.

2. Diagonal section from Bermuda towards New York ; also Meridional section from Halifax to St.

Thomas.

3. Longitudinal section from Bermuda to the Azores and Madeira.

4. Longitudinal section from a position in lat. 3° 8' N., long. 14° 39' W., to Pernambuco.

5. Diagonal section from Abrolhos Island to Tristan da Cunha Islands.

6. Longitudinal section from Rio de la Plata to Tristan da Cunha Islands and the Cape of Good

Hope.

7. Meridional section from the Azores to Tristan da Cunha Islands.

8. Meridional section from the Cape of Good Hope to the parallel of 46° S. lat.

9. Meridional section between the parallels of 50° and 65° S. lat.

10. Diagonal section from a position in lat. 53° 55' S., long. 108° 35' E., to Cape Otway.

11. Longitudinal section from Sydney to Porirua, Cook Strait, New Zealand.

12. Meridional section from Kandavu Island to Cape Palliser, New Zealand.

13. Longitudinal section from the Fiji Islands to the Barrier Reef, Australia.

14. Enclosed seas of the Eastern Archipelago.

15. Longitudinal section from Meangis Island to the Admiralty Islands.

16. Meridional section from the Admiralty Islands to Japan.

17. Longitudinal section from Japan to a position in lat. 35° 49' N., long. 180° W.

18. Longitudinal section from a position in lat. 35° 49' N., long. 180° W., to a position in lat.

38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W.

19. Meridional section from the parallel of 38° N. to the parallel of 40° S. lat.

20. Longitudinal section from a position in lat. 40° 3' S., long. 132° 58' W., towards Mocha Island.

21. Meridional section from the parallel of 33° S. to the parallel of 46° S. lat., off the west coast of

South America.

22. Meridional section from the Falkland Islands to the parallel of 35° 40' S.

»r* ^

'.I ♦*

X\ ,

J,i^j04»'r..:»M,»^\ .,-xi^ ;»r4^*

^ f-,T. w .-s.^w.-

; A- ,’' .*

'' ’ ■ ** iC/ ' * ' ^’- "’ •? . ‘

it-*

■ Jii‘''^»'^'^f v5>^'

' ^:>‘’^r".~T'r'-'^7j!— ttx~VT';' f^ro r” •;■ ■■ '" "'’■>! J vt-" ., , -* •’ ''

■ <"i .«:, "'t ■ . ■■•' ■ VC.^‘1., ■::> '%

• .'/n ■ f >> v '7>^l

-fi^*

• ^ .*'•> ^ :3^‘ 4T I-

' *- ' 'Y

‘H,

S ;‘/i* '^W ,j:^a#^t»U^iU inctl

• ■' , t ' ■■ 'H * ■ ,t'^

♦ '..

■if»i

Ji^

Aiiiikir* 7 . «

jMijmil'

APPENDIX II.

EEPORT on an Analytical Examination of Manganese Nodules, with special
reference to the Presence or Absence of the Earer Elements. By John
Gibson, Ph.D., F.E.S.E.

The material subjected to analysis consisted of small and characteristically-shaped nodules,
varying in size from about 5 to f inch in diameter. They were received from Mr Murray, labelled
as follows ; —

Manganese Nodules (medium size).

Station 285. 14th October 1875.

Lat. 32° 36' S. ; long. 137° 43' W.

2375 fathoms.

A preliminary examination showed that these nodules consisted chiefly of hydrated oxides of
manganese, iron, and aluminium, soluble in hydrochloric acid, together with a highly siliceous insoluble
residue. No rare element was found in large quantity, so that it was obviously necessary for the
purposes of this examination to operate upon a large quantity of the material. In carrying out the
analyses special care was taken that the necessarily large quantities of the reagents employed should
be minimised as far as possible, and every positive result was supplemented by cross tests, so as to
ensure that the traces of the different elements found were really originally present in the nodules,
and not derived from the reagents themselves, or from the vessels in which the various operations
were carried out. In every case the possibility of such sources of error was made the subject of
careful investigation, and from the outset the analytical methods adopted were chosen with special
reference to this difficulty. The reagents used were rigorously tested, and in many cases specially
prepared.

Spectroscopic Examination.

At first sight it might be supposed that a direct spectroscopic examination of the original
material, or of its concentrated hydrochloric acid extract, would have gone far towards deciding as
to the presence or absence of those elements at least which give characteristic spectra. The
extreme delicacy of spectroscopic tests, when applied to relatively simple substances, is not unfre-
quently referred to in a manner which would lead one to suppose that qualitative analysis might, in
the hands of a good spectroscopist, be reduced to the simple measurement of the lines present in
the spectra of the substance to be analysed. Unfortunately it is not so. Eepeated measurements
of the lines in the very complex spectra produced by the original substance and its concentrated
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 54

418

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

hydrochloric acid extracts when volatilised in a powerful electric spark, with and without the use
of a condenser, and also in the electric arc, failed to give conclusive evidence, and in many cases
even any indication of the presence of elements which subsequent analysis proved to be present.
The various products of the preliminary examination were of course examined spectroscopically, and
by the accurate measurement of the various characteristic lines, positive proof was obtained of the
presence of a number of elements, which were present in so small quantity that their identification
at that stage by other analytical methods would have been very difficult if not impossible.
Amongst these may be mentioned — Lithium, Potassium, Barium, Strontium, Zinc, Thallium, and
Titanium. Throughout the course of the final analyses spectroscopic measurements were made when-
ever practicable. The measurements were made with a Dewar and Liveing direct vision spectroscope,
and in order to obtain the necessary data for the conversion into wave-lengths of the micrometer
readings of this instrument, careful measurements were made of eighty bright lines characteristic of
twenty different elements.

Qualitative Analysis.

150 grammes of the finely-powdei'ed nodules were boiled in a large new Berlin porcelain basin
with specially-prepared perfectly pure hydrochloric acid. After prolonged treatment the whole was
evaporated to dryness, in order to separate any silica which might have gone into solution. The
dry mass was then moistened with strong hydrochloric acid, and subsequently digested with dilute
hydrochloric acid, and the solution filtered from the insoluble residue (A), which was thoroughly
washed, dried, bottled, and weighed.

Through the solution a current of pure sulphuretted hydrogen gas was passed for two days, after
which the small precipitate that had gradually formed was collected on a small filter, washed with
water containing a little sulphuretted hydrogen, dried, bottled, and weighed (B).

The filtrate from B was boiled to drive off the excess of sulphuretted hydrogen, and after cooling
mixed with a little sulphuric acid and about one-third of its volume of alcohol.

After standing for some days the small precipitate which had formed was collected on a small
filter, washed, dried, bottled, and weighed (C).

The alcohol in the filtrate from C was then boiled off, and excess of pure oxalic acid added. An
extremely small precipitate separated out on prolonged standing. It was collected on a small filter,
ignited. The ignited precipitate weighed little more than one milligramme (D).

The filtrate from D was nearly neutralised with ammonia, whereupon a considerable precipitation
took place, accompanied obviously by absorption of oxygen from the air. The precipitate (E) was
collected on a filter, and washed with hot water.

A further precipitate (F) was obtained by prolonged exposure of the solution to the air. The
filtered solution was then acidified with hydrochloric acid, and the oxalic acid present destroyed by
addition of pure recrystallised potassium permanganate.

To the solution thus obtained ammonia and ammonium sulphide were added to precipitate the
metals of the iron group. The bulky precipitate was collected on two large filters, and washed
with water containing ammonium sulphide. The filtrate was evaporated to dryness in large
platinum basins, and the residue gently ignited, in order to drive off ammoniacal salts. The residue
was bottled (G).

The iron group precipitate was treated in a closed flask with 5 jicr cent, hydrochloric acid,
prepared by diluting 20 per cent, acid with sulphuretted hydrogen water. After standing two days
the undissolved residue wa.s filtered off and washed with hot water containing a little sulphuretted
hydrogen, dried, bottled, and weighed (H).

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

419

The filtrate from H was evaporated to dryness in a platinum basin, and the residue treated with
strong sulphuric acid. The resulting sulphates were ignited in small portions at a dull red heat
in a platinum basin, in order to decompose the sulphates of iron and aluminium, &c. From time
to time small portions of the ignited sulphates were extracted with water, and the filtered solution
tested with ammonium sulphide. As soon as the ammonium sulphide gave a pure flesh-coloured
precipitate of sulphide of manganese the ignition was stopped.

After the whole mass had been treated in this manner, it was boiled with water and filtered.
The filtrate on evaporation gave a large residue of practically pure manganese sulphate (I).

The residue insoluble in water was ignited and bottled (K).

By this means the bulk of the manganese was separated from the other metals of the iron group
\vithout the use of any special reagent.

The 150 grammes of manganese nodules originally taken were thus split up into ten fractions
of simpler though still, for the most part, complex composition.

Each of these fractions was subjected to a rigorous qualitative, and in several cases quantitative,
analysis. Whenever practicable, the various products of analysis were examined spectroscopically
and the principal lines measured.

The following is a brief summary of the results arrived at : —

A. Chiefly silica and silicates.

The results of a full quantitative analysis of a similar insoluble residue obtained from another
portion of the nodules are given in Table III.

B. Sulphides of copper, lead, and molybdenum.

No arsenic, antimony, or tin.

No bismuth, cadmium, or mercury.

C. Calcium sulphate, containing merely spectroscopic traces of barium and strontium.

D. The hydrochloric acid solution of this small precipitate gave no characteristic emission

or absorption spectrum.

Yttrium and cerium group metals absent.

E. and F. These precipitates contained iron, aluminium, and manganese. Yttrium and

cerium group metals absent. Uranium, chromium, beryllium, and titanium absent.

G. This residue consisted chiefly of potassium chloride, derived from the potassium perman-

ganate used. Sodium, magnesium, and a mere trace of lithium were also found. Traces

of copper and iron group metals were also present.

Rubidium and caesium were searched for spectroscopically but not found.

H. Consisted chiefly of sulphides of iron, nickel, and cobalt, along with a little thallium.

I. Practically pure manganese sulphate.

K. Elements found — Iron, aluminium, manganese, a trace of zinc. Uranium, beryllium, &c.,

searched for but not found.

Quantitative Analysis.

The qualitative analysis above described having been completed, the general outlines of a
scheme for the quantitative analysis of these nodules were sketched out, based upon the qualitative
results arrived at. In order to facilitate adherence to this scheme, a diagrammatic plan of the various
operations was drawn up ; and in order to maintain a clear and systematic account of the progress
of the very complex and protracted investigation, this diagrammatic plan was filled in in detail as the
written notes of the work done accumulated. During the course of the analysis this system of
double record proved very useful, as it was always possible by referring to the diagram to get a

420

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

rapid ovei'sight of the work done or remaining to be done. When completed, the diagram appeared
to give so full and clear a representation of the whole course of the analysis that it was decided to
print it without alteration rather than to attempt a written account, which could hardly have failed
to bo difficult to follow. The diagi-am is therefore reproduced on the accompanying sheet. A brief
account of the cpiantitative determinations not included in this diagram must, however, be given.

Analysis of the Insoluble Residue left on treating 200 grammes of the Nodules ivith Hydro-
chloric Acid. — The composition of this residue, which was dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid to
constant weight, proved, after exhaustive qualitative airalysis, to be comparatively simple. No
special difficulties were therefore met with in the course of the quantitative analysis.

The loss on ignition was found to correspond exactly with direct estimations of the water con-
tained in the residue after drying in vacuo over sulphuric acid to constant weight.

Table III. gives the jDercentage composition of the water-free residue.

A prelimiuaiy determination of silica gave 13’22 per cent. A second most careful determination
with a larger quantity gave 13 '3 8 per cent. This latter number was adopted as being certainly the
more accurate.

On treating the crude silica with ammonium fluoride and sulphuric acid, a residue, consisting
chiefly of titanic acid, was left. This residue was of course allowed for in calculating the percentage
of silica.

The titanium was estimated with great care, being precipitated repeatedly by boiling the dilute
sulphuric acid solution.

Analysis of the Aqueous Extract. — 46 732 grammes of the powdered nodules were exhausted
repeatedly with boiling water.

The complete extraction with water proved to be exceedingly tedious, and the solution was
only obtained clear after repeated filtration. Aliquot portions were used for the determination
of — (rt) Total bases as sulphate ; (b) potassium and sodium ; (c) lithium ; {d) chlorine ; (e) sulphuric
acid. Traces of calcium and magnesium were also found and estimated.

For the quantitative composition of the extract see Table I., column III.

The residue, insoluble iii water, still contained sulphates, but no chlorides. The sulphuric acid
was determined in a separate portion of the nodules.

Estimation of ^Yater. — 7 5337 grammes of the powdered nodules lost 1*7330 grammes on
drpng at llO® C. to constant weight. This is equivalent to 23'00 per cent.

A direct determination of the water evolved on heating to redness in a platinum boat gave, on
the other hand, 29'83 per cent, of water. As the water collected in the bulb of the absorption tube
was slightly acid, two further direct estimations were made, using freshly-ignited oxide of lead to
keep back acid vapours. These determinations gave 29 64 and 29'67 per cent, of water respectively.
The mean of these determinations, 29 65, was adopted.

EstinuUion of Peroxide-Oxygen. — These determinations were made by Bunsen’s well-known
method.

'I’he standard thio-sulphate solution used was titrated against pure iodine, prepared according
to StfUi.

Three determinations gave 4 67, 4’71, and 475 per cent, of peroxide-oxygen respectively. The
mean of these determination.s, 4 71 per cent., was adopted.

A.Hsuming the whole of this peroxide-oxygen to be present as MnOg, the percentage of this
comjKmnd would be 25'61, which corresponds to 20 90 per cent. MnO, as against 21'46 actually

EEPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

421

found. This assumption^ however, is at once improbable and incapable of proof. It is at least
equally probable that the cobalt, nickel, and thallium are all present as peroxides.

Fluorine. — An attempt was made to determine the fluorine in about 6 grammes of the nodules.
The calcium fluoride ultimately obtained weighed less than a milligramme (0’0006 per cent.), so that
fluorine, although undoubtedly present, is so in quantity too small to be accurately determined by
any of the recognised methods, at least without undertaking a special research.

Estimation of Ammonia.-— Only one estimation was made. About 6 grammes of the nodules
were distilled with strong caustic soda solution, the distillate collected in hydrochloric acid, and the
ammonia determined gravimetrically by precipitation with platinum chloride. From the weight
of metallic platinum obtained the percentage of (NH4)20 was calculated, and found to be 0'016 per
cent, of the manganese nodules taken.

Estimation of Carbonic Acid. — After addition of excess of ferrous sulphate and of silver
sulphate (in order to prevent liberation of chlorine), weighed portions of the powdered nodules were
boiled with dilute sulphuric acid in a flask connected with a Liebig’s condenser, chloride of calcium
tubes, and Anally potash bulbs. During the operation a slow current of pure air was passed through
the apparatus.

Two estimations gave identical results, viz., 0'29 per cent. CO2.

Estimation of Sulphuric Acid. — 2'0347 grammes of the nodules were fused with sodium
carbonate, the fuse thoroughly extracted with water, and the sulphuric acid determined in the usual
manner.

0’83 per cent. SO3 was obtained.

The sulphuric acid determined in an aliquot portion of the aqueous extract obtained by boiling
46‘732 grammes of the nodules amounted only to 0‘36 per cent., so that, unlike the chlorine, the
sulphuric acid is chiefly present in the nodules in insoluble combinations.

The final results of the analysis are given in Tables I., II., and III.

Column I., Table I., gives the percentage composition of the powdered nodules without making
any deduction for hygroscopic moisture.

Columns II. and III., Table I., give the percentages belonging to the residue insoluble in
hydrochloric acid and to the aqueous extract.

Table II. gives the percentage composition after deducting the water, the residue insoluble in
hydrochloric acid, and the aqueous extract.

Table III. gives the percentage composition of the residue insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

In conclusion, I desire to acknowledge most gratefully the kind and valuable assistance which I
have received from friends and students in the course of my analysis. The spectroscopic examination
and the earlier qualitative analyses were carried out in conjunction with Mr. F. M. Gibson, B.Sc.
The final quantitative analysis, down to the subdivision into aliquot portions of the filtrate from the
sulphuretted hydrogen precipitate, was carried out in conjunction with Mr. J. S. Ford, to whom I
am specially indebted for his skilful and painstaking assistance. My thanks are also due to Mr. A.
King, Dr. T. R. Marshall, and Dr. J. Shields, for their kind assistance, more particularly in carrying
out a number of control determinations.

The investigation, by the kind permission of Professor Crum Brown, was carried out from first
to last in the Chemical Laboratory of the University of Edinburgh.

422

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

TABLE I.

I.

II.

III.

Total.

In Insoluble

In Aqueous

Residue.

Extract.

H,0.

29-65

Li.,0,

trace

trace

Na.,0,

1-81

0-65

1-16

k.,6,

0-25

0-17

0-08

0-02

0-02

MgO,

2-34

0-04

CaO,

2-31

0-26

0-04

SrO,

0-02

0-02

BaO,

0-12

0-12

MnO,

21-46

trace

CoO,

0-28

NiO,

0-98

ZnO,

0-10

Tip,

0-03

FeoOg,

14-33

0-86

AIP3, .

5-49

2-32

CuO,

0-37

PbO,

0-05

MuOj,

0-10

SO3,

0-83

0-36

Te,

trace

...

Cl.,-0, .

0-74

• • ■

0-74

F,

trace

...

P2O5. .

0-13

0-02

Vd.,03, •

0-07

...

CO.„

0-29

• • •

SiO^,

13-38

13-38

TiO„ .

0-13

0-13

0 ('peroxide-oxygen),

4-71

...

...

99-99

17-93

2-44

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

423

TABLE II.

Percentage Composition after deducting the Water, the Insoluble Residue, and the

Aqueous Extract.

MgO,

CaO,

MnO,

NiO,

CoO,

ZnO,

Tl.fi,

FeoOo,

AiPs,

CuO,

PbO,

MoOg,

SO„

co„

^2^5)

Vd^Og,

Peroxide-oxygen,

4-60

4-02

42-94

1-96

0-56

0-20

0-06

26-97

6-34

0-74

0-10

0-20

0-94

0-58

0-22

0-14

9-42

99-99

TABLE III.

Percentage composition of InsoluM&lResidue.

l^afi,
Wfi,.
CaO,
SrO, .
BaO,

Fe^g,

AlgOg,

P2O5.

SiOo,

TiOg,

3- 62

0- 95

1- 45
0-11
0-67

4- 79
12-93

0-11

74-58

0-72

99-93

[Diagram of Analysis.

APPENDIX III

CHEMICAL ANALYSES.

The following analyses have been made during the Examination of the Challenger Deep-Sea
Deposits by different analysts, and have been nearly all referred to in the body of the work.
The name of the analyst is affixed to each analysis immediately after the locality.

1. Red Clay (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 5.

Lat. 24° 20' N., long. 24° 28' W., 2740 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=77’30

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 14 '50

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. , . 8 '20

'Alumina, . . . . . .470

Ferric oxide, . . . . , 3'50

Calcium phosphate, .... trace

= Calcium sulphate, . . . . .070

Calcium carbonate, . . . . 56'39

Magnesium carbonate, . . . . 0'98

1-Silica, . . . . . .11-03

f Alumina, . . . . . .1-80

j Ferric oxide, . . . . . 0’80

= • Lime, ...... 0'50

Magnesia, . . . . - . . 0'40

.Silica, . . . . . .11-00

100-00

2. Red Clay (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 5.
Lat. 24° 20' N., long. 24° 28' W., 2740 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 82-84

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 14 -56

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

2-60

Alumina, .....

2-15

Ferric oxide, ....

4-76

Calcium phosphate.

2-09

Manganese oxide, ....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-29

Calcium carbonate.

. 60-29

Magnesium carbonate,

0-72

Silica, .....

. 12-54

Alumina, .....

3-13

Ferric oxide, ....

0-84

Lime, .....

0-68

Magnesia, .....

0-11

.Silica, .....

9-80

100-00

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

56

42<3

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

3. Red Clay. — Station 7.

Lat. 23“ 23' N., long. 31“ 31' W., 2760 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -52-98

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -39 -67

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-45

Alumina,

6-40

Ferric oxide.

. 15-42

Calcium phosphate.

. trace

Calcium sulphate, .

1-60

Calcium carbonate.

4-11

Magnesium carbonate.

1-20

Silica,

. 24-25

Alumina,

6-00

Ferric oxide.

2-54

Lime,

1-06

Magnesia,

0-64

Silica,

. 29-33

100-00

4. Red Clay. — Station 8.

Lat. 23“ 12' N., long. 32“ 56' W., 2700 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 63-01

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 28-04

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230“ Fahr. , . 8-95

^Alumina, . . . . . .8-95

Ferric oxide, . . . . .9-70

Calcium phosphate, . . . large trace

- Calcium sulphate, . . . . .2-24

Calcium carbonate, . . . .16*42

Magnesium carbonate, . . . . 2-70

-Silica, . . . . . .23-00

'Alumina, . . . . . .4-20

Ferric oxide, . . . . .2-10

■ Lime, ...... 0-89

Magnesia, . . . . . .0-60

t Silica, ...... 20-25

100-00

5. Red Clay. — Station 9.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric I
Acid — 43 '74 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 45 86 /

. 35“ 16' W., 3150 fathoms (Brazier).
Loss on ignition after drying at 230“ Fahr.,

. 10-40

Alumina,

8-30

Ferric oxide.

9-75

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Calcium sulphate.

0-87

Calcium carbonate, .

3-11

Magnesium carbonate.

1-90

Silica,

. 19-81

Alumina,

9-10

Ferric oxide.

2-04

Lime,

0-47

Magnesia,

0-95

Silica,

. 33-30

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

427

6. Red Clay. — Station 10.

Lat. 23° 10' N., long. 38° 42' W., 2720 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 58 '98

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 33 -41

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

7-61

p Alumina,

9-73

Ferric oxide.

9-30

Calcium phosphate.

.

-{ Calcium sulphate, .

0-61

Calcium carbonate, ,

. 13-30

Magnesium carbonate.

1-31

Silica,

. 24-73

(-Alumina,

5-50

1 Ferric oxide.

2-96

-j Lime,

0-23

j Magnesia,

0-19

t Silica,

. 24-53

100-00

7. Red Clay. — Station 18.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric t
Acid = 60'00 )

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 32 '25

Qg. 55° 13' W., 2650 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-75

Y Alumina,

8-25

Ferric oxide.

. . »

. 11-37

Calcium phosphate,

. . «

0-42

^ Calcium sulphate, .

0-52

Calcium carbonatCT .

. - .

. 15-78

Magnesium carbonate.

1-41

Silica,

. . .

. 22-25

( Alumina,

7-00

1 Ferric oxide,

2-50

j Lime, ,

0-57

j Magnesia,

0-38

i Silica,

. 21-80
100-00

8. Red Clay. — Station 19.

Lat. 19° 15' N., long. 67° 47' W., 3000 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in
Acid = 56 ‘47

Portion insoluble in
Acid = 36 '09

Hydrochloric

}

Hydrochloric

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 7 '4 4

C Alumina, . . . . . . 12’91

Ferric oxide, . . . . . 10‘33

Calcium phosphate, .... trace

-< Calcium sulphate, . . . . . 0’96

Calcium carbonate, . . . . . 1 "49

Magnesium carbonate, . . . . 3'10

4, Silica, . . . . . . 27-68

(-Alumina, . . . . . . 7'81

j Ferric oxide, . . . . - . 1 ‘57

Lime, . . . . . . 1'03

Magnesia, . . . . . , 0‘52

bSilica, ...... 25-16

100-00

4-28

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

9. Red Clay. — Station 20.

Lat. 18° 66' N., long. 59° 35' W., 2975 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid -66-83 i

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 35-72 /

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 50 -42

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric •
Acid = 43-66

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-45

Alumina, .....

. 12-28

Ferric oxide, ....

. 11-44

Calcium phosphate, ....

small trace

■ Calcium sulphate, ....

1-47

Calcium carbonate, ....

3-50

Magnesium carbonate.

2-14

L Silica, .....

. 26-00

Alumina, .....

7-28

Ferric oxide, ....

2-36

. Lime, .....

1-18

Magnesia, .....

0-50

^Silica, .....

24-40

100-00

Red Clay. — Station 21.

ag. 61° 28' W., 3025 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

5-92

Alumina, .....

7-04

Ferric oxide, ....

. 12-25

Calcium phosphate.

small trace

■ Calcium sulphate, ....

0-51

Calcium carbonate, ....

2-44

Magnesium carbonate.

3-48

Silica, .....

. 24-70

r Alumina, .....

5-51

j Ferric oxide, ....

6-73

■| Lime, .....

0-81

1 Magnesia, .....

0-41

''Silica, .....

. 30-20

100-00

11. Red Clay. — Station 27.

Lat. 22° 49' N., long. 65° 19' W., 2960 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in
Acid -44 -16

Hydrochloric

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 51 -59

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

4-25

Alumina,

6-50

Ferric oxide.

7-83

Calcium phosphate.

1-67

Manganese oxide, .

good trace

Calcium sulphate, ,

. trace

Calcium carbonate, .

3-25

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

Silica , ,

. 23-78

Alumina,

. 10-19

Ferric oxide.

4-29

Lime,

1-61

Magnesia,

0-33

Silica,

. 35-17

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

429

12. Red Clay (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 160.
Lat. 42° 42' S., long. 134° 10' E., 2600 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 73 -47

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 21 -53

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,
r Alumina, .....
Ferric oxide, ....

Calcium phosphate,

^ J Manganese oxide, ....

I Calcium sulphate, ....
Calcium carbonate, ....
Magnesium carbonate.

Silica, . . . . .

r Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, ....

= -{ Lime, .....

I Magnesia, .....
L Silica, .....

13. Red Clay. — Station 226.

Lat. 14° 44' N., long. 142° 13' E., 2300 fathoms (Brazier).

5-00

10-25

2-82

2-09

1- 99
0-29

36-80

0-76

18-47

4-03

2- 02
0-79
0-18

14-51

100-00

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 57 -30

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 38 -50

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

4-20

Alumina,

4-80

Ferric oxide.

. 15-20

Calcium phosphate, .

good trace

Manganese oxide.

1-14

Calcium sulphate, .

0-46

Calcium carbonate.

6-11

Magnesium carbonate.

0-75

Silica,

. 28-84

Alumina,

3-31

Ferric oxide.

5-79

Lime,

0-45

Magnesia,

0-40

Silica,

. 28-55

100-00

14. Red Clay. — Station 241.

Lat. 35° 41' N., long. 157° 42' E., 2300 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 62 -20

} =

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 33 -50

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,
f Alumina, .....

I Ferric oxide, ....

j Calcium phosphate,

1 Manganese oxide, ....
I Calcium sulphate, ....

I Calcium carbonate, ....

I Magnesium carbonate,

^Silica, . . . . .

J' Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, ....

. Lime, . . . . .

Magnesia, . . . . .

Silica, .....

4- 30
6-00
2-91
2-09

1- 14
0-49

. 22-63

0-94

. 26-00

5- 30

2- 20
2-20
0-40

. 23-40

100-00

4:30

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

15. Red Clay. — Station 252.

Lat. 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 4 6 '40

Portion in.soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 50 '00

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

3-60

Alumina, .....

5-23

Ferric oxide, .....

. 13-14

Calcium phosphate, ....

small trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-51

Calcium carbonate, ....

2-22

Magnesium carbonate.

0-41

.Silica, .....

. 24-89

^Alumina, .....

7-85

Ferric oxide, ....

2-60

Lime, .....

1-50

^lagnesia, .....

0-35

Silica, .....

. 37-70

100-00

16. Red Clay. — Station 253.

Lat. 38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W., 3125 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid -45 -69 i

- i

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid = 49-81 }

Acid — 45*32

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric!

Acid -50-1 8 r

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

4-50

Alumina, . . . .

8-31

Ferric oxide, ....

7-95

Calcium phosphate.

0-19

Manganese oxide, ....

0-65

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-37

Calcium carbonate, ....

0-92

Magnesium carbonate.

2-70

L Silica,

. 24-70

f Alumina, .....

7-75

Ferric oxide, ....

3-88

Lime, .....

0-28

Magnesia, .....

0-60

, Silica, .....

. 37-40

Led Clay. — Station 256.

100-00

'. 154° 56' W., 2950 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

4-60

Alumina, .....

6-00

Ferric oxide, ....

9-77

Calcium phosphate.

0-48

Manganese oxide, ....

0-68

Calcium sul[ihate, ....

0-42

Calcium carbonate, ....

1-69

Magnesium carbonate.

1-33

t Silica, . .

. 24-95

|- Alumina, ....

. 11-37

Ferric oxide, ....

2-00

Lime, .....

1-14

Magnesia, .....

0-85

. Silica, .....

. 34-82

100 00

HEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

431

18. Eed Clay. — Station 275.

Lat. 11° 20' S., long. 150° 30' W., 2610 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 66 ’10

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 27 ’40

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Eabr. ,

6-50

Alumina, .....

7-45

Ferric oxide, ....

. 15-71

Calcium phosphate,

0-76

Manganese oxide, ....

3-85

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-58

Calcium carbonate.

3-74

Magnesium carbonate,

1-96

^Silica, .....

. 32-05

f Alumina, . . . . c

6-35

1 Ferric oxide, ....

2-35

1 Lime, .....

0-44

I Magnesia, .....

0-30

L Silica, .....

. 17-96

100-00

19. Eed Clay (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 276.
Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 80 -70

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 17 '10

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr, ,

2-20

Copper,

trace

Alumina,

9-00

Ferric oxide.

9-03

Calcium phosphate.

3-44

Manganese oxide,

2-28

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate, .

. 38-13

Magnesium carbonate,

0-94

. Silica,

. 17-30

' Alumina,

4-27

Ferric oxide.

1-07

Lime,

0-22

Magnesia, .

0-11

. Silica,

. 11-43

20. Crystals of Phillipsite. — Station 27 6.

100-00

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Dittmar).

There were two specimens, one marked “ No. 1,” the other “ No. 2.”

According to a verbal communication from Mr. Murray, No. 1 contains Foraminifera, which were removed
from part of the original specimen to produce No. 2.

No. 2, when viewed under the microscope, was found to consist mainly of groups of yellowish crystals. In
No. 1 these crystals were associated with a multitude of calcareous fragments.

These two specimens were analysed in the same manner, but not, I am sorry to have to add, with the same
degree of success. While fully convinced of the correctness of the numbers to be given for No. 1, those for
No. 2, I fear, do not possess the degree of precision which I should wish them to have.

In either case the substance was disintegrated by means of hot hydrochloric acid, and the insoluble part, after
removal of the soluble silica by means of boiling carbonate of soda solution, ignited and weighed.

The hydrochloric acid solution was exhaustively analysed, separate portions of substance serving for the
determination of alkalies and water respectively.

432

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

No. 1, Found in 100 parts.

Undecom posable silicates, ....

7 '66 In combining weight.

Water, .......

12-31

HjO X 1-3680

Carbonic acid, ......

12-62

COj X 0-6690

Phosphoric acid, ......

3-19

PjO„ X 0 0449

Silica, .......

25-60

SiOa X 0-8533

Alumina, .......

8-43

AI2O3 X 0-1640

Ferric oxide, ......

5-40

Fe203 X 0-0675

Manganous oxide, ......

1-29

MnO X 0-0363

Lime, .......

9-93

CaO X 0-3546

Magnesia, .......

6-95

MgO X 0-2975

Potash, .......

2-60

K2O X 0-0553

Soda, .......

3-61

98-48

NajO X 0-1163

umber of eqq. of phosphoric and carbonic acids = 0 '7037
0516 eqq.

; of lime

and magnesia

= 0-6521 ; excess

Excess of acid eqq., ....

. 0-0516

Eqq. of ferric oxide, ....

. 0-2025

Excess of ferric oxide, ....
e carried over to the silica as FejOj x 0‘0503. Doing so,

we have in multiples of

. 0-1509

Si02

R.JO3

RO and R2O

H3O

0-8533

0-2143

0-2079

1-368 ; or

1

0-2611

0-2437

1 -60 ; or

4

1-004

1-025

6-4

This, if we leave the water on one side, is the formula of a metasilicate ; but, as the substance is decomposable
by hydrochloric acid, it must be looked upon as a hydric ortho-silicate (a zeolite) of the formula

(AlA. FojOs)'" )

RO y 4Si02 + 2Aq. ,

4H..0 )

mixed with the normal carbonates and phosphates of lime and magnesia, and some phosphate of ferric oxide.

This, at least, appears to me the most plausible theory, although possibly the close agreement of the above
co-efficients with the small integers of the formula may be purely accidental.

21. CavsTALS OF PuiLLiPSiTE. — Station 276. Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Dittmar).

No. 2, Found in 100 parts.

Undecomposablo silicates,
Water, •

Carbonic acid,

Phosidioric acid,

Silica,

Alumina,

Ferric oxide,

.Man^canous oxide, .
Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,*

.Soda,*

8 ’04 (by difference). In combining weight.

19-79

H2O

X

1-8660

6-17

COo

X

0-1993

0-65

X

0-0078

35-38

SiOj

X

1-0000

16-04

AI2O3

X

0-2481

7-35

Fe^Oa

X

0-0779

0-47

MnO

X

0-0112

1-73

CaO

X

0-0524

2-35

MgO

X

0-0997

1-63

KjO

X

0-0294

2-40

NQ20

X

0-0657

100-00

' W 10 of thi* water proved volatile at 100° C.

* After the (uinmary determination of the alkalies os chlorides, the weight of the PtCl^Kj wa.s lost,
calculated on the OMumfition of the ratio of potash and soda being the same os in No. 1.

The numbers given are

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

433

Joint number of and CO^

,, ,, of (CaO and MgO)’s= ....

Excess of acid Eqq. ....

The ferric oxide = jFejOs X . . . . .

Excess gFcjOgX ....

Transferring this {i.e., 0'0544 x FegOg) to the silicate part, we have

0-2227

0-1521

0-0706

0-2337

h-1631

SiO^

R0O3 RO

H2O

H3O

R3O

(red heat)

100°

X 1

0-3025 0-1063

1-008

0-8576

. .

. 1-0138)

X or 10

3-025 1-063

10-08

8-6

Here again we have a surprisingly close approximation to small integers, leading to the formula

IRO ilOSiOg + SAq.
lOHjO )

But unfortunately this formula does not agree with the one found for the silicate in No. 1. Erom the
analyses it seems that No. 2 was prepared from No. 1 by treatment with dilute acid ; if so, then clearly, if one of .
the two formulae represents a chemical species (or mixture of isomorphous species), the other certainly does not.

22. Red Clay. — Station 281. Lat. 22° 21' S., long. 150° 17' W., 2385 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=74-47

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=17'83

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-70

f Alumina,

8-80

j Ferric oxide,

. 24-60

Calcium phosphate,

small trace

Manganese oxide.

2-73

Calcium sulphate, .

trace

Calcium carbonate, .

2-50

Magnesium carbonate.

3-24

. Silica,

. 32-60

' Alumina,

1-60

Ferric oxide.

3-80

Lime,

0-84

Magnesia, .

0-32

V Silica,

. 11-27

100-00

23. Red Clay. — Station 285. Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -77 -03

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 13'97

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

9-00

f Copper,

trace

Alumina,

7-50

Ferric oxide.

. 23-55

Calcium phosphate.

0-70

Manganese oxide.

. 14-53

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carboiiate, .

4-07

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

. Silica,

. 24-97

f Alumina,

2-85

Ferric oxide.

1-05

Lime,

0-55

Magnesia, .

0-09

^Silica,

9-43

100-00

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

57

434

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEK.

24. Red Clay. — Stutioii 9. Lat. 23° 23' N., long. 35° IT W., 3150 fathoms (Ilornung).

I. 1 1459 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0‘6519 grm. of

silica, 0'2323 gnu. of alumina, 0'1148 grm. of ferric oxide, 0‘0150 grm. of lime, 0’0293 grm. of mag-
nesia, and 0'0770 grm. loss on ignition.

II. 1'1162 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids, gave 0‘0219 grm.

of potash, and 0 0092 grm. of soda.

Silica, ....

Alumina, ....

Ferric oxide,

Lime, ....

Magnesiii, .....

Potash, ....

Soda, ....

Loss on ignition,

Carium, manganese, and phosphoric acid.

66-89

20-28

10-02

1- 31

2- 56
1-91
0-81
6-72

traces

100-50

25. Red Clay. — Station 29. Lat. 27° 49' N., long. 64° 59' W., 2700 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1370 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0513 grm.

of water, 0-5774 grm. of silica, 0-2776 grm. of alumina, 0-0967 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-1811 grm.
of lime, 0-0815 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0’0294 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0 9872 grm. of substance, dried at 110° C., gave 0 0969 grm. of carbonic acid,

III. 1-329 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acid.s, gave 0-0416 grm.
of the chlorides of potash and soda, 0-0769 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0-0149 grm. of potash.

and, by difference, 0-0095 grm. of soda.

Silica, .......... 42-15

Alumina, , . . . . . . . .20-27

Peroxide of iron, . . • . . . . . .7-06

Lime, .......... 13-22

Magnesia, .......... 2-15

Potash, . . . . . . . .1-12

Soda, . . . ..... . . . .0-72

Carbonic acid, . . . . . . . . .9-82

■Water, .......... 3-75

100-26

26, Red Clay (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 281.
Lat. 22° 21' S., long. 150° 17' W., 2385 fathoms (Hornung).

0-3436 grm. of .sul)stance, dried at 100° C., lo.st 0-0297 grm.
0-8375 ,, ,, ,, 0-0657 „

0- 8392 ,, „ „ 0-0698 ,,

1- 1275 ,, ,, ,, 0-0933 ,,

Mean loss on ignitioi

— 8 -52 per cent.
-7-81 „

-8-28 „
-8-27 „

-8-22

I. 0 3024 grm. of substance, dried at 100° C., fused with the carbonates of potash and soda in a porcelain tube,

gave 0 01 94 grm. of water.

II. 0 7694 grm. of sulwtance, dried at 100° C., gave 0-3333 grm. of silica, 0 1074 grm. of alumina, 0-1346

grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0459 grm. of lime, 0 1 258 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0 04 5 3 grm.
of magnesia.

III. 0-4973 grm. of substance, dried at 100° C., treated at 140° C, in a closed glass tube with sulphuric acid,
rcrjuiie<l 3-5 c.c. of permanganate of potash (1 c.c. of permanganate of potash = 0 04813 grm. of
protoxide of iron), corresponding to 0 02 166 grm. of ]>rotoxide of iron.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

435

IV. 0'9945grm. of substance, dried at 100° C., treated with sulphuric and hydrofluoric acids, gave 0 0587 grm.
of the chlorides of soda and potash, and 0'0865 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0’0165 grm. of

potash and 0'0173 grm. of soda.

Silica, . . . . . . . . . . 43-32

Alumina, .......... 13‘96

Peroxide of iron, ......... 17‘50

Protoxide of iron, . . . . . . . . 4'36

Lime, . . • . • . . . • . 5'96

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . . 5'89

Potash, . . . . . . . . . .1-66

Soda, . . . . . . . . . .1-74

■Water, . . . . . . . . . .6-41

100-80

27. Red Clay (after removal of carbonate of lime by dilute acid). — Station 286.

Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Klement).

I. 1-5318 grms. of substance, dried at 110° C., gave 0-0230 grm. of carbonic acid.

II. 1-0940 grms. of substance, dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0973 grm.
of water, 0-4279 grm. of silica, 0-1685 grm. of alumina, 0-1961 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0552 grm. of
dioxide of manganese, 0'0916 grm. of lime, 0-0720 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia.

III. 0-9345 grm. of substance, dried at 110° C., gave 0-0981 grm. of loss on ignition, and, after being treated
with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, 0-0434 grm. of the chlorides of soda and potash, and 0"0611 grm.
of chloroplatinate of potash.

Silica,

Alumina,

Peroxide of iron.

Manganese dioxide.

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

Water,

Carbonic acid,

101-98

15-40

17-93

5-75

8-37

2-37

1-27

1-40

8-89

1-50

Note. — Before the blow-pipe this substance melted into a deep-coloured scoriaceous bead.

28. Radiolarian Ooze. — Station 265. Lat. 12° 42' N., long. 152° 1' 'W., 2900 fathoms (Brazier).

Acid=63-21

Acid = 32 -49

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

4-30

f Alumina,

6-75

j Ferric oxide.

11-20

j Calcium phosphate.

0-65

1 Manganese oxide, .

0-57

Calcium sulphate, .

0-29

Calcium carbonate, .

2-54

Magnesium carbonate.

2-46

L Silica,

. 38-75

f Alumina,

6-19

Ferric oxide.

3-09

Lime,

1-85

j Magnesia, .

0-34

L Silica,

21-02

100-00

436

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

29.

R.\dioi.arian Ooze. — Station 274.

Portion soluble in
Acid -79-48

Hydrochloric

}■

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 13-11

}-

Lat. 7° 25' S., long. 152° 16' W., 2750 fathoms (Brazie

Loss on ignition after drying at 230°

Fahr., . 7-41

^ Alumina, ....

8-32

Ferric oxide.

. 14-24

Calcium phosphate.

1-39

Manganese oxide, .

3-23

1 Calcium sulphate, .

0-41

Calcium carbonate, .

3-89

Magnesium carbonate,

1-50

L Silica, ....

. 46-50

r Alumina, ....

2-20

Ferric oxide,

0-75

Lime, ....

0-39

Magnesia, ....

0-25

Silica, ....

9-52

100 00

30. Radiolarian Ooze. — Station 266. Lat. 11° 7' N., long. 152° 3' W., 2750 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0 6580 grm. of substance gave 0-1087 grm. of loss on ignition, 0-3478 grm. of silica, 0-0011 grm. of cupric

oxide, 0-0391 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0384 grm. of alumina, 0-0345 grm. of phosphate of
alumina = 0-0145 grm. of alumina and 0 0200 grm. of phosphoric acid, 0 0099 grm. of pyrophosphate
of magnesia, 0 0063 grm. of phosphoric acid, 0-0141 grm. of manganous sulphide = 0-0115 grm. of
manganous oxide, 0 0435 grm. of lime, and 0'0884 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-0318 grm. of
magnesia, and traces of cobalt, soda, and potash.

II. 0 4725 grm. of substance heated with 2 grms. of carbonate of soda in the water-bath for thirty hours,

water being constantly added, gave 0-0607 grm. of silica= 12-84 per cent.

Silica, . . . . • • . . . .52-85

Copper, . . . . . • . . . .0-16

Peroxide of iron, . . . . . . . . .5-94

Alumina, . . ■ . . . . .8-22

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . . .3-99

Manganous oxide, . . . . . . . .1-74

Lime, .......... 6-61

Magnesia, . . . . . ' . . . . . 4-84

Cobalt, soda, potash, ........ traces

Loss on ignition, . . . . . . . .16-52

100-87

31. Diatom Ooze. — Station 157. Lat. 53° 65' S., long. 108° 35' E., 1950 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 89-98

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 4-72

Lo.ss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 5-30

Alumina, . . . .0-55

Ferric oxide, . . . . .0-39

Calcium phos))hate, . . . .0-41

Manganese oxide,

I Calcium sul])hate, . . . . .0-29

I Calcium carbonate, . . . . .19-29

I Magnesium carbonate, . . . .1-13

t Silica, . . . . . .67-92

Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica, 4-72

100-00

REPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

437

32. Diatom Ooze (after removal of carbonate of lime by dilute acid). — Station 157.

Lat. 53° 55' S., long. 108° 35' E., 1950 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0'5618 grm. of substance, dried at 120° C., gave 0'0330 grm. of loss on ignition, then treated with hydro-
fluoric and sulphuric acids gave 0'5092 grm. of silica, 0’00112 grm. of barium, 0‘0056 grm. of the
chlorides of potash and soda, 0'0044 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0 ‘001 34 grm.
of chloride of potash = 0 '00085 grm. of potash, and 0'00426 grm. of chloride of soda = 0'00225 grm.
of soda.

II. 0'6487 grm. of substance, dried at 120° C., gave 0'0379 grm. of loss on ignition, then treated with hydro-
fluoric and sulphuric acids gave 0'5870 grm. of sdica, 0'0013 grm. of barium, 0'0057 grm. of peroxide
of iron, 0'0089 gim. of alumina, 0'0022 grm. of lime, and 0'0055 grm. of pyrophosphate of mag-
nesia = 0'00198 grm. of magnesia, and traces of phosphoric acid.

I.

II.

Mean.

Silica,

90-63

90-49

90-56

Peroxide of iron,

0-88

0-88

Alumina,

1-31

1-31

Lime,

0-33

0-33

Barium,

0"20

0-20

0-20

Magnesia,

0-30

0-30

’ Potash,

0-15

0-15

j Soda,

0-40

0-40

! Phosphoric acid,

trace

trace

trace

i Loss on ignition.

5-87

5-84

5-85

1

1

99-98

32a. Diatoms from Surface-net. — Station 157.

1

Lat. 53°

55' S., long. 108° 35' E. (Anderson).

1 Water,

4-87

Organic matter.

16-75

Alumina,

1-38

' Silica soluble in acid.

1-00

Silica insoluble in acid,

1

1

76-00

100-00

33.

Globigerina Ooze. — Station 1.

Lat. 27° 24' N.,

long. 16° 55' W., 1890 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-91

(-Alumina,

5-26

Ferric oxide.

3-95

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 73 -07

Calcium phosphate, . .

Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate, .

large trace
0-44
50-00

Magnesium carbonate,
- Silica,

'Alumina, i

1-32

12-10

3-47

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric

1 J

Lime,

Magnesia,

1-26

Acid = 19 '02

J ^

0-52

.Silica,

13-77

100-00

438

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

34. Globigeuina Ooze. — Station 2.

Lat. 25° 52' N., long. 19° 22' W., 1945 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

5-02

f Alumina, .....

3-23

Fei-ric oxide, ....

4-18

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid -82-90 i

Calcium phosphate,

. trace

= .

Calcium sulphate, ....
Calcium carbonate.

0-69
. 64-55

Magnesium carbonate.

1-17

Silica, .....

9-08

('Alumina, .....

1-79

Ferric oxide, ....

0-60

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1

Lime, .....

0-33

Acid = 12-08 /

Magnesia, .....

0-28

.Silica, .....

9-08

100-00

35. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 11.

Lat. 22° 45' N., long. 40° 37' W., 2575 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

9-13

Alumina, .....

5-61

Fen-ic oxide, ....

4-65

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric |
Acid = 76 -59 /

Calcium phosphate.

Calcium sulphate, ....

1-02

Calcium carbonate.

. 51-16

Magnesium carbonate.

1-93

Silica, .....

