a ish ee — = Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2008 with funding from Microsoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/charlesdarwinhisOOholduoft 6% * i on a ak ae / * as he = a ¥ * 7 eS Oe oe 7 reten ea A 7 7 ees) - ape ae Biv, al i aye it Fhe = ee ~ hen 4 y ' ecaaee oN ‘ et ot 7 ‘ tie 7) _ Ty a ‘ + al " ‘ i ‘ el f 1 1 a i pe a : ‘ oat : 7 ae | ; 4 + = L + Se . ‘ - 7 . ne 3 ie »_* s* ; i ; : y tagcat na, RRO wre a> " a ve = 2 * Aca ose | ie ie as ty ws v r 4 f a Ae Sr Pe ae eal Le wee Ie, en ee ‘ Sar ai : ce oe ‘ a Afuyent COeredith DARWIN AND THE SQUIRRELS. Deaders in Science CHARLES DARWIN HIS LIFE AND WORK BY CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER FELLOW OF THE N.Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE LINNZAN SOCIETY, ETC., AUTHOR OF ** ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY,” “* LIVING LIGHTS,’ “‘ THE IVORY KING,” “A STRANGE COMPANY,” ETC. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEW YORK LONDON 27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD ST. 27 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND Ehe Hnicherbocker Press 1891 QM 3I DQHKOS CopyriIGHT, 1891 BY CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER 604311 IS 3.55" The Knickerbocker Press, ew Work Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by G. P. Putnam’s Sons 8 HEN the publishers proposed to me the subject of the present = volume,a life of Charles Darwin for American and English read- > ers, I was particularly. gratified Zi with the suggestion that the work ; should be adapted to young réaders as well as old. It has always seemed to me that the life of Charles Darwin was one eminently fitted to be held up as an example to the youth of all lands. He stood as the central figure in the field of natural science in this century, and while it is yet too early to present . his life with any approximation of its results upon - the thought of the future, it is apparent to every 4 one that his influence upon the intellectual growth of the country, and upon biological science in par- q ticular, has been marked and epoch making. 3 In the preparation of the work I have not at- j tempted an analytical dissertation upon Darwin’s life-work, neither have I discussed his theories or their possible effect upon the scientific world, but v 4 ~~. tavern, eu -e ., oo vi Preface. have simply presented the story of his life, that of one of the greatest naturalists of the age; a life of singular purity ; the life of a man who, in loftiness of purpose and the accomplishment of grand results, was the centre of observation in his time; revered and honored, yet maligned and attacked as few have been. I have asked my readers to follow with me the footsteps of the naturalist from school-days in Eng- land to foreign shores, seeking to interest them in the pursuits which he loved and to enable them to observe the things which he saw, believing that in this way the remarkable traits of the man as an observer and thinker can be best and most forcibly shown. I have had an object beyond that of simply telling his story, and one which I believe would com- mend itself to the great investigator were he living: it is, by tracing and following his work and investiga- tions, to encourage young men and women to emu- late his methods, become students in the great field of nature, and enjoy the delights of actual contact with the world of which he was an active worker. That such a career is ennobling I trust the following pages will demonstrate. In the preparation of this volume I am indebted to Francis Darwin, Esq., of Cambridge, England, whose life of his father is the only work extant giving fully the life and letters of the naturalist. My thanks are also due the Biological Society of Wash- ington for the extracts from the Darwin Memorial, which I conceive to be of especial interest to Eng- lish readers as an expression from the leading *. “7 ee ds ve, pike ‘AGCNLS SiNIAAY VA ae = SAVY! Atnonly , FNS ia "i CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. PAGE THE BOY DARWIN . : : . . ° . I The First Paper—Taste for Natural History—Birthplace— Early School-Days—Religious Nature—Books Which Infiu- enced Him—Associates—Introduction to Scientific Men— Taste for Sport. CHAPTER It. COLLEGE DAYS . = s 6 . ° ° a re College Life—Thoughts of Entering the Church—A Poor Mathematician — Beetle Collecting—First Appearance in Print—Associations with Eminent Men—Scientific Reading —Favourite Authors—Interest in Geology. CHAPTER III. THE YOUNG NATURALIST . A ‘ . : - 9 The Seagie—An Offer of Importance—The Young Natural- ist—The Voyage—Powers of Observation—Cape Verd Islands—Tours of Investigation—Dust-Showers—W onderful Phenomena—Geological Studies—St. Paul’s Rocks—Fernan- do de Noronha. ix x Contents. CHAPTER IV. PAGE IN SOUTHERN SEAS . = = : . : 0) Se The Log-Book—Bahia—Singular Appearance of the Water —The Vampire Bat—Slavery—Trips into the Country— Rare Collections—In the Brazilian Forest—Shooting Mon- . keys—The Click of a Butterfly—Jumping Spiders—Electri- cal Displays—The Plata. CHAPTER V. IN THE LAND OF THE SACRED TREE . > ‘ it, op The Rio Negro—Trips into the Interior—The Sacred Tree —Superstition of Natives—Salt Lakes—Bahia Blanca—A Tomb of Giants—The Mylodon Darwinii—The Armadillo —Hibernation—Careful Work—War—General Rosas—Bru- tal Natives—Skilled Equestrians. CHAPTER VI. AMONG THE FOSSILS . , ; : : : . 398 A Long Bullock Ride—Santa Fé—An Animal Collector— Large Fossils—Indian Superstitions—Darwin IIl—A Native Doctor—Geology—Gigantic Armoured Animals—Drought— The Parana—The Jaguar—Darwin a Prisoner—Swimming Horses—Shower of Butterflies—Phosphorescence. CHAPTER VII. THE LAND OF GIANTS : ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 ie er (: The Patagonians—Guanaco Hunting—Singular Burial Cus- toms—A Horse with a Proboscis—Extinction—Up the Santa Cruz—Puma Tracks—Catching the Condor—Falkland Isl- ands—Among the Glaciers—The Fuegians— Giant Sea- Weed and Its Work. CHAPTER VIII. THE FOOT OF THE ANDES . ; ; : : eS At Valparaiso— Andean Life—An Old Schoolmate—An Contents. 3 xi PAGE Ocean Bottom—In the Mines—Hot Springs—Darwin Ex- cites Suspicion—Volcanoes—Tame Birds—The Myopota- mus—Predaceous Gulls—Birds Killed by Them. CHAPTER IX. IN THE EARTHQUAKE COUNTRY : : ; . 89 At the Bay of San Carlos—Earthquakes—Destruction of Concepcion—At Talcahuana—Tidal Waves—Poverty of the Victims—Elevation of the Coast— Darwin’s Coolness in Danger—Narrow Escapes. CHAPTER X. IN THE RED SNOW COUNTRY F - R . « OF Valparaiso—The Portillo Pass—Land of the Red Snow— Electrical Conditions—A Swarm of Locusts—Experiments with the Reduvius—A Forest of Stone—Valley of the Copi- apd—Ruins at Old Callao—Antiquity of Man. CHAPTER XI. AMONG THE OCEAN VOLCANOES : : - . 106 Galapagos Islands—Number of Craters—Gigantic Tor- toises—Land and Marine Lizards—New Marine Forms— Flora—Number of Cryptogamic Plants—Variety of Forms on the Different Islands—Tameness of the Birds. CHAPTER XII. IN THE GARDENS OF THE SEA . : : : ae sk Keeling Island—Among the Corals—Towed by a Turtle— Sagacity of the Birgos—Stinging Corals—Coral-Eating Fish - —Theories Regarding Reef Structure—Mauritius—Extinc- tion of Animals at St. Helena—Return to England. xii Contents. CHAPTER XIII. PAGE DARWIN THE NATURALIST A f F - 123 Ambition of Darwin—Future Work Decided upon—Scien- tific Friends—Papers Read before Various Societies— Experiments with Earthworms—Marriage of Darwin— Methods of Work—Various Publications. CHAPTER XIV. HOME LIFE : x ; : . P : . 131 Appearance of Darwin—Continued Ill-Health — Daily Habits—Change in Musical and Literary Tastes—Affection for His Children. CHAPTER XV. THE WORK OF A LIFE i : ; ; ; Re EL Early Papers—Publications by Scientific Societies—‘* The Formation of Mould ”—‘‘The Cirripedia”—The Wallace Incident—Collecting Material for the ‘* Origin of Species” —Success of the Work—Time Spent in Authorship—Re- ligion—Final Work and Death. CHAPTER XVI. HONOURS OF A LIFETIME . : ; : ‘ . 149 Membership in Societies—The Institute of France—Prizes, Medals, Degrees, Portraits, Gifts, etc. CHAPTER XVII. THE DARWIN FAMILY ; ; : : . 156 The First Known Darwin—The Head of the Family— Natural-History Tastes—Poets, Doctors, and Military Men —Erasmus Darwin—Carlyle’s Description of Erasmus— Evidences of Genius. Contents. Xili CHAPTER XVIIL. PAGE DARWINISM : : : : ; * 4 . 167 The Coining of the Word—What it Means—Its Relation to Evolution—‘*‘ The Survival of the Fittest ”—‘* The Struggle for Existence”—The Descent—Examples of Evolution. CHAPTER XIX. DARWINISM CONTINUED . . . . . . 183 How Change is Produced—Vast Eras of Time—The Age of the Earth—Evidences of Evolution—Extinct Animals. CHAPTER XX. THE DARWIN MEMORIAL . ° . . . - 195 Addresses by American Scientists: Dr. Theodore Gill—W. H. Dall—Major. John W. Powell—Richard Rathbun— Charles V. Riley—Lester F. Ward—Frank Baker—Freder- ick W. True. APPENDIX ‘ Fe ote ; ; ‘ : . 263 List of Works by Charles Darwin—List of Books containing Contributions by Charles Darwin—List of Scientific Papers, including a Selection of Letters and Short Communications to Scientific Journals—Works on Darwinism for Further Reference, NS eg 2 eos Oth ee ee a ey yo ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE DARWIN AND THE SQUIRRELS . : : Frontispiece ST. PAUL’S ROCKS FROM THE EAST—Fyvom Spry’s “ Voyage of the Challenger”. ‘ : - 24 SHARK FISHING AT ST. PAUL’s ROCKS—F rom Gosse’s “ Romance of Natural History” . . . 26 A BRAZILIAN COLLECTING-GROUND—From Gosse’s “ Romance of Natural History”. ; - 28 PORCUPINE FISH (DIODON) FLOATING ON THE SUR- FACE : ; ; : é : ‘ . ae DARWIN FINDING A VAMPIRE BAT BITING A HORSE, 32 BRAZILIAN HUNTERS AND ANIMAL COLLECTORS . 36 SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT OF LEAVES. Ae sae A PLANTER’S HOUSE IN BRAZIL = : : ot A HOME ON THE PARAHIBA RIVER, BRAZIL. RS CAMP IN A BRAZILIAN FOREST. : ‘ , iri @g SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICH (RHEA) AND YOUNG— From Brehm’s“ Natural History”. . 5 ee SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICHES FORDING A RIVER . 52 NATIVE AUSTRALIANS HUNTING THE EMU—/Fvom Figuier’s“ Birds” . : : : : ee” | xv XVI Lllustrations. DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE HORSE. : : : : THE PATAGONIAN CAvY—From Brehm’s “ Natural fTistory”’ . ; : : ; : “THE CAPYBARA—S rom Brehm’s “ Natural History” DARWIN SHOOTING AT A CONDOR CAPE FROWARD, STRAITS OF MAGELLAN—Srom Spry’s “ Voyage ef the Challenger’ MUD VOLCANOES, TURBACO, SOUTH AMERICA—From Figuier’s “ World before the Deluge”. BARK-GATHERERS CAMP IN PERU—Srom Figuier’s “ Vegetable World” . : : ; : : ELEPHANT TORTOISE, GALAPAGOS ISLANDS—/rom Brehm’s “ Natural History” DARWIN TESTING THE SPEED OF AN ELEPHANT TORTOISE (GALAPAGOS ISLANDS). j ; A CORAL ISLAND, OR ATOLL—From Figuter’s “ Ocean Wore eta. © a eo. ee BIRGOS, OR COCOA-NUT CRAB... F ; : DARWIN’S sTUDY—From “ The Century Magazine” PORTRAIT OF CHARLES DARWIN—SF vom “ The Cen- tury Magazine” i ‘ . te f COLLECTING IN THE SARGASSO SEA . ; ; ‘ 62 74 76 78 80 go 102 106 108 112 114 128 150 176 - eae es Bee ’ . @ Hy] 7 CHARLES DARWIN. CHAPTER I. THE BOY DARWIN. The First Paper—Taste for Natural History—Birthplace—Early School Days—Religious Nature—Books Which Influenced Him —Associates—Introduction to Scientific Men—Taste for Sport. NE evening, in the year 1826, a tall, slender youth rose at a meeting of the Plinian Society of Edin- burgh, and with some embarrassment and hes- itation unfolded a paper and addressed the chair. The speaker was | Charles Darwin, and this J was his first public at- tempt to convey to others information which he had acquired regarding natural objects. At this time Darwin was seventeen I 2 Charles Darwin. years of age; yet his paper, which was on the com- mon Flustra, or sea-mat, attracted no little attention, and was the first in an ever increasing series that gave him in later years a world-wide reputation. While this was Darwin’s first public appearance as a naturalist, he had long been an ardent collector. When but nine years of age he was the happy pos- sessor of a collection of seals, franks, coins, and minerals which were the admiration of his young friends and acquaintances. Our hero was born at Shrewsbury in 1809, and - began his school-boy life at a day-school, later, in 1818, attending the large establishment of Dr. Butler, a mile from the old homestead. This school, like many of the time, was a strictly classical institution, where the young mind was regaled with ancient geography and history almost exclusively. The lessons, so he tells us, were “ learned by heart,” with interminable verses,—a feature much esteemed by educators of the day, and were mastered: in boyish fashion by a combination of the talent of the school. He was singularly deficient in language, yet pos- sessed, like other members of his family, a remarkable memory, so that, as he writes in his quaint Autobi- ography: “ Much attention was paid to learning by heart the lessons of the previous day; this I could effect with great facility, learning forty or fifty lines of Virgil or Homer whilst I was in morning chapel ; but this exercise was utterly useless, for every verse was forgotten in forty-eight hours.” Our young hero, while manly and thoughtful, was simple-hearted, and often a victim to the deceptions School Days. z.| practised by boys upon each other. Among his comrades was a boy named Garnett, who one day invited young Darwin into a store and treated him to cakes. Darwin noticed that his friend did not pay for them, and the occurrence, so unusual, moved him to ask for an explanation. Mischievous Garnett eyed his young schoolmate a moment, much as Mr. Jingle did Mr. Pickwick on their famous ride, and replied: “ Why, my uncle left a large sum to each tradesman in the town with the understanding that anyone who wore his old hat and moved it in a peculiar way should obtain what he wished free.” Young Darwin was naturally seized with a burning desire to exercise this wonderful power, which his comrade was only too eager to grant; so the next store they came to Darwin took the hat, walked bravely in, and ordered a supply of good things, giving the old hata move as directed. He was pass- ing out, when the storekeeper, who was at first amazed, dashed over the counter after the singular customer, who stood not upon the order of going, but dropped hat and cakes and ran as if for his life to the measure of the hearty laughter of his com- panion. While Darwin was fond of sport and a true boy in his pranks and games, there was a vein of uncon- scious dignity in him that the average youth did not possess. He tells us that in running to school he prayed to the Lord to aid him in arriving before it was too late, which would show a strong religious nature; and that he was humane and honourable toa marked degree is well known. How many boys in 4 Charles Darwin. collecting eggs think of the rights of the birds? Yet our young naturalist, while an indefatigable col- lector of birds’ eggs and nests, was invariably careful to take but one egg from each nest,—recognising in this the rights of the lower animals. His humani- tarian ideas were carried to what some would consider extremes; thus, hearing at his uncle Josiah Wedg- wood’s, that it was cruel to spit living worms, he *killed them first by a bath of salt and water. As a boy he was fond of solitary walks, and often rambled away by himself, loving the quiet seclusion of the forests, the haunts and fishing-pools at Maer, | or the old fortifications about Shrewsbury. At such times he frequently became lost in meditation, so that in one instance, while deeply absorbed, he walked over a parapet, falling a distance of seven or eight feet. In referring to this, he naively remarks: “The number of thoughts which passed through my mind during this very short, but sudden and wholly unexpected, fall was astonishing, and seem hardly compatible with what physiologists have, I believe, proved about each thought requiring quite an ap- preciable amount of time.” The young naturalist early developed habits of observation, and entered into investigations, espe- cially of difficult and complex subjects, with an ardour and interest that was infectious. He expe- rienced intense pleasure in geometrical problems, enjoying the reasoning that was involved, and showed marked evidence of the care and patience in attaining certain ends that produced such results in his later career. The books which influenced his His Books. 5 boyish mind were Horace, certain odes of which appear to have been the one bright feature in his school life; many hours were spent poring over the historical plays of Shakespeare, while the poetry of Byron and Scott, and especially Thomson’s “ Sea- sons,” seem to have given him pleasure and satisfac- tion. A book that had a strong influence upon him was the “ Wonders of the World,” over whose varied contents he often pored, discussing the strange facts set forth with his companions. Small things often have much to do in shaping our lives, and in this volume we undoubtedly find the germ that excited in his mind the love for travel and exploration which ultimately resulted in the famous voyage which he made around the world in the Beagle. Darwin testifies to the correctness of this, and in later years, in referring to the book, wrote to a German publisher: “I believe that this book first gave me a wish to travel in remote countries, which was ultimately fulfilled by the voyage of the Beagle.” While we may trace the love of travel to hours spent over this volume, his passion for natural history was accelerated by White’s “Selborne.” From its pages he obtained his fondness for birds, learning to note their ways and habits, and be- coming an ardent ornithologist. Darwin had a decided natural inclination to litera- ture of a scientific character. He read during these days several books on chemistry, and worked with his elder brother in his laboratory, making gases and various other chemical compounds; and that it was an unusual taste among the boys of the time is 6 Charles Darwin. shown by the fact that he was nicknamed “ Gas” by his fellows, while even the head-master rebuked him for wasting his time upon subjects that could be of no possible use to him in later life. The opinions of this teacher seem to have been entertained by Dar- win the elder, who, concluding that our hero was accomplishing little at the school, took him away in October, 1825, and sent him to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine. Unfortunately, Dar- win now discovered that his father was a wealthy man, and, being of an argumentative mind, he failed to see that it was necessary for him to make any especial exertion when he was certain of coming into a goodly heritage. It is interesting to note this resolution—notably, not an evidence of ambition or lofty ideas—appearing in a life whose history in later years is marked by its high and lofty aims and fixity of purpose. Darwin entered the University of Edinburgh, where his brother was studying, without ambition, and, like many boys, drifted with the current. He found the lectures, with the exception of those on his favourite chemistry, dull and uninteresting, while those on materia medica by Dr. Duncan he describes as something fearful to remember in their dullness: The subjects were distasteful to him, causing him to neglect dissection, which in later years he appears to have greatly regretted, being an absolute necessity in the elaborate and minute investigations that formed his life-work. Despite his lack of interest as a student he obtained patients, and, in all proba- bility, would have succeeded under the tutelage His Friends. 7 of his father, an eminent physician, had not a pain- ful operation in the hospital at Edinburgh practically ended his career in medicine, as he tells us that he bore it as long as he could, and then rushed from the room ; the scene, which was enacted before the days of chloroform, haunting him for years. This is sug- gestive of the extremely sympathetic temperament of the boy Darwin; his entire nature was one of tenderness, not only to his companions, but to all living things. While his school days were not re- - sulting in any apparent accumulation of knowledge in the lines indicated by the curriculum, we find the love of natural history steadily growing. He was an ardent collector of minerals; and the love for insect studies, which he developed when but ten years of age, down by the sea-shore in Wales, was one of the delightful memories in later life. At Edinburgh he found congenial friends in young men who were interested in natural science, and the asso- ciations and friendships then formed had no little influence in shaping his future career. Here he met Ainsworth, who afterwards became a famous geolo- gist, and wrote a book on Assyria; Dr. Coldstream, a writer on zodlogical subjects; and Hardie, who _ Was a promising botanist. Of all the friends made at this time, perhaps Dr. Grant exercised the great- est influence over him. With this zodlogist he made many trips to the sea-coast, became familiar with the methods of current investigation, and it was during these days that the observations regarding the Flus- tra, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, were made. Dr. Grant referred to Darwin’s investigations 8 Charles Darwin. in his memoir on the Flustra, in which our young naturalist saw his name for the first time in print. Dr. Grant introduced him to many persons interested in science, and invited him to the meetings of the Royal Medical Society, where, according to Darwin, “much rubbish was talked.” Dr. Grant also took him to the Wernerian Society, where he listened to Audubon, who was then in Europe in the interests of his great work on birds, and who read several papers before the Society. These days were rich in future promise for the young student, all his associa- tions being such as to increase his interest in science. He enlarged his acquaintance on all sides, took les- sons in taxidermy, with a man who had travelled with Waterton, and with Mr. Leonard Horner visited the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where he listened to Sir Walter Scott, who was at that time its presi- dent. The proceedings produced a profound im- pression, shown by his statement in later years: “ If I had been told at that time that I should one day have been thus honoured (with membership), I should have thought it as ridiculous and improb- able, as if I had been told that I should be elected King of England.” Darwin’s taste for science was supplemented be a course of studies, and in his second year he attended a series of lectures on geology and zodlogy, those in the former making a decided impression upon him, as he says: “The sole effect they produced on me was the determination never, as long as I lived, to read a book on geology.” In other words, the lecturer had the unhappy faculty of making sub- oa 3 4 al CR Tour in Wales. 