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PRINCETON . NEW JERSEY PRESENTED BY
The Library of Benjamin Breckinridge War field
EX 8063 .G4 W5 1896 Williams, Edward F. 1832-
1919. Christian life in Germany
Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2009 with funding from
Princeton Theological Seminary Library
http://www.archive.org/details/christianlifeingOOwill
CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
AS SEEN IN THE
STATE AND THE CHURCH
CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
AS SEEN IN THE
STATE AND THE CHURCH
BY EDWARD F. WILLIAMS, D. D.
Western Editor of The Congregationalist.
FLEMING H. REVELL COMPANY
NEW YORK .-. CHICAGO .-. TORONTO
Publishers of Evangelical Literature
Copyrighted 1896, by Fleming H. Reveu Company.
PREFACE.
The number of English speaking youth in the Universities and Technical Schools in Germany is in- creasing every year. It is interesting to know what kind of religious influences are within their reach even if in their student life they do not yield to these influ- ences. Great Britain and America owe a debt of gratitude to Germany for the literature she has fur- nished their people, for the contributions she has made to Christian song, and for her devotion to higher Christian learning. In the attention given to the results of special studies, particularly to the re- sults of the BO=called Higher Criticism, both countries are in danger of overlooking equally important con- tributions in practical Christian work. Few people either in Great Britain or in America realize the ex- tent and importance of the Foreign Missionary work which the German Churches are carrying on, or of that still more wonderful home work which is em- braced under the general term Inner Mission (die innere Mission).
In the present work no attempt has been made to describe unchristian Germany. There is such a Germany. Some of its features are necessarily sketched in this volume. No special emphasis has been laid on the effect of critical studies on Christian faith and life. Not much has been said about the rela- tion of Church and State. It has been assumed that
6
e CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GEttMANY
one familiar with tlie blessings which grow out of com- plete separation between Church and State would recognize the difficulties under which the German Churches exist, and make allowance for them. It has been assumed also that anyone who might be inter- ested in these pages would be familiar with the fact that the Churches, while Lutheran in doctrine, and enjoying considerable liberty in certain directions, are yet closely allied to the State, and must render their final reports and make their ultimate appeals to officers whom the State appoints. The purpose of this book is to set forth in as few words as possible, the real condition of the Protestant Churches in Germany, to describe their present spiritual condi- tion, and to furnish data on which to form an opinion of their probable future. What is here said is the re- sult of careful study of these Churches in their own land, and of reports which those who are familiar with their condition have made. Loosely defined, the plan of the book may be said to be fourfold: first to describe some of the methods by which the German people are trained for their duties in Church and State, and to show how the character of the govern- ment, the military and aristocratic spirit of the na- tion, affect Christian activity; secondly to furnish material for determining the actual condition of the spiritual life of the National Churches by setting forth in some detail what their members are doing, through Foreign Missions, for the world at large, and, through the Inner Mission, for the needy at home; thirdly to describe the forces, and their training, by which this home work is carried on; and finally to sketch the social and moral conditions of the country
PREFACE 1
and to point out their effect on Christian life, and upon the influence of the Church, from the year 1860, or from the time when William I. became a prominent figure in Prussian politics, to the latest accessible data under his grandson William II.
CONTENTS. Chapter I. — General Survey*
Germany a Christian nation — This the universal belief — Bible instruction in schools — Baptism and confirmation the privilege of every child — Regeneration an individual afiEair — Forme of government influence — Forms Christianity takes — The parish the unit of the National Church — The Cultus Minister — Relation of Emperor to the Church — The military spirit and the Church — The Church chiefly an institution for the clergy — Love of forma and order — Social distinctions — Marriage — Honor paid to merit — Rare intellectual ability — Poverty of Germany — General con- dition of the wage=earner — Less favorable than in America — Lack of neatness in villages — The homes of the poor — Friendliness of the laboring classes — Socialists — Education in poorer classes — Character of their reading — Public meetings of Socialists — Discontent not a bad sign — Promise in Socialism — False notions of dignitaries — Inability of the higher classes to understand the lower — The middle class — Its influence — Its general condition — The difficulty of Christian work 19
Chapter II. — The Intellectttal Trainingf of the People.
