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DARWIN AND THE SQUIRRELS.
Deaders in Science
CHARLES DARWIN
HIS LIFE AND WORK
BY
CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER
FELLOW OF THE N.Y. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE
LINNZAN SOCIETY, ETC., AUTHOR OF ** ELEMENTS OF ZOOLOGY,” “* LIVING
LIGHTS,’ “‘ THE IVORY KING,” “A STRANGE COMPANY,” ETC.
G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS
NEW YORK LONDON
27 WEST TWENTY-THIRD ST. 27 KING WILLIAM ST., STRAND
Ehe Hnicherbocker Press
1891
QM
3I
DQHKOS
CopyriIGHT, 1891
BY
CHARLES FREDERICK HOLDER
604311
IS 3.55"
The Knickerbocker Press, ew Work
Electrotyped, Printed, and Bound by
G. P. Putnam’s Sons
8
HEN the publishers proposed to
me the subject of the present
= volume,a life of Charles Darwin
for American and English read-
> ers, I was particularly. gratified
Zi with the suggestion that the work
; should be adapted to young réaders
as well as old. It has always seemed to
me that the life of Charles Darwin was
one eminently fitted to be held up as an
example to the youth of all lands. He stood as
the central figure in the field of natural science in
this century, and while it is yet too early to present
. his life with any approximation of its results upon
- the thought of the future, it is apparent to every
4 one that his influence upon the intellectual growth
of the country, and upon biological science in par-
q ticular, has been marked and epoch making.
3 In the preparation of the work I have not at-
j tempted an analytical dissertation upon Darwin’s
life-work, neither have I discussed his theories or
their possible effect upon the scientific world, but
v
4
~~. tavern, eu -e ., oo
vi Preface.
have simply presented the story of his life, that of
one of the greatest naturalists of the age; a life of
singular purity ; the life of a man who, in loftiness of
purpose and the accomplishment of grand results,
was the centre of observation in his time; revered
and honored, yet maligned and attacked as few
have been.
I have asked my readers to follow with me the
footsteps of the naturalist from school-days in Eng-
land to foreign shores, seeking to interest them in
the pursuits which he loved and to enable them to
observe the things which he saw, believing that in
this way the remarkable traits of the man as an
observer and thinker can be best and most forcibly
shown. I have had an object beyond that of simply
telling his story, and one which I believe would com-
mend itself to the great investigator were he living:
it is, by tracing and following his work and investiga-
tions, to encourage young men and women to emu-
late his methods, become students in the great field
of nature, and enjoy the delights of actual contact
with the world of which he was an active worker.
That such a career is ennobling I trust the following
pages will demonstrate.
In the preparation of this volume I am indebted
to Francis Darwin, Esq., of Cambridge, England,
whose life of his father is the only work extant
giving fully the life and letters of the naturalist. My
thanks are also due the Biological Society of Wash-
ington for the extracts from the Darwin Memorial,
which I conceive to be of especial interest to Eng-
lish readers as an expression from the leading
*.
“7
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ve,
pike
‘AGCNLS SiNIAAY VA
ae = SAVY! Atnonly , FNS ia "i
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
THE BOY DARWIN . : : . . ° . I
The First Paper—Taste for Natural History—Birthplace—
Early School-Days—Religious Nature—Books Which Infiu-
enced Him—Associates—Introduction to Scientific Men—
Taste for Sport.
CHAPTER It.
COLLEGE DAYS . = s 6 . ° ° a re
College Life—Thoughts of Entering the Church—A Poor
Mathematician — Beetle Collecting—First Appearance in
Print—Associations with Eminent Men—Scientific Reading
—Favourite Authors—Interest in Geology.
CHAPTER III.
THE YOUNG NATURALIST . A ‘ . : - 9
The Seagie—An Offer of Importance—The Young Natural-
ist—The Voyage—Powers of Observation—Cape Verd
Islands—Tours of Investigation—Dust-Showers—W onderful
Phenomena—Geological Studies—St. Paul’s Rocks—Fernan-
do de Noronha.
ix
x Contents.
CHAPTER IV.
PAGE
IN SOUTHERN SEAS . = = : . : 0) Se
The Log-Book—Bahia—Singular Appearance of the Water
—The Vampire Bat—Slavery—Trips into the Country—
Rare Collections—In the Brazilian Forest—Shooting Mon- .
keys—The Click of a Butterfly—Jumping Spiders—Electri-
cal Displays—The Plata.
CHAPTER V.
IN THE LAND OF THE SACRED TREE . > ‘ it, op
The Rio Negro—Trips into the Interior—The Sacred Tree
—Superstition of Natives—Salt Lakes—Bahia Blanca—A
Tomb of Giants—The Mylodon Darwinii—The Armadillo
—Hibernation—Careful Work—War—General Rosas—Bru-
tal Natives—Skilled Equestrians.
CHAPTER VI.
AMONG THE FOSSILS . , ; : : : . 398
A Long Bullock Ride—Santa Fé—An Animal Collector—
Large Fossils—Indian Superstitions—Darwin IIl—A Native
Doctor—Geology—Gigantic Armoured Animals—Drought—
The Parana—The Jaguar—Darwin a Prisoner—Swimming
Horses—Shower of Butterflies—Phosphorescence.
CHAPTER VII.
THE LAND OF GIANTS : ‘ ‘ ‘ 2 ie er (:
The Patagonians—Guanaco Hunting—Singular Burial Cus-
toms—A Horse with a Proboscis—Extinction—Up the Santa
Cruz—Puma Tracks—Catching the Condor—Falkland Isl-
ands—Among the Glaciers—The Fuegians— Giant Sea-
Weed and Its Work.
CHAPTER VIII.
THE FOOT OF THE ANDES . ; ; : : eS
At Valparaiso— Andean Life—An Old Schoolmate—An
Contents. 3 xi
PAGE
Ocean Bottom—In the Mines—Hot Springs—Darwin Ex-
cites Suspicion—Volcanoes—Tame Birds—The Myopota-
mus—Predaceous Gulls—Birds Killed by Them.
CHAPTER IX.
IN THE EARTHQUAKE COUNTRY : : ; . 89
At the Bay of San Carlos—Earthquakes—Destruction of
Concepcion—At Talcahuana—Tidal Waves—Poverty of the
Victims—Elevation of the Coast— Darwin’s Coolness in
Danger—Narrow Escapes.
CHAPTER X.
IN THE RED SNOW COUNTRY F - R . « OF
Valparaiso—The Portillo Pass—Land of the Red Snow—
Electrical Conditions—A Swarm of Locusts—Experiments
with the Reduvius—A Forest of Stone—Valley of the Copi-
apd—Ruins at Old Callao—Antiquity of Man.
CHAPTER XI.
AMONG THE OCEAN VOLCANOES : : - . 106
Galapagos Islands—Number of Craters—Gigantic Tor-
toises—Land and Marine Lizards—New Marine Forms—
Flora—Number of Cryptogamic Plants—Variety of Forms
on the Different Islands—Tameness of the Birds.
CHAPTER XII.
IN THE GARDENS OF THE SEA . : : : ae sk
Keeling Island—Among the Corals—Towed by a Turtle—
Sagacity of the Birgos—Stinging Corals—Coral-Eating Fish
- —Theories Regarding Reef Structure—Mauritius—Extinc-
tion of Animals at St. Helena—Return to England.
xii Contents.
CHAPTER XIII.
PAGE
DARWIN THE NATURALIST A f F - 123
Ambition of Darwin—Future Work Decided upon—Scien-
tific Friends—Papers Read before Various Societies—
Experiments with Earthworms—Marriage of Darwin—
Methods of Work—Various Publications.
CHAPTER XIV.
HOME LIFE : x ; : . P : . 131
Appearance of Darwin—Continued Ill-Health — Daily
Habits—Change in Musical and Literary Tastes—Affection
for His Children.
CHAPTER XV.
THE WORK OF A LIFE i : ; ; ; Re EL
Early Papers—Publications by Scientific Societies—‘* The
Formation of Mould ”—‘‘The Cirripedia”—The Wallace
Incident—Collecting Material for the ‘* Origin of Species”
—Success of the Work—Time Spent in Authorship—Re-
ligion—Final Work and Death.
CHAPTER XVI.
HONOURS OF A LIFETIME . : ; : ‘ . 149
Membership in Societies—The Institute of France—Prizes,
Medals, Degrees, Portraits, Gifts, etc.
CHAPTER XVII.
THE DARWIN FAMILY ; ; : : . 156
The First Known Darwin—The Head of the Family—
Natural-History Tastes—Poets, Doctors, and Military Men
—Erasmus Darwin—Carlyle’s Description of Erasmus—
Evidences of Genius.
Contents. Xili
CHAPTER XVIIL.
PAGE
DARWINISM : : : : ; * 4 . 167
The Coining of the Word—What it Means—Its Relation to
Evolution—‘*‘ The Survival of the Fittest ”—‘* The Struggle
for Existence”—The Descent—Examples of Evolution.
CHAPTER XIX.
DARWINISM CONTINUED . . . . . . 183
How Change is Produced—Vast Eras of Time—The Age of
the Earth—Evidences of Evolution—Extinct Animals.
CHAPTER XX.
THE DARWIN MEMORIAL . ° . . . - 195
Addresses by American Scientists: Dr. Theodore Gill—W.
H. Dall—Major. John W. Powell—Richard Rathbun—
Charles V. Riley—Lester F. Ward—Frank Baker—Freder-
ick W. True.
APPENDIX ‘ Fe ote ; ; ‘ : . 263
List of Works by Charles Darwin—List of Books containing
Contributions by Charles Darwin—List of Scientific Papers,
including a Selection of Letters and Short Communications
to Scientific Journals—Works on Darwinism for Further
Reference,
NS eg 2 eos Oth ee ee a ey yo
ILLUSTRATIONS.
PAGE
DARWIN AND THE SQUIRRELS . : : Frontispiece
ST. PAUL’S ROCKS FROM THE EAST—Fyvom Spry’s
“ Voyage of the Challenger”. ‘ : - 24
SHARK FISHING AT ST. PAUL’s ROCKS—F rom Gosse’s
“ Romance of Natural History” . . . 26
A BRAZILIAN COLLECTING-GROUND—From Gosse’s
“ Romance of Natural History”. ; - 28
PORCUPINE FISH (DIODON) FLOATING ON THE SUR-
FACE : ; ; : é : ‘ . ae
DARWIN FINDING A VAMPIRE BAT BITING A HORSE, 32
BRAZILIAN HUNTERS AND ANIMAL COLLECTORS . 36
SOUTH AMERICAN NATIVE HUT OF LEAVES. Ae sae
A PLANTER’S HOUSE IN BRAZIL = : : ot
A HOME ON THE PARAHIBA RIVER, BRAZIL. RS
CAMP IN A BRAZILIAN FOREST. : ‘ , iri @g
SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICH (RHEA) AND YOUNG—
From Brehm’s“ Natural History”. . 5 ee
SOUTH AMERICAN OSTRICHES FORDING A RIVER . 52
NATIVE AUSTRALIANS HUNTING THE EMU—/Fvom
Figuier’s“ Birds” . : : : : ee” |
xv
XVI Lllustrations.
DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING THE EVOLUTION OF THE
HORSE. : : : :
THE PATAGONIAN CAvY—From Brehm’s “ Natural
fTistory”’ . ; : : ; :
“THE CAPYBARA—S rom Brehm’s “ Natural History”
DARWIN SHOOTING AT A CONDOR
CAPE FROWARD, STRAITS OF MAGELLAN—Srom
Spry’s “ Voyage ef the Challenger’
MUD VOLCANOES, TURBACO, SOUTH AMERICA—From
Figuier’s “ World before the Deluge”.
BARK-GATHERERS CAMP IN PERU—Srom Figuier’s
“ Vegetable World” . : : ; : :
ELEPHANT TORTOISE, GALAPAGOS ISLANDS—/rom
Brehm’s “ Natural History”
DARWIN TESTING THE SPEED OF AN ELEPHANT
TORTOISE (GALAPAGOS ISLANDS). j ;
A CORAL ISLAND, OR ATOLL—From Figuter’s “ Ocean
Wore eta. © a eo. ee
BIRGOS, OR COCOA-NUT CRAB... F ; :
DARWIN’S sTUDY—From “ The Century Magazine”
PORTRAIT OF CHARLES DARWIN—SF vom “ The Cen-
tury Magazine” i ‘ . te f
COLLECTING IN THE SARGASSO SEA . ; ; ‘
62
74
76
78
80
go
102
106
108
112
114
128
150
176
- eae es Bee
’ .
@
Hy]
7
CHARLES DARWIN.
CHAPTER I.
THE BOY DARWIN.
The First Paper—Taste for Natural History—Birthplace—Early
School Days—Religious Nature—Books Which Influenced Him
—Associates—Introduction to Scientific Men—Taste for Sport.
NE evening, in the year
1826, a tall, slender youth
rose at a meeting of the
Plinian Society of Edin-
burgh, and with some
embarrassment and hes-
itation unfolded a paper
and addressed the chair.
The speaker was
| Charles Darwin, and this
J was his first public at-
tempt to convey to
others information which he had acquired regarding
natural objects. At this time Darwin was seventeen
I
2 Charles Darwin.
years of age; yet his paper, which was on the com-
mon Flustra, or sea-mat, attracted no little attention,
and was the first in an ever increasing series that
gave him in later years a world-wide reputation.
While this was Darwin’s first public appearance as
a naturalist, he had long been an ardent collector.
When but nine years of age he was the happy pos-
sessor of a collection of seals, franks, coins, and
minerals which were the admiration of his young
friends and acquaintances.
Our hero was born at Shrewsbury in 1809, and -
began his school-boy life at a day-school, later, in
1818, attending the large establishment of Dr. Butler,
a mile from the old homestead. This school, like
many of the time, was a strictly classical institution,
where the young mind was regaled with ancient
geography and history almost exclusively. The
lessons, so he tells us, were “ learned by heart,” with
interminable verses,—a feature much esteemed by
educators of the day, and were mastered: in boyish
fashion by a combination of the talent of the school.
He was singularly deficient in language, yet pos-
sessed, like other members of his family, a remarkable
memory, so that, as he writes in his quaint Autobi-
ography: “ Much attention was paid to learning by
heart the lessons of the previous day; this I could
effect with great facility, learning forty or fifty lines
of Virgil or Homer whilst I was in morning chapel ;
but this exercise was utterly useless, for every verse
was forgotten in forty-eight hours.”
Our young hero, while manly and thoughtful, was
simple-hearted, and often a victim to the deceptions
School Days. z.|
practised by boys upon each other. Among his
comrades was a boy named Garnett, who one day
invited young Darwin into a store and treated him
to cakes. Darwin noticed that his friend did not
pay for them, and the occurrence, so unusual, moved
him to ask for an explanation. Mischievous Garnett
eyed his young schoolmate a moment, much as Mr.
Jingle did Mr. Pickwick on their famous ride, and
replied: “ Why, my uncle left a large sum to each
tradesman in the town with the understanding that
anyone who wore his old hat and moved it in a
peculiar way should obtain what he wished free.”
Young Darwin was naturally seized with a burning
desire to exercise this wonderful power, which his
comrade was only too eager to grant; so the next
store they came to Darwin took the hat, walked
bravely in, and ordered a supply of good things,
giving the old hata move as directed. He was pass-
ing out, when the storekeeper, who was at first
amazed, dashed over the counter after the singular
customer, who stood not upon the order of going,
but dropped hat and cakes and ran as if for his life
to the measure of the hearty laughter of his com-
panion.
While Darwin was fond of sport and a true boy
in his pranks and games, there was a vein of uncon-
scious dignity in him that the average youth did not
possess. He tells us that in running to school he
prayed to the Lord to aid him in arriving before it
was too late, which would show a strong religious
nature; and that he was humane and honourable toa
marked degree is well known. How many boys in
4 Charles Darwin.
collecting eggs think of the rights of the birds?
Yet our young naturalist, while an indefatigable col-
lector of birds’ eggs and nests, was invariably careful
to take but one egg from each nest,—recognising in
this the rights of the lower animals. His humani-
tarian ideas were carried to what some would consider
extremes; thus, hearing at his uncle Josiah Wedg-
wood’s, that it was cruel to spit living worms, he
*killed them first by a bath of salt and water.
As a boy he was fond of solitary walks, and often
rambled away by himself, loving the quiet seclusion
of the forests, the haunts and fishing-pools at Maer, |
or the old fortifications about Shrewsbury. At such
times he frequently became lost in meditation, so
that in one instance, while deeply absorbed, he
walked over a parapet, falling a distance of seven or
eight feet. In referring to this, he naively remarks:
“The number of thoughts which passed through my
mind during this very short, but sudden and wholly
unexpected, fall was astonishing, and seem hardly
compatible with what physiologists have, I believe,
proved about each thought requiring quite an ap-
preciable amount of time.”
The young naturalist early developed habits of
observation, and entered into investigations, espe-
cially of difficult and complex subjects, with an
ardour and interest that was infectious. He expe-
rienced intense pleasure in geometrical problems,
enjoying the reasoning that was involved, and
showed marked evidence of the care and patience
in attaining certain ends that produced such results
in his later career. The books which influenced his
His Books. 5
boyish mind were Horace, certain odes of which
appear to have been the one bright feature in his
school life; many hours were spent poring over the
historical plays of Shakespeare, while the poetry of
Byron and Scott, and especially Thomson’s “ Sea-
sons,” seem to have given him pleasure and satisfac-
tion. A book that had a strong influence upon him
was the “ Wonders of the World,” over whose varied
contents he often pored, discussing the strange facts
set forth with his companions. Small things often
have much to do in shaping our lives, and in this
volume we undoubtedly find the germ that excited
in his mind the love for travel and exploration
which ultimately resulted in the famous voyage
which he made around the world in the Beagle.
Darwin testifies to the correctness of this, and in
later years, in referring to the book, wrote to a
German publisher: “I believe that this book first
gave me a wish to travel in remote countries, which
was ultimately fulfilled by the voyage of the Beagle.”
While we may trace the love of travel to hours
spent over this volume, his passion for natural
history was accelerated by White’s “Selborne.”
From its pages he obtained his fondness for birds,
learning to note their ways and habits, and be-
coming an ardent ornithologist.
Darwin had a decided natural inclination to litera-
ture of a scientific character. He read during these
days several books on chemistry, and worked with
his elder brother in his laboratory, making gases and
various other chemical compounds; and that it was
an unusual taste among the boys of the time is
6 Charles Darwin.
shown by the fact that he was nicknamed “ Gas” by
his fellows, while even the head-master rebuked him
for wasting his time upon subjects that could be of
no possible use to him in later life. The opinions of
this teacher seem to have been entertained by Dar-
win the elder, who, concluding that our hero was
accomplishing little at the school, took him away in
October, 1825, and sent him to the University of
Edinburgh to study medicine. Unfortunately, Dar-
win now discovered that his father was a wealthy
man, and, being of an argumentative mind, he failed
to see that it was necessary for him to make any
especial exertion when he was certain of coming
into a goodly heritage. It is interesting to note this
resolution—notably, not an evidence of ambition or
lofty ideas—appearing in a life whose history in later
years is marked by its high and lofty aims and fixity
of purpose.
Darwin entered the University of Edinburgh,
where his brother was studying, without ambition,
and, like many boys, drifted with the current. He
found the lectures, with the exception of those on
his favourite chemistry, dull and uninteresting, while
those on materia medica by Dr. Duncan he describes
as something fearful to remember in their dullness:
The subjects were distasteful to him, causing him to
neglect dissection, which in later years he appears to
have greatly regretted, being an absolute necessity
in the elaborate and minute investigations that
formed his life-work. Despite his lack of interest
as a student he obtained patients, and, in all proba-
bility, would have succeeded under the tutelage
His Friends. 7
of his father, an eminent physician, had not a pain-
ful operation in the hospital at Edinburgh practically
ended his career in medicine, as he tells us that he
bore it as long as he could, and then rushed from the
room ; the scene, which was enacted before the days
of chloroform, haunting him for years. This is sug-
gestive of the extremely sympathetic temperament
of the boy Darwin; his entire nature was one of
tenderness, not only to his companions, but to all
living things. While his school days were not re- -
sulting in any apparent accumulation of knowledge
in the lines indicated by the curriculum, we find the
love of natural history steadily growing.
He was an ardent collector of minerals; and the
love for insect studies, which he developed when but
ten years of age, down by the sea-shore in Wales,
was one of the delightful memories in later life. At
Edinburgh he found congenial friends in young men
who were interested in natural science, and the asso-
ciations and friendships then formed had no little
influence in shaping his future career. Here he met
Ainsworth, who afterwards became a famous geolo-
gist, and wrote a book on Assyria; Dr. Coldstream,
a writer on zodlogical subjects; and Hardie, who
_ Was a promising botanist. Of all the friends made
at this time, perhaps Dr. Grant exercised the great-
est influence over him. With this zodlogist he made
many trips to the sea-coast, became familiar with the
methods of current investigation, and it was during
these days that the observations regarding the Flus-
tra, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, were
made. Dr. Grant referred to Darwin’s investigations
8 Charles Darwin.
in his memoir on the Flustra, in which our young
naturalist saw his name for the first time in print.
Dr. Grant introduced him to many persons interested
in science, and invited him to the meetings of the
Royal Medical Society, where, according to Darwin,
“much rubbish was talked.” Dr. Grant also took
him to the Wernerian Society, where he listened to
Audubon, who was then in Europe in the interests
of his great work on birds, and who read several
papers before the Society. These days were rich in
future promise for the young student, all his associa-
tions being such as to increase his interest in science.
He enlarged his acquaintance on all sides, took les-
sons in taxidermy, with a man who had travelled
with Waterton, and with Mr. Leonard Horner visited
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, where he listened
to Sir Walter Scott, who was at that time its presi-
dent. The proceedings produced a profound im-
pression, shown by his statement in later years: “ If
I had been told at that time that I should one day
have been thus honoured (with membership), I
should have thought it as ridiculous and improb-
able, as if I had been told that I should be elected
King of England.”
Darwin’s taste for science was supplemented be a
course of studies, and in his second year he attended
a series of lectures on geology and zodlogy, those in
the former making a decided impression upon him,
as he says: “The sole effect they produced on me
was the determination never, as long as I lived, to
read a book on geology.” In other words, the
lecturer had the unhappy faculty of making sub-
oa
3
4
al
CR
Tour in Wales. 9
jects naturally of interest exceedingly dry. While
the lectures of this instructor were of no especial
advantage, they were the means of his meeting Mr.
Macgillivray, the curator of the local museum, who
in after years wrote a work on Scottish birds, and
was an enthusiastic naturalist.
During the long-vacation period Darwin threw
aside his books, and with some congenial friend
took long walks over the country, enriching his
mind by personal contact with nature, thus building
up the taste for investigation which formed so promi-
nent a feature in his after-life. These walks were
something more than would be attempted by the
average American school-boy. He thought nothing
of covering thirty miles in a day; and, during the
summer of 1826, with two friends, with knapsack on
back, he travelled over a large part of Wales, later
going over the ground again with his sister, that she
might be a participant in his enjoyment.