9 jects naturally of interest exceedingly dry. While the lectures of this instructor were of no especial advantage, they were the means of his meeting Mr. Macgillivray, the curator of the local museum, who in after years wrote a work on Scottish birds, and was an enthusiastic naturalist. During the long-vacation period Darwin threw aside his books, and with some congenial friend took long walks over the country, enriching his mind by personal contact with nature, thus building up the taste for investigation which formed so promi- nent a feature in his after-life. These walks were something more than would be attempted by the average American school-boy. He thought nothing of covering thirty miles in a day; and, during the summer of 1826, with two friends, with knapsack on back, he travelled over a large part of Wales, later going over the ground again with his sister, that she might be a participant in his enjoyment. After the summer trips the autumn was gener- ally passed at Mr. Owen's, at Woodhouse, or at his uncle Josiah Wedgwood’s, at Maer, where he found opportunity to indulge in shooting, which was as much a passion with him as collecting minerals or insects. Days were spent on the heath and among the Scotch firs, following the game- keeper after black game, and no young American trout fisherman kept a closer record than did our sportsman naturalist. Every bird shot during the season was carefully noted,—a fact which shows the method, thoroughness, and detail that marked every subject in which he was interested. His care to 10 Charles Darwin. credit himself with the results of his skill was often the subject of practical jokes on the part of his friends, and he relates the following: “One day, when shooting at Woodhouse with Captain Owen, the eldest son, and Major Hill, his cousin, after- wards Lord Berwick, both of whom I liked very much, I thought myself shamefully used, for every time after I had fired, and thought that I had killed a bird, one of the two acted as if loading his gun, and cried out, ‘ You must not count that bird, for I fired at the same time,’ and the gamekeeper, perceiving the joke, backed them up. After some hours they told me the joke, but it was no joke to me, for I had shot a large number of birds, but did not know how many, and could not add them to my list, which I used to do by making a knot in a piece of string tied to a button-hole; this my wicked friends had perceived.” As enthusiastic as he was, Darwin had some apubes in his mind as to whether such excessive zeal was to be commended, and we find he argued with himself on the question, quieting his doubts at one time by assuming and almost convincing himself that the perfection to which he had attained was really an evidence of high intelligence on his part. The fact that he could find game when no one else could, and manage the dogs with consummate skill, seemed to his mind sufficient reason for pursuing the pastime. At Maer he met many distinguished people, and in the home of the famous Wedgwood there was an air of refinement and culture most valuable in rounding and shaping the ideas of so thoughtful and Sir F Mackintosh. II clever a youth. Here he made the acquaintance of Sir J. Mackintosh, whose well-known conversational powers appear to have impressed the young natural- ist, and that the elder man foresaw something in his young friend may be surmised from his remark, long remembered by Darwin: “There is something in you that interests me.” In these boyhood days we see many qualities that Darwin himself modestly disclaims: a steadfastness of purpose, a perceptive faculty, and demand for something beyond the limited educational facilities of the day. His actual school- ing may be said to have been a failure, as he neglected the dry classical studies or forgot them ; yet the les- sons he drew from the broad field of nature were well learned and never forgotten. CHAPTER II. COLLEGE DAYS. College Life—Thoughts of Entering the Church—A Poor Mathema- tician—Beetle Collecting—First Appearance in Print—Associa- tions with Eminent Men—Scientific Reading—Favourite Authors —Interest in Geology. | HE college life of Darwin constitutes one of the epochs of his career, as during these days, so happy in their memory, occurred many of the in- cidents that shaped his future. He entered col- lege in 1828, this move- ment being the result of a decision on the part of his family, that as he had failed as a doctor, he might possibly be induced to enter the Church. This proposition was made to the young man, who asked time in which to con- sider, during which deliberation he read attentively several religious works, including “ Pearson on the Creed,” and questioned himself thoroughly as to his I2 ea ee enema ee Enters College. ; 13 beliefs and disbeliefs. He confesses to having some scruples about accepting all the dogmas of the Church, but as he believed in the Bible implicitly and literally, he soon satisfied himself that he could accept the creed without any reservation. In refer- ring to this interesting period in his life, Darwin in his Autobiography says that years after a German psychological society sent for his photograph, and after much discussion reported that he had the bump of reverence developed enough for ten priests; so that it might be assumed that he was well equipped by nature for order taking. Darwin, however, was not destined for the Church, though he entered Cambridge with this purpose in view, and took up a course of studies which would give him the desired degree. He found that he had forgotten his Latin and Greek, which necessitated work with a private tutor, so that he did not enter college until Christmas of the year 1828. As far as academical studies were concerned we learn that his three years’ work here was almost a perfect blank. Mathematics was never mastered without extreme difficulty—a fact which he empha- sised in a letter written to Dr. J. B. Holder, father of the author, some years ago, when the two were discussing the flight of birds. So difficult was it for Darwin to master this study that he was almost dis- couraged, and in referring to it he says: “Ido not believe that I should ever have succeeded beyond a very low grade.” Though the young student may have lacked application it is evident that he acquired information very readily, as, while confessing what 14 Charles Darwin. might seem unusual indifference, he took the degree of B.A. without apparent exertion. At this time he read such works as Paley’s “ Evidences of Christianity ” and “ Moral Philosophy,” and the thoroughness of his reading may be judged from the fact that he could have written out from memory almost the entire former work. This course of reading, without: the demand for memorising, which was a part of the educational methods in former years, he conceived to be the only part of the academical course of any actual advantage to him. There were several lectures in the course, but those by Professor Henslow, on botany, were the only ones he attended. The walks and strolls with this naturalist in search of rare plants and flowers were highly enjoyed, and what proved a life-long friendship was begun. During the college days his love for natural history was steadily in- creasing. He was now especially interested in the study of beetles; not to dissect them, but for the simple delight of possessing great numbers and com- paring them one with another, and his collection was a large and really valuable one. How enthusiastic he was may be seen from the following incident: In ripping down the bark from an old tree he saw two rare beetles, which he captured, one in each hand. Just then out ran a third, equally rare and beautiful; but what was to be done? There was no time for deliberation, so he put one beetle in his mouth, thus freeing a hand to seize the fleeing prize; but the second beetle, objecting to this unceremonious treat- ment, emitted a secretion so bitter that he was forced to eject it, losing in the confusion of the attack two of the insects. L[utimacies Formed. 15 Darwin was an indefatigable collector, and having an ample allowance was enabled to give full bent to his tastes and inclinations. He collected in a most systematic manner, following methods of his own devising. He employed a workman, who spent his time during the winter in scraping the decayed moss from trees and in collecting suitable material from various sources, all of which was placed in a bag and brought to the young naturalist, who in this way found many rare and choice specimens. Of the delights of this study Darwin was fond of talking, and in his Autobiography he wrote: “No poet ever felt more delighted at seeing his first poem published than I did at seeing, in Stephen’s ‘ Illus- trations of British Insects,’ the magic words, ‘ captured by C. Darwin, Esq.’” Our hero had as a companion during his college days a cousin, W. D. Fox, a Christ’s-College man, who encouraged him in his studies and introduced him to a number of well-known naturalists. Here he met Albert Way of Trinity, who in after years be- came a distinguished archzologist. He was intimate with Whitley, Senior Wrangler, afterwards Hon. Canon of Durham, who, being a man of refined and cultivated tastes, influenced the young man for the best and inculcated in him a love for the beautiful in art, as well as nature. Whitley became his guide and censor to a certain extent, and trips were made together to the various art galleries, where Darwin, through observation and talks with his friend and the curator, acquired a good knowledge of the standard and various schools of art. This.taste, he tells us, was not a natural one, and was perhaps in 16 Charles Darwin. accord with his fondness for music at this time, though he was not a musician and could not dis- tinguish harmony from discord. I have said that the college life of Darwin con- stituted one of the important epochs in his career; this was mainly due to his acquaintance and ultimate friendship with Professor Henslow, the naturalist. He was presented to the latter by his cousin already alluded to, and went weekly to his house, which was the acknowledged centre of scientific interest. The intimacy increased, and Darwin soon became his constant companion during walks and strolls, when we may naturally suppose that the conversation turned on natural history. Professor Henslow was one of the best-posted men of his time in geology, botany, and the various branches of science. He was also a close investigator and, according to Dar- win, extremely fond of drawing conclusions from long-continued and minute observations. If there is one feature more than another in the life of Darwin that impresses the reader it is the time he spent in careful investigations, and the thoroughness which characterised all his scientific work, and that his methods, which were so eminently successful and telling, were the result of this com- panionship to a great extent there can be no doubt. Darwin himself says: “ My intimacy with such a man ought to have been, and I hope was, an in- estimable benefit.” This intimacy with Henslow naturally enlarged the young man’s scientific acquaintance, among whom were Dr. Whewell, a man of distinguished attain- Scientific Reading. 17 ments, and a conversationalist ranked by Darwin next to Sir John Mackintosh; Leonard Jenyns, a well-known zodélogist, who in later years was associ- ated with Darwin in scientific work; Mr. Ramsay, a brother of Sir Alexander Ramsay, and many more with whom he was thrown in more or less intimate relationship, which must have had an effect upon his character and tastes. The young man at this time must have shown many evidences of the brilliant future that was before him. Older men sought his company and listened to his ideas and views, and he was an acceptable companion in their walks and ex- cursions. His college mates must also have recog- nised his talents in the direction of science, as one of his companions, after watching him at work at his insect collection, volunteered the prophecy, which seemed to Darwin preposterous, that one day he would be a Fellow of the Royal Society. In his last year at college the young naturalist took up a course of scientific reading, which had no little influence in determining his career. Humboldt’s “ Personal Narrative’ was read and discussed, exciting in his mind a desire to travel, while Herschel’s “ Introduc- tion to the Study of Natural Philosophy ”’ created a strong wish to indulge in original investigation and to become one of the scientific workers of the world. These works so interested him that he copied ex- tracts which he read to his friends while on their expeditions, and Humboldt’s description of the beauties of Teneriffe excited so intense a desire to see the island that he was about negotiating for a passage when another plan prevented. 18 Charles Darwin. Step by step Darwin advanced in scientific learn- ing. The vacation days were devoted to beetle- collecting, while the shooting season in the autumn, a sp6rt to which he was passionately attached, as has been shown, gave him an opportunity to study the larger forms. In his last college days, or in 1831, Henslow had _ so interested him in geology that he took up the study and began a systematic investigation of the local rocks. He examined sections, made maps, and finally, in the summer of this year, undertook a geological tour through North Wales with Professor Sedgwick, which proved of inestimable value in later years. In this period we see that the taste and love for natural science are uppermost in our hero’s mind and steadily developing,—the natural preparation which ultimately culminated in producing the great- est scientist of the age. —— ee ee CHAPTER III. THE YOUNG NATURALIST. The Beagle—An Offer of Importance—The Young Naturalist—The Voyage—Powers of Observation—Cape Verd Islands—Tours of Investigation—Dust-Showers—Wonderful Phenomena—Geo- logical Studies—St. Paul’s Rocks—Fernando de Noronha. ; . x ; 4 | 4 7 .. ment decided to send out a well-equipped vessel to complete the survey of the South American coast, begun by Captain Shaw some years pre- vious. The vessel select- ed for this work was the Beagle, a six - gun brig, and Captain Fitz - Roy of the Royal Navy was given the important command. An enthusiast in science, Fitz-Roy conceived the idea of taking a naturalist with him to study the fauna and flora of the different countries he might visit, and in his search for a competent person he wrote to Professor Henslow, who, in turn, made the offer to Charles 19 20 Charles Darwin. Darwin, who had just graduated from Cambridge. The latter returned from a geological trip to find the communication, and to say that he was de- lighted but faintly expresses it. He determined to accept should his father not object, but, unfor- tunately, the latter looked with great disfavour upon the plan. He finally said that he would give his consent if his son could find a sensible person who would encourage it. Young Darwin very reluctantly gave up what appeared to him a veritable dream of promise and an opportunity to make for himself a scientific career. As good-fortune would have it he men- tioned the matter to his uncle, Josiah Wedgwood, who offered to undertake the réle of one sensible person, and as a result the elder Darwin relented and the position was accepted. This step was the beginning of a new epoch in the life of the young naturalist. It was, as he says, by far the most im- portant event of his life, and in a letter to Captain Fitz-Roy he wrote: ‘“ What a glorious day the 4th of November will be to me! My second life will then commence, and it shall be as a birthday for the rest of my life.” After many delays attendant upon fitting a large ship for a long voyage, the Beagle put to sea, and the expedition, which had so material an effect, not only upon Darwin, but upon preconceived ideas of many natural-history questions, began. The Beagle was what we now term a barque, and of two hundred and thirty-five tons burthen. She represented a class facetiously known as coffins by Marvellous Perseverance. 2I i 7 the men, from the fact that many of her type had gone down in heavy gales. She was fairly well equipped; had a crew of thirty-five men, and was fitted with all the conveniences that one might expect to find at this time. Young Darwin went as a volunteer; he paid his own expenses, and was to mess with the captain; so that the voyage began under pleasant auspices and with the promised companionship of a man who was fully interested in science and in complete sympathy with his aims and ambitions. Darwin was at this time in the full flush of man- 4 hood; in every way a delightful companion, and essentially a man to make friends and keep them. His tender and lovable nature, consideration for others, and evident desire to share with all the hard- _ ships which really could have been avoided, did not fail to create for him the warmest friends not only on shipboard, but wherever he went. An idea of the ship life has been given by Admiral Lord Stokes in the London 7zmes of April 25, 1883: “May I beg acorner for my feeble testimony to the marvellous persevering endurance in the cause of science of that great naturalist, my old and lost friend, Mr. Charles Darwin, whose remains are so very justly to be honoured with a resting-place in — Westminster Abbey ? “ Perhaps no one can better testify to his early and most trying labours than myself. We worked to- gether for several years at the same table in the poop-cabin of the Beagle during her celebrated voy- age, he with his microscope and myself at the charts. 22 Charles Darwin. It was often a very lively end of the little craft, and distressingly so to my old friend, who suffered greatly from sea-sickness. After perhaps an hour’s work he would say to me, ‘ Old fellow, I must take the hori- zontal for it,’ that being the best relief position from ship motion ; a stretch out on one side of the table for some time would enable him to resume his labours for a while, when he had again to lie down. “Tt was distressing to witness this early sacrifice of Mr. Darwin’s health, who ever afterwards seriously felt the ill-effects of the Beagle’s voyage.” In following our hero on his long voyage the reader cannot fail to be impressed with two things: his remarkable powers of observation, and the care and patience with which he made his investigations and consequent deductions; and when it is borne in mind that the investigator was still a very young man fresh from college, the nature of his observations and the comprehensiveness of the ground covered will appear more remarkable. Darwin, as we have seen from the letter of Admiral Stokes, was a victim to sea-sickness, and, curiously enough, it clung to him with unrelenting pertinacity during the entire voy- age. After an uneventful trip the Cape Verd Islands were reached, where the young naturalist for the first time found himself in a tropical field. St. Jago, the largest island of the group, was the first examined ; here he saw actual volcanic effects, barren rocks, a torrid sun, and deep groves of graceful bananas and cocoa-nuts. The barren stretch of rocks and de- nuded portions of the island attracted his attention, and investigation showed that it was due partly to Awakens the Interest of Scientific Men. 23 _ human intervention, the trees having been cut away and destroyed, thus allowing the rains to wash down quickly, leaving the island almost sterile in parts. _ Many expeditions were made over the island: one to the town of Ribeira Grande, where a fine old tuin, a cathedral and fort were found, the former containing many objects of interest dating back to _ thesixteenth century. The dignitaries of the church were buried here, and Darwin noticed one tombstone _which bore the date 1497, five years after the discov- ery of America, and three after that of the islands. ' The atmosphere of St. Jago was, as a rule, hazy, _and here our young naturalist made some observa- tions which created much interest among scientific -men. Investigation showed him that the haze, _ which often obscured the mountains, was occasioned = by a fall of dust so impalpable and fine that it rested in the air as haze or a very light fog. Some "of this was collected and sent back to Professor _ Ehrenberg for examination, and in 1845 Darwin _forwarded an elaborate paper on the subject to the Royal Geographical Society. The dust in some places was offensive, covering every thing and soil- ing the sails and clothing of the men. In the course of the voyage pieces larger than _ the thousandth of an inch square were noticed. _ Whence came this strange shower? was the ques- _ tion he wished to solve, and the problem could only _ be answered by a determination of the elements P: which composed it. This Professor Ehrenberg was _ shower did not come from the Cape Verd Islands enabled to accomplish. He found that the dust- 24 Charles Darwin. Y= but must have originated thousands of miles away. The dust was made up to a certain extent of infus- oria—minute fossil forms that could be readily trans- ported by the wind, and Darwin, by the identification of the fossils, was enabled to demonstrate that they had been borne not from the adjacent coast of Africa, but from South America, several thousand miles distant. The shower referred to here was estimated by the young naturalist to have a breadth of sixteen hundred miles and an area equal to one million square miles. These dust-showers produce what are known as blood-rains in Europe, and Professor Ehrenberg esti- mated that in one shower over seven hundred and twenty thousand pounds of matter fell, out of which ninety thousand pounds consisted of the remains of minute animal forms. The dust-shower had a greater significance to our ef young naturalist than a mere phenomenon, and ~ here we see how his every discovery or observation resulted in a deduction of value to the scientific world. If dust, and such large particles, could be car- ried vast distances, why not seeds? and he assumed at once that the light and delicate sporules of cryptogamic plants could be transported from con- tinent to continent,—a thought which in later years he elaborated with interesting and valuable results. Darwin made his first foreign geological examina- tions at Porto Praya, and his report on the ancient volcanic activity of the island shows how close a student he was. Here he first observed tropical marine forms, and the large brown sea-slug, or Aply- “LSVE FHL WOU SMOOU S:INVd ‘LS al Pe Cs) i i it al al a a er Ca New Discoveries Concerning the Octopus. 25 Sta particularly, interested him. He found it feeding on the sea-weed, and when disturbed it emitted the peculiar purple fluid for which it is noted. The pools of water left by the outgoing tide formed aquaria of more than ordinary interest. The octo- pus was the subject of many observations, numbers of which were seen clinging to the rocks by their eight sucker-lined arms, or dashing across the pool, ejecting the cloud of ink which constitutes a part of their defence. The young naturalist was quick to note their power of mimicry,—a fact in this and other animals that was dwelt upon in later years by himself and Wallace. He noticed that they changed their tints according to the ground over which they passed, and a close examination showed that clouds of colour were continually passing over them, varying from hyacinth-red to chestnut-brown in tint. Darwin was probably the first to apply a galvanic battery to these beautiful creatures, with the result that the part touched became almost black. He noticed that they changed colour under all circum- stances, whether swimming or resting, and was the first to call attention to the fact that the ink was used as a means of concealing the direction of re- treat. One cuttle-fish in this natural aquarium ejected water above the surface from a hole in which it lay concealed, and he suspected that it could direct its aim by turning its tube or siphon in a given direction. Whether this is true or not would be difficult to ascertain, but the author has _ seen a squid force its stream of ink a foot or more 26 Charles Darwin. above the surface, striking an inquisitive observer full in the face. Darwin was perhaps the first also to observe that the octopus is luminous at times. One which he kept in his cabin gleamed with a slight phospho- rescence, which we can imagine might be used as a decoy, or perhaps to menace its foes. In February, 1831, the Beagle sighted the famous St. Paul’s Rocks, one of the most desolate spots on the globe, consisting of a few rocks five hundred and forty miles from the American coast and three hundred and fifty from Fernando de Noronha. The rocks are somewhat difficult to find, as they rear themselves but fifty feet above the sea and are but little over three-quarters of a mile in circum- ference. From a distance they appear white, from the constant presence of vast numbers of birds which have made the location their roosting-place for generations. The birds, principally the noddy and tern, were so tame that any number could have been killed by hand, They laid their eggs on the rocks where the sun hatched the young. Desolate as the spot was, warfare existed; the parent birds provided the young with small fish for food, the flying-fish being considered an especial dainty; but no sooner was it placed by the nest than the young naturalist, who was concealed behind some rock, saw a hand- somely mottled crab—the Grapsus—come slowly — up, edging along in an innocent, disinterested fashion, then suddenly when within reach seize the fish and dash away. pant RAM RT LT Ws TAS OCR TE re my. eee Lnuception of his Famous Theory. 27 In this island robber the observer must have found a suggestion for his famous theory of the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest. The author has watched a similar scene in the Gulf of Mexico, where the Grapsus would attack even the birds. Sir W. Symonds states that he has witnessed the same at St. Paul’s, the crab dragging young birds away to devour them. Darwin found little of interest here from a botani- cal standpoint, not even a single plant or lichen appearing, though several spiders, flies, moths, and beetles made the barren rock their home. If St. Paul’s was deficient in vegetation, it abounded in marine forms of interest, the vast area of submerged rock, with its sea-weed masses, affording ample ground for fishes of infinite variety, while sharks were so plentiful that it was a constant struggle between them and the men. The moment an edible fish was hooked a watchful shark rushed at it, carrying it away before it could be taken in, this occurring so frequently that one man was required to fight these pirates of the sea while another hauled in the fish. These days were marked by indefatigable energy on the part of the young naturalist. When not in- vestigating or peering among the rocks with hammer or collecting-glass in hand, he was at work in his cabin studying the strange animals he had found, and making notes in his log, as to the colour, habits, and the thousand and one points of interest to the lover of science. From St. Paul’s the Beagle bore away for Fernando de Noronha, a desolate ancient volcanic rock upon 28 Charles Darwin. which Darwin landed with great difficulty, owing to the heavy sea, and found to be completely covered with a dense jungle hard to cross or penetrate. It was in this neighbourhood that the young naturalist underwent the experience of crossing the line. Nep- tune came aboard, as usual, and claimed as a victim every one who had not crossed the equator. Dar- win submitted with his accustomed good-humour; was lathered with soft-soap and tar, then shaved with _ a saw, and finally dumped unceremoniously into a sail full of water, having as a consolation the reflec- tion that he was but one of many predecessors. On the last day of February the Beagle made Bahia, where Darwin for the first time found himself in a purely Southern country with a wealth of tropi. cal verdure on every hand. The ocean teemed with animal life, new and striking to his eye, while it was but a step into the tropical forest, where vegetation ran wild and flourished with a rank exuberance that he had never dreamed of. In his Journal he penned the following: “ Delight itself, however, is a weak term to express the feelings of a naturalist who, for the first time, has wandered by himself in a Brazilian forest. The elegance of the grasses, the novelty of the parasitical plants, the beauty of the flowers, the glossy green of the foliage, but, above all, the gen- eral luxuriance of the vegetation, filled me with ad- miration. A most paradoxical mixture of sound and silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The noise from the insects is so loud that they may be heard even in a vessel anchored several hundred yards from the shore ; yet within the recesses of the ~ ag 7 ee i a eee Neneh rete Ss ln the Chonos Archipelago. 