Standards of intellectual attainment — The character of period- ical literature — The newspapers — Their character and circula- tion— Honor shown to authors — Advantage of university men — Specialists — Duties of Cultus Minister — Relation of the Church and the School to the State — Kinds of schools — Volksschule — Realschule — Gymnasia — Schools for girls — Technical schools — Grade of instruction in the Public schools — Buildings — Rooms — Teachers — Hours — Religion — Apprentice schools — Seminaries for teachers — Course of study in the Gymnasium — Realschule — University — Faculties — Examination of professional students, law, medicine, ministry — The Preachers' Seminary — Candidates
9
10 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
— Settlement— Salary— Present condition of German schools—- System of education criticized— Girls' schools inadequate. . . S8
Chapter III. — The Moral and Religious Life of Germany*
Difficulty of obtaining accurate estimates of moral and religious life in a foreign country — Difiference in moral standards- Effect of tradition, of birth, and of education, on religious belief — Few confessed Atheists — Nominal Christians — Relative numbers of Roman Catholics and Protestants— Toleration of sects— Their influence— Confirmation the natural order — Intellectual appre- hension of religious truth — Christian duty — The word Christian partially defined — Prominence of the intellectual in Christian experience— Emotion distrusted — Theological professors and students and attendance at Church — Sunday — Lack of Church accommodation in the larger cities — Recent zeal in Church building in Berlin — Example of the royal family in the honor shown to the Church — Burials without religious rites — Poverty — Indifference — Socialism — The Church neither dead nor indif- ferent— Zeal of Romanism — Influence on Protestantism — The pastor and his parish — Sunday-schools and Young Peoples' So- cieties— The relation of the sexes prior to marriage — Influence of other countries on religious life in Germany — Diversity of opin- ion, with substantial agreement as to fundamentals — Intellectual activity demands fields for criticism — Moral life and its problems — Intemperance — The Social Evil — Illegitimate children — Influ- ence of the Army on morals — Respect for law — OfiScial honesty — Patriotism ■. . 52
Chapter IV. — Social and Industrial Movements.
Social and industrial life as related to religion — Faith in God simplifies problems in Government — The majority of social democrats not revolutionary — German character — Willing recog- nition of divine authority — Habits of life — In the country, cat- tle and the family often under the same roof— Character of the dwellings in the city — Rents — Cost of living — Tendency to dis- play— Restraints on the free association of young men and women of marriageable age — An engagement— Large families — Love of parents and children — Birthdays — Easter — Christmas —
CONTENDS 11
National games — Beer gardens and music — Manufactures and congested populations — Strikes — Government ownership of rail- ways and employment of labor — Emigration — Population as compared with the size and nature of the country — Religion and the settlement of industrial problems — Experiments in religion — Laborers classified — Causes of the present depression — The Church and public opinion 61
Chapter V. — Stimolatingf and Modifying Influences on Christian Life*
Formalism at the beginning of the century — Attitude toward the Scriptures and the Church — Themes for the pulpit taken from Natural rather than from Revealed Theology — Reasons for this — Causes of reaction — Pietism and the Moravians — Wars of in- dependence— The writings of Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, Schleiermacher, Goethe, Schiller, and Lessing — The historical and critical scholars of the last half«century — Union of the Reformed and Lutheran Churches, 1817 — Christian journalism — Continua- tion of intellectual and spiritual forces set in motion early in the century — Berlin in 1818 — Constitutional Government — Inner Mission and Wittenberg — New responsibility with victories of 1866 and 1870-71 — Ritschl and his school — Principles— Genesis — Future — Church building movement through Gustav Adolphus Verein, 1832 — The Luther celebration, 1867 — Dedication of the restored Schlosskirche at Wittenberg, Oct. 31, 1892 — Scepticism among scholars — Real condition of the Church — Hope for the future 71
Chapter VI. — Foreign Missions*
The charge that the German Church is destitute of spiritual life — Tests of Spirituality — Benevolence — Consecrated lives — Two great missions of the Church, Outer and Inner — Author- ities for Outer or Foreign Missions — Origin of Foreign Mis- sions in Germany — Franoke — Frederick IV. of Denmark — The Danish^Halle Society — Scene and results of its work — Zinzendorf and the Moravians — Report of Moravian Missionary work at Herrnhut, 1882 — Origin of the present interest in missions —
12 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Formation of Missionary Societies — Control and support — In- dependent of State and Church authority — Voluntary move- ments— Persons sent out — Selection and training — Number of societies — Total income — Number of missionaries — Number of persons gathered in Christian communities in foreign lands.