After the summer trips the autumn was gener-
ally passed at Mr. Owen's, at Woodhouse, or at
his uncle Josiah Wedgwood’s, at Maer, where he
found opportunity to indulge in shooting, which
was as much a passion with him as collecting
minerals or insects. Days were spent on the heath
and among the Scotch firs, following the game-
keeper after black game, and no young American
trout fisherman kept a closer record than did our
sportsman naturalist. Every bird shot during the
season was carefully noted,—a fact which shows the
method, thoroughness, and detail that marked every
subject in which he was interested. His care to
10 Charles Darwin.
credit himself with the results of his skill was often
the subject of practical jokes on the part of his
friends, and he relates the following: “One day,
when shooting at Woodhouse with Captain Owen,
the eldest son, and Major Hill, his cousin, after-
wards Lord Berwick, both of whom I liked very
much, I thought myself shamefully used, for every
time after I had fired, and thought that I had killed
a bird, one of the two acted as if loading his gun, and
cried out, ‘ You must not count that bird, for I fired
at the same time,’ and the gamekeeper, perceiving
the joke, backed them up. After some hours they
told me the joke, but it was no joke to me, for I had
shot a large number of birds, but did not know how
many, and could not add them to my list, which I
used to do by making a knot in a piece of string
tied to a button-hole; this my wicked friends had
perceived.”
As enthusiastic as he was, Darwin had some apubes
in his mind as to whether such excessive zeal was to
be commended, and we find he argued with himself
on the question, quieting his doubts at one time by
assuming and almost convincing himself that the
perfection to which he had attained was really an
evidence of high intelligence on his part. The fact
that he could find game when no one else could, and
manage the dogs with consummate skill, seemed to
his mind sufficient reason for pursuing the pastime.
At Maer he met many distinguished people, and
in the home of the famous Wedgwood there was
an air of refinement and culture most valuable in
rounding and shaping the ideas of so thoughtful and
Sir F Mackintosh. II
clever a youth. Here he made the acquaintance of
Sir J. Mackintosh, whose well-known conversational
powers appear to have impressed the young natural-
ist, and that the elder man foresaw something in his
young friend may be surmised from his remark,
long remembered by Darwin: “There is something
in you that interests me.” In these boyhood days
we see many qualities that Darwin himself modestly
disclaims: a steadfastness of purpose, a perceptive
faculty, and demand for something beyond the limited
educational facilities of the day. His actual school-
ing may be said to have been a failure, as he neglected
the dry classical studies or forgot them ; yet the les-
sons he drew from the broad field of nature were well
learned and never forgotten.
CHAPTER II.
COLLEGE DAYS.
College Life—Thoughts of Entering the Church—A Poor Mathema-
tician—Beetle Collecting—First Appearance in Print—Associa-
tions with Eminent Men—Scientific Reading—Favourite Authors
—Interest in Geology.
| HE college life of Darwin
constitutes one of the
epochs of his career, as
during these days, so
happy in their memory,
occurred many of the in-
cidents that shaped his
future. He entered col-
lege in 1828, this move-
ment being the result of
a decision on the part of
his family, that as he had
failed as a doctor, he might possibly be induced to
enter the Church. This proposition was made to
the young man, who asked time in which to con-
sider, during which deliberation he read attentively
several religious works, including “ Pearson on the
Creed,” and questioned himself thoroughly as to his
I2
ea ee enema ee
Enters College. ; 13
beliefs and disbeliefs. He confesses to having some
scruples about accepting all the dogmas of the
Church, but as he believed in the Bible implicitly
and literally, he soon satisfied himself that he could
accept the creed without any reservation. In refer-
ring to this interesting period in his life, Darwin
in his Autobiography says that years after a German
psychological society sent for his photograph, and
after much discussion reported that he had the bump
of reverence developed enough for ten priests; so
that it might be assumed that he was well equipped
by nature for order taking.
Darwin, however, was not destined for the Church,
though he entered Cambridge with this purpose in
view, and took up a course of studies which would
give him the desired degree. He found that he had
forgotten his Latin and Greek, which necessitated
work with a private tutor, so that he did not enter
college until Christmas of the year 1828.
As far as academical studies were concerned we
learn that his three years’ work here was almost a
perfect blank. Mathematics was never mastered
without extreme difficulty—a fact which he empha-
sised in a letter written to Dr. J. B. Holder, father
of the author, some years ago, when the two were
discussing the flight of birds. So difficult was it for
Darwin to master this study that he was almost dis-
couraged, and in referring to it he says: “Ido not
believe that I should ever have succeeded beyond a
very low grade.” Though the young student may
have lacked application it is evident that he acquired
information very readily, as, while confessing what
14 Charles Darwin.
might seem unusual indifference, he took the degree of
B.A. without apparent exertion. At this time he read
such works as Paley’s “ Evidences of Christianity ”
and “ Moral Philosophy,” and the thoroughness of
his reading may be judged from the fact that he
could have written out from memory almost the
entire former work. This course of reading, without:
the demand for memorising, which was a part of the
educational methods in former years, he conceived
to be the only part of the academical course of any
actual advantage to him. There were several lectures
in the course, but those by Professor Henslow, on
botany, were the only ones he attended. The walks
and strolls with this naturalist in search of rare plants
and flowers were highly enjoyed, and what proved a
life-long friendship was begun. During the college
days his love for natural history was steadily in-
creasing. He was now especially interested in the
study of beetles; not to dissect them, but for the
simple delight of possessing great numbers and com-
paring them one with another, and his collection was
a large and really valuable one. How enthusiastic
he was may be seen from the following incident: In
ripping down the bark from an old tree he saw two
rare beetles, which he captured, one in each hand.
Just then out ran a third, equally rare and beautiful;
but what was to be done? There was no time for
deliberation, so he put one beetle in his mouth, thus
freeing a hand to seize the fleeing prize; but the
second beetle, objecting to this unceremonious treat-
ment, emitted a secretion so bitter that he was forced
to eject it, losing in the confusion of the attack two
of the insects.
L[utimacies Formed. 15
Darwin was an indefatigable collector, and having
an ample allowance was enabled to give full bent to
his tastes and inclinations. He collected in a most
systematic manner, following methods of his own
devising. He employed a workman, who spent his
time during the winter in scraping the decayed moss
from trees and in collecting suitable material from
various sources, all of which was placed in a bag and
brought to the young naturalist, who in this way
found many rare and choice specimens.
Of the delights of this study Darwin was fond of
talking, and in his Autobiography he wrote: “No
poet ever felt more delighted at seeing his first poem
published than I did at seeing, in Stephen’s ‘ Illus-
trations of British Insects,’ the magic words, ‘ captured
by C. Darwin, Esq.’”
Our hero had as a companion during his college
days a cousin, W. D. Fox, a Christ’s-College man,
who encouraged him in his studies and introduced
him to a number of well-known naturalists. Here
he met Albert Way of Trinity, who in after years be-
came a distinguished archzologist. He was intimate
with Whitley, Senior Wrangler, afterwards Hon.
Canon of Durham, who, being a man of refined and
cultivated tastes, influenced the young man for the
best and inculcated in him a love for the beautiful
in art, as well as nature. Whitley became his guide
and censor to a certain extent, and trips were made
together to the various art galleries, where Darwin,
through observation and talks with his friend and
the curator, acquired a good knowledge of the
standard and various schools of art. This.taste, he
tells us, was not a natural one, and was perhaps in
16 Charles Darwin.
accord with his fondness for music at this time,
though he was not a musician and could not dis-
tinguish harmony from discord.
I have said that the college life of Darwin con-
stituted one of the important epochs in his career;
this was mainly due to his acquaintance and ultimate
friendship with Professor Henslow, the naturalist.
He was presented to the latter by his cousin already
alluded to, and went weekly to his house, which was
the acknowledged centre of scientific interest. The
intimacy increased, and Darwin soon became his
constant companion during walks and strolls, when
we may naturally suppose that the conversation
turned on natural history. Professor Henslow was
one of the best-posted men of his time in geology,
botany, and the various branches of science. He
was also a close investigator and, according to Dar-
win, extremely fond of drawing conclusions from
long-continued and minute observations.
If there is one feature more than another in the
life of Darwin that impresses the reader it is the
time he spent in careful investigations, and the
thoroughness which characterised all his scientific
work, and that his methods, which were so eminently
successful and telling, were the result of this com-
panionship to a great extent there can be no doubt.
Darwin himself says: “ My intimacy with such a
man ought to have been, and I hope was, an in-
estimable benefit.”
This intimacy with Henslow naturally enlarged the
young man’s scientific acquaintance, among whom
were Dr. Whewell, a man of distinguished attain-
Scientific Reading. 17
ments, and a conversationalist ranked by Darwin
next to Sir John Mackintosh; Leonard Jenyns, a
well-known zodélogist, who in later years was associ-
ated with Darwin in scientific work; Mr. Ramsay, a
brother of Sir Alexander Ramsay, and many more
with whom he was thrown in more or less intimate
relationship, which must have had an effect upon his
character and tastes. The young man at this time
must have shown many evidences of the brilliant
future that was before him. Older men sought his
company and listened to his ideas and views, and he
was an acceptable companion in their walks and ex-
cursions. His college mates must also have recog-
nised his talents in the direction of science, as one
of his companions, after watching him at work at his
insect collection, volunteered the prophecy, which
seemed to Darwin preposterous, that one day he
would be a Fellow of the Royal Society. In his last
year at college the young naturalist took up a course
of scientific reading, which had no little influence
in determining his career. Humboldt’s “ Personal
Narrative’ was read and discussed, exciting in his
mind a desire to travel, while Herschel’s “ Introduc-
tion to the Study of Natural Philosophy ”’ created a
strong wish to indulge in original investigation and
to become one of the scientific workers of the world.
These works so interested him that he copied ex-
tracts which he read to his friends while on their
expeditions, and Humboldt’s description of the
beauties of Teneriffe excited so intense a desire to
see the island that he was about negotiating for a
passage when another plan prevented.
18 Charles Darwin.
Step by step Darwin advanced in scientific learn-
ing. The vacation days were devoted to beetle-
collecting, while the shooting season in the autumn,
a sp6rt to which he was passionately attached, as has
been shown, gave him an opportunity to study the
larger forms.
In his last college days, or in 1831, Henslow had _
so interested him in geology that he took up the
study and began a systematic investigation of the
local rocks. He examined sections, made maps, and
finally, in the summer of this year, undertook a
geological tour through North Wales with Professor
Sedgwick, which proved of inestimable value in later
years.
In this period we see that the taste and love for
natural science are uppermost in our hero’s mind
and steadily developing,—the natural preparation
which ultimately culminated in producing the great-
est scientist of the age.
—— ee ee
CHAPTER III.
THE YOUNG NATURALIST.
The Beagle—An Offer of Importance—The Young Naturalist—The
Voyage—Powers of Observation—Cape Verd Islands—Tours
of Investigation—Dust-Showers—Wonderful Phenomena—Geo-
logical Studies—St. Paul’s Rocks—Fernando de Noronha.
;
.
x
;
4
|
4
7
..
ment decided to send out
a well-equipped vessel
to complete the survey
of the South American
coast, begun by Captain
Shaw some years pre-
vious. The vessel select-
ed for this work was the
Beagle, a six - gun brig,
and Captain Fitz - Roy
of the Royal Navy was
given the important command. An enthusiast in
science, Fitz-Roy conceived the idea of taking a
naturalist with him to study the fauna and flora
of the different countries he might visit, and in his
search for a competent person he wrote to Professor
Henslow, who, in turn, made the offer to Charles
19
20 Charles Darwin.
Darwin, who had just graduated from Cambridge.
The latter returned from a geological trip to find
the communication, and to say that he was de-
lighted but faintly expresses it. He determined to
accept should his father not object, but, unfor-
tunately, the latter looked with great disfavour upon
the plan. He finally said that he would give his
consent if his son could find a sensible person who
would encourage it.
Young Darwin very reluctantly gave up what
appeared to him a veritable dream of promise and
an opportunity to make for himself a scientific
career. As good-fortune would have it he men-
tioned the matter to his uncle, Josiah Wedgwood,
who offered to undertake the réle of one sensible
person, and as a result the elder Darwin relented
and the position was accepted. This step was the
beginning of a new epoch in the life of the young
naturalist. It was, as he says, by far the most im-
portant event of his life, and in a letter to Captain
Fitz-Roy he wrote: ‘“ What a glorious day the 4th
of November will be to me! My second life will
then commence, and it shall be as a birthday for the
rest of my life.”
After many delays attendant upon fitting a large
ship for a long voyage, the Beagle put to sea, and the
expedition, which had so material an effect, not only
upon Darwin, but upon preconceived ideas of many
natural-history questions, began.
The Beagle was what we now term a barque, and
of two hundred and thirty-five tons burthen. She
represented a class facetiously known as coffins by
Marvellous Perseverance. 2I
i 7 the men, from the fact that many of her type had
gone down in heavy gales. She was fairly well
equipped; had a crew of thirty-five men, and was
fitted with all the conveniences that one might
expect to find at this time. Young Darwin went as
a volunteer; he paid his own expenses, and was to
mess with the captain; so that the voyage began
under pleasant auspices and with the promised
companionship of a man who was fully interested in
science and in complete sympathy with his aims and
ambitions.
Darwin was at this time in the full flush of man-
4 hood; in every way a delightful companion, and
essentially a man to make friends and keep them.
His tender and lovable nature, consideration for
others, and evident desire to share with all the hard-
_ ships which really could have been avoided, did not
fail to create for him the warmest friends not only
on shipboard, but wherever he went. An idea of
the ship life has been given by Admiral Lord Stokes
in the London 7zmes of April 25, 1883:
“May I beg acorner for my feeble testimony to
the marvellous persevering endurance in the cause of
science of that great naturalist, my old and lost
friend, Mr. Charles Darwin, whose remains are so
very justly to be honoured with a resting-place in —
Westminster Abbey ?
“ Perhaps no one can better testify to his early and
most trying labours than myself. We worked to-
gether for several years at the same table in the
poop-cabin of the Beagle during her celebrated voy-
age, he with his microscope and myself at the charts.
22 Charles Darwin.
It was often a very lively end of the little craft, and
distressingly so to my old friend, who suffered greatly
from sea-sickness. After perhaps an hour’s work he
would say to me, ‘ Old fellow, I must take the hori-
zontal for it,’ that being the best relief position from
ship motion ; a stretch out on one side of the table
for some time would enable him to resume his
labours for a while, when he had again to lie down.
“Tt was distressing to witness this early sacrifice
of Mr. Darwin’s health, who ever afterwards seriously
felt the ill-effects of the Beagle’s voyage.”
In following our hero on his long voyage the
reader cannot fail to be impressed with two things:
his remarkable powers of observation, and the care
and patience with which he made his investigations
and consequent deductions; and when it is borne in
mind that the investigator was still a very young
man fresh from college, the nature of his observations
and the comprehensiveness of the ground covered
will appear more remarkable. Darwin, as we have
seen from the letter of Admiral Stokes, was a victim
to sea-sickness, and, curiously enough, it clung to him
with unrelenting pertinacity during the entire voy-
age. After an uneventful trip the Cape Verd Islands
were reached, where the young naturalist for the first
time found himself in a tropical field. St. Jago, the
largest island of the group, was the first examined ;
here he saw actual volcanic effects, barren rocks,
a torrid sun, and deep groves of graceful bananas
and cocoa-nuts. The barren stretch of rocks and de-
nuded portions of the island attracted his attention,
and investigation showed that it was due partly to
Awakens the Interest of Scientific Men. 23
_ human intervention, the trees having been cut away
and destroyed, thus allowing the rains to wash down
quickly, leaving the island almost sterile in parts.
_ Many expeditions were made over the island: one
to the town of Ribeira Grande, where a fine old
tuin, a cathedral and fort were found, the former
containing many objects of interest dating back to
_ thesixteenth century. The dignitaries of the church
were buried here, and Darwin noticed one tombstone
_which bore the date 1497, five years after the discov-
ery of America, and three after that of the islands.
' The atmosphere of St. Jago was, as a rule, hazy,
_and here our young naturalist made some observa-
tions which created much interest among scientific
-men. Investigation showed him that the haze,
_ which often obscured the mountains, was occasioned
= by a fall of dust so impalpable and fine that it
rested in the air as haze or a very light fog. Some
"of this was collected and sent back to Professor
_ Ehrenberg for examination, and in 1845 Darwin
_forwarded an elaborate paper on the subject to the
Royal Geographical Society. The dust in some
places was offensive, covering every thing and soil-
ing the sails and clothing of the men.
In the course of the voyage pieces larger than
_ the thousandth of an inch square were noticed.
_ Whence came this strange shower? was the ques-
_ tion he wished to solve, and the problem could only
_ be answered by a determination of the elements
P: which composed it. This Professor Ehrenberg was
_ shower did not come from the Cape Verd Islands
enabled to accomplish. He found that the dust-
24 Charles Darwin.
Y=
but must have originated thousands of miles away.
The dust was made up to a certain extent of infus-
oria—minute fossil forms that could be readily trans-
ported by the wind, and Darwin, by the identification
of the fossils, was enabled to demonstrate that they
had been borne not from the adjacent coast of Africa,
but from South America, several thousand miles
distant. The shower referred to here was estimated
by the young naturalist to have a breadth of sixteen
hundred miles and an area equal to one million
square miles.
These dust-showers produce what are known as
blood-rains in Europe, and Professor Ehrenberg esti-
mated that in one shower over seven hundred and
twenty thousand pounds of matter fell, out of which
ninety thousand pounds consisted of the remains of
minute animal forms.
The dust-shower had a greater significance to our ef
young naturalist than a mere phenomenon, and ~
here we see how his every discovery or observation
resulted in a deduction of value to the scientific
world. If dust, and such large particles, could be car-
ried vast distances, why not seeds? and he assumed
at once that the light and delicate sporules of
cryptogamic plants could be transported from con-
tinent to continent,—a thought which in later years
he elaborated with interesting and valuable results.
Darwin made his first foreign geological examina-
tions at Porto Praya, and his report on the ancient
volcanic activity of the island shows how close a
student he was. Here he first observed tropical
marine forms, and the large brown sea-slug, or Aply-
“LSVE FHL WOU SMOOU S:INVd ‘LS
al Pe
Cs)
i i it al al a a
er Ca
New Discoveries Concerning the Octopus. 25
Sta particularly, interested him. He found it feeding
on the sea-weed, and when disturbed it emitted the
peculiar purple fluid for which it is noted. The
pools of water left by the outgoing tide formed
aquaria of more than ordinary interest. The octo-
pus was the subject of many observations, numbers
of which were seen clinging to the rocks by their
eight sucker-lined arms, or dashing across the pool,
ejecting the cloud of ink which constitutes a part of
their defence.
The young naturalist was quick to note their
power of mimicry,—a fact in this and other animals
that was dwelt upon in later years by himself and
Wallace. He noticed that they changed their tints
according to the ground over which they passed,
and a close examination showed that clouds of colour
were continually passing over them, varying from
hyacinth-red to chestnut-brown in tint.
Darwin was probably the first to apply a galvanic
battery to these beautiful creatures, with the result
that the part touched became almost black. He
noticed that they changed colour under all circum-
stances, whether swimming or resting, and was the
first to call attention to the fact that the ink was
used as a means of concealing the direction of re-
treat. One cuttle-fish in this natural aquarium
ejected water above the surface from a hole in
which it lay concealed, and he suspected that it
could direct its aim by turning its tube or siphon in
a given direction. Whether this is true or not
would be difficult to ascertain, but the author has
_ seen a squid force its stream of ink a foot or more
26 Charles Darwin.
above the surface, striking an inquisitive observer
full in the face.
Darwin was perhaps the first also to observe
that the octopus is luminous at times. One which
he kept in his cabin gleamed with a slight phospho-
rescence, which we can imagine might be used as a
decoy, or perhaps to menace its foes.
In February, 1831, the Beagle sighted the famous
St. Paul’s Rocks, one of the most desolate spots on
the globe, consisting of a few rocks five hundred
and forty miles from the American coast and three
hundred and fifty from Fernando de Noronha. The
rocks are somewhat difficult to find, as they rear
themselves but fifty feet above the sea and are
but little over three-quarters of a mile in circum-
ference. From a distance they appear white, from
the constant presence of vast numbers of birds
which have made the location their roosting-place for
generations.
The birds, principally the noddy and tern, were
so tame that any number could have been killed by
hand, They laid their eggs on the rocks where the
sun hatched the young. Desolate as the spot was,
warfare existed; the parent birds provided the
young with small fish for food, the flying-fish being
considered an especial dainty; but no sooner was
it placed by the nest than the young naturalist,
who was concealed behind some rock, saw a hand-
somely mottled crab—the Grapsus—come slowly —
up, edging along in an innocent, disinterested fashion,
then suddenly when within reach seize the fish and
dash away.
pant RAM RT LT Ws TAS OCR TE
re
my.
eee
Lnuception of his Famous Theory. 27
In this island robber the observer must have found
a suggestion for his famous theory of the struggle
for existence and the survival of the fittest. The
author has watched a similar scene in the Gulf of
Mexico, where the Grapsus would attack even the
birds. Sir W. Symonds states that he has witnessed
the same at St. Paul’s, the crab dragging young birds
away to devour them.
Darwin found little of interest here from a botani-
cal standpoint, not even a single plant or lichen
appearing, though several spiders, flies, moths, and
beetles made the barren rock their home. If St.
Paul’s was deficient in vegetation, it abounded in
marine forms of interest, the vast area of submerged
rock, with its sea-weed masses, affording ample
ground for fishes of infinite variety, while sharks were
so plentiful that it was a constant struggle between
them and the men. The moment an edible fish was
hooked a watchful shark rushed at it, carrying it
away before it could be taken in, this occurring so
frequently that one man was required to fight these
pirates of the sea while another hauled in the fish.
These days were marked by indefatigable energy
on the part of the young naturalist. When not in-
vestigating or peering among the rocks with hammer
or collecting-glass in hand, he was at work in his
cabin studying the strange animals he had found,
and making notes in his log, as to the colour, habits,
and the thousand and one points of interest to the
lover of science.
From St. Paul’s the Beagle bore away for Fernando
de Noronha, a desolate ancient volcanic rock upon
28 Charles Darwin.
which Darwin landed with great difficulty, owing to
the heavy sea, and found to be completely covered
with a dense jungle hard to cross or penetrate. It
was in this neighbourhood that the young naturalist
underwent the experience of crossing the line. Nep-
tune came aboard, as usual, and claimed as a victim
every one who had not crossed the equator. Dar-
win submitted with his accustomed good-humour;
was lathered with soft-soap and tar, then shaved with
_ a saw, and finally dumped unceremoniously into a
sail full of water, having as a consolation the reflec-
tion that he was but one of many predecessors.
On the last day of February the Beagle made
Bahia, where Darwin for the first time found himself
in a purely Southern country with a wealth of tropi.
cal verdure on every hand. The ocean teemed with
animal life, new and striking to his eye, while it was
but a step into the tropical forest, where vegetation
ran wild and flourished with a rank exuberance that
he had never dreamed of. In his Journal he penned
the following: “ Delight itself, however, is a weak
term to express the feelings of a naturalist who, for
the first time, has wandered by himself in a Brazilian
forest. The elegance of the grasses, the novelty of
the parasitical plants, the beauty of the flowers, the
glossy green of the foliage, but, above all, the gen-
eral luxuriance of the vegetation, filled me with ad-
miration. A most paradoxical mixture of sound and
silence pervades the shady parts of the wood. The
noise from the insects is so loud that they may be
heard even in a vessel anchored several hundred
yards from the shore ; yet within the recesses of the
~
the lower animals alone; while constantly at work
in the departments of his choice, he made extensive
studies of the social life of the people, giving a_
graphic description of their life and habits.