. 12-22

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric I

1

Insoluble residue, principally alumina and j

. 14-28

Acid = 14 -28 /

ferric oxide, with silica, 1

100-00

Note. —Material at command only 9-80 grains

this yielded : —

Loss on ignition,

0-895 gr.

Soluble in acid,

7-506 „

Insoluble ,, .

1-399 „

9-800 „

When treated with dilute hydrochloric acid it evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

S'S. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 12.

Lat. 21° 57' N., 43° 29' W., 2025 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

8-80

'Alumina, .....

19-24

Ferric oxide, ....

13-74

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \ _

Calcium phosphate.

fair trace

Acid -80 -22 /

Calcium sulphate, ....

1-37

Calcium carbonate.

43-93

.Magnesium carbonate.

1-94

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 _ I

’ General residue, consisting of soluble silica »

10-98

Acid- 10-98 / 1

with the insoluble silicates, j

100-00

oTE. — .Material at commaiirl only 9 10 grains ; this yielded

Jjry»n on ignition.

o

00

o

g»-

Soluble in acid.

7-30

Insoluble ,, .

1-00

1 1

9-10

fi

hfti treated with dilute hydrochloric acid it evolved a perceiitiblc tarry odour.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

439

37. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 13.

Lat. 21° 38' N., long. 44° 39' W., 1900 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

6-63

. Alumina, r

Ferric oxide, j ■ ■ • •

5-86

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid = 82-14 /

= -

Calcium phosphate.

Calcium sulphate, ....
Calcium carbonate, ....

small trace
0-51
. 74-50

.Magnesium carbonate.

1-27

Portion

insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid=ll-23 f

_

General residue, consisting of soluble silica )
with the insoluble silicates, '

11-23

Material at command only 19-60 grains

; this yielded : —

100-00

Loss on ignition.

1-30 gr.

Soluble in acid,
Insoluble ,,

16-10

2-20

19-60

Portion soluble iii Hydrochloric
Acid = 90 -82

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid = 4 -60 )

38. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 14.

Lat. 21° r N., long. 46° 29' W., 1950 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
Alumina,

Ferric oxide,

Calcium phosphate,

Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate, .

Magnesium carbonate.

Silica,

Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric
oxide, with silica.

Note. — Material at command only 24 grains ; this yielded : —
Loss on ignition, ....

Soluble in acid, ....

Insoluble ,,

4-58

3- 33

1-12

1-20

79-17

1-40

4- 60

4-60

100-00

1-10 gr.
21-80 ,,
1-10 ,,

24-00

39. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 15.

Lat. 20° 49' N., long. 48° 45' W., 2325 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 87 -50 /

Acid=8‘33

Note. -rrMaterial at command only 12 grains ; this yielded
Loss on ignition, ....

Soluble in acid, ....

Insoluble ,,

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahi-. ,
' Alumina, 1

4-17

6-25

Ferric oxide, J • ■ • ■

Calcium phosphate.

large trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

1-91

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 67-60

Magnesium carbonate.

2-58

.Silica, .....

9-16

' Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric
oxide, with silica,

1 8-33

100-00

0- 50 gr.
10-50 ,,

1- 00 ,,

12-00 „

440

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

40. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 16.

Lat. 20° 39' N., long. 50° 33' W., 2435 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 78'40

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -12-00

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

9-60

f Alumina, .....

4-00

Ferric oxide, ....

7-10

Calcium phosphate.

small trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

2-32

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 52-22

Magnesium carbonate,

■ Silica, .....

0-76

. 12-00

r Alumina, -|

Ferric oxide, j - - ■ -

Lime, .....

0-64

Magnesia, .....

0-40

1 Silica, .....

8-00

100-00

Notk. — When treated with dilute hydrochloric acid this substance evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

41. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 17.

Lat. 20° 7' N., long. 52° 32' W., 2385 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

' Alumina,

Ferric oxide,

Calcium phosphate.

Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate, .

Magnesium carbonate,

Silica,

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 ^ / Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric \

J 1 oxide, with silica, /

soluble

Acid

in Hydrochloric L =
=.83-44 f

Acid -9 -72

6-84

2-69

9-05

1-74

0-81

58-40

0-68

10-07

9-72

Note. — Material at command only 27-80 grains ; this yielded : —
Loss on ignition, ....

Soluble in acid, ....

Insoluble ,,

100-00

1- 90 gr.
23-20 ,,

2- 70 „

27-80 „

42. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 64.

Lat. 35° 35' N., long. 50° 27' W., 2700 fathoms (Brazier)

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 65-39

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -26-71

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

7-90

Alumina,

4-75

Ferric oxide.

5-95

Calcium phosphate.

2-80

Maugane.se oxide,

. trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-29

Calcium carbonate, .

. 37-51

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

. Silica,

. 12-96

' Alumina,

6-35

Ferric oxide.

1-08

Lime,

0-41

Magnesia, .

0-12

.Silica,

. 18-75

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

441

43. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 146.

Lat. 46° 46' S., long. 45° 31' E., 1375 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

2-90

Alumina, i

Ferric oxide, j • • • •

0-91

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1 _

Calcium sulphate, .....

0-84

Acid =94-40 /

Calcium carbonate, .....

86-36

Magnesium carbonate, ....

0-19

^Silica, ......

6-10

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric r

Acid = 2-70 J ~

Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica.

2-70

100-00

44. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 176.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1 _
Acid = 82 '80 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 12-20

}-

153° 52' E., 1450 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

o

o

Alumina,

2-00

Ferric oxide.

6-16

Calcium phosphate.

0-84

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate, .

. 62-41

Magnesium carbonate.

1-51

Silica,

9-30

Alumina,

2-30

Ferric oxide.

1-04

Lime,

0-40

Magnesia,

0-26

Silica,

8-20

100-00

45. Globigerina Ooze (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 224.
Lat. 7° 45' N., long. 144° 20' E., 1850 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric

Acid = 97 -57 J ^

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric i
Acid=0'93 f

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
Alumina,

Ferric oxide,

Calcium phosphate,

Manganese oxide,

Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate, .

Magnesium carbonate,
t Silica,

1-50

1-25

0-47

0-28

0-29

93-14

0- 57

1- 57

= Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica, 0-93

100-00

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

58

442

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

46. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 246.

Lat. 36° 10' N., long. 178° 0' E., 2050 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric ^
Acid -75 '84 /

Acid — 19 ‘76

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric }
Acid -89 -68 1

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid -3 -52 /

Portion

soluble

Acid-

96-82

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -2-43

1-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230® Fahr. ,

4-40

'Alumina, .....

2-92

Ferric oxide, ....

4-91

Calcium phosphate,

1-05

Manganese oxide, ....

1-10

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-56

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 47-57

Magnesium carbonate,

0-83

^Silica, .....

. 16-90

'Alumina, .....

2-90

Ferric oxide, ....

0-90

Lime, .....

0-34

Magnesia, .....

0-22

.Silica, .....

. 15-40

100-00

GERiNA Ooze. — Station 293.

. 105° 5' \V., 2025 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

6-80

Alumina, .....

1-30

Ferric oxide, ....

. 20-94

Calcium phosphate,

0-41

Manganese oxide, ....

4-80

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-46

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 54-67

Magnesium carbonate.

0-90

^Silica, .....

6-20

Alumina, .....

0-60

Ferric oxide, ....

0-30

Lime, .....

0-12

Magnesia, .....

0-10

1 Silica, .....

2-40

100-00

finer parts had been washed away). — Station 296.

;. 88° 2' W., 1825 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

2-25

Alumina, .....

4-50

Ferric oxide, ....

0-73

Calcium phosphate.

2-77

Manganese oxide, ....

good trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-68

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 82-66

Magnesium carbonate.

1*18

t Silica, .....

3-06

(-Alumina, .....

0-61

Ferric oxide, ....

0-12

Lime, .....

0-14

Magnesia, .....

0-06

^Silica, .....

1-61

100 00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

443

49. Globigebina Ooze. — Station 297.

Lat. 37° 29' S., long. 83° 7' W., 1775 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid =92-23

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 3 -67

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 4 -10

'Alumina, . . . , . .1-95

Ferric oxide, . . . . .3-69

Calcium phosphate, . . . .0-19

Manganese oxide, .... good trace
Calcium sulphate, . . . . . 0’44

Calcium carbonate, . . . . . 81'13

Magnesium carbonate, . . . .0-85

..Silica, . . . . , .3-98

r Alumina, -i

1 Ferric oxide, j ■ • • • • ®

= -j Lime, . . . . . . 0'39

I Magnesia, . . . . . .0-16

LSilica, ...... 2-77

100-00

50. Globigebina Ooze. — Station 300.

Lat. 33° 42' S., long. 78° 18' W., 1375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid =82 -05

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 16 -25

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr,,
Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, . . . .

Calcium phosphate.

Manganese oxide, ....
Calcium sulphate, . . . .

Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate.

Silica, . . . . .

Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, . . . .

Lime, . . . . .

Magnesia, . ■

Silica, .....

1- 70
4-75
4-50
trace
0-85
0-29

62-17

0-94

8- 55
3-79

2- 06
0-96
0-14

9- 30

100-00

51. Globigebina Ooze. — Station 302.

Lat. 42° 43' S., long. 82° 11' W., 1450 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 1-00

'Alumina, . . . . . .1-00

Ferric oxide, . . . ■ 1’72

Calcium phosphate, . .0-28

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric ) _ Manganese oxide,

Acid = 97-18 ) Calcium sulphate, ..... 0-73

Calcium carbonate, . . . . ■ . 91 -32

Magnesium carbonate, . .0-30

.Silica, ...... 1‘83

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric I ■ ir ■ -j -r i .oo

I = Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica, 1 82
Acid=l-82 / °

100-00

444

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

52. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 332.

Lat. 37° 29' S., long. 27° 31' W., 2200 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid -84 -95 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid- 12 23

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

2-82

Alumina,

3-76

Ferric oxide.

1-61

Calcium phosphate.

1-74

. Manganese oxide, .

trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-68

Calcium carbonate, .

. 66-67

Magnesium carbonate.

1-33

''Silica,

. 10-37

(-Alumina,

2-18

Ferric oxide.

0-66

J Lime,

0-33

Magnesia,

0-11

L Silica, .....

iGERiNA Ooze. — Station 338.

9-06

100-00

Lat. 21° 15' S., long. 14° 2' W., 1990 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid-97-11 J

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 1 -49

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 1-40

Alumina, . . . . . .0-65

Ferric oxide, . . . . . 0'60

Calcium phosiihate, . . .0-90

Manganese oxide,

■ Calcium sulphate, . . . . .0-19

Calcium carbonate, . . . . . 92'54

JIagnesium carbonate, . . . .0-87

, Silica, . . . . . .1-36

Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica, 1 ‘49

100-00

54. Red Mud. — Station 120.

Lat. 8° 37' S., long. 34° 28' W., C75 fathoms (Hornung).

0-7287

grm. of substance dried at 100° C., lost 0-0131

grm. .

= 2-43 per cent.

0-8669

„ „ „ 0-016.69

ff

= 1-93

0-9462

,, „ ,, 0-0220

y$ • ‘

-2-32

0-9806

„ „ ,, 0-0230

M

= 2-34 „

Mean loss on ignition.

“2-27

I. 0-5884 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0354 grm.
of water, 0-1863 gnn. of silica, 0-1511 grm. of lime, 0-0266 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0542 grm. of
alumina, 0-0309 grm. of pyroi)hosphato of magnesia = 0 01 22 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-8381 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0435 grin,
of the chlorides of soda ami potash, 0-058 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0-01 12 grm.of potash and,
by difference, 0 01 37 grm. of soda.

III. 0-9204 grm. of substance dried at 100° C. gave 0 02268 grm. of chlorine.

IV. 0-9397 grm. of substance dried at 100° C. gave 0-1610 grm. of carbonic acid.

V. 0-9484 grm. of substance dried at 100° C. gave 0-0076 grm. of sulphate of barium = 0-026 grm. of
sulphuric anhydride.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

445

Water, . . . . . . . . . . 6'02

Silica, . . . . . . . . 31-66

Alumina, . . . . . . . . . . 9 '21

Peroxide of iron, .... .... 4‘52

Lime, . . . . . . . . . . 25‘68

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . .2-07

Soda, . . . . . . . . . 1’63

Potash, . . . . . . . . . .1-33

Sulphuric anhydride, . . . . . 0‘27

Carbonic acid, ......... 17‘13

Chlorine, . . . . . . . . 2'46

101-98

On subtracting the oxygen corresponding to the chlorine, . . .0-87

There remain ...... 101 -11

55. Red Mud (determination of soluble salts retained in the sediment). — Station 120.

Lat. 8° 37' S., long. 34° 28' W., 675 fathoms (Horiiung).

The substance -was washed with warm and cold distilled water till the water no longer gave the reaction of
chlorine. It was afterwards pulverised and treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids.

1-4088 grms. of substance dried at 100° C. gave 0-0496 grm. of the chlorides of soda and potash,
and 0-1013 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0-0195 grm. of potash and 0-0099 grm. of soda : —

Potash (KjO), ........ 1 -38 per cent.

Soda (Na20), . . . . . . . 0-70 ,,

56. Globigerina Ooze. — Station 176.

Lat. 18° 30' S., long. 173° 52' E., 1450 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1 0463 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-1852
grm. of silica, 0-0508 grm. of alumina, 0-0711 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0176 grm. of peroxide of
manganese, 0-3670 grm. of lime, 0-0474 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-0171 grm. of
magnesia.

II. 1-9834 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0328 grm.
of the chlorides of soda and potash, 0-0347 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0-0065 grm. of potash
and, by difference, 0-0129 grm. of soda.

III. 0-9571 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. served for the determination of carbonic acid = 0-2785 grm.

IV. 1-2462 grms. of substance dried at 110° C. served for the determination of water.

Silica, .......... 17-71

Alumina, . . . . . . . . .4-86

Peroxide ofpron, . . . . . . . .6-80

Peroxide of manganese, . . . . . .1-69

Lime, . . . , . . . . .35-08

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . .1-64

Potash, . . . . . . . . .0-32

Soda, . . . . . . . .0-65

Carbonic acid, . . . .29-10

Water, . . . . . . .2-95

Copper, nickel, cobalt, and phosphoric acid, ..... traces

100-80

446

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

57. Globioerina Ooze (residue after removal of carbonate of lime by dilute acid). — Station 224.
Lat. 7° 45' N., long. 144° 20' E., 1850 fathoms (Renard).

The ooze was first treated in the manner described on pages 220 and 221.

I. 0 5660 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. served for the direct determination of water, and gave 0'0401 grm.

of water.

II. 0-9345 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0-5995 grm. of silica, 0-1403 grm. of alumina, 0-0765
grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0155 grm. of lime, 0-0444 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-0160 grm.
of magnesia.

III. 0-8390 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0 0294 grm. of the chlorides of soda and potash, 0 0483

grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0 00976 grm. of potash and, by difference, 0 0076 grm. of soda.

Silica, ....

Alumina, ....

Peroxide of iron,

Lime, ....

Magnesia, ....

Potash, ....

Soda, ....

Water, ....

Barium, manganese, and phosphoric acid,

64-16

15-13

8-19

1-66

1-79

1-01

0-90

7-10

traces

99-94

58. Globigeeina Ooze (determination of organic matter). — Station 224.
Lat. 7° 45' N., long. 144° 20' E., 1850 fathoms (Hornimg).

0-9905 grm. of substance, dried at 100° C., lost 0-0537 grm.
0-9588 ,, ,, ,, 0-0558 ,,

Mean loss on ignition,

= 5-42 per cent.
= 5-82
= 5-62

I. 0-4413 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., burnt with oxide of copper, gave 0 0453 grm. of carbonic
acid = 0 01 235 grm. of carbon.

II. 0-9012 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., mixed with oxide of copper, and burnt in a current of carbonic
acid (barometer, 743-95 mm., mean temperature, 22° -5 C.), gave 6-4 cc. of nitrogen = 0-0753 grm.

Carbon, . . . . . . . . .2-80 per cent.

Nitrogen, ......... 0-785 ,,

The proportion of carbon and nitrogen in this organic substance is thus 53-48 : 15.

59. Globioerina Ooze (residue after removal of carbonate of lime by dilute acid). — Station 338.

Lat. 21° 15' S., long. 14° 2' W., 1990 fathoms (Klement).

10185 grma of the ooze dried at 110° C. gave 0-4120 grm. of carbonic acid, corresponding to 0-9364 grm. of
carbonate of lime = 91-94 per cent.

A rather largo quantity of the ooze was treated as described on pages 220 and 221.

I. 0-8360 grm. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-4219
grm. of silica, 0 1 506 grm. of alumina, 0-1066 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0220 grm. of dioxide of man-
ganese, 0 01 43 grm. of lime, 0 0567 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia.

II. 1-1293 grms. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0-1235 grm. of loss on ignition, and, after treatment with
hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, 0 0423 grm. of the chlorides of soda and potash, 0 0647 grm. of chloro-
platinate of potash.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

447

Silica, . . . . . . . . . . 60'47

Alumina, . . . . . . . . . . IS’Ol

Peroxide of iron, ......... 12'75

Manganese dioxide, . . . . . . . . . 3’00

Lime, . . . . . . . . . . 1'71

Magnesia, .......... 2‘44

Potash, . . . . . . . . . .I'll

Soda, . . . . . . . . . 1'05

Water, . . . . . . . . . . 10'93

101-47

Note. — Before the blo'w-pipe this substance melted into a grey-green bead, like volcanic ash.

59a. Globigerina Ooze (determination of soluble silica, alumina, and iron). — Station 338.
Lat. 21° 15' S., long. 14° 2' W., 1990 fathoms (Element).

On treating the ooze -with boiling hydrochloric acid a certain quantity of silica, alumina, iron, and manganese
■was dissolved. After this operation there remained 2 -21 grms. of insoluble residue, and the quantity
dissolved and re-precipitated by ammonia represented 0'0487 grm. of silica, 0‘0404 grm. of alumina, and
0-0917 grm. of peroxide of iron.

Silica, . . . . . . . . . .26-94

Alumina, . . . . . . . . .22-34

Peroxide of iron, . . . . . . . . .50-72

100-00

60. Pteeopod Ooze. — Station 22.

Lat. 18° 40' N., long. 62° 56' W., 1420 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

Portion

soluble in Hydi-ochloric
Acid=92-75

insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 3 -45

Loss on ignition after drying at 230°
f Alumina, -j

Ferric oxide, J '

Fahr.,

3- 80

4- 42

1 Calcium phosphate.

2-41

Calcium sulphate, .

0-41

Calcium carbonate.

80-69

Magnesium carbonate.

0-68

-Silica, . . . .

4-14

f Principally alumina and ferric

oxide, with 1.

3-45

\ silica.

J

100-00

Note. — When treated -with dilute hydrochloric acid this substance evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

61. Pteeopod Ooze. — Station 23.

Lat. 18° 24' N., long. 62° 56' W., 450 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 93 -95

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid =2 -05

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 4-00

'Alumina, . . . . • .1-80

Ferric oxide, . . . . .3-00

Calcium phosphate, . . . good trace

■ Calcium sulphate, . . . • .1-00

Calcium carbonate, . . . .84-27

Magnesium carbonate, . . ■ . • 1 "28

, Silica, . . . • ■ .2-60

Principally alumina and ferric oxide, with ) ^.Qg
silica, '

100-00

Note, — When treated with dilute hydrochloric acid this substance evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

448

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

62. Pteropod Ooze (after the finer parts had been washed away). — Station 24.
Lat. 18° 38' 30" N., long. 65° 5' 30" W., 390 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 94‘10

} =

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid ■= 3 '90

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

2-00

Alumina, .....

0-80

Fen-ic oxide, ....

3-06

Calcium phosphate.

2-44

Manganese oxide, ....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-73

Calcium carbonate.

82-66

Magnesium carbonate.

0-76

Silica, .....

3-65

Consisting of alumina and ferric oxide, with silica.

3-90

100-00

63. Blue Mud. — Station 213.

Lat. 5° 47' N., long. 124° 1' E., 2050 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 42 '24

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 52 -84

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

4 '92

Alumina,

7-75

Ferric oxide.

7-50

Calcium phosphate.

trace

Manganese oxide.

good trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate.

1-75

Magnesium carbonate.

1-14

Silica,

23-52

Alumina,

7-33

Ferric oxide.

3-73

Lime,

1-63

Magnesia,

0-31

Silica,

. 39-84

100-00

64. Blue Mud. — Station 323.

Lat. 35° 39' S., long. 50° 47' W., 1900 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -44 -82

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 40 '58

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,
f Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, . . . .

Calcium phosphate,

. Manganese oxide, . . . .

Calcium sulphate, , . . .

Calcium carbonate, . . . .

Magnesium carbonate,

'-Silica, . . . . .

'Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, . . . .

• Lime, . . . . .

Magnesia, . . . . .

. Silica, . . . . .

5-60

5-50

5-61

139

0-42

2-94

0-76

28-20

8-05

2-77

2-51

0-26

36-00

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

449

65. Blue Mud. — Station 323.

Lat. 35° 39' S., long. 50° 47' W., 1900 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0‘8069 grm. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0'4804 grm.
of silica, 04566 grm. of alumina, 0'0576 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0'0135 grm. of lime, 0'0427 grm. of
pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0'01 55 grm. of magnesia, and 0'0503 grm. of loss on ignition.

II. 1‘4212 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0'0995 grm.
of the chlorides of soda and potash, 0‘1603 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0'0202 grm. of potash
and, by difference, 0'0382 grm. of soda.

Silica, ....
Alumina,

Peroxide of iron,

Lime, ....
Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda, ....
Water, . . . .

Phosphoric and sulphuric acids.

. 59-54

. 19-42

7-15
1-68
1-93

1- 35

2- 68
6-24

traces

66. Green Sand. — Station 141.

Lat. 34° 41' S., long. 18° 36' E., 98 fathoms (Brazier).

99-99

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 67 -90

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 23-00

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 9-10

f Alumina, . . . . . .2-30

Ferric oxide, . . . .4-70

Calcium phosphate, .... trace

. Calcium sulphate, . . . . .1-07

Calcium carbonate, . . . . .49-46

Magnesium carbonate, . . . .2-02

.Silica, . . . . . .8-35

t Alumina, . . . ... . 0-95

I Ferric oxide, . . . . .0-35

.{ Lime, . . . . • .0-22

I Magnesia, . . . . . .0-13

L Silica, . . . . ■ .21-35

100-00

67. Green Mud. — Station 164c.

Lat. 34° 13' S., long. 151° 38' E., 410 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 72 -29

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 24-41

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

3-30

' Alumina, . . . . •

2-50

Ferric oxide, ....

12-30

Calcium phosphate.

0-70

Manganese oxide, ....

' Calcium sulphate, . . . ■

0-58

Calcium carbonate, ....

. 46-36

Magnesium carbonate,

0-57

Silica, . . ■

9-28

f Alumina, . . . • •

1-58

1 Ferric oxide, ....

0-42

^ Lime, . . . . •

0-30

1 Magnesia, . . . • •

0-12

1, Silica, . . • ■ •

. 21-99

100-00

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

59

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

4.)0

68. Volcanic Mod. — Station VHb.

Lat. 28“ 41' N., long. 16° 6' W., 640 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -62 '98

}-

insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 32 08

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
f Alumina, ....

Ferric oxide,

Calcium phosphate, .

. Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate, .

Magnesium carbonate,

Silica, ....

' Alumina, ....

Ferric oxide,

- Lime, ....

Magnesia, ....

Silica, ....

4- 94

5- 91
7-02
0-52
105

35-68
2-04
. 10-76

4- 30

5- 38
2-58
0-65

. 19-17

100-00

Note. — When treated with dilute hydrochloric acid this substance evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

69. Volcanic Mud. — Station VIIt.

Lat. 28° 42' N., long. 17° 8' W., 1750 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 68 -57

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -25 -13

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. , . 6-30

.'Alumina, . . . . . .5-71

Ferric oxide, ..... 7-14

Calcium phosphate, .... good trace

— ■ Calcium sulphate, . . . . .1-15

Calcium carbonate, . . . . .41-43

Magnesium carbonate, . . . .1-43

Silica, . . . . .11-71

'Alumina, . . . . . .3-71

Ferric oxide, . . .3-43

= -1 Lime, . . . • .1-43

Magnesia, ...... 0-72

i. Silica, . . . . . .15-84

100 00

Note.— When treated with dilute hydrochloric acid this substance evolved a perceptible tarry odour.

70. Volcanic Mud. — Station VIII.

Lat 28° 3' 15" N., long. 17° 27' W., 620 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -66 -23

}

i’ortion

insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 27 -65

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

6-22

Alumina,

5-00

Ferric oxide,

. 11-69

Calcium phosphate.

large trace

Manganese oxide.

trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0--27

Calcium carbonate, .

. 32-22

Magnesium carbonate,

0-83

Silica, .

16-22

Alumina,

4-22

Ferric oxide.

3-77

Lime,

1-44

.Magnesia,

0-22

Silica,

. 17-90

I

J..

it

If.

t

>

0

I

\

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

451

71. Coral Sand. — Station 172.

Lat. 20° 58' S., long. 175° 9' W., 18 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1'1310 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrochloric acid, gave 0‘016 grm. of phosphoric
acid, alumina, and iron, 0'5686 grm. of lime, 0'0944 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0'0340 grm.
of magnesia.

II. 0-852 grm. of substance dried at 105° C. served for the determination of carbonic acid, and gave 0'3602
grm.

III. 2-2746 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, gave 0'06346 grm. of

flocculent residue of organic matter.

Lime, . . . ■ • • • . . . 50'27

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . . 3 ’00

Carbonic acid, . . . . . . . . . 42‘28

Alumina, iron, and phosphoric acid, . . . . . .1-42

Organic substances, . . . . . . . . . 2‘78

Manganese and alkalies, ........ traces

99-75

72. Phosphatic Concretions. — Station 142.

Lat. 35° 4' S., long. 18° 37' K, 150 fathoms (Klement).

I. 0'8215 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0‘0990 grm. of carbonic acid, and 0-0328 grm. of sulphate
of barium.

II. 0'5715 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0-1784 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia (P2O5), 0'0078

grm. of silica, 0-2253 grm. of lime, 0-0107 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia (MgO), 0-0068 grm. of
alumina, 0-0145 grm. of peroxide of iron, and 0-0991 grm. of residue insoluble in dilute nitric acid.

III. 0-2428 grm. of insoluble residue, calcined and fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-1880

grm. of silica, 0-0301 grm. of alumina, 0-0192 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0026 grm. of lime, and 0 0069
grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia.

Phosphoric acid,
Carbonic acid.
Sulphuric anhydride
Silica,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Peroxide of iron.
Alumina,

Loss on ignition, ^
Insoluble residue.

Composition of the insoluble residue ; —

Silica,

Alumina,

Peroxide of iron.

Lime,

Magnesia,

Ratio of Equivalents.

0-721

19-96

0-422 'V

12-05

0-274 lo

1-37

O-OI7J.

1-36

39-41

0-7041

0-017/

0-67

2-54

1-19

17-34

95-89

77-43

12-40

7-91

1-07

1-02

99-83

^ An accident during the operation prevented the determination of the loss on ignition.

1

452 THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

73. Phospiiatic Concretions. — Station 143.

Lat. 36° 48' S., long. 19° 24' E., 1900 fathoms (Klement).

I. L1045 grms. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0T175 grm. of carbonic acid, and 0'0447 grm. of sulphate
of barium.

0'4952 grm. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 01822 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia (PgOj), 0 0127
grm. of silica, 0*2028 grm. of lime, 0*01 14 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia (MgO), 0'0138 grm. of
pero.xide of iron, 0*0071 grm. of alumina, and 0*0591 grm. of residue insoluble in dilute nitric acid.
3*3276 grms. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0*1213 grm. of loss on ignition.

0 1892 grm. of insoluble residue, calcined and fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0*1449
grm. of silica, 0 0262 grm. of alumina, 0*0150 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0*0024 grm. of lime, 0*0064
grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia.

II.

III.

IV.

Phosphoric acid,
Carbonic acid,
Sulphuric anhydride,
Silica,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Peroxide of iron.
Alumina,

Loss on ignition.
Insoluble residue,

Composition of the insoluble residue
Silica,

Alumina,

Peroxide of iron,

Lime,

Magnesia,

23*54

10*64

1*39

2*56

40*95

0*83

1*43

2*79

3*65

11*93

99*71

Ratio of Equivalents.
0-498-j
0*242 U*757

74. Phosphatic Concretions. — Station 143.

Lat. 36° 48' S., long. 19° 24' E., 1900 fathoms (Brazier).

0*0171

0*731
0*021

0*752

76*63

13*85

7*93

1*27

1*18

100*81

Acid -86 *7 4

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric i
Acid -9 *16 /

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

4*10

Copper,

mere trace

Alumina,

3*00

Ferric oxide.

5*80

Calcium phosphate,

. 49*57

Manganese oxide.

2*70

Nickel,

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

2*62

Calcium carbonate, .

. 16*07

Magnesium carbonate.

0*98

Silica,

6*00

Alumina, *k

Ferric oxide, /

0*60

Lime,

0*16

Magnesia,

fair trace

Silica,

8*40

100*00

mooth on the outside and of a grey colour ; inside colour ligh

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

453

75. Manganese Nodules (nuclei of bone). — Station 286.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \ ^
Acid=91-09 )

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric '
Acid = 4 '21

j. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

4-70

f Copper, .....

trace

Alumina, .....

2-30

Ferric oxide, ....

. 13-88

Calcium phosphate,

, 53-12

Manganese oxide, ....

3-62

Nickel, ....

trace

Cobalt, .....

trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

2-62

Calcium carbonate, ....

11-56

Magnesium carbonate.

0-75

^Silica, .....

3-24

r Alumina,

0-50

Ferric oxide, ....

1-70

Lime, .....

0-51

Magnesia, .....

0-15

.Silica, . • .

1-35

100-00

Note. — Two nodules, harder than the rest, coated with a light brown shell, which easily peeled off, and after being removed
was reserved.

76. Pumice. — Station 226.

Lat. 14° 44' N., long. 142° 13' E., 2300 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 74 -59

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 16-51

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

8-90

f Copper,

small trace

Alumina,

7-00

Ferric oxide.

. 26-28

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, .

. 10-25

Nickel,

small trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate.

0-29

Calcium carbonate, .

1-29

Magnesium carbonate,

0-68

t Silica,

. 28-80

f Alumina,

2-74

1 Ferric oxide.

1-36

-{ Lime,

1-01

1 Magnesia, .

. 0-40

1 Silica,

. 11-00
100-00

Note. — Material like pumice, light in weight, with reddish particles on surface.

454

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

77. Pumice. — Station 246.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric ■!

Acid -32-60 J '

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid -61 -50 /

ng. 178° 0' E., 2050 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

5-90

Copper, .....

small trace

Alumina, .....

2-50

Ferric oxide, ....

7-30

Calcium phosphale,

0-20

Manganese oxide, ....

4-56

■{ Nickel, .....

small trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-60

Calcium carbonate, ....

1-94

Magnesium carbonate,

2-00

Silica, .....

. 13-50

( Alumina, .....

6-00

1 Ferric oxide, ....

5-20

Lime, .....

1-70

1 Magnesia, .....

0-54

1 Silica, .....

. 48-06

100-00

Note. — Pieces resembling pumice in a disintegrating state; as received, that is to say dry, the material floated in water
for a time but afterwards sank.

78. Pumice. — Station 286.

Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 56 -27

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 39 -23

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

4-50

C Copper,

trace

Alumina,

6-00

Ferric oxide.

11-00

Calcium sulphate, .

mere trace

Manganese oxide, .

5-70

Nickel,

ti-acc

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-25

Calcium carbonate, .

1-90

Magnesium carbonate,

3-02

^ Silica,

. 28-40

f Alumina,

3-40

Ferric oxide, ,

5-25

Lime,

1-36

Magnesia,

0-60

t Silica,

. 28-73

100-00

Note. — Four small pieces of matter (three soft and one hard) resembling pumice.

79. Pumice. — Station 184.

Lat. 12° 8' S., long. 145° 10' E., 1400 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1-5321 grmn. of substarice dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0260
gnn. of water, 0 7747 grin, of silica, 0 0122 grm. of titanic acid, 0-1578 grm. of alumina, 0 0757 grm. of
[•croxide of iron, 0-0021 grm. of protoxide of manganese, 0-1422 grm. of lime, 0-3490 grm. of pyro-
filiosphate of magnesia » 0-1 420 grm. of magnesia.

(

1

I

J

(

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

455

II. 0’520 grm. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for the
determination of protoxide of iron 6‘5 c.c. of permanganate of potash = 0 0395 grm. of protoxide of iron
(1 c.c. of permanganate of potash = 0'005846 grm. of protoxide of iron).

III. 1'0252 grms. of substance dried at 110° C. gave 0'0127 grm. of potash and, by difference, 0'0288 grm.

of soda.

Silica, .......... 60-56

Titanic acid, . . . . . . . 0'80

Alumina, . . . . . . . 10'30

Peroxide of iron, . . . . . . . 4'95

Protoxide of iron, . . . . . . . . . 7'59

Protoxide of manganese, . . . . . .0-14

Lime, . . . . . . . . .9-35

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . . 9'27

Potash, . . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Soda, . . . . . . . . .2-81

Water, . . . . . . . . . .1-70

98-71

80. Pumice. — Station 241.

Lat. 35° 41' N., long. 157° 42' E., 2300 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1-2725 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-7755
grm. of silica, 0-2032 grm. of alumina, 0-1155 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0371 grm. of lime, 0-0629
grm. of loss on ignition, 0-0493 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-0178 grm. of magnesia.

II. 1-0515 grms. of substance dried at 110° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0707
grm. of the chlorides of soda and potash, 0-0914 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash = 0-0169 grm. of potash
and, by difference, 0-0246 grm. of soda.

Silica,

Alumina,

Peroxide of iron.

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

Loss on ignition.

Manganese,

99-22

15-97

9-08

2-92

1- 40
1-61

2- 34
4-95

lai-£re trace

81. Basic Volcanic Glass. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0-8463 grm. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-4510 grm. of silica, 0-1258
grm. of alumina, 0-0991 grm. of ferric oxide, 0-0788 grm. of lime, 0-1834 grm. of pyrophosphate of
magnesia = 0-06619 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-5448 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 6-6 c.c.
permanganate of potash solution (I c.c. permanganate of potash solution = 0-0058463 grm. of ferrous
oxide) = 0-03859 grm. of ferrous oxide.

III. 1-5701 grms. of substance gave 0-0265 grm. of water (loss on ignition).

IV. 1-5235 grms. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-08159 grm. of the

chlorides of potash and soda, 0-0243 grm. of cldoroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0074 grm of
chloride of potash = 0-0047 grm. of potash, and 0-0741 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-0392 grm. of soda.

4o6

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

53-29
3-84
7-08
14-86
9-31
7-81

0- 31
2-57

1- 69

100-76

82. Basic Volcanic Glass. — Station 285.

Lat. 32“ 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Sipdcz).

I. 1-0841 gnus, of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-5417 grm. of silica, 0-1543
grm. of ferric oxide, 0-1267 grm. of alumina, 0-1215 gi-m. of lime, 0-3864 grm. of pyrophosphate of
magnesia = 0-1392 grm. of magnesia, and 0-0056 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-0036 grm. of
phosphoric acid, and trace of manganese.

II. 0-5185 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 9-4 c.c.
permanganate of potash solution (1 c.c. permanganate of potash solution = 0-0058463 grm. of ferrous
oxide), corresponding to 0-05495 grm. of ferrous oxide.

III. L0448 grms. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 00357 grm. of the
chlorides of soda and potash, 0'0137 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash. The finely pulverised scoria,
l)a.ssed through fuming hydrochloric acid, was but incompletely decomposed.

Silica,

Alumina, .

Ferric oxide.

Ferrous oxide
•Manganous oxide,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash, .

.Soda,

Phosphoric acid, .

100-92

11-68

2-45

10-60

trace

11-20

12-84

0- 25

1- 60
0-33

Silica,

Ferric oxide.

Ferrous oxide.

Alumina,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

AVater,

83. Palaqonite. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' \V., 2350 fathoms (Dittmar).

.\ brown, apparently amorphous, substance, some of it powdery, some in lumps, which when broken exhibited
.a dirty-white fracture. The microscope showed white and yellow crystalline parts, and here and there
black globule.s, also a few metallic-looking particles. Having been led to understand (by Mr Murray) that
there were good grounds for looking ui)on this substance as disintegrated “ pumice,” and knowing that
pumice is in a very high degree proof against the action of even strong acids, it struck me that the
pro|)cr mode of investigating this substance was to extract from it all that could be rendered soluble by
successive treatment with a (a) hot hydrochloric acid, (6) boiling carbonate of soda solution, (c) semi-con-
centrated Ixiiling vitriol, (tl) boiling carbonate of soda solution ; to analyse the ultimate residue, and coin-
jmre the results with reliable published nnalyses of pumice or obsidians. This lino of research was
accordingly adojited ; but not wishing to rely altogether on second-hand information in this respect, an
undoubted specimen of pumice from the Challenger collection was examined in precisely the same

manner.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

457

The results of the (rough) proximate analyses were as follows : —
Found in 100 parts of

Moisture (100°), • • . .

Part decomposible by hot hydrochloric acid,i
Part decomposible by hot vitriol, , ,

Ultimate residue, ....

•

•

Keal Pumice.
. 1-0
6-9
5-1
87-0

Qua.si-Pumice.

13-5

34-0

44-5

8-0

100-0

100-0

The ultimate residues were ignited before being weighed and they were analysed in that condition, which,
as it now strikes me, may perhaps have been a mistake ; but if so it cannot now be rectified. The results
of the analyses were as follows : —

Found in 100 parts oi purified

Pumice.

Quasi-Pumice.

Silica, .....

76-41

56-77

Alumina (including trace of Fe203),

15-53

25-21

Lime, . . . .

. ■ 2-11

9-09

Magnesia, .....

0-40

1-37

Potash, .....

2-26

3-36

Soda, .....

2-98

4-19

Moisture,- .....

0-20

1-11

99-89

101-10

Co nverting these numbers into multiples of SiOg,

AI2O3, &c., we have for the

Eeal Pumice.

Quasi.

SiOa

1

1

AI2O3, .....

. 0-1186

0-2592

(or ^ AI2O3), ....

. (0-3558)

(0-7776)

CaO,

. 0-0296

0-1716

MgO,

. 0-0079

0-0362

KoO, ...

. 0-0189

0-0378

Na^O, . . . . .

. 0-0377

0-0714

or,'' taking EO as a general symbol for E"0, JAI2O3,

E'20, we have in

multiples of

SiOa

EO

Eeal Pumice, ....

1

0-4499

Quasi, . ....

1

1-0946

or, separating the bases into EgOg ’s and EO ’s (where EO = CaO, KgO

&c.)

SiOj

E2O3

EO

Eeal Pumice, ....

10

1-19

1 (-0-06)

Quasi, , . . . .

4

1-037

1-27

Eammesberg, in his Dictionary of Chemical Mineralogy (quoting from an extensive research by Abich) gives a
number of analyses by that chemist, from which it appears that pumices and obsidians (which, with him, are only
two forms of the same genus) arrange themselves into two sets — A and B.

The

in A are,
in B are,

Orthoclase and albite,
General symbols,

(SiOals (E203)s (RO)s

4 ’5 to 5‘5 1 1

6-5 to 8-5 1

6 1 1

n m 2>

1 By difference ; includes combined HoO. ^ Absorbed during preservation in tubes.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

60

458

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Wo seo that in both our specimens 7n=p as in Abich’s pumices ; but while our “quasi” is just a little too
basic for the A-set, our purilied pumice is far too acid for set B even. The excess of base in our quasi-
pumice might bo explained by the presence in it of Anorthite,^ which according to Tschermak always ac-
companies albite as a normal admixture. Going -by Abich’s determinations our quasi-pumice would appear
to stand closer to what he calls pumice than our undoubtedly genuine pumice does.

^ j Q |2SiOo ; i.e., 4(RO or R§0) for 2SiOj. •

84. Glauconite. — Station 164b.

Lat. 34° 13' S., long. 151° 38' E., 410 fathoms (Sipdez).

I. 0'4544 grm. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0’0311 grm. of water, 0'2573
gmi. of silica, 0'0770 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0'0570'grm. of alumina, trace of manganese, 0'0077
grm. of lime, and 0‘0315 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0‘01 135 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0’3519 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0'0199 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and soda, 0'0456 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0‘0139 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0 ‘00889 grm. of potash, and 0‘0060 grm. of chloride of soda = 0‘00318 grm. of soda.

III. 0‘1483 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 0‘3 c.c.
permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of potash = 0‘0058355 grm. of protoxide of iron), corre-
sponding to 0‘0175 grm. of protoxide of iron.

Silica, .......... 56-62

Peroxide of iron, ......... 15‘63

Alumina, .......... 12‘54

Proto.xide of iron, . . . . . . . . . 1‘18

Lime, . . . . . . . . . . . 1‘69

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . . 2‘49

Potash, . . . . . . . . . . 2‘52

Soda, ........... 0-90

Water, . . . . . . . . . . 6‘84

Manganese, .......... trace

100-41

Note. — This substance contained about 65 per cent, of white, pale grey, and some yellow casts, 20 per cent, pale green casts,
and 11 per cent of dark green casts, together with 14 per cent, of mineral particles and siliceous organisms (J. M.).

85. Glauconite. — Station 164n.

Lat. 34“ 13' S., long. 151° 38' E., 410 fathoms (Sipocz).

I. 0-6340 grm. of substance, fused witli the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0‘0352 grm. of water, 0-3299
grm. of silica, 0-1664 grm. of jieroxide of iron, 0‘0566 grm. of alumina, trace of manganese, 0 0080
grm. of lime, and 0 055 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-019856 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0‘5320 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0 0380 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and so<la, 01 164 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0 0355 grm. of chloride
of potash ■■ 0-02243 grm. of jiotash, and 0 0025 grm. of chloride of soda = 0‘00133 grm. of soda.

III. 0 2633 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 0-75 c.c.
permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of pota.sh = 0‘0058355 grm. of jirotoxide of iron), corre-
sponding to 0-004376 grm. of protoxide of iron.

I

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA

DEPOSITS.

459

Silica, .......... 50-85

Peroxide of iron, ......... 24‘40

Alumina, . . . . . . . . . . 8'92

Protoxide of iron, . . . . . . . , . 1 '66

Lime, . . . . . . . . . . . 1‘26

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . .3-13

Potash, . . . . . . . . . . 4'21

Soda, . . . . . . . . . 0 '25

Water, .......... 5‘55

Manganese, .......... trace

100-23

Note. — This substance contained 15 per cent, of white, pale grey, and yellow casts, 35 per cent, pale green casts, 45 per
cent, of dark gi-eeu particles, together with 5 per cent, of mineral particles and siliceous organisms (J, M.).

86. Glauconite. — Station 164b.

Lat. 34° 13' S., long, 151° 38' E., 410 fathoms (Sipocz).

I. 0-7312 grm. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0416 grm. of water, 0-3788
grm. of silica, 0'1896 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0'0634 grm. of alumina, trace of manganese, 0-0093
grm. of lime, and 0'0618 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-02227 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-6828 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0‘0450 grm. of the chlorides

of potash and soda, 0-1367 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0417 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0-02634 grm. of potash, and 0'0033 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-00175 grm. of soda.

III. 0-3205 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 0-85 c.c.

permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of potash = 0-0058355 grm. of protoxide of iron), corre-

sponding to 0-00496 grm. of protoxide of iron.

Silica, . . . . . . . . .51-80

Peroxide of iron, . . . . , . . . .24-21

Alumina, . . . . . . . . . .8-67

Protoxide of iron, . . . . . . . . .1-54

Lime, . . . . . . . . . . .1-27

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . .3-04

Potash, , . . . . . . . . .3-86

Soda, , . . . . . . . .0-25

Water, . . . . . . . . . .5-68

Manganese, .......... trace

100-32

Note. — This substance contained 10 per cent, of white, pale grey, and yellow casts, 25 per cent, of pale green casts, 60 per
cent, of dark green casts, together with 5 per cent, of mineral particles and siliceous organisms ( J. M. ).

87. Glauconite. — Station 164b.

Lat. 34° 13' S., long. 151° 38' E., 410 fathoms (Sipocz).

I. 0-7543 grm. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-0435 grm. of water, 0-4147
grm. of silica, 0-1777 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0626 grm. of alumina, trace of manganese, 0'0098 grm.
of lime, and 0 0575 grm, of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-02072 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-7413 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0432 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and soda, 0-1292 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0394 grm. of chloride
of potash= 0-0249 grm. of potash, and 0-0038 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-0020 grm. of soda.

III. 0-2987 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 1 c.c.
permanganate of potash (1 c.c, permanganate of potash = 0-0058355 grm. of protoxide of iron), corre-
sponding to 0-0058355 grm. of protoxide of iron.

460

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

lY. 0’4112 grm. of substi\nce gave 0‘0242 grm. of los3 on ignition, and fused with the carbonates of soda and
potash gave 0*2277 grm. of silica, 0‘0986 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0*0326 grm. of alumina, trace of
manganese, 0*0057 grm. of lime, and 0*0325 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0*01207 grm. of

magnesia.

Silica,

Peroxide of iron,
Alumina,
Protoxide of iron,
Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

"Water,

^langanese, .

I.

II.

III.

IV.

Mean

54*97

55*37

55*17

21*39

21*84

21*59

8*30

7*93

8*12

1*95

...

1*95

1*30

1*38

1*34

2*74

2*93

2*83

...

3*36

3*36

0*27

0*27

576

5*76

trace

100*39

Note. — This substance contained 30 per cent, of white, pale grey, and yellow casts, 40 per cent, pale gi*een casts, 20 per
cent, dark green casts, together with 10 jier cent, of mineral particles and remains of siliceous organisms (J. M.).

88. Glauconite. — Station 185e.

Lat. 11° 38' 15" S., long. 143° 59' 38" E., 155 fathoms (Sipocz).

I. 0*3695 grm. of substance, fused tvith the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0*0401 grm. cf water, 0*1025
grm. of silica, 0*1548 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0*0481 grm. of alumina, trace of manganese, 0*0044 grm.
of lime, and 0*0474 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0*0171 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0*2740 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0*0082 grm. of the chlorides of
potash and soda, 0*0137 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0*0042 grm. of chloride of
potash = 0*0025 grm. of potash, and 0 0040 grm. of chloride of soda = 0*0017 grm. of soda.