87 avoiding enemies. Often to throw dogs from its trail it would leap suddenly to one side, and run backward on the trail, effectually evading them. A portion of the work of the Beagle was the sur- vey of the islands of the Chonos Archipelago, which gave the young naturalist an opportunity to examine what was a rich zoélogical region. He made his first excursion over the island of Chiloe on horseback, which was made fairly possible by the log-roads which were found everywhere. The natives were astonished at the boats and men, and thought it an attempt to capture the island. From the village of Chacao the volcano of Osorno was seen belching smoke and cinders, which, in contrast to the snow which covered it, presented a magnificent spectacle. Near this was the volcano of Corcovado, emitting jets of steam and smoke. Near by was still another, so that three active volcanoes of large size were seen at a glance. The principal quadruped noticed in the Chonos Archipelago was the Myopotamus, so valued for its fur. When swimming in salt water the young were often seen sitting upon the mother’s back. A small otter was occasionally taken here, while in the forests a number of interesting birds made melody. One little red-breasted songster was an especial favourite, and when Darwin stood still they would often ap- proach so near that he could almost touch them. This little bird he found was much respected by the natives, its singular cries having to them a pecu- liar significance: thus one was a good sign ; another the reverse, while another still had a third meaning. 88 : Charles Darwin. Another bird observed here was termed the barker, on account of the similarity of its note to the bark of a dog. Along the shore were various petrels and gulls. The larger of the latter Darwin observed preying upon small sea-birds, striking them down while on the wing,—a veritable sea-hawk, i .Lj a drop in the bucket in the time since life began, and when endeavouring to imagine species as the result of Darwin’s explanation, we must remember that —< periods beyond our power of appreciation are neces- ae sary to the result, and are an essential factor in Z evolution. Having looked so far into Darwinism, having seen that the great naturalist outlines a theory and fully defines its scope, the .question naturally arises, “ Are there no proofs, no evidences to substantiate the belief?” And to this might be said, that the majority of leading biologists of to-day accept the Darwin hypothesis. The modern paleontologists have added to the information he accumulated, and many interesting evidences have been presented which are popularly called “ missing links.’’ Darwin says: “I am fully convinced that species are not immutable, but that those belonging to what are called the same genera are lineal descendants of some other and generally extinct species.” 188 Charles Darwin. This leads us to an examination of some of these extinct species which have been brought to the attention of science, and which we may consider the stepping-stones from the forms of to-day to an ancestor in the remote past. One of the most interesting examples is that of the horse. When white men first came to this country, the horse was not found here; indeed, there appeared to be no tradition of such an animal, and the Spaniard relied almost as much upon the terror these animals created in the land of the Incas, as they did upon their arms, the natives believing that horse and rider were one. Some of the horses of these adventurers and others escaped, and from them descended what are known as the wild horses of North and South America. That horses were not found here by the white discoverers is to some extent singular, as it is now well known that these animals existed here in great numbers in the Quaternary and Tertiary times of geology ; some climatic or other change producing their complete extirpation. Some idea of the extent of the distribution of horses in these early days can be realised when it is known that twelve species have been discovered in the Quaternary deposits, and more than thirty in the Tertiary ; so that scientists have a remarkably complete chain of evolutionary evidence in their remains. The small- est of these, the Aipparion of the Eocene, was about as large as a fox. It had large canine teeth, three toes upon its hind feet, and four perfect toes and a splint on the forefeet. In this horse the head ea ee ee a a | Extinct Species. 189 and neck were elongated, and the place for the bit or diastema was well defined, and develops materi- ally as we follow the line down. Compare this form with the horse of the Lower Miocene (the Mesohzp- pus), and we find that the latter was larger, being now about the size of a sheep. It has three toes behind and in front, while the fourth toe, which we saw in the previous form, is reduced to a mere splint. Following it, in the Miocene proper, was the Miohippus, in which the toes are about the same, though the fourth one, or splint, is hardly dis- tinguishable. Now, the animals, though small, had well-defined horse-like shapes. Passing to the next form in the Lower Pliocene, we find a skeleton about as large as that of the present donkey. The splint has entirely disappeared, and there are three toes, the two outer ones being short, there being very evident disposition to rely upon the middle one, which was larger and stouter than in previous forms. Moving upward to the Pliocene, we come to a horse which scientists call Pliohippus, and which was very similar to the horse of to-day. The middle toe was now the hoof, while the other toes were useless splints. Another step brings us to the Quaternary and present horse, in which the middle toe has become the hoof, upon which the genus Equus stands, while the two toes are still represented by the disappearing side splints. The striking nature of this evidence is shown in the accompanying diagram. In referring to these animals Professor Marsh says: “The most marked changes undergone by 4,190 Charles Darwin. - : ete - these successive genera are the following: Ist, in- crease in size, from Ovohippus, as large as a fox, to the modern horse; 2d, increase in speed through concentration of the limb-bones; 3d, elongation of the head and neck and modification of the skull. The increase of speed was a direct result of a gradual and striking modification of the limbs. These were slowly concentrated by the reduction of their lateral elements and enlargement of the axial one, until the force exerted by each limb came to act directly through its axis in the line of motion. This concen- tration is well shown in the fore-limb. There was, Ist, a change in the scapula and humerus, especially in the latter, which facilitated motion in one plane only ; 2d, an expansion of the radius and reduction of the ulna, until the former alone remained entire and effective; 3d, a shortening of all the carpal bones and enlargement of the median ones, ensuring a firm wrist; 4th, an increase in size of the third digit at the expense of those on each side, until the former alone supported the limb. The latter change is clearly seen in the accompanying diagram, which represents the forefeet of four typical genera in the equine series, taken in succession from each of the geological periods in which this group of mammals is known to have lived. The line of descent ap- pears to have been direct, and the remains now known supply every important intermediate form. Considering the remarkable development of the group throughout the entire Tertiary period, and its exist- ence even later, it seems very strange that none of the species should have survived, and that we are indebted for our present horse to the Old World.” os PERE Connecting Links. Igt These changes were produced only after successive ages representing vast eras of time. From this brief review it will be seen that Darwin- ism assumes that the side splints so familiar in the horse of to-day indicate an ancestry in which the splints were more fully developed. In other words, the splints are the remains of organs which in the course of the development of the animal have dis- appeared. Adopting this line of argument Darwin would point to the teeth in the embryo of the whalebone whale, which do not appear as the animal grows, as evidence that the giant animal in the remote past possessed teeth, so the rudimentary pelvis, hip-bone, thigh, and leg bones suggest that at one time this huge creature possessed hind legs.. In the Greenland whale especially, the hip- and knee-joint, with some of their muscles, are well defined beneath the skin, so that we can imagine that at one time in the remote past the whale was a shore-loving creature, which finally became more aquatic in its habits, and the hind legs, like the many toes of the horse, disap- peared. ; Among the early birds of this country the wonder- ful Odontornithes, or birds with teeth, discovered by Professor Marsh, we have examples of connecting links striking in the extreme, and pointing to an ancestry so remote that the imagination almost fails to grasp the reality, and the mind is bewildered by the testimony that shows conclusively that by fol- lowing back the history of our feathered friends we should be led imperceptibly but surely into the domain of the reptiles. 192 Charles Darwin. One of the most interesting events of the scientific world of America in the past twenty years was the announcement by Professor Marsh that he had dis- covered in the ancient sea-bed or shore of the West the remains of birds which possessed reptilian teeth and were evidently descendants of reptiles. This announcement was received with incredulity by the scientists of Europe; but their doubts were silenced when the remains of not one but scores of specimens were deposited in the Yale museum at New Haven, showing fully the remarkable nature of the diseovery. Professor Marsh states that the remains found by him represent birds which had remarkable reptilian affinities and were undoubtedly descended from some remote reptilian ancestor. The most striking form discovered was the one called by him Hesperornis regalis. It represented a bird about six feet in length, resembling to some extent the loon of to-day. It was an aquatic bird, but flightless, being without a vestige of wings. Its neck was long, its feet extremely large, and its pointed bill, armed with sharp recurved teeth, ad- mirably adapted for securing and holding prey. The size of the latter was not material, as the lower jaw was united in front by a cartilage, as in the snakes, giving them the power of swallowing a fish of large size. That a bird should be provided with teeth is extraordinary; but in this case they were almost identical with those of reptiles. In referring to this bird Professor Marsh says: ‘‘ Having thus shown what the skeleton of Hlesperor- nis is, and what its mode of life must have been, it a — a > CTL WaPo re Remarkable Birds. 193 remains to consider the more important question of how the peculiar combination of general and spe- cialised characters manifested in its structure origi- nated. The two most striking features of Hesperornts are the teeth and the limbs, and an inquiry in regard to them first suggests itself. The teeth of Hes- perornis may be regarded as a character inherited from a reptilian ancestry. Their strong resemblance to the teeth of reptiles, in form, structure, and succession, is evidence of this, and their method of implantation, in a common alveolar groove (Holco- dont), conforms strictly to what we have in one well-known group of reptiles, exemplified by /chthy- osaurus. This method of insertion in the jaw isa primitive dental character, quite different from what -we should naturally expect as an accompaniment of the modern style of vertebra, and is a much lower grade than the implantation of the teeth in distinct _ sockets (Thecodont), a feature characteristic of an- other group of Odontothores, of which Ilchthyornis isthe type. These teeth indicate unmistakably that Hesperornis was carnivorous in habit, and doubtless _ was descended from a long line of rapacious ances- tors.” Equally remarkable was the Archgopteryx—a bird _ discovered in Germany. Here it is supposed was a bird but partly feathered, representing the time _when feathers were developing. Its beaks were armed with teeth, while its tail was an elongation of _ the vertebra, like the tail of a cat, from the sides of which grew feathers, so that when the reptilian bird _ flew, its tail constituted a rudder or guide. These 13 194 Charles Darwin. singular creatures, with the gigantic Pteranodons were links in the wondrous chain of early life—evi- dences of a remarkable ancestry. A volume could be filled in describing the many recent discoveries which naturalists of to-day consider as evidences of the correctness of the deductions of Darwin. To him the story of nature was plain and simple; the Giver of all things created life; this, acted upon by the natural conditions of its environment, produced the varieties, which, in turn, in the long eras of time, became species; from these genera were evolved; and so the change went on, populating the world. The story of this evolution is told in the “ Origin of Species,” “‘ The Descent of Man,” and other works of the great naturalist, which mark epochs in the history of scientific thought. = LTE ee ony ak CHAPTER XVIII. THE DARWIN MEMORIAL. Addresses by American Scientists: Dr. Theodore Gill—W. H. Dall —Major John W. Powell—Richard Rathbun—Charles V. Riley —Lester F. Ward—Frank Baker—Frederick W. True. HE death of Charles Dar- win, which occurred in April, 1882, created a world-wide sensation, and in every scientific society in the world resolutions of respect were passed to his memory, many of which have been collect- ed, making in themselves a large, even ponderous, volume. The American societies were unanimous in their appreciation of his greatness, and the memorial of the Biological Society of Washington was particu- larly interesting. The announcement of the death of the distinguished scientist was officially made to the society at its meeting of April 28, 1882, at which 195 196 Charles Darwin. it was voted that the next meeting of the society should be a Darwin memorial. The following com- mittee was appointed to carry it out; Messrs. Goode, Riley, Ward, Rathbun, and Gill. The result of their action appears in the memorial of the society, which consists of a series of papers, read by distinguished leaders of scientific thought in America, on the various branches of science with which Darwin was identified. These papers give the most comprehensive view of Darwin’s scientific attainments from a purely American standpoint, ever published. The meeting of the Biological Society was called for the 12th of May, a little over a month after the death of the great naturalist, and in the presence of a large and distinguished audience, among which were representatives of many of the leading scientific societies of the day, the following papers which will always remain permanent additions to Darwinian literature, were read: THE DOCTRINE OF DARWIN. BY THEODORE GILL, A.M., M.D., PH.D.,M.N.A.S., Smithsonian Institution. The chief for many years of the leaders in science knows no longer the world he erstwhile knew so well. Charles Darwin has closed a life illustrious in the annals of biology, scarce full of years but very ull of honours. How fruitful was that life and how potent its influence on philosophy and on sociology the united Natural Selection. © 197 voice of the civilised world proclaims—how grievous the loss the lamentations of mankind testify. Less than a quarter of a century has elapsed since the publication of “ The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.”” How great is the contrast be- tween the beliefs and practice of naturalists before its appearance and those of their present successors! e would, indeed, have been a bold man who would have predicted that, in two decades after its appear- ance, the views therein promulgated would be uni- versally accepted and be taken as the recognised platform of biologists. But the incredible has actually happened: all the students of nature, and in every land ; zodlogists and botanists, paleontologists and geologists ; in America and Europe, at the confines of Asia, the extreme of Africa, and in distant Aus- tralia,—all meet on common ground as evolutionists ; all recognise to a greater or less extent the operation of natural selection in the survival of the fittest. To appreciate the cause of the profound impression produced by the deceased naturalist’s greatest work, some reference to the antecedent and succeeding conditions is fitting. It had been, from time immemorial, a generally accepted idea that the living beings which people the globe had, in some mysterious manner, been each “created” separately; but how, few ventured to express in words, for the mere attempt to do so con- jured up such strange fancies that the intelligent mind drew back in revolt and refused to consider them. Now, it is a recognised scientific creed that the animals and plants which have successively in- 198 Charles Darwin. habited the earth were the descendants, with modi- fication, from previous inhabitants since the dawn of life. A glimmer of the truth had now and then occurred to contemplative students. Philosophers had ventured to think that living forms like ancient ones might have descended from them. The inves- tigators in various departments of biology had gradually deduced generalisations which all tended in a similar direction. The taxologists, in their very -nomenclature, compared the animal kingdom to a tree of which the principal types were “ branches ”’ diverging from a common trunk, while the minor groups were successive offshoots; and the idea of genetic relationship suggested by the various degrees of likeness was expressed in the names conferred on other groups—“ tribe,” “ family,” etc. The embry- ologists had recognised a coincidence between the stages of development of the “superior” animals and the adults of animals inferior in the system. The paleontologists had discovered an approximate coincidence between the successive inhabitants of the earth and the successive stages in the develop- ment of the living animals of the same types. The series of facts thus obtained had even, to some extent, been co-ordinated. All these series of facts were such as would have been the result of the derivation of existing types from previous ones. But the possibility that the seeming was the real did not commend itself to the consideration of naturalists. Instead thereof, it was assumed that the facts were “in accordance with a plan of the Creator” ; that the Deity had conceived = Fe EE ME a Ne i £7 Be, PNR NT i 2 A Puerile Conception. 199 a few patterns, and that by those he constructed the animals which successively appeared on the globe, to be in time swept off and replaced by others. If answer was made that such was a puerile conception of creation and that it limited the power of Deity, ex- cessive anger was displayed, and its opponents called infidels and atheists. But even those who doubted whether the accepted views of creation were tenable, hesitated to take the alternative view. An efficient factor in variation remained to be discovered, and a full presentation of the data had yet to be made. It was in 1859 that the desiderata indicated were supplied in “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” “Variation under domestica- tion ’’ was compared and contrasted with “ variation under nature.” The “struggle for existence” which is the result of the progressive increase of living beings was considered, and “natural selection” was designated as the factor which determined the development and existence as “species” of forms which had descended, with modifications, from count- less antecedent generations. With the successive changes in temperature and other conditions ensuing in the ever-changing world, the animals and plants which peopled it were compelled to keep pace by corresponding changes in structure, or to give place to others who could adapt themselves to the new conditions. So much were the views thus enunciated opposed to the current ideas that a brief period of astonished silence ensued, and men felt about before they could realise their full purport, or that such opinions were 200 Charles Darwin. broached in sober earnest. Then followed on every hand torrents of detraction and abuse. The natural- ists of the old school and the priests of revelation met on common ground, and loud and bitter was the denunciation. Numerous were the arguments against the new theory. But why this great turmoil and uproar? Darwin was not the first to believe that species had been derived and not created. So had philosophers be- lieved before; the grandfather of Darwin believed and urged the belief; a great naturalist at the com- mencement of the century—Lamarck—boldly and wisely formulated a theory of evolution; the “ Ves- tiges of Creation”’ took up the view, and gained marked attention in Britain. Even a clergyman of the English Church, the Savilian professor in ortho- dox Oxford, the Rev. Baden Powell, in 1855, had considered the “ Philosophy of Creation” in a “ mas- terly manner,” and Darwin bore testimony that noth- ing can be more striking than the manner in which the enlightened priest showed that the introduction of new species is a regular phenomenon in con- \tradistinction to a miraculous process. Darwin was not the first even to conceive of the rinciple of of natu- ral selection. An American resident in England, Dr. W. C. Wells, as early as 1813, had recognised the operation of the principle th distribution of the human race. In 1831, Patrick Matthews also appre- ciated the principle of natural selection; so Darwin himself witnesses. It was not, then, the mere enunciation of the theory of evolution, nor of the principle of natural Want of Evidence. 201 selection, that characterised the “ Origin of Species,” and drew the attention of mankind to it. It was the recognition of the incessant and universal opera- tion of the factors, the masterly co-ordination of the facts of biology—zodlogy, botany, anatomy, general morphology, physiology, embryology, paleontology —and geology, the marshalling in orderly array and concentration in one direction of all natural knowl- edge, the force of the logic, the clearness of the exposition, the judicial candour of the argument, that arrested men’s attention, and provoked serious consideration of what before had been ignored as being beyond the domain or possibilities of investi- gation. In the time of Lamarck the world was not ready for a consideration of the question.. Lamarck’s was the prophecy of intuitive genius—genius the greater in that the facts that had been garnered were few. The “ Vestiges of Creation” was so re- plete with errors of fact and misconceptions as to attract more attention to the fault of its details that to the logic of its argument. The principle of natu- ral selection had been applied to very special fields by Wells and Matthews; no evidence had been fur- nished of its wide extension, and it even occupied a subordinate position in the thoughts of those investi- gators. The author of the “ Origin of Species” was a dif- ferent man from his predecessors, and lived in a hap- pier time. The facts had been accumulated and co- ordinated ; men were ready to consider the reason why facts were such, and none was better fitted than Darwin—I should rather say none was so well fitted 202 Charles Darwin. —to arrange and present the facts and to draw the deductions therefrom. Ever a close observer, prac- tised in many lands, student of all nature—especially skilled as a geologist, a botanist, and a zodlogist— endowed with a severely judicial mind, honest above all, none like him had ever grappled with the mys- tery of creation. For more than twenty years he had pondered on the subject ; with impartial severity he had weighed the evidence. He was, perforce, _led to the conclusion that all the living had been derived from past forms, with modifications incident to individuality ; the sums of the divergences, small in themselves, became large in the aggregate, be- came enormous in time. The increasing beings, crowding upon each other, invading each other’s domains, struggled for the life into which they were born. Happy were those possessing some slight advantage—strength, swiftness, dexterity, or adapt- ability resulting from modification of structure— for they could. procure place or food at the expense of their competitors, and the characters that gave them victory secured, likewise, the temporary as- cendancy of their kind. How great is this variability our domesticated animals attest ; how ancient is our globe geology teaches ; that the race is to the strong or the cunning observation of inferior nature as- sures. With known variability, time, and space, what could not result ? Which, then, was the more probable, that Nature—or, if you will, the Creator —had always operated under law, or that there had been constant interference ? Thus were the issues fairly joined. On the one. Evolution. 