History of societies according to the order of organization — Moravian Missionary Society — The Basel Society — The Berlin Missionary Society or Berlin I — Society of the Rhine and West- phalia, or the Barmen Society — The North Dutch, or Bremer Society — The Leipzig Evangelical Society, the heir to the Dan- ish'Halle Society — The Gossner Missionary Union, or Berlin II — East Friesland Missionary Society, a helper of the foregoing Society — Hermannsburg Mission, or "The Peasants' Mission" — The Pilgrim Mission — The Jerusalem Mission — The Schleswig' Holstein Missionary Society, or the Breklumer Society — The Neuendettelsau Missionary Establishment — The General Evan- gelical Missionary Union (liberal) for work among cultured peo- ples— Society for Evangelical Lutheran Missions in East Africa — Evangelical Society for Dutch East Africa, Berlin III,
Women's Societies — Berlin Women's Mission for China — Women's Union for the education of women in the East — Kaiserswerth Missions for the support of deaconesses — Growing interest in missions — Principles upon which missions are con- ducted— Preaching — Translation of the Scriptures — Creation of a Christian literature in the vernacular — Training of children- Establishment of self=supporting communities — Training of na- tive pastors and teachers — Methods of procedure in the foreign field — A call to missionary service — Management of missionary societies — Sacrifices demanded in foreign fields — Missionary literature — Why missionary work did not begin earlier — History of missionary enterprise in Germany — Why not one great mis- sionary society — Present plan best — More income needed. . . 84
Chapter VIL — Sketch of Events Leading: to the Or gfan- ization and Establishment of the INNER MISSION.
Profitless doctrinal discussions after the death of Luther — Pietism — Spener and Francke — Rationalism — Condition of the Church during the eighteenth century and through the first
CONTENTS 13
quarter of the nineteenth century — Revival of spiritual religion and its causes — Effect of this revival on home work — Exampla of William I. and Bismarck — The Halle Orphan Asylum — Benev- olence from A. D. 1650 to 1835 — Fraucke at Leipzig and at Halle — Rationalism follows Pietism — The ministry and benevo- lence— Study of previous attempts to alleviate human suffering — The New Testament in the primitive Church — The Martyr Church — From the fourth to the end of the sixth century — Be- nevolence in the Middle Ages.
Charles the Great — Benevolence at the time of the Reforma- tion— Merit in begging — Instances of rare benevolence — Efforts through education and personal help to destroy the cause of pov- erty— Halle — Beata Sturm at Stuttgart — Zahn and the Wolters- dorf Brothers — Urlsperger of Augsburg — Kiessling of Nuremberg — Christian Henry Zeller — Christian Frederick Spittler — Baron von Kottwitz — Volmarstein — Amalie Sieveking, the Hamburg Tabitha — Gossner — Christian Gottlob Barth — Wichern — Fliedner — William LOhe of Neuendettelsau — Charles Kapff — Werner — Scope of the Inner Mission 114
Chapter VIIL — Preventive Methods Employed by the
Inner Mission.
Personal care of little children — Schools for little children — Sunday=schools — Orphan Houses — Special establishments for the education and preservation of youth — Servants' training schools and homes — Homes for factory girls and other industrial workers — Sunday and Young Women's Societies — Homes for boys away from school — Inns for homes, chiefly for working men — Education Societies — Supplemental afternoon manual training schools for boys — Young Peoples' Societies 140
Chapter IX* — The Preservation of th<»e who are in
Danger.
The building of Churches and the formation of parishes through the Gustav Adolphus Verein — Origin of the name — Aim and growth — The Lutheran Gotteskasten, less liberal thanG.A. V. — Methods of work — Summary of results — Societies for the sup-
U CHRISTIAN LIFE W GERMANY
port of children while preparing for Confirmation — The diaspora, or work among Germans in other countries — Paris, Lyons, Spain, Florence, Rome, Scandinavia, Low Countries, Southeast- ern Europe, Constantinople — Other large cities in the East — In South America — Chief work in North America — Influence of Lutheran Churches in the United States.
Work among German wage=earners in Holland — Harvest hands in various sections of Germany — Laborers on public works — Canal and river boats — Sailors — Emigrants — Arrangements to meet and care for them in New York 163
Chapter X. — Care of Defectives and the Sick.