III. 0*0990 grm. of substance required for oxidation, after treatment with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, 0*3
c.c. permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of potash = 0*0058355 gi*m. of protoxide of iron),
corresponding to 0*00175 grm. of protoxide of iron.

Silica,

Peroxide of iron,
Alumiua, .
Protoxide of iron.
Manganese,

Lime,

Magnesia,

Pota-sh,

Soda,

Water,

27*74

39*93

13*02

1*76

trace

1*19

4*62

0*95

0*62

10*85

89. PniLLiPsiTE. — Station 275.

Lat. 11° 20' S., long. 150° 30' W., 2610 fathoms (Sipocz).

100*68

I. 0*5080 grm. of substance, after drying 16 hours at 125° C., lost 0*0465 grm. of water and gave 0*0385 grm.
of loss on ignition, and then fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0*2418 grin, of silica,
0*0301 grin, of peroxide of iron, 0*0868 grm. of alumina, 0*0024 grm. manganoso- manganic oxide
— 0*0022 grm. of manganous oxide, 0*0163 grm. of lime, and 0*0176 grm. of pyrophosphate of
magnesia — 0*00634 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0*3*224 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0*0494 grm. of the chlorides
of fH)ta*h and soda, 0*0806 grm. of cldoroidatinate of potash, corresponding to 0*0246 grm. of chloride
of ]>otash — 0*0155 grm. of potash, and 0*0*248 gnn. of cldorido of soda = 0*01315 grm. of soda.

REPORT ON

THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

461

Silica, .......... 47-60

Peroxide of iron, . . . . . . . . . 5 '92

Alumina, . . . . . . . . . 17-09

Manganous oxide, . . . . . . . . 0-43

Lime, , . . . . . . . . . 3-20

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . 1-24

Potash, , . . . . . . . . . 4-81

Soda, ... ...... 4-08

Water!

I Loss on Ignition,

90. Phillipsite. — Station 275.

Lat. 11° 20' S., long. 150° 30' W., 2610 fathoms (Sipocz).

101-11

I. 0-5411 grm. of substance, after drying 30 hours at 125° C., lost 0-0506 grm. of water and gave 0-0398
grm. of loss on ignition, and then fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-2699 grm. of silica,
0-0300 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0894 grm. of alumina, 0'0026 grm. of manganoso-manganic oxide
= 0'0024 grm. of manganous oxide, 0 0075 grm. of lime, and 0-0180 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia
= 0-0065 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-4115 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0690 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and soda, 0-1091 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0333 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0-0210 grm. of potash, and 0-0357 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-0189 grm. of soda.

Silica,

Peroxide of iron.
Alumina,
Manganous oxide.
Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

Water

{

at 125° a, .

Loss on ignition.

49-88

5-54

16-52

0- 44

1- 38
1-20
5-10
4-59
9-33 1
7-35/

16-68

91. Phillipsite. — Station 275.

101-33

Lat. 11° 20' S., long. 150° 30' W., 2610 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0-7228 grm. of substance, after drying 10 hours at 125° C., lost 0-0575 grm. of water and gave 0-0685 grm.
of loss on ignition, and then fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-3520 grm. of silica,
0’0446 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-1271 grm. of alumina, 0-0123 grin, of lime, 0-0208 grm. of pyrophos-
phate of magnesia = 0-0074 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-75479 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-1112 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and soda, 0-1879 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0579 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0'0365 grm. of potash, and 0-0533 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-0283 grm. of soda.

Silica,

Peroxide of iron.
Alumina,

Lime, .

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

Water !

at 125° 0., .
Loss on ignition.

48-70

6- 17
17-58

1-70

1-02

4-83

3-75

7- 95
9-47

}l7

■42

101-17

462

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

92. Phillipsite. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Dittmar).

This specimen (which amounted to only a very few grams), when viewed under the microscope, appeared to
consist matnly of tufts of yellow well-shaped crystals mixed with brown amorphous matter and black, roundish
particles. I tried a variety of methods for isolating the crystals, such as treatment with cold dilute hydro-
chloric acid, dilute sulphuric acid, oxalic acid, &c., but did not succeed ; the crystals themselves were too readily
disintegrated by acids. On the other hand, even treatment with hot hydrochloric acid left more than mere
hydrated silica ; I therefore decided upon separating the subtance into two parts by means of hot hydrochloric
acid and analysing separately the disintegrated portion (including soluble silica of residue), and the de-siUcated
resiilue. Such an analysis accordingly was started, but unfortunately it was lost through a serious oversight in
the manipulation of the silicas, and not caring to risk the small remnant of substance that was left in compara-
tively difficult processes, I simply analysed it as it was, i.e., without previously separating it into two jDarts.
The first analysis served to check some of the numerical results, and as the agreements were satisfactory, the
following analysis may be said to rest partly on double determinations.

Sketch of Method of Analysis. — A known weight (0 6068 grm.) of air-dry powdered substance was placed in a
platinum boat and dehydrated in a current of dry air, first at 100°, then at a red heat (within a combustion tube),
the volatilised water, in the second case, being collected in a tared chloride-of-calciura tube. The residue was
weighed, transferred to a platinum crucible, again weighed, and then ignited strongly, when it suffered an addi-

1. In

tional loss of weight. The residue was fused with carbonates of potash and soda aud analysed as

a separate portion the alkalies were determined according to Lawrence Smith.

•

Found in 100 parts of substance ; —

Per Cent.

■ In multiples of eom-

lining weights.

Silica, ....

57-85

1-000

Alumina, ....

20-09

0-203

Ferric oxide.

8-59

0-0555

Manganous oxide.

2-51

0-0362

Lime, ....

5-43

0-1006

Magnesia,

..... 3-10

0-0804

Potash, .

3-95

0-0436

Soda, ....

1-31

0-0218

102-83

Error, ....

2-83

100-00

Water vol. at 100°,

9-74 :

H,0 = 0-5612 (a)

Water vol. at redness.

10-56 :

H20= 0-6085 (5)

Further loss at strong red heat, .

4 -83 :

H,0 = 0-2785 (c)

S“ 125-13

Assuming the “ FcjOg ” reported to have been FeO (in the substance), we have for the co-efficients of

c b a

SiOj

AI.,03

RO

ILO, H„0

H..,0

1

0-203

0-328

0 065

0-2785 0-6085

0-5612

or SiOj

A1.A

RO

R,,0

II.,0

5

1-016

1-64

0-325

7-24.

or 6

1

2

7 (about)

The substance, then, would appear to be a kind of (mixed) zeolite, of the formula •

A1,0"' )

2RO >

£jHaO ;

5SiOj + X Aq ;

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

463

the HgO’s supplementing what would otherwise be a meta- into an ortho-silicate, which explains its
decomposibility by hydrochloric acid. I am, however, very far from asserting that the substance really is such
a zeolite. Before doing so I should wish to repeat my analysis with a larger supply of purified material.

93. Basic Volcanic Glass. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Sipocz).

A. Unaltered Nucleus (spec, grav., 2'90).

I. 0-9040 grm. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0-4227 grm. of silica, 0-1254
grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-1601 grm. of alumina, 0 0043 grm. of manganoso-manganic oxide, 0-1045
grm. of lime, and 0-2604 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia.

II. 0-3390 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 6-35 c.c.
permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of potash = 0-0058296 grm. of protoxide of iron), corre-
sponding to 0-037018 grm. of protoxide of iron,

III. 0-8385 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0314 grm. of the chlorides
of potash and soda, 0-0075 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0'0023 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0-00144 grm. of potash, and 0-0291 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-01543 grm. of soda.

Silica, .......... 46-76

Peroxide of iron, . . . . . . . . .1-73

Protoxide of iron, . . . . . . . . .10-92

Alumina, , . . . . . . . . .17-71

Manganous oxide, . . . . . . . . .0-44

Lime, . . . . . . . . . .11-56

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . . .10-37

Potash, . . . . . . . . . .0-17

Soda, .......... 1-83

94. Palagonite. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Sipocz).

101-49

B. Decomposed Coating.

I. 0-5681 grm. of substance, dried at 105° C., gave 0-0543 grm. of loss on ignition, then fused with the car-
bonates of soda and potash gave 0-2541 grm. of silica, 0-0828 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0-0924 grm. of
alumina, 0-0159 grm. of manganoso-manganic oxide, 0-0107 grm. of lime, and 0-0554 grm. of pyrophos-
phate of magnesia = 0-01239 grm. of magnesia.

II. 0-3801 grm. of substance, dried at 105° C., treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0565 grm.
of the chlorides of potash and soda, 0-0794 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0242
grm. of chloride of potash = 0-0153 grm. of potash, and 0-0323 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-017126 grm.
of soda.

Silica,

Peroxide of iron.

Alumina,

Manganic oxide.

Lime,

Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda,

Water,

14-57

16-26

2-89

1-88

2-23

4-02

4-50

9-56

100-64

4(54

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

95. Basic Volcanic Glass (spec, grav., 2-89). — Station 302.
Lat. 42“ 43' S., long. 82“ 11' W., 1450 fathoms (Renard).

I. 1’0852 grms. of substance, fused with the carbonates of soda and potash, gave 0‘5084 grm. of silica, 0T480
grui. of peroxide of iron, 0T930 grm. of alumina, 0’0046 grm. of manganous sulphide, 0-1288 grm. of
lime, and 0-2783 grm. of pyrophosphate of magnesia = 0-10028 grm. of magnesia. •

II.' 0-4320 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, required for oxidation 8-0 c.c. of
permanganate of potash (1 c.c. permanganate of potash = 0-0058296 grm. of protoxide of iron), corre-
sponding to 0-04663 grm. of protoxide of iron.

III. 0-6690 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0287 grm. of the chlorides

of soda and potash, 0-0080 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-00244 grm. chloride of
potash = 0-001542 grm. of potash, and 0-02626 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-01392 grm. of soda.

IV. 1-0251 grms. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0393 grm. of the chlorides

of potash and soda, 0-0122 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0037 grm. of chloride
of potash = 0-00235 grm. of potash, and 0-00356 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-01 887 grm. of soda.

V. 0-9799 grm. of substance, treated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, gave 0-0460 grm. of the chlorides of
potash and soda, 0-0200 grm. of chloroplatinate of potash, corresponding to 0-0061 grm. of chloride of
potash = 0-00385 grm. of potash, and 0-0399 grm. of chloride of soda = 0-02116 grm. of soda.

Silica, .

I.

46-84

II.

III.

IV.

V.

Mean.

46-84

Peroxide of iron.

1-64

1-64

Protoxide of iron,

10-79

10-79

Alumina,

17-78

17-78

Manganous oxide

0-34

0-34

Lime, .

11-87

11-87

Magnesia,

9-24

9-24

Potash,

0-23

0-23

0-39

0-28

Soda, .

2-08

1-84

2-16

2-02

100-80

96. Manganese Nodule. — Station 3.

Lat. 25“ 45' N., long. 20“ 12' W., 1525 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -70 -4 6

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -4 -70

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 24-84

Copper,

trace

Alumina,

2-50

Ferric oxide.

. 31-60

Calcium phosphate.

0-90

Manganese oxide, .

. 25-64

Calcium sulphate, .

1-16

Calcium carbonate, .

3-15

Magnesium carbonate.

1-51

Silica,

4-00

Alumina,

1-00

Ferric oxide.

1-30

Lime, ,

0-30

Magnesia, .

0-10

Silica, .

2-00

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

465

97. Manganese Nodule. — Station 3.

Lat. 25° 45' N., long. 20° 12' W., 1525 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 78 -38

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrocliloric
Acid = 3 ‘32

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 18-30

' Copper,

small trace

Alumina,

1-70

Ferric oxide.

. 40-71

Calcium phosphate,

0-34

Manganese oxide, .

. 22-80

Nickel,

mere trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

1-17

Calcium carbonate, .

5-15

Magnesium carbonate,

1-51

L Silica,

5-00

Alumina,

0-55

Ferric oxide.

0-68

Lime,

0-25

Magnesia, .

0-18

. Silica,

1-66

100-00

Note. — Small mass of a brown and blackish colour, no definite shape, but appeared as if broken from some larger mass.

97a. Coeal {Pleurocorallium johnsoni) attached to the preceding nodule. — Station 3.
Lat. 25° 45' N., long. 20° 12' W., 1525 fathoms (Anderson),

Water,

Calcium carbonate,
Magnesium carbonate,
Calcium phosphate, )
Ferric oxide, i

Silica,

Insoluble residue.

0-30

93-39

6-00

0-10

trace

0-05

98. Manganese Nodule. — Station 16.

99-84

Lat. 20° 39' N., long. 50° 33' W., 2435 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid = 82 -73 1

Acid = 3 "64

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

. 13-63

( Copper,

small trace

Alumina,

2-95

Ferric oxide.

. 36-08

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, .

. 29-32

- Nickel, ,

. trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

1-05

Calcium carbonate, .

1-96

Magnesium carbonate.

4-32

-Silica,

7-05

( Alumina, -j

1 Ferric oxide, i
4 Lime, }-

3-64

1 Magnesia,

L Silica, J

100-00

oth, grey on the outside, yellowish inside, weight only 44 grai

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

61

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

4<)<)

99. N[.\xoan*ese Nodple. — Station 160.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid — 70 ’30 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric "1
Acid = 9 -30 ]

Lat. 42° 42' S., long. 134° 10' E., 2600 fathoms (Br

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 20-40

Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

2-00

Ferric oxide, ....

. 19-08

Calcium phosphate.

0-20

Slanganese oxide, ....

. 32-48

. Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-58

Calcium carbonate, ....

3-07

1 Magnesium carbonate.

1-72

1 Silica, .....

11-17

( Alumina, .....

0-45

j Ferric oxide, ....

0-50

Lime, .....

0-35

Magnesia, .....

0-20

1 Silica, .....

7-80

— Irregular-shaped nodules.

100-00

100. M.\xg.\xese Nodule (external portion). — Station 160.

2600 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric'
Acid = 75 '60

Lat. 42° 42' S., long. 1.34° 10' E.,

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid- 13-40 )

Lo.ss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 11-00

r Copper,

abundant trace

Alumina,

4-60

Fen-ic oxide.

. 16-70

Calcium phosphate.

mere trace

Manganese oxide, .

. 39-32

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Magnesium carbonate.

1-60

Calcium carbonate, .

3-00

. Silica,

9-80

r Alumina, \

Ferric oxide, J

1-00

Lime,

0-28

Magnesia, .

0-12

^ Silica,

12-00

100-00

101. Manganese Noddle (internal portion). — Station 160.

2600 fathoms (Brazier).

Lat. 42° 42' S., long. 134° 10' E.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid -73-72 /'

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1

Acid- 16 03 /"

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 10-25

' Copper,

abundant trace

Alumina,

1-80

Ferric oxide.

. 15-10

Calcium phosphate.

mere trace

Manganese oxide.

. 33-62

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate.

3-00

Magnesium carbonate.

3-02

i Silica,

. 16-60

f Alumina,

2-10

Ferric oxide,

1-50

Lime,

0-40

{ Magnesia, .

0-30

^Silica,

11-7^

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

467

102. Manganese Nodules. — Station 248.

Lat. 37° 41' N., long. 177° 4' W., 2900 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 61 '10

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 22 '40

}

Loss on ignition after di-ying at 230° Fahr.,

. 16-50

^Copper,

large trace

Alumina, .....

2-50

Ferric oxide, ....

. 20-50

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. 22-50

Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-85

Calcium carbonate.

2-65

Magnesium carbonate,

1-10

Silica, .....

11-00

^ Alumina, .....

2-17

Ferric oxide, ....

1-16

Lime, .....

0-65

Magnesia, .....

0-32

1 Silica, .....

. 18-10
100-00

Note. — For the purpose of analysis a small nodule and an equal quantity of a large one were mixed as a whole.

103. Manganese Nodules. — Station 252. Lat. 37° 52° N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid = 68-48 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 _
Acid = 20 -92 / "

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
Copper,

Alumina,

Ferric oxide.

Calcium phosphate
Manganese oxide.

Nickel,

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate.

Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate.

Silica,
r Alumina,

Ferric oxide.

Lime,

Magnesia, .

Silica,

Note. — Three smooth round nodules

. 10-60
small trace
3-50
19-33
trace
. 28-50

good trace

0-88

3-37

1- 90
11-00

2- 35
1-15
0-45
0-23

16-74

100-00

104. Manganese Nodule (internal portion). — Station 252. Lat. 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W.,

2740 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 64 '53

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 14-67

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 20-80

' Copper,

trace

Alumina,

5-00

Ferric oxide.

. 17-83

Calcium phosphate.

mere trace

Manganese oxide.

. 25-37

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate.

3-58

Magnesium carbonate.

2-27

. Silica,

9-90

Alumina,

1-70

Ferric oxide.

0-90

Lime,

0-50

Magnesia, .

0-20

^ Silica,

. 11-37

100-00

468

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

105. Manganese Nodule (external portion). — Station 252.

Lat. 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (Brazier).

. 15-20

. trace
4-50
. 16-92

mere trace
. 25-48

0-58
3-58
2-27
9-20
2-10
0-90
0-65
0-20
. 18-42

100-00

106. Manganese Nodules. —Station 252.

Lat. 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (Dittmar).

The nodules had a brown or brownish black colour, and, in size and shape, were pretty much like potatoes.
They were easily broken by the hammer, and were then seen to consist of a clay-like nucleus enclosed in con-
centric layers of dark coloured matter, the degree of blackness increasing with the distance from the centre.
In some cases, how-ever, the whole of a section was found to he almost uniformly black. My work was
limited to exhaustively determining the elementary composition of the nodules, and to trying to ascertain, as
far as possible by chemical methods, the state of combination of the several elements present. In the latter
connection I proposed to direct my attention more particularly to the manganese, and to ascertain whether that
metal is present altogether as binoxide, or partly, if not wholly, in the form of lower oxides.

Portion

soluble

Acid

in Hydrochloric )
= 62-53 I

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \ _
Acid = 22 -27 J

Loss on ignition after di-ying at 230° Fahr.,
Copper,

Alumina,

Ferric oxide.

Calcium phosphate,

Manganese oxide.

Calcium sulphate, .

Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate.

Silica,
f Alumina,

I Ferric oxide
Lime,

Magnesia,

I Silica,

Qualitative Analysis.

To obtain a true average sample of the nodules, it would have been necessary to pound finely and
thoroughly mix the entire stock, but I did not consider myself justified in taking this course ; I therefore satis-
fied myself with selecting a few nodules and pounding these. The powder was well mixed and preserved
as “ substance to be analysed.” A preliminary trial showed that the substance gave up to boiling water nothing
but small quantities of chlorides and sulphates^ (which I thought might safely be put down as sea-water solids),
and besides showed that the filtration of the aqueous infusion was a very tedious process. Hence, in pro
ceefling to the actual analysis (which was executed with 100 grms. of substance), the turbid liquid obtained in
extracting the small portion of substance soluble in water was simply poured away. The residue was next
digested in the cold in acetic acid of 25 per cent, until the carbonates of lime and magnesia and substances of
a similar nature could be assumed to be dissolved, and the residue collected on filters and washed with water.
This ofieration was not attended with any visible evolution of gas, which, however, does not prove the absolute
alienee of carbonates in the substance. The acetic acid extract was evaporated to dryness and the residue
(5-23 grma) analysed. Qualitative teats showed the presence of considerable quantities of lime, magnesia, and
soda, a little alumina, and traces of iron, copper, and chlorine. There was absolutely no manganese, which

' The aqueous extract contained no lime salts, showing the absence of sulphate of lime.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

469

proves that the original substance could not have contained any manganous carbonate or hydrate. Tlie
principal bases were determined quantitatively with the following results : —

Alumina, ..... 0’170

Lime, ..... 0‘446

Magnesia, ..... 0‘365

Soda,i ..... 0-597

1

per 100 parts of original substance.

The residue left undissolved by the acetic acid was exhausted with hot hydrochloric acid of 20 per cent.,
the solution filtered, evaporated to dryness, to eliminate the dissolved silica, the silica filtered off and weighed.
It amounted to 0'73 grms., Le., 0-73 per cent, of the original substance. The de-silicated solution was made
up to 400 C.C., and aliquot portions used for the following experiments. One portion served for a thorough
qualitative analysis, the results of which are included in the statement of quantitative determinations given
below ; but it is perhaps as well to state explicitly that lithium, beryllium, and the metals of the arsenic
group, although very specially sought for, could not be detected. A second portion (25 grms. of original
substance) was devoted to the quantitative determination of the cobalt, nickel, copper, and lead. A third
portion was used for the determination of the alkalies.

The residue left undissolved by the hydrochloric acid amounted to 26‘3 grms. (dried at 100° C., but not
completely). Of these 26 -3 grms. of matter separate portions were used for determining the following com-
ponents : — (a) the water volatile on ignition ; (b) the silica which had been rendered soluble by the treatment
with hydrochloric acid — it was extracted by means of boiling carbonate of soda solution and separated out and
weighed as usual ; (c) the part disintegrable by the method customarily used for the analysis of clays, viz., by
treatment in the heat with concentrated sulphuric acid, and evaporation of the acid from the substance- — the

silica and alumina thus rendered soluble being determined by the usual methods.

Found in the 26'3 grms. of matter insoluble in hydrochloric acid — ■

Water, . . . . . . . . . . 1'99

Silica, set free by hydrochloric acid, ■ . . . . . 6’74

Alumina^ rendered soluble by sulphuric acid, . . . . . 1 ’62

Silica, rendered soluble by sulphuric acid, . . . . . . 0 ‘83

Ultimate residue, ......... 14-91

26-09
Loss, 0'21

26-30

As the hydrochloric acid solution had been nearly all used in the numerous qualitative trials made, and the
quantitative determinations reported, a special portion of “original substance” (identical with the 100 grms.
used for making that solution) was employed for determining the alumina, ferric oxide, manganese, lime, and
magnesia extractable by hot hydrochloric acid. Other portions served for the direct determination of the total
water and of the total carbonic acid.

The results are included in the following : —

Summary of Quantitative Determinations.

p.

P. E. ^

Total water,® . . . . . . .24-90

Total carbonic acid, . . . . .0-38

Total phosphoric acid, extractable by hydrochloric acid, . 0 -07

(a) In Acetic, Acid Extract.

Lime, . . . . . . . .0-45

Magnesia, . . . . . , .0-36

Soda, . . . . . . . .0-60

^ Including a little potash. ® Includes a little oxide of iron.

® Determined directly, by expulsion in a combustion tube and collecting in chloride of calcium.

470

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

(6) In Hydrochloric Acid Extract from Acetic Acid Residue.

Silica,

0.\ide of lead.

. 0-01

Oxide of copper, .

0-272

Oxide of cobalt.

. 0-25

Oxide of nickel, .
Manganous oxide.
Loose oxygen.
Lime,

Magnesia,

Alkalies (R,0),
Alumina, .

Ferric oxide.

0-40

7-47

0-93

19-39 : 35-5 = 0'546
3-95 : 8 = 0-494

1-33
1-42
0-34
3-03
16-20

(c) In Sulphuric Acid Extract from Hydrochloric Acid Residue.

Alumina and ferric oxide, . . . . .1-62

Silica, . . . . . . . .0-83

{d) Ultimate Residue.

Silicates and Silica, . . . . .14-91

98-18

Special Experiments cm. the State of Oxidation of the Manganese.

The loose oxygen reported above had been determined in two ways, viz., firstly by Bunsen’s method : dis-
tilling with hydrochloric acid, and titrating the iodine equivalent of the chlorine liberated by means of thiosul-
phate— chemically pure iodine serving as a standard ; and secondly, by Fresenius and Will’s method :
digestion of the substance with dilute sulphuric and oxalic acids, collecting the carbonic acid liberated in a
tared potash bulb and soda-lime tube, and determining the increase of weight shown by the absorption
apparatus. In the latter case the carbonic acid of the carbonates was determined in a separate portion of
substance, setting it free by means of a mixed solution of ferrous chloride and hydrochloric acid and weighing
it as above. In order to see whether the second method is affected by the presence in the substance of ferrous
oxide (as Bunsen’s undoubtedly is), a quantity of a pure “ peroxide ” of manganese was made by heating pure
nitrate first to about 200“ C., then to redness, and the percentage of loose oxygen in this preparation determined
according to Fresenius and Will ; first in the usual manner and then after addition to the substance of a
known weight of artificial ferroso-ferric oxide (FegO^) prepared in the wet way from ferrous sulphate.

The results were as follows : —

Percentage of Loose Oxygen fouiul.

By the oxalic acid method, ....... 7 99 8-13

By the same in presence of FcjO^,* . . . . , .7-98

Hence the presence of ferrous oxide does not sensibly affect the oxalic acid method, which at the same time
showed me that the substance of the manganese nodules analysed could not have contained much ferrous oxide.
In fact the 3-95 per cent, of loose oxygen reported in the summary were deduced from the following deter-
minations : —

Oxygen found by oxalic acid.
Oxygen found hy iodine method,
DilTercnce,

Manganous oxide found.

4-02-0-502X “0"
3-88-0-485X “0 ’’
0-017 X “0”
19-39-0-546 xMnO

The difference (0-017 x “ O ”), if not simply due to observational errrors, would correspond to 0-017 x FegOj
— 0017 x72=l‘22per cent, of ferrous oxide = l-36 per cent, of ferric oxide, leaving 16-2 - 1-36 = 14"84 of

' MnO . 0 — 0-6454 grm. ; FcjO^— 018 grm., CO, obtained — 0 2832 grm. —7-98 per cent, of oxygen.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

471

real ferric oxide. But at any rate there cannot be much ferrous oxide present, or it would have told more
strongly on the iodine result.

Another result which would appear to follow from the reported numbers, is that the loose oxygen is not
sufficient to supplement the manganous oxide into binoxide. Taking 4 '02 as the correct percentage of loose
oxygen, we have for the percentage of —

Manganous oxide, ........ 0'044xMnO^

Real manganese oxide, ....... 0 '502 x MnOj

Now the oxides MnO, FeO (as above calculated), CaO, MgO as reported under (b), amount in all to 0T97
X R"0.

These may be present in combination with manganese binoxide as components of psilomelanic compounds,
leaving a balance of 0'305 x Mn02 of real uncombined (or hydrated) binoxide of manganese.

I know of no test for discriminating between free manganese binoxide and manganese oxide combined with
oxides of the type R"0 ; what can be done in a case like the one in hand is to determine the exact ratio of
the “ MnO ” present in all to the loose oxygen present. But a complicated complete analysis like the one
reported, however carefully done, cannot possibly supply sufficiently exact data for this purpose.

I therefore selected from my stock a nodule which seemed to be exceptionally rich in manganese, and
determined, by a specially devised process, the total manganese, as manganous oxide, and (by the ordinary
methods) the loose oxygen.

To determine the total manganese, a weighed quantity of homogeneous substance was disintegrated by
hydrochloric acid, the iron and alumina precipitated by means of acetate of soda and filtered off, and from the
filtrate the manganese precipitated by means of bromine in presence of zinc salt. The precipitate (which contains
all the manganese as binoxide) was dissolved by dilute sulphuric acid in an atmosphere of carbonic acid with a
known weight of standardized ferrous sulphate and the excess of “ ferrosum” titrated by permanganate. That
this method, which every chemist will recognise as a slight modification of Kessler’s, gives exact results had
been proved by a series of experiments on known weights of manganese given as a solution of pure chloride
which had been standardized by means of nitrate of silver.

In the analysis of the nodule two determinations gave —

I. II. Mean.

16-54 16-30 16-42

per cent, of manganous oxide (present as MnO . Ox). The loose oxygen was found to be as follows : —

Mean.

Iodine method, ..... 3-775 3-764 3*77

Oxalic acid method,^ ..... 3-85 3-95 3-90

Dividing by the combining weights we have —

16-42 ; 35-5 = 0-4626
3-77 : 8-0 = 0-4712
3-90 : 8-0 = 0-4874

Here the oxygen found is a little more than what would be sufficient to make the manganous oxide into binoxide.
Possibly some of the loose oxygen may have been present as peroxide of cobalt (Co^Og) ; but I have had no time
yet to inquire further into the matter experimentally. All I can say is that the determinations were made
with great care at a time when we had become very familiar with all the manipulations involved, and I
think I am safe in asserting that that particular nodule in all probability contains its manganese in the form
of binoxide only.

^ Here, as everywhere, H = 0-5 .-. MnO = 35 -5.

^ 0-877 grm. of the substance when decomposed by acid (with ferrous chloride) gave less than 1 mgrm. of carbonic acid.

472

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Tlio following two analyses were made by Giimbel and Church from specimens obtained from members of
the Expedition. Church does not mention the station from which his specimens came, but in all probability
they came from Station 252 (J. M.).

106a. Manganese Nodules. — Station 252. Lat. 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (C. W. Giimbel,
Sitzinuisb. d. bayer. Akad. d. IFtss., 1878, ii. pp 189-209; also Neues Jahrb.f. Min. ^c., 1878, p. 869).

Oxide of iron, ......... 27 ’460

Peroxide of manganese, ........ 23 ’600

Water 17-819

Silica, .......... 16-030

Alumina, . . . . * . . . . . 10-210

Soda, .......... 2-358

Chlorine, .......... 0-941

Lime, .......... 0-920

Titanic acid, ......... 0-660

Sulphuric acid, ......... 0-484

Potash, .......... 0-396

Magnesia, .......... 0-181

Carbonic acid, ......... 0-047

Phosphoric acid, ......... 0-023

Oxide of copper, ......... 0-023

Oxides of nickel and cobalt, ....... 0-012

Barium, .......... 0-009

Doubtful traces of lead, antimony, boron, lithium, and iodine, .

Traces of organic substances, ...

101-173

106b. Manganese Nodules. — Station 252. Lat, 37° 52' N., long. 160° 17' W., 2740 fathoms (A. H. Church,

Mineralogical Magazine, vol. i. pp. 50-53, 1876).

Water lost in vacuo, ....

Water retained at 100° C., but evolved at a red heat,

Manganese dioxide, ....

Ferric dioxide, .....

Alumina, ......

Silica, ......

Chlorine, ......

Mg, Ca, Cu, Na, Cl, P.^Oj, &c., .

100-00

24-55

10-00

30-22

20-02

3-30

10-37

0-71

0-83

107. Manganese Nodule. — Station 253.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -73-20

}-

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid- 14-70

)-

Lat. 38° 9' N., long. 156° 25' W.,

3125 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 12-10

Copper,

good trace

Alumina, ....

4-70

Ferric oxide,

. 21 -20

Calcium phosphate.

0-45

Manganese oxide, .

. 26-21

Nickel, ....

good trace

Cobalt, ....

. trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-76

Calcium carbonate,

3-06

Magnesium carbonate,

0-86

Silica, ....

. 15-97

Alumina, ....

1-80

Ferric oxide.

0-90

Lime, ....

0-52

Magnesia, ....

0-32

Silica, ....

. 11-16
100-00

REPOKT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

47:3

108. Manganese Nodules. — Station 256.

Lat. 30° 22' N., long. 154° 56' W., 2950 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 77 '57

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = ll-13

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

11-30

' Copper,

large trace

Alumina,

2-30

Ferric oxide.

. 18-80

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide.

39-57

Nickel,

good trace

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate, .

2-58

Magnesium carbonate.

4-54

Silica,

9-20

'Alumina,

1-40

1 Ferric oxide.

0-80

Lime,

0-33

1 Magnesia,

good trace

L Silica,

8-60

100-00

Note. — Several small nodules, irregular in shape, average weight 200 grains, light grey colour outside, blackish grey inside,
except centre, which was also of a light gi’ey colour and very friable.

109. Manganese Nodule. — Station 264.

Lat. 14° 19' N., long. 152° 37' W., 3000 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 83 '92

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 7 -18

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
Copper, .....
Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, ....

Calcium phosphate.

Manganese oxide, ....

- Nickel,

Cobalt, . . . . .

Calcium sulphate, . . . .

Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate,

'Silica, . . . . .

('Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, . . . .

Lime, . . . . .

Magnesia, . . . . .

(silica, . ... .

8-90
large trace
2 '65
. 21-38

trace
. 29-09

good trace
trace
0-62

2- 58

3- 40

. 24-20

0-60

1-70

0-45

0-33

4- 10

100-00

rough, a few brown particles attached to its surface.

Note. — Peculiar grey material,
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

62

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

4< 4

110. Manganese Nodules. — Station 274.

Lat. V 25' S., long. 152° 15' W., 2750 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 82-60

Loss on ignition after drying at 230°

Fahr. ,

12-60

Copper, ....

0-79

Alumina, ....

1-00

Ferric oxide.

8-41

Calcium phosphate,

1-35

Manganese oxide, .

51-46

Nickel, ....

good trace

Cobalt, ....

Calcium sulphate, .

0-59

Calcium carbonate.

3-58

Magnesium carbonate.

4-92

Silica, ....

10-50

Alumina, ....

0-60

Ferric oxide.

0-60

Lime, ....

0-45

Magnesia, ....

0-15

Silica, ....

3-00

100-00

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 4 '80 /

Note. — Portions of two nodules sawn through, so as to obtain a fair average.

111. Manganese Nodudes (external portions). — Station 274.
Lat. 7° 25' S., long. 152° 15' W., 2750 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble

Acid

in Hydrochloric
= 82-90

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -4 -60

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 12-50

Copper,

0-79

Alumina,

0-30

Ferric oxide.

. 11-97

Calcium phosphate.

0-83

Manganese oxide,

. 52-39

Nickel,

good trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

0-75

Calcium carbonate, .

3-95

Magnesium carbonate,

2-12

Silica,

9-80

Alumina,

0-56

Ferric oxide.

0-94

Lime,

0-34

Magnesia, .

.

0-11

Silica,

,

2-65

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

47

112. Manganese Nodules (internal portions). — Station 274.
Lat. 7° 25' S., long. 152° 15' W., 2750 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 84 ‘50 J

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 ^
Acid =4-10

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 11-40

r Copper, .....

0-79

Alumina, . . . .

0-30

Ferric oxide, ....

9-75

Calcium phosphate.

0-35

Manganese oxide, ....

. 55-89

Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-58

Calcium carbonate, .

3-88

Magnesium carbonate.

4-16

'' Silica, .....

8-80

f Alumina, .....

0-31

Ferric oxide, ....

0-78

Lime, .....

0-33

Magnesia, .....

0-14

, Silica,

2-54

100-00

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \ _
Acid = 77 -56 J

Acid = 6 '14

)ules (average sample). — Station 276.

149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

16-30

Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

5-00

Ferric oxide, ....

. 40-50

Calcium phosphate.

fair trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. 11-40

Nickel, .....

trace

Cobalt, .....

trace

Calcium sulphate, ...

0-87

Calcium carbonate, ....

5-06

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

Silica, .....

13-60

Alumina, .....

1-30

Ferric oxide, ....

1-50

Lime, .....

0-70

Magnesia, .....

0-70

Silica, .....

1-94

100 -00

47(>

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

114. Manganese Nodules (external portions). — Station 276.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid -78 -00 /'

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric I ^
Acid = 7 -60 /“

149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

14 -40

Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

2-00

Ferric oxide, ....

. 45-00

Calcium phosphate.

small trace

Manganese oxide, ....

14-82

Nickel, .....

trace

Cobalt, .....

trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-99

Calcium carbonate.

4-30

Magnesium carbonate,

1-13

Silica, .....

976

Alumina, .....

1-10

Ferric oxide, ....

1-40

Lime, ......

0-70

Magnesia, .....

0-50

Silica, .....

3-90

100-00

115. Manganese Nodules (internal portions). — Station 276.
Lit. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 72 75

)

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid-1315

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

14-10

Copper,

. trace

Alumina,

8-90

Ferric oxide.

. 21-00

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide.

1-91

Nickel,

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

0-41

Calcium carbonate,

2-70

Magnesium carbonate.

1-53

Silica,

36-30

Alumina,

1-80

Ferric oxide.

2-00

Lime,

0-85

Magnesia,

0-60

Silica,

8-00

100-00

I

'

V

I

c

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

477

116. Manganese Nodule. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W,, 2350 fathoms (Brazier).
Weight, 6 '70 grains.

Loss on ignition,
Alumina,

Ferric oxide, t
Manganese oxide, /
Calcium carbonate,
Magnesium carbonate.
Soluble silica.
Insoluble residue.

Loss on ignition.

Portion soluble in bydrocliloric acid, .
Portion insoluble in hydrocbloric acid.

Grains,

2-10

1-26

179

0-40
good trace
075
0-40

670

Per cent.
31-34
62-68
5-98

100-00

117. Manganese Nodules. — Station 281.

Acid = 73 -21

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 10-79 /

150° 17' W., 2385 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr,,

. 16-00

Copper,

good trace

Alumina,

2-00

Ferric oxide,

. 29-00

Calcium phosphate.

. trace

Manganese oxide.

. 22-22

Nickel,

good trace

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sulphate.

0-29

Calcium carbonate, .

2-79

Magnesium carbonate.

1-51

'^Silica,

15-40

r Alumina,

1-25

Ferric oxide.

1-33

Lime,

0-84

Magnesia,

0-15

.Silica,

7-22

100-00

Note. — Nodules, average weight 170 grains, apparently consisting of two varieties ; some on breaking were of
brown colour, othei-s of a slatey-brown colour. The former constitute this analysis, the latter Analysis 119.

a dark

478

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

118. Manganese Nodules. — Station 281.

Lat. 22° 21' S., long. 150° 17' W., 2385 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in H^'drochloric \ ^
Acid = 75 -77 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \ _
Acid = 13 ‘25 J

Loss on ignition after drying at 230°

Fahr., . 10-98

Copper, ....

good trace

Alumina, . .

3-38

Ferric oxide.

. 32-50

Calcium phosphate,

Manganese oxide,

. 19-92

Calcium sulphate, .

0-63

Calcium carbonate.

2-81

Magnesia, ....

1-41

Silica, ....

. 15-12

Alumina, . . . .

1-30

Ferric oxide.

1-52

Lime, . . . .

0-84

Magnesia,

0-35

Silica, . . . .

9-24

100-00

icient to test for nickel and cobalt.

Kesidue after acid, grey

119. Manganese Nodules. — Station 281.

Lat. 22° 21' S., long. 15° 17' W., 2385 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

5-66

Copper,

trace

Alumina,

2-70

Ferric oxide.

27-80

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, .

6-61

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1 _

Nickel,

trace

Acid -71 -62

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sulphate, .

0-29

Calcium carbonate, .

2-79

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

- Silica,

. 30-40

' Alumina,

2-13

Ferric oxide.

6-04

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 _

Lime,

2-69

Acid-22-72 /

Magnesia, .

0-36

L Silica, .

. 12-60

i

Note. — Sec Analysis 117.

100 00

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

479

120. Manganese Nodules. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid ^76 ’20 )

Acid = 10 ’90

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 12-90

r Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

2-50

Ferric oxide, ....

. 24-63

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. 36-54

Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-34

Calcium carbonate, ....

1-86

Magnesium carbonate.

1-13

Silica, .....

9-20

Alumina, .....

1-94

Ferric oxide, ....

0-72

Lime, .....

0-56

Magnesia, .....

0-10

Silica, .....

7-58

100-00

Note. — Small nodules, average weight 90 grains, dark brown colour outside, yellowish grey inside. Several

taken as a whole for analysis.

121. Manganese Nodules. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 69 '22

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 21 -53

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

9-25

' Copper,

. trace

Alumina,

7-42

Ferric oxide.

11-64

Calcium phosphate.

7-15

= -

Manganese oxide,

. 24-71

Calcium sulphate, .

0-73

Calcium carbonate, .

3-59

Magnesium carbonate.

1-30

Silica,

12-68

r Alumina,

3-80

Ferric oxide.

2-20

= ■!

Lime,

0-38

1

Magnesia, .

0-09

Silica,

.

. 15-06

100 '00

480

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

122. Manganese Nodule. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble iii Hydrochloric
Acid -60-52

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 20-18

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 19-30

f Copper,

. trace

Alumina,

6-20

Ferric oxide,

. 20-10

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide, .

. 16-14

Calcium sulphate, .

0-87

Calcium carbonate, .

4-36

Magnesium carbonate.

0-75

. Silica,

. 12-10

r Alumina,

2-40

Ferric oxide.

3-00

Lime,

1-91

Magnesia, .

0-32

1 Silica,

. 12-55

100-00

123. Manganese Nodule. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 63 -09

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 23'91

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 13-00

' Copper,

trace

Alumina,

9-50

Ferric oxide.

. 16-40

Calcium phosphate.

2-63

= -

Manganese oxide, .

. 22-06

Calcium sulphate, .

1-05

Calcium carbonate.

0-97

JIagnesium carbonate.

0-98

.Silica,

9-50

' Alumina,

4-70

Feme oxide.

1-10

« -

Lime,

1-40

Magnesia, .

0-21

.Silica,

. 16-50

124. Manganese Nodule. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

100-00

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 75"81

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -15 -96

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

8-23

Copper,

trace

Alumina,

8-14

Ferric oxide.

. 25-04

Calcium phosphate.

trace

Manganese oxide.

8-54

Calcium sulphate, .

0-38

Calcium carbonate, .

2-49

Magnesium carbonate.

0-62

Silica,

30-60

Alumina,

1-25

Ferric oxide.

3-49

Lime,

0-70

Magnesia,

0-52

Silica,

. 10-00

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

481

125. Manganese Nodule (internal portion). — Station 285.
Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Acid = 80 '30

Acid = 6 '10

125a. 1

Lat. 32° 36' S.,

long,

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric ) _
Acid = 58 '52 i

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 13-60

r Copper, .....

trace

Alumina, .....

9-50

Ferric oxide, ....

18-98

Calcium phosphate.

trace

Manganese oxide, ....

13-98

Calcium sulphate, ....

trace

Calcium carbonate, ....

3-00

Magnesium carbonate.

1-04

.Silica, .....

. 33-80

r Alumina, .....

1-15

Ferric oxide, ....

2-00

Lime, .....

0-45

Magnesia, .....

0-14

.Silica, .....

ANESE Nodules. — Station 285.

137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

2-36

100-00

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 23-40

' Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

8-15

Ferric oxide, ....

12-75

Calcium phosphate.

0-90

Manganese oxide, ....

22-20

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-75

Calcium carbonate, ....

4-15

Magnesium carbonate.

0-14

-Silica, .....

9-62

f Alumina, .....

3-33

Ferric oxide, ....

1-44

Lime, .....

0-99

Magnesia, .....

good trace

-Silica, .....

12-18

100-00

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \ _
Acid = 18-08

125b. Manganese Nodule (internal portion). — Station 285.
Lat, 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Anderson).

Loss on ignition after drying at 100° C., .
f Alumina, .
j Ferric oxide,

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric \ ^
Acid = 42 -78 J

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric ^
Acid = 47-45 1 ~

Manganese dioxide.
Magnesia, .

Potash, ' .

Soda,

Phosphoric acid,

L Silica,

Alumina, .

Ferric oxide.
Magnesia, .

Potash,

Silica,

9-32

9-17

13-90

10-46

0- 57

1- 84

2- 15
0-22
4-47

3- 65
3-00
0-89
0-68

39-23

99-55

Note, — The material was white or brownish white, and was easily cut with a knife ; it contained 14-95 per cent, of moisture,
very light in weight, and fused into a blackish glass.

(deep-sea deposits chall, exp. — -1891.)

63

482

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

126. ^Manganese Nodules. — Station 286.

Portion soluble in H3’drochloric \ _
Acid — 78 '30 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric ) ^
Acid = 13-00

133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

8-70

Copper, .....

good trace

Alumina, .....

2-50

Ferric oxide,

. 24-00

Calcium phosphate.

0-70

Manganese oxide, ....

. 27-40

Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

. trace

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-87

Calcium carbonate, ....

4-37

Magnesium carbonate.

1-36

Silica, .....

17-10

Alumina, .....

1-90

Ferric oxide, ....

1-20

Lime, . ...

0-84

Magnesia, .....

0-15

Silica, .....

8-91

100-00

Note. — Several small brittle nodules taken as a whole.

1

t

127. Manganese Nodules (internal portions). — Station 286.

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1 _
Acid -65 -60 /“

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 _
Acid -18-90 /”

133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Brazier).

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

15-50

Copper,

good trace

Alumina,

2-31

Ferric oxide.

. 21 -87

Calcium phosphate.

0-69

Manganese oxide.

. 22-79

Nickel,

good trace

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sul]>hate

0-51

Calcium carbonate, .

2-65

Magnesium carbonate.

0-68

Silica,

. 14-10

Alumina,

1-60

Ferric oxide.

2-20

Lime,

0-50

Magnesia,

0-30

Silica,

. 14-30

100-00

I

Note. — Two small hard no<lu1es, coated with a brown shell (which was removed). They were black throughout, except
small white centre in one, and a small tooth or portion of a tooth in the other.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

488

128. Manganese Nodules (external portions). — Station 286.
Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 74 '97

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=13'68

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 11-35

1' Copper,

good trace

Alumina,

1-63

Ferric oxide.

16-48

Calcium phosphate.

good trace

Manganese oxide.

. 38-15

Nickel,

good trace

Cobalt,

trace

Calcium sulphate.

0-94

Calcium carbonate,

5-01

Magnesium carbonate.

3-26

''Silica,

9-50

f Alumina,

1-18

Ferric oxide.

1-40

Lime,

0-37

Magnesia,

0-22

. Silica,

10-51

100-00

Note. — The brown shelly coatings of the various other specimens.

129. Manganese Nodules. — Station 289.

Lat. 39° 41' S., long. 131° 23' W., 2550 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 69 -70

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 16 -50

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,
f Copper, .....
Alumina, . . . . .

Ferric oxide, ....

Calcium phosphate.

Manganese oxide, ....
- Nickel, "I
Cobalt, /

Calcium sulphate, ....
Calcium carbonate.

Magnesium carbonate,

''Silica, .....
f Alumina, .....
j Ferric oxide, ....

Lime, . .

I Magnesia, .....
I Silica, .....

13-80

0-31

2- 50
19-79

0-40

32-02

0-25

0- 58

3- 08

1- 87
8-90
1-66
1-20
0-78
0-26

12-60

100-00

Note. — Irregular shaped nodules, dark in colour, somewhat similar in appearance to those of Station 160.

484

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

130. Manganese Nodules. — Station 293.

Lat. 39° 4' S., long. 105° 5' W., 2025 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric '
Acid = 76 '20

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric 1 ^
Acid= 12-60 J

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 11-20

Copper, .....

large trace

Alumina, .....

1-00

Ferric oxide, ....

. 20-06

Calcium pho.sphate.

0-69

Manganese oxide, ....

. 37-61

Nickel, .....

good trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-70

Calcium carbonate.

4-21

Magnesium carbonate,

3-93

Silica, .....