He found the Gauchos obliging and polite to —
strangers, but among themselves belligerent, and ©
with little or no regard for life. Every man carried
a knife, and murders and affrays were common
occurrences. At one town he asked two men why
they did not work; one replied that he was too
poor, while the other gave as an excuse that the
days were too long. This was characteristic of a_
country, where justice was a mockery and the grossest_
crimes went unpunished if the offender was rich,
A Shower of Butterflies. 69
_ On December 6th, Darwin again set sail in the
Beagle, after a most successful trip through the
country, and carried aboard collections that well
‘represented the fauna of the locality. Being at sea,
the found, did not entirely prevent the collection
of shore animals. Thus one evening, when ten
miles off shore, near the bay of San Blas, the Beagle
was fairly surrounded by a shower of butterflies,
which extended as far as the eye could reach.
Even with a telescope no spot could be discovered
free from them, so their numbers can be imagined.
The sight was so marvellous that the men remarked
that it was snowing butterflies.
_ Darwin found it difficult to explain the presence
of the insects off shore, as there was no storm or
squall which could have driven them out to sea.
Upon various occasions insects were taken while
at sea, some in the nets which were dragged astern.
The most remarkable case recorded is of a grass-
lopper, which flew aboard the Beag/e when she was
hree hundred and seventy miles from land, off the
African coast. Spiders were captured sixty miles
rom shore, all sailing on little balloons made of their
> n silk. When they came aboard it was found that
they were extremely thirsty, and eagerly drank from
drops of water.
These spiders were, according to Darwin, the
éronauts of the tribe, and he devoted many hours
9 them. When wishing to rise, the abdomen was
slevated and several skeins of silk ejected, which
assed up into the air for several yards in the ascend-
g current, and then, releasing its hold, the spider
Se
70 Charles Darwin.
was carried away. During the passage south num. —
bers of interesting marine animals were added to the ©
collections, among which were singular crabs with
suckers for clinging to other animals. The phospho- ©
rescent forms were particularly numerous, of which
he writes :
“ While sailing a little south of the Plata on one
very dark night the sea presented a most wonderful
and beautiful spectacle. There was a fresh breeze,
and every part of the surface, which during the day
is seen as foam, now glowed with a pale light. The
vessel drove before her bows two billows of liquid
phosphorus, and in her wake she was followed by a
milky train. As far as the eye reached the crest of ©
every wave was bright, and the sky above the hori-
zon, from the reflected glare of these livid flames,
was not so utterly obscure as over the vault of the
heavens.
“ As we proceed further southward the sea is sel-
dom phosphorescent ; and off Cape Horn I do not —
recollect more than once having seen it so, and then
it was far from being brilliant. This circumstance
probably has a close connexion with the scarcity of
organic beings in that part of the ocean. After the —
elaborate paper by Ehrenberg on the phospho-
rescence of the sea, it is almost superfluous on my
part to make any observations on the subject. I
may, however, add that the same torn and irregular —
particles of gelatinous matter, described by Ehren-_
berg, seem, in the southern as well as in the northern
hemisphere, to be the common cause of this phe-—
nomenon. ‘The particles were so minute as easily to_
Phosphorescent Animals. 71
pass through fine gauze; yet many were distinctly
visible by the naked eye. The water, when placed
_ in a tumbler and agitated, gave out sparks, but a
_ small portion in a watch-glass scarcely ever was
_ luminous. Ehrenberg states that these particles all
_ retain a certain degree of irritability. My observa-
_ tions, some of which were made directly after taking
_ up the water, gave a different result. I may also
_ mention that, having used the net during one night,
_ I allowed it to become partially dry, and having
_ occasion twelve hours afterwards to employ it again,
_ I found the whole surface sparkled as brightly as
_ when first taken out of the water. It does not
_ appear probable, in this case, that the particles could
_ have remained’ so long alive. On one occasion,
having kept a jelly-fish of the genus Dianea till it
_ was dead, the water in which it was placed became
luminous.”
| __- Since Darwin made his famous trip scores of ani-
| mals have been added to the list of those which emit
CHAPTER VII.
THE LAND OF GIANTS.
The Patagonians—Guanaco Hunting—Singular Burial Customs—A
Horse with a Proboscis—Extinction—Up the Santa Cruz—Puma
Tracks—Catching the Condor—Falkland Islands—Among the
Glaciers—The Fuegians—Giant Sea-Weed and Its Work.
ATAGONIA was looked
forward to by Darwin
with no little pleasure,
and on December 22d the
Beagle cast anchor in the
harbor of Port Desire, near
the ruin of an old Spanish
settlement. The animal
life here was somewhat
animal being the curious —
limited, as was the flora, — j
the most characteristic
little wild llama or guanaco, which was found in large — 4
herds on the plains. They were shy, but Darwin took ~
advantage of their curiosity by making various mo-
tions and assuming strange postures, and succeededin
shooting anumber. When discovered several miles
off they immediately took fright and ran, while one, ©
72
The Fossils of Patagonza. rE
surprised near at hand, moved away slowly. Another
which Darwin met with on the mountains squealed,
snorted, and pranced about when he approached, de-
fying him, as it were.
The guanaco is altogether a curious creature, and
our naturalist found that they actually had certain
places in which to die. In one spot he counted the
remains of at least twenty of these animals in a re-
stricted area. Referring to this in his note-book he
says: “I do not at all understand the reason of
this, but I may observe that the wounded guanacos
at the Santa Cruz invariably walked towards the
river. At St. Jago, in the Cape Verd Islands, I
remember having seen in a ravine a retired corner
covered with bones of the goat ; we at the time ex-
claimed that it was the burial-ground of all the goats
in the island. I mention these trifling circumstances
because in certain cases they might explain the
occurrence of a number of uninjured bones in a
cave, or buried under alluvial accumulations; and
likewise the cause why certain animals are more
Hi commonly embedded than others in sedimentary
_ deposits.”
Among the interesting fossils found in Patagonia
_ was the skeleton of the macrauchenia—an animal
- equalling a camel in size, having a long neck and,
_ according to Bermeister, a South American geologist,
_ ashort trunk like that of an elephant. These singular
_ discoveries were of great import to Darwin. We
_ find him reflecting upon the causes which produced
their extinction, and it is interesting to note how
correct were his deductions. He was impressed
“4 Charles Darwin.
with the evidences of change that were apparent on
every hand. The remains which he found showed
that in the past the country was peopled with a race
of giants which had given way to pigmies. The land
which once trembled under the tread of the huge
sloth, and saw the monster armadillo, was now
roamed by the little guanaco. Darwin proved that
the huge forms were contemporaneous with the
shells which then flourished in the ocean, conse-
quently were of comparatively recent date. What,
then, was the cause of their extinction? Darwin’s
first thought, and a most natural one, was that some
great cataclysm had taken place which destroyed
entire races in Patagonia and Brazil. He argued
from the results of his investigations that all the
physical features were the result of gradual changes,
consequently it could not have been a change of
temperature at once sudden and death-dealing. Many
of the animals which passed away so mysteriously
existed after the ice age, which has been supposed to
have been the exterminator. What, then, could
have been the cause of such widespread destruction?
That early man might have been the destroyer
evidently passed through the mind of the young
naturalist, as he says: ‘ Did man, after his first in-
road into South America, destroy, as has been
suggested, the unwieldy Megatherium and the other
Edentata?”’ ;
Yet he believed the extinction of the smaller
forms, as the little tucutuco, could not have been
effected in this way. He considered an extreme
drought and reflected upon its possibilities, also
<= : ‘
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A gaa
“AAVO NVINODVLVd AHL
Extinction of Species. 75
upon the failure of a food supply. ‘“‘ Did those
plains fail of pasture, which have since béen overrun
by thousands and hundreds of thousands of the
descendants of the stock introduced by the Span-
iards? Have the subsequently introduced species
consumed the food of the great antecedent races?
Can we believe that the Capybara has taken the food
of the Toxodon, the Guanaco of the Macrauchenia,
the existing small Edentata of their numerous gigan-
tic prototypes? Certainly no fact in the long history
of the world is so startling as the wide and repeated
exterminations of its inhabitants.”
In these thoughts and conclusions of the young
naturalist we see the germs of the genius that re-
sulted long after his trip in the greatest of his works,
the “Origin of Species.” He did not assign any
direct cause for their disappearance, but concluded
that the laws of nature regulated the increase and
decrease of forms. For some the conditions were
favourable for perpetuation; for others they were
not, so that in one direction we might find rapid
multiplication, and in another a tendency to extinc-
tion or running out.
__ The reasoning of Darwin at this time is so pro-
_ phetic of his later work that it will add to the inter-
_ est to quote his words as given in his note-book: “In
_ the cases where we can trace the extinction of a
species through man, either wholly or in one limited
_ district, we know that it becomes rarer and rarer,
_ and is then lost; it would be difficult to point out
any just distinction between a species destroyed by
_ man or by the increase of its natural enemies. The
76 Charles Darwin.
evidence of rarity preceding extinction is more strik-
ing in the successive tertiary strata, as remarked by
several able observers; it has often been found that
a shell very common in a tertiary stratum is now
most rare, and has even long been thought to be
extinct. If, then, as appears probable, species first
become rare and then extinct—if the too rapid
increase of every species, even the most favoured, is
steadily checked, as we must admit, though how and
when it is hard to say—and if we see, without the
smallest surprise, though unable to assign the pre-
cise reason, one species abundant and another closely
allied species rare in the same district, why should
we feel such great astonishment at the rarity being
carried a step further to extinction? An action going
on on every side of us, and yet barely appreciable,
might surely be carried a little further without ex-
citing our observation. Who would feel any great
surprise at hearing that the Megalonyx was formerly
rare compared with the Megatherium, or that one of
the fossil monkeys was few in number compared
with one of the now living monkeys? and yet in
this comparative rarity we should have the plainest
evidence of less favourable conditions for their exist-
ence. To admit that species generally become rare
before they become extinct—to feel no surprise at
the comparative rarity of one species with another,
and yet to call in some extraordinary agent and to
marvel greatly when a species ceases to exist, ap-
pears to me much the same as to admit that sick-
ness in the individual is the prelude to death—to
feel no surprise at sickness—but when the sick man
.
Odette eye ie
VUVAAIAVO AHL
we “A
ile \\
WN
i
i
Trip up the Santa Cruz River. 77
dies, to wonder, and to believe that he died through
violence.”
An interesting trip made in this country was up
the Santa Cruz River, concerning which very little
was known, Europeans having gone but thirty miles
from the mouth in previous voyages. The expedi-
tion into the unknown land was composed of three
whale-boats provisioned for three weeks and manned
by Darwin, an officer, and twenty-five men as a
guard against Indians.- The river was about one
third of a mile wide, seventeen feet deep, and very
rapid, terraces rising on either side, forming a valley
nearly ten miles in width. It was hard and tedious
work, as canal tactics had to be adopted; the boats
were fastened together, the men walking along the
banks and hauling them by a rope. ag
7
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Neneh rete
Ss
ln the Chonos Archipelago. 87
avoiding enemies. Often to throw dogs from its
trail it would leap suddenly to one side, and run
backward on the trail, effectually evading them.
A portion of the work of the Beagle was the sur-
vey of the islands of the Chonos Archipelago, which
gave the young naturalist an opportunity to examine
what was a rich zoélogical region. He made his first
excursion over the island of Chiloe on horseback,
which was made fairly possible by the log-roads
which were found everywhere. The natives were
astonished at the boats and men, and thought it an
attempt to capture the island. From the village of
Chacao the volcano of Osorno was seen belching
smoke and cinders, which, in contrast to the snow
which covered it, presented a magnificent spectacle.
Near this was the volcano of Corcovado, emitting
jets of steam and smoke. Near by was still another,
so that three active volcanoes of large size were seen
at a glance.
The principal quadruped noticed in the Chonos
Archipelago was the Myopotamus, so valued for its
fur. When swimming in salt water the young were
often seen sitting upon the mother’s back. A small
otter was occasionally taken here, while in the forests
a number of interesting birds made melody. One
little red-breasted songster was an especial favourite,
and when Darwin stood still they would often ap-
proach so near that he could almost touch them.
This little bird he found was much respected by
the natives, its singular cries having to them a pecu-
liar significance: thus one was a good sign ; another
the reverse, while another still had a third meaning.
88 : Charles Darwin.
Another bird observed here was termed the barker,
on account of the similarity of its note to the bark
of a dog. Along the shore were various petrels and
gulls. The larger of the latter Darwin observed
preying upon small sea-birds, striking them down
while on the wing,—a veritable sea-hawk,
i .Lj
a drop in the bucket in the time since life began, and
when endeavouring to imagine species as the result
of Darwin’s explanation, we must remember that —<
periods beyond our power of appreciation are neces- ae
sary to the result, and are an essential factor in Z
evolution.
Having looked so far into Darwinism, having seen
that the great naturalist outlines a theory and fully
defines its scope, the .question naturally arises,
“ Are there no proofs, no evidences to substantiate
the belief?” And to this might be said, that the
majority of leading biologists of to-day accept the
Darwin hypothesis. The modern paleontologists
have added to the information he accumulated,
and many interesting evidences have been presented
which are popularly called “ missing links.’’ Darwin
says: “I am fully convinced that species are not
immutable, but that those belonging to what are
called the same genera are lineal descendants of
some other and generally extinct species.”
188 Charles Darwin.
This leads us to an examination of some of these
extinct species which have been brought to the
attention of science, and which we may consider the
stepping-stones from the forms of to-day to an
ancestor in the remote past. One of the most
interesting examples is that of the horse. When
white men first came to this country, the horse was
not found here; indeed, there appeared to be no
tradition of such an animal, and the Spaniard relied
almost as much upon the terror these animals
created in the land of the Incas, as they did upon
their arms, the natives believing that horse and rider
were one. Some of the horses of these adventurers
and others escaped, and from them descended what
are known as the wild horses of North and South
America.
That horses were not found here by the white
discoverers is to some extent singular, as it is now
well known that these animals existed here in great
numbers in the Quaternary and Tertiary times of
geology ; some climatic or other change producing
their complete extirpation. Some idea of the
extent of the distribution of horses in these early
days can be realised when it is known that twelve
species have been discovered in the Quaternary
deposits, and more than thirty in the Tertiary ; so
that scientists have a remarkably complete chain of
evolutionary evidence in their remains. The small-
est of these, the Aipparion of the Eocene, was
about as large as a fox. It had large canine teeth,
three toes upon its hind feet, and four perfect toes
and a splint on the forefeet. In this horse the head
ea ee ee a a
|
Extinct Species. 189
and neck were elongated, and the place for the bit
or diastema was well defined, and develops materi-
ally as we follow the line down. Compare this form
with the horse of the Lower Miocene (the Mesohzp-
pus), and we find that the latter was larger, being
now about the size of a sheep. It has three toes
behind and in front, while the fourth toe, which we
saw in the previous form, is reduced to a mere
splint. Following it, in the Miocene proper, was the
Miohippus, in which the toes are about the same,
though the fourth one, or splint, is hardly dis-
tinguishable. Now, the animals, though small, had
well-defined horse-like shapes. Passing to the next
form in the Lower Pliocene, we find a skeleton
about as large as that of the present donkey.
The splint has entirely disappeared, and there are
three toes, the two outer ones being short, there
being very evident disposition to rely upon the
middle one, which was larger and stouter than in
previous forms. Moving upward to the Pliocene, we
come to a horse which scientists call Pliohippus, and
which was very similar to the horse of to-day. The
middle toe was now the hoof, while the other toes
were useless splints. Another step brings us to the
Quaternary and present horse, in which the middle
toe has become the hoof, upon which the genus
Equus stands, while the two toes are still represented
by the disappearing side splints.
The striking nature of this evidence is shown in
the accompanying diagram.
In referring to these animals Professor Marsh
says: “The most marked changes undergone by
4,190 Charles Darwin.
- : ete -
these successive genera are the following: Ist, in-
crease in size, from Ovohippus, as large as a fox, to
the modern horse; 2d, increase in speed through
concentration of the limb-bones; 3d, elongation of
the head and neck and modification of the skull.
The increase of speed was a direct result of a gradual
and striking modification of the limbs. These were
slowly concentrated by the reduction of their lateral
elements and enlargement of the axial one, until the
force exerted by each limb came to act directly
through its axis in the line of motion. This concen-
tration is well shown in the fore-limb. There was,
Ist, a change in the scapula and humerus, especially
in the latter, which facilitated motion in one plane
only ; 2d, an expansion of the radius and reduction
of the ulna, until the former alone remained entire
and effective; 3d, a shortening of all the carpal
bones and enlargement of the median ones, ensuring
a firm wrist; 4th, an increase in size of the third
digit at the expense of those on each side, until the
former alone supported the limb. The latter change
is clearly seen in the accompanying diagram, which
represents the forefeet of four typical genera in the
equine series, taken in succession from each of the
geological periods in which this group of mammals
is known to have lived. The line of descent ap-
pears to have been direct, and the remains now
known supply every important intermediate form.
Considering the remarkable development of the group
throughout the entire Tertiary period, and its exist-
ence even later, it seems very strange that none of
the species should have survived, and that we are
indebted for our present horse to the Old World.”
os
PERE
Connecting Links. Igt
These changes were produced only after successive
ages representing vast eras of time.
From this brief review it will be seen that Darwin-
ism assumes that the side splints so familiar in the
horse of to-day indicate an ancestry in which the
splints were more fully developed. In other words,
the splints are the remains of organs which in the
course of the development of the animal have dis-
appeared.
Adopting this line of argument Darwin would
point to the teeth in the embryo of the whalebone
whale, which do not appear as the animal grows, as
evidence that the giant animal in the remote past
possessed teeth, so the rudimentary pelvis, hip-bone,
thigh, and leg bones suggest that at one time this
huge creature possessed hind legs.. In the Greenland
whale especially, the hip- and knee-joint, with some
of their muscles, are well defined beneath the skin,
so that we can imagine that at one time in the
remote past the whale was a shore-loving creature,
which finally became more aquatic in its habits, and
the hind legs, like the many toes of the horse, disap-
peared. ;
Among the early birds of this country the wonder-
ful Odontornithes, or birds with teeth, discovered by
Professor Marsh, we have examples of connecting
links striking in the extreme, and pointing to an
ancestry so remote that the imagination almost fails
to grasp the reality, and the mind is bewildered by
the testimony that shows conclusively that by fol-
lowing back the history of our feathered friends we
should be led imperceptibly but surely into the
domain of the reptiles.
192 Charles Darwin.
One of the most interesting events of the scientific
world of America in the past twenty years was the
announcement by Professor Marsh that he had dis-
covered in the ancient sea-bed or shore of the West
the remains of birds which possessed reptilian teeth
and were evidently descendants of reptiles. This
announcement was received with incredulity by the
scientists of Europe; but their doubts were silenced
when the remains of not one but scores of specimens
were deposited in the Yale museum at New Haven,
showing fully the remarkable nature of the diseovery.
Professor Marsh states that the remains found by
him represent birds which had remarkable reptilian
affinities and were undoubtedly descended from
some remote reptilian ancestor.
The most striking form discovered was the one
called by him Hesperornis regalis. It represented a
bird about six feet in length, resembling to some
extent the loon of to-day. It was an aquatic bird,
but flightless, being without a vestige of wings. Its
neck was long, its feet extremely large, and its
pointed bill, armed with sharp recurved teeth, ad-
mirably adapted for securing and holding prey. The
size of the latter was not material, as the lower jaw
was united in front by a cartilage, as in the snakes,
giving them the power of swallowing a fish of large
size. That a bird should be provided with teeth is
extraordinary; but in this case they were almost
identical with those of reptiles.
In referring to this bird Professor Marsh says:
‘‘ Having thus shown what the skeleton of Hlesperor-
nis is, and what its mode of life must have been, it
a
— a
> CTL WaPo re
Remarkable Birds. 193
remains to consider the more important question of
how the peculiar combination of general and spe-
cialised characters manifested in its structure origi-
nated. The two most striking features of Hesperornts
are the teeth and the limbs, and an inquiry in regard
to them first suggests itself. The teeth of Hes-
perornis may be regarded as a character inherited
from a reptilian ancestry. Their strong resemblance
to the teeth of reptiles, in form, structure, and
succession, is evidence of this, and their method of
implantation, in a common alveolar groove (Holco-
dont), conforms strictly to what we have in one
well-known group of reptiles, exemplified by /chthy-
osaurus. This method of insertion in the jaw isa
primitive dental character, quite different from what
-we should naturally expect as an accompaniment of
the modern style of vertebra, and is a much lower
grade than the implantation of the teeth in distinct
_ sockets (Thecodont), a feature characteristic of an-
other group of Odontothores, of which Ilchthyornis
isthe type. These teeth indicate unmistakably that
Hesperornis was carnivorous in habit, and doubtless
_ was descended from a long line of rapacious ances-
tors.”
Equally remarkable was the Archgopteryx—a bird
_ discovered in Germany. Here it is supposed was a
bird but partly feathered, representing the time
_when feathers were developing. Its beaks were
armed with teeth, while its tail was an elongation of
_ the vertebra, like the tail of a cat, from the sides of
which grew feathers, so that when the reptilian bird
_ flew, its tail constituted a rudder or guide. These
13
194 Charles Darwin.
singular creatures, with the gigantic Pteranodons
were links in the wondrous chain of early life—evi-
dences of a remarkable ancestry. A volume could
be filled in describing the many recent discoveries
which naturalists of to-day consider as evidences of
the correctness of the deductions of Darwin. To
him the story of nature was plain and simple; the
Giver of all things created life; this, acted upon by
the natural conditions of its environment, produced
the varieties, which, in turn, in the long eras of time,
became species; from these genera were evolved;
and so the change went on, populating the world.
The story of this evolution is told in the “ Origin
of Species,” “‘ The Descent of Man,” and other works
of the great naturalist, which mark epochs in the
history of scientific thought.
= LTE ee ony
ak
CHAPTER XVIII.
THE DARWIN MEMORIAL.
Addresses by American Scientists: Dr. Theodore Gill—W. H. Dall
—Major John W. Powell—Richard Rathbun—Charles V. Riley
—Lester F. Ward—Frank Baker—Frederick W. True.
HE death of Charles Dar-
win, which occurred in
April, 1882, created a
world-wide sensation, and
in every scientific society
in the world resolutions
of respect were passed
to his memory, many of
which have been collect-
ed, making in themselves
a large, even ponderous,
volume.
The American societies were unanimous in their
appreciation of his greatness, and the memorial of
the Biological Society of Washington was particu-
larly interesting. The announcement of the death
of the distinguished scientist was officially made to
the society at its meeting of April 28, 1882, at which
195
196 Charles Darwin.
it was voted that the next meeting of the society
should be a Darwin memorial. The following com-
mittee was appointed to carry it out; Messrs. Goode,
Riley, Ward, Rathbun, and Gill. The result of their
action appears in the memorial of the society, which
consists of a series of papers, read by distinguished
leaders of scientific thought in America, on the
various branches of science with which Darwin was
identified.
These papers give the most comprehensive view
of Darwin’s scientific attainments from a purely
American standpoint, ever published.
The meeting of the Biological Society was called
for the 12th of May, a little over a month after the
death of the great naturalist, and in the presence of
a large and distinguished audience, among which
were representatives of many of the leading scientific
societies of the day, the following papers which will
always remain permanent additions to Darwinian
literature, were read:
THE DOCTRINE OF DARWIN.