7 203 hand, Creation was the rallying cry; on the other, Evolution and Darwin. But what meant the opposed terms? It is surely but reasonable to ask the ques- tion. The evolutionists conceded the reasonable- ness, and gladly accepted the ordeal. Could less be required of the creationists? In reverential mood would I submit the alternatives. If they repel, blame not me. I have long and fruitlessly searched for better. Creation implies the actual fashioning of forms in full panoply, and with all the characteristics of their _kind. But when it was asked how this had been effected the answer was vague and evasive. Did “elemental atoms flash into living tissues?” Was there vacant space one moment and an elephant ap- parent the next ? Or did a laborious God mould out of gathered earth a body to then endue with life? The questions are surely pertinent, for only by such means can we conceive of creation. But passionate disclaimers and angry denunciations greeted him who would frame such conceptions in exact language. Metaphysical jargon and rhetoric about divine pur- poses might sophisticate, but could not answer. Evolution denotes the derivation of living beings from preceding in endless succession. Variation in progeny, limited heredity, and time are its correla- tives. These being conceded, the peopling of the globe with its life, past and present, is conceivable. What was the evidence to support the conflicting conceptions ? For creation it was urged that the universal con- sensus of mankind supported it ; that divine revela- 204 Charles Darwin. tion taught it; and that the diversities and special- isation of organic forms forbade the idea of their derivation from a common parentage. The universal consensus of mankind maintained till the sixteenth century the doctrine that the earth was flat; that the sun and other planets circled round the earth; and that the earth was the great centre of the universe. The universal consensus of mankind for thousands of -years is not the universal \ consenus of the enlightened man, nor of the present \century. __ The teachers of revelation have been often mis- /taken. Many are they who once were contemned / and denounced because their utterances were not in ' accordance with the opinions of their day, who are now accepted as the champions of a purer religion. One of the wisest priests of England has said that “with a certain class of religionists every invention _ and discovery is considered impious and unscriptural as long as it is new. Not only the discoveries of | astronomy and geology, but steam, gas, electricity, | political economy, have all in their turn been de- nounced; and not least chloroform. Its use in par- turition has been anathematized as an infraction of | the penalty pronounced on Eve!’’* It is not I, \. but a great clergyman, who expresses such senti- \ ments. The objection that the differentiation and special- isation of organic beings gainsay their derivation from a common source is a most weighty one. In i * Rev. Baden Powell’s ‘‘ Essay on the Spirit of the Inductive Phi- losophy,” etc., p. 455. Evidences of Evolution, 205 the infancy of our own knowledge it was unanswer- able, and the less we know of nature the more we are impressed with these diversities. It is not, how- ever, simply a question of whether evolution is true; but which is the more probable of two alternatives— that all the phenomena which point in one direction and which could have occurred in natural sequence, have taken place in such sequence; or that direct creative intervention has ensued again and again, when the same ends could have been produced with- out such intervention. Nature was true to her disciple, and herself fur- nished the replies. It was contended that if evolution were true, the evidence should be forthcoming in the existence in previous geological epochs of forms of a generalised character intermediate between still earlier ones and later widely separated forms; and that of such there were very few. The graves of the distant past gave up their dead, and the ossuaries of our own far West yielded most cogent testimony to the truth. Forms from the. Eocene and later beds, resurrected by the wand of the anatomist, rising in successive lines behind the wide gaps in the living files, proclaimed that all were of one blood, and showed the genealogy of the con- temporaries of man. Many were the forms thus connected. Few are those that may be mentioned on this occasion. The horse-like animals, the rhinoceroses, and tapirs, are so unlike, that proof of their derivation from one source might be thought to be impossible. But 206 Charles Darwin. as we go back into the ages we find equines with lateral digits and hooflets becoming larger and longer, teeth shorter and more generalised, skel- etons less characteristic; rhinoceroses with cutting teeth, and more ‘slender forms; tapir-like animals without the peculiar tapirine teeth, with rhinocero- toid skulls, and with otherwise modified structure; all these, accompanied by innumerable other modi- fications, till finally we are almost at a loss to tell whether it is a horse-like, a rhinocerotoid, or a tapir- oid animal that is before us, and key become lost in earlier forms with special characters of their own. And as we go still further back we are confronted with still other forms that are connected by series projected backward from the ruminants and from the elephantids. We do, in fine, know the geneal- ogy of our own contemporaries—imperfectly, it is true, but still we know it. It was objected that animals were segregated by such very wide intervals that they must be isolated in different branches, and that there could be no community of structure between such branches; they expressed fundamentally different plans of structure. One by one zoélogy, anatomy, and embryology supplied the links between the old branches; the branches were at length completely uprooted, and it has even become a matter of simple convention what should be considered major groups. Plans of structure can no longer be claimed to be peculiar to different types. That branch of which man is the primate—the Obstacles Raised. 207 vertebrates—was supposed to be perfectly unassail- able and isolated; but zodlogy and anatomy have revealed to us amphioxus, and embryology the earlier stages of the tunicates. .The evidence is now conclusive that these forms which once appeared to be among the most distant, are now the most closely related. The affinities of the tunicates with inver- tebrates are evident, and thus we may look far back to that time when vertebrates did not exist, but when the common ancestors, from which they and the related invertebrates should diverge, held sway. It was even pretended that the evidence was in- sufficient to show that variation was possible or could be propagated. From every hand testimony was forthcoming. The breeder could point to every domesticated ani- mal—the horticulturist and pomologist to all culti- vated plants—the systematist and zodgeographer to the limits of species which varied with knowledge of their distribution—the palzontologist to the grada- tion between the extinct forms and widely separated living species, as well as to that between forms which lived in successive earlier epochs. It was urged that the Darwinian theory was op- posed to revelation, and subversive of Christianity. As students of nature and seekers after truth alone—so far as nature is concerned—we only ask whether the views of Darwin are true or not. But now, from many a pulpit, and from the most en- lightened of the clergy, we hear the claim that evo- lution is in perfect accordance with revelation, andisa witness to the power, prescience, and goodness of God. 208 Charles Darwin. It was contended that acceptance of the teachings of Darwin would have a pernicious tendency, and entail riot, lawlessness, and crime in the world. A long life of singular purity and blamelessness in the person of Darwin was an answer. An unsul- lied heritage from an ancestor entertaining like views has been transmitted to heirs of his body without flaw. Sons of the great philosopher con- tinue the studies of their great sire, and worthily wear the heavy mantle left to them. One after another the scientific opponents of evo- lution became convinced of its verity, or died out. The naturalists of a new generation with one accord accepted ‘“ Darwinism ”’ as a starting-point for their more profound studies. The methods and aims of biology became changed.- Biology became exalted from empiricism into a science. Long before ‘“ The Origin of Species”’ had even “ come of age,’’ accept- ance of its teachings had become an essential of scientific creed, and Darwin was acknowledged to have effected a greater revolution in science than any Englishman since the time of Newton. Most meet was it then that he should rest by the side of his great predecessor, whose rival he will ever be in fame. BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. BY WILLIAM H. DALL, Honorary Curator, Dept. of Mollusks, U. S, National Museum. Charles Robert Darwin, son of Dr. Robert War- ing Darwin, F.R.S., and Emma Wedgwood, grand- son of Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood, was born at Shrewsbury, England, February 12, a co - {o_o Dall’s Sketch. - 209 1809. He died of disease of the heart at his resi- dence, Down Court, Beckenham, Kent, at 4 P.M., April 19, 1882, and consequently had attained the age of seventy-three years, two months, and seven days. At Shrewsbury his childhood was passed and his education was obtained at the once famous Shrewsbury Grammar School, presided over by the Rev. Dr. Samuel Butler, afterward Bishop of Litchfield and Coventry. At the age of sixteen he entered the University of Edinburgh (1825) where he remained two years. Even at this early period he had become a student of natural history, and read his first scientific paper before the Plinian Society. It was “On the Move- ment of the Ova of Flustra,” one of the incrusting marine corallines. In 1827 he entered Christ’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated as a Bachelor of Arts four years later. Here he fell under the influence of the teach- ings of Prof. John Stevens Henslow, an excellent botanist, whose instruction doubtless did much to determine the field of study subsequently occupied by his pupil. In 1831 Captain Fitz-Roy, R.N., offered to share his cabin with any competent naturalist who would accompany him on his prospecting voyage to South _ America in H. M. S. Beagle, detailed for surveys in _ that region. Mr. Darwin, then only twenty-two _ years of age, offered his services, with the stipulation’ that he should control the collections made, and was accepted. The Beagle sailed November 27, 1831, from Plymouth, and returned to England on the 2d of October, 1836. During a large part of the voyage 210 Charles Darwin. Mr. Darwin suffered greatly from sea-sickness, or some difficulty which simulated it, and which, in some form, returned at intervals throughout his whole life, as sudden fits of illness which prostrated him for days together, and which were followed by long periods of wakeful convalescence. Under the circumstances, the amount of keen and patient ob- servation, the vast accumulation of facts, and the extensive collections obtained by Mr. Darwin during his voyage, appear more marvellous than ever. After his return his health was much shattered, and his studies more or less interrupted for some years. He took his Master’s degree in course, and shortly after his return was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (of which his father and grandfather were previously Fellows), and of the Geological Society, of which last he was made secretary. In 1839 he published his epoch-making work “A Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various Countries Visited by H. M. S. Beagle”; the first of that long series of investiga- tions to which his life was devoted, and the publica- tion of which revolutionised the study of biology, and gave to Darwin a position as a naturalist un- paralleled in the history of science. In the same year, 1839, Mr. Darwin married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and retired to the se- cluded and beautiful district of Kent, where, in his country-house of Down Court, near Orpington, more than forty years of his life were spent. The district is purely agricultural, a plateau of chalk, some four hundred feet above the sea, interrupted by the wavy Dall’s Sketch. . 211 hollows characteristic of the English chalk country, with beech woods here and there on the slopes. His dwelling is one of the old square-built, red-brick mansions of the last century, to which has been added in more recent times a gable-fronted wing, with another square-built wing and pillared portico on the corresponding side. Shut in and almost hid- den from the roadway by a high wall and belt of trees, it offers ideal seclusion for a quiet student. On the southern side the walled garden opens into a secluded meadow bounded by a tract of underwood through which there is a lovely view of the narrow valley which descends toward Westerham. Here, and in the by-paths of adjacent woods and meadows, Mr. Darwin was accustomed to take daily exercise with a characteristic regularity. Up to ten or twelve years ago, his tall figure, mounted on a favorite old black horse, was a familiar object in the country lanes. This animal fell and died suddenly one day, after which it was noted that Mr. Darwin rode no more. His invariable hours for walking, in _ these later years, were seven in the morning, noon, and four o'clock in the afternoon, usually accom- panied by one or more of his sons; one of whom, Mr. Francis Darwin, has long been established as a surgeon in the hamlet of Down. His habits were extremely regular. He rose at six, took a cold plunge bath (which was repeated in the evening), breakfasted alone, and after his first morning walk was usually in his library by 8 A.M. At nine he would spend a little time in the dining-room opening his mail, and in the evening would linger an hour or 212 Charles Darwin. ‘ two in the society of his family, or that of some of his scientific friends who occasionally visited him; but the greater part of his time was spent in his library, _ his garden, and the adjacent grounds. A few friends, among whom were Sir John Lubbock and Dr. Farr, near residents, were often with him, and with such he was social, frank, and ever ready to enjoy a joke or frolic; with all men he was unpretentious, kind, and devoid of any artificiality of manner; but his life was essentially a secluded one, as may be judged from the fact that the news of his death did not reach London until noon of the following day. Nevertheless, his life was far from solitary, for his family formed quite a colony in itself until the children reached maturity.. Two children, a boy and a girl, were lost in infancy; one dying in 1842 and the other in 1858, and are buried in the village church- yard of Down, near by some of the Wedgwoods. In the family who lived Mr. Darwin was fortunate. His eldest son, William, is a banker at Southampton; the second, George, took high honours at Cambridge, and is now a Fellow of Trinity College and a dis- tinguished mathematician ; the third, Frank, having inherited his father’s delicate constitution, acted as his secretary; the fourth, Leonard, an officer of artillery, has distinguished himself in the direction of astronomy ; the fifth, Horace, is an excellent mathe- matician. One married and one unmarried daughter complete a family whose constant care has been to relieve its head from any trouble and anxiety. Mr. Darwin has always been in easy circumstances, financially, so that he could use his time as he chose, Dall's Sketch. 213 without care. When young he pursued field-sports, with the combined interest of the hunter and the naturalist ; in later years he found his chief relaxa- tion in reading popular novels. His work was taken up with great method, and he never wrote for more than two hours at a time. In 1853 he received the gold medal of the Royal _ Society for his various works; in 1859 that known as the Wollaston medal from the Geological Society ; in 1871 he received the Prussian Order of Knight- hood “‘ For Merit,” and was elected a corresponding _ member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences; and in 1878, foreign associate of the French Academy. _ He received honorary degrees from Leyden and Cambridge, and other scientific honours almost without number. His death was unexpected. He had been slightly unwell for several weeks, and the weakness of the heart’s action was such that he was not permitted to _ ascend the stairs, but, in the main, he was still able _ to pursue his ordinary routine. On Tuesday morn- _ ing Sir John Lubbock found him apparently about _asusual. That he was seriously ill, was first known _ in the village Wednesday afternoon by the arrival _ of his groom on horseback, horse and man reeking _ with foam, having galloped for ice six miles and _ back from the nearest point where it could be pro- _ cured; but in vain, the relief arrived too late, Charles _ Darwin had already passed away, surrounded by his _ family, including several of his sons, Mrs. Darwin, and _ amarried daughter. On the 26th his mortal remains _ were laid in Westminster Abbey, near by the ashes of 214 Charles Darwin. Isaac Newton, and were followed to the tomb, not only by dignitaries of Church and State, but by the ‘universal reverence of the scientific world.* DARWIN’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHILOSOPHY. BY JOHN W. POWELL, PH.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S., Director of U. S. Geological Survey, Director Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Many are the definitions of philosophy. If we wish not to define what is ¢rue philosophy, but simply to define the term in all its uses when refer- ring to all times and all men, this definition will do: hilosophy is the explanation of the phenomena of the universe. Now, the phenomena of the universe are em- braced in many vast categories. First, we have the constitution of the heavenly bodies, and their real and apparent motions to be explained. What are they, and how came they to be what they are? Then we have the earth itself; its forms, its lands and seas, its mountains and valleys, its rivers and lakes, the winds which blow about it, the storms which fall upon it, the lightnings that flash athwart the sky, the thunders that roll among the clouds. What are all these things, and whence came they, and why are. they? Again, in the constitution of the earth we find rocks with their minerals, and geo- * It is hardly necessary to state that this sketch is a compilation from all the different sources which happened to be available at the — time. The Phenomena of the Universe. 215 logic formations with their fossils. What are rocks and minerals, formations and fossils, and whence came they? Look at the innumerable forms of plants covering _ the earth with verdure—the whole vegetable king- _ dom on the land and on the sea; forests, mosses, and _ conferve. Who shall explain the meaning of the _ phenomena of the vegetable kingdom ? The oceans teem with animal life; reptiles crawl over all the land ; the hills and the valleys, the moun- tains and the plains, are all inhabited by beasts; and the air itself is populated. Who shall tell us of all the living things, and then explain life itself? Turn to the contemplation of man, organised into _ tribes and nations; man possessed of innumerable _ languages; man engaged in arts and industries; man | _ endowed with reason and will; man in search of moral principles to guide his conduct. Whence came this man, and whither does he go. _ Among all tribes and nations of the globe, and in _ all times, men have sought to discover the whence, the how, and the why of all things—the phenomena of the universe. The explanation of the universe is philosophy. The philosophies of the world may be classified = I. Mythologic. II. Metaphysic. III. Scientific. _ Mythology and science constitute the two grand _ systems of philosophy, but between them stands 216 Charles Darwin. metaphysic philosophy as a stepping-stone from the former to the latter. In the lower stages of society, philosophy is purely mythologic. All savage and barbaric peoples explain the phenomena of the universe by a system of myths. A mythology is always a growth, and among every people there grows up by the employ- ment of diverse and superficial analogies—curious suggestions—a body of mythic explanations which constitute its philosophy. Among the Wintuns of California the world is three-storied. There is a world—a great chamber— above, and there is this world, and a world below. The waters fall from the world above because the sky, the floor of that upper world, leaks; and the waters come from the world below through the springs that issue from the flanks of the dead volca- noes of that land; so the waters from above and the waters from below meet and flow down the great Sacramento to the sea, where again they divide; the waters from above taking their way. to their upper home, and the waters from below taking their way to the lower world. The mountains were formed by the great mole- god, who crawled under the land and upheaved the mountain ranges that stand on either side of the Sacramento Valley. And so they explain all of the phenomena of the universe with which they are ac- quainted, in a system of myths which constitutes the philosophy of the Wintuns. — Now such a system of philosophy, a mythology, is found in every savage and barbaric tribe of the world, ee " ‘ Metaphysic Philosophy. 217 __ But there came a time in the history of mankind _ when some of the peoples changed their philosophy —their explanation of the phenomena of the uni- _ verse—by changing their methods of reasoning. Origin of Metaphysic Philosophy. = From three to two thousand years ago, Europe, Asia, and Africa established a commerce in ideas— an exchange in philosophies—carried on by the navigation of the Mediterranean. During that and some previous time there were built on the shores of this sea many cities. Through the building of these cities, and through the industries and arts _ which sprang up therewith, society was reorganised and placed upon a new basis—tribal society devel- oped into national society—barbarism into civilisa- tion. The peoples of these cities spoke diverse lan- guages, and entertained diverse mythologic philoso- phies. Through the intercourse which sprang up between them, each learned of the philosophy of the other, and the scholars of that day attempted to discover in all of these diverse mythologies a common body of truth upon the theory then widely accepted, that they had all sprung from a common source—a primitive philosophy itself the truth,—and that all the philosophies then existing were degen- erations therefrom. This line of investigation led to a curious result. All of the mythologies of the cities of the Medi- terranean were found to be baseless—each a fabric 218 Charles Darwin. of poetic but superficial analogies. In the mental activity of that time many new philosophies were proposed, diverse and contradictory ; and the wisest philosophers said, ‘‘ How shall we know the truth?” And they endeavoured to discover some criterion by which truth should be known. This resulted in the development of formal logic*as a testing machine into which opinions were put for the purpose of sift- ing truth from error. Now the machine called logic, the tool of the metaphysician, is curiously constructed. Its chief hypothesis is that man was primitively endowed with fundamental principles as a basis of reasoning, and that these principles can be formulated. These fundamental principles are supposed to be universal, and to be everywhere accepted by mankind as self- evident propositions of the highest order and of the broadest generalisation. These fundamental propo- sitions were called major propositions. The machine, in formal logic, was a verbal juxtaposition of propo- sitions with the major propositions at the head, followed by the minor propositions, and from this truth was supposed to flow. This formal logic of the Aristotelian epoch has lived from that period to the period of science. Logic is the instrument of metaphysics, and meta- physic philosophy, in its multifarious forms, is the product of logic. But during all that time—2,000 years—no truth has been discovered, no error has been detected by the use of the logical machine. Its fundamental assumption is false. It has been discovered that man is not endowed *< Scientific Philosophy. 219 _ with a body of major propositions. It is found that\ in the course of the evolution of mind minor propo- _ fsitions are discovered first, and major propositions _jare reached only by the combination of minor propo- \sitions; that always in the search for truth the minor proposition comes first, and that no major proposition _ can ever be accepted until the minor propositions _ included therein have been demonstrated. The error in the metaphysic philosophy was the _ assumption that the great truths were already known _ by mankind, and that by the proper use of the logical _ machine all minor truths could be discovered, and all " errors eliminated from philosophy. As metaphysic methods of reasoning were wrong, metaphysic phi- losophies were false; the body of metaphysic phi- losophy is a phantasmagoria. The Origin of Scientific Philosophy. While metaphysic philosophers have been playing with their logical kaleidoscopes, another body of philosophers have been at work gathering the ma- terials for the philosophy of science. Their method is to collect facts and to discover their relations, and _ they accept no conclusions that are not reached by _ this method. All other conclusions they hold as undetermined or indeterminate. _ And now must be given a definition of science. | Sctence ts the discernment, discrimination, and classifi-* i cation of facts, and the discovery of their relations of AK ) Sequence. This is a simple statement, but for its full _ comprehension a little illustration may be necessary. 220 Charles Darwin. A savage hears the voice of his fellow-man, he hears the voice of the beast, and of the bird; he also hears the noise of the thunder, and he supposes that the noise is a voice. In these cases he discerns noises, but he does not azscriminate one noise from the other, and supposes them all to be voices, and that the noise of the thunder is the voice of the Thunder Bird. To understand facts we must not only discern, but discriminate. The next step in the progress of science is classifi- cation. Having discerned and discriminated facts, they must be classified—all those of like nature thrown together. All noises made by living beings for conveying intelligence may be grouped into one class and called voices; all noises made by explosions grouped in another class; and so, as we go on dis- cerning, discriminating, and classifying, we collect the materials of philosophy. But this is not all of philosophy. Facts have genetic relations. If one thing is done something else will follow, and the highest function of scientific ‘philosophy is to discover the order of succession of phenomena—how phenomena follow phenomena in endless procession, how every fact has had its ante- cedent fact, and every fact must have its consequent fact. This part of science is called evolution, and by — this expression scientific men mean to be understood that phenomena go on in endless consequences, and that every act has been preceded by some other act, and that every act will be followed by some other 1 act ; that the causes of all of the phenomena of the universe that we wish to explain in a system of phil- Evolution. 