8-00

Alumina, .....

2-21

Ferric oxide, ....

0-80

Lime, .....

0-78

Magnesia, .....

0-11

Silica, .....

8-70

100-00

Note.— Small irregular shaped nodules — average weight 65 grains — blackish appearance outside, grey inside, very
aud friable.

131. Manganese Nodules. — Station 297.

Lat. 37° 29' S., long. 83° 7' W., 1775 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid- 81 -67

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 7‘13

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., . 11-30

Copper, ..... small trace

Alumina, . . . ■ .0-50

Ferric oxide, . . . ■ .28-48

Calcium phosphate, . . good trace

Manganese oxide, . . . • .30-77

■ Nickel, ..... small trace

Cobalt, .... small trace

Calcium sul]>hate, . . . . .0-87

Calcium carbonate, . . . . .6-36

Magnesium carbonate, . . . 4'39

'Silica, ....•• 10'20

'Alumina, ...... 0'60

Ferric oxide, . . . .1-30

. Lime, . . . 0'61

Magnesia, ...... 0'18

.Silica,

Note. — Small irregular shaped nodules, grey colour outside, black inside.

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

485

131a. Maistgajstese Nodules (internal portions). — Station 297.
Lat. 37° 29' S., long. 83° 7' W., 1775 fathoms (Anderson).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1 ^
Acid = 40 -68 J

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=50‘48

}-

Loss on ignition after drying at 100° C,, .

8-66

' Alumina, .....

14-04

Ferric oxide, ....

10-23

Manganese dioxide.

4-16

Magnesia, .....

0-75

Potash, .....

3-61

Soda, .....

3-22

Phosphoric acid, ....

large trace

..Silica, .....

4-67

( Alumina, .....

4-63

Ferric oxide, ....

0-63

Magnesia, .....

0-46

Potash, .....

0-46

Soda, .....

0-23

''Silica, .....

44-07

99-82

Note. — The nuclei used in this analysis were white or brownish white in colour, very light in weight, and easily cut with
a knife. They contained 13'4 per cent, of moisture, and on ignition fused into a blackish glass.

132. Manganese Nodules. — Station 299.

Lat. 33° 31' S., long. 74° 43' W., 2160 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid=77-50

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 10 '70

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 11-80

' Copper,

trace

Alumina,

0-70

Ferric oxide.

6-08

Calcium phosphate.

trace

Manganese oxide, .

. 55-67

Nickel,

small trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

0-58

Calcium carbonate, .

5 -.57

Magnesium carbonate.

1-90

'^Silica,

7-00

'Alumina,

2-30

Ferric oxide.

0-70

Lime,

0-49

Magnesia, .

0-11

^Silica,

7-10

Note. — Two smaller nodules taken as a whole.

100-00

480

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

133. Manganese Nodules. — Station 299.

I.at. 33° 31' S., long. 74° 43' W., 2160 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric 1
Acid -77-50 J '

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 12 -50

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

. 10-00

r Copper, .....

trace

Alumina, .....

0-30

Ferric oxide, ....

14-00

Calcium phosphate.

trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. 46-89

- Nickel, . . . ...

small trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

0-58

Calcium carbonate.

2-57

Magnesium carbonate.

4-16

t Silica, .....

9-00

r Alumina, .....

2-60

Ferric oxide, ....

0-70

■1 Lime, .....

0-51

1 Magnesia, .....

0-29

1 Silica, .....

8-40

100-00

softer parts of some of the nodules.

• 134. Manganese Nodules. — Station 299.

Lat. 33° 31' S., long. 74° 43' W., 2160 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion .soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 80-64

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid — 8 -96

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

. 10-40

Copper,

trace

Alumina,

Ferric oxide.

5-86

Calcium phosphate,

trace

Manganese oxide.

. 63-23

Nickel,

small trace

Cobalt,

Calcium sulphate, .

0-51

Calcium carbonate, .

2-79

Magnesium carbonate.

2-65

Silica,

5-60

■ Alumina,

2-40

Ferric oxide,

0-60

Lime,

0-34

Magnesia, _ .

0-13

. Silica,

5-49

Note. — The hard parts of some of the nodules.

100-00

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

487

135. Manganese Nodule. — Station 302.

Lat. 42° 43' S., long. 82° 11' W., 1450 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion soluble in Hydrochloric )
Acid = 82 -80 /

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 5 "80

} =

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,

11-40

Copper, .....

small trace

Alumina, .....

0-55

Ferric oxide, ....

. 39-75

Calcium phosphate,

good trace

Manganese oxide, ....

. 22-27

Nickel, .....

mere trace

Cobalt, .....

Calcium sulphate, ....

1-27

Calcium carbonate.

4-08

Magnesium carbonate.

3-48

t Silica, .....

11-40

■■Alumina, .....

0-60

Ferric oxide, ....

1-10

Lime, .....

0-39

Magnesia, .....

0-11

. Silica, .....

3-60

100-00

Note. — Small mass, no definite shape, but appeared as if broken from some larger mass, similar to the specimen
from Station 3.

136. Manganese Nodule. — Station 276.

Lat. 13° 28' S., long. 149° 30' W., 2350 fathoms (Renard).

I. 0'8271 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., gave 0‘0787 grm. of water, 0T600 grm. of sdica, 0‘0264 grm.

of lime, 0'0526 grm. of alumina, 0’2208 grm. of peroxide of iron, 0‘0148 grm. of magnesia, 0'2354 grm.
of manganese sesquioxide (Mn203) = 0 2189 grm. of manganous oxide (MnO), 0’0119 grm. of nickel
(Ni) = 0’0151 grm. of oxide of nickel.

II. 0T425 grm. of substance dried at 100° C., treated with hydrochloric acid and the resulting gas conducted

into a solution of iodide of potash liberated iodine; 12 c.c. of thiosulphate of potash (1 c.c. = 0'937 c.c.

Cl

O

of the standard solution) ; 1 c.c. of the standard solution = jq or — , whence

20’

1 c.c. = 3‘55 grms. of

chlorine or 0‘8 grm. of oxygen —

1000 : 0-8 = 12 X 0-9377 : as.
.-. 1000 : 0-8 = 11-24 : as.

.-. X =0-008992 grm. of oxygen capable of liberating chlorine from hydrochloric acid, i.e., 6-31 per cent,
of oxygen.

The atomic ratio of 0-384 0 is required if Mn he present as Mn02 and Ni as Ni203, but 0'394 0 was the
ratio observed —

Manganous oxide.

26-46

MnO

= 71

0-372

Nickel, ....

1-82

Ni

= 74-8

0-024

Oxygen, ....

6-31

0

= 16

0-394

0-372

0-024

= 0-384

4S8

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Tho fornuila M11O2+ iHjO requires 9'18 per cent, of water. Consequently 26‘46 per cent, of manganous
o.\ide, which corresponds to 32 42 per cent, of manganese binoxide, is equivalent to 3’28 per cent, of water.

26 ‘7 per cent, of ferric oxide requires as limonite 4 ‘50 per cent, of water.

'Water,

Silica,

Lime,

Alumina,

Ferric oxide.

Magnesia,

Manganous oxide.

Nickel oxide.

Oxygen,

101-48

19-34

3-19

6-36

26-70

1-79

26-46

1-82

6-31

137. Shark’s Tooth. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble
Acid =

in Hydrochloric "I
= 84-00 J

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric \
Acid = 5 -00 /

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., 11-00

Copper, ...... trace

Alumina, . . . . .13-00

Ferric oxide, ..... 6-87

Calcium phosphate, . . . .21-63

Manganese oxide, . . . . .28-49

Calcium sulphate, . . . . 1 -60

Calcium carbonate, . . . . 4"17

Magnesium carbonate, . . .2-64

( Silica, ...... 5-6O

J Insoluble residue, principally alumina and ferric ■>

\ oxide, with silica, /

100-00

Note. — The teeth used in Analyses 137 and 138 gave evidence of fluorides. The interior of this tooth had evidently
decayed away, and the space had subsequently become filled up with the mixture of manganese and iron oxides, along with
some silica.

138. Sharks’ Teeth. — Station 285,

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Ia)88 on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr., ....... 4'00

Alumina, ........... 3-00

Ferric oxide, . . . . . . . .6-60

Calcium pho.sphatc, .......... 75-00

Manganese oxide, . . . . . . trace

Calcium sulphate, .......... trace

Calcium carbonate, . . . . . . .7-50

Magnesium carbonate, . . . . . . . .1-50

General residue, consisting of soluble silica with the iu.soluble silicates, . 2-50

100 00

Note. — Two teeth, hollow but not so completely filled ns tho one used in Analysis 137. Total weight for analysis only 11

grains.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

489

139 and 140. Carcharodon Tooth. — Station 285. Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Dittmar).

The tooth weighed 22 grms. The outer shell was readily detached from the inner portion.

139. The outside portion was found to contain 33'66 per cent, of phosphoric acid, equal to 73'48 per cent,
of tricalcic phosphate, and 2'28 per cent, of fluorine. Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid to fluorine —

1 : 0-1

140. The inside portion was completely analysed, with the following results : —

P.

Silica and portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid, . . . 13 ’34

Moisture, . . . . . . . . 8'41

Combined water, . . . . . . . 6 '93

Manganous oxide (MnO),^ . . . . . . 35'51

Loose oxygen, 1 ........ 6'85

Ferric oxide,^ ........ 12'47

Alumina, . . . . . . . . 5‘09

Lime, . . . . . . . . . 3'72

Magnesia, . . . . . . . . 3'74

Potash, . . . . . . . . . 0'56

Soda, . . . . , . . . 1 '31

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . 0'83

Carbonic acid, . . . . . . . . 1'19

Silica in solution, . . . . . . . 0 ’30

Chlorine and copper, ....... traces

E.

V.

E.

35-5 = 1
8 =0-8562
80 =0-1556

100-25

^ The extra oxygen in the ferric oxide, as the quotients show, is more than sufficient to convert the manganous oxide into
binoxide.

141 and 142. Oxyrhina Teeth.— Station 286. Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).
Colour, brownish black.

The teeth consisted of a tough outer shell filled up with a friable black mass.

Three of the teeth were taken, the inside portion separated from the shell, and the percentages of phosphoric
acid determined, with the following results : —

(141) (142)

Inside. Outside.

Per cent, of phosphoric acid, . . . . .7-97 32-58

Equal to tricalcic phosphate, . . . . .17-39 71-12

143. Earbonb. — Station 285. Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 95 -04

insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 0-36

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr. ,

4-60

Alumina,

0-50

Ferric oxide.

9-28

Calcium phosphate.

. 67-72

Manganese oxide, .

2-85

Calcium sulphate, .

2-69

Calcium carbonate, .

. 10-95

Magnesium carbonate.

0-75

, Silica,

0-30

Insoluble residue, .

0-36

I

100-00

Note. — Portion of earbone; total weight 244 gi-ains. Beside the details given in the foregoing analysis, it evidently con-
tained nitrogenous organic matter in small quantity. By comparative experiments it was found to contain more than the
piece of bone used in Analysis 149, and about the same as the shark’s tooth used in Analysis 137. From material left over
from this specimen and the tooth of Analysis 137, a nitrogen determination was made and yielded 0-052 per cent, of nitrogen.
(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 64

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

4J»0

144 and 145. Half op Earbone of BALiENA. — Station 286.

Lat. 33“ 29' S., long. 133“ 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

One corner of this specimen had a considerable cavity, which was pretty well filled with a brownish black
friable substance. This substance was scraped out and constitutes Analysis No. 144. The remainder consisted
of a black coating (which was separated as far as possible), and a very white siliceous looking core, which was
used for Analysis No. 145.

144. Contents of Cavity.

Note. — The analysis of this substance was all but completed when it was found that it contained a small
admixture of an “ oil,” which had no doubt become mixed with it accidentally in the cutting of the original
specimen. The greater part of the substance dissolved readily in hydrochloric acid, with evolution of chlorine.
Only the solution was analysed.

P.

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid,
Total water.

Manganous oxide.

Loose oxygen.

Ferric oxide.

Lime, ....

Magnesia, ....

Alumina, ....

Silica, ....

Phosphoiic acid.

Potash, ....

Soda, ....

Nickel and copper, .

13-66

27-00

27-13 ; MnO = 0 -764 -^0 -764 = 1

3- 13 : 0 = 0-398-j-0-764 = 0-52

8-34

4- 34
4-03
6-54

1- 31

2- 39

1- 07

2- 39
traces

101 -33

The bulk of the portion soluble in acids apparently consists of hydrated sesquioxides of manganese and iron
and decomposible silicates.

* Apparently all amorphous silica.

1 45. Central Portion of Earhone.

Insoluble in acid, .
iloistuix*, .

Combined water.

Phosphates of iron and alumina,^
Phosphoric acid,*

Carbonic acid.

Fluorine 1 -4 ~ Fj - 0,

Sulphuric acid.

Chlorine,

Lime,

Magnesia, .

Alkalies and loss, .

liatio of equivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine —

(il’,0.) (CO,)

1 : 0-211

(F,)

0-051

p.

P.

E.

0-06

2-21

2-22

0-42

34-13

1-4420

6-61

0-3042

0-81

0-0736

0-81

trace

49-85

1-7801

0-77

0-0385

2-11

100-00

’ Total phosphoric acid found — 34-33 jter cent. 34 13 per cent, of pho.sj)horic acid — 74-6 per cent, of tricalcic phosphate.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

491

146. Portion of Earbone (Bal^noptera). — Station 286.
Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

This specimen was very similar to that used in Analyses 144 and 145, having a cavity with brown incrusta-
tion, a black outer coating, the inside being almost uncoloured by iron or manganese.

Found in 100 parts of the inner portion —

Moisture,
Combined water,

Phosphoric acid,

Fluorine,

1-60

1-34

r =68’13 per cent,
t tncalcic phosphate.

1-89

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-0753

147. Portion OF Earbone (Ziphius). — Station 289.

Lat. 39° 41' S., long. 131° 23' W., 2550 fathoms (Dittmar).

This specimen resembled those used in Analyses 144 to 146, but was smaller, and the cavity, which in them
was filled up with a brownish friable mass, contained in this case a hard black substance. The inner portion
was brownish; it consisted of hard vitreous looking matter with a yellowish soft powder diffused through it.
Found in 100 parts of the inner portion —

Moisture,
Phosphoric acid,
Fluorine,

1-61

32-73! =71-44 percent.

I tricalcic phosphate.

1-61

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-061

148. Portion of Beak of Ziphius. — Station 286.

Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

The body of the specimen looked pretty much like recent bone, but had veins of manganese running through
it. The outer coating of the specimen was black.

Found in 100 parts of the inner portion —

Moisture, ....

1-14

Combined water.

2-78

Carbonic acid, . . . .

6-81

Phosphoric acid.

33-30 -j

f =72 -69 per cent.

1 tricalcic phosphate.

Fluorine, . . . . .

1 -65

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine —

1

0-220

0-062

41>2

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

149. Piece of Bone. — Station 285.

Lat. 32° 36' S., long. 137° 43' W., 2375 fathoms (Brazier).

Portion

soluble in Hydrochloric
Acid -93 -40

}

Portion insoluble in Hydrochloric
Acid = 1-10

}

Loss on ignition after drying at 230° Fahr.,
Alumina, .....

Ferric o.xide, ....

Calcium phosphate,

Manganese oxide, ....
Calcium sulphate, ....
Calcium carbonate, ....
Magne-sium carbonate,

. Silica, .....
Insoluble residue, principally alumina with silica.

5-50

9-50

5-33

55-17

3-76

1- 75
14-87

0-76

2- 26

1-10

150. Piece of Bone (Whale’s). — Station 286.

Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

100-00

The specimen was brown in colour, very porous, and readily reducible to a powder.

P.

Moisture, . . . . . . . . . 3"06

Combined water, . . . . . . . .3-66

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . . . .27-49

Carbonic acid, ........ 4-14

Fluorine 0-71 = (F.,- 0), ....... 0-41

Lime, ......... 39-00

Magnesia, ......... 2-01

Ferrous oxide,’ . . . . . . .1-04

Ferric oxide,’ . . . . . . .4-83

Binoxide of manganese,’ . . . . . .1-61

Alumina, ......... 2-70

Silica and substances insoluble in hydrochloric acid, . . . 9-08

Alkalies and loss, . . . . . .0-97

P.

E.

1-162\

0-188 hi -387

0- 037 J

1- 392

100-00

'I'he insoluble residue consisted apparently of amorphous silica. The part soluble in hydrochloric acid seems
to be a mixture of —

Phosphate of lime.

Carbonate of lime.

Fluoride of calcium, .

Binoxide of mangiinesc.

Ferric oxide, .

and minor constituents.

Ratio of e<iuivalents of phosphoric acid, carbonic acid, and fluorine —

(A PA)

(CO,)

(Fs)

1 :

0-162

0-037

In the recent earbone (No. 153a.) wo found ;

1

0-162

: nil.

‘ Direct result of analysis —

.Manganous oxide.

1-31

Ferric oxide.

5-98

Loose oxygen.

0-18

60-0 per cent, of the whole substance.
9-4
1-4
1-6

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

493

151. Central Portion of Whale’s Bone much impregnated with Manganese. — Station 286.

Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

The outer portions of this specimen were perfectly black ; most of the inner portion also was black, but a
small portion in the centre had remained untinged with manganese. This comparatively uncoloured central
portion was removed, prep>ared for analysis, and used for the following determinations : —

P,

Moisture, . . . . . . . 2'87

Phosphoric acid, . . . . . 29‘13

Fluorine, . . . . . . . 1‘44

Lime, . . . . . . . 36'05

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid, . . 2‘91

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-062

There was an appreciable quantity of manganese present, and also a trace of cobalt.

R

E.

1-23]

0- 076

1- 287

152. External Portion op Whale’s Bone much impregnated with Manganese. -
Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

-Station 286.

The outer manganiferous portion of the specimen used in Analysis 151 was completely analysed, with the
following results : —

P.

P.

E.

Portion insoluble in hydrochloric acid.

5-76

Total water, .......

9-77

Manganous oxide, ......

20-22

Loose oxygen, .... . .

3-49

Ferric oxide, ......

6-54

Alumina, .......

1-66

Lime, .......

19-71

0-7039

Magnesia, . .....

7-42

0-3710

Potash, .......

0-55

Soda, .......

1-12

Phosphoric acid, ......

I8-591

0-7860

Carbonic acid, . . .

3-87

0-1759

Traces of copper, chlorine, fluorine, and loss.

1-30

100-00

manganese is probably present mostly as binoxide, combined chemically with water and part of

protoxides.

^ Equal to 40-90 per cent, tricalcic phosphate.

153. Portion op Whale’s Bone much impregnated with Manganese. — Station 286.
Lat. 33° 29' S., long. 133° 22' W., 2335 fathoms (Dittmar).

The manganese was pretty well difilused through all the specimen.
Found in 100 parts —

Moisture, .......

Combined water, ......

Phosphoric acid, ......

Fluorine, .......

5- 49

6- 88

3 -05 -f "" P®^’

1 ti'icalcic phosphate.

0-65

Ratio of equivalents of phosphoric acid and fluorine —

1 : 0-062

494

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

153a. Portion of Recent Earbone, Bal^na Mysticetus (Dittmar).

Phosphoric acid,

Carbonic acid, .

Chlorine 0-088 -(Cl.j-0),
Sulphuric acid.

Fluorine,*

Lime, ....
Magnesia,

Potash,

Soda, ....
Phosphates of iron and alumina,
Moisture,

Organic mattei',

P.

E.

P.

E.

31-66

: 23-67

=

1-3377'

4-77

: 22

=

0-2168

0-029

27-5

=

0-0011

0-21

40

0-0053

0-005

19

0-0003.

41-52

28

=

1-4828 'j

0-86

20

=

0-0430 1

0-14

47

=

0-0030 [

1-46

31

=

0-0470 J

0-20

7-31

11-14

99-30

153b. Portion of Recent Mesorostral Bone of
Partly decayed ; the undecayed portion was analysed.

ZiPHius, Cape

OF Good Hope
P.

P.

E.

Phosphoric acid, .....

34-64

l-4635'j

Carbonic acid, ......

6-35

0-2886 [

Chlorine 0-14 —(C1.J - 0), ....

0-11

0-0039 [

Sulphuric acid, .....

0-05

0-0125 J

Fluorine, ......

0-032

Lime, . . . ’.

40-51

1-4467'

Magnesia, ......

3-59

0-1795 .

Potash, ......

trace

Soda, ......

2-13

0-0687.

Phosphates of iron and alumina.

0-36

Moisture, ......

3-51

Organic matter, .....

7-49

98-77

•7685

•1-6949

From the numbers found for it would appear probable that this bone contains a hydric phosphate such

L

as MgllPn^, which I remember liaving seen reported in other bone analyses, but I am more inclined to think
that there is an unobserved error somewhere. Taking the deficiency (1-7685 - 1-6949) in bases to mean a loss
of mague.sia, we have for the percentage of that base 3-59 + 1 -47 = 5-06, which would bring up the total
percentage to 100-21. .

' H.-iving found by prfdimiimry experiments that the deep-sea specimens contained appreciable quantities of fluorine, I
devoted particular attention to the exact determination of this element. The method adopted was as follows: — A sufficient
quantity of ignitinl material (5 to 20 grms.) was heated with a large excess of pure quartz sand and juiro oil of vitriol (previously
charge<l with sulphate of silver to retain the bulk of the chlorine), and the fluoride of silicon formed, after having been filtered
through dry asbestos to retain any 8ul[ihuric acid that might have come over, passed into water and determined titrimctrically
by means of pure standarcl caustic so<ln. In the resulting mixture, the chlorine, if present, was determined and allowed fur.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

495

153c. Brain Case of Globiocephalus, European Seas (Dittmar).

P.

P.

E.

Phosphoric acid, ....

22-45

0-94851

Carbonic acid, .....

3-18

0-1446 1

Chlorine 0-085 = (Cl2-0) or muriatic acid.

0-066

0-0024 j"

Sulphuric acid, ....

0-21

0-0053 J

Fluorine, .....

0-004

Lime, ......

30-04

1 -07271

Magnesia, .....

0-38

0-0190 1

Potash, .....

trace

1

Soda, ......

1-62

0-0523 J

Phosphates of iron and alumina.

1-25

Moisture, ....

8-93

Organic matter, ....

31-79

99-92

-1-1440

The fluorine was determined in 8 grms. of the ash of the substance, and found to amount to 0‘57 mgrms.,
that is to 0'007 per cent, of the ash, or 0‘004 per cent, of the original substance.

From these analyses it would appear that the percentage of fluorine in recent marine bones is very
minute. For the sake of comparison I determined the fluorine in a sample of ordinary bone ash, and found it
0'004 per cent., 7.e., almost nil. As it is stated that teeth contain more fluorine than ordinary bones, I pro-
cured a quantity of horses’ teeth, ignited them, and determined the fluorine in the ash. It was found equal
to 0'084 per cent., which, though decidedly higher than the number obtained with the bones, is still very
minute. I have no doubt that the I or 2 per cent, of fluoride of calcium, which we And reported in the older
analyses of bones, is based on utterly erroneous determinations. This, however, only confirms what Nickl^s
gave some years ago as the result of an extensive investigation on the subject,

For the number of equivalents of carbonate present per equivalent of phosphate, we have in : —

No. 153a. No. 153b. No. 153c.

0-162 0-197 0-153

1 1

6-2 5-1 6-6

or.

Ratio of equivalents-

(3P2O6)

1

(CO2)

0-239

In recent Zifhius bone (153b.) they were-
1 :

101-36

(Fs)

0-055

153d. Portion of Ziphius Beak from Red Crag, Suffolk (Dittmar).

A thin plate cut out of the beak, highly polished on one side; it was wholly petrified and homogeneous,
and was completely soluble in hydrochloric acid.

Moisture,

Combined water,
Phosphoric acid.
Carbonic acid, .
Fluorine l-50 = (F2-O),
Sulphuric acid.

Chlorine and silica,
Lime, .

Magnesia,

Ferric oxide.

Alumina,

Potash,

Soda,

P.

P.

E.

1-67

2-31

0-2566'

33-83

1-4294

7-50

0-3409

0-87

0-0789 1

0-62

O-OI55J

nil.

48-81

1-7431

1-08

0-0540

2-00

0-0577

0-18

O-OIO5I

0-52

0-0111 1

1-97

0-0635 J

0-197

nil.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S, CHALLENGER.

4i»G

153e. Otoliths of Cod (Ross).

Lime, . . . . . . . 53'08

Carbonic acid, ...... 48'85

Magnesia, ....... 2‘71

Pliosplioric acid, ...... trace

Alumina, . . . . . . . 0’22

Silica, ........ 0'33

100-19

INDEX

The more important references are indicated by heavier figures.

Abbot, H. L., 228, 287.

Abbreviations used in Charts and Diagrams, 413.
Abich, H., 457, 458.

Abyssal Benthos, 250.

„ Plankton, 251.

„ zone, 397.

Acantharia, 205, 283.

Acanthin, 205, 283.

Accumulation of deposits, rate of, 411-412.

Actiniaria, 81, 111, 162, 194, 354.

Actinocydus Oliver amis, 210.

Actinolite, 19, 155, 217, 325.

Actinolite-schist, 325.

Admiralty, Hydrographer of the, ix, 30.

Admiralty Islands, deposits between Japan and,
106-111, 175-176.

,, „ deposits between Meangis I.sland

and, 174.

,, „ deposits between New Guinea

and, 106-107, 174.

„ „ deposits off, 106-107, 174-175.

Adriatic Sea, xix, xx.

Aegean Sea, xiii, xxii.

African coast, deposits olf the, 154, 155, 157.

Agassiz, A., 11, 186, 250, 253, 265, 268.

Agassiz, L., xxvii.

Agates, 300, 304.

Age of deposits, 315.

Age of submarine tufas, 310.

Aggregations of deposit, 51, 57, 103, 109, 113, 119,
125, 14.3, 204-205, 218, 238, 343, 348, 349,
355, 357, 358, 361, 362, 363, 364, 366,
367.

Agulhas Bank, xxvi, 160, 161, 385, 391, 395, 396.
(deep-sea deposits chall. EXP. — 1891.)

“ Albatross,” the, 250.

Alberti, L. B., xiv.

Albirouni, xviii.

Albite, 302, 457, 458.

Albuminoid and other organic matters in deep-sea
deposits, 253-254, 255, 398.

Alcyonarian Coral, 149, 153, 154.

Alcyonarian spicules, 26, 44, 46, 48, 54, 70, 82, 88,
90, 91, 92, 94, 96, 102, 106, 108, 114, 118,
122, 124, 216, 225, 264, 289.

“ Alert,” the, 30.

Algse, calcareous, 26, 31, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54,
58, 59, 62, 63, 66, 67, 68, 82, 86, 88, 92, 94,
96, 97, 98, 99, 104, 106, 107, 118, 122, 124,
144, 14.5, 215, 216, 244, 257, 277, 289.

„ floating banks of, 251.

„ siliceous, 281.

Algeria, 334.

Alkalies, determination of, 28.

Alkaline phosphates, 399.

„ silicates, 408.

Almandin, 21.

Alps, xxviii.

Alumina, determination of, 28.

,, hydrated silicate of, 338, 374, 408.

Amazon Eiver, 234.

Amboina, deposits between Banda and, 96-97,

171- 172.

„ ,, „ Samboangan and, 98-99,

172- 173.

„ „ off, 96-97, 112.

America, xiii, xxii, xxiv, xxvii.

,, deposits off North, 151, 152.

„ „ South, 68-171, 180-182.

65

498

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

American cable, xxvi.

Ammotliscus incertus, 91, 93, 135.

.Vmmonia in manganese nodules, 421.

-Vmmoniacal jdiosphates, 399.

„ salts, 398, 399.

Ammonite, xx.

Amorphous matter, 15, 35-147.

Amphibole, 19, 319, 325, 338.

,, green, 195.

-Vmidiibolic rocks, 325, 374.

.Vmphibolite, 163, 211, 322.

Ainphidegina, 46, 93, 144, 156, 263.

„ lessonii, 63, 154.

.Vmj-gdaloid rocks, 406, 407.

-\nalcim, 23, 320.

-Vnalyses, chemical, 27, 425-496.

.Vnalyses of basic volcanic glass, 307, 455, 456, 463,
464.

,, beaks of Zipliius, 491, 494, 495.

„ Blue Mud, 232-233, 448, 449.

,. brain case of Glohiuceplialus, 495.

„ Cetacean bones, 272-275, 489-495.

„ Coral, 465.

„ Coral Sand, 246-247, 451.

,, Diatom Ooze, 211-212, 436, 437.

,, Diatoms, 281, 437.

„ glauconite, 387, 458, 459, 460.

,. Globigerina Ooze, 218-222, 437-447.

„ Green Mud, 239-240, 449.

,, Green Sand, 239-240, 449.

., manganese nodules, 363, 370-371,

417-423, 453, 464-488.

,, otoliths of cod, 268, 496.

,, palagonite, 307, 456-458, 463.

.. pliillipsite crystals, 404, 431-43.3, 460-462.

., phosphatic concretions, 392-393, 451-452.

., Pteropod Ooze, 226-227, 447-448.

„ pumice, 296-297, 453-455, 457.

„ Kadiolarian Ooze, 206-208, 435-436.

„ Ked Clay, 197-202, 42.5-435.

„ Ked Mud, 235-236, 444-445.

,, sharks’ teeth, 270, 488-489.

„ Volcanic Mud, 243-244, 450.

.\nchor ilreilge, 10, 11.

Ancient rocks, 300, 322, 38.3, 384, .387, 389, 400.
Anderson, W. S., 281, .399, 400, 437, 465, 481, 48.5.
Amlesite, augitic, 194, 300, .311, 313, 348.

„ honiblendic, 300, 31.3.

Andesitic cinders, tiifaceous, 313.

,, pumice, 290.

,, „ analysis of, 296, 455.

Andesitic rocks, 243.

Andreasberg, 406.

Andrews, T., 334.

Animals, floating banks of, 251.

,, food of deep-sea, 253.

Annelids, 93, 181, 194, 215, 244, 253, 254, 264, 285,
343, 354.

Annelid tubes (see Worm-tubes).

Anomite, 21.

Anorthite, 458.

Antarctic Continent, 163, 164, 211, 382.

Antarctic Expedition, xv, xxi, 30.

Antarctic Ice-Barrier, deposits between Melbourne and,

80-83.

,, „ deposits in vicinity of, 80-81.

Antarctic. Ocean, xxi, xxii, xxiii.

„ deposits in, 160-165.

,, • manganese in deposits of, 343-348.

Antipatlus, 97.

Apatite, 19, 320, 325, 326, 397.

Aphrocallistes, 79, 97.

Api Island, deposits between Raine Island and,

168-169.

,, deposits off, 169.

Apophyllite, 406.

Arabian Sea, 203, 223.

Arabs, xviii.

Arafura Sea, deposits in, 94-95, 170.

Aragonite, 19, 279, 280.

“ Arctic,” the, xxiv.

Arctic Expedition, xv.

Arduino, G., xix.

Area covered by marine deposits, 248, 280.

Area of Blue Mud, 233, 248.

„ Coral Mud and Sand, 247, 248.

,, Diatom Ooze, 213, 248.

„ Globigerina Ooze, 222-223, 248.

,, Green Mud and Sand, 240, 248.

,, Pteropod Ooze, 227-228, 248.

„ Radiolarian Ooze, 208, 248.

„ Red Clay, 202-20.3, 248.

„ Red Mud, 236, 248.

,, the Globe, 248.

,, the Land of the Globe, 248.

„ the Ocean, 248.

,, Volcanic Mud and Sand, 244, 248.

Arenaceous Foraminifera, 18, 35-147, 263, 289,
400.

“Argilc,” 186.

Argillaceous matter in fine washings, 24-25.

. Argillaceous schists, 406.

EEPOET ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

499

“Argus,” the, 30.

Aristotle, xiii, xvi.

Arkose, 127, 158, 323.

Arrou Islands, deposits betvreen Banda and, 94-97,

170-171.

,, deposits between Cape York and,

92-95, 170.

Ascension Island, deposits between St. Vincent and,

146-147, 160.

,, ,, deposits between Tristan da Cunha

and, 142-145, 159.

„ ,, deposits off, 144-147, 159.

Aschemonella, 41, 51.

Ascidians, 81, 162, 194, 346, 350.

Ashes, bparitic, 319.

„ tracbytic, 313.

,, volcanic, xxiv, 195, 196, 294, 299, 312,

314-318, 358, 359, 363, 405, 408.
Asteroidea, 194.

Asteromphalus darwinii, 210.

,, forma huchii, 210.

,, forma cuvierii, 210.

„ forma denarius, 210.

,, forma, huniboldtii, 2\Q.

„ liookerii, 210.

AstrorMza, 71, 137, 139.

Astrorhizidse, 35-147, 193, 206, 289.

Atataa Island, 166.

Atlanta cunicula, 224.

,, depressa, 224.

,, fusca, 224.

,, gaudichaudii, 224.

,, gihhosa, 224.

,. helicinoides, 224
„ indinata, 224.

„ ivflata, 224.

,, involuta, 224.

„ lesueurii, 224.

,, mediterranea, 224.-
,, peronii, 224.

„ primitia, 224.

,, quoyana, 224.

,, rosea, 224.

„ souleyeti, 224.

„ tesselata, 224.

„ turrieulata, 224.

,, violacea, 224.

Atlantic cable, xv.

„ mud, xxvii.

,, Ocean, xiii, xv, xvi, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi.

,, ,, deposits in, 148-160.

Atlantic Ocean, manganese in deposits of, 341-343,
365.

„ ooze, xxvii.

„ Sea, xvi.

Atlantis, xvi.

Atmospheric precipitations, 334, 335.

Atolls, soil of coral, 294.

Audouin, J. V., xxii.

Augite, 22, 217, 226, 231, 238, 24.3, 296, 297, .300,
301, 304, 310, 312, 316, 317, 318, 319,
320, 322, 326, 374.

,, porpbyritic, 313.

Augitic andesite, 194, 300, 311, 313, 348.

Australia, deposits between Heard Island and,

163-164.

„ deposits between New Zealand and, 166.

,, deposits off, 165.

,, Great Barrier Eeef of, 386.

Auvergne, 406.

Average composition of Blue Mud, 232.

„ „ Coral Mud, 246.

„ ,, Coral Sand, 246.

„ „ Diatom Ooze, 211.

„ „ Globigerina Ooze, 218.

„ ,, Green Mud, 238,

,, ,, Green Sand, 239.

„ ., Pteropod Ooze, 226.

,, ,, Eadiolarian Ooze, 206.

,, ,, Eed Clay, 197.

,, ,, Eed Mud, 235.

,, ,, Volcanic Mud, 242.

,, ,, Volcanic Sand, 243.

Average depth of Blue Mud, 230, 248.

„ „ Coral Mud, 244, 248.

„ „ Coral Sand, 246, 248.

,, ,, Diatom Ooze, 209, 248.

,, „ Globigerina Ooze, 214-215, 2 48.

„ ,, Green Mud, 237, 248.

„ „ Green Sand, 239, 248.

„ ,, Pteropod Ooze, 225, 248.

,, „ Eadiolarian Ooze, 206, 248.

„ „ Eed Clay, 190, 248.

„ „ Eed Mud, 234, 248.

„ „ various types of deposits, 280.

,, „ Volcanic Mud, 241, 248.

„ ,, Volcanic Sand, 242, 248.

Average percentage of carbonate of lime in deposits, 280.
Azores Islands, deposits between Bermuda and, 54-59,
152-153.

„ deposits between Madeira and, 58-61,
153.

.')00

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

-V/orcs Islands, deposits between St. Vincent and,

146-147.

„ deposits oir, 58-59, 153.

,, rock fragments obtained between

Bermuda and, 322.

Azov, Sea of, xiii, .xvi.

Hache, A. 1)., xxiv.

Backstrbm, H., 294.

Hacteria, 255.
lladen, “togel”of, 199.

BafHn’s Bay, xv.

IJahiii, deposits between Pernambuco and, 68-71,
156.

., deposits between Tristan da Cunha and,
70-73, 157.

,, deposits off, 70-71, 156-157.

Ikiiley, J. W., xxiii, xxiv, xxv, 213, 382.
liaillie sounding machine, 2, 3.
lialatna, 274, 490.

„ vvjdicetuB, 494.

Balaenidae, 272, 347.

Balxtioptera, 271, 274, 275, 360, 491.

,, antarctica, 271.

,, liuttoni, 271.

„ rostrata, 271.

Balsenopteridae, 347.

nalanus, 90, 92, 94, 96, 1 1 1, 265.

Baleen whales, earbones of, 271, 272.

“ Ballast,” 323.

Baltic Sea, xxi.

Banda, deposits between Amboina and, 96-97,
171-172.

„ deposits between Arrou Islands and, 94-97,
170-171.

„ deposits off, 96-97, 171.

Banks of animals and Algae, 251.

,, Diatoms, 281.

Banks of Newfoundland, 152.

Barbailos, xxix, 189.

Barff, coating of, 330.

Barium, 377, 418.

„ iKslules, 377, 41 1, 412
Bark, 99.

B.-irrier Reef of Austnilia, 386.

Barjta, 377.

Itisalt, 194, 310, 31 1, 316, 322, 406, 408, 409.

„ fclsijathic, 300, 308, 311,312.

„ fclH|>ntbic magma, 304.

„ vesicular, 365, 408.

BoMiltic gloss, 194.

Basaltic hornblende, 319.

„ and other lapilli, 311-314.

„ lapilli, 311-313, 335, 343, 357, 405, 408.

„ pumice, 296-297.

„ rocks, 243, 304, 334, 361, 364, 406, 407, 408,
409.

Basic pumice, 295, 296-297.

,, „ analyses of, 297, 454-455.

,, volcanic glass, 299-307, 308, 309, 310, 311,
316, 340, 346, 361, 362, 363,
364, 374, 378, 405, 408.

„ ,, analyses of, 307, 455, 456, 463,

464.

Batliyactis, 48, 100, 101, 106.

Bathybial Benthos, 250.

„ Plankton, 251.

Batliyhius, xxv, xxvi.

Bathymetrical distribution of glauconite, 382-383.

„ ,, marine deposits,

247-248.

,, ,, phillipsite crystals, 405.

Bathypterois longicavda, 181.

Bay of Bengal, 223.

„ Lampoong, 294.

„ Rio Janeiro, 389.

Beach Sand, Diamond Point, Oahu Island, 118-119.

,, „ Long Beach, Ascension, 144-145.

„ ,, Main Island, Admiralty Islands, 106-107.

“ Beacon,” the, xxii.

Beaks of Cephalopods (see Cephalopod beaks).

,, Ziphioid whales, 272, 275, 361.

„ ,, „ analyses of, 491, 494, 495.

Beam-trawl, 8, 9.

Beccari, J. B., xx.

Bengal, xviii.

,, Bay of, 223.

Ben Nevis Observatory, 335.

Benthos, 250, 251, 259, 261, 263, 281.

„ aby.ssal, 250.

„ bathybial, 250.

„ deep-sea, 250.

,, littoral, 250.

,, neritic, 250.

„ shallow-water, 250.

Berlin, xxi.

Bermuda, deposits between

152-153.

Azores

and,

54-59,

„ deposits between

1 151-152.

Halifax

and.

50-53,

depo.sits between St. Thomas and, 44-49,
150.

KEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

501

Bermuda, deposits inside reefs of, 48-49, 151.

„ deposits off, 48-51, 54-55, 151.

,, rock fragments obtained between Azores
and, 322.

„ rock fragments obtained between Halifax
and, 322.

Berryman, Lieut., xxiv, xxv, 213.

Bianchi, G., xx.

Bilin, xxi.

BilocuUna, 36, 64, 72, 90, 92, 114, 142.

„ depressa, 104, 106, 108, 122, 124, 130.

„ ringens, 263.

“ Biloculina Clay,” 186.

Biotite, 21.

Biscbof, G., 277, 372.

Black magnetic spberules, 327-330.

„ mica, 296, 320, 322, 396.

,, oxide of manganese (see Manganese).

Black Sea, xiii, xvi, xviii.

“ Blake,” the, 30, 270, 396.

Blue Mud, 186, 229-233.

„ analyses of, 232-233, 448-449.

„ area of, 233, 248.

„ average composition of, 232.

„ average depth of, 230, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 230.

,, distribution of, 233.

„ fine washings in, 231.

,, mineral particles in, 231.

,. rate of deposition of, 411.

„ siliceous organisms in, 231.

Boerhaave, xix.

Bog manganese ore, 371.

Bohemia, xxi, 384, 409.

BoUvina, 36, 40, 118.

„ dilatata, 90.

,, textilarioides, 110, 130.

Bombs, 360.

Bones, fluorine in, 495.

Bones of Cetaceans, 9,29, 32, 71, 82, 123-129, 196, 218,
270-276, 310, 333, 343-347, 355-365,
367, 375, 378, 391, 398, 399, 412.

„ analyses of, 272-275, 489-495.

,, distribution of, 276.

„ solution in sea- water of, 270, 276, 277.

Bones of fish, 74, 82, 289, 399.

Booby Island, deposits off, 170.

Bottom-living Foraminifera, 34-147, 259, 263.

Boussingault, J. B., 330, 372, 373.

Brachiopods, 68, 72, 76, 82, 92, 93, 108, 111, 112,
114, 162, 193, 216, 266, 289, 346, 349, 350.

Brady, G. S., 265.

Brady, H. B., 169, 172.

Brain case of Globiocephalas, analysis of, 495.

Branches of trees, 103, 168, 253, 348.

Brazier, J. S., 29, 197, 425-431, 433, 435-444, 447-450,
452-454, 464-468, 472-489, 492.

Brazier’s method of chemical analysis, 29.

Brazil, 384.

Brazilian coast, deposits off, 68, 69, 157, 234-236.
-Brazilian rivers, 156, 234.

Breccia, xx.

Brevicite, 306.

Brewer, W. H., 228.

Brisinga, 181.

Bronzite, 22, 217, 319, 326, 332.

„ chondres of, 331.

Brooke, J. M., xv, xxiii.

Brown, Prof. Crum, 421.

Brown-coloured spherules or chondres, 330-332.
Browne, A. J. Jukes-, xxix, 189.

Bryozoa, 265.

Buache, Philippe, xv.

“ Buccaneer,” the, 30.

Buchanan, J. Y., xxvii, xxviii, 4, 10, 27, 248, 254,
365, 371, 372, 373.

Buchanan’s combined sounding tube and water-bottle,

4,5.

Buchanan’s improved sounding lead, 2.

Bulimina, 52.

„ aculecda, 100.

„ eJegans, 114.

„ injiata, 112.

,, ovata, 110.

“ Bulldog,” the, xxvi, 30.

Bimbury, E. H., xiii.

Bunsen, R., 411, 420, 470.

Busk, George, 161, 265,

Bytownite, 302.

“Calcaire tendre ou crayeux,” 186.

Calcarea, 264.

Calcareous Algse (see Algae, calcareous).

„ concretions, 92, 93, 95, 97, 99.

„ nodules, 411, 412.

„ organic remains in deep-sea deposits,

257-280.

,, organisms in deposits, separation of, 14.

„ pebbles, 51.

„ Sponges, 264, 367.

„ structures, solution in sea-water of,

277-280.

502

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Calcareous tufas, xvii, xx.

Calcito, XXIV, 19, 205, 279, 280, 325, 347, 399.
Calcium carbonate (see Carbonate of lime).

„ determination of, 28.

Calcidi, urinary, 367.

California, 379.

„ deposits off, 236.

,. Gulf of, 250.

Cambrian period, 378, 398.

„ sandstone, 384.

Camiguin Island, deposit off, 102-103.

Canada, 384.

Canary Islands, deposits off, 38-41, 149.

Candeina, 155, 267.

„ niiida, 214, 225.

Cape Farewell, xxvi.

,, Florida, xxvii.

,, Howe, deposits off, 165.

„ of Good Hope, xv.

„ „ deposits between Clarion Island

and, 74-77, 160-161.

„ „ deposits between Tristan da

Cunha and, 74-75, 157-158.
,, „ deposits off, 74-75, 160-161.

„ „ rock fragments obtained between

Tristan da Cunha and, 322.

„ Palmas, deposits in vicinity of, 154.

„ Verde Islands, deposits between Ascension and,
146-147, 160.

,, „ deposits between Azores and,

146, 147, 160.

,, „ deposits between Madeira and,

60-63, 153-154.

„ „ deposits between St. Paul’s

Rocks and, 64-65,
154-155.

,, ,, deposits off, 62-65, 154.

„ York, deposits between Arrou Islands and,
92-95, 170.

C'arlwn, 255, .338.

Carlx)naceou8 substance, 1 4.

Carlsinatc of calcium (see Carbonate of lime).
Carbonate of iron, 306.

„ „ concrction.s, 375.

CarboriaU; of lime, accumidation in tropical regions of,
277, 278.

„ „ average itcrcentnge in deposits of, 280.

,, „ decrease of, in ^lcp^)8its, with increase

of depth, 150, 155, 156, 166,
169, 175, 176, 177, 180, 183,
207, 215, 266.

Carbonate of lime, determination of, 15.

,, in Blue Mud, 230.

,, in Coral Mud, 245.

„ in Coral Sand, 246.

„ in Diatom Ooze, 210-211.

„ in Globigerina Ooze, 215-216.

,, in Green Mud, 237.

„ in Green Sand, 239.

,, in Pteropod Ooze, 225.

„ in Radiolarian Ooze, 206.

„ in Red Clay, 193.

,, in Red Mud, 234.

,, in Volcanic Mud, 241.

„ in Volcanic Sand, 242.

,, solution in sea-water of, 277-280.

Carbonate of manganese, 373.

Carbonic acid apparatus, 15.

„ „ determination of, 15.

„ „ in manganese nodules, 421. '

Carboniferous rocks, 334.

Garcliarias, 179, 269.

Carcliarodon, 117, 178, 179, 268, 269, 270, 347, 353,
356, 359, 489.

,, megalodon, 269.

Carinaria atlantica, 224.

„ australis, 224.

„ cithara, 224.

,, cornucopia, 224.

„ cristata, 224.

„ depressa, 224.

„ fragilis, 224.

„ galea, 224.

„ gaudicJiaudii, 224.

„ lamarckii, 224.

,, punctata, 224.

Carolina, South, xxvii.

Caroline Islands plateau, 175.

Carpenter, Commander A., 377.

„ P. II., 265.

„ W. B., xxiii, xxvii, 290.

Caipenteria, 89, 91, 95, 97, 98.

Carthagenian.s, xiiL

Cargoidiyllia, 96.

Cassidulina, 44, 50.

„ crassa, 263.

„ suhglobosa, 100, 102, 126.