BY THEODORE GILL, A.M., M.D., PH.D.,M.N.A.S.,
Smithsonian Institution.
The chief for many years of the leaders in science
knows no longer the world he erstwhile knew so
well. Charles Darwin has closed a life illustrious in
the annals of biology, scarce full of years but very
ull of honours.
How fruitful was that life and how potent its
influence on philosophy and on sociology the united
Natural Selection. © 197
voice of the civilised world proclaims—how grievous
the loss the lamentations of mankind testify. Less
than a quarter of a century has elapsed since the
publication of “ The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection.”” How great is the contrast be-
tween the beliefs and practice of naturalists before
its appearance and those of their present successors!
e would, indeed, have been a bold man who would
have predicted that, in two decades after its appear-
ance, the views therein promulgated would be uni-
versally accepted and be taken as the recognised
platform of biologists. But the incredible has actually
happened: all the students of nature, and in every
land ; zodlogists and botanists, paleontologists and
geologists ; in America and Europe, at the confines
of Asia, the extreme of Africa, and in distant Aus-
tralia,—all meet on common ground as evolutionists ;
all recognise to a greater or less extent the operation
of natural selection in the survival of the fittest. To
appreciate the cause of the profound impression
produced by the deceased naturalist’s greatest work,
some reference to the antecedent and succeeding
conditions is fitting.
It had been, from time immemorial, a generally
accepted idea that the living beings which people the
globe had, in some mysterious manner, been each
“created” separately; but how, few ventured to
express in words, for the mere attempt to do so con-
jured up such strange fancies that the intelligent
mind drew back in revolt and refused to consider
them. Now, it is a recognised scientific creed that
the animals and plants which have successively in-
198 Charles Darwin.
habited the earth were the descendants, with modi-
fication, from previous inhabitants since the dawn of
life. A glimmer of the truth had now and then
occurred to contemplative students. Philosophers
had ventured to think that living forms like ancient
ones might have descended from them. The inves-
tigators in various departments of biology had
gradually deduced generalisations which all tended
in a similar direction. The taxologists, in their very
-nomenclature, compared the animal kingdom to a
tree of which the principal types were “ branches ”’
diverging from a common trunk, while the minor
groups were successive offshoots; and the idea of
genetic relationship suggested by the various degrees
of likeness was expressed in the names conferred on
other groups—“ tribe,” “ family,” etc. The embry-
ologists had recognised a coincidence between the
stages of development of the “superior” animals
and the adults of animals inferior in the system.
The paleontologists had discovered an approximate
coincidence between the successive inhabitants of
the earth and the successive stages in the develop-
ment of the living animals of the same types. The
series of facts thus obtained had even, to some
extent, been co-ordinated.
All these series of facts were such as would have
been the result of the derivation of existing types
from previous ones. But the possibility that the
seeming was the real did not commend itself to the
consideration of naturalists. Instead thereof, it was
assumed that the facts were “in accordance with a
plan of the Creator” ; that the Deity had conceived
= Fe EE ME a Ne i
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A Puerile Conception. 199
a few patterns, and that by those he constructed the
animals which successively appeared on the globe, to
be in time swept off and replaced by others. If
answer was made that such was a puerile conception
of creation and that it limited the power of Deity, ex-
cessive anger was displayed, and its opponents called
infidels and atheists. But even those who doubted
whether the accepted views of creation were tenable,
hesitated to take the alternative view. An efficient
factor in variation remained to be discovered, and a
full presentation of the data had yet to be made.
It was in 1859 that the desiderata indicated were
supplied in “The Origin of Species by Means of
Natural Selection.” “Variation under domestica-
tion ’’ was compared and contrasted with “ variation
under nature.” The “struggle for existence” which
is the result of the progressive increase of living
beings was considered, and “natural selection”
was designated as the factor which determined the
development and existence as “species” of forms
which had descended, with modifications, from count-
less antecedent generations. With the successive
changes in temperature and other conditions ensuing
in the ever-changing world, the animals and plants
which peopled it were compelled to keep pace by
corresponding changes in structure, or to give place
to others who could adapt themselves to the new
conditions.
So much were the views thus enunciated opposed
to the current ideas that a brief period of astonished
silence ensued, and men felt about before they could
realise their full purport, or that such opinions were
200 Charles Darwin.
broached in sober earnest. Then followed on every
hand torrents of detraction and abuse. The natural-
ists of the old school and the priests of revelation
met on common ground, and loud and bitter was
the denunciation. Numerous were the arguments
against the new theory.
But why this great turmoil and uproar? Darwin
was not the first to believe that species had been
derived and not created. So had philosophers be-
lieved before; the grandfather of Darwin believed
and urged the belief; a great naturalist at the com-
mencement of the century—Lamarck—boldly and
wisely formulated a theory of evolution; the “ Ves-
tiges of Creation”’ took up the view, and gained
marked attention in Britain. Even a clergyman of
the English Church, the Savilian professor in ortho-
dox Oxford, the Rev. Baden Powell, in 1855, had
considered the “ Philosophy of Creation” in a “ mas-
terly manner,” and Darwin bore testimony that noth-
ing can be more striking than the manner in which
the enlightened priest showed that the introduction
of new species is a regular phenomenon in con-
\tradistinction to a miraculous process. Darwin was
not the first even to conceive of the rinciple of of natu-
ral selection. An American resident in England, Dr.
W. C. Wells, as early as 1813, had recognised the
operation of the principle th distribution of the
human race. In 1831, Patrick Matthews also appre-
ciated the principle of natural selection; so Darwin
himself witnesses.
It was not, then, the mere enunciation of the
theory of evolution, nor of the principle of natural
Want of Evidence. 201
selection, that characterised the “ Origin of Species,”
and drew the attention of mankind to it. It was
the recognition of the incessant and universal opera-
tion of the factors, the masterly co-ordination of the
facts of biology—zodlogy, botany, anatomy, general
morphology, physiology, embryology, paleontology
—and geology, the marshalling in orderly array and
concentration in one direction of all natural knowl-
edge, the force of the logic, the clearness of the
exposition, the judicial candour of the argument,
that arrested men’s attention, and provoked serious
consideration of what before had been ignored as
being beyond the domain or possibilities of investi-
gation. In the time of Lamarck the world was not
ready for a consideration of the question.. Lamarck’s
was the prophecy of intuitive genius—genius the
greater in that the facts that had been garnered
were few. The “ Vestiges of Creation” was so re-
plete with errors of fact and misconceptions as to
attract more attention to the fault of its details that
to the logic of its argument. The principle of natu-
ral selection had been applied to very special fields
by Wells and Matthews; no evidence had been fur-
nished of its wide extension, and it even occupied a
subordinate position in the thoughts of those investi-
gators.
The author of the “ Origin of Species” was a dif-
ferent man from his predecessors, and lived in a hap-
pier time. The facts had been accumulated and co-
ordinated ; men were ready to consider the reason
why facts were such, and none was better fitted than
Darwin—I should rather say none was so well fitted
202 Charles Darwin.
—to arrange and present the facts and to draw the
deductions therefrom. Ever a close observer, prac-
tised in many lands, student of all nature—especially
skilled as a geologist, a botanist, and a zodlogist—
endowed with a severely judicial mind, honest above
all, none like him had ever grappled with the mys-
tery of creation. For more than twenty years he
had pondered on the subject ; with impartial severity
he had weighed the evidence. He was, perforce,
_led to the conclusion that all the living had been
derived from past forms, with modifications incident
to individuality ; the sums of the divergences, small
in themselves, became large in the aggregate, be-
came enormous in time. The increasing beings,
crowding upon each other, invading each other’s
domains, struggled for the life into which they were
born. Happy were those possessing some slight
advantage—strength, swiftness, dexterity, or adapt-
ability resulting from modification of structure—
for they could. procure place or food at the expense
of their competitors, and the characters that gave
them victory secured, likewise, the temporary as-
cendancy of their kind. How great is this variability
our domesticated animals attest ; how ancient is our
globe geology teaches ; that the race is to the strong
or the cunning observation of inferior nature as-
sures. With known variability, time, and space,
what could not result ? Which, then, was the more
probable, that Nature—or, if you will, the Creator
—had always operated under law, or that there had
been constant interference ?
Thus were the issues fairly joined. On the one.
Evolution. 7 203
hand, Creation was the rallying cry; on the other,
Evolution and Darwin. But what meant the opposed
terms? It is surely but reasonable to ask the ques-
tion. The evolutionists conceded the reasonable-
ness, and gladly accepted the ordeal. Could less be
required of the creationists? In reverential mood
would I submit the alternatives. If they repel,
blame not me. I have long and fruitlessly searched
for better.
Creation implies the actual fashioning of forms in
full panoply, and with all the characteristics of their
_kind. But when it was asked how this had been
effected the answer was vague and evasive. Did
“elemental atoms flash into living tissues?” Was
there vacant space one moment and an elephant ap-
parent the next ? Or did a laborious God mould out
of gathered earth a body to then endue with life?
The questions are surely pertinent, for only by such
means can we conceive of creation. But passionate
disclaimers and angry denunciations greeted him who
would frame such conceptions in exact language.
Metaphysical jargon and rhetoric about divine pur-
poses might sophisticate, but could not answer.
Evolution denotes the derivation of living beings
from preceding in endless succession. Variation in
progeny, limited heredity, and time are its correla-
tives. These being conceded, the peopling of the
globe with its life, past and present, is conceivable.
What was the evidence to support the conflicting
conceptions ?
For creation it was urged that the universal con-
sensus of mankind supported it ; that divine revela-
204 Charles Darwin.
tion taught it; and that the diversities and special-
isation of organic forms forbade the idea of their
derivation from a common parentage.
The universal consensus of mankind maintained
till the sixteenth century the doctrine that the earth
was flat; that the sun and other planets circled
round the earth; and that the earth was the great
centre of the universe. The universal consensus of
mankind for thousands of -years is not the universal
\ consenus of the enlightened man, nor of the present
\century.
__ The teachers of revelation have been often mis-
/taken. Many are they who once were contemned
/ and denounced because their utterances were not in
' accordance with the opinions of their day, who are
now accepted as the champions of a purer religion.
One of the wisest priests of England has said that
“with a certain class of religionists every invention
_ and discovery is considered impious and unscriptural
as long as it is new. Not only the discoveries of
| astronomy and geology, but steam, gas, electricity,
| political economy, have all in their turn been de-
nounced; and not least chloroform. Its use in par-
turition has been anathematized as an infraction of
| the penalty pronounced on Eve!’’* It is not I,
\. but a great clergyman, who expresses such senti-
\ ments.
The objection that the differentiation and special-
isation of organic beings gainsay their derivation
from a common source is a most weighty one. In
i
* Rev. Baden Powell’s ‘‘ Essay on the Spirit of the Inductive Phi-
losophy,” etc., p. 455.
Evidences of Evolution, 205
the infancy of our own knowledge it was unanswer-
able, and the less we know of nature the more we
are impressed with these diversities. It is not, how-
ever, simply a question of whether evolution is true;
but which is the more probable of two alternatives—
that all the phenomena which point in one direction
and which could have occurred in natural sequence,
have taken place in such sequence; or that direct
creative intervention has ensued again and again,
when the same ends could have been produced with-
out such intervention.
Nature was true to her disciple, and herself fur-
nished the replies.
It was contended that if evolution were true, the
evidence should be forthcoming in the existence in
previous geological epochs of forms of a generalised
character intermediate between still earlier ones and
later widely separated forms; and that of such there
were very few.
The graves of the distant past gave up their dead,
and the ossuaries of our own far West yielded most
cogent testimony to the truth. Forms from the.
Eocene and later beds, resurrected by the wand of
the anatomist, rising in successive lines behind the
wide gaps in the living files, proclaimed that all were
of one blood, and showed the genealogy of the con-
temporaries of man.
Many were the forms thus connected. Few are
those that may be mentioned on this occasion.
The horse-like animals, the rhinoceroses, and tapirs,
are so unlike, that proof of their derivation from
one source might be thought to be impossible. But
206 Charles Darwin.
as we go back into the ages we find equines with
lateral digits and hooflets becoming larger and
longer, teeth shorter and more generalised, skel-
etons less characteristic; rhinoceroses with cutting
teeth, and more ‘slender forms; tapir-like animals
without the peculiar tapirine teeth, with rhinocero-
toid skulls, and with otherwise modified structure;
all these, accompanied by innumerable other modi-
fications, till finally we are almost at a loss to tell
whether it is a horse-like, a rhinocerotoid, or a tapir-
oid animal that is before us, and key become lost in
earlier forms with special characters of their own.
And as we go still further back we are confronted
with still other forms that are connected by series
projected backward from the ruminants and from
the elephantids. We do, in fine, know the geneal-
ogy of our own contemporaries—imperfectly, it is
true, but still we know it.
It was objected that animals were segregated by
such very wide intervals that they must be isolated
in different branches, and that there could be no
community of structure between such branches;
they expressed fundamentally different plans of
structure.
One by one zoélogy, anatomy, and embryology
supplied the links between the old branches; the
branches were at length completely uprooted, and
it has even become a matter of simple convention
what should be considered major groups. Plans of
structure can no longer be claimed to be peculiar to
different types.
That branch of which man is the primate—the
Obstacles Raised. 207
vertebrates—was supposed to be perfectly unassail-
able and isolated; but zodlogy and anatomy have
revealed to us amphioxus, and embryology the
earlier stages of the tunicates. .The evidence is now
conclusive that these forms which once appeared to
be among the most distant, are now the most closely
related. The affinities of the tunicates with inver-
tebrates are evident, and thus we may look far back
to that time when vertebrates did not exist, but
when the common ancestors, from which they and
the related invertebrates should diverge, held sway.
It was even pretended that the evidence was in-
sufficient to show that variation was possible or could
be propagated.
From every hand testimony was forthcoming.
The breeder could point to every domesticated ani-
mal—the horticulturist and pomologist to all culti-
vated plants—the systematist and zodgeographer to
the limits of species which varied with knowledge of
their distribution—the palzontologist to the grada-
tion between the extinct forms and widely separated
living species, as well as to that between forms which
lived in successive earlier epochs.
It was urged that the Darwinian theory was op-
posed to revelation, and subversive of Christianity.
As students of nature and seekers after truth
alone—so far as nature is concerned—we only ask
whether the views of Darwin are true or not. But
now, from many a pulpit, and from the most en-
lightened of the clergy, we hear the claim that evo-
lution is in perfect accordance with revelation, andisa
witness to the power, prescience, and goodness of God.
208 Charles Darwin.
It was contended that acceptance of the teachings
of Darwin would have a pernicious tendency, and
entail riot, lawlessness, and crime in the world.
A long life of singular purity and blamelessness
in the person of Darwin was an answer. An unsul-
lied heritage from an ancestor entertaining like
views has been transmitted to heirs of his body
without flaw. Sons of the great philosopher con-
tinue the studies of their great sire, and worthily
wear the heavy mantle left to them.
One after another the scientific opponents of evo-
lution became convinced of its verity, or died out.
The naturalists of a new generation with one accord
accepted ‘“ Darwinism ”’ as a starting-point for their
more profound studies. The methods and aims of
biology became changed.- Biology became exalted
from empiricism into a science. Long before ‘“ The
Origin of Species”’ had even “ come of age,’’ accept-
ance of its teachings had become an essential of
scientific creed, and Darwin was acknowledged to
have effected a greater revolution in science than
any Englishman since the time of Newton. Most
meet was it then that he should rest by the side of
his great predecessor, whose rival he will ever be in
fame.
BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH.
BY WILLIAM H. DALL,
Honorary Curator, Dept. of Mollusks, U. S, National Museum.
Charles Robert Darwin, son of Dr. Robert War-
ing Darwin, F.R.S., and Emma Wedgwood, grand-
son of Dr. Erasmus Darwin and Josiah Wedgwood,
was born at Shrewsbury, England, February 12,
a
co - {o_o
Dall’s Sketch. - 209
1809. He died of disease of the heart at his resi-
dence, Down Court, Beckenham, Kent, at 4 P.M.,
April 19, 1882, and consequently had attained
the age of seventy-three years, two months, and
seven days. At Shrewsbury his childhood was
passed and his education was obtained at the once
famous Shrewsbury Grammar School, presided over
by the Rev. Dr. Samuel Butler, afterward Bishop of
Litchfield and Coventry.
At the age of sixteen he entered the University
of Edinburgh (1825) where he remained two years.
Even at this early period he had become a student
of natural history, and read his first scientific paper
before the Plinian Society. It was “On the Move-
ment of the Ova of Flustra,” one of the incrusting
marine corallines.
In 1827 he entered Christ’s College, Cambridge,
where he graduated as a Bachelor of Arts four years
later. Here he fell under the influence of the teach-
ings of Prof. John Stevens Henslow, an excellent
botanist, whose instruction doubtless did much to
determine the field of study subsequently occupied
by his pupil.
In 1831 Captain Fitz-Roy, R.N., offered to share
his cabin with any competent naturalist who would
accompany him on his prospecting voyage to South
_ America in H. M. S. Beagle, detailed for surveys in
_ that region. Mr. Darwin, then only twenty-two
_ years of age, offered his services, with the stipulation’
that he should control the collections made, and was
accepted. The Beagle sailed November 27, 1831,
from Plymouth, and returned to England on the 2d
of October, 1836. During a large part of the voyage
210 Charles Darwin.
Mr. Darwin suffered greatly from sea-sickness, or
some difficulty which simulated it, and which, in
some form, returned at intervals throughout his
whole life, as sudden fits of illness which prostrated
him for days together, and which were followed by
long periods of wakeful convalescence. Under the
circumstances, the amount of keen and patient ob-
servation, the vast accumulation of facts, and the
extensive collections obtained by Mr. Darwin during
his voyage, appear more marvellous than ever.
After his return his health was much shattered,
and his studies more or less interrupted for some
years. He took his Master’s degree in course, and
shortly after his return was elected a Fellow of the
Royal Society (of which his father and grandfather
were previously Fellows), and of the Geological
Society, of which last he was made secretary.
In 1839 he published his epoch-making work “A
Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural
History of the Various Countries Visited by H. M.
S. Beagle”; the first of that long series of investiga-
tions to which his life was devoted, and the publica-
tion of which revolutionised the study of biology,
and gave to Darwin a position as a naturalist un-
paralleled in the history of science.
In the same year, 1839, Mr. Darwin married his
cousin, Emma Wedgwood, and retired to the se-
cluded and beautiful district of Kent, where, in his
country-house of Down Court, near Orpington, more
than forty years of his life were spent. The district
is purely agricultural, a plateau of chalk, some four
hundred feet above the sea, interrupted by the wavy
Dall’s Sketch. . 211
hollows characteristic of the English chalk country,
with beech woods here and there on the slopes. His
dwelling is one of the old square-built, red-brick
mansions of the last century, to which has been
added in more recent times a gable-fronted wing,
with another square-built wing and pillared portico
on the corresponding side. Shut in and almost hid-
den from the roadway by a high wall and belt of
trees, it offers ideal seclusion for a quiet student.
On the southern side the walled garden opens into a
secluded meadow bounded by a tract of underwood
through which there is a lovely view of the narrow
valley which descends toward Westerham.
Here, and in the by-paths of adjacent woods and
meadows, Mr. Darwin was accustomed to take daily
exercise with a characteristic regularity. Up to ten
or twelve years ago, his tall figure, mounted on a
favorite old black horse, was a familiar object in the
country lanes. This animal fell and died suddenly
one day, after which it was noted that Mr. Darwin
rode no more. His invariable hours for walking, in
_ these later years, were seven in the morning, noon,
and four o'clock in the afternoon, usually accom-
panied by one or more of his sons; one of whom,
Mr. Francis Darwin, has long been established as a
surgeon in the hamlet of Down. His habits were
extremely regular. He rose at six, took a cold
plunge bath (which was repeated in the evening),
breakfasted alone, and after his first morning walk
was usually in his library by 8 A.M. At nine he
would spend a little time in the dining-room opening
his mail, and in the evening would linger an hour or
212 Charles Darwin.
‘ two in the society of his family, or that of some of his
scientific friends who occasionally visited him; but
the greater part of his time was spent in his library,
_ his garden, and the adjacent grounds. A few friends,
among whom were Sir John Lubbock and Dr. Farr,
near residents, were often with him, and with such
he was social, frank, and ever ready to enjoy a joke
or frolic; with all men he was unpretentious, kind,
and devoid of any artificiality of manner; but his
life was essentially a secluded one, as may be judged
from the fact that the news of his death did not
reach London until noon of the following day.
Nevertheless, his life was far from solitary, for
his family formed quite a colony in itself until the
children reached maturity.. Two children, a boy and
a girl, were lost in infancy; one dying in 1842 and the
other in 1858, and are buried in the village church-
yard of Down, near by some of the Wedgwoods.
In the family who lived Mr. Darwin was fortunate.
His eldest son, William, is a banker at Southampton;
the second, George, took high honours at Cambridge,
and is now a Fellow of Trinity College and a dis-
tinguished mathematician ; the third, Frank, having
inherited his father’s delicate constitution, acted as
his secretary; the fourth, Leonard, an officer of
artillery, has distinguished himself in the direction of
astronomy ; the fifth, Horace, is an excellent mathe-
matician. One married and one unmarried daughter
complete a family whose constant care has been
to relieve its head from any trouble and anxiety.
Mr. Darwin has always been in easy circumstances,
financially, so that he could use his time as he chose,
Dall's Sketch. 213
without care. When young he pursued field-sports,
with the combined interest of the hunter and the
naturalist ; in later years he found his chief relaxa-
tion in reading popular novels. His work was taken
up with great method, and he never wrote for more
than two hours at a time.
In 1853 he received the gold medal of the Royal
_ Society for his various works; in 1859 that known
as the Wollaston medal from the Geological Society ;
in 1871 he received the Prussian Order of Knight-
hood “‘ For Merit,” and was elected a corresponding
_ member of the Austrian Academy of Sciences; and
in 1878, foreign associate of the French Academy.
_ He received honorary degrees from Leyden and
Cambridge, and other scientific honours almost
without number.
His death was unexpected. He had been slightly
unwell for several weeks, and the weakness of the
heart’s action was such that he was not permitted to
_ ascend the stairs, but, in the main, he was still able
_ to pursue his ordinary routine. On Tuesday morn-
_ ing Sir John Lubbock found him apparently about
_asusual. That he was seriously ill, was first known
_ in the village Wednesday afternoon by the arrival
_ of his groom on horseback, horse and man reeking
_ with foam, having galloped for ice six miles and
_ back from the nearest point where it could be pro-
_ cured; but in vain, the relief arrived too late, Charles
_ Darwin had already passed away, surrounded by his
_ family, including several of his sons, Mrs. Darwin, and
_ amarried daughter. On the 26th his mortal remains
_ were laid in Westminster Abbey, near by the ashes of
214 Charles Darwin.
Isaac Newton, and were followed to the tomb, not
only by dignitaries of Church and State, but by the
‘universal reverence of the scientific world.*
DARWIN’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO PHILOSOPHY.
BY JOHN W. POWELL, PH.D., LL.D., M.N.A.S.,
Director of U. S. Geological Survey, Director Bureau of Ethnology, Smithsonian
Institution.
Many are the definitions of philosophy. If we
wish not to define what is ¢rue philosophy, but
simply to define the term in all its uses when refer-
ring to all times and all men, this definition will do:
hilosophy is the explanation of the phenomena of the
universe.