The State not wholly neglectful — Work among the deaf and dumb — History of eflforts for this class — Work among the blind — Idiots and epileptics — Cripples — Special efforts to help bow» legged, scrofulous children — Hospitals — The insane — The sys- tematic care with which German Christians visit hospitals and minister to the inmates 173
Chapter XI. — Saving the Lost.
Prostitution in Berlin — Temptations to sinful life — Fliedner — Pastor Heldring of Holland — Conditions of a successful Magda- lenium — DiflSculties of reaching its inmates — Drunkenness — Temperance movements in Germany — Hindrances to the progress of temperance — Homes for inebriates — Care for those with- out work — Two classes to be aided — Provision for lodging and food — Purpose to provide steady employment for those willing to work — The Arbeitercolonien, or colonies for working men — Character, aim, and management — Results — Work in the prisons — Methods — Help for discharged prisoners 187
Chapter XII. — The Grculation of Christian Literature.
The Scriptures in the schools — Influence of Luther — The Can- steiu Bible Society — Other and later societies — Version in use — Methods of work — Tract societies — The place a tract fills — What makes a tract? Influence of the London Tract Society on Ger- many— German societies — Methods of distribution and the use of tracts — Peoples' libraries — Character and management. . 203
CONTENTS 16
Qiapter XIIL— The Social Needs of the People.
Social Congresses— The Evangelical Bund, or League— The city and its dangers — City missions — Three main objects — Se- lection and training of laborers — Relation to the Church — Cities in which found— Methods of work— Special Church work— Work through unions or societies — Factors in caring for the poor — Care for the sick and wounded, and those suffering from pesti- lence— Work during the Schleswig'Holstein war — Selection and training of workers — Sunday rest — Different purposes for which rest is desired — Legislation — Relation of the Church to the school — Dwellings for the poor 209
Chapter XIV.— The Special Forces by which the "Work
of the Inner Mission is Carried On.
Deaconesses and Brothers — The Deaconess' movement — Flied- ner — Personal history — Beginning of the establishment at Kaiserswerth — Mother houses — Number of laborers — Fliedner's main object — History of Kaiserswerth — Organization and man- agement — Daily life — Prob ationers — Dress — Departments — Growth of Kaiserswerth by periods of ten years — Health resorts — Orphan house at Altdorf — Girls school at Hilden, near Dflssel- dorf — Marthashof, Berlin, Marian nensstift, Erefeld — Asylum for erring women— Brandenburg — Work abroad — Jerusalem, Smyr- na, Alexandria, Beirut, Cairo, Florence — Summary — Associate Sis- ters— Deacons — The New Testament use of word — Brotherhoods and Sisterhoods of the Middle Ages — Wichern's purpose in re- viving the order of deacons — Service rendered — Brother Houses already founded — Training of deacons — No permanent homes as for deaconesses — Kind of work undertaken — Results. . . . 225
Chapter XV. — The Social and Moral Condition of Germany since J 860.
Pessimistic views — Optimistic views — The probable truth — Efforts of Social Democracy — Unbelief in the higher classes — Earnestness of pastors — Character of the Church as a whole — Condition of the people described— The home and its foes
16 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
— Economic Bituation — Teachings of the social democrats — Il- legal marriages — The separation of families — Tendency to cities — Difficulty of making a home in the city — Moral dangers con- nected with frequent change of place — Efforts to meet these dan- gers— Influence of the wife in the home — Hold which the home has on the German people — Influence of the higher classes on Christian life — Effect on people of the payment of the French Indemnity — Anti=Semitism — Growth of Social Democracy — Character and conduct of the rich — Effect of too exclusive at- tention to natural science — The philosophy of Schopenhauer, Edward von Hartmann, Nietzsche — Ethical culture — Reaction — Science more modest — Study of mental and moral Science more fashionable — Superficial studies — Criticism of Scriptures — Strauss's "Life of Christ "—Party division in the Church — Re- union in the presence of common dangers — These dangers pos- sibly a new bond of union — Roman Catholics — Their gains as the result of legislation against them — The Protestant position in Germany.