Casts of calcareous organi.sms, xxiv, xxv, xxvii, 18,
3.5-147, 16.5, 167-168, 169, 170, 171, 173,
176, 182, 18.3, 226, 231, 2.36, 238, 239, 264,
286, 289, 348, 351, 360, 36.3, 364, .367,
.379, 388, 389, 390, .391, 458, 459, 460.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

503

Casts of Foraminifera (see Casts of calcareous
organisms).

CavoUnia, 227.

„ gibhosa, 224.

,, globulosa, 224.

,, inflexa, 224.

,, longirostris, 224.

„ quculridentata, 224.

tridentata, 224.

,, trispinosa, 59, 224.

„ uncinata, 224.

Cayeux, L., xxviii.

Celebes Sea, deposits in, 172-173.

Cenomanian formation, 384.

Cephalopoda, 267.

Cephalopod beaks, 50, 52, 102, 112, 118, 119, 122, 130,
131, 133, 209, 216, 225, 267, 289, 364.
Cetacean bones (see Bones of Cetaceans).

Cbabasite, 23, 306, 320.

Chabry, M., 255.

Chxtoceros, 164.

Chsetocerotidse, 282.

Chalcedony, 22, 23, 393, 407, 410.

Chalk, xxiv, xxvi, xxviii, 376, 384, 385, 386, 397.

,, Cretaceous, 267.

., glauconitic, 397.

„ white, xxvii, xxviii, 396.

Chalky nodules, 51.

Challenger Bank, deposit on, 50-51.

„ Pvidge, 202.

Challengeria naresii, 284.

„ tizardi, 111.

Changes produced by organisms in the constitution of
sea-water and deep-sea deposits, 254-256.
Chappel, Fife, 406.

Characteristics of deposits from different localities,

30.

Characters of continental minerals, 325-326.

„ volcanic minerals, 319.

Charts, explanation of, 413-414.

Chemical Analyses, 27, 425-496 (see Analyses).
Chemical composition of glauconite, 385-387.

„ ,, of manganese nodules,

368-371.

„ „ of phillipsite crystals,

404-405.

„ ,, of phosphatic concretions,

392-393.

Chemical deposits, 291, 337-411.

Chemical products formed in situ on the floor of the
ocean, 291, 337-411.

Chemical products in relation to rate of deposition in
deposits, 411-412.

Chert, 347.

Chili, 382.

Chiloe Island, 181.

Ghilostomella, 40.

Chilostomellidae, 48, 289.

China, 382.

China Sea, deposits in, 173-174.

Chitin, 205, 264, 283.

Chloride of potassium, determination of, 28.

„ sodium, determination of, 28.

Chlorite, 20, 53, 325, 326, 388.

Chloritic coatings, 55, 137.

„ rocks, 383.

„ sandstone, 211, 322.

„ scales, 226, 231.

„ substance, 137, 316, 319, 322, 325.

Chondres, 327, 330-332, 334, 335.

„ of bronzite, 331.

,, of meteorites, 330, 331, 332.

Chondrites, 330.

Chondritic globules, 330.

,, spherules, 203, 204.

Chromite, 20, 217, 325, 326.

Chumley, J., x.

Chun, C., 251.

Church, A. H., 472.

Cinders from steamers, 49, 57, 83, 101.

„ trachytic, 313.

„ tufaceous andesitic, 313.

Cirripedia, 34, 36, 40, 76, 92, 93, 136, 146, 216, 225,
289, 294.

Clastic rocks, 292, 318.

Clamlina communis, 101, 135.

Clay, 186, 196, 338-341, 412.

„ bole, 25.

,, deep-sea, 25, 338-341.

Clayey concretions, 361.

Clayey matter in fine washings, 25.

Clayey matter suspended in fresh and salt water, 196,
228-229, 287, 339, 340.

Clbodora pyramidata, 56.

Cleomedes, xiv.

Clio andrex, 224.

,, australis, 224.

„ halantium, 224.

,, cliaptali, 224.

,, cuspidata, 224,

,, polita, 224.

„ pyramidata, 224.

.■)04

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGEE.

Clio sulcata, 224.

„ (Creseis) acicula, 224.

,, chierchia, 224.

„ ., conica, 224.

., „ virgula, 224.

„ (Ili/alocglix) striata, 224.

,, {Styliola) subula, 224.

Cloizeiiux, ^r. (les, 402.

Clyde estuarj', manganese nodules in, SO.?.

Coids from steamers, 49, 57, 83, 101.

Coast lines of the world, length of, 187.

Coast of .\frica, deposits off, 154, 155, 157.

„ Brazil, deposits off, 156, 157, 234-236.

Coast zone, 397.

Coating of Barff, 330.

Cobiilt, 328, 329, 365, 368, 369, 371, 377.
Cobaltiferous native iron, 334.

Coccolith.s, XXV, xxvi, 15, 31, 35, 37, 43, 45, 81, 85,
91, 109, 121, 127, 216, 225, 230, 240,
258, 289, 361, 362.

„ .size of, 85.

Coccosphcres, 15, 31, 34, 43, 50, 52, 53, 56, 82, 84,
85, 102, 142, 144, 215, 216, 225,
257-258, 262, 289.

„ size of, 85.

Cocoa-nuts, 9.3, 172.

C<k1, analy.sis of otoliths of, 268, 496.

Coelenterata, 264.

Cohen, I]., 296, 297.

Collections of Deposits available, 29.

Colouring svibstances of fine wasliings, 24.

Columbus, xiii, xiv.

Comber, T., 283.

Compact limestone, 325.

Composition of depo.sits (see Average composition).

„ Kadiolarian skeletfms, 205.

Conception Channel, deposit in, 182.

Conchioline, 267, 277.

Concretions, 170, 171, 172.

carbonaUj of iron, 375.
clayey, 361.

,. phosphatic (see Pho.sphatic concretions).

Conglomerate, 172, 177.

Contents, xi.

Continentiil debris (see Contincnfiil rock fragments).

„ minerals, 324-320, 38.3.

,, rock fragments, 238, 321-324, 382, .383,

.384, .385. ,

„ shelf, 18.5, 229, .396.

„ sloj»e, 229.

Cook Strait, de]K>sits off, 166.

Copepoda, 251.

Copper, 365, 368, 371, 377.

Coprolite-like bodies, 101.

Coprolites, 360.

Coral, XV, xxvii, 14, 26, 31, 36-147, 172, 178, 179, 215,
225, 244, 264, 277, 289, 365, 366, 399, 400.
„ Alcyonarian, 149, 154.

„ Gorgonoid, 61, 153, 154, 342, 343.

,, „ analysis of, 465.

Coral atolls, soil of, 294.

Coral formation, xxvii.

Coral Mud, 186, 244-247.

„ area of, 247, 248.

„ average composition of, 246.

,, average depth of, 244, 248.

,, carbonate of lime in, 245.

„ distribution of, 247.

„ fine washings in, 245.

„ mineral particles in, 245.

,, rate of deposition of, 411.

,, siliceous organisms in, 245.

“ Coral Ooze,” 186.

Coral Keefs, 289-290, 411.

Coral Sand, 244-247.

,, analysis of, 246-247, 451.

,, area of, 247, 248.

„ average composition of, 246.

„ average depth of, 246, 248.

„ distribution of, 247.

,, fine washings in, 246.

,, mineral particles hi, 246.

,, rate of deposition of, 411.

„ siliceous organisms in, 246.

Coral Sea, 203.

Coral zone, 188.

Coralline zone, 188.

Corallines, xv.

Corax, 269.

Corethrun criopliilum, 210.

Coscinodueus, xxvi, 109, 168.

„ africanus, var. wallichianns, 210.

„ antarcticus, 210.

„ atlanticus, 210.

„ currulatua, maculata, 210.

„ dccrescem, var. 'polaris, 210.

„ „ „ rc})Uta, 210.

,, denarius, 210.

,, elegans, 210.

„ excentricAis, 210.

,, fasciculatns, 210.

,, gazellx, 282.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

505

Coscinodiscus griseus, var. gallopagensis, 210.
„ imperator, 282.

„ lentiginosus, 210, 282.

„ . „ var. maculata, 210.

,, UneatiLs, 210.

„ lunsR, 210.

„ margaritaeeus, 210.

„ marginatus, 210.

„ nobilis, 282.

,, prsetor, 282.

„ radiatun, 210.

„ robustus, 210.

„ „ var. minor, 210.

sol, 282.

subtilis, 210, 282.

„ var. glacialis, 210.
tubereidatus, var. antarctica, 210.
,, „ excentrica, 210.

„ tumidus, 210.

Cosmic dust, 217, 327.

„ dusts in general, 333-336.

„ spherules, 22, 32, 194, 203, 204, 327-336,
353, 356, 358, 365, 378, 403, 412.
Cosmopolitan species of Foraminifera, 263.

Counter Equatorial Current, 176, 178.

CourteiUe, M., xviii.

Credner, H., 186.

Cretaceous Chalk, 267.

„ formations, 334, 397.

„ „ glauconite in, 384.

„ period, xxvii.

„ sea, xxviii.

Crete, xxiii.

Crinoidea, 194, 265.

Cristellaria, 50, 165.

„ rotulata, 263.

Crossed tudns of philhpsite, 402, 404.

Crozet Islands, 382.

„ deposits between Marion Island and,

76-79, 161.

„ deposits off, 78-79, 161.

Cruciform twins of philhpsite, 402, 404.

Crustaceans, xv, xviii, xx, 35, 38, 58, 88, 96, 181,
251, 264-265, 285, 289, 399.

Crystalline rocks, 292, 318, 325, 380, 400,406,407,409.
„ schist, 325, 326, 400.

„ spherules, 330-332.

CrystaUites, 301, 303, 304, 332.

Crystals of philhpsite in marine deposits, 400-411.
Cup lead, 1, 2.

Cupule in magnetic spherules, 328, 330, 331.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

Currents, 292, 321, 409.

Curves, isobathic, xv,

Cusanus, Nicolaus, xiv, xv.

Cuttle-fish bones, 267.

Cuvierina columnella, 224.

Cuxhaven, xxi.

Cyatholiths, 258.

Cydammina, 41.

“ Cyclops,” the, xxv.

Cymbcdopora, 48, 50, 216.

„ (Tretomplialus) bvlloides, 214.

Cyrtoidea, 205, 284.

Oysteddnus myvilUi, 181.

Cythere, 265.

„ didyon, 265.

“Dacia,” the, 8, 30.

Dana, J. D., 287.

“ Dart,” the, 30.

Darwin, C., 290.

Daubrde, A., 334, 401, 407.

Davidson, T., 266.

Dayman, Commander, xv, xxv.

Debris, volcanic, 372, 375, 376, 401, 410.

Deccan, 406.

Decomposition of organic matter, 253, 254, 255, 256.

„ pumice, 295.

Deepest Challenger sounding, 108-109, 175,

204-205.

„ ,, in Atlantic, 46-47.

Deep Sea, definition of, 184.

„ animals, food of, 253,

„ Benthos, 250.

„ clay, 25, 338-341.

„ Deposits, 185, 186, 188.

„ Keratosa, 121.

,, zone, 188.

Delesse, M., xxvii, 186.

Delessite, 20, 312, 316, 320.

Delphinidse, 271, 272.

Delplimus, 179, 271, 272.

Deltas, xviii.

Dendy, A., 285.

Dentalium, 38, 40, 44, 48, 50, 58, 60, 72, 76, 84, 92,
96, 106, 110, 111, 114, 134, 142, 216, 225, 289.
Deposition of deposits, rate of, 411-412.

„ minute particles in water, 196.

Depth of types of deposits (see Average Depth).
Descloizeaux, M., 402.

Devonian dolomitic clay of Quistenthal, 199.

,, rocks, 334,

66

506

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Di'zertas, ileposits off the, 149.

DiaW', 322, 32.3, 326, 383, 406.

„ quartziferous, 322.

Diagrams, o.xplanation of, 415.

Diallage, 22, 326.

Diamond Point, beach sand from, 118-119.

Diatom Ooze, 31, 186, 189, 208-213.

„ „ analyses of, 21 1-212, 436-437.

„ „ area of, 213, 248.

,. „ average composition of, 211.

,, „ average deptli of, 209, 248.

,, „ carbonate of lime in, 210-211.

„ „ Diatoms in, 210.

„ „ distribution of, 213.

,, „ fine washings in, 211.

„ „ mineral particles in, 211.

„ „ rate of deposition of, 412.

„ „ siliceous organisms in, 209-210.

IHatonm rhomhicum, var. oceanica, 210.

Diatomacea (see Diatoms).

Diatomite, 209.

Diatoms, xxi, xxii, xxiii, xxvi, 18, 23, 35-147, 210,
258, 263, 281-283, 289, 391.

„ analysis of, 281, 437.

Dieulafait, M., 372, 373, 412.

Different types of deep-sea deposits, 189-248.

Difficulties surrounding the study of deposits, 13.

Diller, .J. S., 298.

I)iorite, quartziferous, 163.

„ schistoid, 163.

Discoidea, 284.

Dv<rnrlnna, 34, 154, 162, 165.

Distinctive characters of continental minerals,

325-326.

„ „ volcanic minerals, 319.

Distribution of Rlue Mud, 233.

„ Cetiicean bones, 276.

„ Coral Mud and Sand, 247.

„ cosmic spherules, 332-333.

„ Diatom Ooze, 213.

„ Globigerina Ooze, 222-223.

„ Green Mud and Sand, 240.

,, marine dcj)osits, 247-248.

„ phillipsitc crystals, 405.

,, ])ho8phatic concretions, 395-397.

„ Pter(>i>ofl Ooze, 227-228.

„ pumice, 295.

„ Hadiolarinn Ooze, 208.

„ Red Clay, 202-203.

„ Red .Mud, 236.

„ sharks’ teeth, 276.

Distribution of Volcanic Mud and Sand, 244.

,, volcanoes, 292, 293.

Dittmar, AY, 29, 272, 371, 431, 432, 456, 462, 468,
489-495.

Dolerite, 162, 312.

Dolomite, 20, 152, 205, 323, 325.

Doloniitic limestone, 322, 325.

„ rocks, 325.

Dolomitisation, incipient, xxviii, 200.

Dolphin Ridge, 45, 202.

„ Rise, 150.

Dolphins, earbones of, 271, 272.

Donati, V., xix, xx.

“ Dove,” the, 30.

Dredge, 7, 8, 9.

„ anchor, 10, 11.

Dredging and sounding arrangements on board the
Challenger, 12.

Dredgings, first deep, xv.

Dreyer, F., 205.

Duncan, P. M., 184.

Dung (see Excreta of Echinoderms).

D’Urville Island, deposits off, 86-87.

Dust, cosmic, 327.

„ volcanic, 292.

Earbones of Cetaceans (see Bones of Cetaceans).
Earthquake waves, 293.

Echinoderms, 26, 35, 39, 63, 69, 194, 215, 216, 225,
230, 244, 253, 254, 265, 289, 380.

„ excreta of, 101, 103, 107, 131, 173, 254.
„ fragments of, 34-146.

„ spines of, 34-146.

“Egeria,” the, 30, 208, 209, 365, 405.

Egg-capsules, 343, 362.

Ehrenberg, C. G., xxi, xxiv, xxv, 213, 382, 387.

Elba Island, xxi.

Elevation of sea-bottom, 171.

Ellis, Captain, xv.

England, xxii, 384.

„ deposits between Gibraltar and, 34-37, 148.
„ „ Cape Verdes and, 60.

Enstatite, 22, 155, 217, 332.

Entooliths, 388.

Eocene marls, xxiv.

Epidote, 20, 195, 231, 320, 326, 383,384.

E<|uatorial Current, 178.

Eratosthenes, xiii.

“ Erebus,” the, 208.

Erebus, Movint, xxii.

Eruptions, subaerial, 292, 293, 299, 314, 318, 406, 408.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

507

Eruptions, submarine, 293, 299, 307, 313, 314, 318,
378, 405, 408.

Esperia, 358, 359.

Ethmodiscus, 31, 109, 121, 176, 282.

„ wyvilleanus, 282.

Eucampia halaustium, 210.

,, „ var. minor, 210.

Eukrite, 332.

Eule, 406.

Euphrates, River, xviii.

Euplectella, 103, 173, 284.

Euxinus, xvi.

Excreta of Echinoderms, 101, 103, 107, 131, 173, 254.
Explanation of Charts, 413-414.

„ Diagrams, 415.

,, Tables of Chapter II., 13, 26.

Extraction of magnetic particles from deposits, 17.
Extra-terrestrial mineral substances, 327-336.

Falcon Island, 293.

Falkland Islands, deposits between Rio de la Plata
and, 136-139, 158-159.

„ ,, deposits between Sandy Point and,

136-137, 158.

,, ,, deposits off, 136-137.

Faroe Islands, xxiii, xxvi.

Farrea, 178, 351.

Fauna living on Diatom Ooze, 211.

„ ,, Globigerina Ooze, 218.

„ ,, Radiolarian Ooze,' 204.

„ „ Red Clay, 194.

Fauna, marine, 249-253.

,, pelagic, 165, 168, 176.

Fayal, deposits between Pico and, 58-59, 153.
Fayalite, 301.

Felspar, 20-21, 217, 226, 238, 302, 316, 317, 326,
338, 353, 354, 356.

„ monoclinic, 319, 325.

,, triclinic, 319, 325.

Felspathic basalt, 300, 308, 311, 312.

,, magma basalt, 304.

„ mud, 191, 221.

Fernando Noronha, deposits between Pernambuco and,
66-69, 156.

„ ,, deposits between St. Paul’s Rocks

and, 66-67, 155-156.

,, „ deposits off, 66-67, 156.

Ferric hydrate (see Iron).

Ferro-manganic concretions (see Manganese nodules).
Ferruginous clay, 139.

Fields of pumice, 294.

Fiji Island, deposits between New Hebrides and,
88-91, 167-168.

„ deposits off, 88-89, 167.

“ Fine Telluric Silt,” 186.

Fine washings, 15, 17, 24-25, 32, 35-147.

„ „ argillaceous matter in, 24-25.

,, „ mineral particles in, 25.

,, „ organic substances in, 25.

„ „ siliceous organisms in, 25.

„ „ in Blue Mud, 231.

„ „ in Coral Mud, 245,

„ ,, in Coral Sand, 246.

„ „ in Diatom Ooze, 211.

„ „ in Globigerina Ooze, 217.

„ „ in Green Mud, 238.

„ „ in Green Sand, 239.

,, „ in Pteropod Ooze, 226.

„ ,, in Radiolarian Ooze, 206.

„ „ in Red Clay, 196-197.

„ „ in Red Mud, 235.

„ ,, in Volcanic. Mud, 242.

,, ,, . in Volcanic Sand, 243.

Fischer, H., xvii.

Fishes, 267, 270.

„ bones of (see Bones of fish).

,, otoliths of (see Otoliths of fish).

„ scales of (see Scales of fish).

,, scapula of (see Scapula of fish).

„ teeth of (see Teeth of fish).

„ vertebrae of (see Vertebrae of fish).

Flahellum, 264.

Flanders, Islands of, xv.

Flint, xxiv, 133, 323, 376.

Floating banks of animals and Algae, 251.

„ „ Diatoms, 281.

„ ice, 292, 321, 322, 323, 382.

Flocculation of particles, 197.

Flora, marine, 249, 253.

,, pelagic, 164, 165, 168, 176, 252.

Flows of lava (see Lava-flows).

Fluorine in bones, 275, 495.

„ horses’ teeth, 495.

,, manganese nodules, 421.

Fluorite, 347.

Flustra, xv.

“ Flying Fish,” the, 30.

Food of deep-sea animals, 253.

Foraminifera, xx, xxiii, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, 34-147,
258-263, 277, 285, 348, 349, 362,
365, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 387,
388, 390, 391, 393, 394, 395, 396, 399.

508

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Foramiiiifera, arenaceous, 18, 35-147, 2C3, 289, 400.

„ bottom-living, 15, 26, 31, 34-147, 259,
203.

„ casts of (see Casts of calcareous organisms).
,, cosmopolitan species of, 263.

„ pelagic, 15, 26, 31, 34-146, 213-214,
259-203.

„ in Globigerina Ooze, 214.

Foraminiferous formation, xxvii.

Forbes, E., xxii, xxiii.

Forchhammer, G., 372.

Ford, J. S., 421.

Fort Washington, xxiv.

Fragments of continental rocks (see Continental rock
fragments).

„ „ Echinoderms, 34-146.

France, xxvii, 384.

Franconia, 384.

Frequency of organic remains in deep-sea deposits,
288-289.

Fresenius, C. R., 470.

Friendly Islands, deposits between New Zealand and,
100.

„ „ deposits off, 100-107.

Fruits, 93, 99, 107, 172, 253.

Fuchs, T., 279.

Galapagos Islands, 307.

Galeux, 269.

Gama, Vasco di, xiv.

Ganges, River, xviii.

Garnet, 21, 217, 238, 322, 325, 326, 383, 396.
Ga.steropods, 34-146, 216, 225, 230, 207, 289, 388.
Gaiulryina, 40, 50, 51.

,, nj^honcUa, 99, 111.

Gault formation, 384.

“ Gazelle,” the, 30, 372, 396.

Geikie, A., 186.

Geodia, Sd, 103, 107.

Geodic minerals, 393.

Geographical distribution of glauconite, 382-383.

I, „ marinedeposits, 247, 248.

M „ phillipsite crystals, 405.

Geological age of submarine tufas, 310.

„ distribution of glauconite, 384-385.

Georgia, xxvii.

Germany, 384.

“ Gettysburg,” the, 30.

Gibraltar, de|sjsit8 between England and, 34-37, 148.

„ <lefK>sits between Madeira and, 30-37, 148.
Giljeon, John, 195, 201, 369, 371, 373, 377, 417-423.

Gibson, F. M., 421.

Giglio Island, xxi.

Glaciated fragments, 323, 344.

Glass, basic volcanic (see Basic volcanic glass).

„ scoriaceous, 309.

,, volcanic (see Volcanic glass).

Glassy lapilli, 367.

Glauconite, xxvii, 21, 31, 32, 35, 37, 39, 47, 51, 53,
55, 57, 65, 67, 71, 75, 77, 81, 83,
85, 87, 93, 95, 97, 101, 103, 105,
111, 117, 131, 133, 135, 137, 139,
160, 183, 217, 231, 236, 237, 238,
240, 241, 254, 320, 325, 326, 343,
378-391, 392, 393, 395, 396, 400,
411, 412.

„ analyses of, 387, 458-460.

„ chemical composition of, 385-387.

,, distribution of, 382-385.

„ macroscopic characters of, 379-381.

„ microscopic characters of, 381-382.

„ mineral associations of, 383-384.

,, mode of formation of, 385-391.

,, mode of occurrence of, 379-381.

,, organic associations of, 383-384.

Glauconitic aggregations, 385.

„ casts, xxiv, xxvii, 18, 31, 32, 35, 53, 55,

75, 83, 85, 87, 91, 95, 101, 103, 105,

111, 113, 135, 148, 157, 160, 161,

165, 183, 236, 237, 238, 239, 241,

264, 286, 381, 382, 383, 384, 388,

390.

„ chalk, 397.

,, concretions, 75, 137.

„ deposits, rate of deposition of, 411.

„ marls, 384.

„ nodules, 32, 385, 396.

,, rocks, 384.

,, sands, 379, 383.

Glaucophane, 19, 325, 326.

Glohiyerina, xxiv, xxv, xxvi, 34, 40, 42, 44, 46, 56,
62, 74, 80, 97, 98, 99, 101, 103,
105, 108, 111, 112, 114, 116, 119,
120, 121, 122, 128, 129, 131, 138,
144, 146, 161, 162, 165, 167, 172,
173, 176, 180, 182, 192, 209, 220,
240, 260, 360, 361, 377, 389, 398,
411.

,, Bdquilateralis, 180, 214.

„ bulloides, 77, 98, 110, 129, 130, 134,
15.5, 163, 164, 165, 180, 213, 214,
200.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

509

Glohigerina conglohata, 155, 180, 214.

„ cretacea, 214.

„ digitata, 214.

„ duhia, 155, 163, 180, 214.

„ dutertrei, 163, 165, 214, 261.

„ inflata, 116, 117, 136, 163, 164, 165, 180,
214.

„ pachyderma, 260.

„ rubra, 94, 164, 214.

,, sacculifera, 100, 155, 214.

Globigerina Kmestone of Malta, 254.

„ Ooze, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, 186, 189,

213-223.

,, - „ analyses of, 218-222, 437-447.

,, ,, area of, 222-223, 248.

„ ,, average composition of, 218.

„ „ average depth of, 214-215, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 215-216.

„ „ distribution of, 222-223.

„ ,, fauna living on, 218.

,, ,, fine washings in, 217.

„ „ Foraminifera in, 214.

„ ,, mineral particles in, 217.

„ „ organic substance in, 222.

„ „ rate of deposition of, 411, 412.

„ „ siliceous organisms in, 216-217.

Globigerinidae, 34-146, 213, 216, 225, 230, 289.
QloUoeephalus, 179, 271, 272, 275, 347, 364, 495.
Globules, chondritic, 330.

,, magnetic, 328.

Globulites, 313.

Gneiss, 158, 164, 211, 300, 318, 322, 323, 325, 383,
389.

Gneissic rocks, 361, 384.

Goonong Api, 99.

Gorgonia, 119, 178.

Gorgonoid Corals, 61, 153, 154, 342, 343.

Graham Island, 293.

Graham’s Land, xxii.

Granite, 162, 163, 195, 211, 300, 318, 322, 323, 348,
38.3, 389, 407.

Granitic rocks, 326, 361, 384.

Granitite, 211.

Granton Marine Station, 373.

Gravenoire, 406.

“Gravier,” 186.

Great Barrier Reef of Australia, 386.

Great Britain, xxii.

Green earth, 388.

„ hornblende, 396.

Greenland, xxvi, 334.

Green Mud, 186, 236-240.

„ analyses of, 239-240, 449.

„ area of, 240, 246.

„ average composition of, 238.

„ average depth of, 237, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 237.

„ distribution of, 240.

„ fine washings in, 239.

„ mineral particles in, 238.

„ rate of deposition of, 411.

,, siliceous organisms in, 238.

Green Sand, 236-240.

,, analyses of, 239-240, 449.

,, area of, 240, 248.

,, average composition of, 239.

,, average depth of, 239, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 239.

,, distribution of, 240.

„ fine washings in, 239.

,, mineral particles in, 239.

„ rate of deposition of, 411.

,, siliceous organisms in, 239.

Greensand, xxiv, xxviii, 396, 397.

“Grey Clay,” 186.

“Grey Ooze,” 191.

Guignet, E., 389.

Guinea coast, deposits off, 152.

Gulf of California, 250.

Gulf of Penas, deposits between Sandy Point and,

132-135, 182.

,, deposits between Valparaiso and,

132-133, 181-182.

Gulf Stream, xxiv, xxv, xxvi.

Gtimbel, C. W., xxvi, 186, 372, 373, 387, 388, 472.

Gunther, A., 267, 268.

Guppy, H. B., xxix.

Gypsum, 21, 409.

Haeckel, E., 205, 207, 250, 251, 283.

Halifax, deposits between Bermuda and, 50-53,
151-152.

,, rock fragments obtained between Bermuda
and, 322.

Halimeda, 257.

Haplophragmium, 35, 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53,
55,57,61,63,91,101,103,145.
„ agglutinans, 105.

,, canariensis, 111.

,, globigeriniforme, 109, 204.

„ latidorsatum, 109, 113, 117, 119,

121.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

.’)10

Harbour of St. Vincent, deposit in, 154.

Harmattnn winds, 147, 150, 154, 195.

Hannotone, 402.

Harrington, Captain, 294.

Harrison, J. R, xxix, 189.

" Hassler,” the, 30.

Ifantujeri}ia, 155, 167, 260.

„ j^elwjica, 214, 261, 202.

Hanshofer, K., 386.

Hansinanite, 369.

Havei-sian canals, 275.

Hawaii, deposits between Tahiti and, 178-179.

Heard Island, deposits between Melbourne and,
78-83, 163-164.

„ deposits off, 78-79, 162-163.

„ rock fragments obtained between i\Iel-

bourne and, 322.

Hebrides Islands, xxiii.

Heniatised olivine, 312.

Hematite, 21, 316, 326.

,, brown, 21.

„ red, 21, 25.

Jlemiaithis antarcticus, 210.

Ilemipridix, 269, 270.

Hen.sen, V., 251, 252.

Hercules, Pillars of, xvi.

Herodotus, xvi.

Hetcropods, 31, 36-146, 215, 216, 223, 224, 225, 244,
266-267, 365, 389.

Ileierostegina, 93, 263.

„ complanata, var. granulosa, 97, 172.
Hcxactinellida, 194, 284, 286.

Hexactinellid spicules, 284, 286, 344.

Hilgartl, E. W., 197, 228, 287.

Hill.scheid, Oligocene clay of, 199.

Hilo Lay, deposit in, 118-119.

Hinde, G. J., 189.

History of Oceanography, xiii-xxviii.

Hiza, city of, xviii.

Hoek, P. I*. C., 265.

HoloplankUmic, 261, 266.

HolosideriU-s, 330.

Holothurians, 101, 181, 194.

„ excreta of, 254.

IloUenia, 284.

Hondt, Pierre de, xix.

Hong Kong, deposits lietween Philippines and,
100-101, 173- 174.

Hong Kong Harbour, dejxwit in, 100-101.

Honolulu, deposits off, 118 119.

Honolulu Harljour, dciswit in, 118-119, 178.

Hooke, R., xiv.

Hooker, J. D., xxi, xxii, xxiii, 208.

Honnosina carpenten, 115.

Hornblende, 19, 217, 226, 231, 238, 243, 296, 313,
316, 317, 320, 322, 34.3, 353, 374, 383.

„ basaltic, 319.

,, common, 325.

,, green, 322, 326, 396.

Hornblendic andesite, 300, 313.

Hornung, M., 27, 434, 444-446.

Horses’ teeth, fluorine in, 495.

Hoyle, W. E., 267.

Humboldt, F. H. A. von, xxi.

Humboldt Bay, deposits in, 104-105, 174.
Humphreys, A. A., 228, 287.

Hunt, T. Sterry, 386.

Huxley, T. H., xxv, xxvi, 190, 254.

Hyalodiscus radiatus, var. arctica, 210.

Hgalonema, 121.

„ sieholdi, 286.

Hydra sounding machine, 2, 3.

Hydrate of iron (see Iron).

Hydrate of manganese (see Manganese).

Hydrated silicate of alumina, 338, 374, 408.
Hydrocorallinse, 264.

Hydrogen, 255, 338.

,, sulphuretted, 253, 256.

Hydrographer of the Admiralty, ix, 30.

Hydroids, 93, 181, 346, 349, 350, 354, 360.
Hydroxide of iron (see Iron).

„ manganese (see Manganese).

Hymenaster echinulatus, 181.

Hyperammina, 37, 41, 95, 107.

„ ramosa, 123.

„ vagans, 107, 111, 125, 129, 133, 174.

Hypersthene, 22, 319, 332.

lanthina, 68, 73, 106, 107, 112, 115, 174, 225.

„ rotnndata, 267.

Ibn Khaldoun, xiv.

Ice, floating, 292, 321, 322, 323.

Ice-Barrier, 163, 164, 209, 211.

Icebergs, 195, 322, 323, 324, 325.

Ice-borne fragments of rocks, 152, 195,348,359,361,384,
Iceland, xv, xxii, 307, 310, 314, 334, 406.

Idar, 406.

Illustration.s, list of, xii.
llmenite, 21.

Imj)erfect casts, 32, 35-147, 390- 391.

Inaccessible Island (.see Tristan da Cunlia).

Indian Ocean, xiii.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

511

• India-Rubber, Gutta-percha, and Telegraph Works
Co.’s ships, xxviii, 8, 30.

Inland Sea, deposits in, 110-111, 176.

Instruments employed in obtaining deposits, 1.

“ International,” the, 8, 30.

Introduction, xiii-xxix.

“ Investigator,” the, 30.

Ireland, 334.

Iron, 24, 194, 295, 310, 316, 320, 326, 328, 329, 330,

338, 339, 341, 347, 348, 350, 356, 366, 367,

369, 374, 381, 384, 388, 389, 390, 391, 394,

401, 402, 403, 404, 408, 409, 417.

„ carbonate of, 306.

„ determination of, 28.

,, magnetic, 301, 327, 328, 330, 334, 343, 374, 377.
,, „ titaniferous, 332.

„ meteoric, 328, 329, 330.

,, native, 328, 334, 335.

„ „ cobaltiferous, 334.

„ „ nickeliferous, 334.

„ oxide (see Iron).

„ peroxide (see Iron).

,, titanic, 327, 329, 374, 377.

Irvine, Robert, x, 217, 228, 255, 256, 262, 278, 286,
287, 288, 289, 339, 340, 372, 373, 399, 400.
Isis, 68.

Islands of Flanders, xv.

Isobathic curves, xv.

Issel, A., 186.

Italy, XX.

Japan, 382.

„ deposits between Admiralty Islands and,

106-111, 175-176.

„ deposits between Sandwich Islands and,

112-119, 177-178.

„ deposits off, 110-113, 176-177.

Japan Stream, 113.

Jasper, 22.

Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, xxiii, xxvii. t

Jones, E. J., 377.

Juan Fernandez, 405.

„ „ deposits in vicinity of 181.

Jukes-Browne, A. J., xxix, 189.

Jurassic formations, 384.

Kamchatka Sea, xxiii.

Kaolin, 25, 322, 325, 338.

KaoUnised felspar, 53, 67, 69, 71, 75, 101, 111, 137.

„ orthoclase, 383, 389.

Kazwini, xviii.

Keratosa, deep-sea, 121.

Kerguelen Island, deposits off, 78-79, 162.

Kessler, M., 471.

Khaldoun, Ibn, xiv.

Ki Islands, deposits between Arrou Islands and, 170.
King, A., 421.

Kircher, A., xv.

Klement, C., 27, 435, 446, 447, 451, 452.

“Knight Errant,” the, 251.

Knorr, M., xx.

Kogia, 179, 271, 272.

Krakatoa, 294, 314.

Kressenberg, 386.

Krithe producta, 265.

Kryokonit, 334.

Labrador, xxvi.

,, • current, 151, 152.

Labradorite, 302.

Lagena, 36, 40, 46, 52, 56, 58, 60, 70, 122, 146.

,, globosa, 263.

,, Ixvis, 126, 263.

„ orhignyana, 90.

,, sulcata, 263.

Lagenidffi, 34-146, 193, 216, 22-5, 230, 289.
Lamellibranchs, 34-146, 194, 216, 225, 230, 267, 289.
Laminarian zone, 188.

Lamna, 115, 178, 179, 268, 269, 270, 347, 350, 353.
Lampoong, Bay of, 294.

Land shells, 253.

Langenbeck, R., 289.

Lapilli, basaltic, 311-313, 343, 357, 405, 408.

,, basaltic and other, 311-314.

„ glassy, 367.

„ palagonitic, 357.

,, volcanic, 357, 368.

Lapparent, A. de, 186.

Lasaulx, A. von, 334.

Lava-beds, 293.

„ flows, 293, 308, 405.

Lavas, 406.

Lead, 377.

„ Buchanan’s improved sounding, 2.

„ cup, 1, 2.

„ deep-sea sounding, 1.

„ valve, 1, 2.

Leading characteristics of deposits from different
localities, 30-32.

Leaves, 97, 101, 103, 172, 253.

Leonardo da Vinci, xviii.

Lepas, 68, 144, 342.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

ol2

Leucite, 311.

Leucoxene, 21.

Ix;viiki\, deposit off, 88-89, 167.

l.A‘ydolt, F., 279.

Lias formations, 334, 384.

“ Lightning,” the, xxvii, 30.

Limaci'na, 266.

„ antarctica, 224.

,, atistraUs, 224. i

,, huHmoides, 224.

„ heliciiia, 224.

„ helicoides, 224.

„ injlata, 224.

„ lesueuri, 224.

„ retroversa, 224.

„ triacantha, 224.

,, trochiformis, 224.

Limburgite, 22, 304, 313.

Lime, carbonate of (see Carbonate of lime).

„ in bones, 275.

Limestone, xxiv, xxviii, 152, 163, 231, 376, 406.

„ compact, 325.

„ crystalline, 323.

,, dolomitic, 322, 325.

„ of Malta, 254.

Limonite, 21, 24, 25, 37, 41, 45, 53, 55, 57, 61, 69, 71,
81, 137, 139, 316, 326, 368, 371, 386.

Lingul®, 398.

Linnffiu.s, C. von, xxi.

Liparite, 296. ;

Liparitic ashes, 319.

„ pumice, 295-296, 313.

„ rocks, 317, 319.

List of illustrations, xii.

Lithium, 418, 469.

Lithophagous Molluscs, 171.

Lithophyllum, 257.

Lithothamnion, 257.

Littoral Benthos, 250.

„ deposits, 185, 186, 187.

„ „ area of, 187, 229, 248.

„ „ composition of, 187.

„ zone, 187, 320, 321, 383, 397.

Lituolidffi, 37-147, 193, 206, 263, 289.

Ix)ch Fyne, manganese deposits in, 365.

Goil, „ „ 365.

,, Ix>ng, ,, ,, .36j.

,, .Strivan, „ ,, 365.

I»ng Ik-nch, Ascension, sancl from, 144-145.

I/st Tiburones Island, xiv.

I»ven, S. L., xxiii.

Ludwig, Prof., 27.

Lyman, T., 265.

Machine, Baillie sounding, 2, 3.

„ Hydra „ 2, 3.

M‘Intosh, W. C., 264.

Ma90udi, xviii.

Macroscopic characters of deposits, 13, 34-146.

„ „ glauconite, 379-381.

„ „ phosphatic concretions,

391-392.

Madeira, deposits between Azores and, 58-61, 153.

,, „ Cape Verdes and, 60-63,

153-154.

„ ,, Gibraltar and, 36-37, 148.

„ „ Tenerife and, 38-39, 149.

„ deposits off, 36, 39, 149.

Madreporaria, 48, 264.

Magellan, F., xiv.

Magellan Strait, deposits in, 132-135, 182.

Magma basalts, felspathic, 304.

Magnesia, determination of, 28.

Magnetic globules, 328.

„ grains, 317.

„ iron, 301, 327, 328, 330, 334, 343, 374, 377.
,, „ titaniferous, 332.

„ oxide, 328, 329, 330.

,, particles, extraction of, 17.

„ spherules, 217, 327-336, 361.

„ „ black, 327-330.

,, „ brown, 330-332.

Magnetite, 21, 217, 226, 238, 243, 296, 297, 304, 310,
312, 316, 317, 319, 320, 325, 326,
327, 328, 329, 332, 333, 343, 353,
356, 374, 381, 383, 388, 385.

„ titaniferous, 21, 331.

Mallenoah Island, 166.

Malta, xxiii.

„ Globigerina limestones of, 254.

Mammalian remains, 270-276.

Manatee bone, 396.

Manganese, 24, 37-147, 194, 217, 226, 295, 300, 301,
302, 30.3, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309,
310, 311, 312, 316, 317, 320, 323, 326,
338, 339, 341-378, 390, 391, 401, 402,
403, 404, 408, 409, 411, 412, 417.

„ determination of, 28.

„ nodules, 9, 29, 32, 120-131, 194, 217, 218,
226, 295, 299, 300, 301, 305, 307,
.308, 309, 310, 328, 329, 333, 338,
341-378, 391, 409, 412.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

513

Manganese nodules, analyses of, 363, 370-371, 417-423,
453, 464-488.

„ ,, chemical composition of, 368-371.

,, ,, microscopic characters of,

367-368.

„ ,, mode of occurrence of, 341-337.

,, ,, origin of, 372-378.

,, ,, qualitative analyses of, 418-419,

468-469.

„ ,, quantitative analyses of, 419-423,

439-470.

,, ,, spectroscopic examination of,

417-418.

„ „ state of oxidation of manganese in,

470-471.

INIanganese ore, hog, 371.

„ peroxide (see Manganese).

Manganite, 369.

Manila, deposits between Hong Kong and, 100-101.

„ „ „ Samboangan and, 98-103.

„ „ off, 100-101.

Manila Harbour, deposit in, 100-101.

ManteU, G. A, xxiv.

Marble, xx.

Marginulina, 46.

Marine deposits in general, 184-188.

„ fauna and flora in general, 249-253.
iMarion Island, deposits between Cape of Good Hope
and, 74-77, 160-161.

,, „ deposits between Crozet Islands and,

76-79, 161.

„ „ deposits off, 76-77, 161.

Marls, xxviii, 384.

Marshall, T. R., 421.

Marsilli, L. F. comte de, xix.

Marsipella, 263.

Massa Island, xxi.

]\Iaterials available, 29,

,, derived directly from the solid crust of the
earth, 291-326.

„ of organic origin in deep-sea deposits,
249-290.

]\Iaury, M. F., xxiv, xxv.

Mean depth (see Average depth).

INIeangis Island, deposits between Admiralty Islands
and, 174.

Mediterranean Sea, xiii, xxii, xxiii, 382.

“Medusa,” the, 251.
jMegasthenes, xviii.

Melbourne, deposits between Heard Island and,
163-164.

(deep-sba deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

Melbourne, deposits between Sydney and, 82-83,

165.

,, deposits between Termination Land and,

80-83.

„ rock fragments obtained between Heard
Island and, 322.

Meldrum, C., 294.

Meroplank tonic, 261.

Mesoplodon, 179, 271, 272, 347.

„ layardi, 271, 272.

Messier Channel, deposits in, 182.

Metallic iron, 356.

„ nuclei of magnetic spherules, 328.
Metamorphic quartzite, 322.

Metasilicate, 432, 463.

Meteoric iron, 328, 329, 330.

,, of Santa-Catarina, 330.

Meteorites, 328, 329, 330, 336.

„ chondres of, 330, 331.

Methodical description of Challenger deposits, 33-147.
Methods of chemical analysis, 27.

,, obtaining deposits, 1.

,, study of deposits, 11.

Meunier, S., 334.

Meynard, M., xviii.

Mezorostral bones of ZipMus, analyses of, 491, 494,
495.

Mica, 21, 217, 226, 231, 318, 322, 325, 354.

„ black, 296, 320, 322, 396.

„ white, 322, 325, 326, 383, 384, 389.

Micaceous sandstone, 211, 322.

Mica-schist, 152, 163, 195, 322, 325, 383, 389.
Microcline, 20, 217, 325, 326.

Microscopes used on board the Challenger, 1 1 .
Microscopic characters of glauconite, 381-382.

,, ,, manganese nodules,

367-368.

,, ,, phosphatic concretions,

393-395.

„ examination of deposits, 14, 27.

Miliolid®, 34-146, 193, 216, 225, 230, 289.

Miliolina, 34, *38, 44, 46, 50, 52, 54, 56, 58, 60, 62, 64,
66, 70, 72, 74, 80, 84, 98, 100, 102, 106,
114, 116, 117, 142, 144, 146, 162, 165,
193.

,, seminuluni, 130, 134, 263.

„ venusta, 104.

Millepora, 78, 144, 145.

Milne-Edwards, M., xxii.

Mindanao Island, deposit off, 172.

Mineral associations of glauconite, 383-384,

67

'1

m

:)14

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Afincr.ils, 1

of,

Mineral asi50ciations of pliillipsite crystals, 405.

„ „ phosphatic concretions,

395-397.

-Mineral particles, 25, 31, 35-147.

clilliculties in cletcrniining, 19.
examination of, 18.
in Blue !Miul, 231.

„ Coral Mud, 245.

,, Coral Sand, 246.

„ Diatom Ooze, 211.

„ fine washings, 25.

„ Globigerina Ooze, 217.

„ Green Mud, 238.

„ Green Sand, 239.

„ Pteroj)od Ooze, 226.

,, Kadiolarian Ooze, 206.

„ Red Clay, 195, 196.

,. Red Mud, 235.

,, Volcanic Mud, 241.

„ Volcanic Sand, 243.

18, 35-147.

„ diagnostic characters of, 19-23.

,, amphibolic, 374.

„ continental, 324-326.

„ „ diagnostic characters

325-320.

„ pcridotic, 374.

,, p}Toxenic, 374.

„ volcanic, 318-320, 340, 369, 373
406.

„ „ diagnostic characters of, 319.

„ derived directly from the continental masses,
321-320.

„ derived directly from the solid crust of the
earth, 291-320.

„ derived from the disintegration of continental
rock.s, 324-320.

Mineral sulwhinces of extni-terrestrial origin, 327-330.

„ „ terrestrial origin, 291-327.

.Minto, Lord, xxi.

.Minute particles in water, suspension and deposition
of, 196.

Mfsle of fonnation of glauconite, 385-391.

„ ,, ])hiUipsitc crystals, 405-411.

,, „ phosphatic concretions,

397-400.

„ fjecurrencc of glauconite, 379-381.

,, „ manganese nodule.s, 341-307.

“ .Mislifiisl fHobigerinn Ooze,” 186.

“ M<»difi«sl Pteroi»rMl Ooze,” 186.

M'llluj**;, egg-cai>Hule of, 313.

403,

Mollusca, xxiii, 14, 26, 31, 36, 39, 41j 45, 47, 49, 50,
59, 61, 88, 89, 111, 143, 145, 244, 277,
285.

„ lithophagous, 171.

„ pelagic, 26, 31 (see Pteropods and Heteropods),

^lolucca Passage, deposits in, 172.

Monaco, Prince Albert de, 11.

Monaxonida, 194.

Monaxonid spicules, 284.

Moncoeur Island, deposits between Melbourne and, 165.
Monera, xxv, xxvi.

Monoclinic felspar, 319, 325.

,, pyroxene, 319, 326, 332.

Monte Video, deposits off, 138-139, 159.

Moro, Ant. Lazzaro, xix.

Moseley, H. N., 264.

Mud-line, 185, 229, 252, 321, 383, 390.

Mulgrave, Lord, xv.

Murray, John, ix, x, xxiii, xxvi, xxviii, xxix, 11, 29,
186, 190, 191, 194, 203, 205, 208, 217, 223,

228, 248, 251, 252, ‘253, 254, 255, 256, 262,

263, 264, 277, 278, 280, 282, 286, 287, 288,

289, 294, 323, 327, 339, 340, 344, 365, 372,

373, 396, 397, 417, 431, 456.

Muscovite, 22, 324, 325.

Myriochele, 45.

“ Myrmidon,” the, 30.

Nares Harbour, deposits in, 106-107, 174-175.
Nares’ North Polar Expedition, 30.

“ Nassau,” the, 30.

Nassellaria, 205, 283, 284.

Native iron, 328, 334, 335.