Now, the phenomena of the universe are em-
braced in many vast categories.
First, we have the constitution of the heavenly
bodies, and their real and apparent motions to be
explained. What are they, and how came they to
be what they are?
Then we have the earth itself; its forms, its lands
and seas, its mountains and valleys, its rivers and
lakes, the winds which blow about it, the storms
which fall upon it, the lightnings that flash athwart
the sky, the thunders that roll among the clouds.
What are all these things, and whence came they,
and why are. they? Again, in the constitution of
the earth we find rocks with their minerals, and geo-
* It is hardly necessary to state that this sketch is a compilation
from all the different sources which happened to be available at the —
time.
The Phenomena of the Universe. 215
logic formations with their fossils. What are rocks
and minerals, formations and fossils, and whence
came they?
Look at the innumerable forms of plants covering
_ the earth with verdure—the whole vegetable king-
_ dom on the land and on the sea; forests, mosses, and
_ conferve. Who shall explain the meaning of the
_ phenomena of the vegetable kingdom ?
The oceans teem with animal life; reptiles crawl
over all the land ; the hills and the valleys, the moun-
tains and the plains, are all inhabited by beasts;
and the air itself is populated. Who shall tell us of
all the living things, and then explain life itself?
Turn to the contemplation of man, organised into
_ tribes and nations; man possessed of innumerable
_ languages; man engaged in arts and industries; man
| _ endowed with reason and will; man in search of
moral principles to guide his conduct. Whence
came this man, and whither does he go.
_ Among all tribes and nations of the globe, and in
_ all times, men have sought to discover the whence,
the how, and the why of all things—the phenomena
of the universe.
The explanation of the universe is philosophy.
The philosophies of the world may be classified
=
I. Mythologic.
II. Metaphysic.
III. Scientific.
_ Mythology and science constitute the two grand
_ systems of philosophy, but between them stands
216 Charles Darwin.
metaphysic philosophy as a stepping-stone from
the former to the latter.
In the lower stages of society, philosophy is purely
mythologic. All savage and barbaric peoples explain
the phenomena of the universe by a system of
myths. A mythology is always a growth, and
among every people there grows up by the employ-
ment of diverse and superficial analogies—curious
suggestions—a body of mythic explanations which
constitute its philosophy.
Among the Wintuns of California the world is
three-storied. There is a world—a great chamber—
above, and there is this world, and a world below.
The waters fall from the world above because the
sky, the floor of that upper world, leaks; and the
waters come from the world below through the
springs that issue from the flanks of the dead volca-
noes of that land; so the waters from above and
the waters from below meet and flow down the great
Sacramento to the sea, where again they divide; the
waters from above taking their way. to their upper
home, and the waters from below taking their way
to the lower world.
The mountains were formed by the great mole-
god, who crawled under the land and upheaved the
mountain ranges that stand on either side of the
Sacramento Valley. And so they explain all of the
phenomena of the universe with which they are ac-
quainted, in a system of myths which constitutes the
philosophy of the Wintuns. —
Now such a system of philosophy, a mythology, is
found in every savage and barbaric tribe of the world,
ee
" ‘
Metaphysic Philosophy. 217
__ But there came a time in the history of mankind
_ when some of the peoples changed their philosophy
—their explanation of the phenomena of the uni-
_ verse—by changing their methods of reasoning.
Origin of Metaphysic Philosophy.
=
From three to two thousand years ago, Europe,
Asia, and Africa established a commerce in ideas—
an exchange in philosophies—carried on by the
navigation of the Mediterranean. During that and
some previous time there were built on the shores
of this sea many cities. Through the building of
these cities, and through the industries and arts
_ which sprang up therewith, society was reorganised
and placed upon a new basis—tribal society devel-
oped into national society—barbarism into civilisa-
tion.
The peoples of these cities spoke diverse lan-
guages, and entertained diverse mythologic philoso-
phies. Through the intercourse which sprang up
between them, each learned of the philosophy of
the other, and the scholars of that day attempted
to discover in all of these diverse mythologies a
common body of truth upon the theory then widely
accepted, that they had all sprung from a common
source—a primitive philosophy itself the truth,—and
that all the philosophies then existing were degen-
erations therefrom. This line of investigation led
to a curious result.
All of the mythologies of the cities of the Medi-
terranean were found to be baseless—each a fabric
218 Charles Darwin.
of poetic but superficial analogies. In the mental
activity of that time many new philosophies were
proposed, diverse and contradictory ; and the wisest
philosophers said, ‘‘ How shall we know the truth?”
And they endeavoured to discover some criterion by
which truth should be known. This resulted in the
development of formal logic*as a testing machine
into which opinions were put for the purpose of sift-
ing truth from error.
Now the machine called logic, the tool of the
metaphysician, is curiously constructed. Its chief
hypothesis is that man was primitively endowed
with fundamental principles as a basis of reasoning,
and that these principles can be formulated. These
fundamental principles are supposed to be universal,
and to be everywhere accepted by mankind as self-
evident propositions of the highest order and of the
broadest generalisation. These fundamental propo-
sitions were called major propositions. The machine,
in formal logic, was a verbal juxtaposition of propo-
sitions with the major propositions at the head,
followed by the minor propositions, and from this
truth was supposed to flow.
This formal logic of the Aristotelian epoch has
lived from that period to the period of science.
Logic is the instrument of metaphysics, and meta-
physic philosophy, in its multifarious forms, is the
product of logic. But during all that time—2,000
years—no truth has been discovered, no error has
been detected by the use of the logical machine.
Its fundamental assumption is false.
It has been discovered that man is not endowed
*<
Scientific Philosophy. 219
_ with a body of major propositions. It is found that\
in the course of the evolution of mind minor propo-
_ fsitions are discovered first, and major propositions
_jare reached only by the combination of minor propo-
\sitions; that always in the search for truth the minor
proposition comes first, and that no major proposition
_ can ever be accepted until the minor propositions
_ included therein have been demonstrated.
The error in the metaphysic philosophy was the
_ assumption that the great truths were already known
_ by mankind, and that by the proper use of the logical
_ machine all minor truths could be discovered, and all
" errors eliminated from philosophy. As metaphysic
methods of reasoning were wrong, metaphysic phi-
losophies were false; the body of metaphysic phi-
losophy is a phantasmagoria.
The Origin of Scientific Philosophy.
While metaphysic philosophers have been playing
with their logical kaleidoscopes, another body of
philosophers have been at work gathering the ma-
terials for the philosophy of science. Their method
is to collect facts and to discover their relations, and
_ they accept no conclusions that are not reached by
_ this method. All other conclusions they hold as
undetermined or indeterminate.
_ And now must be given a definition of science.
| Sctence ts the discernment, discrimination, and classifi-* i
cation of facts, and the discovery of their relations of AK
) Sequence. This is a simple statement, but for its full
_ comprehension a little illustration may be necessary.
220 Charles Darwin.
A savage hears the voice of his fellow-man, he
hears the voice of the beast, and of the bird; he
also hears the noise of the thunder, and he supposes
that the noise is a voice. In these cases he discerns
noises, but he does not azscriminate one noise from
the other, and supposes them all to be voices, and
that the noise of the thunder is the voice of the
Thunder Bird. To understand facts we must not
only discern, but discriminate.
The next step in the progress of science is classifi-
cation. Having discerned and discriminated facts,
they must be classified—all those of like nature
thrown together. All noises made by living beings
for conveying intelligence may be grouped into one
class and called voices; all noises made by explosions
grouped in another class; and so, as we go on dis-
cerning, discriminating, and classifying, we collect
the materials of philosophy.
But this is not all of philosophy. Facts have
genetic relations. If one thing is done something
else will follow, and the highest function of scientific
‘philosophy is to discover the order of succession of
phenomena—how phenomena follow phenomena in
endless procession, how every fact has had its ante-
cedent fact, and every fact must have its consequent
fact. This part of science is called evolution, and by —
this expression scientific men mean to be understood
that phenomena go on in endless consequences, and
that every act has been preceded by some other act,
and that every act will be followed by some other 1
act ; that the causes of all of the phenomena of the
universe that we wish to explain in a system of phil-
Evolution. 221
_ osophy run back into the infinite past; that the con-
sequences of all of the phenomena which we may
now observe in the universe will run on into the in-
finite future. This is evolution.
The statement now given of the three great sys-
tems of philosophy is, perhaps, sufficient for our
purposes this evening, and it remains for us to point
out the part contributed to scientific philosophy by
Darwin, whom we mourn to-night.
When Darwin rose as a light in the scientific
- world, scientific philosophers had already discovered
that the philosophic method of research should in-
clude the discernment, discrimination, and classifica-
tion of facts. At that time the scientific men of the
world were engaged chiefly in the collection and
arrangement of facts. To some extent they were
engaged in discovering their relations of sequence.
Important and interesting sequences had been dis-
_ covered in the vast realm of astronomy ; other inter-
esting sequences of facts had been discovered in the
realm of geology; some interesting sequences of
facts had been discovered in the realm of human
history. In the realm of biology, in plant and ani-
mal life, the order of succession of facts, the method
_ of evolution, had not been discovered; yet many
-men were thinking on the subject, many men search-
ing for the method and course of biologic evolution.
The facts relating thereto were partly known, and
_ the course and laws of biologic evolution were dimly
discerned.
_ It remained for Darwin to demonstrate the laws
_ of biologic evolution, and the course of the progress
222 | Charles Darwin.
of life upon the globe. This he has done in a =a
ner so masterly that there lives not in the world a |
working biologist, a scientific man engaged in this
field of research, who has not, directly or indirectly, |
accepted his great conclusions, and the larger body ©
of biologists have accepted them directly. fa
Let us now go back to the statement that, prior to
the time of Darwin, scientific men engaged in re-
searches relating to vegetal and animal life were
occupied chiefly in the discernment, discrimination,
and classification of facts.
Botanists and zodlogists were engaged in describ-
ing species, and classifying species, and this did not
always enlist the highest talent ; and naturalists had
become wearied with discussions over minute differ-
ences and obscure resemblances, the origin and
meaning of which were not understood.
The discovery, largely made by Darwin, of the
laws of succession, or genesis, gave to this depart-
ment of scientific research a wonderful impetus, and
since that day thousands of men have sprung up
throughout the civilised world to take part in
biologic research.
In this field the greatest talent of the latest time
is absorbed. The philosophy of biology satisfies
the reason. In the universe of life, system is dis-
covered, and biologists see visions of the origin of
living beings, and dream dreams of the destiny of —
living beings.
Had philosophers discovered that the generations
of living beings were degenerating, they would have
discovered despair. Had they discovered that life —
4
is
f
t
Biologic Evolution. 223
moves by steps of generations in endless circles—
that what has been is, and what is shall be, and there
is no progress, the gift of science to man would have
been worthless.
The revelation of science is this: Every generation
in life isa step in progress to a higher and fuller life;
science has discovered hope.
Darwin demonstrated what others vaguely be-
lieved or dimly saw—the course and methods of
biologic evolution. Darwin gave hope to philosophy.
The universe of phenomena may be classed in
three great categories:
I. Physical.
II. Biologic.
III. Anthropologic.
Physical phenomena may be thrown into three
categories: 1. Molar or mechanical physics; 2.
Stellar or astronomical physics ; 3. Molecular physics.
Biologic phenomena may be classed as: 1. Vege-
tal; 2. Animal.
Anthropologic phenomena may be classed as: I.
Sociologic; 2. Philologic; 3. Philosophic; 4, Psy-
chologic.
To the discovery of the methods and course of
physical evolution ze. the order of succession in
physical phenomena, many great men have con-
tributed. Among these, Newton stands pre-eminent.
The discovery of biologic evolution, z.¢., the suc-
cession of phenomena in vegetal and animal life, is
in like manner due to the researches of many men,
but among these Darwin stands pre-eminent. By
his discoveries the discoveries of all other biologists
224 Charles Darwin.
have been correlated and woven into systematic
philosophy. The methods and caurse of anthropo-
logic evolution have yet to be systematised. Import-
ant discoveries have been made, but this portion of
philosophy is yet inchoate.
Working Hypotheses. ©
But Darwin’s investigations have not ended re-
search or completed philosophy. He brought scien-
tific men to the frontiers of truth, and showed them
a path across the border. Yet more than this he
did. He pointed out one of the fundamental meth-
ods of research. Before his time philosophers talked
about deductive methods and inductive methods.
Darwin has taught us that both are fruitless.
Deductive methods are the logical or metaphysical
methods which have been already described, by
which men arrive at conclusions from general prin-
ciples supposed to be innate in the human mind.
The vanity of these methods has already been char-
acterised.
Inductive methods have found their best expres-
sion in the Baconian philosophy. By inductive
methods men are to collect facts, unbiased by opin-
ions or preconceived theories. They are to gather
the facts, put them together, arrange and combine
them to find higher and still higher generalisations.
But there are facts and facts—facts with value, and
facts without value. The indiscriminate gathering
of facts leads to no important discoveries. Men
might devote themselves to counting the leaves on
the trees, the blades of grass in the meadows, the
i=.
Working Hypotheses. 225
grains of sand on the sea-shore ;—they might weigh
each one, and measure each one, and go on collecting
such facts until libraries were filled, and the minds
of men buried under their weight, and no addition
would be made to philosophy thereby. There must
be some method of selecting, some method of de-
termining what facts are valuable and what facts are
trivial. The fool collects facts; the wise man tt SrA
them. :
“Amid the multiplicity of facts in the universe, how
_ does the wise man choose for his use? The true
scientific man walks not at random through the
_ world, making notes of what he sees; he chooses
_ some narrow field of investigation. Within this field
__ he reviews what is already known, and becomes con-
_ versant with the conclusions already reached. He
_ then seeks to discern more facts in this field, and to
make more careful discriminations therein, and then
to make more homologic classifications ; and, finally,
more thoroughly to discover the complexity of |
sequences.
If he attain to success in doing all this his investi-
gations are always suggested by some hypothesis—
some supposition of what he may discover. He may
find that his hypothesis is wrong, and discover some-
thing else ; but without an hypothesis he discovers
nothing. A scientific man taking up a subject re-
views the facts that are known, and imagines that they
lead to conclusions that have not yet been reached
by others. His imagination may lead him quite
astray, yet he follows it, and says: ‘ Now if this be
true, then there must be certain yet undiscovered
15
226 ) Charles Darwin.
facts,” and he seeks for them. He may find that
which he seeks, or he may find something quite
other. If he be an honest thinker, a true philoso-
pher, it matters not to him. He substantiates his
hypothesis or constructs a new one. If such hy-
pothesis leads to many new discoveries scientific
men accept it, and call it a working hypothesis, and
if it still leads on to discovery scientific men call it a
theory; and so working hypotheses are developed
into theories, and these theories become the funda-
mental principles, the major propositions of science,
the widest generalisations of philosophy.
Sometimes the inductive method—the Baconian:
method—is said to have been modified or improved
by the addition of the method by working hypothe-
ses, and then modern scientific methods are said to
be inductive. With this understanding, it may be
said that the deductive methods of metaphysics have
been supplanted by the inductive methods of science.
It would, perhaps, be better to say that deductive
and inductive methods have been superseded by the
method of working hypotheses.
Working hypotheses are the instruments with
which scientific men select facts. By them, reason
and imagination are conjoined, and all the powers of
the mind employed in research.
Darwin, more than any other man, has taught the
use of working hypotheses. Newton and Darwin
are the two great lights of science—the Gemini in
the heavens of philosophy; stars whose glory is the
brightest of all.
There be good folk in the world who love mytho.
The Red Man's Philosophy. 227
logic and metaphysic philosophy—one or both. In
the ears of such the praise of Darwin is not sweet
music. Let me beg of such who may be here to
consider that we come to-night to praise our dead,
and to tell of our love for the man who gave us hope.
You and I cannot contend over an open grave, and
in my soul I find no cause for angry contention
elsewhere. Every man’s opinions are honest opin-
ions—his opinions are the children of his own reason-
ing, and he loves his offspring.
/When I stand before the sacred fire in an Indian \
village and listen to the red man’s philosophy, no
anger stirs my blood. I love him as one of my | -
kind. He has a philosophy not unlike that of my
forefathers, though widely separated from my own,
and I love him as one near akin.
Among civilised men I find no one who has not a
philosophy in part common with my own; and of
those smaller portions of our philosophies which
are not alike, I see no cause why anger should
be kindled between us thereby. They and I are
bound together by the same cord of honesty in
opinion.
In Darwin’s writings I find no word of reproach.
Denunciation and ridicule, greater than any other
man has endured, never kindled a spark of hatred in
his breast. Wrapped in the mantle of his philosophy
he received no wounds, but lived with and loved
mankind
Let us not gird science to our loins as the warrior
buckles on his sword. Let us raise science aloft as
the olive branch of peace and the emblem of hope.
228 Charles Darwin.
DARWIN’S WORK IN ENTOMOLOGY.
BY CHARLES V. RILEY, PH.D.,
Hon. Curator of Entomology, National Museum ; Entomologist of the Agricultural
Department.
Charles Robert Darwin was one of the original
members of the London Entomological Society, of
whom only six are yet living. He always took the
keenest interest in the science of entomology, and
drew largely from insects for illustrations in support
of the theory with which his name will forever be
associated. Indeed, I have the authority of my late
associate editor of the American Entomologist, Ben-
jamin Dann Walsh, who was a classmate of Darwin’s,
at Cambridge, that the latter’s love of natural history
was chiefly manifested, while there, ina fine collec-
tion of insects; so that, as has been the case with so
many noted naturalists, Darwin probably acquired
from the study of insects that love of nature which
first forever afterward inspired him in his endeavours
to win her secrets and interpret aright her ways!
Though he has left no descriptive or systematic
work of an entomological character, yet his writings
abound in important facts and observations anent
insects, and no branch of natural science has more
fully felt the beneficial impulse and stimulus of his
labors than entomology. Indeed, the varying condi-
tions of life in the same individual or species; the
remarkable metamorphoses ; the rapid development ;
the phenomena of dimorphism and heteromorphism ;
of phytophagic and sexual variation; the ready
adaptation to changed conditions, and consequent
STR eS re
Entomological Works. 229
rapid modification; the great prolificacy and im-
mense number of individuals; the three distinctive
states of larva, pupa, and imago, susceptible to
modification, as well as other characteristics in in-
sects—render them particularly attractive and useful
to the evolutionist, and the changed aspect which
natural history in general has assumed since the
publication of the “Origin of Species” is perhaps
more marked in entomology than in any other
branch, for its author helped to replace ridicule
by reason. During his voyage on the Beagle he col-
lected a very large number of interesting species,
especially in Coleoptera, and they formed the basis
of many memoirs by Walker, Newman, and White,
and particularly by G. R. Waterhouse, who named
Odontoscelis Darwintt after him. These memoirs
were published either in the Annals and Magazine
of Natural History, and in the Transactions of the
London Entomological Society, or in various entomo-
logical periodicals, and I append a list, which, in this
connection, it is not necessary to read.
Scattered through his memorable works, a “ Jour-
nal of Researches into the Natural History and
Geology of the Countries Visited during the Voyage
of H. M.S. Beagle round the World” (which is best
known by the publisher’s title, “A Naturalist’s
Voyage round the World”’), and “The Origin of
Species by Means of Natural Selection,” are many
interesting entomological facts, and in almost every
instance they are illumined by his masterly genius
and his keen, penetrating mind. These are so nu-
merous, so varied, and withal so widely dispersed,
230 Charles Darwin.
that I can only make reference, at this time, to a fe
of the most important and striking of them.
He pointed out the great preponderance of phy-
tophagous over predaceous species in the tropics as
exemplifying the relation of the insect and plant
worlds, both of which attain their maximum in those
zones. Carabide are few; Scavengers and Brachely-
tra very common; Rhynchophora and Chrysomelide
astonishingly numerous. (‘ Journal of Researches,”
etc., p. 34.)
He showed by minute observations that the insect
faunas of Tierra del Fuego, separated from Patago-
nia only by the Straits of Magellan, have nothing in
common, and he discussed the influence of primary
barriers on the distribution of species, as shown in
the marked divergence of the faunas on the eastern
and western slopes of the Cordillera. ‘‘ We ought
not,” he remarks, “to expect any closer similarity
between the organic beings on the opposite sides of
great mountain ranges than on the opposite shores of
the ocean, except for species which have been able to
cross the barrier, whether of rock or salt water.”
(Jbid., pp. 326, 327.)
I believe he was the first to draw attention to the
paucity of insects on islands, and to establish the
principle that the smaller the area, the less favourable
it is for the development of insect life. (/d7d., p. 391.)
It is a fact of observation that islands predispose
to the apterous condition among insects, a fact that
is especially noticeable in Kerguelen’s Land, as ob-
served by Dr. Hooker, and particularly by our fellow
member, Dr. Kidder. Darwin (‘ Origin of Species,”
Reasons for Belief. 231
, p- 109) first suggested the most plausible reason,
‘viz.: that the indiscriminate use of wings might
prove injurious to an insular species by tempting it
out to sea and to destruction, so that the loss of the
power of flight is a positive advantage to the species.
The argument against this explanation, viz.: that
insular species should be gifted with strong powers
of flight to fortify themselves against being blown to
sea in heavy gales, has little force, because either
requirement may be fulfilled; and, in reality, where
flight is absolutely necessary, as in the majority of
Lepidoptera, and flower-frequenting Coleoptera, the
wing capacity, in insular species, is actually increased,
or correlated with a diminution of bulk ; whereas, in
those less dependent on aérial progression, natural
selection would decrease wing-power, and there
would be just such a correlated increase of bulk asis
generally the case.
The principle he laid down, that the accidental
introduction of organic beings amongst others to
whose interest they are hostile, may be a powerful
means of keeping the latter in check, and of finally
destroying them, finds vivid exemplification in in-
sects, as I have shown in discussing those imported
into this country.*
He gave reasons for the belief (now generally
accepted) that the usual gaudy colouring of inter-
tropical insects is not related either to the heat or
light of those zones, but rather to the conditions of
existence being generally favourable to life. (‘“ Jour-
* “Second Annual Report on the Insects of Missouri,”. 1879, pp.
8-13.
232 Charles Darwin.
nal of Researches,” etc., p. 381.) He has written
on the phosphorescence of fire-flies, and on the
habits of the larva of one of them—Lamphyris occt-
dentalis. (Ibid., pp. 29, 30.) He discussed the food-
habits of stercovorous beetles, with reference to the
origination of a new habit and the power of adapta-
tion to new conditions. (/dzd., p. 490, note.)
At Port St. Julian, Patagonia, he found a species
of Zabanus extremely common, and remarks: ‘“‘ We
here have the puzzle that so frequently occurs in
the case of mosquitoes—on the blood of what do
these insects commonly feed? The guanaco is
nearly the only warm-blooded quadruped, and is
found in quite inconsiderable numbers compared
with the multitude of flies.” He has discussed the
question of hibernation of insects, and shown that it
is governed by the usual climate of a district, and
not by absolute temperature. (/d7d., pp. 98, 99.) He
gave the first true explanation of the springing
power of the E/ateride when laid on their backs,
showing how much depended on the elasticity of
the sternal spine. (/dzd., p. 31.) He was the first, I
believe, to record the exceptional powers of running
and of making sound, in a butterfly, viz., Ageronta
feronta of Brazil.