Peculiar problems growing out of the present economic condi- tions— Position of the middle classes in Germany — Tendency downward — Agricultural depression — Effect on small farmers, artisans, day laborers — Immorality among the latter — Its causes — Competition with contract labor — Labor saving machines — Hopelessness of poverty — Favorable conditions in the country and smaller towns — Independent workers — Danger to morals and religion from life in cities and large manufacturing towns — The Bebel=Leibknecht movement — Geneva Manifesto 260
Qiaptef XVI. — Efforts and Measures to Meet the New Dangers of the Times.
City Missions — The Social Congress — Interest of laity in Christian work — Special efforts to win men back to the Church — Defense of Anti=Semitism — General tendencies — Causes of alienation from Church not permanent — Sunday-schools — Soci- eties for young people — Need of laymen in various branches of Christian work — The personal element in this work — Tendency of the Press to publish the evil rather than the good — Earnest- ness with which the Church is meeting the evils of the times —
CONTENTS 17
Methods of meeting infidelity and indifference to religion — Dangers and tendencies of the times clearly seen — Insufficiency of Darwinism and related scientific theories. — Science and the Word of God not inconsistent — Revival of former the- ories of man's nature and needs — New methods of Christian activity — Wichern and the Inner Mission — Feeling of responsi- bility growing out of the establishment of the Empire — Relig- ions instruction in schools — Sunday legislation — Activity of Christian love — Illustrated by the Inner Mission — David von Augsburg — Wichern at Wittenberg — Fields covered by the Inner Mission — Real aim of the Inner Mission — Care of body a means to an end — The Church as a source of pure doctrine for the people — A fellowship of believers — A conscience for the people — Truer estimate of the meaning of Confirmation — Influence of England and America on Germany— Pearsall Smith — Woodruff and Sunday-schools — Von Bodelschwingh and the Y. M. C. A. — Real desire of pastors for the Church and its Theological Seminaries — Liberalism and benevolence — Survey of the present condition of State Churches in Germany — The Church of Prussia, of Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, Baden, Hesse, Schlsswig^Holstein, Mecklenburg, Hamburg, Oldenburgh, and Bremen — Anhalt and the Thuringian States — Complaints growing out of the condition of these Churches — Relation of pastors and laymen to Church work— Brutalizing influence of materialistic philosophj?^ on the people — Efforts to withstand this influence — Roman Catholic aggression and the Evangelical League — Social questions and the Social Congress — The Church the only real ground of hope 285
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL SURVEY.
Germany claims to be a Christian nation. In the minds of the people, the State is as truly a Christian State as the Church is a Christian Church. The laws which are enacted and enforced are Christian laws. The institutions of the country, whether educational, military or benevolent, are thought to rest on the principles which underlie the Christian religion. Neither peasant nor prince will admit that his gov- ernment is unchristian, or that the parishes, into which the country is divided, are composed of un- christian people, or that religious sects, whose cardi- nal doctrine is that to be a Christian, regeneration by the Spirit of God is essential, are justified in pursu- ing their work within the Empire. Every German citizen, however far he may have wandered from the faith of his fathers, however skeptical he may have become as to the authority of the Scriptures, or the deity of Christ, however ready he may be to declare himself an unbeliever in a revealed religion, however earnest he may be as an idealist, or as an advocate of ethics as the proper foundation of true piety, still maintains that his country is Christian. It is there- fore a matter of no small interest to learn in what sense the word Christian is used in Germany, what Christian faith and life in this land of the reformers
19
20 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
really are. This will appear in the pages that fol- low.
In every German school, from the first year in the lower grades to the last year in the Gymnasium, the Scriptures form a part of the daily curriculum of study. No man is looked upon as an educated man unless he has been carefully instructed in the Bible, unless he knows what the fundamental principles of the Christian religion are as expressed in the creeds either of the Roman Catholic or of the Protestant church. It is a theory of the nation that every child born within its limits, unless of Jewish parentage, shall be baptized into the church either by a Protes- tant pastor or by a Roman Catholic priest. Nor is this a full discharge of the duties of the State. The law requires that the baptized child be faithfully taught the principles of the Christian religion, that at the proper age, after a special preparation for the step which is taken, of his own free will, and as an expression of his own conscientious convictions of duty, he be confirmed as a member of the Chris- tian Church. While no one, probably, would affirm that a majority, or even a large minority, of those thus admitted to the Church, are " regenerate," nearly every one seems to approve of the customs hitherto observed, and to do what is possible to retain them. Although confirmation is often looked upon as the beginning of a social career rather than of a spiritual life, and is celebrated with anything rather than the solemnity which ought to mark entrance into the church of God, even the more spiritual of the Ger- man clergy utter no protest against it, and take no steps to change the custom which has come down to
GENERAL SURVEY 21
them. They say that it is impossible to decide who are, and who are not, regenerate persons, that this is a matter they are not called upon to decide, that it is something which concerns the individual soul and its Maker, and that the reality of regeneration can be inferred only from subsequent life and character. If a man is true to his calling, if he shows by his actions that he loves God supremely, and his neigh- bor as himself, he is to be looked upon as a real Christian, whatever his theories as to the ''new birth."