,, cobaltiferous, 334.

„ nickeliferous, 334.

Nautilus, XX.

Nautilus heccarii, xx.

Navicula sultilis, 210.

Nchring, A., xviii.

Neocomian formation, 384.

Nepheliue, 311.

Neritic Benthos, 250.

,, Plankton, 251, 281.

Newfoundland, xxiv, xxv.

„ Banks of, 152.

New Guinea, deposits between Admiralty Islands and,
100-107, 174.

„ deposits between Samlmangan and,

102-105.

„■ deposits off, 174.

New Hebrides, 382.

‘ I

,0 I,

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

New Hebrides, deposits between Fiji Islands and,

88-91, 167-168.

,, deposits between Raine Island and,

90-93, 168-169.

New Jersey, xxiii, 386.

New Zealand, dejrosits between Sydney and, 84-87,
166.

„ ,, deposits betweenTongatabu and, 86-87,

166.

„ „ deposits off, 86-87, 166.

Niafou Island, 296.

Nickel, 328, 329, 330, 365, 368, 369, 371, 377.
Nickeliferous native iron, 334.

Nickles, M., 495.

Nicolson, H. A., 189.

Nightingale Island, deposits off, 157.

Nile, River, xvi.

Nitrogen, 255.

Nitrogenous organic matter, 254, 256, 398, 489.
Nitzschia constrida, var. aniardiea, 210.

Nodoisaria, 46, 354.

„ _farcimen, 263.

Nodules, glauconitic, 32.

„ manganese (see Manganese nodules).

„ phosphatic (see Pliosphatic concretions).

„ septarian, 375.

Nonionina, 34, 36, 40, 50, 52, 56, 106, 130.

„ scapula, 134.

,, umhilicatula, 102, 106, 108, 114, 120, 122,

124, 126, 128, 130, 132, 134, 263.
Nordenskiold, N., 334.

North America (see America).

,, ,, deposits off, 151, 152.

North Polar Expedition, 30.

Norway, xv.

Norwegian North Atlantic Expedition, 30.

„ Sea, 183, 223.

Nova Scotia, deposits between Bermuda and, 50-53.
NummuUna, 46.

Nummuhnidse, 34-146, 193, 206, 216, 225, 230, 289.

Obsidian, 299, 314, 456, 457.

Oceanic Plankton, 251, 281.

Oceanography, history of, xiii-xxviii.

Oersted, A. S., xxii.

Offenbach, plastic clay of, 199.

Oligoccne clay of Hillscheid, 199.

Olivine, 22, 15.5, 217, 226, 243, 296, 297, 300, 301,
303, 305, .307, 310, 311, 312, 313, 316,
319, 320, 326.

„ hematiscd, 312.

5] 5

Olivine rocks, 325.

Oneiwphanta mutabilis, 181.

Opal, 207, 212, 28-5, 406, 407, 410.

Opliiomusium lijmani, 181.

Opliiotholia suppUcans, 181.

Opihiuroidea, 194, 265.

Oran, xxi.

Orhiculma, 154.

OrlitoUtes, 63, 87, 93, 98, 166, 263.

„ complanata, 89.

OrluKna, 77, 81, 97, 161, 165, 167, 168, 172, 180,
182, 260.

„ unicersa, 164, 165, 180, 214, 259.

“ Orbulina ooze,” 9.

Ore, bog manganese, 371.

Organic associations of glauconite, 383-384.

„ materials in deep-sea deposits, 249-290.

„ matter, 35, 37, 49, 6-3, 67, 73, 75, 77, 79, 83,
87, 89, 93, 137, 145, 147, 161, 222, 236,
254, 255, 256, 381, 383, 388, 394, 395,
398, 489.

„ remams, relative frequency of, 288-289.

„ rocks, 318.

„ substances in fine washings, 25.

Organisms, calcareous, 257-280.

,, changes produced by, 254-256.

„ siliceous, 281-288.

Origin of glauconite, 385-391.

„ manganese nodules, 372-378.

,, phiUipsite crystals, 405-411.

,, phosphatic concretions, 397-400.

Orinoco, River, 234.

Orthoclase, 20, 318, 322, 325, 383, 384, 389, 457.

„ kaolinised, 383, 389.

Orthosilicate, 432, 463.

Oscillatorise, 176.

Ostracodes, xxvi, 26, 31, 34-146, 209, 216, 225, 230,
265, 289.

Otodus, 269.

Otoliths of cod, analysis of, 268, 496.

„ fish, 14, 26, 34-146, 216, 225, 267, 268,
269, 289, 357, 358, 367.

Oxide, magnetic, 328, 329, 330.

Oxide of iron (see Iron).

,, manganese (see Manganese).

Oxygen, 255, 256.

Oxij gurus Iceraudrenii, 224.

,, rangii, 224.

Oxgrhina, 178, 179, 268, 269, 270, 353, 489.

,, trigonodon, 269.

Oyster shells, 96.

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER

.)IG

I’acific Ocean, xiv.

,, deposits in, 165-182.

„ manganese in deposits of, 348-364.

I’aduan mount^iins, .\ix.

Poffiiriis, 58, 73.

I’alagonite, 41, 43, 47, 61, 63, 65, 67, 73, 81, 83, 91,
99, 101, 105, 107, 109, 113, 115, 117,
119, 121, 123, 125, 127, 129, 131, 133,
147, 194, 203, 217, 243, 299-300, 301,
302, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310,
312, 313, 316, 317, 319, 320, 342, 345,
346, 347, 353, 355, 357, 360, 361, 362,
363, 365, 368, 389, 408, 412.

„ analyses of, 307, 456-458, 463.

I’alagonitic lapilli, 357.

,. tufas, 307-311, 357.

Palm fruits, 99.

Palma Island, deposit off, 153.

Pantopelta icosa^pis, 205.

Papiete Harbour, deposit in, 122-123.

Papua (see New Guinea).

Pearcey, F. G., x, 14, 18.

Pebbles, 218, 238, 313, 322, 323, 324, 359, 361.

„ basaltic, 364.

„ volcanic, 364.

Pechsteins, 303.

Pecten, 139.

Pelagic deposits, xxviii, xxix, 185, 186, 188,

189-228.

,, ,, area of, 248.

„ ,, rate of deposition of, 411, 412.

,, fauna, 252.

,, flora, 252.

,, Foraininifera, 15, 31, 213-214, 259-263.

„ Mollusca (see Pteropods and Heteropods).

„ Plankton, 251, 257, 259, 266, 280.

Peloeina, 263.

Pelseneer, P., 224, 256, 266.

Penck, A., 298, 307.

Penguins, 323.

Perarlis bigpinom, 224.

,, reticulata, 224.

Peridotic minerals, 374.

,, rocks, 326.

Peridotite, 326.

Periotic Ixuies (see P^irlxnies).

Peniambuco, deposits between Bahia and, 68-71, 156.
>• II ,1 h'ernando Noronha and,

66-69, 156.

Peroxide of iron (see Iron).

„ manganese (see Manganese).

Peroxide-oxygen in manganese nodules, 420-421.
Petrous bones (see Earbones).

Phaeodaria, 205, 283, 284.

Pharmacosiderite, 347.

Pheroncma, 284.

Philippine Islands, 382.

,, ,, deposits in passages among, 173.

PhiUipsite, 120-131, 178, 195, 217, 306, 309, 328,
333, 357, 358, 359, 362, 365, 378, 400-411.
PhiUipsite crystals, analyses of, 404, 405, 431-433,
460-462.

„ „ chemical composition of,

404-405.

,, „ distribution of, 405.

,, „ mineral associations of, 405.

„ ,, mode of formation of, 405-4:11.

,, „ physical characters of, 401-404.

Phlogopite, 21.

Phoenicians, xiii.

Phonoliths, 406.

Phosphate of ammonia, 400.

,, calcium concretions, 238.

„ lime, 380, 383, 391-399.

Phosphates, alkaline, 399.

„ ammoniacal, 399.

Phosphatic concretions, 32, 160, 161, 217, 218, 237,

238, 338, 343, 379, 383,
391-400, 411, 412.

„ „ analyses of, 392, 393, 451, 452.

„ „ chemical composition of,

392- 393.

„ „ distribution of, 395-397.

,, „ macroscopic characters of,

391-392.

,, „ microscopic characters of,

393- 395,

,, „ mineral associations of,

395-397.

„ „ mode of formation of,

397-400.

„ fossils, 395.

,, limestones, xxviii.

,, nodules (see l’ho.sphatic concretions).

Phosphoric acid, 275, 399, 400.

Phosijhorites, 397.

Phosphorus, 255.

Phyllitic matter, 315.

Physetcrmacrocephalw, 276.

Pico, deposits between Fayal and, 58-59, 153.

„ ,, iSan Miguel and, 153.

PicoLite, 22.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

517

Pigaffetta, M., xv.

Pillars of Hercules, xvi.

Pilulina, 263.

Placopsilina huUa, 105.

Placostegns bentlialianus, 264,

„ challengerise, 264.

„ ornatiis, 264.

Plagioclase, 20, 217, 226, 231, 243, 296, 297, 300,

301, 302, 305, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 316,

317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 325, 343, 349, 383.

Plancus, J., XX,

Plankton, 251.

,, abyssal, 251.

,, bathybial, 251.

„ neritic, 251, 281.

,, oceanic, 251, 281.

„ pelagic, 251, 257, 259, 266, 280.

,, zonary, 251.

Planktonic, 252.

Plants, 95, 97, 99, 101, 103, 107, 111, 159, 172.

Plata, Rio de la (see Rio de la Plata).

Plateau surrounding Tristan da Cunha group, 157.
Plato, xvi.

Pleurocorallium johnsoni, 342, 465.

Plombieres, 401, 402, 407, 410.

Plutarch, xiv.

Plutonic rocks, 314.

“ Plutonic tallies,” xxv.

Poggendorf, J. C., xiv.

Pol4jaeff, N., 264.

Poliopogon amadou, 41, 284, 285, 342.

„ gigas, 166, 284.

Polybius, xiii, xvi.

Polyps, XX, 343.

Polystomella, 36, 40, 48, 154.

Pohystomidium patens, 181.

Polytrema, 38, 59, 95, 97, 98, 153, 156.

„ miniaceum, 59.

,, rubra, 144.

Polyzoa, 14, 31, 34-146, 161, 193, 194, 215, 216,
225, 244, 265, 289, 354.

“ Porcupine,” the, xxvii, 9, 30, 284.

Porphyries, 407.

Porphyritic rocks, 326.

Porpoise, earbones of, 272.

Port Jackson, deposits in, 82-83.

Portugal, 382.

Posidonius, xiii.

Possession Bay, xv, 334.

Post-Tertiary volcanic rocks, 314.

Potash, determination of, 28.

Potassium, 418.

Pouchet, G., 255.

PourtaRs, L. F. de, xxiv, xxvii, 382.

JPrecipitations, atmospheric, 334, 335.

Preface, ix.

Pre-Tertiary rocks, 314.

Primary formations, glauconite in, 384.

Prince Edward Island, deposits off, 161 (see Marion
Island).

Protoxide of iron, determination of, 28.

PsammospliBera, 263.

Psilomelane, 369, 371.

Pteropoda, 31, 36-146, 215, 216, 223, 224, 225, 240,
244, 258, 262, 266-267, 289, 365.

Pteropod Ooze, xxix, 186, 189, 223-228.

,, analyses of, 226-227, 447-448.

„ area of, 227-228, 248.

,, average composition of, 226.

„ average depth of, 225, 248.

„ distribution of, 227-228.

„ fine washings in, 226.

,, mineral particles in, 226.

,, rate of deposition of, 411, 412.

„ siliceous organisms in, 226.

Ptolemy, xiii.

Piichler, xiv.

Pullenia, 50, 132, 165, 167, 172, 176, 192, 260.

,, obliquiloeulata, 120, 180, 214.

„ quinqueloba, 120, 132.

Pulvinidina, 34-146, 165, 167, 171, 172, 176, 182, 192,
216, 225, 260, 267, 289.

,, canariensis, 130, 180, 214.

,, crassa, 214.

„ favus, 93, 104, 105, 106.

,, menardii, 53, 59, 61, 63, 65, 67, 73, 96,
100, 104, no, 127, 155, 168, 180,
214.

,, mielieliniana, 132, 163, 164, 180, 214.

,, tumida, 120, 122, 155, 180, 214.

Pumice, 32, 37-145, 194, 196, 217, 218, 226, 238,
243, 292, 293, 294-298, 299, 308, 310,
313, 314, 316, 318, 340, 342, 343, 344,

347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354,

355, 357, 359, 361, 364, 367, 369.

,, alteration of, 296.

„ analyses of, 296, 297, 453, 454, 455, 457.

„ andesitic, 296.

,, „ analysis of, 296.

,, basaltic or basic, 295, 298-297, 347, 348,

349, 355.

,, ,, analysis of, 297.

518

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

I’lunicc, decomposition of, 295

„ distribution of, 295.

„ felspathic, 347.

„ liparitic, 205-296, 349, 350.

„ recognition of minute particles of, 25,

297.

„ vesicular, 335.

Putrefaction, 256, 264, 277.

Puy-de-Domc, 406.

Pyrites, 22, 326, 381, 388.

Pyrolusite, 367, 369.

Pyrope, 21.

Pyroxene, 22, 217, 243, 312, 338.

„ monoclinic, 319, 326, 332.

„ rhombic, 296, 313, 319, 326, 332.
Pyroxenic minerals, 374.

QualiUrtive analyses of manganese nodules, 418-419,

468- 469.

(j>uantitative analyses of manganese nodules, 419-423,

469- 470.

Quartz, 22-23, 25, 32, 217, 226, 231, 238, 241, 296,
313, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 322, 324,
325, 326, 365, 381, 384, 389, 39-3, 396,
407.

„ vein, 23, 326.

Quartziferous dioritc, 163.

(^tuartzite, xxviii, 152, 163, .231, 322, 323.

„ metamorphic, 322.

Q>uatemary period, 322.

Quebec group of rocks, 384.

QuLstenthal, Devonian dolomitic clay of, 199.

Kadiolaria, xxi, xxiii, xxvi, 18, 2.3, 37-147, 258, 263,
281, 233-284, 289, 355, 357,
391.

,, composition of .skeletons of, 205.

„ in Kadiolarian Ooze, 205.

„ solution in sea-water of, 205.

Kadiolarian Ooze, .xxix, .31, 186, 189, 203-208
„ ,, analyses of, 206-208, 435-4.36

,, „ area of, 208, 248.

„ „ average composition of, 206.

„ „ average depth of, 206, 248.

„ „ carbonate of lime in, 206.

„ ,, distribution of, 208.

,, „ fine wa-shings in, 206.

„ „ mineral particles in, 206.

„ „ Kadiolaria in, 205.

„ „ rate of dcjiosition of, 412.

„ „ siliceous organisms in, 206

Raine Island, 379.

„ deposits between New Hebrides and,
90-93, 168-169.

„ „ off, 92-93, 169-170.

“ Rambler,” the, 30.

Rammelsberg, C. F., 457.

Rai-e elements in manganese nodules, 417-423.

Rate of depo.sition in relation to secondary chemical
products, 411-412.

„ ,, of Blue Mud, 411.

,, „ „ Coral Mud, 411.

„ „ ,, Coral Sand, 411.

,, ,, „ Diatom Ooze, 412.

„ „ ,, glauconitic deposits, 411.

„ „ ,, Globigerina Ooze, 411, 412.

„ ,, „ Green Mud, 411.

,, ,, „ Green Sand, 411.

„ ,, ,, pelagic deposits, 411, 412.

„ ,, ,, Pteropod Ooze, 411, 412.

,, ,, ,, Radiolarian Ooze, 412-

„ „ „ Red Clay, 412.

,, ,, „ terrigenous deposits, 411.

„ ,, „ Volcanic Mud, 411.

„ „ „ Volcanic Sand, 411.

Rate of fall of organisms in sea-water, 278.

Rattray, John, 282.

Recent age of deposits, 315.

„ marine formations in general, 184-188.

,, volcanic minerals in general, 318-320.

„ „ products, 292-320.

Recognition of minute particles of pumice, 25,
297.

Red

Red

Clay, xxix, 31, 186, 189, 190-203.

„ analyses of, 197-202, 425-435.

,, area of, 202-203, 248.

„ average composition of, 197.

,, avej-age depth of, 190, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 193.

„ distribution of, 202-203.

„ fine Ava.sliings in, 196-197.

„ mineral particles in, 195-196.

„ rate of deposition of, 412.

„ siliceous organisms in, 193.

^lud, 186, 234-236.

„ analyses of, 2.35, 236, 444-445.

„ area of, 236, 248.

„ average composition of, 235.

,, average depth of, 234, 248.

,, carbonate of lime in, 234.

,, distribution of, 236.

„ fine washings in, 235.

h

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

519

Red ilud, mineral particles in, 235.

,, siliceous organisms in, 234.

Red sandstone, 322.

Reefs, coral, 289-290.

,, soil of, 294.

Regnard, P., 256.

Reid, W. G., 278.

Relation of secondary chemical products to rate of
deposition in deposits, 411-412.

Relative frequency of organic remains, 288-289.
Remarks on variation of deposits with change of con-
ditions, 148-182.

Renaissance, xiv.

Renard, A.F.,ix,s, 27, 186, 190, 294, 327, 373, 434, 436,
437, 445, 446, 449, 451, 454, 455, 461, 464,
487.

Rendall, S. M., 294.

Reophax, 43, 107, 131.

,, difflugiformis, 133.

„ nodulosa, 99, 113, 115.

„ spicuUfera, 103.

Residue, 14, 16, 17, 35-147.

„ farinaceous aspect of, 14.

„ grain of, 14.

,, plasticity of, 14.

Retention of salts in deposits, 236.

Reuss, A. E., 387.

Rhabdammina, 35, 47, 51, 53, 55, 91, 113.
“Rhahdammina Clay,” 186.

Rhahdoliths, 15, 31, 34-146, 215, 216, 225, 230, 240,
258, 289.

Rhahdospheres, 215, 257-258, 262.

RMzammina, 101, 125.

„ alg^formis, 105, 107, 109, 117, 123,

125, 127, 13.3, 172.

Rhizopods, 350, 354, 356, 360, 362, 394, 396, 399
(see Eoraminifera and Radiolaria).

Rhizosolenia, 282.

„ furcata, 210.

,, styliformis, 210.

Rhombic pyroxene, 243, 296, 313, 319, 326, 332.
Ridley, H. N., 285.

Rimini, xx.

Rio de la Plata, 159.

„ deposits between Ascension and,

159.

,, ,, „ Falkland Islands and,

136-139, 158-159.

,, deposits between Tristan da Cunha

and, 138-143.

„ deposits off, 138-139.

Rivers of Brazil, 156.

Rock fragments, 170-171, 366.

„ continental, 321-324.

,, ice-borne, 152.

Rocks and minerals derived directly from the conti-
nental masses, 321-326.

Rocks, amygdaloid, 406, 407.

„ ancient, 300, 322.

„ basaltic, 304, 334, 361, 364, 406, 407, 408,
409.

,, clastic, 292, 318.

„ crystalline, 292, 318, 325, 400, 406, 407,
409.

„ gneissic, 361.

,, granitic, 326, 361.

„ liparitic, 319.

,, olivine, 325.

,, organic, 318.

„ peridotic, 326.

,, Plutonic, 314.

„ porphyritic, 326.

„ Post-Tertiary, 314.

,, Pre-Tertiary, 314.

„ schisto-crystalline, 292, 318, 325, 326.

„ schistose, xxviii, 325, 326.

,, Tertiary, 314.

„ tufaceous, 400.

„ vesicular, 407.

,, volcanic, 340, 343, 360, 368, 369, 372, 373,
374, 377, 400, 402, 403, 406, 407, 409.
Rockall, xxvi.

Roman bricks, 401, 407.

„ concretes, 401, 407.

Roots of trees, 321.

Rose, a, 329.

Ross, Sir James Clark, xv, xxi, 209.

„ J. G., 268, 496.

„ Sir John, xv.

Ross’ Antarctic Expedition, 30.

Rossella antarctica, 79, 284, 286.

Rotalia, 48, 93, 100, 102, 106, 110, 170.

,, soldanii, 104, 108, 263.

RotalidiB, 34-146, 193, 206, 216, 22-5, 230, 289.

Roth, J., 199.

Rudolph, E., 293.

“ Rupert’s drops,” 298.

Rurutu Island, 359.

Russia, 384.

Rutile, 23, 322, 326, 401.

“ Sable vaseux,” 186.

520

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Sagonite, 23.

Sahara, 324.

Saline deposits, 187
SaJpie, 258.

Salts retained in deposits, 23G.

Salzbergen, "NVealden clay of, 199.

Samlwang-.m, deposits between Amboina and, 98-99.
,, „ ,, ^Manila and, 98-103.

,, „ „ New Guinea and,

102-105.

Sandstone, .xxviii, 57, 81, 158, 162, 163, 231, 322, 406.
,, chloritic, 211, 322.

,, micaceous, 211, 322.

„ red, 322.

Sandwich Islands, 400, 405.

,, deposits between Japan and,

112-119, 177-178.

„ deposits between Tahiti and,

118-123, 178-179.

„ deposits off, 118-119, 178.

Sandy Point, deposits between Falkland Islands and,
136-137, 158.

„ deposits between Gulf of Pefias and,

132-135.

Sanidine, 20, 217, 226, 243, 296, 313, 316, 317,
320, 325.

San Miguel, deposits between Pico and, 153.

„ ,, Santa Maria and, 153.

Santa-Catarina, meteoric iron of, 330.

Santa Maria, deposits between San Miguel and, 153.
Santorin Island, 293.

Sarccnlic substance, 399.

Sardinian Sea, xiii.

Sargasso Sca.s, 252.

Sarmiento Channel, dejiosits in, 182.

Sars, M., xxii.

Sartorius von "Waltershausen, 307.

Scale use<l in Diagram.s, 415.

Scales of fi.sh, 80.

Scalpellum, 43, 142, 265, 342, 34.3, 364.

,, ilartcinii, 133, 304.

Scapula of fish, 267.

Schcerer, T., 228.

Schist, 1.58, 211, 318, 32.3.

„ actinolite*, 32.5.

,, argillaceous, 406.

„ crj-stalline, 32.5, 326, 400.

„ mica-, 152, 163, 19.5, 322, 325.

SchisU)id diorite, 163.

Sell istocrystal line rocks, 292, .318, .325, .326, 380.
Schistose rocks, xxviii, 322, 326.

Schizopoda, 251.

Schmelck, L., 186.

Schreibersite, 328.

Schulze, F. E., 205, 285.

„ Fr., 228.

Scopelid fish, 181.

Scoresby, Captain, xv.

Scoriae, 311.

Scoriaceous glass, 309.

Scotland, 382, 406.

Scottish Marine Station, 372, 373.

Seals, 323.

Sea of Azov, xiii, xvi.

„ Kamchatka, xxiii.

Sea Reach, deposit in, 182.

Sea-salts retained in deposits, 236.

Secondary chemical products in relation to rate of
deposition in deposits, 411-412.

„ formations, glauconite in, 384.

Sediment svrspended in fresh and salt water, 228-229.
Sedimentary rocks, 384.

Seeds, 95.

“ Seine,” the, 30.

Seneca, xvii, xviii.

Senft, F., 197.

Separation of calcareous organisms in deposits, 14.
Septarian nodules, 375.

Sericite, 21, 322, 325, 326.

Serpentine, 23, 155, 217, 326.

„ rocks, 152.

Serpentinous substance, 325.

S>i7-pula, 34-136, 151, 153, 156, 157, 160, 163, 172,
174, 175, 216, 289, 343.

„ iMlippensis, 264.

Serpularian, 354.

Serpulidse, 264.

Sesler, L., xix.

Shagi’cen, 350.

Shale, x.xviii, 375.

„ earthy, 163.

Shallowest depth far removed from land, 1 43.
Shallow-water Benthos, 250.

,, deposits, 185, 186, 187-188.

„ „ area of, 187, 229, 248.

,, „ composition of, 187.

„ zone, 187, 320, 321, 383.

Sharks’ teeth, 9, 29, 32, 120-131, 196, 218, 208-270,
310, 333, 341, 342, 34d, 345, 346,
347, 349, 350, 353, 355, 356, 357,
358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 365,
366, 367, 368, 375, 378, 391, 412.

EEPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS,

521

Sharks’ teeth, analyses of, 488-489.

“Shearwater,” the, xxvii.

Shetland Islands, xxiii.

Shields, J., 421.

Shrimps, 181.

Sicily, xxi, 307.

Sided, W. H., 228, 287.

Siebengebirge, 406.

Sienna, 20.

Sieves, 9.

Sigsbee, C. D., 11.

SiUca, xxiv, 22, 23, 25, 205, 286, 374, 376.

„ determination of, 28.

Silicate of alumina, hydrated, 338, 374, 408.

„ iron, xxiv.

„ hme, xxiv.

Silicate spherules, 330-332.

Silicates, alkaline, 408.

Siliceous organisms, 17, 18, 25, 31, 35-147,

281-288

,, „ in Blue Mud, 231.

„ „ ,, Coral Mud, 245.

„ „ „ Coral Sand, 246.

,, ,, „ Diatom Ooze, 209.

,, „ „ fine washings, 25.

,, ,, „ Globigerina Ooze, 216-217.

„ „ „ Green Mud, 238.

„ ,, „ Green Sand, 239.

,, ,, „ Pteropod Ooze, 226.

„ ,, „ Radiolarian Ooze, 206.

,, „ „ Red Clay, 193.

„ „ ,, Red Mud, 234.

,, „ „ Volcanic Mud, 241.

,, „ „ Volcanic Sand, 243.

„ „ solution in sea-water of, 288.

“Siliceous shore deposit,” 186.

Siliceous Sponges, 281, 342, 351, 367.

Silicic acid (see Silica).

Silurian sands, 384.

“ Silvertown,” the, 30.

Simon’s Bay, deposit in, 74-75.

Sipocz, L., 27, 208, 456, 458-461, 463.

Skelmorlie Bank, manganese deposits on, 365.

Skylax of Coryanda, xvi.

Sladen, W. P., 265.

Slags, 332.

Slane, M. le, xiv.

Slate, 211, 322, 401.

Slip water-bottle, 6, 8.

Smith, E. A., 224, 266, 267.

,, Lawrence, 462.

DKEP-SEA DEPOSITS CHALL. EXP. 1891.

Society Islands, 400.

„ deposits between Sandwich Islands and,

178-279.

,, deposits between Valparaiso and,

180-181.

,, deposits off, 179-180.

Soda, determination of, 28.

Soil of coral atolls, 294.

Soldani, A, xx, xxi.

Sollas, W. J., 285.

Solomon Islands, xxix.

Solution of calcareous structures in sea-water, 277, 278,
279, 280.

,, Cetacean bones in sea-water, 270, 276, 277.
„ siliceous organisms in sea-water, 205, 288.
Sombrero, deposits between Tenerife and, 40-45,
149-150.

„ deposits off, 44-45, 150.

Sorby, H. C., 279.

Soi'osplixra, 43.

Sounding and dredging arrangements on board the
Challenger, 12.

Sounding, deepest in the Atlantic, 46-47.

„ „ „ Pacific, 108-109, 175,

204-205.

„ shallowest far from land, 143.

Sounding lead, Buchanan’s improved, 2.

„ cup, 1, 2.

„ ordinary deep-sea, 1.

„ valve, 1, 2.

Sounding machine, Baillie, 2, 3.

„ Hydra, 2, 3.

Sounding tube and water-bottle, Buchanan’s combined,

4,5.

Soundings, first deep, xv.

South America (see America).

„ deposits between Tahiti and, 180-181.

„ „ off, 68-71, 180-182.

South Carolina, xxvii.

South Sea Islands, xxii.

Southern Indian Ocean, deposits in, 160-165.

„ ,, „ manganese in deposits of,

343-348.

Specimens of deposits available, 29-30.

Spectroscopic examination of manganese nodules,
417-418.

Sperm whale, 276.

Sphseroidea, 284.

Spliseroidina, 167, 192, 260, 267.

„ hulloides, 100.

„ dehiscens, 155, 168, 180, 214.

68

522

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Spherolithic globules of phillipsite, 403, 409.
Sphcrosiderites, 375.

Spherules, cosmic, 22, 32, 194, 327-336, 353, 356,
358, 365, 378, 403.

„ magnetic, 217, 327-336, 361.

„ „ black, 327-330.

,, „ brown, 330-332.

with crystalline structure, 330-332.
Spicules of Alcyonaria (see Alcyonarian spicules).

„ Sponges, xxiii, xxvi, 18, 23, 35-147, 263,
284-286, 289, 351.

,, „ calcareou-s, 264.

Spines of Echinoderms, 34-146.

„ on Glohigcrina shells, 173.

Spirit of wine, use of in drying deposits, 11.
Spiroloculina tenuis, 114.

Spitzbergen, xxii.

Sponge spicules (see Spicules of Sponges).

Sponges, xxi, 41, 69, 79, 89, 97, 99, 109, 281, 342,
343, 351, 367, 375.

„ calcareous, 264, 367.

„ siliceous, 281, 342, 351, 367.

Spratt, Captain, xxiii.

Spumellaria, 205, 383.

Spyroidea, 205.

Stanley Harbour, deposit in, 136-137-
Starfishes, 265.

Stas, J. S., 420.

State of oxidation of manganese in manganese nodules,
470-471.

Steno, Nicolaus, xviii.

Stejihanoscyphus, 354.

„ simplex, 105.

Sterry Hunt, T., 386.

Stevenson, T., 185.

Stones, 323, 324, 344.

“ Stork,” the, 30.

Storthosphaei'a, 263.

St. Paul’s Island, xiv.

„ Kofjks, deposits between Cape Verdes and,
64-65, 154-155.

„ „ deposits l.Hitween Fernando Noronha

and, 66-67, 155-156.

,. „ deposits off, 64-67, 155.

.St. Tliomas, deposits Ijctween Kermuda and, 44-49,
150.

«St, Vincent (see Cape Verdes).

„ Harl)our, deposit in, 62-63, 154.

Htralw, xiii, xvi, xvii.

•Strait of .Sunda, 294.

Strrmtium, 418.

Strophonemas, 406.

Studer, T., 264.

Styela hythia, 346.

„ squamosa, 346.

Stylasteridse, 264.

Suabia, 384.

Subaerial eruptions, 292, 293, 299, 314, 318, 406, 408.
Sub-littoi-al zone, 383, 388.

Submarine eruptions, 293, 299, 307, 313, 314, 318,
378, 405, 408.

„ springs, 372, 373, 397.

„ tufas, 310.

„ volcanoes, 375, 376, 412.

,, zeolites, 400-411.

Subsidence of sea-bottom, 168, 177.

Suhm, R V. Willemoes-, 372.

Sulphate of lime, xxvi.

Sulphates, 255, 256, 338.

Sulphide of iron, 409.

Sulphides, 253, 254, 255.

Sulphur, 255.

Sulphuretted hydrogen, 253, 256.

Sulphuric acid, 256.

„ „ in manganese nodules, 421.

Sulu Sea, deposits in, 102-103, 173.

Sunda Strait, 294.

Surface Diatoms, analysis of, 281, 437.

• „ fauna and flora, 164-165, 168, 176.

„ tow-net, 9, 10.

Suspension of clayey matter in water, 196, 228-229,
287, 339, 340.

“ SAvallow,” the, 30.

Sweden, 384.

Sydney, deposits between Melbourne and, 82-83,

165.

„ „ „ New Zealand and, 84-87,

166.

„ „ off, 82-85, 165.

Syenite, 53, 152, 322.

“ Sylvia,” the, 30.

Symbols used in Charts and Diagrams, 413.

Sympagella nux, 286.

Synedra filiformis, 210.

„ lanceolafa, 210.

„ nitzscliioidcs, 210.

Synoptical Tables of Challenger deposits, 33-147.
Syrinyammina fragilissima, 105.

Tables of Challenger deposits, 33-147.

Tachylite, 22.

Tagus, deposit ofT mouth of, 1 48.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

523

Tahiti, deposits between Sandwich Islands and,

118-123, 178-179.

,, ,, ,, Valparaiso and, 124-131,

180-181.

„ „ off, 122-125, 179-180.

„ rock fragments obtained between Valparaiso

and, 322-323.

Talc, 338.

“Talisman,” the, 30.

Technitella, 263.

Teeth of fish, 34-146, 216, 267-270, 289, 367.

„ horses, fluorine in, 495.

„ sharks (see Sharks’ teeth).

“Tegel” of Baden, 199.

Telegraph Construction and Maintenance Co.’s ships,
xxviii, 30.

„ ships, 48.

TeUes, A., 389.

Telluric particles, 334, 335.

Tenerife, deposits between Madeira and, 38-39, 149.

„ „ Sombrero and, 40-45, 149-150.

Tennant & Co., 365.

Terehratula, 76, 78.

Termination Land, deposits between Melbourne and,

80-83.

Terrestrial and extra-terrestrial substances in deep-sea
deposits, 291-336.

Terrigenous deposits, xxviii, 185, 186, 188,

228-248.

,, „ area of, 229, 248.

„ „ rate of deposition of, 411.

„ mineral particles, 324-326.

“ Terror,” the, 208.

Tertiary deposits, 315.

„ formations, glauconite in, 385.

„ strata, 378, 397.

„ volcanic rocks, 314.

Testaceans, xx.

TetractineUid spicules, 284.

Tetrodon, 269, 358.

Textularia, 34, 46, 52, 54, 56, 60, 66, 93, 100, 104,
129, 165, 170, 193.

„ dilatata, 98.

,, sagittula, 105.

Textularidffi, 34-146, 193, 216, 225, 230, 289. .
Thalassionema nitzschiodes, var. lanceolata, 210.
Thalassiothrix longissima, var. antarctica, 210.
Thallium, 371, 377, 418.

Thallophytes, 184.

Thomson, C. Wyville, ix, xxiii, xxvii, xxviii, 29, 190,
191, 253.

Thomson, Sir William, xvi.

Thoulet, J., 11, 186, 207, 285, 337.

Thurammina papillata, 129.

Tiburones, Los, xiv.

Tides, 292, 321, 409.

Tigris, River, xviii.

Tionfolokker Islands, deposit off, 94-95.

Tissandier, G., 334.

Titanic iron, 327, 329, 374, 377.

Titaniferous magnetite, 331.

Titanium, 418.

Tizard, Captain, xxiii, 251.

Tongatabu, deposits between New Zealand and, 86-87,
166.

„ „ off, 86-89, 166-167.

Torres Strait, deposits in, 92-93.

Tourmaline, 23, 195, 217, 231, 238, 320, 322, 324,
326, 383.

Tow-net, 9, 10.

Traehysphenia australis, var. antarctica, 210.

Trachyte, 296, 311.

Trachytic ashes, 313.

„ cinders, 313.

„ tufa, 174.

“Transition Clay,” 186.

Transitional Area, xxviii.

Trawl, beam, 8, 9.

Trees, 321, 348.

Trias of Scotland, 406.

Triassic strata, 334.

Trichi tes, 313.

Triclinic felspar, 319, 325.

Trinidad Channel, deposit in, 182.

Trinity Bay, xxv.

“ Tripoli,” xxi.

Tristan da Cunha, deposits between Ascension and,

142-145.

„ deposits between Bahia and,

70-73, 157.

,, deposits between Cape of Good

Hope and, 74-75, 157-158.

„ deposits between Rio de la Plata

and, 138-143.

„ deposits off, 72-73, 157.

„ rocks fragments obtained between

the Cape and, 322.

Tristan plateau, deposits on, 157, 159.

“ Triton,” the, 30, 251, 281.

Trochammina, 41, 47, 53.

,, galeata, 121.

trullissata. 111, 117, 119.

5?

524

THE VOYAGE OF H.M.S. CHALLENGER.

Tropnian anchor used as a dredge, 10, 11.

Truncafulina, 34, 36, 40, 44, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 58, 60,
80, 124.

„ lohafula, 106, 134, 263.

■I pygnima, 42, 90, 91, 104, 106, 108, 110,
112, 116.

„ tenera, 134.

Tscherinak, G., 330, 458.

Tubes of Annelids (see Worm- tubes).

,, Serptila (see Stri-pula).

Tubuai Island, 359.

Tubularian, 354.

Tufa, 153, 181, 293, 307, 308, 342, 366, 406.

„ calcareous, xvii, x.x.

„ i>alagonitic, 307-311, 357.

„ trachytic, 174.

„ volcanic, 329, 358, 359, 364.

Tufaceous andesitic cinders, 313.

„ rocks, 400.

Tunicata, 194, 346.

Tunis, 334.

Tunny, 269, 358.

Turner, Sir W., x, 270, 276, 323.

Turpey, Captain, 294, 295.

Tu.scany, xx.

“ Tuscarora,” the, 30, 208, 209, 236, 290, 365, 379, 405.
Tuncarora belkwipi, 284.

Twigs, 95, 97, 111.

Tympanic bones (see Earbones).

Types of deep-sea deposits, 189-248.

Tyrrhenian Sea, xiii.

United States Coast Survey, xxiii, xxvii.

,, FLsh Commission, 30.

Upper Tertiary sandstones, 406.

Uralitc, 319, 326.

Urinarj' calculi, 367.

Uvigerina, 34, 36, .5.3, 100, 126, 129, 130, 131, 162.

„ asperula, 104, 127, 128.

Valentia, xxiv, xxv.

“ Valorous,” the, 30.

Valjairaiso, dejKiHits betw’ccn Gulf of Penas and,

132-133, 181-182.

„ <lej>osit8 between Tahiti and, 124-131,

180-181.

„ deposits off, 130-131.

„ rock fragments obtained between Tahiti

and, 322-323.

Valve lea<l, 1, 2.

Vanadium, 377.

Vasco di Gama, xiv.

“Vase,” 186.

“Vase calcaire,” 186.

“Vase graveleuse,” 186.

“ Vase sableuse,” 186.

Vegetable matter, 75, 77, 161, 253, 383.

,, organisms, 398.

Vein quartz, 23, 326.

Venturi, G. B., xviii.

Vermilia, 264.

Verneuilina, 50.

» pygmxay 109.

Veronese mountains, xix.

Vertebrae of fish, 86, 112, 267, 268.

Vesicular basalts, 365, 408.

„ pumice, 335.

„ rocks, 407.

Vesuvius, xxii.

Vicentin mountains, xix.

Victoria Barrier, xxi.

„ Land, xxii.

Vinci, Leonardo da, xviii.

Virgin Islands, deposits off, 150.

Volcanic ashes, xxiv, 195, 196, 294, 299, 312,

314-318, 358, 359, 363, 405, 408.

“ Volcanic clay,” 186.

Volcanic debris, 372, 375, 376, 391, 401, 410.

„ dust, 292.

,, flows, 405.

„ glass, 217, 226, 319, 320, 340, 345, 346,

347, 357, 360, 412.

„ „ basic (see Basic volcanic glass).

„ grit, xxviii.

„ lapilli, 333, 357, 368.

„ minerals, 318-320, 340, 369, 373, 383, 403,

406.

„ „ distinctive characters of, 319.

Volcanic Mud, 186, 240-244.

„ analyses of, 243-244, 450.

„ area of, 244, 248.

„ average composition of, 242.

„ average depth of, 241, 248.

„ carbonate of lime in, 241.

„ distribution of, 244.

,, fine washings in, 242.

„ mineral particles in, 241.

,, rate of deposition of, 411.

,, siliceous organisms in, 241.

Volcanic particles, vitreous, 25, 32.

„ pebblc.s, 364.

,, products, recent, 292-320.

REPORT ON THE DEEP-SEA DEPOSITS.

525

Volcanic rocks, 340, 34-3, 360, 368, 369, 372, 373,
374, 377, 383, 397, 400, 402, 403,
406, 407, 409.

,, ,, Post-Tertiary, 314.

,, „ Tertiary, 314.

Volcanic Sand, 240-244.

„ area of, 244, 248.

,, average composition of, 243.

„ average depth of, 242, 248.

,, carbonate of lime in, 242.

„ distribution of, 244.

,, line washings in, 243.

,, mineral particles m, 243.

,, rate of deposition of, 411.

„ siliceous organisms in, 243.

“ Volcanic shore deposit,” 186.

Volcanic tufa, 329, 358, 359, 364.

Volcanoes, distribution of, 292, 293.

,, submarine, 375, 376, 412.

Wad, 201, 371.

Wahner, F., xxviii.

Walet, M., XX.

WaUich, G. C., xxvi.

Walteria flemmingii, 286.

Waltershausen, Sartorius von, 307.

Water, determination of, 27.

„ in manganese nodules, 420.

Water-bottle, Buchanan’s combined sounding tube
and, 4, 5.

„ slip, 6, 8.

Waters, A. W., 265.

Watson, R. B., 267.

Waves, 292, 321, 409.

„ earthquake, 293.

Wealdon clay of Salzbergen, 199.

Wednesday Island, deposits off, 170.

Whales’ bones (see Bones of Cetaceans).

White chalk, xxvii, xxviii, 396.

„ mica, 322, 325, 326, 383, 384, 389.

Will, H., 470.

Williamson, AV. C., xxiii.

WhUemoes-Suhin, R. v., 372.

Wind-borne particles, 150, 154, 316, 324, 326, 384.

Winds, 321, 324, 382.

Wolfgang, M., xx.

"Wood, pieces of, 95, 99, 101, 103, 107, 172, 348.

Worm-tubes, 45, 76, 78, 80, 86, 93, 95, 105, 107,
111, 113, 117, 125, 127, 133, 139, 141, 174,
289, 354, 355, 358, 365.

Worms, XV.

Wright, E. P., 264.

Wtilfing, E. A., 334.

Yellow Sea, 384.

Yokohama, deposits beDveen Admiralty Islands and,

106-111.

,, deposits between Sandwich Islands and,

112-119.

Zeolites, 23, 299, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313,
316, 320, 338, 354, 356, .357, 358, 362, 363,
378, 393, 400-411, 412.

Zinc, 377, 418.

„ blends, 304.

Ziphioid whales, beaks of, 272, 275, 361.

}, „ „ „ analyses of, 491, 494, 495.

ZipMus, 71, 275, 343, 491, 494, 495.

„ cavirostris, 271, 272.

Zircon, 23, 195, 217, 231, 238, 320, 322, 326, 383,
384.

Zonary Plankton, 251.

Zone, abyssal, 397.

„ coast, 397,

„ coral, 188.

,, coralline, 188.

„ deep-sea, 188.

„ laminarian, 188.

„ littoral, 187, 320, 321, 383, 397.

„ shallow-water, 187, 320, 321, 383.

,, sub-littoral. 383, 388.

Zostera maritima, 372.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.) 69

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PLATE L

Fig. 1. Large rounded fragment of pumice (one-fourth natural size). This is a characteristic specimen belong-
ing to tlie light porous and filamentous liparitic variety ; only a few minerals are visible to the
naked eye. The surface is but slightly altered, and the pores are filled with small Glohigerina
shells, and other materials of the deposit in which it was imbedded. Station 246 ; 2050 fathoms.
North Pacific.

Fig. 2. Smaller rounded specimen (natural size) belonging to the same variety as the preceding, showing
Brachiopods (Discina) and Hydroids {Stephanoscyphus) attached. The surface has a brownish
coating of altered material, and in some places there are depositions of the hydrated peroxide of
manganese. Station 246 ; 2050 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 3. Rounded specimen of the acid variety of pumice (natural size), out of which a section has been cut to
show the altered zone of argillaceous matter in all the external parts, while the central parts are
but slightly altered by decomposition. Station 246 ; 2050 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 4. Section of another specimen of the same variety as the preceding (natural size), showing a decomposed
brown zone surrounding the relatively little decomposed centre. Station 246 ; 2050 fathoms.
North Pacific.

All the above specimens floated in water a few months after they had been dredged from the bottom.

Figs. 5 and 6. Pumice stones surrounded by layers of the hydrated peroxide of manganese, so that they may
be called manganese nodules (natural size). The pumice is here very much decomposed, especially
in the zone nearest the layers of manganese. In fig. 5 the layer of manganese is only about
1 mm. in thickness, while in fig. 6 it is fully 1 cm. ; in the former the structure of the pumice is
M’ell preserved, but in the latter it is obliterated, the pumice being for the most part soft and
earthy. The pores of the pumice are often filled with reddish earthy or clayey matter. In some
samples from this station the structure of the nuclei of pumice is almost wholly lost, and can with
difficulty be recognised. Station 248 3 2900 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 7. An irregular, white, fibrous fragment of liparitic pumice, with the central portions more or less
altered, the fissures being often filled with the mud of the bottom (natural size). A zone of man-
ganese, mingled with earthy matter, is often sharply marked off from the central parts, then follow
concentric zones of the peroxide of manganese, covered with the clay of the deposit. Station 241 ;
2300 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 8. Black-brown scoriaceous fragment of ba.saltic pumice, with numerous circular vesicles (natural size).

Crj'stals of plagioclase, occasionally 4 to 6 mm. in diameter, can be seen with the naked eye, and
other minerals are recognised in microscopic slides. The vesicles shown in the figure are like those
in the interior, which are filled with the infiltrated clay, giving the fragment an oolitic appearance.
Station 241 ; 2300 fathoms. North Pacific.

meVoyMjie of H.M S." Challenger.'

Deep-Sea, Deposits, ?1 j

fragments of

PUMICE AND

M ANGAN ESE-I RON

NOD U LES.

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PLATE ir.

PLATE II.

Fig. 1 . A very characteristic manganese nodule as regards shape and general appearance (natural size). Over
thirty nodules more or less like this one were procured at this station. The general form is round,
and the mammillae are not prominent, but run the one into the other without forming marked
reliefs. The upper and under surfaces present a sensible difference of aspect. The inferior
surface, here figured, we believe to have been plunged into the ooze ; it is covered with an immense
number of rugosities, — little rounded points 1 or 2 mm. in diameter, and the same in height, —
which, being scattered over tlie whole surface, render the nodule rough to the touch, and some-
what like shagi’een. These asperities are not so abundant on the upper surface, which is on the
whole much smoother. Station 248 ; 2900 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 2. Similar nodule (natural size), in the interior of which were found the remains of a siliceous Sponge
{Farrea). A portion of the skeleton of the Sponge is represented, more highly magnified, in fig.
2a ; the minute canals of the Sponge are seen to be filled with manganese. Some portions of the
siliceous skeleton appear to have been removed by solution. The nodule has probably been formed
round a fragment of a Sponge. Station 248 ; 2900 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 3. Irregular pyramidal-shaped variety of nodule (natural size). The nodule is wedge-shaped, and the
entire surface is mammiUated. The reliefs are more or less pronounced in two directions, the first
being parallel to the lateral edges of the wedge, along radii, the second being more or less parallel
to the superior surface of the figure, and following a curved direction. Station 160 ; 2600 fathoms.
Southern Ocean.