In his most famous work he lays stress particu-
larly on the following facts and generalisations, for
which he draws from insects: the individual differ-
ences in important characters ; the remarkable man-
ner in which individuals of the same brood often
differ, dimorphism and trimorphism being only the
extreme exaggeration of this fact; the difficulty of
L[nsect Life. 233
distinguishing between species and varieties; that
geographical races are local forms completely fixed
and isolated ; that representative species are better
distinguished from each other than local forms and
sub-species ; that the species of large genera vary
more frequently than those of small genera, and
_ that specific differences in the former are often ex-
ceedingly small ; that fecundity does not determine
the rate of increase; that the struggle for life is
most severe between species of the same genus;
that secondary sexual characters are generally dis-
played in the same parts of the organisation in
which the species of the same genus differ from
each other; that distinct species present analogous
variations; that similar structures are often inde-
pendently developed ; the varying importance for
classification of the same important organ in the
same group of beings; that analogical or adaptive
resemblances are misleading for classification ; that
_the great frequency of mimicry among insects is
associated with their small size and general defence-
lessness, as no species furnished with a sting, or
other defensive property, is known to mimic other
species; the importance of relative position or
connection in homologous parts; the remarkable
changes of structure effected during development;
that adaptation to the conditions of life in the in-
sect larva is just as perfect and beautiful as in the
adult animal, and that, consequently, larve of dif-
ferent orders are often similar, and larve belonging
to the same order often very dissimilar; that larval
and pupal stages are acquired through adaptation,
234 Charles Darwin.
and not through inheritance; that rudimentary or-
gans plainly declare their origin and meaning.
Finally he brought together a large body of
interesting facts in entomology, bearing on the de-
velopment and perpetuation of mimicry, and of
secondary sexual characters—all more or less ex-
plicable by, and furnishing convincing argument for,
the general theory of natural selection; while he
freely acknowledged that he found among insects
facts that seemed to be most fatal to the theory.
This is especially the case in social insects where the
colony contains neuters and sterile females which
often differ widely in instinct and in structure from
the sexual forms, and yet cannot propagate their
kind. This is not the place to enter into a discus-
sion of the subject, and I will simply remark that
there are reasons for the belief that, in his candour,
he has been led to exaggerate the difficulties in this
case.
But Darwin’s chief investigations into insect life
were in its relations to plant life, and his work “On
the Various Contrivances by Which British and For-
eign Orchids are Fertilized by Insects, and on the
Good Effect of Crossing,” as also that on “ Insecti-
vorous Plants,” are monuments of skill, industry,
and lucid exposition.
Entomologists had often noticed the pollen masses
of orchids attached to the proboscis of various moths,
and in commenting upon the fact had pronounced
it “curious.” Darwin in this, as in so many other
cases, gave meaning to the curious, and brought
light out of darkness.
Bs
wr
Palaontology. 235
Before his time we find frequent reference to the
injury caused to plants by insects, and Sprengel,
Gaertner, Herbert, and others had shown that in-
sects were also, in many cases, beneficial and even
necessary to plants ; the color, form, odor, secretions,
and general structure of which have reference to
their necessary insect pollinisers.
Yet their writings had produced but slight im-
pression outside of a limited circle. It remained for
Darwin to impress the world with a broader sense
of the actual interrelation between the two, and to
inspire a number of observers in this field in all
parts of the globe, who are now constantly adding
to the rich store of facts we already possess on the
subject. I need only refer to the work of Hooker,
Bennet, Axell, Delpino, Hildebrand, H. Miiller, and
others abroad, and to that of Dr. Gray and Mr.
Wm. Trelease at home.
The importance of insects as agents in cross-fertil-
isation, was never properly appreciated till after
Darwin’s remarkable work on Primula and his re-
searches on Orchids, Linum, Lythrum, etc.
He established the principle that “ nature abhors
close fertilization,’ and though some less careful
observers in this country—exaggerating the import-
ance of their isolated and often inaccurate observa-
tions—have opposed his views, the scientific world
has been convinced alike by the force of his logic as
by the eloquence of his innumerable facts.
We all know how palzontology has verified many
of his anticipations as to missing links being supplied
with increased knowledge of the geological record,
236 Charles Darwin.
and in connection with his work on the fertilisation
of orchids we have a remarkable instance of similar
verification. The nectaries of Angrecum sesquipedale
were found by him to sometimes reach 11} inches in
length, with only the lowest 1} inches filled with
nectar. He said “there must be moths with pro-
bosces capable of extension to a length of between
1o and 11 inches.” In Wature for July 17, 1873, or
some years later, Fritz Miiller recorded through his
brother, Herman Miiller, the finding of a Brazilian
Sphingid having a length of proboscis of 0.25 metres,
or between 10 and 11 inches.
I cannot do justice to Darwin’s work on “ Insec-
tivorous Plants” within the time to which these
remarks have been limited, nor without trenching
on the ground to be covered by Professor Ward. I
must be content to remark, therefore, that he dem-
onstrated the new and wonderful fact in physiology
that many plants are capable of absorbing soluble
matter from captured insects, and that they have
special contrivances and sensibilities that facilitate
the capture of their prey: in other words, that
plants actually capture and digest animal food; for
the secretion of Drosera, and other insectivorous
plants, with its ferment-acid belonging to the acetic
series, resembles the gastric juice of animals with its
pepsin and hydrochloric acid. The fact of absorp-
tion demonstrated, it follows that the process would
prove serviceable to plants growing in very poor
soil, and that it would tend to be perfected by
natural selection.
The pleasure Darwin took in observing the hab-
sas. —
il
Observations of Insects. 237
its and ways of insects and the simple and lucid
manner in which he recorded his observations are fre-
quently exemplified in his “‘ Journal of Researches,”
and his account of sundry Brazilian species on page
35, and following, may be consulted as an example.
In the same way that he has influenced all lines of
thought and investigation, he has influenced ento-
mology. We find everywhere in his treatment of
insects the same acute perception, the same candour
and impartiality, the same clearness of expression,
the same aptitude to get at the significance and
bearing of facts observed, as well as the same readi-
ness to deduce a theory, which is only equalled by
the devotion with which he clings to the truth,
whether favourable or unfavourable to the theory.
In the light of Darwinism, insect structure and
habit have come to possess a new significance and
a deeper meaning. It has, in short, proved a new
power to the working entomologist who, for all
- time, will hold in reverence the name of him who,
more than any other man, helped to replace scholas-
ticism by induction, and who gave to the philosophic
study of insects as great an impetus as did Linnzus
to their systematic study.
In his private life Darwin has given us a lesson of
patience, courtesy, and consideration, that will be best
appreciated by those who have the misfortune to be
endowed with more irritable and aggressive natures.
As the above account of Darwin’s entomological
work is doubtless rather uninteresting to most of
those gathered here, I will close, by request, with a
few personal impressions.
238 Charles Darwin.
I have had the pleasure, on two occasions, of visit-
ing Darwin at his invitation. On the first occasion,
in the summer of 1871, I was accompanied by Mr. J.
Jenner Wier, one of his life-long friends and admir-
ers. From Mr. Wier I first learned that Darwin was,
in one sense, virtually a confirmed invalid, and that
his work had been done under physical difficulties
which would have rendered most men of indepen-
dent means vapid, self-indulgent, and useless members
of society.
It is eloquent of the indomitable will and perse-
verance of the man that, during the long voyage on
the Beagle, he suffered so from sea-sickness that he
never fully recovered from the shock to his system,
and could not again venture on the ocean. He had,
in fact, on his return from the voyage, to go through
a long course of hydropathic treatment. We also
now know that though he had suffered much for
some months past from weakness and recurring fits
of faintness, and had been confined to the house, yet -
as late as Tuesday evening before the day of his
death, at 4 P.M., Wednesday, he was in his study
examining a plant which he had had brought to him,
and that he read that night before retiring, while as
late as the 16th of March, he read two papers on
special botanical subjects before the Linnzan Society.
The village of Down is fifteen miles south-east of
London, four miles from Orpington station on the
South-Eastern Railway. The country is among the
most beautiful agricultural suburbs of London, and
I shall never forget the impression of peaceful, quiet
seclusion experienced, as we drove from the station
ear >.
. TF
fis Appearance. 239
and finally through one of those characteristic Eng-
lish lanes, just wide enough for one vehicle, and
worn down several feet below the general level—the
sense of confinement being enhanced by the lux-
uriant hedge on either side. This lane skirts the
orchard wall for one hundred yards and then goes in
front of the house, from which it is separated by a
grass plot and flint wall overgrown with ivy.
The Darwin residence is a plain, but spacious, old-
fashioned house of the style so common in England,
and which, with the surrounding well-kept grounds
and conservatory, conveys that impression of ease
and comfort that belong to the average home of the
English country-gentleman. A noticeable feature
is a bow window extending through three stories
and covered with trellis and creepers. In Darwinian
phrase, the environment was favourable for just such
calm study and concentration as he found necessary
to his health and his researches.
Upon introduction I was at once struck with his
stature (which was much above the average, and I
should say fully six feet), his ponderous brow, and
long white beard—the moustache being cut on a line
with the lips and slightly brown from the habit of
snuff-taking. His deep-set eyes were light blue-gray.
He made the impression of a powerful man re-
duced somewhat by sickness. The massive brow
and forehead show in his later photographs, but not
so conspicuously as in a life-size head of him when
‘ _ younger, which hung in the parlour.
In the brief hours I then spent at Down the pro-
_ verbial modesty and singular simplicity and sweet-
240 Charles Darwin.
ness of his character were apparent, while the delight
he manifested in stating facts of interest was excelled
only by the eagerness with which he sought them from
others, whether while strolling through the green-
house or sitting round the generously spread table.
Going to him as a young entomologist with no
claim’ on his favour, he seemed to take delight in
manifesting appreciation. I had occasion, in my
“Third Report on the Insects of Missouri,” pub-
lished in the spring of that year, to discuss the ques-
tion of natural selection in its bearings on mimicry,
as exemplified in two of our North American but-
terflies (Danas archippus and Limenttis disippus ).
This report I found in his study with many leaves
turned down, and he appeared to take especial
pleasure in conveying a sense of his appreciation of
particular parts.
The few letters which I received from Darwin were
in his own handwriting, which was rapid and better
calculated to save time than to facilitate the reading.
I take the liberty of reproducing here the first and
last as indicating his attitude toward all workers in
the field of natural science, however humble or how-
ever undeserving of his praise they may have been ;
and this generous trait in his character will explain,
in some measure, the stimulus and encouragement
which he gave to investigators :
Down,
June 1, [1871.] BECKENHAM, KENT.
My DEar Sir: I received some little time ago
your “ Report on Noxious Insects,” and have now —
read the whole with the greatest interest. There is
a vast number of facts and generalisations of value
Letters to Mr. Riley. 241
to me, and I am struck with admiration at your
power of observation. The discussion on mimetic
insects seems to me particularly good and original.
Pray accept my cordial thanks for the instruction
and interest which I have received.
What a loss to natural science our poor mutual
friend, Walsh, has been: it is a loss ever to be
deplored.
Pray believe me, with much respect,
Yours, very faithfully,
CH. DARWIN.
Down,
SEPTEMBER 28, 1881. BECKENHAM, KENT.
My DEAR Mr. RILEY: I must write half-a-dozen
lines to say how much interested I have been by
your “ Further Notes ” on Pronuba, which you were
so kind as to send me. I had read the various
criticisms, and though I did not know what answer
would be made, yet I felt full of confidence in the
result, and now I see I was right.
If you make any further observation on Pronuba
it would, I think, be well worth while for you to ob-
serve whether the moth can or does occasionally
bring pollen from one plant to the stigma of a
distinct one; for I have shown that the cross-fertili-
sation of the flowers on the same plant does very
little good, and, if I am not mistaken, you believe
that the Pronuba gathers pollen from the same
flower which she fertilises.*
* This is a misapprehension. Pronuba is an effectual cross-fertiliser,
running from flower to flower, and often flying from raceme to raceme
with one and the same load of pollen. The omitted passages in this
letter — to the work of a gentleman still living.
I
~
242 Charles Darwin.
What interesting and beautiful observations you
have made on the metamorphoses of the grasshopper-
destroying insects!
Believe me, my dear sir,
Yours sincerely,
CH. DARWIN.
My own experience in this regard is the common
experience, for an interest in natural science was an
open sesame to his generous soul. His considera-
tion, without aggression, was the secret of the grati-
tude and respect which all felt who had the honour
to know him, either personally or tones corre-
spondence.
His approval of the work of others was coupled
with a depreciation of his own, which was very
marked on the occasion of my second visit to Eu-
rope, in 1875, when I crossed the ocean with his son
Leonard on his way from the Transit of Venus ex-
pedition. ‘ Insectivorous Plants’”’ was just finished,
and Darwin was worn and in feeble health, staying, in
fact, at Abinger Hall for rest. He was quite dis-
gusted with the book, to use his son’s expression,
and doubted whether it could prove of sufficient
interest, with its long and dry records of experiments,
to be read by anyone.
DARWIN AS A BOTANIST.
By LESTER F. WARD, A.M., LL.D.,
Hon. Curator Department of Fossil Plants, U.S, National Museum; Paleo-
botanist U. S. Geological Survey.
Appointed by the committee to furnish a brief
sketch on this occasion of the contributions of
As a Botanist. 243
Charles Darwin to the science of plants, I have pur-
posely chosen the title, ‘Darwin as a Botanist,” in
order to emphasise the contrast which may be
drawn between different classes of botanists, and to
do what I can to accustom the public mind to asso-
ciate with the terms Jotanzst and botany certain great
fields of investigation which are now rarely sug-
gested by these words.
If I had entitled my paper: Darwin’s researches
into the phenomena of the vegetable kingdom, I
fear it might not have occurred to some of you that
this great investigator was a botanist, as he is not
generally known as such. Yet I fail to see why the
science of botany is not fully entitled to receive its
share of the dignity and the lustre which Darwin’s
investigations have reflected upon biology in general.
The popular idea of botany, however, is very dif-
ferent from this. Not ignorant people alone, but
scientific men as well, place all botanists under
two general classes: “field botanists’’ and “ closet
botanists.”
The field botanist is one who,.being passionately
fond of plants, and having mastered the rudiments
of botany and become familiar with the names and
classification of plants, searches the country for new
and rare species, and for new localities for old ones,
and makes large collections. Success in these ob-.
jects is his triumph, and occasionally becoming the
proud discoverer of hitherto unknown forms of
vegetable life, he finds the scientific world quick
and generous in awarding him due credit.
The closet botanist is one who, disdaining the
244 Charles Darwin.
boyish pursuit of flowers, devotes himself to the
study of the characters of plants as revealed by the
herbarium specimens which the field botanist so
copiously furnishes, and by which method he, too,
can discover “ new species,’ and obtain prompt rec-
ognition. The closet botanist performs the further
useful service of “revising” intricate families and
genera of plants, unravelling the entanglements of
previous authors, and making such changes in the
classification and names as are best suited to secure
the maximum personal credit.
I need not tell this audience that Chate Darwin
belonged to neither of these classes of botanists. A
lover of nature, he yet never wasted precious time
in the idle pursuit of rarities. Thoroughly familiar
with the distinctive characters upon which botanical
classification rests, he yet never pursued to any
marked extent the investigation of specimens from
the hortus siccus. I doubt whether a single species
of plant was ever named after him by reason of his
having either discovered it in a wild state or de-
tected its specific distinctness by the examination of
its characters. I even doubt whether he possessed
an herbarium in the accepted sense of the word.
And yet this man has probably contributed more
to our real knowledge of plants than any other single
botanist.
In what, then, have Darwin’s botanical investiga-
tions consisted ?
There is a little French book entitled “ Voyage
d’un Botaniste dans sa Maison,” a title which, allow-
ing for the characteristic hyperbole of the French
ee ee
eats
Study of Plants. 245
tongue, suggests the general nature of Darwin's
botanical studies. His researches were conducted in
his laboratory, in pots of plants at his window, in
his aquarium, in his greenhouse, in his garden. He
worked with instruments of precision, recorded his
observations with exactness, and employed every
mechanical device for making his results reveal im-
portant truths of which the genius of man would
seem to be capable.
Darwin looked upon plants as /iving things. He
did not study their forms so much as their actzons.
He interrogated them to learn what they were dozng.
The central truth, towards which his botanical in-
vestigations constantly tended, was that of the uni-
versal activity of the vegetable kingdom-—that all
plants move and act. He has, so to speak, animated
the vegetable world. He has shown that whichever
kingdom of organic nature we contemplate, to Ave
is to move.
He blandly rebukes the vulgar notion that “plants
are distinguished from animals by not having the
power of movement,” and still more modestly says
that “plants acquire and display this power only
when it is of some advantage to them.” But is
this the whole? Do animals display this power
except when it is of some advantage to them?
Certainly not.
Darwin shows us that certain parts of all plants
are at all times in motion; not merely the molecu-
lar activities of their tissues and of the living pro-
toplasm in their cells, but organised movement of
parts. Every leaf, every tendril, every rootlet, pos-
246 Charles Darwin.
sesses the power of spontaneous movement, and
under nearly all circumstances actually exercises
that power.
There are a great many distinct kinds of move-
ment, depending in all cases upon the special ad-
vantages thereby gained to the plant. The laws
under which these movements take place have re-
ceived from him an admirable terminology. Most
of them are conditioned either by light, by gravity,
by radiation, or by insect agency.
We thus have of the first class: heliotropism, or
movement towards the light; apheliotropism, or
movement from the light ; dahelotropism, or move-
ment at right angles to the source of light; and
paraheliotropism, embracing such movements as
screen the plant from excess of light.
To the second class belong: geotropism, or move-
ment towards the earth or into the soil; apogeo-
tropism, or movement contrary to the force of
gravity; and diageotropism, or movement at right
angles to the force of gravity.
The third class embraces the so-called nyctotropic
movements of plants by which they appear to sleep,
and which prove to be devices for the prevention of
excessive radiation of the plants’ heat.
Under the fourth class fall all those wonderful
movements which aid the plant in preventing self-
and securing cross-fertilisation, a subject of the most
absorbing interest, and of which you have already
listened to so able a presentation by Professor Riley
from the point of view of the entomologist.
But Darwin’s great service has been to show that
Circumnutation. 247
these varieties of activity are simply modes in
which inherent and spontaneous activities manifest
themselves under these varying external influences.
His preliminary investigations into the nature of
these innate powers of movement were directed to
that large class of plants known as twiners and
climbers, whose revolving motions were so thor-
oughly described in his work on “ Climbing Plants.”
It was here that he laid the foundation for those
later studies which eventually resulted in that great
work, almost his last, on the “‘ Power of Movement
in Plants.” In this work he demonstrates by an
enormous induction that the ample sweeps of the
twining plant are but the most obvious manifesta-
tions of a class of phenomena which are common to
the entire vegetable kingdom.
- Amid the varied forms of movement which plants
present, Darwin has succeeded in finding one funda-
mental and generic one to which every other may
be referred. To this universal form of plant activity
he gives the name “circumnutation.” Not only
twining stems and tendrils, but parts of flowers, tips
of growing shoots, caps of penetrating roots and
rootlets, radicles, epicotyls, cotyledons, and even
full-grown leaves, are incessantly describing circles,
ellipses, and other more or less regular geometrical
figures; and he conclusively shows that it is out of
this primary form of activity that all the more
specialised forms already mentioned have been de-
veloped. All movements of the parts of plants are
thus to be interpreted as modified forms of this
innate periodic circumnutation which is common to
248 Charles Darwin.
all plant life. Such modifications-are always in the
direction of the plant’s sdheantace, cca be so
great as to become difficult of recognition as forms
of circumnutation.
/ Ineed not labour to convince you that any modi-
fication which is an advantage to the plant will be
/ secured by the process of natural selection. It is the
;
|
4
glory of the great genius whose labours we are here
to commemorate to have demonstrated this truth to
\ the entire satisfaction of the united scientific world.
Darwin has actually solved the great problem of
phytology, so long supposed to be incapable of solu-
tion, viz.: Why does the root grow downward and
the stem upward? Briefly and roughly stated, the
answer to this question is that, as the bursting seed
pushes out its two germinal points these circumnu-
tate from the first, and thus explore their surround-
ings for the means of benefiting the plant. To
employ Darwin’s own word, they “ perceive” the
advantage that would result from the penetration of
the soil on the one hand, and from the ascent into
the free air and sunlight on the other, and through
the pre-Darwinian law of the “ physiological division
of labour,” the one becomes geotropic and the other
heliotropic—the one develops into a radicle and
then into a root, while the other develops into an
epicotyl and then into a stem.
I will only add to the thoughts already presented,
that Darwin’s discovery of the existence in all plants
of an innate and spontaneous mobility belonging to
them as forms of organic life possesses an important
ulterior significance.
Se LOO a RS Se mae ae oc es Aamo
Aue
Tie
Tendency to Vary. 249
The law of natural selection, as a fundamental
process, has long since passed the stage of discussion.
But there has always remained one unsettled ques-
tion lying at its very base, which Darwin himself
admitted to be an open one. That question con-
cerns the cause itself of variation. It is granted
that, admitting the tendency to vary, all the results
claimed for natural selection must follow ; but many
declare that, in this very tendency to vary, there is a
mystery as great as the mystery of life itself.
It is only in this work on the “ Power of Move-
ment in Plants ” that Darwin has really assailed this
last fortress of supernaturalism. Not that he has
avowed any such purpose, for of this he would have
been incapable, but so skilfully and so powerfully
has he marshalled the facts that the conclusion fol-
lows without being stated. No one can doubt that
he perceived this, and I, for one, am convinced that
he saw it from afar, and that it was the great end of
his labours ; but with his characteristic wisdom he has
declined to invoke the odium theologicum, correctly
judging that the truth must ultimately assert itself.
The tendency to vary, then, is a mechanical result
of the proved fact of universal movement coupled
. with the admitted law of natural selection. By
means of the former all plants and growing parts of
plants are perpetually exploring their immediate
surroundings in search, as it were, for conditions
favourable to development. By means of the latter
they are able to avail themselves of such favourable
conditions when found. Nothing further than this
is required to complete the natural explanation of all
250 Charles Darwin.
the phenomena presented by the organic world, and
thus, at last, the whole domain of biology is eman-
cipated from teleological fetters, and placed on the
high plane of rational investigation.
In conclusion, let me simply say that, while we
can but deeply mourn the irreparable loss which
science has sustained in the death of Charles Dar-
win, we have still the highest grounds for congratu-
lation in the fact that he lived to complete that
great work which, next to the “ Origin of Species,”
will, I firmly believe, be awarded by posterity the
highest place, viz.: “The Power of Movement in
Plants”; for, while the former auspiciously opened
the great debate by stating the profoundest of all
biological problems, the latter has fittingly closed the
argument by answering the last objection.
' DARWIN ON THE EXPRESSION OF THE EMOTIONS.
By FRANK BAKER, M.D.
From the tendency of the imagination to magnify
the unknown and remote, arises a popular error that
to attain eminence a man of science must be able to
gather facts from great distances—from the sources
of the Nile, and from polar snows. But the near and
commonplace are subject to the same laws as the
atoms of interstellar space, and true scientific insight
may discover in the very dust under our feet secrets
hitherto concealed.
Darwin’s work upon the “ Expression of the Emo-
tions” is continuous with and supplementary to his
larger and better-known treatise on the “‘ Descent of
ne.