221 _ osophy run back into the infinite past; that the con- sequences of all of the phenomena which we may now observe in the universe will run on into the in- finite future. This is evolution. The statement now given of the three great sys- tems of philosophy is, perhaps, sufficient for our purposes this evening, and it remains for us to point out the part contributed to scientific philosophy by Darwin, whom we mourn to-night. When Darwin rose as a light in the scientific - world, scientific philosophers had already discovered that the philosophic method of research should in- clude the discernment, discrimination, and classifica- tion of facts. At that time the scientific men of the world were engaged chiefly in the collection and arrangement of facts. To some extent they were engaged in discovering their relations of sequence. Important and interesting sequences had been dis- _ covered in the vast realm of astronomy ; other inter- esting sequences of facts had been discovered in the realm of geology; some interesting sequences of facts had been discovered in the realm of human history. In the realm of biology, in plant and ani- mal life, the order of succession of facts, the method _ of evolution, had not been discovered; yet many -men were thinking on the subject, many men search- ing for the method and course of biologic evolution. The facts relating thereto were partly known, and _ the course and laws of biologic evolution were dimly discerned. _ It remained for Darwin to demonstrate the laws _ of biologic evolution, and the course of the progress 222 | Charles Darwin. of life upon the globe. This he has done in a =a ner so masterly that there lives not in the world a | working biologist, a scientific man engaged in this field of research, who has not, directly or indirectly, | accepted his great conclusions, and the larger body © of biologists have accepted them directly. fa Let us now go back to the statement that, prior to the time of Darwin, scientific men engaged in re- searches relating to vegetal and animal life were occupied chiefly in the discernment, discrimination, and classification of facts. Botanists and zodlogists were engaged in describ- ing species, and classifying species, and this did not always enlist the highest talent ; and naturalists had become wearied with discussions over minute differ- ences and obscure resemblances, the origin and meaning of which were not understood. The discovery, largely made by Darwin, of the laws of succession, or genesis, gave to this depart- ment of scientific research a wonderful impetus, and since that day thousands of men have sprung up throughout the civilised world to take part in biologic research. In this field the greatest talent of the latest time is absorbed. The philosophy of biology satisfies the reason. In the universe of life, system is dis- covered, and biologists see visions of the origin of living beings, and dream dreams of the destiny of — living beings. Had philosophers discovered that the generations of living beings were degenerating, they would have discovered despair. Had they discovered that life — 4 is f t Biologic Evolution. 223 moves by steps of generations in endless circles— that what has been is, and what is shall be, and there is no progress, the gift of science to man would have been worthless. The revelation of science is this: Every generation in life isa step in progress to a higher and fuller life; science has discovered hope. Darwin demonstrated what others vaguely be- lieved or dimly saw—the course and methods of biologic evolution. Darwin gave hope to philosophy. The universe of phenomena may be classed in three great categories: I. Physical. II. Biologic. III. Anthropologic. Physical phenomena may be thrown into three categories: 1. Molar or mechanical physics; 2. Stellar or astronomical physics ; 3. Molecular physics. Biologic phenomena may be classed as: 1. Vege- tal; 2. Animal. Anthropologic phenomena may be classed as: I. Sociologic; 2. Philologic; 3. Philosophic; 4, Psy- chologic. To the discovery of the methods and course of physical evolution ze. the order of succession in physical phenomena, many great men have con- tributed. Among these, Newton stands pre-eminent. The discovery of biologic evolution, z.¢., the suc- cession of phenomena in vegetal and animal life, is in like manner due to the researches of many men, but among these Darwin stands pre-eminent. By his discoveries the discoveries of all other biologists 224 Charles Darwin. have been correlated and woven into systematic philosophy. The methods and caurse of anthropo- logic evolution have yet to be systematised. Import- ant discoveries have been made, but this portion of philosophy is yet inchoate. Working Hypotheses. © But Darwin’s investigations have not ended re- search or completed philosophy. He brought scien- tific men to the frontiers of truth, and showed them a path across the border. Yet more than this he did. He pointed out one of the fundamental meth- ods of research. Before his time philosophers talked about deductive methods and inductive methods. Darwin has taught us that both are fruitless. Deductive methods are the logical or metaphysical methods which have been already described, by which men arrive at conclusions from general prin- ciples supposed to be innate in the human mind. The vanity of these methods has already been char- acterised. Inductive methods have found their best expres- sion in the Baconian philosophy. By inductive methods men are to collect facts, unbiased by opin- ions or preconceived theories. They are to gather the facts, put them together, arrange and combine them to find higher and still higher generalisations. But there are facts and facts—facts with value, and facts without value. The indiscriminate gathering of facts leads to no important discoveries. Men might devote themselves to counting the leaves on the trees, the blades of grass in the meadows, the i=. Working Hypotheses. 225 grains of sand on the sea-shore ;—they might weigh each one, and measure each one, and go on collecting such facts until libraries were filled, and the minds of men buried under their weight, and no addition would be made to philosophy thereby. There must be some method of selecting, some method of de- termining what facts are valuable and what facts are trivial. The fool collects facts; the wise man tt SrA them. : “Amid the multiplicity of facts in the universe, how _ does the wise man choose for his use? The true scientific man walks not at random through the _ world, making notes of what he sees; he chooses _ some narrow field of investigation. Within this field __ he reviews what is already known, and becomes con- _ versant with the conclusions already reached. He _ then seeks to discern more facts in this field, and to make more careful discriminations therein, and then to make more homologic classifications ; and, finally, more thoroughly to discover the complexity of | sequences. If he attain to success in doing all this his investi- gations are always suggested by some hypothesis— some supposition of what he may discover. He may find that his hypothesis is wrong, and discover some- thing else ; but without an hypothesis he discovers nothing. A scientific man taking up a subject re- views the facts that are known, and imagines that they lead to conclusions that have not yet been reached by others. His imagination may lead him quite astray, yet he follows it, and says: ‘ Now if this be true, then there must be certain yet undiscovered 15 226 ) Charles Darwin. facts,” and he seeks for them. He may find that which he seeks, or he may find something quite other. If he be an honest thinker, a true philoso- pher, it matters not to him. He substantiates his hypothesis or constructs a new one. If such hy- pothesis leads to many new discoveries scientific men accept it, and call it a working hypothesis, and if it still leads on to discovery scientific men call it a theory; and so working hypotheses are developed into theories, and these theories become the funda- mental principles, the major propositions of science, the widest generalisations of philosophy. Sometimes the inductive method—the Baconian: method—is said to have been modified or improved by the addition of the method by working hypothe- ses, and then modern scientific methods are said to be inductive. With this understanding, it may be said that the deductive methods of metaphysics have been supplanted by the inductive methods of science. It would, perhaps, be better to say that deductive and inductive methods have been superseded by the method of working hypotheses. Working hypotheses are the instruments with which scientific men select facts. By them, reason and imagination are conjoined, and all the powers of the mind employed in research. Darwin, more than any other man, has taught the use of working hypotheses. Newton and Darwin are the two great lights of science—the Gemini in the heavens of philosophy; stars whose glory is the brightest of all. There be good folk in the world who love mytho. The Red Man's Philosophy. 227 logic and metaphysic philosophy—one or both. In the ears of such the praise of Darwin is not sweet music. Let me beg of such who may be here to consider that we come to-night to praise our dead, and to tell of our love for the man who gave us hope. You and I cannot contend over an open grave, and in my soul I find no cause for angry contention elsewhere. Every man’s opinions are honest opin- ions—his opinions are the children of his own reason- ing, and he loves his offspring. /When I stand before the sacred fire in an Indian \ village and listen to the red man’s philosophy, no anger stirs my blood. I love him as one of my | - kind. He has a philosophy not unlike that of my forefathers, though widely separated from my own, and I love him as one near akin. Among civilised men I find no one who has not a philosophy in part common with my own; and of those smaller portions of our philosophies which are not alike, I see no cause why anger should be kindled between us thereby. They and I are bound together by the same cord of honesty in opinion. In Darwin’s writings I find no word of reproach. Denunciation and ridicule, greater than any other man has endured, never kindled a spark of hatred in his breast. Wrapped in the mantle of his philosophy he received no wounds, but lived with and loved mankind Let us not gird science to our loins as the warrior buckles on his sword. Let us raise science aloft as the olive branch of peace and the emblem of hope. 228 Charles Darwin. DARWIN’S WORK IN ENTOMOLOGY. BY CHARLES V. RILEY, PH.D., Hon. Curator of Entomology, National Museum ; Entomologist of the Agricultural Department. Charles Robert Darwin was one of the original members of the London Entomological Society, of whom only six are yet living. He always took the keenest interest in the science of entomology, and drew largely from insects for illustrations in support of the theory with which his name will forever be associated. Indeed, I have the authority of my late associate editor of the American Entomologist, Ben- jamin Dann Walsh, who was a classmate of Darwin’s, at Cambridge, that the latter’s love of natural history was chiefly manifested, while there, ina fine collec- tion of insects; so that, as has been the case with so many noted naturalists, Darwin probably acquired from the study of insects that love of nature which first forever afterward inspired him in his endeavours to win her secrets and interpret aright her ways! Though he has left no descriptive or systematic work of an entomological character, yet his writings abound in important facts and observations anent insects, and no branch of natural science has more fully felt the beneficial impulse and stimulus of his labors than entomology. Indeed, the varying condi- tions of life in the same individual or species; the remarkable metamorphoses ; the rapid development ; the phenomena of dimorphism and heteromorphism ; of phytophagic and sexual variation; the ready adaptation to changed conditions, and consequent STR eS re Entomological Works. 229 rapid modification; the great prolificacy and im- mense number of individuals; the three distinctive states of larva, pupa, and imago, susceptible to modification, as well as other characteristics in in- sects—render them particularly attractive and useful to the evolutionist, and the changed aspect which natural history in general has assumed since the publication of the “Origin of Species” is perhaps more marked in entomology than in any other branch, for its author helped to replace ridicule by reason. During his voyage on the Beagle he col- lected a very large number of interesting species, especially in Coleoptera, and they formed the basis of many memoirs by Walker, Newman, and White, and particularly by G. R. Waterhouse, who named Odontoscelis Darwintt after him. These memoirs were published either in the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and in the Transactions of the London Entomological Society, or in various entomo- logical periodicals, and I append a list, which, in this connection, it is not necessary to read. Scattered through his memorable works, a “ Jour- nal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle round the World” (which is best known by the publisher’s title, “A Naturalist’s Voyage round the World”’), and “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection,” are many interesting entomological facts, and in almost every instance they are illumined by his masterly genius and his keen, penetrating mind. These are so nu- merous, so varied, and withal so widely dispersed, 230 Charles Darwin. that I can only make reference, at this time, to a fe of the most important and striking of them. He pointed out the great preponderance of phy- tophagous over predaceous species in the tropics as exemplifying the relation of the insect and plant worlds, both of which attain their maximum in those zones. Carabide are few; Scavengers and Brachely- tra very common; Rhynchophora and Chrysomelide astonishingly numerous. (‘ Journal of Researches,” etc., p. 34.) He showed by minute observations that the insect faunas of Tierra del Fuego, separated from Patago- nia only by the Straits of Magellan, have nothing in common, and he discussed the influence of primary barriers on the distribution of species, as shown in the marked divergence of the faunas on the eastern and western slopes of the Cordillera. ‘‘ We ought not,” he remarks, “to expect any closer similarity between the organic beings on the opposite sides of great mountain ranges than on the opposite shores of the ocean, except for species which have been able to cross the barrier, whether of rock or salt water.” (Jbid., pp. 326, 327.) I believe he was the first to draw attention to the paucity of insects on islands, and to establish the principle that the smaller the area, the less favourable it is for the development of insect life. (/d7d., p. 391.) It is a fact of observation that islands predispose to the apterous condition among insects, a fact that is especially noticeable in Kerguelen’s Land, as ob- served by Dr. Hooker, and particularly by our fellow member, Dr. Kidder. Darwin (‘ Origin of Species,” Reasons for Belief. 231 , p- 109) first suggested the most plausible reason, ‘viz.: that the indiscriminate use of wings might prove injurious to an insular species by tempting it out to sea and to destruction, so that the loss of the power of flight is a positive advantage to the species. The argument against this explanation, viz.: that insular species should be gifted with strong powers of flight to fortify themselves against being blown to sea in heavy gales, has little force, because either requirement may be fulfilled; and, in reality, where flight is absolutely necessary, as in the majority of Lepidoptera, and flower-frequenting Coleoptera, the wing capacity, in insular species, is actually increased, or correlated with a diminution of bulk ; whereas, in those less dependent on aérial progression, natural selection would decrease wing-power, and there would be just such a correlated increase of bulk asis generally the case. The principle he laid down, that the accidental introduction of organic beings amongst others to whose interest they are hostile, may be a powerful means of keeping the latter in check, and of finally destroying them, finds vivid exemplification in in- sects, as I have shown in discussing those imported into this country.* He gave reasons for the belief (now generally accepted) that the usual gaudy colouring of inter- tropical insects is not related either to the heat or light of those zones, but rather to the conditions of existence being generally favourable to life. (‘“ Jour- * “Second Annual Report on the Insects of Missouri,”. 1879, pp. 8-13. 232 Charles Darwin. nal of Researches,” etc., p. 381.) He has written on the phosphorescence of fire-flies, and on the habits of the larva of one of them—Lamphyris occt- dentalis. (Ibid., pp. 29, 30.) He discussed the food- habits of stercovorous beetles, with reference to the origination of a new habit and the power of adapta- tion to new conditions. (/dzd., p. 490, note.) At Port St. Julian, Patagonia, he found a species of Zabanus extremely common, and remarks: ‘“‘ We here have the puzzle that so frequently occurs in the case of mosquitoes—on the blood of what do these insects commonly feed? The guanaco is nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped, and is found in quite inconsiderable numbers compared with the multitude of flies.” He has discussed the question of hibernation of insects, and shown that it is governed by the usual climate of a district, and not by absolute temperature. (/d7d., pp. 98, 99.) He gave the first true explanation of the springing power of the E/ateride when laid on their backs, showing how much depended on the elasticity of the sternal spine. (/dzd., p. 31.) He was the first, I believe, to record the exceptional powers of running and of making sound, in a butterfly, viz., Ageronta feronta of Brazil. In his most famous work he lays stress particu- larly on the following facts and generalisations, for which he draws from insects: the individual differ- ences in important characters ; the remarkable man- ner in which individuals of the same brood often differ, dimorphism and trimorphism being only the extreme exaggeration of this fact; the difficulty of L[nsect Life. 233 distinguishing between species and varieties; that geographical races are local forms completely fixed and isolated ; that representative species are better distinguished from each other than local forms and sub-species ; that the species of large genera vary more frequently than those of small genera, and _ that specific differences in the former are often ex- ceedingly small ; that fecundity does not determine the rate of increase; that the struggle for life is most severe between species of the same genus; that secondary sexual characters are generally dis- played in the same parts of the organisation in which the species of the same genus differ from each other; that distinct species present analogous variations; that similar structures are often inde- pendently developed ; the varying importance for classification of the same important organ in the same group of beings; that analogical or adaptive resemblances are misleading for classification ; that _the great frequency of mimicry among insects is associated with their small size and general defence- lessness, as no species furnished with a sting, or other defensive property, is known to mimic other species; the importance of relative position or connection in homologous parts; the remarkable changes of structure effected during development; that adaptation to the conditions of life in the in- sect larva is just as perfect and beautiful as in the adult animal, and that, consequently, larve of dif- ferent orders are often similar, and larve belonging to the same order often very dissimilar; that larval and pupal stages are acquired through adaptation, 234 Charles Darwin. and not through inheritance; that rudimentary or- gans plainly declare their origin and meaning. Finally he brought together a large body of interesting facts in entomology, bearing on the de- velopment and perpetuation of mimicry, and of secondary sexual characters—all more or less ex- plicable by, and furnishing convincing argument for, the general theory of natural selection; while he freely acknowledged that he found among insects facts that seemed to be most fatal to the theory. This is especially the case in social insects where the colony contains neuters and sterile females which often differ widely in instinct and in structure from the sexual forms, and yet cannot propagate their kind. This is not the place to enter into a discus- sion of the subject, and I will simply remark that there are reasons for the belief that, in his candour, he has been led to exaggerate the difficulties in this case. But Darwin’s chief investigations into insect life were in its relations to plant life, and his work “On the Various Contrivances by Which British and For- eign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, and on the Good Effect of Crossing,” as also that on “ Insecti- vorous Plants,” are monuments of skill, industry, and lucid exposition. Entomologists had often noticed the pollen masses of orchids attached to the proboscis of various moths, and in commenting upon the fact had pronounced it “curious.” Darwin in this, as in so many other cases, gave meaning to the curious, and brought light out of darkness. Bs wr Palaontology. 235 Before his time we find frequent reference to the injury caused to plants by insects, and Sprengel, Gaertner, Herbert, and others had shown that in- sects were also, in many cases, beneficial and even necessary to plants ; the color, form, odor, secretions, and general structure of which have reference to their necessary insect pollinisers. Yet their writings had produced but slight im- pression outside of a limited circle. It remained for Darwin to impress the world with a broader sense of the actual interrelation between the two, and to inspire a number of observers in this field in all parts of the globe, who are now constantly adding to the rich store of facts we already possess on the subject. I need only refer to the work of Hooker, Bennet, Axell, Delpino, Hildebrand, H. Miiller, and others abroad, and to that of Dr. Gray and Mr. Wm. Trelease at home. The importance of insects as agents in cross-fertil- isation, was never properly appreciated till after Darwin’s remarkable work on Primula and his re- searches on Orchids, Linum, Lythrum, etc. He established the principle that “ nature abhors close fertilization,’ and though some less careful observers in this country—exaggerating the import- ance of their isolated and often inaccurate observa- tions—have opposed his views, the scientific world has been convinced alike by the force of his logic as by the eloquence of his innumerable facts. We all know how palzontology has verified many of his anticipations as to missing links being supplied with increased knowledge of the geological record, 236 Charles Darwin. and in connection with his work on the fertilisation of orchids we have a remarkable instance of similar verification. The nectaries of Angrecum sesquipedale were found by him to sometimes reach 11} inches in length, with only the lowest 1} inches filled with nectar. He said “there must be moths with pro- bosces capable of extension to a length of between 1o and 11 inches.” In Wature for July 17, 1873, or some years later, Fritz Miiller recorded through his brother, Herman Miiller, the finding of a Brazilian Sphingid having a length of proboscis of 0.25 metres, or between 10 and 11 inches. I cannot do justice to Darwin’s work on “ Insec- tivorous Plants” within the time to which these remarks have been limited, nor without trenching on the ground to be covered by Professor Ward. I must be content to remark, therefore, that he dem- onstrated the new and wonderful fact in physiology that many plants are capable of absorbing soluble matter from captured insects, and that they have special contrivances and sensibilities that facilitate the capture of their prey: in other words, that plants actually capture and digest animal food; for the secretion of Drosera, and other insectivorous plants, with its ferment-acid belonging to the acetic series, resembles the gastric juice of animals with its pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The fact of absorp- tion demonstrated, it follows that the process would prove serviceable to plants growing in very poor soil, and that it would tend to be perfected by natural selection. The pleasure Darwin took in observing the hab- sas. — il Observations of Insects. 237 its and ways of insects and the simple and lucid manner in which he recorded his observations are fre- quently exemplified in his “‘ Journal of Researches,” and his account of sundry Brazilian species on page 35, and following, may be consulted as an example. In the same way that he has influenced all lines of thought and investigation, he has influenced ento- mology. We find everywhere in his treatment of insects the same acute perception, the same candour and impartiality, the same clearness of expression, the same aptitude to get at the significance and bearing of facts observed, as well as the same readi- ness to deduce a theory, which is only equalled by the devotion with which he clings to the truth, whether favourable or unfavourable to the theory. In the light of Darwinism, insect structure and habit have come to possess a new significance and a deeper meaning. It has, in short, proved a new power to the working entomologist who, for all - time, will hold in reverence the name of him who, more than any other man, helped to replace scholas- ticism by induction, and who gave to the philosophic study of insects as great an impetus as did Linnzus to their systematic study. In his private life Darwin has given us a lesson of patience, courtesy, and consideration, that will be best appreciated by those who have the misfortune to be endowed with more irritable and aggressive natures. As the above account of Darwin’s entomological work is doubtless rather uninteresting to most of those gathered here, I will close, by request, with a few personal impressions. 