Fig. 3a. Section showing the internal structure of a nodule similar to the preceding (natural size). The alter-
nating zones, from 1 to 2 mm. in diameter, are yellowish white and black-brown. The light
coloured bands are traversed by dendritic depositions of manganese, which is in greater abundance
in the dark layers. Station 160; 2600 fathoms. Southern Ocean.

Fig. 3b. Portion of one of these nodules from which the manganese has been removed by concentrated hydro-
chloric acid. An examination of these clayey skeletons shows that the yellowish white matter
extends also into the black bands in the interior of the nodule. Station 160; 2600 fathoms.
Southern Ocean.

Fig. 4. Section of one of the larger nodules from the North Pacific (natural size). The external surface is
similar to that of fig. 1. The several white nuclei are found on examination to bo highly-altered
fragments of pumice, around which layers of manganese have been deposited, the whole being
ultimately fonned into one nodule. Station 248 ; 2900 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 5. One of the larger notlules from the South Pacific (natural size). The interior of these nodules consists
of light brown concentric layers arranged round small altered volcanic fragments, or sharks’ teeth
an<l their fragments. The outer layens, for a depth of about 5 mm., are of a much darker colour
than the inner ones. Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 6. Five instances of small sharks’ teeth, and little pellets of pumice, surrounded and cemented together
by depositions of the hydrated j)eroxide of manganese (natural size), showing, as it were, the
nodules in process of formation arouml various nuclei, and their agglomeration into larger nodules.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 7. Four small no<lules (natural size) in a later stage of growth, so to speak, than those represented in fig. 6.
Tlic nuclei in both coses are of the same nature. Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

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PLATE III.

Fij». 1. Portion of a large flattened fragment of manganese from the North Atlantic (natural size). The
original fragment was over a foot in diameter, and was evidently a piece torn from a much larger
mass by the action of the dredge. The upper surface shows the usual rough mammillated appear-
ance, being black and shining, while the interior is black-brown. To this nodule was attached a
large branching Coral ; at the upper right hand side of the figure a portion of the base of this Coral
is seen to bo attached to the nodule, and to be again covered by a slight coating of manganese.
Stations; 1525 fathoms. North Atlantic.

Figs. 2 and 3. Fragments of the Coral {Pleurocorallium ^bTi7isonj)'attached to the above nodule (natural size).

The Coral was all dead, and in some places much corroded ; it was everywhere coated and per-
meated by depositions of manganese, sometimes OT mm. in thickness. The axis in some places
was 2 cm. in diameter ; it was pure white with black rings, took a high polish, and contained a
considerable quantity of organic matter. Amidst the arms of the Coral was seated a large living
siliceous Sponge {Poliopogon amadou). Station 3 ; 1525 fathoms. North Atlantic.

Fig. 4. Pyramidal nodule from the South Pacific (natural size). The upper parts and upper surface are
smoother and more compact than the lower ones, which are mammillated and covered with
asperities resembling in many respects the nodule figured in Plate II. fig. 3. Station 299; 2160
fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 5. One of a large number of nodules of similar size and external appearance from the North Pacific
(natural size). Its dimensions were 7 x 7 x 5‘cm. The specimen is broken to show that in the
centre there is a large Carcharodon tooth about 4 cm. in length. The tooth is surrounded by
concentric layers of manganese P5 cm. in thickness, and the whole nodule takes roughly the form
of the tooth. The outer layers, 6 mm. in thickness, are of a lighter colour than the deeper ones,
and the same is the case with other nodules from this station. Only the hard dentine of the tooth
remains, the external surface being black and shining ; the vaso-dentine has entirely disappeared,
and the whole tooth is impregnated with manganese. Station 252 ; 2740 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 6. Nodule similar to the preceding, shown in section (natural size). Three zones may be distinguished ;

first, in the centre an elongated yellowish white nucleus, penetrated by dendrites of manganese,
and in some places sharply separated from the second zone of dark layers of manganese, in which
no concentric arrangement can be observed, the third zone being composed of concentric layers of
manganese, the outer ones of a lighter colour than the inner ones. As shown in the figure, there
is a thin layer of clay of varying continuity immediately below the concentric layers. The man-
ganese has always a semi-metallic lustre on a broken and polished surface. Station 252; 2740
fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 7. Section of a nodule from the South Pacific (natural size). In the centre there is a light-coloured
nucleus, [trobably of volcanic origin, surrounded by layers which are denser and blacker than usual.
The outer surface is extremely irregular. Station 289 ; 2550 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 8 and 9. Nodules from the South Pacific, one showing the external form, and the other in section (natural
size). The external surface has a mammillated and rough appearance similar to that of the nicajority
of nrxlules, but the internal portions are quite different, remarkable, and exceptional. Nearly all
the no<lule8 from this station have yellowish white or greenish nuclei. In general the nuclei are
soft, and contain numerous casts of Foraminifera, but none of the carbonate of lime of the shells
remains ; there is a demlritic arrangement of manganese throughout the nucleus. The nodules are
from a deposit of Globigerina Ooze, and seem to have been formed round aggregations of the
Issttom. Station 297 ; 1775 fathoms. South Pacific.

Deep-Sea Depos-iis, PL III,

]

ji a e Voyage of SM.S.''CliaILeiiger.''

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6

^ ^ tcis.iL&.o^a5iiors.

manganese-iron nodules.

PLATE IV.

Fig. 1. External form ami appearance of a typical nodule from the North Pacific (natural size). The little
knob on the top is a small piece of pumice cemented to the nodule by enveloping layers of man-
ganese, and the swellings on the side have a similar structure and origin. The nodules from
this station looked like a lot of potatoes when rolled out of the dredge. Station 252; 2740 fathoms.
North Pacific.

Fig. 2. Typical manganese nodule from the Central Pacific (natural size). All the nodules taken at this
station (about one hundred) have the same general form, and are the most compact of all the
nodules dredged during the cruise. The upper surface is smooth, and very different in aspect
from the under surface, which is covered with little rough mammillae, having spaces between them,
giving this face a scoriaceous aspect. The whole nodule has a discoidal form. Station 274 ; 27 50
fathoms, hlid Pacific.

Fig. 3. One of several large slabs dredged among the nodules from the South Pacific, in section, and showing
part of the upper surface (natural size). About the middle of the section there is a dark line
which appears to represent the upper surface of an old sea-bottom, with manganese nodules
imbedded or partially imbedded in the clay. A fall of ashes would appear to have taken place,
covering the floor of the ocean in some places to the depth of an inch. The coarser particles lie
immediately on the clay, and contain much black mica, then follow layers of finer and finer
particles. Subsequently the bottom was apparently, after consolidation, rent by cracks, and layers
of manganese were deposited over the upper surface and down the cracks, binding the whole into
a compact mass. Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific. (For microscopical description of
this slab see Plate XXI. fig. 2).

Fig. 4. Round nodule from the same station, in section (natural size). On one side there is a whitish layer of
volcanic ashes, over which, as in the case of the slabs, there is a layer of manganese. The side
vith the layer of ashes had evidently been the upper surface of the nodule when resting on the
bottom of the sea. Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 5. .^Vnother nodule from the same station (natural size), broken to show the Carcharodon tooth in the
centre. Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 6. Upper surface of rather rare and irregular form of nodule from the South Pacific (natural size). It is
more or less flattened, and j)resents a scoriaceous aspect, with a rugged appearance on the upper
surface. The interior contains a yellowish earthy matter. Station 276; 2350 fathoms. South
Pacific.

Fig. 7. Section of another nodule from the same station (natural size). The interior does not present any con-
centric stnicture, but there is an outer zone of concentric layers from 2 to 3 mm. in diameter.
The nucleus was probably originally a piece of pumice. Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South
I'ocific.

Fig. 8. External surface of the same no^lulc (natural size), showing the scaly structure of the outer zones.

i.rhe Voyage of H.M. S."CliaIleiiger.'

Deep-Sea. Deposits, PI IV.

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M ANGAN ESE- I RO N NODULES

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(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

PLATE V.

Fig8. 1 and la. Tooth of Carcharodon megalodon, outer surface and profile (natural size). This is the largest
specimen taken during the cruise. Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 2, 3 and 3a, 4, 5 and 5a. Other specimens of Carcharodon, slightly coated with manganese, from the
same station (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 6, 7 and 7a. Teeth of Carcharodon (natural size). Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 8 and 9. Small serrated teeth {Hemipristis ?) (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figa 10 and 11. Small serrated teeth (^nemipristis?) (natural size). Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South
Pacific.

Fig. 12. Small serrated tooth (CarcAarocfoTi?) (natural size). Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 13. Small serrated tooth {Carcharias ?) (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

'he Voyag'e of H-M. S 'Chaliev,?er.'

Deep-Sea DepoGits. Pl.V

l-'li-ad Nat.

SrAjLJbimKtoE.. LiHiocVarlierit.

■ \

S H A R K’S TEETH.
(Carcharodon. Carcharias.

■ rs

. 1

PLATE YL

'«i k

PLATE VI.

Figs. 1 and la. Large tooth of Oxyrhina {Oxyrhina trigonodon ?), about the largest specimen taken during the
cruise (natural size). Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figa 2 and 2a, 3 and 3a, 4 and 4a, 5 and 5a, 6 and 6a, 7 and 7a. Other specimens of Oxyrhina (natural size).
Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 8. Tooth of Oxyrhina or centre fang of Otodus (natural size). Station 274 ; 2750 fathoma Mid Pacific.

Figa 9 and 9a, 10 and 10a. Teeth of Oxyrhina or centre fangs of Otodus (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385
fathoms. South Pacific.

Figa 11 and 11a. Tooth of Oxyrhina or centre fang of Otodus (natural size). Station 274; 2750 fathoma
Mid Pacific.

Figs. 12 and 12a. Tooth of Oxyrhina or Lamna, from about the mesial line of the upper or lower jaw (natural
size). Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 13 and 13a. Tooth of Oxyrhina (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 14 and 14o. Tooth of Lamna (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 15 and 15a. Tooth of Lamna (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 16 and 16a. Tooth of Lamna (natural size). Station 274; 2750 fathoms. Mid Pacific.

Fig. 17. Tooth of Oxyrhina (natural size). Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 18. Tooth of Oxyrhina or Lamna, from about the mesial line of the upper or lower jaw (natural size).
Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 19. Small tooth of Lamna (natural size). Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 20 and 21. Teeth of Oxyrhina or Lamna, from about the mesial line of the upper or lower jaw (natural
size). Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 22. Tootli of Oxyrhina (?) (natural size). May be the form of tooth in the mesial line of an Oxyrhina
jaw. Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 23. Tooth of Oxyrhina or Lamna, from about the mesial line of the upper or lower jaw (natural size).
Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Deop-Sea Deposits. PJ.7I,

SHARK'S TEETH.
(Oxy rh ina. Lamna.&?

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Tympanic bone of a large species of Balmnoptera, coated and impregnated with manganese (natural
size). Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 2. Section of bulla of BoUxnoptera (perhaps Balsenoptera antarctica), similar to the preceding (natural
size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 3. Bulla of Balsenoptera (perhaps Balsenoptera rostrata), with a considerable coating of manganese (natural
size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 4 and 5. Right and left bull® of a whale belonging to the Bal®nid®, upper and under surfaces (natural
size). The markings shown in fig. 5 were found on both of the bones and are of the same
character ; these are the only bones taken during the cruise with such marks, and they differ from
all the other earbones in other respects as well as in the markings. Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms.
South Pacific.

Figs. 6 and 7. Tympano-periotic bones of Mesoplodon {Mesoplodon layardi ?), outer and inner surfaces (natural
size). The bones were coated with manganese and attached when brought up, but in the majority
of cases the petrous and tympanic bones were separate. Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South
Pacific.

EAR BONES OF CETACEA.

( Ba (aeno ptena . Balasna. Meso plodon. &c)

Deep-Sea Deposits. PI, VII.

'•he Voyage of H.M.S.' ClialleiLger.'

PLATE VIII.

Fig. 1. Petrous and tympanic bones of Mesoplodon (species allied to layardi), outer surfaces covered with man-
ganese (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 2. Section through petrous and tympanic bones similar to the preceding (natural size), showing the spaces
filled with depositions of manganese and iron, with malleus and incus, &c. Station 286 ; 2335
fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 3. Petrous bone, and portion of elongated mastoid element continuous with it, belonging to one of the
Baleen whales (natural size). Several such bones were obtained at this station, some very deeply
imbedded in manganese depositions. Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 4 and 5. Tympano-periotic bones of a Globiocephalus (natural size). Station 274; 2750 fathoms. Mid
Pacific.

Fig. 6. Tympanic bone of Globiocephalus (V) (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 7. Tpnpanic bone of Kogia (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Figs. 8, 9 and 9o. Petrous bones of Cetaceans (Ziphioid) (natural size). Fig. 9a under surface to compare with
fig. 14a. Station 286; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 10. Petrous bone of Globiocephalus (1) (natural size). Station 160; 2600 fathoms. Southern Ocean.

Fig. 11. Tympanic bone of Mesoplodon (?) very deeply imbedded in depositions of manganese (natural size).
Station 160; 2600 fathoms. Southern Ocean.

Figs. 12 and 13. Tympano-periotic bones belonging to one of the Delphinidse (natural size). Station 274;
2760 fathoms. Mid Pacific.

Figs. 14 and 14a. Doubtful Cetacean bone (natural size). Fig. 14a under surface to compare with fig. 9a.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

f

^eVoyag'e of H.M.S. ’Clialleiiger."

f Deep-Sea. Deposi's, Fl.VUl.

ft-

Nat

9

a'. . ... ^r-caci- .

'•Ill

A

ear bones of cetacea.

iZiphius. Megaptera. Delphinus. &9)

PLATE IX.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

PLATE IX.

Fig. 1. Fourth part of a large nodule from the North Pacific (natural size) ; the nodule when dredged measured
31 X 20 X 6 centimetres. There is a great difference between the two large faces, the one figured
being the upper surface. The under surface, that which rested on the clay of the bottom, is rough
and consists of numerous closely-set mammillae, which are more numerous towards the outer
edges. The upper surface is much smoother, and the reliefs of the mammillae rounded and
softened. Small pieces of pumice that have fallen on the upper surface are cemented to it by
manganese depositions, and in the same way a specimen of Nodosaria can be seen cemented to it
by layers of manganese. In addition, there were attached to the upper surface : four specimens of
Stej)ka>ioscyphus, a Tubularian, two Actinians, a Serpula, two Polyzoons, and many Rhizopod tubes
or rhizomes of a Hydroid. Attached to the vmder surface at the edge was an Annelid with a
muddy tube. The white central part may be regarded as an elongated nucleus with hollow spaces
filled by clayey matter ; it is hard, but can be scratched with a knife. It is impossible to suggest
with any certainty its original nature. The layers of manganese above the nucleus are much
thicker than those below. Station 253 ; 3125 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. la. End portion of the same nodule, from which the manganese has been removed by concentrated
hydrochloric acid (natural size). The way in which some of the inner layers terminate at the
edge suggests that this fragment may at one time have been part of a larger mass.

Fig. 2. Under surface of nodule from the Central Pacific (natural size). It is formed on a large Carcharodon
tootli, and takes roughly the form of that triangular body ; it might be said that there are three
centres of concretion, one at each corner of the triangle. The upper surface is much smoother than
the under. Station 274 ; 2750 fathoms. Mid Pacific.

Fig. 3. Compact nodule from the South Pacific (natural size). It is deeply mammillated, and in the hollows
lietween the mammillffi there is a rough, iiTegular Rhizopod tube. The upper part of the figure
shows how the nodule breaks into concentric zones. Station 289 ; 2550 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 4. Sections of manganese nodule from the North Pacifie, one half being demanganesed to show the
structure (natural size). The nucleus is yellowish, and apparently was originally a piece of pumice ;
this is surrounded by concentric layers, some of which contain much more manganese than others.
It will be noticed that, with the growth of the nodule, secondary nuclei have been embraced by
the concentric layers. There is an indication of radial as well as concentric structure. Station
248 ; 2900 fathoms. North Pacific.

Figs. 5 and 6. Sections of nodules from the Central Pacific (natural size). The nucleus is small and surrounded
by black undulating zones or lines superposed the one upon the other. In fig. 6 the face is
demangane.sed by concentrated hydrochloric acid to bring out the structure. Station 274; 2750
fathoms, klid Pacific.

Fig. 7. Section of a round nodule from the North Pacific (natural size). In this case the cut face of the
nodule has been demanganesed by concentrated hydrochloric acid, which leaves a clayey skeleton
showing well the structure of the nodule. Three zones can be recognised : first, the nucleus ;
second, a zone around this without definite structure ; and third, an external zone of concentric
layers. Station 252 ; 2740 fathoms. North Pacific.

Fig. 7a. Portion of the same, showing the external zone with concentric layers (magnified 25 diameters).
Here the intimate structure is seen; the empty spaces are those that were occupied by the
manganese, and the figure shows the interpenetration of earthy and clayey matters.

Fig. 8. .Section of nwlule from the South Pacific, the face of which has been demanganified to show the

structure (natural size). Tliere is a hard nucleus of volcanic rock, surrounded by a zone without

any alternating layers, around which arc concentric layers of the u.sual form. Station 276 ; 2350
fatlioms. South Pacific.

Fig. 9. No<lule from the South Pacific (natural size). The surface has been treated with concentrated hydro'
chloric acid to remove the manganese ; the clayey skeleton that remains is very areolar in
structure. Station 297 ; 1775 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 10. Portion of no<lulc from the Central T’ncific (natural size), in which tubes ajiparently of Rhizopods are

seen between two of the layers of the clayey skeleton that remains after treatment with concen-

trated hydrochloric acid. Station 274 ; 2750 fathoms. Mid Pacific.

fe Voyag'e of H.M.S, "Challenger."

Deep-Sea Depoeiis, PI. IX

M A N G A N ES E - I R 0 N NODULES

.-J’ ■ -'A. ■

,• .*. 'tj

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tvr- - .

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V.

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k.

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J*,/-

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[3

PLATE X.

PLATE X.

Fig. 1. ^lezorostral bone or beak of a Ziphioid whale (natural size). The whole bone is coated and impreg-
nated with manganese. Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. la. Section of the same (natural size), showing canals as in recent species.

Fig. 15. Longitudinal vertical section of the same (magnified 50 diameters), showing the Haversian canals and
lacunoe filled or partially filled with peroxide of manganese.

Fig. 2. Portion of the brain-case of a Cetacean, much impregnated and covered by depositions of peroxide of
manganese (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 2a. Transverse vertical section of the same (magnified 40 diameters), shoAving that the bone is partially
removed, depositions of manganese having taken place in the Haversian canals and lacunae.

Fig. 3. Portion of very light spongy bone, probably a portion of the expanded wing of a superior maxilla,
covered and impregnated with manganese (natural size). Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South
Pacific.

Fig. 4. Transverse section of Carcharodon tooth (natural size). The vaso-dentine is entirely removed from the
interior, its place being occupied by depositions of manganese ; only the hard dentine remains.
Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 4a. Portion of the dentine of the same (magnified 120 diameters); even the dental tubes are filled or
jiartially filled with manganese depositions.

Fig. 5. Longitudinal vertical section of Oxyrhina tooth (natural size), showing the centre filled with manganese
dejwsitions. Station 286 ; 2335 fathoms. South Pacific.

[.tie Voyage of H M.S." Challenger.’’

Deep -Sea. Deposits, PLX.

uili. Nai .

4 -a .

ZIPHIUS’ BEAK. STRUCTURE OF BONE AND

teeth

'• i.-if

\

/

I

■l'

f'

ii- i.

/

■; i i i*js(v ^ I. <sfl '■'/>. ' ‘ ; ■■'

' . '■ ’I/'.' •^■v j . i

^ ‘ V, ., ■ . ' ■• -■

PLATE XL

y v{^f.y,' ;■)/ ,■ ' -y

.. i; '4'j...-' ■ > . ' .. .. .1 ■ ,

f

m

i

■■1

PLATE XL

Fig. 1. Section of Globigerina Ooze from Station 176 ; 1450 fathoms, South Pacific. The preparation shows
numerous sections of shells of pelagic Foraminifera, some of which are filled with an argillaceous
substance of a darker colour than the surrounding mass ; others, however, are filled with substances
of a lighter tint. Some of the Foraminifera from this station yield, after treatment with dilute
hydrochloric acid, external and internal silicated casts (see Plate XXIV. fig. 3). Among the
mineral particles, colourless splinters of pumice can be recognised. The black particles scattered
over the figure are peroxide of manganese (magnified 104 diameters).

Fig. 2. Mineral particles of Blue Mud from Station 237 ; 1875 fathoms. North Pacific. These are almost
all of volcanic nature : bro-svn scoriaceous lapilli, fragments of palagonite, and numerous elongated
fibrous splmters of pumice. Colourless crystals of felspar, among which are plagioclases, may be
recognised ; they contain brown or black and opaque inclusions of glass. Around these crystals
of felspar there is at some points vitreous matter of the same colour as the inclusions, being the
remains of the vitreous matter to which these clastic fragments were attached. In addition there
are fragments of hornblende, with characteristic cleavages, pale green splinters of augite, grains of
magnetite, minute particles of other volcanic substances, together with amorphous matter and
organic remains (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 3. The minuter calcareous particles of Globigerina Ooze from Station 166; 275 fathoms. South Pacific.

Here the Coccoliths and Coccospheres are of a large size, and the Rhabdoliths are relatively
rare (magnified 500 diameters).

Fig. 4. The finer portions of Globigerina Ooze from Station 338; 1990 fathoms. South Atlantic, chiefly made
up of Coccoliths, Rhabdoliths, and the primordial chambers of Globigerinx, together with fragments
of other calcareous organisms. Coccospheres are not here represented (magnified 500 diameters).

Fig. 5. General appearance of Globigerina Ooze, as seen by reflected light, after some of the finer amorphous
particles have been washed away. It consists chiefly of various species of pelagic Foraminifera,
together with a few fragments of worm-tubes, Pteropods, and Ostracode valves. Station 13;
1900 fathoms. North Atlantic (magnified 25 diameters).

Fig. 6. General appearance of Ptcropod Ooze as seen by reflected light, after some of the finer amorphous
particles have been washed away. It consists principally of Pteropod, Ileteropod, and other Mol-
luscan shells, together with numerous shells of pelagic Foraminifera. Station 22 ; 450 fathoms.
North Atlantic (magnified 5 diameters).

le Voyage of H.M.S.''Challen^er."

Jft'

?. Hulh. Lift’ Edirs-

PLATE XII.

Fig. 1. Section of Globigerina Ooze from Station 338 ; 1990 fathoms, South Atlantic (magnified 50 diameters).

The mud, just as it was obtained from the dredge, was hardened and then cut into thin sections,
so as to be seen by transmitted light. It is almost entirely composed of shells of pelagic Fora-
minifera, among which species of Glohigenna and Pulvinulina are the most abimdant.

1. Longitudinal section of Globigerina rubra.

2. ,, ,, Nonionina umbilkalula,

3. Fragment of shell of Grbulina universa.

4. Part section of Sphseroidina dehiscens,

5. Part of shell of Orbulina universa, showing

foramina.

6. Longitudinal section of Pulvinulina crassa.

7. Globigerina bulloides.

)) )>

9. Median section of Orbulina universa.

i> y> 9) It

11. Part „ „ „

12. Small Globigerina shells.

13. Section of Pulvinulina menardii.

Fig. 2. Section of rock dredged at Station 192; 129 fathoms, off Ki Islands (magnified 50 diameters).

This rock is composed principally of pelagic Foraminifera, similar to those now living in the
tropical waters of the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. It was probably not formed of the mud from
M’hich it was dredged, but belongs to an older formation (see page 171).

1. Section of portion of test of Echinoderm.

2. Part section of Pullenia obliguiloculata.

3. Section of Globigerina bulloides.

>f II II

6. Longitudinal section of Uvigerina sp. (?).

6. ,, ,, Pulvinulinarnicheliniana,

7. ,, ,, Pullenia obliguiloculata,

8. ,, ,, Pulvinulina menardii,

9. Section of Globigerina rubra.

10. Section across one lobe of Globigerina rubra.

11. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

12. Transverse section of spine of Echinoderm.

13. Longitudinal section of Globigerina rubra.

14. Part section of Nodosaria communis.

15. ,, Orbulina universa.

16. BuUmina sp. (?).

17. Transverse section of Pulvinulina michcl-

iniana.

Fig. 3. Section of Globigerina Ooze from Station 348 ; 2450 fathoms. Tropical North Atlantic (magnified
50 diameters). The ooze consists principally of the large shells of pelagic Pulvinulina, Sphseroidina,
and Globigerina.

1. Pulvinulina menardii.

2. Part section of Sphseroidina dehiscens.

3. Transverse section of Truncatulina sp. (?).

4. Part of final lobe of Pulvinulina menardii.

5. Part section of Pullenia obliguiloculata,

6. Radiolarian.

7. Longitudinal section of Pulvinulina menardii.

8. Globigerina sacculifera.

9. Superior aspect of Globigerina injlata.

10. Longitudinal median section of Pulvinulina

menardii,

11. Globigerina dubia.

12. Part section of Orbulina universa.

13. ,, Pulvinulina meivardii.

14. Radiolarian.

Fig. 4. Section of Globigerina Ooze from Station 158; 1800 fathoms. Southern Indian Ocean (magnified 50
diameters). The ooze here consists principally of Globigerinse, the more tropical forms being
absent.

1. Part section of Globigerina bulloides.

2. Radiolarian.

8. Globigerina bulloides.

II II

b' II II

6. Radiolarian (?).

7. Globigerina rubra.

8. Radiolarian.

9. Longitudinal section of Pullenia obliguiloculata.

10, ,, ,, Pulvinulina crassa.

11, Section of Sphseroidina dehiscens,

12, Radiolarian.

(©

1990 fathoms, South Atlantic (magnifiwl 50
:hti dredgt , Aroa hardened and then cut into
’■‘f. It is ahuost entirely composed of sheila oiJ
higerina and PuMnuliua are the most abundant

ui rubra,
umbilkniula,
lyrsa.

It.

rrsa, showing
nuiina croMO,

7, OlolK'g'T-ma bull aides.

of Orbulirut uuiveraa.

■ I ina aliells,

' 'nnulina m.

129 fiiinonis, olf Ki Islands (magnified 50 diametc
> ijifn- ForanikjjiJ?STpfh^3^^ those now living in
■i>; (iieans. It
u oldej- formation

; +X leat of Echinoderm.

2. jtilioD of obl'ifuiliiculata,

y, Suction of Olobigcrina bulloides.

4. ,, t> i>

*' liongitudinal #ection of UviyerincLHp. (?).
t ,, ,, Pulvin,uUiu>,micheHniajM,

7 ,, ,, P'dlenia obliquilaeulatn,.

y) Pvlvi'OM’.inn meruir,iiU
4 r tirra.

10. Section of iV

11. Fragment of te?Tof Ecltinoderm.

12. Transverse section of spine of Echinodern;.

13. Longitudinal section of Globigtrirut rubra

14. Part section of liodosariu ctmitawiis.

15. „ Orbulina wnuvrso.

16. sT). (

. 'lUtion 318 ; '24.50 hi
ihts prmcipaJly of theJarge

r

■'V«1 ir<»4W«j»a *p. ,’l.

of Pnl'^nu/irM mr/yt'Jti.
tMigu^loeulatiU

Vi/.f/Ww

in''Nna mru/iriiii,

n 158; 1 800 ifathonls rt*^yTii«r^ndian
jati princ:i<jUy H^MgerirM the more tropi.

1, Part section o* OM',

^ 3. InUloitUt,

\ O. ' I,

■dio! -ian (■,'.

h‘

ijeep ueaDeposits PI XU

he Voyage of HMS. 'Challenger”

Station. 338.21®’^ Mardi.1876.

X.at, SMSiS.Lonff. 14?°. 2',W
1990 Patlioms.

Oft iCi Islatids.lat .5? 42 S. Loner i;

129 FatLoms.

ad Kai

station. 34.8- 3 •^Ap^il.l8 76.
Lat .3V.10.1Sr.Longl4.9. SL'Wf.

2 45 0 . t a. tKoiij 3 .

Sta tion. 158. VP'. Max-oil. 18 74-
.Lat . 5()V.l'.s.Longl23V. 4.JE .

18 00 . Fa t b o 111 s .

5UJ)iaiu .

I

I

1

:i

CALCAREOUS

deposits

rmmww

PLATE XIII.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

PLATE XIII.

The fi'jures on this plate represent the changes in the composition and appearance of the calcareous deposits
around the island of Bermuda, at different depths and distsinces from the outer edge of the reef.

Fig. 1. Section of the mud from 200 fathoms, about a mile from the reef (magniKed 15 diameters), consisting
])rincipally of fragments of Molluscs, Polyzoa, Corals, calcareous Algae, and bottom-living Poraminifera.

1. Fragment of Polyzoon.

2. ,, MilleiK)re(?).

3. ,, calcareous Alga.

4. Longitudinal section of Amphistegina cumingii.

5. Gasteropod shell surrounded with calcareous Alga.

6. Shell of Echinoderm cemented to other frag-

ments— Foraminifera, Radiolaria, &c. — by
deposition of carbonate of lime.

7. Part section of Textularia barrcitii.

8. Calcareous Algn.

9. Calcareous Alga.

10. Transverse section of Amphistegina cumingii.

11. Section of Textularia sp. (?).

12. Longitudinal section of Textularia conica,

13. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

14. Conglomeration of deposit showing section of

Coral.

16. Longitudinal section of Amphistegina cumingii
(young).

16. Fragment of Polyzoon (Lepralia sp.?).

Fig. 4. Section of the mud from 380 fathoms, about miles from the reef (magnified 50 diameters). The
fragments are all of much smaller size than in 200 fathoms, although consisting of fragments of
nearly the same organisms. The shells of Pteropods and pelagic Foraminifera are, however, more
abundant than in tlie shallower depths.

1. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

2. Sponge spicule.

3. Fragnjent of section of Orhitolites complanala.

4. Part section of PulvinuUna eanariensis.

6. Transverse section of Heterostegina depressa.

6. ,, ,, Patcllina corrugaia.

7. ,, ,, Planorbulina mediterra-

nensis.

8. Longitudinal section of Sagrina cdlumellaris {V).

9. Fragment of Polyzoon.

10. ,, shell of PafiaaMh'wa sp. (?).

11. Calcareous Alga.

12. Basal portion of Sponge spicule.

13. Fragment of Pteropod shell.

14. Transverse section of Discorhina sp. (?).

15. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

16. Longitudinal section of Lingulina carimata (?).

17. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

18. Part section of Sphmroidina dehiscens.

19. Longitudinal section of Bulimina sp. (?).

20. Transverse section of Botalia soldanii.

21. Fragment of Polyzoon.

22. Botalia sp. (?).

23. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

24. Transverse section of Echinoderm spine.

25. Section of Olohigerina rubra.

26. Ostracode valve.

27. Section of Heteropod shell.

28. ,, Miliolina sp.{?).

29. Part of test of Lituolid.

30. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

31. Longitudinal section of Bulimina sp. (?).

32. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

Fig. 2. Section.s representing the appearance of the mud in 950 fathoms, still further (about 5 miles) from
the reef (upper half magnified 50 diameters, lower half 100 diameters). The particles are much
smaller in size, while the pelagic shells are more numerous, and the reef fragments less numerous
than in the shallower depths.

1. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

2. Transverse section of Alcyonarian spicule.

3. Fragment of Polyzoon {Lepralia sp. ?).

4. Longitudinal section of Bolivina dilatata.

5. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

6. Section of Heteropod shell.

7. ,, Pteropod shell.

8. ,, fragment of Orbitolites sp. (?).

9. Olohigerina sp. (?).

10. Section of Ostracode valve.

11. Part section of Pitlvinulina micheliniana.

12. Kadiolarian.

13. Bulimina sp. {?).

14. Sponge 8])icu1e.

15. Pteroj)od shell with Comuspira sp. (?).

16. Transverse section of Discorbina vilardeboana

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22. Olohigerina bulloides (young).

23. Ostracode valve.

24. Olohigerina bulloides.

25. Basal portion of Echinoderm spine.

26. Sponge spicule.

27. Fragment of Mollusc shell.

28. ,, ,,

29. Transverse section of Echinoderm spine.

30. Caleareous Alga.

31. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

32. Fragment of outer edge of transverse section

of Echinoderm spine.

33. Fragment of Sj)onge spicule.

34. Calcareous Alga.

35. Kadiolarian.

Sponge spicule.

,, ,, (Oeodiaf).

Part section of Orbitolites complanala.
Fragment of Mollusc shell.

,, calcareous Alga.

Basal iK>rtion of S{>onge spicule.

Part section of Bphteroidina dehiscens.

M ft

Longitudinal section of Miliolina sp. (?).
Alcyonarian spicule.

(?)•

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

Fig. 3. .Section representing the appearance of the mud in 1950 fathoms, and still further (about miles)
from the reef edge (magnified 50 diameters). Here the deposit is chiefly made up of the shells
of i)clagic Fomminifera, and might be called a Globigerina Ooze.

1 . Longitudinal section of Gasteropod shell.

2. Fragment of section of Orbilolilcs camjdanaia.

3. Ix)ngitudinal section of PulvinuUna eanariensis.

4. Transverse section of Echinoderm si>ine.

5. Longitu<liiial section of Bulimina lextilarioidcs.

6. Orbulina univerm.

7. lyongitudinal section of Olohigerina inflala.

8. ,, ,, Spiroloculina sp. (?).

9. ,, ,, Olohigerina bulloides.

10. ,, ,, PulvinuUna menardii.

11. Surface of shell of Orbulina universa,

12. Olohigerina rubra.

13. Fragment of SjKinge spicule.

14. Ka<iiolarian.

15. Long, section of PulvinuUna micheliniarm.

16. Transverse section of Botalia sp. (?).

17. ,, ,, TruncatiUina pygmeea.

18. Fragment of Pteropod shell.

19. Longitudinal section of Bulimina sp. (?).

20. Olohigerina rubra.

21. Sponge spicule (?).

22. Longitmlinal section of Bulimina texlila-

rioidcs (?).

28. Olohigerina rubra,

24. Longitudinal section of Echinoderm spine.

25. Part section of marginal ring of PulvinuUna

menardii,

26. Part section of Olohigerina sp. (?).

r XIIL

ir •J'ltion
; !•■ i .iiu-. . from t\je outer

fru'ii the
• if , Comls, e,!

i - p. V f

'll;

^ i?r ■■■ ^ ■‘"''

; u 2’ r.'!ef^,^agnili^»? 50 U{^m>-

’■■.■?e than in 200 f y^s.jilt)|oiigh couflisting of fv
is of PteriK -; ds aiiJ
lifl. _ - V*^-

•grnont V t"st of Ftebino

dehisce

hiij \). ^ ^■lu'.iiii ilV' ■■ o« of ^^thmina [

1 ‘ -. v heii.

■ •■-i’' d'pff 'M,

'rr : I- ' i. !l^:Un Hp. (?)■

^ corinafn (1).

:i ', r> j - iT Oi;^ ;h- ; * < j liio TTiufl iu OTfO fatiiOTUB, still fuither (about 5 lui!-

•.•f ‘‘j : / ' II ^Ttili '! aO liiainetus, linvor half lOO diamotei's). The particles a;

” r in Pi - ■ ' Li'ic !(i» i-'li 'i ' ''bell i ;;;•’ nu-re numerous, and the reef fragments less r.-^nc,

1 1' n i.i I' '

r 'b-4

s^,

"r'

,1 '

!>• '»}.

•22. fildbigei ina hulloidns
i^le valv-,’.

;;5. Hasiil Eobi

■ i j oi jlttAfusc oKilJ.

-'H. ,J

I T) nijgwree section of Ei;hino<leri ^

SOXCalcareous Algu.
t]. ’'rs„xiit of tent ot kehincidoT II. j
|t of outer . tlge of tee
linod inn nj'itjo.
i^'iit of Sponge spicule,
an ircoi' I Ale,

Ki iii; O' I'* ro>“ ■. ^!■;-

I ■ ' onr_ 'ilivl f J ii Ilf b<

r-

r.

:x

The Voyage of H MS. "Challenger”

llcep Sealloposits P] XHl,

1781 Apri 1.18 73.
South oi' B©i'Tmi<la.
200 Fatioms.

Tig 2V

S I aticm32 b 3^:‘hV7>TiI . 18 73 .
OflMlerraudaXaL o2?lON. XoT.g. bX? SSW.
950 Fatiioins.

otf Bermuda. 7, at 32?15'I(r. fmag 6S? 8'W.
1 9 5 0 1*’ a th. o TTi s ,

Sta I iou.32<i.4‘^ April. 1873.

OffB.rmuda Lat.32'.'J9'i\' Loatf.bd'"40'7V0

• i- ith .id Nat.

3 8 0 Fa l:h o lu s

jluisj ; • J_ . : iTAUijenf.

CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS.

' t » V .*

c-

.f:

t-.

r—'i^l

I

I

r.

(

I

5fjn4..v-:: / ,:;

■V:

■■' . I . -'

' /

.7

PLATE XIV.

P ..iwr,j\';‘v..--v.'(^ 1,7. ; ,

(

m?

PLATE XIV.

Tliis pliito represents tlie gener.il appearance of the calcareous deposits at different depths and distances from
the reefs at the Fiji and Friendly Islands in the South Pacific.

Fig. 2. Section of the mud from 18 fathoms inside the reefs at Tongatabu (magnified 15 diameters), consisting
principally of fragments of ^lolluscs, calcareous Algae, Polyzoa, and large bottom-living Foraminifera.

1. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

2. Part section of OrhitoUtes sp. (?).

3. Transv. &eat\c>no{OpcrcuUnacomplanata{YO\xv\g).

4. Fragment of test of Echinodenn (?).

6. Longitudinal section of AlvcoUna boscii.

6. Transverse ,, ,, ,,

7. Calcareous Alga.

8. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

9. Alcyouarian spicule.

10. Longitudinal section of Cymhalopora poeyi.

11. ,, ,, Tcxtularia trochus.

12. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

13. Longitudinal section of Nonionina scapha.

14. Part section of Amphistegina cumingii,

15. Transverse section of Tntneatulina sp. (?).

16. Longitudinal section of Cycloclypeus sp. (?).

17. Longitudinal section of Spiroloculina crenata.

18. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

19. Fr.agment of calcareous Alga, with Polytrema

miniacetim attached.

20. Section of Orbitolites.

21. Longitudinal section of Gasteropod shell.

22. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

23. Olobigerina bulloides.

24. Longitudinal section of Texlularia conica.

25. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

26. Longitudinal section of Clavulina commiMtis.

27. Section of Orbitolites complanata, showing

primordial chamber.

28. Fragment of Polyzoon.

29. Transverse section of Orbitolites complanata,

var. laciniata.

Fig. 1. Section representing the appearance of the mud in 240 fathoms, about three miles from the reefs off
Tongatabu (magnified 50 diameters); the particles are of the same nature as in fig. 2, but of
smaUer size, and there is a considerable admixture of pelagic species.

1. Fragment of Orbulina universa.

2. Longitudinal section of Gasteropod shell.

3. Section of Olobigerina rubra.

4. Heteropod shell.

5. Section of Orbitolites complanata, showing

primordial chamber.

6. Part section of Polystomella sp. (?).

7. ,, Polytrema miniaccum.

8. Calcareous Alga.

9. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

10. Longitudinal section of Bolivina beyrichi.

11. Transverse section of Echinoderm spine.

12. Fragment of calcareous Alga (?).

13. Part section of Heterostegina sp. (?).

14. Transverse section of Nummulites sp. (?),

15. Longitudinal section of Orbitolites complanata.

16. Truncatulina sp. (?).

17. Fragment of Mollusc shell.

18. Part section of Calcarina spcngleri.

19. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

20. Transverse section of Spiroloculina crenata.

21. Section of Olobigerina rubra.

22. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

23. Fragment of pumice.

24. Part section of Teadularia trochus.

25. Transverse section of Spiroloculina sp. (?).

26. Fragment of Polyzoon.

27. Part section of Orbitolites sp. (?).

28. ,, Amphistegina cumingii.

29. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

30. Transverse section of JRotalia soldanii,

31. Section of Olobigerina rubra.

32. Calcareous Alga.

33. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

34. Longitudinal section of Echinoderm spine.

35. Transverse section of liotalia sp. (?).

36. Longitudinal section of Bulimina sp. (?).

37. ,, ,, Miliolina subrotunda,

38. Part section of Carpenteria monticularis.

39. Fragment of Mollusc shell, with Carpenteria

attached.

40. Transverse section of Trttaxia sp. (?).

Fig. 3. Spctioms representing the appearance of the deposit in 610 fathoms, about Similes from the reefs atKandavu,
Fijis (fig. 3a magnified 50 diameters, fig. 35 200 diameters), -where there is a large admixture of
jwlagic shells among the minute calcareous fragments derived from the reefs and shallo-wer -waters.

1. Part section of Rotalia soldanii.

2. Section of Olobigerina bulloides.

3. Radiolarian.

4.

5. Section of Heteropod shell.

6. Longitudinal section of Bulimina pygmsea.

7. Olobigerina rubra.

8. Ijong. section of Clavulina communis (young).

9. Olobigerina dubia.

10. Fragment of calcareous Alga.

11. ,, Sponge spicule.

12. ,, Olobigerina shell.

13. Portion of test of lihabdammina (V).

14. Fragment of shell of Orbulina universa.

15. Section of Spiroloculina crenata.

16. Olobigerina sacculifera.

17. Transverse section of Truncatulina sp. (?).

18. Fragment of Mollusc shell.

19.

20.
21.
22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

Fragment of Pteropod shell.

n M

Longitudinal section of Miliolina sp. (?).
Section of Olobigerina rubra.

,, Olobigerina bulloides.
Fragment of Mollusc shell.

Part section of Gasteropod shell.
Fragment of Orbiculina shell.

Calcareous Alga.

Fragment of Sponge spicule.

,, test of Echinoderm.

Sponge spicules.

) t II

II

II II

II II

Fragment of shell of Olobigerina rubra.
Olobigerina bulloides (young).

Fig. 4.

Sections representing the appearance of the deposit, about 30 miles west of Ngaloa, Fijis, at a depth
of 1350 fathoms (fig. 4a magnified 50 diameters, fig. 45 200 diameters), where, it will be seen, the
deposit is a (llobigerina Ooze, principally made up of pelagic Foraminifera shells.

1. Part section of Orbulina universa,

2. Truncatulina sp. (?).

3. Fragment of test of Ei’hinoderm.

4. Part section of Pulvinulina crassa.

5. Section of Olobigerina conglobata,

6. l^llliolarin^.

7 .Section of Olohigerina btdloides.

8. ,, Olohigerina conglobata.

9. Part of shell of fhrbulina universa..
10. Section of Olobigerina congMtata.

1 1 Olobigerina rubra.

12. Part of shell of Jhdvinulina mcnardii.

1 3. Olobigerina rubra.

14. Fragment of test of Echinoderm.

16. Part section of Olobigerina sp. (?).

16. Radiolarian.

17. Olobigerina rubra (young).

18. Fragment of section of Olobigerina conglobata.

19. Olobigerina bulloides (young).

20. Olobigerina conglobata, showing spines remain-

ing on an inner cell.

This piatf rfli>rc‘s^'Ht‘' th

PLATE XIV. , 5

n,.i.i(' ira:K(' «tf thtnialcarcoufl doposite at different depths and distiuce^ T

tifir'inllh 't i J the r.sfs

' ' ■ ' ♦ j ff ■ of >'«•.. .. ■• .l««nou8 Algaei Poly:^ and/lj^?^^ptti'm \f\ lyg I'|Maiinn.r x

C C: «v e -i’ '■ V^'"' . ' k i75LoDf(i

A.JL8. ol/Koliint^eiWJ. k - " ^ f y^'-

^'a.jti(youi)g'i. p:.,(iT;3'T=3^t;ntVP(klcai'A^^^ <■-. '

n k ") wiiiJui>«i-HVttach^ I V-

y ,

J V /^''

tr-V

r

I

V '

r

i).

• toicii.

^ VN

'\ Vj

>■

V^-:. f>'~v '-■ ■

.y.apocyi.
trochus.

r

.'25s lQfiCahki;ooa^^^^

ft '^^^.-jraaordial clminn?H;i — r '( '\ i Jj

\'l iJ-t. rni^?TOJnt of Polyzoorfr \\ • , ^

^ .;/A’^ ' 'V6.A -^1 V

I ■-/•ii -■ V“ ''T— ,>-V^-rr-p •-, of the mud in 27frgdriV: K^hX\t

^^u t . '*'* J: ... >■ otVT.0. tUe purt.i;d in

-✓Ti . - n_i;! (iiwttroTixi shell. \ | «al

^ p )j

'J... ©

, . . -Via acapfui.

Vs-r,.-/ ... ■:'{'■'■•■«« SP- (0.

ij.^y lui>«ua vp. (1).

(K

dS

VI-

■ '.-to, •'.oviufr

in..- • .■ .••'■ ^

i-fii.u of . .i- •; (?).

„ n ‘. i'-r.rrini,

■ Ba{ivina oenjricln.

I V 111.. -...,1,1..— .c -ichinHlerrn spine.

't . . • , i>-'T (’)• , ,,

• •- ' -.■f?. I'ii'fTSrt'tioii of sp. (*)-

li. Tniusve:s« sociiou of Nummidiles fp.

*,. . "P. (?)•

15. I/)UKituilinal aeetiou of OrlritoUU^ eomplanata.

K3 Tmncahilina 9\u (X)-

ir. Fr**nneiit of Mollusc nhell.

I-* I'arl sc-’ti. ii of Co/.'X. V •

iOni;'r»"rt ■■ ^ M ..'eiKH-lenri.

•’7Tt>. rf»«iii' IP- VI ji’n\ \ -w"^ ■'^

. 27 '-^?«VfjS^c.iv/of C''"'^ ^

1/ if I l-i mpA'inNs' Lu*^ .' \S, ' \

:^. Frafei4out/ot - W-sreou>'Al>'irt~'-^^ W \ j j

n- . • V, "n\” V '

■ of ealcsjfeiMK TkPi, \ N

'F/'i’TgTlAtiUiial aectiVif yi ■ V .

„. . Traiisfe^>.-«^ctioti ol'"7lTotofi»^8p. (■/ ,1- ■• A.