Emotional Expression. 251
Man.” As with other matter bearing directly upon
_ the development hypothesis, its publication was de-
ferred as long as possible, in order that the evidence
might be fully weighed. Projected in 1838, it was
not published until thirty-five years later. One class
of objections to the hypothesis was not considered
in the main work. It was generally held that, by his
emotional expression, man was widely separated
from the lower animals. The eminent anatomist,
Duchenne, who remains to-day the best authority on
muscular movements, merely expressed the views
of the time when he stated that no cause could be
assigned for facial expression, except the “divine
fantasy” of the Great Artificer.
f Having projected his work, how does Darwin a)
ceed? From the gentlemen who have preceded me
you have learned of his methods. To test the truth
of his conceptions he commences a series of _most
Gufnute and careful observationsomitting-nothing!
wi in his reach. His most important field is that
which is nearest; his own children, his friends and
companions, even the dogs that accompany his daily
walks, come under that powerful scrutiny. Where,
indeed, can we find so perfect an observer? The
calm sanity of his mind keeps him equally aloof from
egotism and from self-depreciation. A fact is a fact,
to be stated with the fairness and openness of per-
fect daylight. Here isaman whocares more for the
truth than for himself. The black spot in man’s
sunshine, the shadow of himself, seems non-existent
forhim. He stands by his work, that is enough; if
it has worth, well—if not, still well; the elemental
252 Charles Darwin.
drift of action and reaction will continue, the out-
come will still be good. As Carlyle has said, “A
noble unconsciousness is in him. He does not en-
grave truth on his watch-seal; no, but he stands by
truth, speaks by it, works and lives by it.”
But not as a fact gatherer do we find him greatest.
Many others have struggled with ant-like toil to
amass piles of facts which, like the ant-heap, remain
but sand after all. Darwin brings to his work an in-
forming spirit, the genius of scientific hypothesis.
Breathed upon by this spirit, the dry bones of fact
come together “bone to his bone,” the sinews and
the flesh come upon them, they become alive and
stand upon their feet “an exceeding great army.”
He searches always for the principles which underlie
the facts and make them possible, realising that the
phenomena, the things which are seen, are temporal
and transitory; the things which are not seen, the
cosmical forces which govern and control, are eternal.
In his examination of the expression of the emo-
tions he found that both in man and animals they
can be referred to three general principles which may
be termed habit, antithesis, and nervous overflow.
By habit, or repetition, serviceable movements be-
come fixed—involuntary, or semi-voluntary. By
antithesis, opposite frames of mind are expressed by
opposite actions, even though those actions may not
be serviceable. The theory of nervous overflow is
that unusual quantities of force generated by the
cerebro-spinal system are discharged by unusual
channels of expression when the ordinary channels
are insufficient.
ath, ast
aay W- =]
poe non
eh aglaw
a Be ys
ih
_ Expressions of Grief. 253
}
q =~,
_- He finds that emotional expressions are generally |
| ince consequences of anatomical structure, and |
clearly shows the interdependence of anatomy and |
physiology. For structure can no more be divorced —
from function than matter can be dissociated from —
force. All the complex expressions of grief—from ©
the twitching of the eyelids and mouth to the shed- |
ding of tears—he has shown to depend upon the
necessity for preventing engorgement of the eyes >
during screaming, an act originally useful solely to
attract attention. The steps by which he arrived at
this conclusion are typical of his method. Starting
first with animals, he finds that their expressions of |
_ grief are much less complex and various than those |
_ of man. They are confined to noises, such as scream-
ing, barking, whining, in higher forms accompanied
by changes in facial expression, particularly by con-
_ traction of the muscles surrounding the eye. There
is a physiological necessity for this, as otherwise the
expiratory effort caused by screaming might engorge
_ and rupture the small ocular blood-vessels. By press-
_ ing on the lachrymal gland this causes, in some of
_ the higher animals, a flow of tears. What at first
' was accidental, merely occasioned by the proximity
_ of the gland, becomes at last habitual, and the nerv-
ous force automatically follows the line of its accus-
- tomed action, causing a flow of tears after emotional
excitement, even though no screaming take place.
The correctness of this view is supported by the fact
that infants do not shed tears until several weeks
old, although they scream violently. The function
activity of the lachrymal gland, in connection with
sas —
oe 2 ean)
254 Charles Darwin.
grief, is, therefore, later in phylogenetic, develop-
ment. The laws of heredity and adaptation are
found to be operating here, as elsewhere, in the
domain of life; the supposed gap between the emo-
tions of man and of other animals is successfully
bridged over, and another anthropocentric fallacy is
consigned to the limbo of ignorant superstitions.
Many expressions of the lower emotions are found
to be disfiguring vestiges of acts useful to lower
animals for offence and defence, or for obtaining
food. - These survive—relics of the previous history
of our race—as rudimentary organs are preserved
long after their use has ceased. The erection of the
hair during fear is remotely derived from the same
cause that makes puss bristle when attacked and the
puff adder swell out when approached. Originally
used for the purpose of exciting fear in an enemy by
an increase of size, it now involuntarily accompanies
the somewhat changed emotion of which some of the
phases are extinct. It is not very rare to find per-
sons who can make the hair over the front of the
head bristle at will. Rage is habitually expressed by
uncovering the teeth, which is, in the lower animals,
an attempt to frighten their enemies by a show of
weapons. This expression may become softened
and modified to express the milder emotions of con-
tempt and disdain. I have met a lady who has to
perfection the rather rare accomplishment mentioned
by Darwin of drawing up the upper lip in a triangu-
lar notch directly over the canine teeth so as to dis-
play them alone, usually on one side at a time.
This most expressive gesture of disdain can be per-
a a
~
Blushing. | 255
_ formed under the influence of the emotions by many
who cannot do it at will.
__ Of an opposite class are certain higher expressions,
which, having arisen later, are not yet entirely fixed.
Blushing is one of the most curious of these. It is
not found in infants, and varies greatly in frequency
and amount in adults, accompanying the sentiment
of modesty, almost unknown among animals. The
reddening is usually confined to the face and neck.
Darwin suggests an ingenious explanation for this.
The blood-vessels most exposed to variations of tem-
perature acquire the habit of expanding and contract-
ing—their vaso-motor nerves become more sensitive.
The chief expression of personal appearance is in the
face; the attention of the mind is, therefore, directed
there whenever the emotion of modesty is aroused.
This interferes with the ordinary tonic contraction
of the blood-vessels, and an excess of blood suffuses ~
the surface.
A remarkable confirmation of Darwin’s views is
the recent discovery of localised centres in the brain
which control emotional expression, and exist in
animals as well as in man. It may some time be
possible to read the currents and counter-currents of
the brain by means of feature-play with a precision
approaching that by which we estimate the force of
a distant battery by the play of a galvanometer
needle. Many phenomena of expression,. which.
were obscure before this discovery, can now be satis-
factorily explained. Among these are the phenom-
ena of associated movements. It has been stated
that the variety and complexity of the movements
256 Charles Darwin.
involved in the simple act of walking are such that it
would be impossible ever to perform it were it
necessary to think what had to be done, and weigh
in the judgment the precise amount of force neces-
sary to distribute to each muscle at each moment of
the act. It is now known that the cerebral centres
which control the separate muscles put in action are
closely contiguous in the brain, and that they prob.
ably intercommunicate and excite each other in a
definite manner, predetermined by habit and hered-
ity. The conscious mind has only to set in motion
the subordinate apparatus, when it goes on, and
works out the problem with matchless skill, like the
system of cogs and eccentrics that produce the intri-
cate pattern in an engraver’s lathe. All have noticed
the uncouth manner in which children and untrained
persons follow with lips and tongue the motions of
their hands when using a tool of any kind.. Darwin
ascribes this to unconscious imitation, but it can be
explained more strictly in accordance with his own
principles. The facial muscles are actuated from a
cerebral centre in close proximity to those which
move the arms and hands. In the lower animals this
is necessary, for the mouth is an organ of prehension,
used in strict association with the fore-limbs in seiz-
ing prey, and in other acts. As this associated move-
ment became strongly fixed by long habit, it survives
with great obstinacy, and though it has not been
useful to the race since the historical period, we have
yet to caution our children not to put their tongues
out when they write.
My limit of time forces me to conclude this hasty
and imperfect summary. The practical bearing of
eg
The « Power of Leasts.” 257
these views is not without importance. Physicians
have always depended greatly upon emotional ex-
_ pression as a means of diagnosis. Unconsciously
_ the face of the patient reveals his physical state.
_ Yet too much has been left in the empirical border-
land of science. Why a certain pathological state
should be indicated by a definite combination of ex-
pressions has not always been clearly shown. To-day
the whole subject is studied from the point of view
of anatomy and physiology. No occult force is ad-
mitted, the correlative nerve-supply of muscles and
_ the effect of excitation of nerve-centres are rationally
investigated.
Aside from the great special value of the work, of
what tremendous import to the race are Darwin’s
deductions! For he has shown us that our every
thought and act mould our physical frames, and
through them the generations yet unborn, either to
beauty and grace, or to uncouth ugliness and de-
formity. As the struggle for existence filled the rocks
with organisms forever extinct, because not for the
highest use, so may we, too, fossilise and outgrow
habits and desires of ignoble birth, ascending by the
“ power of leasts,’”’ by that wondrous calculus of na-
ture, to purer and nobler existence. Darwin has
taught us that the forces which, acting through count-
less cycles, have brought us up from formless slime,
now remain in our hands to use for good or ill—
“* That life is not as idle ore,
But iron dug from central gloom,
And heated hot with burning fears,
And dipt in baths of hissing tears,
And battered with the shocks of doom
For shape and use.”
258 | Charles Darwin.
A DARWINIAN BIBLIOGRAPHY.
BY FREDERICK W. TRUE, M.S.,
Librarian of the U. S, National Museum, and Curator of Department of
Mammals.
The complete bibliography of Darwinism should
contain, not alone the works which emanated from
the busy brain and ready pen of Darwin himself, but
the many other productions which these called into
life. The acquiescences of friends, the objections of
critics, the censures of foes, should all be enrolled in
their proper places as representing the ripples and
counter-ripples in the sea of thought, produced by
the weighty ideas which dropped from the clear
mind of the philosopher. It is not to the merits of
these, however, that I can call your attention, but
only to a few facts relative to the books of Darwin
himself.
I would not have you suppose, if indeed one
could, after the lucid remarks to which you have
listened, that the faulty—and, I fear, almost indis-
cernible—list of published works, which I have
attempted to exhibit before you, reveals more than
a moiety of Darwin’s writings.* A large number of
comprehensive papers, pregnant notes, and incisive
queries are contained in those storehouses of pre-
cise knowledge, the journals of science, and the pub-
lications of learned societies. During more than half
a century, from the beginning of Darwin’s career
to its very close, scarcely a year passed in which a
* The speaker referred to two large scrolls hanging on the lecture-
room walls, upon which were inscribed a list of Darwin’s most im-
portant publications.
Bibliography. 259
_ number of articles did not issue from his pen. His
_ first paper, on the Ova of Flustra, and another of
similar nature were read before the Plinian Society
of Edinburgh in 1825. His last note, on the Dis-
_ tribution of Fresh-Water Bivalves, appeared in Ma-
ture but a few days before his death.
During the first twenty-five years the articles
have mostly a geological and zodlogical bearing, but
later botanical and anthropological subjects come
into prominence. They were contributed to many
publications, including a few American, German, and
French journals. The mass of papers, however, are
to be found in the Proceedings and Transactions
of the Geological Society of London, the Philo-
sophical Transactions, the Philosophical Magazine,
the Annals and Magazine of Natural History, and
Nature.
It is in these papers that we first find the germs
of many of those more elaborate works to which
general attention has been attracted. Thus the
works on the “Origin of Species,” the “ Fertilisa-
tion of Plants by Insects,’ the “Action of Earth-
Worms,” and others, were foreshadowed at a time
considerably antedating their final appearance.
Darwin seemed to prefer to work out and write
out his ideas alone. Once at least, however, he
shared the toil with his friend, Mr. Wallace, and
_ later, in several instances, with his sons Francis and
_ George Darwin.
Regarding the separately published works of Dar-
_ win there is much of interest from the bibliographi-
_ cal point of view. The conscientiousness with which
260 | Charles Darwin.
the author profited by the criticisms of others, revis-
ing, improving, and extending his generalisations,
makes each new edition seem like a separate pro-
duction. Whole chapters were stricken out and
new ones inserted; facts of doubtful character were
replaced by others of a more positive nature and
more recent acquisition.
Time forbids that I should refer to the details of
publication of more than one work. The inquiring
student will find his wants satisfied in the several
lists which have already been published.
I will give the history of but one work, the most
important of all, the “ Origin of Species by Means
of Natural Selection.” The first edition of this work
received the signature of the author on November
24, 1859, and was published the same year. The
second edition, which appeared soon after, “was
little more than a reprint of the first.” “The third
edition was largely corrected and added to, and the
fourth and fifth still more largely.” The sixth edi-
tion, which appeared in 1872, was likewise largely
amended, and had reached its twenty thousand in
1878. In the meantime foreign editions and trans-
lations began to appear. The American and French
editions at first kept pace with the English, the sec-
ond American being from the second English, and
the third French from the third English. The Ger-
mans, coming in a little later, published their second
edition from the third English, and their third
from the fourth English one. The last editions in all
these languages were derived, I believe, from the
sixth English one. “ The Italian is from the third,
.
‘7
e
>
be
ee ae ees to ead
Bibliography. 261
the Dutch and three Russian editions from the sec-
_ ond English editions, and the Swedish from the fifth
_ English edition.”
At least twelve of the more important works
_ have been issued in one or more editions in Ger-
_ man and French, and a number in other European
_ languages as well.
The sage of Down was undoubtedly honest in his
surprise at the ever-extending circle of his influence.
A wider and more intelligent audience could scarcely
be desired. The number of books in which his
opinions are discussed or alluded to is legion. As
the illustrious Asa Gray has remarked: “ Dante
literature and Shakespeare literature have been the
growth of centuries, but Darwinism filled teeming
catalogues during the lifetime of the author.”
APPENDIX.
LIST OF WORKS BY CHARLES DARWIN.
Narrative of the Surveying Voyages of her Majesty’s Ships Adven-
ture and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their
examination of the southern shores of South America, and the
Beagile's circumnavigation of the globe. Vol. iii., Journal and Re-
marks, 1832-36. By Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1839.
Journal of Researches into the Natural Ilistory and Geology of the
countries visited during the voyage of H. M. S. Beagle round the
world, under the command of Capt. Fitz-Roy, R. N. 2d edition,
corrected, with additions. 8vo. London, 1845. (Colonial and Home
Library.)
A Naturalist’s Voyage. Journal of Researches, etc. 8vo. London,
1860. [Contains a postscript dated Feb. 1, 1860.]
Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Edited and superin-
tended by Charles Darwin. Part I., Fossil Mammalia, by Richard
Owen. With a Geological Introduction, by Charles Darwin. 4to.
London, 1840.
Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M. S. Beagle. Part II., Mammalia,
by George R. Waterhouse. With a Notice of their Habits and Ranges,
by Charles Darwin. 4to. London, 1839.
Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part III., Birds, by
John Gould. An ‘“‘ Advertisemen®” (2 pp.) states that, in conse-
quence of Mr. Gould’s having left England for Australia, many
descriptions were supplied by Mr. G. R. Gray of the British Museum.
4to. London, 1841.
Zoblogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part IV., Fish, by
Rey. Leonard Jenyns. 4to. London, 1842.
263
264 Charles Darwin.
Zodlogy of the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Part V., Reptiles,
by Thomas Bell. 4to. London, 1843.
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. Being the First
Part of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London,
1842.
The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs. 2d edition. 8vo.
London, 1874.
Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands visited during
the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. Being the Second Part of the
Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London, 1844.
Geological Observations on South America. Being the Third Part
of the Geology of the Voyage of the Beagle. 8vo. London, 1846.
Geological Observations on the Volcanic Islands and parts of
South America visited during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle. 2d
edition. 8vo. London, 1876.
A Monograph of the Fossil Lepadidz ; or, Pedunculated Cir-
ripedes of Great Britain. 4to. London, 1851. (Palzeontographical
Society.)
A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the
Species. The Lepadidz ; or, Pedunculated Cirripedes. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1851. (Ray Society.)
A Monograph of the Sub-class Cirripedia, with Figures of all the
Species. The Balanide (or Sessile Cirripedes) ; the Verrucidz, etc.
8vo. London, 1854. (Ray Society.)
A Monograph of the Fossil Balanide and Verrucide of Great
Britain. 4to. London, 1854. (Palzontographical Society.)
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1859. (Dated October 1, 1859, published November 24, 1859.)
On the Origin of Species by means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. Fifth
thousand. 8vo. London, 1860.
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 3d edition,
with additions and corrections. (Seventh thousand.). 8vo. London,
1861. (Dated March, 1861.)
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 4th
edition, with additions and corrections. (Eighth thousand.) 8vo,
London 1866. (Dated June, 1866.)
FRA Oe
Appendix. 265
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 5th
edition, with additions and corrections. (Tenth thousand.) 8vo.
London, 1869. (Dated May, 1869.)
On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. 6th
edition, with additions and corrections to 1872. (Twenty-fourth
thousand.) 8vo. London, 1882. (Dated January, 1872.)
On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilised by
Insects. 8vo. London, 1862.
The Various Contrivances by which Orchids are Fertilised by In-
sects. 2dedition. 8vo. London, 1887. [In the second edition the
word ‘‘ On” is omitted from the title. ]
The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants. 2d edition.
8vo. London, 1875. [First appeared in the ninth volume of the
Fournal of the Linnean Society.]
_ The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2
vols. 8vo. London, 1868.
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication. 2d
edition, revised. 2vols. 8vo. London, 1875.
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2 vols.
8vo. London, 1871.
The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2d
edition. 8vo. London, 1874. (In 1 vol.)
The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. 8vo. Lon-
don, 1872.
Insectivorous Plants. 8vo. London, 1875.
The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable
Kingdom. 8vo. London, 1876.
The Effects of Cross- and Self-Fertilisation in the Vegetable
Kingdom. 2d edition. 8vo. London, 1878.
The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species.
8vo. London, 1877.
The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species.
2d edition. 8vo. London, 1880.
The Power of Movement in Plants. By Charles Darwin, assisted
by Francis Darwin. 8vo. London, 1880.
The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Action of Worms,
with Observations on their Habits. 8vo. London, 1881.
266 Charles Darwin.
LIST OF BOOKS CONTAINING CONTRIBUTIONS BY
CHARLES DARWIN.
A Manual of Scientific Enquiry ; Prepared for the Use of Her
Majesty’s Navy ; and Adapted for Travellers in General. Ed. by Sir
John F. W. Herschel, Bart.” 8vo. London, 1849. (Section VI.
Geology. By Charles Darwin.)
Memoir of the Rev. John Stevens Henslow. By the Rev. Leonard
Jenyns. 8vo. London, 1862. [In Chapter III., Recollections by
C. Darwin. ]
A letter (1876) on the ‘‘ Drift” near Southampton, published in
Prof. J. Geikie’s ‘‘ Prehistoric Europe.”
Flowers and Their Unbidden Guests. By A. Kerner. Witha Pref-
atory letter by Charles Darwin. The translation revised and edited
by W. Ogle. 8vo, London, 1878.
Erasmus Darwin. By Ernst Krause. Translated from the German
by W. S. Dallas. With a Preliminary Notice by Charles Darwin.
8vo. London, 1879.
Studies in the Theory of Descent. By Aug. Weismann. Trans-
lated and edited by Raphael Meldola. With a Prefatory Notice by
Charles Darwin. 8vo. London, 1880—.
The Fertilisation of Flowers. By Hermann Miiller. Translated
and edited by D’Arcy W. Thompson. With a Preface by Charles
Darwin. 8vo. London, 1883.
Mental Evolution in Animals. By G. J. Romanes. With a
Posthumous Essay on Instinct by Charles Darwin, 1883. [Also pub-
lished in the Yournal of the Linnean Society.]
Some Notes on a curious habit of male humble bees were sent to
Prof. Hermann Miller, of Lippstadt, who had permission from Mr.
Darwin to make what use he pleased of them. After Miiller’s death
the Notes were given by his son to Dr. E. Krause, who published
them under the title, ‘‘ Ueber die Wege der Hummel-Mannchen”’ in
his book, ‘‘ Gesammelte kleinere Schriften von Charles Darwin” (1886).
LIST OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS, INCLUDING A SELEC-
TION OF LETTERS AND SHORT COMMUNICATIONS
TO SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS.
Letters to Professor Henslow, read by him at the meeting of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, held Nov. 16, 1835. 31 pp. 8vo.
Privately printed for distribution among the members of the Society. —
Appendix. 267
Geological Notes Made During a Survey of the East and West Coasts
of South America in the Years 1832, 1833, 1834, and 1835 ; with an
account of a transverse section of the Cordilleras of the Andes between
Valparaiso and Mendoza. [Read Nov. 18, 1835.] Geol. Soc. Proc.,
ii., 1838, pp. 210-212. [This Paper is incorrectly described in Geol.
Soc. Proc., ii., p. 210, as follows: ‘‘ Geological Notes, etc., by F.
Darwin, Esq., of St. John’s College, Cambridge : communicated by
Prof. Sedgwick.” It is Indexed under C. Darwin.]
Notes upon the Rhea Americana. Zodl. Soc. Proc., Part V., 1837,
Ppp- 35, 36.
Observations of Proofs of Recent Elevation on the Coast of Chili,
Made During the Survey of H.M.S. Seagiz, Commanded by Capt.
Fitz-Roy. [1837.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 446-449.
A Sketch of the Deposits Containing Extinct Mammalia in the
Neighbourhood of the Plata. [1837.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838,
Pp- 542-544.
On Certain Areas of Elevation and Subsidence in the Pacific and
Indian Oceans, as Deduced from the Study of Coral Formations.
[1837-] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 552-554.
On the Formation of Mould. [Read Nov. 1, 1837.] Geol. Soc.
Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 574-576; Geol. Soc. Trans., v., 1840, pp.
505-510.
On the Connexion of Certain Volcanic Phenomena and on the For-
mation of Mountain-chains and the Effects of Continental Elevations.
[Read March 7, 1838.] Geol. Soc. Proc., ii., 1838, pp. 654-660;
Geol. Soc. Trans., v., 1840, pp. 601-632. [In the Society’s Trans-
actions the wording of the title is slightly different. ]
Origin of Saliferous Deposits. Salt Lakes of Patagonia and La
Plata. Geol. Soc. Fourn., ii. (Part I1.), 1838, pp. 127-128.
Note on a Rock Seen on an Iceberg in 16° South Latitude. Geogr.
Soc. Fourn., ix., 1839, pp. 528, 529.
Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts
of Lochaber in Scotland ; with an attempt to prove that they are of
marine origin. Phil. Trans., 1839, pp. 39-82.
On a Remarkable Bar of Sandstone off Pernambuco, on the Coast
of Brazil. Pil. Mag., xix., 1841, pp. 257-260.
On the Distribution of the Erratic Boulders and on the Contem-
poraneous Unstratified Deposits of South America. [1841.] Geol.
Soc. Proc., iii., 1842, pp. 425-430 ; Geol. Soc. Trans., vi., 1842, pp.
415-452.
268 Charles Darwin.
Notes on the Effects Produced by the Ancient Glaciers of Caernar-
vonshire, and on the Boulders Transported by Floating Ice. London
Philosoph. Mag., vol. xxi., p. 180, 1842.