The form of the German government has a very decided influence upon the form of religion prevail- ing in the territory under its control. Christianity cannot wear the dress in a monarchical country which it wears in a republican State. Nor will its dress be quite the same in a country where monarchy is be- lieved in as a God^given form of government, to be sustained at all hazards, as in a country like England, where the people are practically as free as in the United States. To a greater extent than in England or in America, will religion in Germany be identified with certain traditional or legal forms, which offi- cers of the State, whatever their duties, are required to observe. To a far greater extent than we deem desirable, religion in Germany is a matter of attend- ance at certain services, the filling out of reports, the discharge of certain prescribed duties. Even a min- ister is made through the completion of a certain course of study, the committing to memory of certain formulae of faith, and the passing of an examination which satisfies those appointed to conduct it, of in- tellectual ability sufficient to meet the demands of
23 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
the ministerial office. There appears to be no exami- nation whatever into the motives which lead to tho choice of the ministry as a profession, no attempt to learn anything about the spiritual life of those who propose to preach. As the union between Church and State, especially in Prussia, is a vital one, at least on the part of Protestants, it follows that be- tween the obedience rendered to superior officers in the Church, and that rendered to officers in other de- partments of public service, there is little perceptible difference.
Beginning with the simple Church, which is the unit in the department of religion, the pastor and his presbyters, who are chosen by ballot by the male members of the parish, represent the Church at the gatherings of the pastors and representatives of other Churches in the district w^iere the local Church exists. At these gatherings, persons are chosen to represent these various churches in the provincial synod, by w^hose members other persons are selected to perform a similar service in the higher Church assemblies. As the Church is a part of the State, and as the State exists to conserve the interests of the Church equally with those of education, industry or trade, it is evi- dent that the forms of the Church, whether ecclesias- tical or dogmatic, will be determined, to a very con- siderable extent, by those of the government which protects and defends it. Naturally enough, the Church and the school, or Christianity and education, are rep- resented in the imperial cabinet by a minister, called the Cultus Minister, whose time and labors are devot- ed to their interests. The Emperor himself, the con- stitutional head of the Nation, is the head also of the
GENERAL SURVEY is
Church. Not that he can force conscience, not that he has the right to dictate as to matters of religious faith, not that he seeks to prevent anyone from be- longing to any particular body of Christians, for all religions which are moral are tolerated in Germany, even if they do not receive the imperial sanction; but that he is the official head of a body of believers in Christ whose faith is as much a part of their patriot- ism as service in the army or the payment of taxes is part of the public duty of the citizen. As the courts of the realm are monarchical in their forms and methods of procedure, so, as a matter of necessity, are the relations they assume to the doctrine and dis- cipline of the Church. This monarchical spirit shows itself in those who serve the Church in an official ca- pacity. The liturgy, simple though it is, has in it a suggestion of monarchy. Abstract truths of theology cannot be stated precisely in the form they would as- sume in a republic like our own. One cannot con- tinually breathe a monarchical atmosphere without having both thought and expression more or less in- fluenced by it.