238 Charles Darwin. I have had the pleasure, on two occasions, of visit- ing Darwin at his invitation. On the first occasion, in the summer of 1871, I was accompanied by Mr. J. Jenner Wier, one of his life-long friends and admir- ers. From Mr. Wier I first learned that Darwin was, in one sense, virtually a confirmed invalid, and that his work had been done under physical difficulties which would have rendered most men of indepen- dent means vapid, self-indulgent, and useless members of society. It is eloquent of the indomitable will and perse- verance of the man that, during the long voyage on the Beagle, he suffered so from sea-sickness that he never fully recovered from the shock to his system, and could not again venture on the ocean. He had, in fact, on his return from the voyage, to go through a long course of hydropathic treatment. We also now know that though he had suffered much for some months past from weakness and recurring fits of faintness, and had been confined to the house, yet - as late as Tuesday evening before the day of his death, at 4 P.M., Wednesday, he was in his study examining a plant which he had had brought to him, and that he read that night before retiring, while as late as the 16th of March, he read two papers on special botanical subjects before the Linnzan Society. The village of Down is fifteen miles south-east of London, four miles from Orpington station on the South-Eastern Railway. The country is among the most beautiful agricultural suburbs of London, and I shall never forget the impression of peaceful, quiet seclusion experienced, as we drove from the station ear >. . TF fis Appearance. 239 and finally through one of those characteristic Eng- lish lanes, just wide enough for one vehicle, and worn down several feet below the general level—the sense of confinement being enhanced by the lux- uriant hedge on either side. This lane skirts the orchard wall for one hundred yards and then goes in front of the house, from which it is separated by a grass plot and flint wall overgrown with ivy. The Darwin residence is a plain, but spacious, old- fashioned house of the style so common in England, and which, with the surrounding well-kept grounds and conservatory, conveys that impression of ease and comfort that belong to the average home of the English country-gentleman. A noticeable feature is a bow window extending through three stories and covered with trellis and creepers. In Darwinian phrase, the environment was favourable for just such calm study and concentration as he found necessary to his health and his researches. Upon introduction I was at once struck with his stature (which was much above the average, and I should say fully six feet), his ponderous brow, and long white beard—the moustache being cut on a line with the lips and slightly brown from the habit of snuff-taking. His deep-set eyes were light blue-gray. He made the impression of a powerful man re- duced somewhat by sickness. The massive brow and forehead show in his later photographs, but not so conspicuously as in a life-size head of him when ‘ _ younger, which hung in the parlour. In the brief hours I then spent at Down the pro- _ verbial modesty and singular simplicity and sweet- 240 Charles Darwin. ness of his character were apparent, while the delight he manifested in stating facts of interest was excelled only by the eagerness with which he sought them from others, whether while strolling through the green- house or sitting round the generously spread table. Going to him as a young entomologist with no claim’ on his favour, he seemed to take delight in manifesting appreciation. I had occasion, in my “Third Report on the Insects of Missouri,” pub- lished in the spring of that year, to discuss the ques- tion of natural selection in its bearings on mimicry, as exemplified in two of our North American but- terflies (Danas archippus and Limenttis disippus ). This report I found in his study with many leaves turned down, and he appeared to take especial pleasure in conveying a sense of his appreciation of particular parts. The few letters which I received from Darwin were in his own handwriting, which was rapid and better calculated to save time than to facilitate the reading. I take the liberty of reproducing here the first and last as indicating his attitude toward all workers in the field of natural science, however humble or how- ever undeserving of his praise they may have been ; and this generous trait in his character will explain, in some measure, the stimulus and encouragement which he gave to investigators : Down, June 1, [1871.] BECKENHAM, KENT. My DEar Sir: I received some little time ago your “ Report on Noxious Insects,” and have now — read the whole with the greatest interest. There is a vast number of facts and generalisations of value Letters to Mr. Riley. 241 to me, and I am struck with admiration at your power of observation. The discussion on mimetic insects seems to me particularly good and original. Pray accept my cordial thanks for the instruction and interest which I have received. What a loss to natural science our poor mutual friend, Walsh, has been: it is a loss ever to be deplored. Pray believe me, with much respect, Yours, very faithfully, CH. DARWIN. Down, SEPTEMBER 28, 1881. BECKENHAM, KENT. My DEAR Mr. RILEY: I must write half-a-dozen lines to say how much interested I have been by your “ Further Notes ” on Pronuba, which you were so kind as to send me. I had read the various criticisms, and though I did not know what answer would be made, yet I felt full of confidence in the result, and now I see I was right. If you make any further observation on Pronuba it would, I think, be well worth while for you to ob- serve whether the moth can or does occasionally bring pollen from one plant to the stigma of a distinct one; for I have shown that the cross-fertili- sation of the flowers on the same plant does very little good, and, if I am not mistaken, you believe that the Pronuba gathers pollen from the same flower which she fertilises.* * This is a misapprehension. Pronuba is an effectual cross-fertiliser, running from flower to flower, and often flying from raceme to raceme with one and the same load of pollen. The omitted passages in this letter — to the work of a gentleman still living. I ~ 242 Charles Darwin. What interesting and beautiful observations you have made on the metamorphoses of the grasshopper- destroying insects! Believe me, my dear sir, Yours sincerely, CH. DARWIN. My own experience in this regard is the common experience, for an interest in natural science was an open sesame to his generous soul. His considera- tion, without aggression, was the secret of the grati- tude and respect which all felt who had the honour to know him, either personally or tones corre- spondence. His approval of the work of others was coupled with a depreciation of his own, which was very marked on the occasion of my second visit to Eu- rope, in 1875, when I crossed the ocean with his son Leonard on his way from the Transit of Venus ex- pedition. ‘ Insectivorous Plants’”’ was just finished, and Darwin was worn and in feeble health, staying, in fact, at Abinger Hall for rest. He was quite dis- gusted with the book, to use his son’s expression, and doubted whether it could prove of sufficient interest, with its long and dry records of experiments, to be read by anyone. DARWIN AS A BOTANIST. By LESTER F. WARD, A.M., LL.D., Hon. Curator Department of Fossil Plants, U.S, National Museum; Paleo- botanist U. S. Geological Survey. Appointed by the committee to furnish a brief sketch on this occasion of the contributions of As a Botanist. 243 Charles Darwin to the science of plants, I have pur- posely chosen the title, ‘Darwin as a Botanist,” in order to emphasise the contrast which may be drawn between different classes of botanists, and to do what I can to accustom the public mind to asso- ciate with the terms Jotanzst and botany certain great fields of investigation which are now rarely sug- gested by these words. If I had entitled my paper: Darwin’s researches into the phenomena of the vegetable kingdom, I fear it might not have occurred to some of you that this great investigator was a botanist, as he is not generally known as such. Yet I fail to see why the science of botany is not fully entitled to receive its share of the dignity and the lustre which Darwin’s investigations have reflected upon biology in general. The popular idea of botany, however, is very dif- ferent from this. Not ignorant people alone, but scientific men as well, place all botanists under two general classes: “field botanists’’ and “ closet botanists.” The field botanist is one who,.being passionately fond of plants, and having mastered the rudiments of botany and become familiar with the names and classification of plants, searches the country for new and rare species, and for new localities for old ones, and makes large collections. Success in these ob-. jects is his triumph, and occasionally becoming the proud discoverer of hitherto unknown forms of vegetable life, he finds the scientific world quick and generous in awarding him due credit. The closet botanist is one who, disdaining the 244 Charles Darwin. boyish pursuit of flowers, devotes himself to the study of the characters of plants as revealed by the herbarium specimens which the field botanist so copiously furnishes, and by which method he, too, can discover “ new species,’ and obtain prompt rec- ognition. The closet botanist performs the further useful service of “revising” intricate families and genera of plants, unravelling the entanglements of previous authors, and making such changes in the classification and names as are best suited to secure the maximum personal credit. I need not tell this audience that Chate Darwin belonged to neither of these classes of botanists. A lover of nature, he yet never wasted precious time in the idle pursuit of rarities. Thoroughly familiar with the distinctive characters upon which botanical classification rests, he yet never pursued to any marked extent the investigation of specimens from the hortus siccus. I doubt whether a single species of plant was ever named after him by reason of his having either discovered it in a wild state or de- tected its specific distinctness by the examination of its characters. I even doubt whether he possessed an herbarium in the accepted sense of the word. And yet this man has probably contributed more to our real knowledge of plants than any other single botanist. In what, then, have Darwin’s botanical investiga- tions consisted ? There is a little French book entitled “ Voyage d’un Botaniste dans sa Maison,” a title which, allow- ing for the characteristic hyperbole of the French ee ee eats Study of Plants. 245 tongue, suggests the general nature of Darwin's botanical studies. His researches were conducted in his laboratory, in pots of plants at his window, in his aquarium, in his greenhouse, in his garden. He worked with instruments of precision, recorded his observations with exactness, and employed every mechanical device for making his results reveal im- portant truths of which the genius of man would seem to be capable. Darwin looked upon plants as /iving things. He did not study their forms so much as their actzons. He interrogated them to learn what they were dozng. The central truth, towards which his botanical in- vestigations constantly tended, was that of the uni- versal activity of the vegetable kingdom-—that all plants move and act. He has, so to speak, animated the vegetable world. He has shown that whichever kingdom of organic nature we contemplate, to Ave is to move. He blandly rebukes the vulgar notion that “plants are distinguished from animals by not having the power of movement,” and still more modestly says that “plants acquire and display this power only when it is of some advantage to them.” But is this the whole? Do animals display this power except when it is of some advantage to them? Certainly not. Darwin shows us that certain parts of all plants are at all times in motion; not merely the molecu- lar activities of their tissues and of the living pro- toplasm in their cells, but organised movement of parts. Every leaf, every tendril, every rootlet, pos- 246 Charles Darwin. sesses the power of spontaneous movement, and under nearly all circumstances actually exercises that power. There are a great many distinct kinds of move- ment, depending in all cases upon the special ad- vantages thereby gained to the plant. The laws under which these movements take place have re- ceived from him an admirable terminology. Most of them are conditioned either by light, by gravity, by radiation, or by insect agency. We thus have of the first class: heliotropism, or movement towards the light; apheliotropism, or movement from the light ; dahelotropism, or move- ment at right angles to the source of light; and paraheliotropism, embracing such movements as screen the plant from excess of light. To the second class belong: geotropism, or move- ment towards the earth or into the soil; apogeo- tropism, or movement contrary to the force of gravity; and diageotropism, or movement at right angles to the force of gravity. The third class embraces the so-called nyctotropic movements of plants by which they appear to sleep, and which prove to be devices for the prevention of excessive radiation of the plants’ heat. Under the fourth class fall all those wonderful movements which aid the plant in preventing self- and securing cross-fertilisation, a subject of the most absorbing interest, and of which you have already listened to so able a presentation by Professor Riley from the point of view of the entomologist. But Darwin’s great service has been to show that Circumnutation. 247 these varieties of activity are simply modes in which inherent and spontaneous activities manifest themselves under these varying external influences. His preliminary investigations into the nature of these innate powers of movement were directed to that large class of plants known as twiners and climbers, whose revolving motions were so thor- oughly described in his work on “ Climbing Plants.” It was here that he laid the foundation for those later studies which eventually resulted in that great work, almost his last, on the “‘ Power of Movement in Plants.” In this work he demonstrates by an enormous induction that the ample sweeps of the twining plant are but the most obvious manifesta- tions of a class of phenomena which are common to the entire vegetable kingdom. - Amid the varied forms of movement which plants present, Darwin has succeeded in finding one funda- mental and generic one to which every other may be referred. To this universal form of plant activity he gives the name “circumnutation.” Not only twining stems and tendrils, but parts of flowers, tips of growing shoots, caps of penetrating roots and rootlets, radicles, epicotyls, cotyledons, and even full-grown leaves, are incessantly describing circles, ellipses, and other more or less regular geometrical figures; and he conclusively shows that it is out of this primary form of activity that all the more specialised forms already mentioned have been de- veloped. All movements of the parts of plants are thus to be interpreted as modified forms of this innate periodic circumnutation which is common to 248 Charles Darwin. all plant life. Such modifications-are always in the direction of the plant’s sdheantace, cca be so great as to become difficult of recognition as forms of circumnutation. / Ineed not labour to convince you that any modi- fication which is an advantage to the plant will be / secured by the process of natural selection. It is the ; | 4 glory of the great genius whose labours we are here to commemorate to have demonstrated this truth to \ the entire satisfaction of the united scientific world. Darwin has actually solved the great problem of phytology, so long supposed to be incapable of solu- tion, viz.: Why does the root grow downward and the stem upward? Briefly and roughly stated, the answer to this question is that, as the bursting seed pushes out its two germinal points these circumnu- tate from the first, and thus explore their surround- ings for the means of benefiting the plant. To employ Darwin’s own word, they “ perceive” the advantage that would result from the penetration of the soil on the one hand, and from the ascent into the free air and sunlight on the other, and through the pre-Darwinian law of the “ physiological division of labour,” the one becomes geotropic and the other heliotropic—the one develops into a radicle and then into a root, while the other develops into an epicotyl and then into a stem. I will only add to the thoughts already presented, that Darwin’s discovery of the existence in all plants of an innate and spontaneous mobility belonging to them as forms of organic life possesses an important ulterior significance. Se LOO a RS Se mae ae oc es Aamo Aue Tie Tendency to Vary. 249 The law of natural selection, as a fundamental process, has long since passed the stage of discussion. But there has always remained one unsettled ques- tion lying at its very base, which Darwin himself admitted to be an open one. That question con- cerns the cause itself of variation. It is granted that, admitting the tendency to vary, all the results claimed for natural selection must follow ; but many declare that, in this very tendency to vary, there is a mystery as great as the mystery of life itself. It is only in this work on the “ Power of Move- ment in Plants ” that Darwin has really assailed this last fortress of supernaturalism. Not that he has avowed any such purpose, for of this he would have been incapable, but so skilfully and so powerfully has he marshalled the facts that the conclusion fol- lows without being stated. No one can doubt that he perceived this, and I, for one, am convinced that he saw it from afar, and that it was the great end of his labours ; but with his characteristic wisdom he has declined to invoke the odium theologicum, correctly judging that the truth must ultimately assert itself. The tendency to vary, then, is a mechanical result of the proved fact of universal movement coupled . with the admitted law of natural selection. By means of the former all plants and growing parts of plants are perpetually exploring their immediate surroundings in search, as it were, for conditions favourable to development. By means of the latter they are able to avail themselves of such favourable conditions when found. Nothing further than this is required to complete the natural explanation of all 250 Charles Darwin. the phenomena presented by the organic world, and thus, at last, the whole domain of biology is eman- cipated from teleological fetters, and placed on the high plane of rational investigation. In conclusion, let me simply say that, while we can but deeply mourn the irreparable loss which science has sustained in the death of Charles Dar- win, we have still the highest grounds for congratu- lation in the fact that he lived to complete that great work which, next to the “ Origin of Species,” will, I firmly believe, be awarded by posterity the highest place, viz.: “The Power of Movement in Plants”; for, while the former auspiciously opened the great debate by stating the profoundest of all biological problems, the latter has fittingly closed the argument by answering the last objection. ' DARWIN ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS. By FRANK BAKER, M.D. From the tendency of the imagination to magnify the unknown and remote, arises a popular error that to attain eminence a man of science must be able to gather facts from great distances—from the sources of the Nile, and from polar snows. But the near and commonplace are subject to the same laws as the atoms of interstellar space, and true scientific insight may discover in the very dust under our feet secrets hitherto concealed. Darwin’s work upon the “ Expression of the Emo- tions” is continuous with and supplementary to his larger and better-known treatise on the “‘ Descent of ne. Emotional Expression. 251 Man.” As with other matter bearing directly upon _ the development hypothesis, its publication was de- ferred as long as possible, in order that the evidence might be fully weighed. Projected in 1838, it was not published until thirty-five years later. One class of objections to the hypothesis was not considered in the main work. It was generally held that, by his emotional expression, man was widely separated from the lower animals. The eminent anatomist, Duchenne, who remains to-day the best authority on muscular movements, merely expressed the views of the time when he stated that no cause could be assigned for facial expression, except the “divine fantasy” of the Great Artificer. f Having projected his work, how does Darwin a) ceed? From the gentlemen who have preceded me you have learned of his methods. To test the truth of his conceptions he commences a series of _most Gufnute and careful observationsomitting-nothing! wi in his reach. His most important field is that which is nearest; his own children, his friends and companions, even the dogs that accompany his daily walks, come under that powerful scrutiny. Where, indeed, can we find so perfect an observer? The calm sanity of his mind keeps him equally aloof from egotism and from self-depreciation. A fact is a fact, to be stated with the fairness and openness of per- fect daylight. Here isaman whocares more for the truth than for himself. The black spot in man’s sunshine, the shadow of himself, seems non-existent forhim. He stands by his work, that is enough; if it has worth, well—if not, still well; the elemental 252 Charles Darwin. drift of action and reaction will continue, the out- come will still be good. As Carlyle has said, “A noble unconsciousness is in him. He does not en- grave truth on his watch-seal; no, but he stands by truth, speaks by it, works and lives by it.” But not as a fact gatherer do we find him greatest. Many others have struggled with ant-like toil to amass piles of facts which, like the ant-heap, remain but sand after all. Darwin brings to his work an in- forming spirit, the genius of scientific hypothesis. Breathed upon by this spirit, the dry bones of fact come together “bone to his bone,” the sinews and the flesh come upon them, they become alive and stand upon their feet “an exceeding great army.” He searches always for the principles which underlie the facts and make them possible, realising that the phenomena, the things which are seen, are temporal and transitory; the things which are not seen, the cosmical forces which govern and control, are eternal. In his examination of the expression of the emo- tions he found that both in man and animals they can be referred to three general principles which may be termed habit, antithesis, and nervous overflow. By habit, or repetition, serviceable movements be- come fixed—involuntary, or semi-voluntary. By antithesis, opposite frames of mind are expressed by opposite actions, even though those actions may not be serviceable. The theory of nervous overflow is that unusual quantities of force generated by the cerebro-spinal system are discharged by unusual channels of expression when the ordinary channels are insufficient. ath, ast aay W- =] poe non eh aglaw a Be ys ih _ Expressions of Grief. 