Remarks on the Preceding Paper, in a Letter from Charles Darwin,
Esq., to Mr. Maclaren. Zaind. New Phil. Fourn., xxxiv., 1843. pp.
47-50. [The ‘‘ preceding” paper is : ‘‘ On Coral Islands and Reefs as
described by Mr. Darwin. By Charles Maclaren, Esq., F.R.S.E.”]
Observations on the Structure and Propagation of the Genus Sagitfa.
Ann, and Mag. Nat. Hist., xiii., 1844, pp. 1-6.
Brief Descriptions of several Terrestrial Planaricz, and of Some Re-
markable Marine Species, with an Account of their Habits. An,
and Mag. Nat. Hist., xiv., 1844, pp. 241-251.
An Account of the Fine Dust which often falls on Vessels in the
Atlantic Ocean. Geol, Soc. Fourn., ii., 1846, pp. 26-30.
On the Geology of the Falkland Islands. Geol. Soc. Fourn., ii.,
1846, pp. 267-274.
A review of Waterhouse’s ‘‘ Natural History of the Mammalia.”
[Not signed.] Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1847, vol. xix. p. 53.
On the Transportal of Erratic Boulders from a lower to a higher
level. Geol. Soc. Fourn., iv., 1848, pp. 315-323.
On British Fossil Lepadide. Geol. Soc. Fourn., vi., 1850, pp.
439,440. [The G. S. % says: ‘‘ This paper was withdrawn by the
author with the permission of the Council.”]
Analogy of the Structure of Some Volcanic Rocks with that of
Glaciers. Edinb. Roy. Soc. Proc., ii., 1851, pp. 17, 18.
On the Power of Icebergs to Make Rectilinear, Uniformly-directed
Grooves across a Submarine Undulatory Surface. PAil. Mag., x.
1855, pp. 96-98.
Vitality of Seeds. Gardeners’ Chronicle, Nov. 17, 1855, p. 758.
On the Action of Sea-water on the Germination of Seeds. [1856.]
Linn. Soc. Fourn., i., 1857 (Botany), pp. 130-140.
On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of Papilionaceous
Flowers. Gardeners’ Chronicle, p. 725, 1857.
On the Tendency of Species to Form Varieties ; and on the Per-
petuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection.
By Charles Darwin, Esq., F.R.S., F.L.S., and F.G.S., and Alfred
Wallace, Esq. [Read July 1st, 1858.] ourn. Linn, Soc., 1859,
vol. iii. (Zodlogy), p. 45.
Special titles of C. Darwin’s contributions to the foregoing: (i.) Ex-
tract from an Unpublished Work on Species by C. Darwin, +, con-
Appendix. 269
sisting of a portion of a chapter entitled, On the Variation of Or-
ganic Beings in a State of Nature ; on the Natural Means of Selection ;
on the Comparison of Domestic Races and true Species. (ii.) Ab-
stract of a Letter from C. Darwin, Esq., to Professor Asa Gray, of
Boston, U.S., dated Sept. 5, 1857.
On the Agency of Bees in the Fertilisation of _Papilionaceous Flow-
ers, and on the Crossing of Kidney Beans. Gardeners’ Chronicle.
1858, p. 828, and Amn. Nat. Hist., 3d series, ii., 1858, pp. 459-465.
Do the Tineina or Other Small Moths Suck Flowers, and if so what
Flowers? Zntom. Weekly Intell., vol. viii., 1860, p. 103.
Note on the Achenia of Pumilio Argyrolepis. Gardeners’ Chronicle,
Jan. 5, 1861, p. 4.
Fertilisation of Vincas. Gardeners’ Chronicle, pp. 552, 831, 832, 1861.
On the Two Forms, or Dimorphic Condition, in the Species of P7i-
mula, and on their Remarkable Sexual Relations. Zinn. Soc. Fourn.,
vi., 1862 ( Botany), pp. 77-96.
On the Three Remarkable Sexual Forms of Catasetum tridentatum,
an Orchid in the Possession of the Linnzan Society. Zinn. Soc.
Fourn., vi., 1862 ( Botany), pp. 151-157.
Yellow Rain. Gardeners’ Chronicle, July 18, 1863, p. 675.
On the Thickness of the Pampean Formation near Buenos Ayres,
Geol. Soc. Fourn., xix., 1863, pp. 68-71.
On the So-called “‘ Auditory-sac” of Cirripedes. Nat. Hist. Review,
1863, pp. EI5-116.
A Review of Mr. Bates’ Paper on Mimetic Butterflies. Vat. Hist.
Review, 1863, p. 221—. [Not signed.]
On the Existence of Two Forms, and on their Reciprocal Sexual
Relation, in Several Species of the Genus Linum. Linn. Soc. Fourn.,
vii., 1864 (Botany), pp. 69-83.
On the Sexual Relations of the Three Forms of Lythrum salicaria.
[1864.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., viii., 1865 (Botany), pp. 169-196.
On the Movement and Habits of Climbing Plants. [1865.] Zinn.
Soc. Fourn., ix., 1867 ( Botany), pp. 1-118.
Note on the Common Broom ( Cytisus scoparius). [1866.] Linn.
Soc. Fourn., ix., 1867 ( Botany), p. 358.
Notes on the Fertilisation of Orchids. Ann. and Mag. Nat.
iist., 4th series, iv., 1869, pp. 141-159.
On the Character and Hybrid-like Nature of the Offspring from
the Illegitimate Unions of Dimorphic and Trimorphic Plants.
[1868.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., x., 1869 (Botany), pp. 393-437.
270 Charles Darwin.
On the Specific Difference between Primula veris Brit. FI. (var.
officinalis, of Linn.), P. vulgaris, Brit. Fl. (var. acaudis, Linn.), and
P. elatior, Jacq. ; and on the Hybrid Nature of the common Oxslip.
With Supplementary Remarks on naturally produced Hybrids in the
genus Verbascum, [1868.] Linn. Soc. Fourn., x., 1869 (Botany).
PP. 437-454.
Note on the Habits of the Pampas Woodpecker ( Colapies campes-
tris). Zool. Soc. Proc., Nov. 1, 1870, pp. 705, 706.
Fertilisation of Leschenaultia. Gardeners’ Chronicle, p. 1166,
1871.
The Fertilisation of Winter-flowering Plants. Mature, Nov. 18,
1869, vol. i., p. 85.
Pangenesis. Vature, April 27, 1871, vol. iii., p. 502.
A New View of Darwinism. ature, July 6, 1871, vol. iv.,
p. 180.
Bree on Darwinism. JVature, Aug. 8, 1872, vol. vi., p. 279.
Inherited Instinct. Mature, Feb. 13, 1873, vol. vii., p. 281.
Perception in the Lower Animals. ature, March 13, 1873, vol.
vii., p. 360,
Origin of Certain Instincts. Mature, April 3, 1873, vol. vii.,
p. 417.
Habits of Ants. Mature, July 24, 1873, vol. viii., p. 244.
_ On the Males and Complemental Males of Certain Cirripedes, and
on Rudimentary Structures. Mature, Sept. 25, 1873, vol. viii., p.
431.
Recent Researches on Termites and Honey-bees. Vature, Feb.
Ig, 1874, vol. ix., p. 308.
Fertilisation of the Fumariacee. Mature, April 16, 1874, vol.
ix., p. 460.
Flowers of the Primrose Destroyed by Birds. Mature, April 23,
1874, vol. ix., p. 482; May 14, 1874, vol. x., p. 24.
Cherry Blossoms. ature, May 11, 1876, vol. xiv., p. 28.
Sexual Selection in Relation to Monkeys. ature, Novy. 2, 1876,
vol. xv., p. 18. Reprinted as a supplement to the ‘‘ Descent of Man,”
18—.
Fritz Miller on Flowers and Insects. Mature, Nov. 29, 1877,
vol, xvii, p. 78.
The Scarcity of Holly Berries and Bees. Gardeners’ Chronicle,
Jan. 20, 1877, p. 83.
Appendix. 271
Note on Fertilisation of Plants. Gardeners’ Chronicle, vol. vii.,
p. 246, 1877.
A Biographical Sketch of an Infant. Mind, No. 7, July, 1877.
Transplantation of Shells. -Vature, May 30, 1878, vol. xviii., p.
120, %
Fritz Miller on a Frog having Fes on its back—on the Abortion
of the Hairs on the Legs of Certain Caddis-Flies, etc. Nature,
March 20, 1879, vol. xix., p. 462.
Rats and Water-Casks. Nature, March 27, 1879, vol. xix., p.
481.
Fertility of Hybrids from the Common and Chinese Goose. Va-
ture, Jan. 1, 1880, vol. xxi., p. 207.
The Sexual Colours of Certain Butterflies. Nature, Jan. 8,
1880, vol. xxi., p. 237. :
The Omori Shell Mounds. ature, April 15. 1880, vol. xxi.,
p- 561.
Sir Wyville Thomson and Natural Selection. Ma:ure, Nov. 11,
1880, vol. xxiii., p. 32.
Black Sheep. ature, Dec. 30, 1880, vol. xxiii., p. 193.
Movements of Plants. Mature, March 3, 1881, vol. xxiii., p. 409.
The Movements of Leaves. Mature, April 28, 1881, vol. xxiii.,
p- 603. ‘
Inheritance. Mature, July 21, 1881, vol. xxiv., p. 257.
Leaves Injured at Night by Free Radiation. Mature, Sept. 15,
1881, vol. xxiv., p. 459.
The Parasitic Habits of Molothrus. ature, Nov. 17, 1881, vol.
XXV., Pp. 51,
On the Dispersal of Freshwater Bivalves. Mature, April 6,
1882, vol. xxv., p. 529.
The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on the Roots of certain
Plants. [Read March 16, 1882.] Linn. Soc. Fourn. (Botany),
vol. xix., 1882, pp. 239-261.
The Action of Carbonate of Ammonia on Chlorophyll-bodies.
[Read March 6, 1882.] Linn. Soc. Fourn. (Botany), vol. xix.,
1882, pp. 262-284.
On the Modification of a Race of Syrian Street-Dogs by Means of
Sexual Selection. By W. Van Dyck. With a Preliminary Notice by
Charles Darwin. [Read April 18, 1882.] Proc. Zodlog. Soc., 1882,
Pp. 367-370.
272 Charles Darwin.
WORKS ON DARWINISM FOR FURTHER: REFERENCE.
ENGLISH.
Contributions to the Theory of Natural Selection. A. R. Wallace.
Darwiniana. Prof. Asa Gray.
On the Origin of Species, or the Causes of the Phenomena of
Organic Nature. Prof. Huxley.
The Scientific Evidences of Organic Avolation (London, 1882).
G. J. Romanes.
Man and Apes (Am. ed., 1874). St. George Mivart.
Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence.
Karl Semper.
Degeneration, a Chapter in Darwinism (London, 1880). E. R.
Lankester.
Mind in the Lower Animals (London, 1879). Lindsay.
Animal Intelligence. G. J. Romanes.
The Fertilisation of Flowers (Transl., London, 1883, 669 pp.).
Hermann Miiller.
Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development. Francis
Galton.
Philosophical Discussions. Chauncey Wright.
On the Philosophic Aspects of Darwinism. G. H. Schneider ; Der
Thierischen Wille (xx. and 447 pp., Leipzig, 1880).
The Theory of Evolution of Living Things, and the Application of
the Principle of Evolution to Religion. George Henslow.
Religion and Science. Joseph Leconte.
Natural Law, an Essay on Ethics. Edith Simcox.
The Theistic Argument, as Affected by Recent Theories. J. L.
Diman.
What is Darwinism? Charles Hodge.
The Story of the Earth and Man. J. W. Dawson.
Winds of Doctrine, being an Examination of the Modern Theories
of Atomism and Evolution (London, 1877). C. Elam.
On the Genesis of Species. St. George Mivart.
Lessons from Nature as Manifested in Mind and Matter. St.
George Mivart.
Contemporary Evolution. St. George Mivart.
Contributions to the Natural History of the United States, vol. i.,
Essay on Classification; also Amer. SYourn. Sci., July, 1860.
L, Agassiz.
ee yg
Appendix. 273
FOREIGN.
Beitrage zur Descendenz-Theorie (Leipzig, 1876). Georg Seidlitz.
. Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen und der héheren Thiere
iste Halfte (Leipzig, 1876). A. Kolliker. :
Anthropogenie, Entwickelungsgeschichte des Menschen (Leipzig,
1874). E. Haeckel.
Die neuere Schépfungsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1875). Arnold Dodel.
Die Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen der gegliederten Thiere (Wurtz-
burg, 1875). C. Semper.
Fir Darwin (Leipzig, 1864). Fritz Miller.
Ueber die erste Entstehung organischen Wesen u. deren Spaltung
in Arten (Berlin, 1866). A. Miiller.
Zur Entwickelungstheorie (Jena, 1876). Otto Zacharias.
Der Kampf der Theile in Organismus (Leipzig, 1881). W. Roux.
In Sachen Darwin’s insbesondere contra Wigand (Stuttgart, 1874).
Gustav Jager.
Etudes sur la sélection dans ses rapports avec I’héredité chez
Yhomme. P. Jacoby.
Der Darwinismus und seine Stellung in der Philosophie (Berlin,
1877). Eugen Dreher.
Philosophische Consequenzen der Lamarck-Darwin’schen Entwicke-
lungstheorie (Leipzig and Heidelberg). Georg Von Gizycki.
Kant und Darwin, ein Beitrag zur Geschite der Entwickelungslehre
(Jena, 1875). Fritz Schultze.
Die Darwin’schen Theorien und ihre Stellung zur Philosophie,
Religion, und Morals (Stuttgart). Rudolf Schmid.
La Teoria di Darwin Criticamente Exposta, Biblioteca Scientifica
Internationale (Milano, 1880). G. Canestrini.
Der Darwinismus und die Naturforschung Newtons und Cuviers
(3 vols., 1874-7). . A. Wigand.
Wahrheit und Irrthum in Darwinismus (Berlin, 1875). E. Von
Hartmann.
Die Freiheit der Wissenschaft im modernen Staai (Berlin, 1877).
R. Virchow.
Haeckelismus in der Zodlogie (Hamburg, 1876). C. Semper.
Anti-Darwinistische Beobachtungen (Bonn, 1877). F. Michaelis.
A journal of highest ability devoted to evolution is Kosmos,
Zeitschrift fur einheitliche Weltanschaung auf Grund der En-
twickelungslehre, in Verbindring mit Charles Darwin und Ernst
Haeckel, sowie einer Reihe hervorragenden Forscher auf den Gebieten
des Darwinismus (monthly, 80 pp., since 1876).
-
A
Abinger Hall, 242
Aconcagua, 89
Adventure Island, 263
Agassiz, Louis, 272
Agouti, 49
Albermarle Island, 110
Allen, Dr., 30
Amblyrhynchus, 108
America, 186
Amethyst Mountain, 184
Ant-eater, 49
Antennarius, 176
Antuco, 93
Archzopterix, 193
Aristotle, 167
Armadillo, 49
Ascenium, I2I
si
Atavism, 181
Atlantic cable, 184
Atoll, 117
Azara, 45, 65
Azores, 122
B
Bahia, 28
Bahia Blanca, 104
Baker, Frank, 195, 250
Banda Oriental, 104
Bastile 170
Beagle, 5, 19, 263
Beagle Inlet, 50
INDEX.
; Berkeley Sound, 78
Bibliography, 259
Biological Society, 195
Birgos, 115
Biscacha, 58
Bolas, 42
Botofogo Bay, 29
Brazil, 37
Buenos Ayres, 46, 49
Buffon, 168
Burmeister, Prof., 73
Butler, Dr., 2
Butterflies, 37 ; shower of, 69
Cc
Callao, 103
Cape Horn, 70
Cape of Good Hope, 128
Cape Verde Islands, 22
Capybara, 43
Cattle, péculiar breed of, 67
Chacao, 87
Chamisso, 114
Charles Island, 111
Chatham, 107
Chile, 37
Chiloe, 87
Chonos Archipelago, 87
Cirripedia, 264
Cocoa-nut, II5
Colorado River, 48
Concepcion, 90
Condor, 77
Conferve, 32
275
276 Lndex.
Cope, E. D., 183
Cophias, 53
Copiap6, 96
Coral, 117
Coral-eating fish, 116
Cormorant, 81
Coseguina, 89
Crabs, 86 ; mimicry of, 176
Creation, 203
Crocodile, 55
Cuttle-fish, 25
D
Dagger, 41
Dall, W. H., 195, 208
Darwin, birth, 2; school days, 2;
religious feeling, 3 ; collections,
4; walks, 4-9; at Maer, 4-9;
laboratory work, 5; university
life, 6; nickname of, 6 ; wealth
of, 6; vacation of, 9; as a hunt-
er, 10; college life, 12; books
read by, 14; on slavery, 33;
on birds, 88; works on coral,
117, 261; appearance of, 131, 239;
daily life of, 133; early papers
of, 137 ; services to science, I40;
conclusions, 141 ; publication of
-*his great work, 143; birth of
Darwinism, 144; botanical re-
searches, 145; religious reti-
cence, 147; buried in Westmin-
ster Abbey, 148 ; membership in
societies, 149; a birthday gift,
151; honors, 152-155; family,
156; memorial, 167; theory of,
184; memorial on, 195; doc-
trine of, 196; Children, 212;
friends of, 212; death of, 213;
philosophy of, 214; as an en-
tomologist, 228 ; home of, 239 ;
letters of, 240; as a botanist,
244 ; bibliography of, 259; pa-
pers of, 268 ; foreign works on,
273
Darwin, E. G., 91
Darwinism, works on, 162, 272
Dawson, J. W., 272
Deer, 43
De Maillet, 168
Descent, 194
Desmodus, 33
Diman, J. L., 272
Diodon, 29
Doubleday, Mr., 38
Dover cliffs, 6, 184
Dreher, Eugene, 273
Drouths, 64
Duncan, Dr., 6
Dust showers, 23
E
East Falkland Islands, 78
Edinburgh, 7
Ehrenberg, 23, 24
Egg collecting, 3
Egypt, 186
Elater, 36
El Bramador, 103
El Carmen, 47
Embryo, Igt
Emotions, 265
Eocene, 188
Epeira, web of, 39
Equus, 189
Evolution, 173
Extinction, 64, 76
F
Falmouth, 122
Fernando Noronha, 26, 27
Fire-fly, 36
Floating islands, 85
Flustra, 2, 8
Flying fish, 26, 34
Fossils, 68
Fuegians, 79
G
Galapagos, 32, 106
Geographical distribution, 62
Geological Society, 125
Germany, 193
Giants, 79
Giant-weed, 81
Gill, Theo., 195
ee Te ee eee
Index. 277
Glaciers, 82 =
‘ Goethe, 170
Goode, Prof, 196 Rectan latent, x14
Grant, Dr,, 7 ees tis a7
Gray, 172
Greenland, 191 =
Greenwich, 124
Greyhound, 174 Speetcanes, 58
Lamarck, 44, 171
a Lambert, 1
pres tele Se
-. af il ya ate
airless
ee ee
Barry, Ww. awe Lightning, 45
: = >? Lima, 104
Hecla, go Linnzan Society, 126
Henslow, Prof., 14 Lizards 108
‘ Hesperornis, 192 Llam: 2.
Herschel, Sir J., 168 Lobster, 195
Hibernation, 53. 54 Locusts, 100
Hill, Major, to Luxan, Io1
Hipparion, 188
Hippocampus, 47
Hodge, Charles, 272
Lyell, Sir Chas., 61, 171
Holcodont, 193 M
ie - wr ’ Mackintosh, Sir John, 11, 17
Horse, 62, 66, 188 Macrauchenia, 73, 104
; Macrocystis, 81
Hot springs, 84 ‘ocystis,
Humboldt, 17, 172 Malay, 115
orate 174 Maldonado, 40
Hydrochzrus, 43 Marsh Prof., 62
Mathews, P., 200
Mauritius, 120
I Megatherium, 49
Mendoza, 102 :
Iceberg, 82 Megalonyx, 49
Incas, 188 Mesohippus, 189
Indians, 51, 56 Michaelis, 273
Insectivorous plants, 242 Mimics, 53, 79
Minerals, 7
J Mines, 84
Miohippus, 189
Jacoby, P., 273 Mivart, St. G., 271
ames Islands, 109 Monboddo, 170
aguar, 44, 65 Monkeys, 35
Jelly-fish, 58, 71 Monte Video, 43, 46
Jenyns, Rev. L., 263 Moresby, Capt. -; II0
Jungle fowl, 173 Mould, 265
278
L[ndex.
Miller, F., 273
Murderers, 40
Mylodon, 49
Myopotamus, 87
N
Neptune, 28
Noddy, 26
Nummulite, 186
O
Octopus, 24, 31
Odontornithes, 191
Oken, 170
Orchid, 265
Origin of species, 264
Orohippus, 190
Osorno, 87
Ostrich, 42, 51
Otter, 81
Owen, Prof., 49
Owen, Sir R., 172 .
PE
Paleozoic, 180
Pampas, 61
Pander, 170
Papilio, 37
Parana, 59
Parrot-fish, 116
Patagonia, 72
Penguin, 39
Peru, 104
Philosophy, 218
Phosphorescence, 70
Planarian, 35
Plata, 39
Pliocene, 189
Polyborus, 45
Porpoise, 39
Portillo Pass, 97
Porto Praya, 24
Powell, J. W., 195, 214
Protococcus, 98
Pteranodon, 44
Puma, 85, 86
Pyramid, 186
Pyrophorus, 30
Plinian Society, 1
Pernambuco, 121
Philosophical Society of Cam-
bridge, 124
Q
Quail, 43
Quiriquina Island, gt
R
Ramsay, Prof., 186
Razor clam, 99
Red snow, 98
Reefs, barrier, 117
Reefs, coral, 117, 264.
Reptiles, 193
Rhea, 52
Rhizopods, 184
Ribeira Grande, 23
Riley, C. V., 228
Rio Negro, 33, 47
Rio Tercero, 59
Robber-crab, 27
Romanes, G. J., 272
Rosas, Gen., 55
Roux, W., 273
Royal navy, 17
Royal Society, 264
Ruins, 85
Reef structures, 119
Royal Academy, 125
Rhea Americanus, 126
S
Sacred tree, 48
Salt lake, 48
San Carlos, 86
San Carlos Bay, 89
San Lorenzo, 104
Santa Cruz, 51, 73
Santa Fé, 60
Santa Maria, 94
Sarandis, 67
Sargassum, 176
Scarus, 116
Schleiden, 170
Schmidt, R., 273
Schultze, F., 170, 273
Index.
279
St. Paul’s Rocks, 26
Strata, 184
Survey, 40.
Symonds, Sir W., 27
a
Tahiti, 113
Talcahuana, 91
Teneriffe, 17
Tern, 26
Terra del Fuego, 32
Tertiary, 186
True, Fred. W., 195, 258
Tucutuco, 44
Turtles, 114
Uruguay, 59
Uspullata, ror
Vv
Valdivia, 90
Valparaiso, 67, 83
Vampire, 33
Variability, 181
Varieties, 173
Von Baer, 170
Von Mohl, 170
Ww
Wallace, Alfred, 172
29
Wright, C., 168, 272
y
Yale College, 192
Yaquil, 85
Youmans, E. L., 172
Z
Zacharias, Otto, 273
Ss
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Deroes of the Wations.
EDITED BY
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