If we would understand aright the Protestantism of Germany, it is equally important to remember that Germany is a great military camp, and that all her institutions are colored by their relation to the Army or Navy. Without her military defences Germany could not exist. It is rare to find a German citizen who believes that the Army can with safety be dimin- ished in numbers, or that its efficiency can be main- tained at much less than the present cost, or by methods of discipline less severe than those now em- ployed. The theory which is almost universally ac-
24 CHniSTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
cepted is, that every able bodied male subject of the Empire owes at least three of the best years of his life to the service of his country in the Army. In certain circumstances the time of service may be somewhat shortened, but the debt remains and must be cancelled by some sort of payment. As every officer in the Army is a member of the Church, and by a law of the Empire must partake of the sacrament not less than once a year, very naturally the soldier learns to look upon his religious duties as closely connected with his military duties. The private soldier regards the chaplain who conducts religious services, and who seeks to prove himself a friend, as a superior officer to whom strict and immediate obedience is due. Something of this military spirit is seen even in the smallest village Church. The pastor is treated as a person of superior rank. His word is law. His author- ity cannot be resisted except in accordance with cer- tain fixed customs or forms of law which magnify his importance. While the authority of a patron, or a man of wealth or of high social standing may be very great, there is something about the pastoral office which gives its possessor a commanding influence. The Lutheran Church in Germany is not a Church in which laymen have much opportunity for the exercise of their gifts. In this respect, a change is now tak- ing place ; but hitherto the Church has largely been a Church of clergymen. Reverence and obedience to the minister's wishes have often been regarded as tests of fidelity in a religious life. Among the clergy, too, respect for the law and order of the Church, with exactness and promptitude in filling out reports, have
GENERAL SURVEV 25
furnished reasons for promotion quite as often as ef- ficiency in the pastoral office or in the pulpit.
Germany is a country where social distinctions ex- ist, and are very much thought of. Rank is highly prized. Much as the people think of money, and in no country in the world is it more eagerly sought after, social position is sought even more eagerly. A woman of wealth and culture will often consent to marry a man in whose society she cannot have any real pleasure, or whom she knows to be inferior to her in mental and moral worth, if the marriage will give her access to social circles to which neither her own merits nor the rank in which she was born will secure her admission. Where the laws of the Army and of the country require an officer, before he is permitted to marry, to prove to his suj)eriors, that he possesses, either in his own right, or through the woman he proposes to make his wife, an income which will render his family independent, it is not strange that love should often fail to occupy the prominent place it occupies in America or in Eng- land. The would-be husband seeks wealth: the would-be wife seeks social position. Each obtains what is sought, and apparently each is satisfied.
These social lines are drawn very sharply. With the exception of army officers, who are admitted to Court by virtue of their importance as defenders of the Empire, and as a reward for their services, it is expected that people will form matrimonial alliances within the circle to which they belong. As a rule, farmers associate with farmers, or with small trades- men, bankers with bankers, merchants with merchants,
26 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
those cf any particular occupation with others of the same occupation. Within these limits social life is free and delightful. But it is difficult to rise out of the circle in which one is born. Should a foreigner, when he first reaches the country, enter a certain social rank, he will almost necessarily be compelled to re- main in it. He cannot to-day attend Court and to= morrow be on intimate terms with a banker or a mer- chant. Still there is a growing tendency in Germany to reward merit with social honors. The mechanical ability of a Krupp, or a Siemens, secures a title which brings with it social standing. But honors bestowed on the head of a family do not lift up the entire fami- ly to the position which the favored one occupies.
As a rule, intellectual ability means more in Ger- many than in America. Outside Court circles, there is no better social position than that which the Uni- versity professor possesses. Of equal rank with him are pastors, the rectors of the gymnasia, officers in the civil service, and men of great intellectual gifts. A scholar of rare attainments, an author of exceptional brilliancy, a distinguished explorer, may be received at Court. But this honor, coveted as it is even by the family of the one who receives it, does not take the wife or the children to Court, nor give them, save indirectly, any advantage after the death of the person to whom the distinction has been paid. It can easily be seen that among a people thus socially divided, Church work cannot be carried on as in a country where social lines are not observed. It is difficult to preach as faithfully and earnestly on the practical obligations we owe to each other, when the Emjjeror is present in his seat, or when princes and nobles are
GENERAL SURVEY 27
in their ijlaces, as when the congregation are all on the same social level. Of course there are parishes in which this is done, but they are not often found. To judge of the spiritual life of the Church in Germany, one must not forget that its members aro not of the same rank socially, that they do not meet together freely, that among them it would be impracticable to establish prayer and conference meetings, like those with which we are familiar in the United States, and which are indispensable to our Christian life. Individuals of the same rank might meet together for religious conversation, and perhaps they sometimes do, but any effort to bring all classes together, would be futile and increase the sense of infe- riority which the lower classes manifest in the pres- ence of their social superiors. Such facts as these determine to a much greater extent than would at first be thought possible, the Christian life and ac- tivity of the German Church.