253 } q =~, _- He finds that emotional expressions are generally | | ince consequences of anatomical structure, and | clearly shows the interdependence of anatomy and | physiology. For structure can no more be divorced — from function than matter can be dissociated from — force. All the complex expressions of grief—from © the twitching of the eyelids and mouth to the shed- | ding of tears—he has shown to depend upon the necessity for preventing engorgement of the eyes > during screaming, an act originally useful solely to attract attention. The steps by which he arrived at this conclusion are typical of his method. Starting first with animals, he finds that their expressions of | _ grief are much less complex and various than those | _ of man. They are confined to noises, such as scream- ing, barking, whining, in higher forms accompanied by changes in facial expression, particularly by con- _ traction of the muscles surrounding the eye. There is a physiological necessity for this, as otherwise the expiratory effort caused by screaming might engorge _ and rupture the small ocular blood-vessels. By press- _ ing on the lachrymal gland this causes, in some of _ the higher animals, a flow of tears. What at first ' was accidental, merely occasioned by the proximity _ of the gland, becomes at last habitual, and the nerv- ous force automatically follows the line of its accus- - tomed action, causing a flow of tears after emotional excitement, even though no screaming take place. The correctness of this view is supported by the fact that infants do not shed tears until several weeks old, although they scream violently. The function activity of the lachrymal gland, in connection with sas — oe 2 ean) 254 Charles Darwin. grief, is, therefore, later in phylogenetic, develop- ment. The laws of heredity and adaptation are found to be operating here, as elsewhere, in the domain of life; the supposed gap between the emo- tions of man and of other animals is successfully bridged over, and another anthropocentric fallacy is consigned to the limbo of ignorant superstitions. Many expressions of the lower emotions are found to be disfiguring vestiges of acts useful to lower animals for offence and defence, or for obtaining food. - These survive—relics of the previous history of our race—as rudimentary organs are preserved long after their use has ceased. The erection of the hair during fear is remotely derived from the same cause that makes puss bristle when attacked and the puff adder swell out when approached. Originally used for the purpose of exciting fear in an enemy by an increase of size, it now involuntarily accompanies the somewhat changed emotion of which some of the phases are extinct. It is not very rare to find per- sons who can make the hair over the front of the head bristle at will. Rage is habitually expressed by uncovering the teeth, which is, in the lower animals, an attempt to frighten their enemies by a show of weapons. This expression may become softened and modified to express the milder emotions of con- tempt and disdain. I have met a lady who has to perfection the rather rare accomplishment mentioned by Darwin of drawing up the upper lip in a triangu- lar notch directly over the canine teeth so as to dis- play them alone, usually on one side at a time. This most expressive gesture of disdain can be per- a a ~ Blushing. | 255 _ formed under the influence of the emotions by many who cannot do it at will. __ Of an opposite class are certain higher expressions, which, having arisen later, are not yet entirely fixed. Blushing is one of the most curious of these. It is not found in infants, and varies greatly in frequency and amount in adults, accompanying the sentiment of modesty, almost unknown among animals. The reddening is usually confined to the face and neck. Darwin suggests an ingenious explanation for this. The blood-vessels most exposed to variations of tem- perature acquire the habit of expanding and contract- ing—their vaso-motor nerves become more sensitive. The chief expression of personal appearance is in the face; the attention of the mind is, therefore, directed there whenever the emotion of modesty is aroused. This interferes with the ordinary tonic contraction of the blood-vessels, and an excess of blood suffuses ~ the surface. A remarkable confirmation of Darwin’s views is the recent discovery of localised centres in the brain which control emotional expression, and exist in animals as well as in man. It may some time be possible to read the currents and counter-currents of the brain by means of feature-play with a precision approaching that by which we estimate the force of a distant battery by the play of a galvanometer needle. Many phenomena of expression,. which. were obscure before this discovery, can now be satis- factorily explained. Among these are the phenom- ena of associated movements. It has been stated that the variety and complexity of the movements 256 Charles Darwin. involved in the simple act of walking are such that it would be impossible ever to perform it were it necessary to think what had to be done, and weigh in the judgment the precise amount of force neces- sary to distribute to each muscle at each moment of the act. It is now known that the cerebral centres which control the separate muscles put in action are closely contiguous in the brain, and that they prob. ably intercommunicate and excite each other in a definite manner, predetermined by habit and hered- ity. The conscious mind has only to set in motion the subordinate apparatus, when it goes on, and works out the problem with matchless skill, like the system of cogs and eccentrics that produce the intri- cate pattern in an engraver’s lathe. All have noticed the uncouth manner in which children and untrained persons follow with lips and tongue the motions of their hands when using a tool of any kind.. Darwin ascribes this to unconscious imitation, but it can be explained more strictly in accordance with his own principles. The facial muscles are actuated from a cerebral centre in close proximity to those which move the arms and hands. In the lower animals this is necessary, for the mouth is an organ of prehension, used in strict association with the fore-limbs in seiz- ing prey, and in other acts. As this associated move- ment became strongly fixed by long habit, it survives with great obstinacy, and though it has not been useful to the race since the historical period, we have yet to caution our children not to put their tongues out when they write. My limit of time forces me to conclude this hasty and imperfect summary. The practical bearing of eg The « Power of Leasts.” 257 these views is not without importance. Physicians have always depended greatly upon emotional ex- _ pression as a means of diagnosis. Unconsciously _ the face of the patient reveals his physical state. _ Yet too much has been left in the empirical border- land of science. Why a certain pathological state should be indicated by a definite combination of ex- pressions has not always been clearly shown. To-day the whole subject is studied from the point of view of anatomy and physiology. No occult force is ad- mitted, the correlative nerve-supply of muscles and _ the effect of excitation of nerve-centres are rationally investigated. Aside from the great special value of the work, of what tremendous import to the race are Darwin’s deductions! For he has shown us that our every thought and act mould our physical frames, and through them the generations yet unborn, either to beauty and grace, or to uncouth ugliness and de- formity. As the struggle for existence filled the rocks with organisms forever extinct, because not for the highest use, so may we, too, fossilise and outgrow habits and desires of ignoble birth, ascending by the “ power of leasts,’”’ by that wondrous calculus of na- ture, to purer and nobler existence. Darwin has taught us that the forces which, acting through count- less cycles, have brought us up from formless slime, now remain in our hands to use for good or ill— “* That life is not as idle ore, But iron dug from central gloom, And heated hot with burning fears, And dipt in baths of hissing tears, And battered with the shocks of doom For shape and use.” 258 | Charles Darwin. A DARWINIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY. BY FREDERICK W. TRUE, M.S., Librarian of the U. S, National Museum, and Curator of Department of Mammals. The complete bibliography of Darwinism should contain, not alone the works which emanated from the busy brain and ready pen of Darwin himself, but the many other productions which these called into life. The acquiescences of friends, the objections of critics, the censures of foes, should all be enrolled in their proper places as representing the ripples and counter-ripples in the sea of thought, produced by the weighty ideas which dropped from the clear mind of the philosopher. It is not to the merits of these, however, that I can call your attention, but only to a few facts relative to the books of Darwin himself. I would not have you suppose, if indeed one could, after the lucid remarks to which you have listened, that the faulty—and, I fear, almost indis- cernible—list of published works, which I have attempted to exhibit before you, reveals more than a moiety of Darwin’s writings.* A large number of comprehensive papers, pregnant notes, and incisive queries are contained in those storehouses of pre- cise knowledge, the journals of science, and the pub- lications of learned societies. During more than half a century, from the beginning of Darwin’s career to its very close, scarcely a year passed in which a * The speaker referred to two large scrolls hanging on the lecture- room walls, upon which were inscribed a list of Darwin’s most im- portant publications. Bibliography. 259 _ number of articles did not issue from his pen. His _ first paper, on the Ova of Flustra, and another of similar nature were read before the Plinian Society of Edinburgh in 1825. His last note, on the Dis- _ tribution of Fresh-Water Bivalves, appeared in Ma- ture but a few days before his death. During the first twenty-five years the articles have mostly a geological and zodlogical bearing, but later botanical and anthropological subjects come into prominence. They were contributed to many publications, including a few American, German, and French journals. The mass of papers, however, are to be found in the Proceedings and Transactions of the Geological Society of London, the Philo- sophical Transactions, the Philosophical Magazine, the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and Nature. It is in these papers that we first find the germs of many of those more elaborate works to which general attention has been attracted. Thus the works on the “Origin of Species,” the “ Fertilisa- tion of Plants by Insects,’ the “Action of Earth- Worms,” and others, were foreshadowed at a time considerably antedating their final appearance. Darwin seemed to prefer to work out and write out his ideas alone. Once at least, however, he shared the toil with his friend, Mr. Wallace, and _ later, in several instances, with his sons Francis and _ George Darwin. Regarding the separately published works of Dar- _ win there is much of interest from the bibliographi- _ cal point of view. The conscientiousness with which 260 | Charles Darwin. the author profited by the criticisms of others, revis- ing, improving, and extending his generalisations, makes each new edition seem like a separate pro- duction. Whole chapters were stricken out and new ones inserted; facts of doubtful character were replaced by others of a more positive nature and more recent acquisition. Time forbids that I should refer to the details of publication of more than one work. The inquiring student will find his wants satisfied in the several lists which have already been published. I will give the history of but one work, the most important of all, the “ Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.” The first edition of this work received the signature of the author on November 24, 1859, and was published the same year. The second edition, which appeared soon after, “was little more than a reprint of the first.” “The third edition was largely corrected and added to, and the fourth and fifth still more largely.” The sixth edi- tion, which appeared in 1872, was likewise largely amended, and had reached its twenty thousand in 1878. In the meantime foreign editions and trans- lations began to appear. The American and French editions at first kept pace with the English, the sec- ond American being from the second English, and the third French from the third English. The Ger- mans, coming in a little later, published their second edition from the third English, and their third from the fourth English one. The last editions in all these languages were derived, I believe, from the sixth English one. “ The Italian is from the third, . ‘7 e > be ee ae ees to ead Bibliography. 261 the Dutch and three Russian editions from the sec- _ ond English editions, and the Swedish from the fifth _ English edition.” At least twelve of the more important works _ have been issued in one or more editions in Ger- _ man and French, and a number in other European _ languages as well. The sage of Down was undoubtedly honest in his surprise at the ever-extending circle of his influence. A wider and more intelligent audience could scarcely be desired. The number of books in which his opinions are discussed or alluded to is legion. As the illustrious Asa Gray has remarked: “ Dante literature and Shakespeare literature have been the growth of centuries, but Darwinism filled teeming catalogues during the lifetime of the author.” APPENDIX. LIST OF WORKS BY CHARLES DARWIN. Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of her Majesty’s Ships Adven- ture and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagile's circumnavigation of the globe. Vol. iii., Journal and Re- marks, 1832-36. By Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1839. Journal of Researches into the Natural Ilistory and Geology of the countries visited during the voyage of H. M. S. Beagle round the world, under the command of Capt. Fitz-Roy, R. N. 2d edition, corrected, with additions. 8vo. London, 1845. (Colonial and Home Library.) A Naturalist’s Voyage. Journal of Researches, etc. 8vo. London, 1860. [Contains a postscript dated Feb. 1, 1860.] Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Edited and superin- tended by Charles Darwin. Part I., Fossil Mammalia, by Richard Owen. With a Geological Introduction, by Charles Darwin. 4to. London, 1840. Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle. Part II., Mammalia, by George R. Waterhouse. With a Notice of their Habits and Ranges, by Charles Darwin. 4to. London, 1839. Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part III., Birds, by John Gould. An ‘“‘ Advertisemen®” (2 pp.) states that, in conse- quence of Mr. Gould’s having left England for Australia, many descriptions were supplied by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British Museum. 4to. London, 1841. Zoblogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part IV., Fish, by Rey. Leonard Jenyns. 4to. London, 1842. 263 264 Charles Darwin. Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part V., Reptiles, by Thomas Bell. 4to. London, 1843. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the First Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London, 1842. The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1874. Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Being the Second Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London, 1844. Geological Observations on South America. Being the Third Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London, 1846. Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and parts of South America visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1876. A Monograph of the Fossil Lepadidz ; or, Pedunculated Cir- ripedes of Great Britain. 4to. London, 1851. (Palzeontographical Society.) A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Lepadidz ; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. 8vo. Lon- don, 1851. (Ray Society.) A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the Species. The Balanide (or Sessile Cirripedes) ; the Verrucidz, etc. 8vo. London, 1854. (Ray Society.) A Monograph of the Fossil Balanide and Verrucide of Great Britain. 4to. London, 1854. (Palzontographical Society.) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 8vo. Lon- don, 1859. (Dated October 1, 1859, published November 24, 1859.) On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Fifth thousand. 8vo. London, 1860. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 3d edition, with additions and corrections. (Seventh thousand.). 8vo. London, 1861. (Dated March, 1861.) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 4th edition, with additions and corrections. (Eighth thousand.) 8vo, London 1866. (Dated June, 1866.) FRA Oe Appendix. 265 On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 5th edition, with additions and corrections. (Tenth thousand.) 8vo. London, 1869. (Dated May, 1869.) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th edition, with additions and corrections to 1872. (Twenty-fourth thousand.) 8vo. London, 1882. (Dated January, 1872.) On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilised by Insects. 8vo. London, 1862. The Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilised by In- sects. 2dedition. 8vo. London, 1887. [In the second edition the word ‘‘ On” is omitted from the title. ] The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1875. [First appeared in the ninth volume of the Fournal of the Linnean Society.] _ The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1868. The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2d edition, revised. 2vols. 8vo. London, 1875. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1871. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1874. (In 1 vol.) The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 8vo. Lon- don, 1872. Insectivorous Plants. 8vo. London, 1875. The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom. 8vo. London, 1876. The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1878. The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species. 8vo. London, 1877. The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1880. The Power of Movement in Plants. By Charles Darwin, assisted by Francis Darwin. 8vo. London, 1880. The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits. 8vo. London, 1881. 266 Charles Darwin. LIST OF BOOKS CONTAINING CONTRIBUTIONS BY CHARLES DARWIN. A Manual of Scientific Enquiry ; Prepared for the Use of Her Majesty’s Navy ; and Adapted for Travellers in General. Ed. by Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.” 8vo. London, 1849. (Section VI. Geology. By Charles Darwin.) Memoir of the Rev. John Stevens Henslow. By the Rev. Leonard Jenyns. 8vo. London, 1862. [In Chapter III., Recollections by C. Darwin. ] A letter (1876) on the ‘‘ Drift” near Southampton, published in Prof. J. Geikie’s ‘‘ Prehistoric Europe.” Flowers and Their Unbidden Guests. By A. Kerner. Witha Pref- atory letter by Charles Darwin. The translation revised and edited by W. Ogle. 8vo, London, 1878. Erasmus Darwin. By Ernst Krause. Translated from the German by W. S. Dallas. With a Preliminary Notice by Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1879. Studies in the Theory of Descent. By Aug. Weismann. Trans- lated and edited by Raphael Meldola. With a Prefatory Notice by Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1880—. The Fertilisation of Flowers. By Hermann Miiller. Translated and edited by D’Arcy W. Thompson. With a Preface by Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1883. Mental Evolution in Animals. By G. J. Romanes. With a Posthumous Essay on Instinct by Charles Darwin, 1883. [Also pub- lished in the Yournal of the Linnean Society.] Some Notes on a curious habit of male humble bees were sent to Prof. Hermann Miller, of Lippstadt, who had permission from Mr. Darwin to make what use he pleased of them. After Miiller’s death the Notes were given by his son to Dr. E. Krause, who published them under the title, ‘‘ Ueber die Wege der Hummel-Mannchen”’ in his book, ‘‘ Gesammelte kleinere Schriften von Charles Darwin” (1886). LIST OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS, INCLUDING A SELEC- TION OF LETTERS AND SHORT COMMUNICATIONS TO SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS. Letters to Professor Henslow, read by him at the meeting of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, held Nov. 16, 1835. 31 pp. 8vo. Privately printed for distribution among the members of the Society. — Appendix. 267 Geological Notes Made During a Survey of the East and West Coasts of South America in the Years 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1835 ; with an account of a transverse section of the Cordilleras of the Andes between Valparaiso and Mendoza. [Read Nov. 18, 1835.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 210-212. [This Paper is incorrectly described in Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., p. 210, as follows: ‘‘ Geological Notes, etc., by F. Darwin, Esq., of St. John’s College, Cambridge : communicated by Prof. Sedgwick.” It is Indexed under C. Darwin.] Notes upon the Rhea Americana. Zodl. Soc. Proc., Part V., 1837, Ppp- 35, 36. Observations of Proofs of Recent Elevation on the Coast of Chili, Made During the Survey of H.M.S. Seagiz, Commanded by Capt. Fitz-Roy. [1837.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 446-449. A Sketch of the Deposits Containing Extinct Mammalia in the Neighbourhood of the Plata. [1837.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, Pp- 542-544. On Certain Areas of Elevation and Subsidence in the Pacific and Indian Oceans, as Deduced from the Study of Coral Formations. [1837-] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 552-554. On the Formation of Mould. [Read Nov. 1, 1837.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 574-576; Geol. Soc. Trans., v., 1840, pp. 505-510. On the Connexion of Certain Volcanic Phenomena and on the For- mation of Mountain-chains and the Effects of Continental Elevations. [Read March 7, 1838.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 654-660; Geol. Soc. Trans., v., 1840, pp. 601-632. [In the Society’s Trans- actions the wording of the title is slightly different. ] Origin of Saliferous Deposits. Salt Lakes of Patagonia and La Plata. Geol. Soc. Fourn., ii. (Part I1.), 1838, pp. 127-128. Note on a Rock Seen on an Iceberg in 16° South Latitude. Geogr. Soc. Fourn., ix., 1839, pp. 528, 529. Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts of Lochaber in Scotland ; with an attempt to prove that they are of marine origin. Phil. Trans., 1839, pp. 39-82. On a Remarkable Bar of Sandstone off Pernambuco, on the Coast of Brazil. Pil. Mag., xix., 1841, pp. 257-260. On the Distribution of the Erratic Boulders and on the Contem- poraneous Unstratified Deposits of South America. [1841.] Geol. Soc. Proc., iii., 1842, pp. 425-430 ; Geol. Soc. Trans., vi., 1842, pp. 415-452. 268 Charles Darwin. Notes on the Effects Produced by the Ancient Glaciers of Caernar- vonshire, and on the Boulders Transported by Floating Ice. London Philosoph. Mag., vol. xxi., p. 180, 1842. Remarks on the Preceding Paper, in a Letter from Charles Darwin, Esq., to Mr. Maclaren. Zaind. New Phil. Fourn., xxxiv., 1843. pp. 47-50. [The ‘‘ preceding” paper is : ‘‘ On Coral Islands and Reefs as described by Mr. Darwin. By Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E.”] Observations on the Structure and Propagation of the Genus Sagitfa. Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xiii., 1844, pp. 1-6. Brief Descriptions of several Terrestrial Planaricz, and of Some Re- markable Marine Species, with an Account of their Habits. An, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xiv., 1844, pp. 241-251. An Account of the Fine Dust which often falls on Vessels in the Atlantic Ocean. Geol, Soc. Fourn., ii., 1846, pp. 26-30. On the Geology of the Falkland Islands. Geol. Soc. Fourn., ii., 1846, pp. 267-274. A review of Waterhouse’s ‘‘ Natural History of the Mammalia.” [Not signed.] Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1847, vol. xix. p. 53. On the Transportal of Erratic Boulders from a lower to a higher level. Geol. Soc. Fourn., iv., 1848, pp. 315-323. On British Fossil Lepadide. Geol. Soc. Fourn., vi., 1850, pp. 439,440. [The G. S. % says: ‘‘ This paper was withdrawn by the author with the permission of the Council.”] Analogy of the Structure of Some Volcanic Rocks with that of Glaciers. Edinb. Roy. Soc. Proc., ii., 1851, pp. 17, 18. On the Power of Icebergs to Make Rectilinear, Uniformly-directed Grooves across a Submarine Undulatory Surface. PAil. Mag., x. 1855, pp. 96-98. Vitality of Seeds. Gardeners’ Chronicle, Nov. 17, 1855, p. 758. On the Action of Sea-water on the Germination of Seeds. [1856.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., i., 1857 (Botany), pp. 130-140. On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of Papilionaceous Flowers. Gardeners’ Chronicle, p. 725, 1857. On the Tendency of Species to Form Varieties ; and on the Per- petuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection. By Charles Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., and F.G.S., and Alfred Wallace, Esq. [Read July 1st, 1858.] ourn. Linn, Soc., 1859, vol. iii. (Zodlogy), p. 45. Special titles of C. Darwin’s contributions to the foregoing: (i.) Ex- tract from an Unpublished Work on Species by C. Darwin, +, con- Appendix. 269 sisting of a portion of a chapter entitled, On the Variation of Or- ganic Beings in a State of Nature ; on the Natural Means of Selection ; on the Comparison of Domestic Races and true Species. (ii.) Ab- stract of a Letter from C. Darwin, Esq., to Professor Asa Gray, of Boston, U.S., dated Sept. 5, 1857. On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of _Papilionaceous Flow- ers, and on the Crossing of Kidney Beans. Gardeners’ Chronicle. 1858, p. 828, and Amn. Nat. Hist., 3d series, ii., 1858, pp. 459-465. Do the Tineina or Other Small Moths Suck Flowers, and if so what Flowers? Zntom. Weekly Intell., vol. viii., 1860, p. 103. Note on the Achenia of Pumilio Argyrolepis. Gardeners’ Chronicle, Jan. 5, 1861, p. 4. Fertilisation of Vincas. Gardeners’ Chronicle, pp. 552, 831, 832, 1861. On the Two Forms, or Dimorphic Condition, in the Species of P7i- mula, and on their Remarkable Sexual Relations. Zinn. Soc. Fourn., vi., 1862 ( Botany), pp. 77-96. On the Three Remarkable Sexual Forms of Catasetum tridentatum, an Orchid in the Possession of the Linnzan Society. Zinn. Soc. Fourn., vi., 1862 ( Botany), pp. 151-157. Yellow Rain. Gardeners’ Chronicle, July 18, 1863, p. 675. On the Thickness of the Pampean Formation near Buenos Ayres, Geol. Soc. Fourn., xix., 1863, pp. 68-71. On the So-called “‘ Auditory-sac” of Cirripedes. Nat. Hist. Review, 1863, pp. EI5-116. A Review of Mr. Bates’ Paper on Mimetic Butterflies. Vat. Hist. Review, 1863, p. 221—. [Not signed.] On the Existence of Two Forms, and on their Reciprocal Sexual Relation, in Several Species of the Genus Linum. Linn. Soc. Fourn., vii., 1864 (Botany), pp. 69-83. On the Sexual Relations of the Three Forms of Lythrum salicaria. [1864.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., viii., 1865 (Botany), pp. 169-196. On the Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants. [1865.] Zinn. Soc. Fourn., ix., 1867 ( Botany), pp. 1-118. Note on the Common Broom ( Cytisus scoparius). [1866.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., ix., 1867 ( Botany), p. 358. Notes on the Fertilisation of Orchids. Ann. and Mag. Nat. iist., 4th series, iv., 1869, pp. 141-159. On the Character and Hybrid-like Nature of the Offspring from the Illegitimate Unions of Dimorphic and Trimorphic Plants. [1868.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., x., 1869 (Botany), pp. 393-437. 