36. Longitudinal section of Bulmtna

Miliolina tnf ■

37.

f fj fr

38. Part section of VnrpfnUna inmti-
ay. Fragment of Wollunc .'jhell, with
n. attached.

cr< min. section of '

’• 1 f doposi t i u <’• ! Iht^ntvs, about Z|7a?ip.s-£roiir
V '< ii'ter.s, fig. 36 2<>0 VftumeterH), \{fa^ ihori if< i
%. c ilc^irenus fragments derived from^ji^ r^e ar

Fn><^iit oprieropotl shelL

i. '- r ( *. ’' ^ I 2jJ Longitudi'nvi^iijt^n of M

V ' o( t-iilfra. ■' ^ i../ ,

'- ^ ^ A Olub/^tfikui hdtiruifr y

' JfhiBr tina pif'jvuCiX.

a .iinmtinia (young) , — .,

"iilcareous Alt

2^7^i.i;0?cntof ^ollnsc shelL
sii^PjuJ. 8«'cl>*ii''Al'a8t. ifi.i’od »tn

<;i

■ % l

A

80. !SpoW^o\j

81. >^J

8-..,

os» . A

gvisr,;;

'jrair'M^t'^' sheiof <}Johrj.
36. Olfibi f~p^joui>

•|A f-

f.-n

:.A

t

■ \

)

II*

'm- oi Uie depo,' ..•'uS'ft 30 milea Vost >rf N'jfioi, F
tiifio.l f>0 di.i:iiet<:r-,.‘V\V>
det- iit "^ImTfh.z^.rmciprdiy mml.' Up

1 ^ '‘t 12.‘TIiiN/<n!ishell ofiN(/«'i«MftV

1. ^4, Sections nuH-ivlrrvl'Ti

.'y,. fb of 13r>6lf.^:iV.iivr'\io 4

lA';

■> ^U- ' ...7 k/. .f.1 V-w

>•? -i.icnf of test •■! >'j^i|o<l<Tin

1. r ' vii 'O of /v.vf/iiil 'Tn I mi.' -i

i .r f’ll «1/‘

•n #< tuifjlAriaii. i'i

\r Ji ;<li()h of

[b'*! /<?1sshcl! oj
lr/r irt!t ruJjra.

l_^v '

7|7f»tl

p p*'.t -

J'. .S./’ ,W

f 111-/ rr^i

u^n> ;■(•-,

.1/1 ift.

!•! ,'{/Cl 4 :,ner«i

i.ia r^mgbi^'ain.

_^:»gineut of test of K ’ . -,

io.^irl, soctioii of '^U-ce ' ■ 7l .4

dh /f

y.^ o7../.i> - (,xSo

V Op^ iS Kirsgiwut oC Avlsbh of -...

%

■^ . 1 i*. <H'4>ixyyi^Ul‘.4iifK A

r fit

\

■m

.1

jlhl

Voya ge of HM.S/tlhalleiig’er'

Deep SeaDeposit.i J^TV

i’’ i L .

() < j T> ■ 3'^’^August.l874..

>1 side Reeft . Off Kanda™. Fiji . L at .199.7; .^O'lS . Loi.g.l78919'.35';E

61Q Patliorns

tTi.aANat

Fig

‘2003)iam.

St-.atdon..l75 12^Aiig\LSt:.1874'.

Lat.lR? .2-'. S .Loii^f.1779. 10'. E .

1350 Ea~thom.«?.

CALCAREOUS DEPOSITS

f

PLATE XV.

This plato represents the appearance of various deposits in which siliceous organisms play an important role.

Fig. 1. Sections of Diatom Ooze from Station 157 ; 1950 fathoms, Southern Indian Ocean (fig. la magnified
50 diameters, fig 16 300 diameters). Although the deposit is principally made up of the frustules
of Diatoms, there are numerous shells of Glohiyenna in the deposit.

1. Rarliolnrian.

2. Diatoms.

3. Section of Olohigerina duterlrei.

4. Kadiolarian.

5. Globigtrina hulloidr.s.

6. Kudiohirian.

7. Section of Qlobigerina bulloides.

8. Part section of Glcbigerina bulloules-

9. Globigtrina {?).

10. Kadiolarian.

11. Diatom.

12.

13.

14.

16.

16.

17.

18.

19.

(Fragilaria).

( Coscinodiscus).

( Thalassiothrix).
(Navicula).
{Actinoeydm).
(Coscinodiscus fragment).

Fig. 2. Sections of Globigerina Ooze from Station 271 ; 2425 fathoms. Central Pacific (fig. 2a magnified 50
diameters, fig. 26 200 diameters). In this deposit, while tropical species of pelagic Foraminifera
predominate, tlie shells and skeletons of Radiolaria make up a very large part of the deposit.

1. Part section of Pulvinulina menardii.

2. Cyrtoidean.

3. Portion of Foraminiferous shell (?).

4. Double-shelled Spheeroidean.

6. Globige/ina bulloides (young).

6. Double-shelled Sphseroidean.

7. Lychnocanium siginopodimn.

8. Section of Discoidean ; unnumbered figure to

the right, Slylodictya arachnia.

9. Globigerina bulloides (young).

^0. >i )>

1 1. Part section of Globigerina conglobata.

12. Panartus IctreUhalamus.

13. Median section of Pullenia obliquiloculata.

14. Co:codiscidean.

15. Section of double-shelled Cubosphseridcan (?).

16. Section of Phacodiscidean.

17. Part section of Globigerina conglobata.

18. Section of Spongodiscidean.

19. Stylosphaeridean.

20. Section of double-shelled Sphseroidean or
Prunoidean.

21. Part section of Pulvinulina menardii.

22. Spongiose Prunoidean.

23. LyehnospJieera regina.

24. Section of fragment of shell of Pullenia

obliquiloculata.

25. Cyrtoidean.

26. Diatom ( Coscinodiscus ?).

27. Kadiolarian.

28. Ldthomitra eruca (?).

29. Cyrtoidean.

30. Carposphecra melitomma.

31. Portion of Porodiscidean.

Fig. 3. Section of Kadiolarian Ooze from Station 225 ; 4475 fathoms. Western Pacific, where the deposit is
principally made up of the remains of Radiolaria and other siliceous organisms.

1.

2.

3.

4.
6.
6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.
17.

Sponge spicule (Geodia ?).

Portion of Kadiolariau skeleton.

Sponge spicules.

Rhcj^odictyum sp. (?).

Stichocyrtidean (Diclyomilra caltanisettx 1 ),

(?)•

Portion of section of Porodiscidean.

Portion of shell of a Porodiscidean or Spongodis-
cidean.

Tricyrtidean.

Pipetlaria fusaria.

Stichocyrtidean.

Anthocyrtium, n. sp. (same form as in fig. 4,
No. 20).

Lychnocanium sigmopodium.

Sponge spicule.

S]>ongo spicule (?).

Carponjiluera vxilUveri (small specimen).
Prunoidean.

18. Fragment of Stylosphajridean (?).

19. Young stage or defective specimen of Carpo-

canium petalospyris.

20. Carposphaera waltheri.

21. Sponge spicules.

22. Dictyomitra caltanisettm.

23. Spyroidean.

24. Lruppula nucula (?).

25. Archicapsa quadriforis (?).

26. Tricyrtidean (same as No. 9).

27. Kadiolarian.

28. S[ionge spicule.

29. Cyrtoidean.

30. Sethodiscus phacoides.

31. Tricyrtidean (same as Nos. 9 and 26).

32. Spongodiscus Jlorealis.

33. Ent7j7npanium musicantum.

34. Cyrtoidean.

I'ig. 4. Section of Kadiolarian Ooze from Station 268 ; 2900 fathom.s. Central Pacific, where the deposit i.s
principally made up of the shells and skeletons of Radiolaria.

1. Fragment of skeleton of Phseodarian.

2. (?)

3. Cenotphecra compacla.

4. Akanihasphacra davaia (f).

5. .Section of Cyrtoidean.

6. Slylodictya kdioKjtira.

7. Portion of Crnonphwra sp. (t).

8. Siphonmphsera socialia.

9. .S|>yroidcan.

10. Cenospbaern mellijica.

11. Cyrtoidean.

12. Didijomitra caltanisettae.

13. Section of Phacodiscidean or Prunoidean (t).

14. Siphonosj)htera patinaria.

15. Stylosphicridean (?).

16. Fragment of liadiolarian skeleton.

1 7 . Dorcadospyris antil ope .

18. Section of Cyrtoidean.

19. Thcrosphmra zUtelii.

20. Anthoajrtium, n. sp. (same as No. 12 in

fig. 3).

21 . Section of shell of Cyrtoidean.

i\LATE XV.

I ' , .

T\m [)lato . ■ ■ * t osits in whiejM»Hu e<ni8 organisms

Se(jAjC^ <»>'W ^ ; i960 fathom l^^^oj)l.bem Imlian C

SadiaiiHi><' ;> • !6 300 ^ ' Although the ilopo.sit is pviiiciiially u

th of Ghbi,j«rina in the deposit.

II

0""O-.0

ipotisvijit rJ?S;

(II

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ft> (if G!o’. !

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( ThalasfiotJirix).
{yarvula).
{ActiAocydun).
(Coteiucduous fragment).

i rmilaaii

■yV. (Visual,

Ahs ^

V;

Station 271 ; 2425 fathoms, Ciu.tr^Wj^fmfic (fig. 2« magnified 50, - ,
i). In this dep<wsit, while t;oj>ic i^iwicii^ of pelagic Fo\i2^'.nifer.in
'.btous of Radiolariu raai:* up a ^ iOtpr\|. irt of the dep':>|it. ‘

17. t^rt section of Glctngtt i‘ft»
li Seijlpin of Smingisluj^'-UK
/si) Stljii,£^i^u.leai). // X isl

. 'X.nnuli-n^i I •iiarrfjT.
>i»i(?f**ii '(hell

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lulloidfs (young).

I

rfu figure- to

Ulofng- r\!ji^^0fj/u!l/jnla .

aatoma.v3'*’ ' ... J

)i. ^

fritunA'. UtnWMlaniu^

' 18. i^cpi&iiy'.-'tiouV‘

li. Co’codiicidean.

16. .SectioB of iloubla-alu'llotl Cubosphairidean (?).
16. Section of Phacodiacidean.

SoctioB
;lPnmoidoau.

Part section
Spongiose
^.IjychnvitpkxrA

■ 'on of fri ^
{UiuilocuJaia.

(i.an.

Coscinodiicxis
cruca (t).

V^r'tlyrtoiclean.

SfJ. Ca/yogp)ucra maliiormtux.
31. Portion of Porodiacidoan.

Fig. 3. Siv:ti'>n of Ra-lh.lorian Ooce from Station 225 j 1475 fathoms, Western Pacific, whore the dopowi
iHrinciiiiilly i. .nU. i- ii otf tlw' •.£ IttKiiolaru* and other siliceous organism^

*1^4 ‘ ,/ — ‘v 'cnrjrX^^.^. IZ'

f! 1 / X ”*'■ ^1 ■ TFJ

' ' CTodi*'i'Wu or .SjK>iigi jU»- 3t. }>'X-

•ti 26-' ; 2fi00
id skelctoofl of Kti' i'jlarin,

ic. AW-.-CTiu/ru caltoriiwZfjt;. /] V ’ ,
i gecti(mjQiJlhaci><liacidtW Ay

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riulvtt}>i/rl.f (mi.'ex, it
Tfli >»iwIJon of S^l^iiieaii.

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ytation 225. 2a’^?^TVrarnU.1875.
Xat.U? 24.'’.JSr,.T,ong.l4<3?16'. E .

4<t‘75 EatUoins.

SLa-tion. . 271- 61^September,1875.
T.at 0?,33's.Long.l51‘?34;W
2425 i'atlionis

SILICEOUS DEPOSITS.

PLATE XVI.

Fig. 1. Section of fragment of sideromelan, or unaltered basic volcanic glass, forming the nucleus of a man-
ganese nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. In this preparation there is seen
a skeleton crystal of olivine, and single and elongated grains of metallic oxides. At the upper
part of the figure the commencement of alteration into palagonite can be observed (magnified 37
diameters).'

Fig. 2. Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 160; 2600 fathoms. Southern Indian Ocean. It is an
unaltered fragment of sideromelan filled with little erystals of olivine, some of which contain
inclusions of glass similar to that forming the mass of the rock. There are also skeletons of
crystals forked at the two extremities. All the olivine crystals are surrounded by trichites
(magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific. It is formed of a
greenish grey sideromelan represented in the lower part of the figure, and of brownish yellow
palagonite represented in the upper part of the figure. This section shows that the palagonite

must be produced by the decomposition of the sideromelan, as it encloses crystals of olivine

similar to those observed in the unaltered glass in the lower part of the figure (magnified 37
diameters).

Fig. 4. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 302 ; 1 450 fathoms. South Pacific. This nucleus
of sideromelan has been partly transformed into red palagonite along the borders of fissures. The
glass contains colourless crystals of olivine, some of which are of considerable size, but the great
majority appear as microliths scattered throughout the mass (magnified 37 diameters).

* The following coloured figures of minerals and rocks were drawn by JI. E. de Munck, viz.: — PI. XVI. fig. 1; PI. XVII.

figs. 1, 2; PI. XVIII. figs. 1, 3; PI. XIX. figs. 1, 3, 4; PI. XXL fig. 1; PI. XXII. figs. 1, 2, 3; PI. XXVIII. fig. 3; PI. XXIX.

figs. 1, 2, 3. Several figures on PI, XXIII. were drawn by M. W. Prinz.

PLATE XVII.

(deep-sea deposits chall, exp, — 1891.)

PLATE XVII.

Fig. 1. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 285 ; 2375 fathoms, South Pacific, This section
shows two fragments of grey coloured sideromelan or unaltered basic glass, the one in the centre
of the figure, and the other on the left hand side, containing little crystals of olivine. Around these
two centres extends a yellowish mass, which contains similar crystals of olivine, and is derived from
the alteration of the sideromelan. The preparation shows a phase of decomposition in which the
palagonite still preserves a certain homogeneity. Manganese has infiltrated into the characteristic
fissures of the rock in the form of dendrites, especially in the upper part of the figure (magnified
145 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 293 ; 2025 fathoms. South Pacific. This figure
represents a frequent mode of decomposition of vitreous basic rocks ; the vitreous matter has been
entirely transformed into reddish palagonite, but it shows, like the preceding figure, a certain
homogeneity of structure, no fissures being visible in some parts. Among the mineralogical
elements, crystals of plagioclase are to be observed in the form of rhombic tables, completely
encased in the palagonite, as seen in the lower part of the figure. In the fractures there are
abundant infiltrations of manganese (magnified 145 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 160; 2600 fathoms, Southern Indian Ocean. This nucleus
is formed of a brownish basaltic volcanic glass, surrounded by products of decomposition. The
unaltered glass is represented by the greenish grey patch across the middle of the figure ; it is
perfectly isotropic, and contains little crystals of plagioclase, olivine, and augite. Similar minerals
are found in the yello^vish brown altered zones at the upper and lower parts of the figure. These
yellounsh zones are traversed by undulating lines, along which the substance breaks ; these zones
present between crossed nicols spherolithic polarisation, as observed in some zeolites (magnified 37
diameters).

Fig 4. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 302 ; 1450 fathoms. South Pacific. This section
represents a fragment of palagonite, with the perlitic structure and fissures usually accompanying
the advanced decomposition of this substance ; the parallel lines of the convex and concave zones
are highly characteristic, being rendered more distinct by the penetration of peroxide of manganese
(magnified 280 diameters).

Lilh ,vD^ .[ H eitzman n .

K. K. Hi> i’ u . S taalstU'uckf»reiWieix

PLATE XVIII.

Fig. 1. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 286; 2376 fathoms, South Pacific. In the
manganese forming the ground-work of the preparation, there are embedded irregular, triangular,
elongated, or quadrilateral fragments, having a yellowish tint, and formed of successive zones of
different shades of colour ; very often there is a hoUow centre, in which crystals of zeolites are
sometimes formed. In polarised light these fragments are birefrangent, like palagonite, and are
believed to be altered fragments of basic volcanic glass (magnified 146 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific. This nucleus
is formed by an aggregation of greenish, vesicular, volcanic lapilli, enclosing little lamellss of plagio-
clase and sections of olivine almost entirely replaced by limonite mixed with manganese, and in
addition some grains of augite. These are splinters of basaltic rock, with an altered vitreous base,
the different lapilli being cemented by fibro-radiate bands of zeolites, forming a mammillated coating
around each splinter (magnified 145 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 276; 2360 fathoms, South Pacific. This nucleus is com-
posed of volcanic fragments of a vitreous nature, transformed into palagonite. There are numerous
areolar cavities lined or filled with zeolites, besides numerous lamellae of plagioclase. The two
lapilli partially represented in the figure are surrounded by zeolitic zones, the interspace being
filled with earthy matters and peroxide of manganese (magnified 60 diameters).

Fig. 4. .Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific. This nucleus consists
of a fragment of palagonite of a red colour, in which there are some lamellae of plagioclase. The
vesicles are everywhere occupied by fibro-radiate colourless zeolites, in a thick layer towards the
interior, but in concentric zones towards the external border, the empty space in the centre being
frequently filled by manganese or muddy matters. The characteristic fractures depending on the
perlitic structure are in this specimen more circular than is usually the case (magnified 145 dia-
meters).

Deep Sc;j deposil.s Plate XVIll

'he \b\'iide of fl.M.S, ..Cfiallen^er."

\C

^ . rjj

< .

fj!.. .<. 2 I • , , . . ■ :.~ i 'I- ; i ; ., . "i' ,. ^ :

■ ■ . ' '■ ' ^ •. a. 'o. r;;r

»i (>i. vf*'.-

PLATE XIX.

Fig. I. Section of nucleus of nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. This represents a portion
of a lapilli, principally formed of an aggregation of extremely thin crystals of plagioclase in the
form of rhombic tables. From the optical properties this plagioclase appears to be bytownite. The
fimdamental mass of the rock, now transformed into palagonite, was originally a blackish glass.
The dark colour at some points of the figure is due to the presence of manganese. This rock is
profoundly altered, the felspars alone having resisted decomposition. In some parts there are
sections of augite and of olivine entirely transformed into a red substance, with a fibrous appear-
ance. The rock is a felspathic basalt with a vitreous base (magnified 60 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. This espe-
cially represents the decomposition of olivine. The fragment belongs to a basaltic rock in which
porphyritic crystals of olivine are imbedded. The fundamental mass, which is highly altered and
penetrated by manganese, is fiUed with little crystals of plagioclase, as seen in the upper and lower
parts of the figure. In the crystal of olivine occupying the centre of the figure the optical pro-
perties are almost effaced ; it presents a more or less pronounced fibrous structure. The mineral
is in part transformed into hematite, and manganese penetrates into all the fissures traversing the
crystal in an irregular manner (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 293 ; 2025 fathoms, South Pacific. This figure
represents the nucleus as seen by reflected light. The centre is composed of a black and homo-
geneous volcanic glass (sideromelan or tachylite), which is still unaltered. All aroimd this are
successive zones, like those of an agate, which correspond to different phases of decomposition.
Those nearest the centre are colourless or tinged with yellow, succeeded by others in which the
tints are brown or green, the fractures being irregular. Beyond these altered zones are successive
layers of peroxide of manganese (magnified 20 diameters).

Fig. 4. Section of nucleus of manganese nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. The funda-
mental mass of this fragment, which was formerly vitreous, is transformed into yellowish palagonite.
In this altered mass are embedded large and small crystals of plagioclase, the larger ones having
undergone but little alteration, and sections of olivine transformed into a reddish material with a
fibrous structure, like the crystal represented in fig. 2. These crystals of olivine have inclusions
of the vitreous base of the rock at the centre. Augite is rare in this preparation ; there are some
cr}’stais of magnetite. The rock is a felspathic basalt with a vitreous base (magnified 50 dia-
meters).

3. n.

del. I<itli.v:D^XHeitzmann ^ J<.Hof-u.StaalsdruckereiUien.

PLATE XX

PLATE XX.

PHOSPHATIC CONCRETIONS.

Fig. I. Section of phosphatic concretion from Green Sand, Station 142 ; 150 fathoms, on the Agulhas Bank, off
the Cape of Good Hope. The most abundant particles are rounded greenish grains of glauconite,
associated with numerous little fragments of quartz, generally angular but sometimes rounded,
distinguished in the figure by colourless sections. Towards the centre a large fragment of plagio-
clase is seen. All these mineral fragments are enclosed in a mass of amorphous, dirty yellowish
bixnrn, phosphate of lime (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of phosphatic concretion from Globigerina Ooze, Station 143; 1900 fathoms. Southern Indian
Ocean. The most distinct bodies imbedded in the phosphate of lime are the shells of Globigerinidae
and Pulvinulinid®. In the nodule represented in fig. 1 the phosphate plays simply the role of a
cement for the glauconite and sandy particles ; in the nodule represented in this figure the phos-
phate is more abundant, penetrating into all the hollow spaces of the Foraminifera, where it is
present with a clearer tint than in the fundamental enveloping mass. It may be perceived infil-
trating by the foramina, but generally the pseudomorphism of the calcareous shells into phosphate
is not complete, the characteristic colourless appearance of the shells being preserved in many of
the sections. In some of the internal casts of the shells the phosphate is brown, owing to the
presence of iron or organic matters (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of nodule from the same station presenting a more advanced phase of phosphatisation ; almost
all the carbonate of lime of the Foraminifera sheUs is pseudomorphosed into phosphate, which has
assumed a concretionary form, and in certain points gives the black cross of spherolithic aggregates
(magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 4. Section of another nodule from Station 143. Not only is the phosphatisation here complete, but it is
no longer possible to recognise the presence of the pseudomorphosed organic remains nor the
internal casts of phosphate of lime. The whole field of the microscope presents a concretionary
structure. The section does not extinguish uniformly between crossed nicols, but presents vague
tints like concretionary minerals, and the black cross may be observed in some zones. Certain
deei)cr coloured patches are filled with inclusions of heterogeneous particles, but on their borders
a clearer zone may be observed, which follows all the contours and presents the characters of con-
cretionary phosphate (magnified 37 diameters).

[Fhe Voyage of H,M.S."Challen^er.’'

Deep-Sea Deposits. Pl.ZX,

PHOSPHATIC

CONCRETIONS

F. K-utK, Liih’^ Edm^

PLATE XXL

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

PLATE XXL

Fig. 1. Section of nucleus of an elongated manganese nodule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific.

This preparation offers an excellent example of the abundance and variety of volcanic products at
the sea-bottom. The fragments of minerals and rocks have been enveloped by depositions of the
peroxide of manganese, and form a veritable tufa composed of many species of rocks and minerals.
Commencing at the top of the figure, there is a colourless crystal of plagioclase surrounded by
altered vitreous matter, irregular colourless particles of volcanic glass, more or less vesicular, black
and opaque fragments of volcanic rocks surrounded by a whitish zone of zeolites. Near the centre
of the figure to the left is a particle of sideromelan, infiltrations of manganese, small volcanic
fragments, basaltic lapilli wth pores filled with zeolites and an external zeolitic zone. To the right,
embedded in the manganese, is a rather large black and opaque basaltic lapilli, in part surrounded
by zeolites. Beneath this there is a rather large greenish fragment of pumice, and alongside of it
a fragment of sideromelan. Towards the lower part of the figure there are again lapilli and
fragments of zeolites surrounding or detached from the fragments of rocks. The yellowish mass
in which all the fragments are embedded is composed of muddy matters more or less coloured with
iron and manganese, and the whole surrounded by concretionary layers of the peroxide of manganese
(magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of volcanic tufa from Station 281 ; 2385 fathoms. South Pacific, the macroscopic appearance
of which is represented on PI. IV. fig. 3. The figure shows two parts sharply marked off from
each other : that to the right a more or less homogeneous Eed Clay, that to the left formed of an
agglomeration of volcanic mineral particles representing a shower of volcanic ashes that had fallen
upon the deposit. The whole has been surrounded by depositions of manganese, which have
preserved the layers in their primitive position (see PI. IV. fig. 3). In the Eed Clay, near the
lower part of the figure, a small manganese nodule is represented with a reddish centre ; the brown
colour of the Red Clay passes in the layer of volcanic minerals to a greenish colour, due to the
presence of numerous individuals of augite and hornblende. All these minerals are clastic, have a
sharp fracture, and give the imjiression that they belong to a volcanic ash. The largest and most
numerous are fragments of hornblende with a brown or greenish colour, and about 0*5 mm. in
diameter ; augite is much less abundant, and the crystals are less deejily coloured. Felspars,
especially fragments of plagioclase, can be observed, but they are generally altered and decomposed
into a zeolitic substance. Finally, there are some little fragments of volcanic rocks, in which the
jirincipal elements are microliths of augite, as well as fragments of magnetite, vitreous basaltic
lafiilli, and peroxide of manganese (magnified 37 diameters).

:e Voyage of H.M.S. „ Challenger.

Uoep Se-ri deposits Plate XXI.

I

✓

i

i

j

^ k

in

#

4

r

• 4*

PLATE XXII.

Fig. 1. Fine washings of a Red Clay from Station 276; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. The little, colourless,
prismatic crystals are simple or grouped microliths of phillipsite, and are associated with more or
less circular grains of manganese and argillaceous substance (magnified 280 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of a spherule formed by crystals of phillipsite from Station 276; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific.

The spherule is entirely enveloped by the clay and penetrated by manganese. The section shows
the form of the crystals towards the periphery of the spherule, more or less inclined to the longer
axis. These spherules are about OT mm. in diameter (magnified 60 diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of a spherule of crystals of phillipsite forming the nucleus of a manganese nodule from Station
276 ; 2350 fathoms, South Pacific. The section passes through the centre of the spherule, which
is about OT mm. in diameter. It seems to be formed by a more or less regular grouping of the
little crystals following approximately the radii of a circle, and they increase in size as they approach
the periphery. In several crystals the zones of increase are indicated by lines of inclusions, and in
others these zones are shown to be grouped concentrically. The crystals of phillipsite forming the
spherule are surrounded by a thin layer of manganese, beyond which is a muddy deposit, contain-
ing particles of volcanic minerals and manganese (magnified 60 diameters).

Fig. 4. Crj’stals of phillipsite of considerable size found free in the clay at Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South
Pacific. They are generally grouped in an in-egular manner, or show a tendency to form twins.
They are covered w'ith manganese depositions or form the centres of little concretions of that
substance (magnified 37 diameters).

he Voyage of H.M.S ..Challenger,' Deep Sea deposits Plate XXII

I.'.'*"' ^ , 'W'J'S ■ ''

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PLATE XXIII.

Fig. 1. Magnetic spherule of cosmic origin from Station 285; 2375 fathoms, South Pacific. This spherule
was extracted from a manganese nodule, and has a coating of black magnetic iron, with a brilliant
and shagreoned surface (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 2. Magnetic spherule from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific. It is regular in form, but has not a
central nucleus. The figure shows a broken surface, which is blue-black, with a dull aspect. The
structure presents many somewhat regular cleavages. Although presenting some of the characters
of chondrcs of bronzite, somewhat like that shown in fig. 11, the origin of this spherule must be
regarded as doubtful (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 3. Spherule composed of crystals of phillipsite from Station 276 ; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific. The
crystals are terminated by the faces of domes or pyramids. This shows the external aspect of the
spherules seen in section in Plate XXII. figs. 2 and 3 (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 4. Cosmic magnetic spherule from Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific. The external aspect of
this spherule is similar to that shoAvn in fig. 1, but the figure exhibits the characteristic cupule
present in nearly all these cosmic sj^herules (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 5. Cosmic magnetic spherule from interior of nodule from Station 276; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific.

A part of the external layer has been removed to show the grey metallic nucleus of native iron
(magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 6. Cosmic magnetic spherule from Station 276; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific, embedded in a mass of
little crystals of zeolites (magnified 90 diameters). .

Fig. 7. Metallic nucleus of a cosmic spherule from the same station. This nucleus has a grey metallic lustre ;

it has taken a discoidal form under pressure in an agate mortar. When placed in an acid solution
of sulphate of copper, no copper was precipitated, and it is probably an aUoy of iron, nickel, and
cobalt (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 8. Cosmic spherule from Station 285; 2375 fathoms. South Pacific, a portion of the crust having been
removed to show the metallic nucleus (magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 9. Metallic nucleus of cosmic spherule from Station 276; 2350 fathoms. South Pacific. The black coating
has been removed, and the particle has assumed a discoidal appearance under pressure in an agate
mortar. "VMien placed in an acid solution of sulphate of copper, the copper w'as at once precipitated
over the whole surface, which indicates that the nucleus was composed of native iron (magnified
90 diameters).

Fig. 10. {See fig. 13.)

Fig. 11. Chondre from Globigerina Ooze, Station 338; 1990 fathoms. South Atlantic. This chondre is about
1 mm. in diameter. In reflected light under the microscope it has a bronze metalloid reflection.
It is formed by the juxtaposition of a great number of lamellm, which start from an excentric
jwint, where there is a depression in the form of a cupule. The characters are quite analogous tc'
those of chondres of meteorites (magnified 37 diameters).

Figs. 13 and 10. Microstructure of one of the lamellm of the chondre represented in fig. 11. These are formed
of an accumulation of little colourless prisms, about 0'05 mm. in diameter. The prisms follow
two directions, cutting each other at an angle of 70°. The lamellae have many dark-coloured
inclusions in the form of crystallites, which are probably magnetite, arranged regularly following
the direction of the little prisms (magnified 390 diameters).

Fig. 12. Appearance of the magnetic particles extracted from Iladiolarian Ooze, Station 274; 2760 fathom.s.
Mid I ’aeific, afU*r being broken down in an agate mortar, and treated with an acid solution of
sulphate of coj>per. The black particles are fragments of magnetite and coatings of the cosmic
spherules, while those on which copper has been deposited are malleable particles of native iron
(magnified 37 diameters).

Tie Voyage of H.M.S. „GlialIen^eT "

A. I lard del.

Deep Sea deposits Plate XXltt.

ilH

1

Liih ,v. D J. H <=» i t'i m a n n .

K.r<.H of-u«S taalsdruckereiVien.

If

PLATE XXIV.

This Plate is intended to represent as nearly as possible the appearance of the casts which are formed in

and on the Foraminiferous shells and other calcareous organisms in different varieties of marine deposits.

Fig. 1. Glauconitic particles that remain after the removal of the carbonate of lime from a deposit on the
Agulhas Bank, off the Cape of Good Hope (magnified 35 diameters). The grains have an average
diameter of about 1 millimetre, and are isolated or agglomerated into nodules. They are often
mammillated, and always more or less rounded ; some are hard and black or dark green, others
softer and pale green or yellow. The surface of the grains is often shining. The casts of Fora-
minifera, and other organisms, are pale green or bro^vn, rarely dark green, although many of the
dark green grains appear to have the form of the Foraminifera rudely displayed. Station 142 ;
150 fathoms. Southern Ocean.

Fig. 2. Similar deposit from off the coast of Australia (magnified 35 diameters). On the removal of the car-
bonate of lime there is seen to be a very much larger number of casts of the calcareous organisms
than in the Agulhas Bank formation. The chambers of the shells are filled, or partially filled,
with red, yellow, brown, and pale green casts in various stages of consolidation. Where these casts
are not opaque they give aggregate polarisation. Besides the casts, there are many grains in the
deposit, similar to those described by mineralogists under the name of glauconite, which in many
cases show roughly the form of the Foraminifera. Station 164b; 410 fathoms. South Pacific.

Fig. 3. Casts obtained by removing the carbonate of lime from a large quantity of Coral Sand from off the
Great Barrier Reef of Australia (magnified 25 diameters). They are aU of a brick-red colour ; one
or two had a greenish tinge, but there was no true glauconite. These casts have a porous aspect,
arising from the presence in the cast of carbonate of lime, which has been dissolved by the action
of the acid. The red substance of these casts gives aggregate polarisation. Station 185b; 155
fathoms. Torres Strait.

Fig. 4. Red caste of Foraminifera from the South Pacific (magnified 25 diameters). This is one of the few
instances in which numerous perfect caste of these organisms have been found in a deep-sea deposit
far from land. There is frequently an external as well as an internal cast, and the two are united
by numerous little pillars which had occupied the foramina of the shells. There is no glauconite in
the deposit. When the colour is discharged by concentrated hydrochloric acid, colourless globules
of the original forms remain, sho'wing that we are not here dealing with an infiltration of fine mud
or clay, but with a chemical combination that has taken place in the interior and on the external
surface of the shells. Station 176 ; 1450 fathoms. South Pacific.

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PLATE XXV.

(deep-sea deposits chall, exp. — 1891.)

PLATE XXV.

Illustrates various phases assumed by glauconite in existing oceans.

Fig. 1. Glauconitic casts and particles from off the coast of Australia, as seen between crossed nicols, showing
aggregate polarisation. Little green and blue points form a very fine mosaic on a brownish-coloured
ground. Station 164n; 410 fathoms. South Pacific (magnified 50 diameters).

Fig. 2. Glauconite-like particle of a brown-green colour. The mammillated surface is quite like a typical
glauconitic grain, but this particular grain appears to be an altered rock fragment.

Fig. 3. Particle of a lighter colour than the preceding, but having apparently a similar origin.
Fig. 4. Specimen of Glohigeriiia hulloides filled with a glauconitic cast.

Fig. 5. Specimen of Truncatidina refulgens filled with glauconitic cast.

Fig. G. Specimen of Miliolina seminulum filled with cast.

Fig. 7. Specimen of Uvigerina pygmsea filled with cast.

Figs. 8 and 9. Casts of OrhUina universa.

Fig. 10. Cast of Anomalina coroncUa.

Fig. 1 1 . Cast probably formed in the interior of Orhulina universa.

Fig. 12. Specimen of Glohigerina packyderma filled with cast.

Fig. 13. Cast of Polystomella arctica.

Fig. 14. Cast of Anomodina coronata.

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PLATE XXVI.

Fip. 1. Mineral particles in the residue of a Globigerina Ooze. Station 300; 1375 fathoms, South Pacific,
Tliese are essentially of a volcanic nature : in addition to fragments of pumice, easily recognised
by their structure and the absence of colour, there are homogeneous red-brown particles, vitreous
fragments altered into palagonite, and also fragments of felspars, augite, and grains of magnetite
(magnified 90 diameters).

Fig. 2. Mineral particles of a Red Clay. Station 282 ; 2450 fathoms, South Pacific. AU the particles are
of volcanic origin. Fragments of felspar may be recognised by the homogeneity and regular frac-
ture. There are numerous fragments of pumice. The brown grains are particles of palagonite or
other mineral particles coated with deposits of manganese and iron (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 3. Mineral particles from a Red Clay, Station 165a; 2600 fathoms. South Pacific. In addition to
fragments of pumice, splinters of felspar, and little green prisms of augite, which are the usual
minerals in a Red Clay, there are represented in the figure many rounded granules of quartz, for
the most part covered ■with limonite. The mineralogical nature and form of these granules show
that they are not a normal element in the Red Clay deposit ; they are believed to be particles
borne by atmospheric currents from the Australian continent (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 4. Mineral particles from a Globigerina Ooze. Station 303 ; 1325 fathoms. South Pacific. This figure
shows abundance of glassy volcanic particles, belonging for the most part to the acid and filamen-
tous variety of pumice, although there are also fragments of the basic variety with rounded pores and
of a yellow or red-brown colour (magnified 175 diameters).

I'ig. 5. Mineral particles of a Beach Sand from Diamond Point, Honolulu, Sand'wich Islands. These are
almost exclusively formed of unaltered crystals of oli'vine, along with some ■vitreous particles.
Similar particles are -^^udely distributed in the Coral Muds and Sands of the neighbouring coasts
(magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 6. Mineral particles of a Beach Sand from the Admiralty Islands. Among these may be recognised large
colourless fragments of felspar (plagioclase), prismatic green fragments, more or less irregular, of
augite, brown fragments of hornblende, dirty brown basaltic lapilli, fragments of palagonite, olivine,
magnetite, and particles of volcanic glass (magnified 37 diameters).

The Voyage of H.M.S "Challenger’

Deep-Sea Deposits. PI. XXVI

4-

MINERAL PARTICLES.

PLATE XXVII.

Fifj. 1. Microscopic mineral particles from a Volcanic Mud, Station 262; 2875 fathoms, North Pacific.

The particles are principally brown splinters of volcanic glass, showing in typical form the irregular
outlines and conchoidal fracture, as well as the elongated fibrous structure of some varieties of
pumice (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 2. Mineral particles and fine washings of a Red Clay. Station 178; 2650 fathoms. South Pacific. The
little colourless angular particles scattered over the figure are microscopic splinters of volcanic glass,
or of minerals from eruptive rocks. Among these are vitreous fragments of a larger size as well as
crj’stalline particles. The red-brown particles are palagonite. There are felspars and green par-
ticles of augite (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 3. Mineral particles of a Red Clay. Station 240 ; 2900 fathoms. North Pacific. These are essentially
volcanic products. Among them may be recognised numerous fragments of pumice and other glassy
volcanic particles, plagioclase, and palagonitic grains of a red colour (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 4. Mineral particles of a Red Clay. Station 294; 2270 fathoms. South Pacific. As in the preceding
figure, these are almost wholly composed of volcanic products, in which pumice fragments are the
most abundant ; there are also felspar, plagioclase, green fragments of augite, red palagonitic par-
ticles, and small crystals of quartz. The last are hexagonal prisms terminated by two pyramids ;
two individuals at the top of the figure are united together with their vertical axes parallel. The
brown-black particles are peroxide of manganese (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 5. Fine washings of a Radiolarian Ooze. Station 225; 4475 fathoms. Western Pacific. This figure
represents the exceedingly fine grains or flocculent matter, mixed with particles of volcanic glass,
felspars, palagonitic and manganese grains, together with minute fragments of Radiolarians and
other siliceous organisms (magnified 175 diameters).

Fig. 6. Mineral particles of a Green !Mud. Station 189 ; 28 fathoms, Arafura Sea. This figure shows the
difference in a mineralogical composition and in the dimensions and form of the grains in a terri-
genous deposit compared with pelagic deposits, which are represented in the five preceding figures
on this plate. Rounded fragments of quartz, sometimes covered with a reddish deposit of limonite,
are the most numerous. Some colourless particles terminated by cleavages are felspar ; the rounded
green grains are glauconite. There are also crystals of tourmaline and zircon (magnified 37 dia-
meters).

k

The Voyage of H. M S. "Challenger

Deep-Sea Deposits Pi.X'AVi'I

F Huth.Lithr Ediiif

MINERAL PARTICLES AND FINE WASHINGS.

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PLATE XXVIII.

Fig. 1. Section of manganese nodule from Station 160; 2600 fathoms, Southern Indian Ocean. This micro-
scopic preparation shows, besides the zonary arrangement, a dendritic structure of the manganese.
These dendrites are arranged along the radii of the nodule, and the manganese is, as it were, im-
bedded in a yellowish brown mass of clayey and earthy matters (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 2. Section of manganese nodule from Station 160 ; 2600 fathoms, Southern Indian Ocean. Around the
indefinite white-coloured nucleus there is a concretionary arrangement of the manganese in the
form of dendrites ; the radiate structure is not, however, well marked. The large ovoid body
occupying most of the figure was’ probably the primary form of the original nucleus (magnified 37
diameters).

Fig. 3. Section of manganese nodule from Station 285; 2375 fathoms, South Pacific. This figure shows a
nodule vith several concretionary centres, consisting of organic particles or fragments of palagonite
or other volcanic rocks. The depositions which had commenced arovmd these several centres
ultimately became united into a single nodule by the formation of successive layers of manganese
(magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 4. Section of manganese nodule from Station 160; 2600 fathoms. Southern Indian Ocean. This figure
shows the dendritic and zonary arrangement of the manganese (magnified 37 diameters).

Fig. 6. Section of manganese nodule from the same station, showing a dendritic arrangement of the man-
ganese, in which the radiate structure is not well marked, but presenting zones in which the
colouring matter has accumulated (magnified 37 diameters).

I'he \byage of Jl.M.S

Challenger

Deep .Sea hefio.sjls PlateXX'VlII

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PLATE XXIX.

(deep-sea deposits chall. exp. — 1891.)

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig.

Fig.

PLATE XXIX.

. Section of manganese nodule from Station 285; 2375 fathoms, South Pacific. It shows a zonary
arrangement of the concretion around a fragment of a shark’s tooth. The alternate zones consist
of lighter and darker layers, the manganese being accumulated in the dark, and the clayey matters
more abundant in the light, bands (magnified 37 diameters).

. Section of manganese nodule from the same station. This concretion contains several nuclei. Near
the upper part of the figure there is a section of a shark’s tooth, and portions of other teeth may be
seen in different parts of the figure. Near the lower part there is a volcanic lapilli, containing
green augite and plagioclase. Around each of these centres the manganese has been deposited in
a concentric manner, and during the growth of the nodule the numerous other particles have been
enveloped by the manganese (magnified 37 diameters).

1. Section of manganese nodule from the same station. This preparation shows the arrangement of the
manganese under a higher power, the manganese being more abundant in the dark patches, while
the lighter colour represents the spaces for the most part made up of clayey and earthy matters
(magnified 145 diameters).

1. Section of manganese nodule from the same station. This figure shows the zonary arrangement of the
manganese around two principal centres, and their subsequent envelopment in one nodule by the
continuous deposition of layers of manganese, which have enclosed at the same time the clayey
matters with their fragments of minerals and organisms (magnified 37 diameters).

[lie Vovaoo of II.NL3, „niallen^er.'

Doep Scp deposits Plate XXIX.

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For i-.rpUinaiion of abbreviations &x. see Appendix; 1.

CHART 29 .

D e ep- S e a, D ep o sits .

Tke Vo'yage of H.M.S .Challen-geoi’.

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SOUNDINGS STATIONS

UK the vicinity of

^vIATUKU ISLA^^JJ

Obs Spot + Lot 19°9'38'S.^Ionx/.179°43‘2-i':E.
For explanation of dl)l)Teyiatians se^ Appttn/lix:, i.

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CHAJIT 39

SOUNDINGS AND STATIONS
in the vicinity of

TAHITI ISLAND

Til e Voyage of H.M.S.Ciialleiiger

Deep-Sea Deposits ,

680

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( Lat.l7?3i:30rs.

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aiACRAM 4-. Deep-Sea Deposits.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

ThcVoyage of H.M S.Oiailrajger.

I.on^tudmal Temperature Secttou . From a position in Lat, 3°8'.]Sr._Long. 1E3TW, to Pemamlmct

For ejcpT/znatioTb of* Symbols see/ JlppenSScc 1 .

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HORIZONTAL SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES

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DIAGRAMS Deep-Sea Deposits.

Tile Voyag-e of H,M,S.Clxan.engei-.

INDIAN OCEAN ■

Meridional Temper ati.ire Section
Cape of Good Hojietotlie pai'allel of 46“ S.

o For eccplanation of Symbols see AppenSisc 1 .

o

o

'g (m) @ (jg)

MalW& Sous

VERTICAL SCALE Oh FATHOMS

2-ACRAM 9

Dei’p-Sea 1 leposits.

The Voyage (jf H.M.S. Challenger.

05®

SOUTHERN INDIi\N OCEAN

Moi'i di o n al Temp er atur e S e cti o n

Between tlie Parallels of 50° and 65° Sontli Lat.

For ejcplanaiioTh of Svmiols seo j^-ppendLn- 1 .

<JS) CTsg) (156)

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1950 37'

10

'ITne Voyage of HM.S.Ckallenger.

Deep-Sea Deposits

SOUTHERN INDIAN OCEAN

Diagonal Temperature Section . From a Position mLat. 53“55U. Lon^. 108“35!E.to C.Otwaj.

Far ea:plancLtiorh of Sjrrrihols se4^ A]jpeTxdijo 1 .

(®)

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HORIZONTAL SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES

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VKRTICAL SCALE OE KATHOMS

DIAGRAM II

Deep-Sea Deposits.

rtieVbya^ of f l.M ,S, Challenger.

PACIFIC OCEAN

Longitud;Lnal Temperature Section
SytlueY , New South. AVales , to Purirua , (iook strait , New Zealand

For e^plaruition of Svvihols sep ^ippendi-Ty 1 .

iS3; d|4j

2600]
2700^
2800!
2900
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3100 1

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HORIZONTAL SCALE OF NAUTICAL MILES

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DIAGRAM 12 Deep-Sea. Deposits.

'I'lie of 11 M

PACIFIC OCEAN

Meridional Temperature Section. Kandavu I. to C.Palliser, New Zea]a,nfl

Tat' ea:p2anation of Symbols see Appendijc 1 .

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DIAGRAM 14

Deep-Sea Deposits.

Tlie Voyage ol' H.M.S,(.'ha,l] anger

Diagram sliowing the Distrihutioii of Temperature m tlie iS(?a.s
enclosed hy the Islands of the EASTERN ARCHIPELAGO.

Far ejcpJanutiojz of Symbols see^ Appendix 1 .

NORTH

PACIFIC

CHINA

SEA

SULU SEA

CELEBES

SEA

MOLUCCA

STRAIT

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VERTICAL SCALE OF FATHOMS

DIAGRAM 15

Deep-Sea Deposits

Tiie Vbyaj^e of H.M.S.Ch.aiLen^er.

PACIFIC OCEAN

Lon^tudinal Temperature Section . Meangis F to Admiralty I®

For eoF^cinatioTi/ o'f' Syrnbols see/ Aj>pen3Fxi/ 1 .

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VERTICAL SCALE OF FATHOMS

DIAGRAM 18

Deep-Sea Deposits.

The Voyage oT U.M .S.('h<iUeng<;r.

PACIFIC OCEAN

Longitiidixial Temperature Section

From a Position in Lat.35°49.N. Long.l80',’W.to a Positron m Lat.38“9. N. Loa^. ]56':'ZS.W

For explanation of Symbols see .Appendix 2 .

H0RI70NTA*. SCALf OF NAUTICAL MILES

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VERTICAL SCALE OF FATHOMS

DIAGRAM 21 J)t“ep-Sea Deposits. "^rhe <j1’ ll.M.S.niallfUger.

PACIFIC OCEAN

Mendional Tempera.ture Section off tiie West ajast
of SonlE America tietween tke 33^^ and 46^ Parallels.

For cjcplcmxvtiorb of Sjyirdtols see AppenFLe .1 .

36“ 37“ 38“ 39® W* •U® 42“ 43

H0RI7ONTAL SCALE OF DECREES OF LATITUDE

xuorared bv MilbrlS: Skins

f

VERTICAL SCALE OF FATHOMS

DIAGRAM 22 Deep-Sea Deposits.

T]ie Voyage of H.M.S.Challcager.

ATLANTIC OCEAN

Meridional Temper atitre Section
FalMand. Islands to die Parallel of 35" 40, S.

For ejoplcmation erf SynChoJs see ^Ippendisc 1 .

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190073-5

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