270 Charles Darwin. On the Specific Difference between Primula veris Brit. FI. (var. officinalis, of Linn.), P. vulgaris, Brit. Fl. (var. acaudis, Linn.), and P. elatior, Jacq. ; and on the Hybrid Nature of the common Oxslip. With Supplementary Remarks on naturally produced Hybrids in the genus Verbascum, [1868.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., x., 1869 (Botany). PP. 437-454. Note on the Habits of the Pampas Woodpecker ( Colapies campes- tris). Zool. Soc. Proc., Nov. 1, 1870, pp. 705, 706. Fertilisation of Leschenaultia. Gardeners’ Chronicle, p. 1166, 1871. The Fertilisation of Winter-flowering Plants. Mature, Nov. 18, 1869, vol. i., p. 85. Pangenesis. Vature, April 27, 1871, vol. iii., p. 502. A New View of Darwinism. ature, July 6, 1871, vol. iv., p. 180. Bree on Darwinism. JVature, Aug. 8, 1872, vol. vi., p. 279. Inherited Instinct. Mature, Feb. 13, 1873, vol. vii., p. 281. Perception in the Lower Animals. ature, March 13, 1873, vol. vii., p. 360, Origin of Certain Instincts. Mature, April 3, 1873, vol. vii., p. 417. Habits of Ants. Mature, July 24, 1873, vol. viii., p. 244. _ On the Males and Complemental Males of Certain Cirripedes, and on Rudimentary Structures. Mature, Sept. 25, 1873, vol. viii., p. 431. Recent Researches on Termites and Honey-bees. Vature, Feb. Ig, 1874, vol. ix., p. 308. Fertilisation of the Fumariacee. Mature, April 16, 1874, vol. ix., p. 460. Flowers of the Primrose Destroyed by Birds. Mature, April 23, 1874, vol. ix., p. 482; May 14, 1874, vol. x., p. 24. Cherry Blossoms. ature, May 11, 1876, vol. xiv., p. 28. Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys. ature, Novy. 2, 1876, vol. xv., p. 18. Reprinted as a supplement to the ‘‘ Descent of Man,” 18—. Fritz Miller on Flowers and Insects. Mature, Nov. 29, 1877, vol, xvii, p. 78. The Scarcity of Holly Berries and Bees. Gardeners’ Chronicle, Jan. 20, 1877, p. 83. Appendix. 271 Note on Fertilisation of Plants. Gardeners’ Chronicle, vol. vii., p. 246, 1877. A Biographical Sketch of an Infant. Mind, No. 7, July, 1877. Transplantation of Shells. -Vature, May 30, 1878, vol. xviii., p. 120, % Fritz Miller on a Frog having Fes on its back—on the Abortion of the Hairs on the Legs of Certain Caddis-Flies, etc. Nature, March 20, 1879, vol. xix., p. 462. Rats and Water-Casks. Nature, March 27, 1879, vol. xix., p. 481. Fertility of Hybrids from the Common and Chinese Goose. Va- ture, Jan. 1, 1880, vol. xxi., p. 207. The Sexual Colours of Certain Butterflies. Nature, Jan. 8, 1880, vol. xxi., p. 237. : The Omori Shell Mounds. ature, April 15. 1880, vol. xxi., p- 561. Sir Wyville Thomson and Natural Selection. Ma:ure, Nov. 11, 1880, vol. xxiii., p. 32. Black Sheep. ature, Dec. 30, 1880, vol. xxiii., p. 193. Movements of Plants. Mature, March 3, 1881, vol. xxiii., p. 409. The Movements of Leaves. Mature, April 28, 1881, vol. xxiii., p- 603. ‘ Inheritance. Mature, July 21, 1881, vol. xxiv., p. 257. Leaves Injured at Night by Free Radiation. Mature, Sept. 15, 1881, vol. xxiv., p. 459. The Parasitic Habits of Molothrus. ature, Nov. 17, 1881, vol. XXV., Pp. 51, On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves. Mature, April 6, 1882, vol. xxv., p. 529. The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on the Roots of certain Plants. [Read March 16, 1882.] Linn. Soc. Fourn. (Botany), vol. xix., 1882, pp. 239-261. The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on Chlorophyll-bodies. [Read March 6, 1882.] Linn. Soc. Fourn. (Botany), vol. xix., 1882, pp. 262-284. On the Modification of a Race of Syrian Street-Dogs by Means of Sexual Selection. By W. Van Dyck. With a Preliminary Notice by Charles Darwin. [Read April 18, 1882.] Proc. Zodlog. Soc., 1882, Pp. 367-370. 272 Charles Darwin. WORKS ON DARWINISM FOR FURTHER: REFERENCE. ENGLISH. Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. A. R. Wallace. Darwiniana. Prof. Asa Gray. On the Origin of Species, or the Causes of the Phenomena of Organic Nature. Prof. Huxley. The Scientific Evidences of Organic Avolation (London, 1882). G. J. Romanes. Man and Apes (Am. ed., 1874). St. George Mivart. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. Karl Semper. Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism (London, 1880). E. R. Lankester. Mind in the Lower Animals (London, 1879). Lindsay. Animal Intelligence. G. J. Romanes. The Fertilisation of Flowers (Transl., London, 1883, 669 pp.). Hermann Miiller. Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development. Francis Galton. Philosophical Discussions. Chauncey Wright. On the Philosophic Aspects of Darwinism. G. H. Schneider ; Der Thierischen Wille (xx. and 447 pp., Leipzig, 1880). The Theory of Evolution of Living Things, and the Application of the Principle of Evolution to Religion. George Henslow. Religion and Science. Joseph Leconte. Natural Law, an Essay on Ethics. Edith Simcox. The Theistic Argument, as Affected by Recent Theories. J. L. Diman. What is Darwinism? Charles Hodge. The Story of the Earth and Man. J. W. Dawson. Winds of Doctrine, being an Examination of the Modern Theories of Atomism and Evolution (London, 1877). C. Elam. On the Genesis of Species. St. George Mivart. Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. St. George Mivart. Contemporary Evolution. St. George Mivart. Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, vol. i., Essay on Classification; also Amer. SYourn. Sci., July, 1860. L, Agassiz. ee yg Appendix. 273 FOREIGN. Beitrage zur Descendenz-Theorie (Leipzig, 1876). Georg Seidlitz. . Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der héheren Thiere iste Halfte (Leipzig, 1876). A. Kolliker. : Anthropogenie, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen (Leipzig, 1874). E. Haeckel. Die neuere Schépfungsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1875). Arnold Dodel. Die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen der gegliederten Thiere (Wurtz- burg, 1875). C. Semper. Fir Darwin (Leipzig, 1864). Fritz Miller. Ueber die erste Entstehung organischen Wesen u. deren Spaltung in Arten (Berlin, 1866). A. Miiller. Zur Entwickelungstheorie (Jena, 1876). Otto Zacharias. Der Kampf der Theile in Organismus (Leipzig, 1881). W. Roux. In Sachen Darwin’s insbesondere contra Wigand (Stuttgart, 1874). Gustav Jager. Etudes sur la sélection dans ses rapports avec I’héredité chez Yhomme. P. Jacoby. Der Darwinismus und seine Stellung in der Philosophie (Berlin, 1877). Eugen Dreher. Philosophische Consequenzen der Lamarck-Darwin’schen Entwicke- lungstheorie (Leipzig and Heidelberg). Georg Von Gizycki. Kant und Darwin, ein Beitrag zur Geschite der Entwickelungslehre (Jena, 1875). Fritz Schultze. Die Darwin’schen Theorien und ihre Stellung zur Philosophie, Religion, und Morals (Stuttgart). Rudolf Schmid. La Teoria di Darwin Criticamente Exposta, Biblioteca Scientifica Internationale (Milano, 1880). G. Canestrini. Der Darwinismus und die Naturforschung Newtons und Cuviers (3 vols., 1874-7). . A. Wigand. Wahrheit und Irrthum in Darwinismus (Berlin, 1875). E. Von Hartmann. Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Staai (Berlin, 1877). R. Virchow. Haeckelismus in der Zodlogie (Hamburg, 1876). C. Semper. Anti-Darwinistische Beobachtungen (Bonn, 1877). F. Michaelis. A journal of highest ability devoted to evolution is Kosmos, Zeitschrift fur einheitliche Weltanschaung auf Grund der En- twickelungslehre, in Verbindring mit Charles Darwin und Ernst Haeckel, sowie einer Reihe hervorragenden Forscher auf den Gebieten des Darwinismus (monthly, 80 pp., since 1876). - A Abinger Hall, 242 Aconcagua, 89 Adventure Island, 263 Agassiz, Louis, 272 Agouti, 49 Albermarle Island, 110 Allen, Dr., 30 Amblyrhynchus, 108 America, 186 Amethyst Mountain, 184 Ant-eater, 49 Antennarius, 176 Antuco, 93 Archzopterix, 193 Aristotle, 167 Armadillo, 49 Ascenium, I2I si Atavism, 181 Atlantic cable, 184 Atoll, 117 Azara, 45, 65 Azores, 122 B Bahia, 28 Bahia Blanca, 104 Baker, Frank, 195, 250 Banda Oriental, 104 Bastile 170 Beagle, 5, 19, 263 Beagle Inlet, 50 INDEX. ; Berkeley Sound, 78 Bibliography, 259 Biological Society, 195 Birgos, 115 Biscacha, 58 Bolas, 42 Botofogo Bay, 29 Brazil, 37 Buenos Ayres, 46, 49 Buffon, 168 Burmeister, Prof., 73 Butler, Dr., 2 Butterflies, 37 ; shower of, 69 Cc Callao, 103 Cape Horn, 70 Cape of Good Hope, 128 Cape Verde Islands, 22 Capybara, 43 Cattle, péculiar breed of, 67 Chacao, 87 Chamisso, 114 Charles Island, 111 Chatham, 107 Chile, 37 Chiloe, 87 Chonos Archipelago, 87 Cirripedia, 264 Cocoa-nut, II5 Colorado River, 48 Concepcion, 90 Condor, 77 Conferve, 32 275 276 Lndex. Cope, E. D., 183 Cophias, 53 Copiap6, 96 Coral, 117 Coral-eating fish, 116 Cormorant, 81 Coseguina, 89 Crabs, 86 ; mimicry of, 176 Creation, 203 Crocodile, 55 Cuttle-fish, 25 D Dagger, 41 Dall, W. H., 195, 208 Darwin, birth, 2; school days, 2; religious feeling, 3 ; collections, 4; walks, 4-9; at Maer, 4-9; laboratory work, 5; university life, 6; nickname of, 6 ; wealth of, 6; vacation of, 9; as a hunt- er, 10; college life, 12; books read by, 14; on slavery, 33; on birds, 88; works on coral, 117, 261; appearance of, 131, 239; daily life of, 133; early papers of, 137 ; services to science, I40; conclusions, 141 ; publication of -*his great work, 143; birth of Darwinism, 144; botanical re- searches, 145; religious reti- cence, 147; buried in Westmin- ster Abbey, 148 ; membership in societies, 149; a birthday gift, 151; honors, 152-155; family, 156; memorial, 167; theory of, 184; memorial on, 195; doc- trine of, 196; Children, 212; friends of, 212; death of, 213; philosophy of, 214; as an en- tomologist, 228 ; home of, 239 ; letters of, 240; as a botanist, 244 ; bibliography of, 259; pa- pers of, 268 ; foreign works on, 273 Darwin, E. G., 91 Darwinism, works on, 162, 272 Dawson, J. W., 272 Deer, 43 De Maillet, 168 Descent, 194 Desmodus, 33 Diman, J. L., 272 Diodon, 29 Doubleday, Mr., 38 Dover cliffs, 6, 184 Dreher, Eugene, 273 Drouths, 64 Duncan, Dr., 6 Dust showers, 23 E East Falkland Islands, 78 Edinburgh, 7 Ehrenberg, 23, 24 Egg collecting, 3 Egypt, 186 Elater, 36 El Bramador, 103 El Carmen, 47 Embryo, Igt Emotions, 265 Eocene, 188 Epeira, web of, 39 Equus, 189 Evolution, 173 Extinction, 64, 76 F Falmouth, 122 Fernando Noronha, 26, 27 Fire-fly, 36 Floating islands, 85 Flustra, 2, 8 Flying fish, 26, 34 Fossils, 68 Fuegians, 79 G Galapagos, 32, 106 Geographical distribution, 62 Geological Society, 125 Germany, 193 Giants, 79 Giant-weed, 81 Gill, Theo., 195 ee Te ee eee Index. 277 Glaciers, 82 = ‘ Goethe, 170 Goode, Prof, 196 Rectan latent, x14 Grant, Dr,, 7 ees tis a7 Gray, 172 Greenland, 191 = Greenwich, 124 Greyhound, 174 Speetcanes, 58 Lamarck, 44, 171 a Lambert, 1 pres tele Se -. af il ya ate airless ee ee Barry, Ww. awe Lightning, 45 : = >? Lima, 104 Hecla, go Linnzan Society, 126 Henslow, Prof., 14 Lizards 108 ‘ Hesperornis, 192 Llam: 2. Herschel, Sir J., 168 Lobster, 195 Hibernation, 53. 54 Locusts, 100 Hill, Major, to Luxan, Io1 Hipparion, 188 Hippocampus, 47 Hodge, Charles, 272 Lyell, Sir Chas., 61, 171 Holcodont, 193 M ie - wr ’ Mackintosh, Sir John, 11, 17 Horse, 62, 66, 188 Macrauchenia, 73, 104 ; Macrocystis, 81 Hot springs, 84 ‘ocystis, Humboldt, 17, 172 Malay, 115 orate 174 Maldonado, 40 Hydrochzrus, 43 Marsh Prof., 62 Mathews, P., 200 Mauritius, 120 I Megatherium, 49 Mendoza, 102 : Iceberg, 82 Megalonyx, 49 Incas, 188 Mesohippus, 189 Indians, 51, 56 Michaelis, 273 Insectivorous plants, 242 Mimics, 53, 79 Minerals, 7 J Mines, 84 Miohippus, 189 Jacoby, P., 273 Mivart, St. G., 271 ames Islands, 109 Monboddo, 170 aguar, 44, 65 Monkeys, 35 Jelly-fish, 58, 71 Monte Video, 43, 46 Jenyns, Rev. L., 263 Moresby, Capt. -; II0 Jungle fowl, 173 Mould, 265 278 L[ndex. Miller, F., 273 Murderers, 40 Mylodon, 49 Myopotamus, 87 N Neptune, 28 Noddy, 26 Nummulite, 186 O Octopus, 24, 31 Odontornithes, 191 Oken, 170 Orchid, 265 Origin of species, 264 Orohippus, 190 Osorno, 87 Ostrich, 42, 51 Otter, 81 Owen, Prof., 49 Owen, Sir R., 172 . PE Paleozoic, 180 Pampas, 61 Pander, 170 Papilio, 37 Parana, 59 Parrot-fish, 116 Patagonia, 72 Penguin, 39 Peru, 104 Philosophy, 218 Phosphorescence, 70 Planarian, 35 Plata, 39 Pliocene, 189 Polyborus, 45 Porpoise, 39 Portillo Pass, 97 Porto Praya, 24 Powell, J. W., 195, 214 Protococcus, 98 Pteranodon, 44 Puma, 85, 86 Pyramid, 186 Pyrophorus, 30 Plinian Society, 1 Pernambuco, 121 Philosophical Society of Cam- bridge, 124 Q Quail, 43 Quiriquina Island, gt R Ramsay, Prof., 186 Razor clam, 99 Red snow, 98 Reefs, barrier, 117 Reefs, coral, 117, 264. Reptiles, 193 Rhea, 52 Rhizopods, 184 Ribeira Grande, 23 Riley, C. V., 228 Rio Negro, 33, 47 Rio Tercero, 59 Robber-crab, 27 Romanes, G. J., 272 Rosas, Gen., 55 Roux, W., 273 Royal navy, 17 Royal Society, 264 Ruins, 85 Reef structures, 119 Royal Academy, 125 Rhea Americanus, 126 S Sacred tree, 48 Salt lake, 48 San Carlos, 86 San Carlos Bay, 89 San Lorenzo, 104 Santa Cruz, 51, 73 Santa Fé, 60 Santa Maria, 94 Sarandis, 67 Sargassum, 176 Scarus, 116 Schleiden, 170 Schmidt, R., 273 Schultze, F., 170, 273 Index. 279 St. Paul’s Rocks, 26 Strata, 184 Survey, 40. Symonds, Sir W., 27 a Tahiti, 113 Talcahuana, 91 Teneriffe, 17 Tern, 26 Terra del Fuego, 32 Tertiary, 186 True, Fred. W., 195, 258 Tucutuco, 44 Turtles, 114 Uruguay, 59 Uspullata, ror Vv Valdivia, 90 Valparaiso, 67, 83 Vampire, 33 Variability, 181 Varieties, 173 Von Baer, 170 Von Mohl, 170 Ww Wallace, Alfred, 172 29 Wright, C., 168, 272 y Yale College, 192 Yaquil, 85 Youmans, E. L., 172 Z Zacharias, Otto, 273 Ss ew Deroes of the Wations. EDITED BY EVELYN ABBOTT M.A., FELLOW oF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFORD. ) A SERIEs of biographical studies of the lives and work " of a number of representative historical characters about » whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in Many instances, as types of the several National ideals. ith the life of each typical character will be presented a picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career. ; The narratives are the work of writers who are recog- ) nized authorities on their several subjects, and, while thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque and dramatic “stories” of the Men and of the events con- nected with them. To the Life of each “Hero” will be given one duo- ‘decimo volume, handsomely printed in large type, pro- vided with maps and adequately illustrated according to ‘the special requirements of the several subjects. The | volumes will be sold separately as follows: | Cloth extra . : : ‘ ‘ ; : .- SEF S0 | Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top. ; ~ 1 DZS Large paper, limited to 250 numbered copies for subscribers to the series. These may be ob- tained in sheets folded, or in cloth, uncut edges. . . . ° : . - 350 The first group of the Series will comprise twelve | volumes, as follows: Nelson, and the Naval Supremacy of England. “By Ww. CLARK RUSSELL, | author of ‘‘ The Wreck of the Grosvenor,” etc. (Ready April 15, 1890.) Gustavus Adolphus, and the Struggle of Protestantism for Exist- ence, By C. R. L. FLeETcHEr, M.A., late Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Pericles, and the Golden Age of Athens. By Evre_yn Apport, M.A., | Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. . Alexander the Great, and the Extension of Greek Rule and o Greek Ideas, By Prof. BENJAMIN I. WHEELER, Cornell University. — Theoderic the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civilization. B THOMAS HODGKIN, author of ‘‘ Italy and Her Invaders,” etc. Charlemagne, the Reorganizer of Europe. By Prof. Gzorcr L. Burr, Cornell University. : Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots in France. By P. F. WILLERT, M.A., Fellow of Exeter College, Oxford. William of Orange, the Founder of the Dutch Republic. By RutTH PUTNAM. s Cicero, and the Fall of the Roman Republic. By J. L. STRACHAN) 4 Davipson, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. .. Louis XIV., and the Zenith of the French Monarchy. By ARTHUR! : HASSALL, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford. Sir Walter Raleigh, and the Adventurers of England. By A. L. Smiru, M.A., Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. Bismarck. The New Genin Empire: How It Arose; What It 9 Replaced ; And What It Stands For. By JAMEs SIME, author of “A Life of Lessing,”’ etc. To be followed by: Hannibal, and the Struggle between Carthage and Rome. By E. A. FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D., Regius Prof. of History in the University of Oxford. Alfred the Great, and the First Kingdom in England, By F. YorK 1 PowELL, M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford. Charles the Bold, and the Attempt to Found a Middle Kingdoms : By R. Lopes, "M. A., Fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, John Calvin, the Heng of the French Protestants. By OwENn M, ~ EpwaArps, Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Oliver Cromwell, and the Rule of the Puritans in England. By CHARLES FirTH, Balliol College, Oxford. Marlborough, and England as a Military Power. By C. W. C. Oman, A.M., Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Julius Czsar, and the Orvanication of the Roman Empire. By W. WarDE Fow er, M.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS NEw YORK LONDON 27 AND 29 WEST TWENTY-THIRD STREET 27 KinG WILLIAM STREET, STRAND j i Ser EOS | The Story of the Mations. Messrs. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS take pleasure in announcing that they have in course of publication, in ) co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of London, a ‘series of historical studies, intended to present in a _ graphic manner the stories of the different nations that have attained prominence in history. In the story form the current of each national life is distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy _ periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their philosophical relation to each other as well as to universal history. : It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to | enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and | struggled—as they studied and wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be over- looked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted in definite conclusions. The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will _ present. in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in the great STORY OF THE NATIONS; but it is, of course, not always practicable to issue the several volumes in their chronological order. ' The “ Stories” are printed in good readable type, and in handsome 12mo form. They are adequately illustrated — and furnished with maps and indexes. Price, per vol., cloth, $1.50. Half morocco, gilt top, $1.75. The following volumes are now ready (January, 1891) : THE STORY OF GREECE. Prof. JAs. A. HARRISON. ROME. ARTHUR GILMAN. ef 3 ‘* THE JEWS. Prof. James K, HosMEr, ze - ‘“* CHALDEA, Z. A. Racozin, = ce ‘* GERMANY. S. BARING-GouLD. “a ce ** NORWAY. Hyjatmar H. BoyeseEn. ig ss “* SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan HALE. e « ‘© HUNGARY. Prof. A. VAMBERY. f ** CARTHAGE, Prof, ALFRED J. CHURCH. os . ‘“* THE SARACENS. ArtTHUR GILMAN. 4A 2 = ‘““ THE MOORS IN SPAIN. STANLEY LANE-PooLE, e * ‘“* THE NORMANS. Saran ORNE JEWETT. 2 - a **’ PERSIA. S. G. W. BENJAMIN. se ¢ ‘* ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Gzo. RAWLINSON. 5 2 *‘ ALEXANDER’S EMPIRE. Prof. J. P. MAHAFFY. $ ee ““ ASSYRIA. Z. A. RAGOzIN, si ss ‘“* THE GOTHS. Henry BRADLEY. - se ‘“* TRELAND. Hon. Emiry LAwLess, j “ ‘¢ *“ TURKEY. STANLEY LANE-POOLE. : sf S$ ** MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. Z. A. RAGozIn. — ss * MEDIAZVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gustav MAsson. x 4 “ ** HOLLAND. Prof. J. THoRoLD RoceErs, 3 ‘S “© MEXICO. Susan HALE. - aS “ PHOENICIA. Prof. Gro. RAWLINSON. “ ss ‘““ THE HANSA TOWNS. HELEN ZIMMERN,. “ “e *“ EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. ALFRED J. CHURCH. “ se ‘* THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. STANLEY LANE-POOLE. i #e ‘© RUSSIA. W. R. MorrFiiy A i a - ‘© THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. Morrison. # ** SCOTLAND. JoHN MAckINTOSH. Bb s + ‘** SWITZERLAND. R. STEAD and Mrs. ARNOLD HuG. — Now in Press for immediate issue: THE STORY OF PORTUGAL. H. Morse STEPHENS. ‘““ VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. RaGozin. es iy ‘““ THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. HELEN A. SMITH. . ¢ ‘** WALES AND CORNWALL, Owen M, EpWARDs. _ FE # “CANADA, A. R. MACFARLANE, RE G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS T. FISHER UNWIN NEw YORK LONDON PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS Robert Fulton and Steam Navigation. By Tuos. W. Knox, editor of “The Travels of Marco Polo,” author of “ Boy Travellers in the East,” etc., etc. One large r2mo volume, profusely illustrated . . . . . - $1 75 This book tells the story of a life of constant activity and usefulness, and describes the rise and progress of steam navigation in a manner most remarkable and clear. It is free from technical terms of all description, and is written in that charmingly narrative and picturesque form for which Mr. Knox is so justly famous. The book is composed of 500 pages, and contains 82 elegant engravings, which go to emphasize its usefulness. The early struggles of Fulton to get recognition for his inventions, his perseverance, and his dogged determination to succeed, are depicted forcefully and sympathetically. All the great ocean, war, and river steamers of the century, their principles of construction, the gradual evo- lution of speed by means of improved application of the original idea, and the development of the original crude machinery, are described and exem- plified by numerous illustrations. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, New York Aanp LONDON. LINCOLN’S WRESTLE WITH ARMSTRONG, (Reduced from ‘* Life of Abraham Lincoln.’’) “In writing this brief biography, I have been moved by a desire to give — the generation of young people, who will never know aught of Abraham Lincoln but what is-traditional, a life-like picture of the man as many men knewhim. . . . Many things relating to his early life herein set down were derived from his own lips, often during hours of secluded companion- ship.”"—From Author's Preface. ‘* An excellent and timely book.”—New Albany Ledger, ‘*An admirably written book.” —ABuffalo Christian Advocate, “It is a capital book.” —Pittsburgh Chronicle. ‘‘A more interesting biography we have not read,”——Yartford Times. ; Pee Le aed ae G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, New York AND LONDON — g § 4 4 PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM S SONS The Life of George Washington Studied Anew. By ' Epwarp Everett Hate, author of “Man without a Country,” “Ten Times One is Ten,” etc., etc. Large 12mo. Fully illustrated. In the Library of American CEM anes i582 50 Oa 5 hae Se et ow SE IS FIRST PRESIDENTIAL MANSION, FRANKLIN SQUARE, NEW YORK. (From “* Life of George Washington.”’) **Mr. Hale, in this volume, written though it be in a quiet and subdued manner, brings us, as it were, closer to that illustrious one every man, woman, and child in this country should worship.” —. Y.. 7zmes. & . . As the reader of this book will learn, Washington. left, ar- ranged i in careful order, perhaps more materials for his biography than any man of his century ; but a certain habit of deifying him has ‘thus far pre- vented writers of his life from approaching the ‘study of the man It has been my aim, using chiefly in my narrative the diaries and letters of the man himself, to present to the new generation of Americans, the Auman Washington in such a way that they may have some conception of the man and of the advantages and the disadvantages with which he worked through his great career.” —£-xtract from Author's Preface. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, NEw York AND LONDON. PUBLICATIONS OF G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS HISTORIC GIRLS: Stories of girls who have influenced the history of their times. By E. S. Brooks. Profusely allusteated 9 fr aS. es 00° In these progressive days when so much energy and discussion are de- voted to what is termed equality and the rights of women, it is well to” remember that there have been in the distant past women, and girls even, — who by their actions and endeavors proved themselves the equals of the men of their time in valor, shrewdness, and ability. pa This volume seeks to tell for the girls and boys of to-day the stories of © some of their sisters of the long ago—girls who by eminent position or — valiant deeds became historic even before they had passed the charming ‘ season of girlhood. ‘*EDITH OF SCOTLAND.” (Reduced from ‘* Historic Girls.”’) Their stories are fruitful of varying lessons ; for some of these historic girls were wilful as well as courageous, and mischievous as well as tender-hearted. Contents of HISTORIC GIRLS: Zenobia of Palmyra, the Girl of the Syrian Desert 5 Helena of Britain, The Girl of the Essex Fells ; Pulcheria of Constantinople, The Girl of the Golden Horn; Clotilda of Burgundy, The Girl of the French Vineyards ; Woo of Hwang-ho, The Girl of the Yellow River; Edith of Scotland, the Girl of the Norman Abbey ; Jacqueline of Holland, The Girl of the Land of Fogs; Catarina of Venice, The Girl of the Grand Canal; Theresa of Avila, The Girl of the Spanish Sierras ; Elizabeth of Tudor, The Girl of the Hertford Manor; Christina of Sweden, The Girl of the Northern Fiords ; Ma-ta-oka of Pow-ha-tan, The Girl of the Virginia Forests. G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS, NEw York AND LONDON. : ore. 7 = see a os . eT . fe 4 . * bf ; ' f i 4: 4 - = _ . £ i Wc P = oa - - F e » a 744 ; aa 7 _ fate net ae 1 - ce ; te ates te ~ ss PLEASE DO NOT REMOVE CARDS OR SLIPS FROM THIS POCKET UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO LIBRARY QH Holder, Charles Frederick 31 Charles Darwin D2H65 Biological & Medical Mee Liat an Dean seat ay, AHS 4%: EN Fats ORY VbeaNit tg pa ES Har watts at ah fue} i Grid ssh Pine pA : of ii unt its I he Ga opsetl Marae 9 BSeoy kd th hl Met D4 ras Replay ihe beds) syn ep ese ees yea Se eS : : if oe = - ae et = - oe