Germany is a poor country. Although its wealth has rapidly increased within the last twenty years, neither in the variety of its productions, nor in its accumulations of capital, can it be favorably com- pared wnth England, with France, or with the United States. Its climate is harsh, its soil thin and poor, at least in the north, and its sea coast is compara- tively limited. While there is in the aggregate a good deal of wealth in Germany, the people, as a rule, have small means at their disposal. They cannot build churches out of surplus earnings or savings, as English and American Christians are constantly doing. If new churches are needed, the State must secure their erection. It is hard for the people to
28 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
spare even the amount collected in taxes for the maintenance of the local Church.
The condition of the wage^earner in Germany, if one of comparative comfort, is less tolerable than in America. An eight=hour day is unknown. The peasant goes to his toil at daylight, and in winter does not return from it until the stars appear. Ma- sons, carpenters, tradesmen of every kind, have an almost equally long day. With all their industry and thrift there is little chance of rising into a posi- tion of independence, although in favored circum- stances this is sometimes done. In general, food is poor and scant. Meat is not eaten every day. Beer and black bread are the staple articles of food and drink among the people. In such circumstances we cannot look for moral or spiritual aggressiveness, or for many or raxoid social changes. The tendency is to keep things as they are. As they say in West- phalia, " What has been must be." To bring together into a Church edifice once every week a spiritually^ minded congregation, eager for Christian service, is difficult. Out of such a congregation to gather a suf- ficient number for a mid=^week prayer=meeting would be even more difficult. Probably the majority of those who attend Church think that the church or its authorities ought to do something for them, rather than expect them to do for others.
That the condition of the laboring classes in Ger- many is as good as in the United States cannot be affirmed. Although it costs the wage-earner much less to live than it costs to live in this country, his income is far below that which he would receive here. His long day's work brings him a very small return.
GENERAL SURVEY 29
Common workmen, hod carriers, cabmen, draymen, would be independent on wages equal to those paid in this country. In harvest time, good hands receive about four marks, or one dollar a day, and board. This sum is obtained, however, only by those who are so fortunate as to work by the piece, and for this they are content to work from sunrise to sunset. Carpen- ters, butchers, masons, plumbers, printers, and book= binders, all receive small pay. The profits looked for by bankers, shop=keepers of various kinds, and great merchants, are less than would be satisfactory in America. Yet German peasants appear to live com- fortably. Their houses are small and poor. But the people who occupy them do not seem, except in cer- tain localities, to go hungry, nor do they often show themselves on the streets or at church save in neat attire. In the city, families are not crowded together as in London or in New York. First impressions might suggest less regard for cleanliness and the con- ditions of health, especially in some of the country villages, than is usual in America, but a closer scru- tiny would show that this is not true. What dirt the German makes is visible. If it be unpleasant to ride through the principal streets of some of the larger country towns, in Westphalia, for instance, and see the waste of the barn heaped in front of almost every house, and close by the main entrance, it is a comfort to learn that back of the house, is a welhkejjt garden, where the family spend many happy hours, and from which they derive no small part of their enjoyment and their food.
In the larger cities, the very poor do not congre- gate in any single section, but occupy either the top
30 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
stories, or the lower floors, of houses which contain the homes of people who are comfortably off. The laboring people are always on good terms with each other. From their ranks come many of the soldiers in the Army. These laborers are very largely social- ists, or as they are now generally called, Social Dem- ocrats. But, if we except some of their leaders, they are not the dangerous persons we often imagine. They are not anarchists, save to a limited extent in the larger cities. They do not seek to overthrow the government. Nor are they republicans, as opposed to monarchists. They are in the main satisfied with the government they have, so far as its form is con- cerned. They desire, and earnestly seek better condi- tions of life. They want better opportunities for their wives and children. For this no one can blame them. The changes which will bring about these opportunities are sought through the ballot, in peace- able, legal ways, not as in some other countries through violence and dynamite. It is for this reason, doubtless, that the Emperor has been in sympathy with this class, although recently his attitude has been less fav- orable toward it than formerly, perhaps because those who compose it are becoming less friendly to law as their numbers increase. A few years since he sought to improve their condition through legislation in their be- half. Up to a certain point these socialists are fairly well educated. They can read and write. They can make out a bill for their work as accurately as if they had been trained in a good American Business Col- lege. Common washerwomen are no less proficient. Their hand writing is neat and legible, and their ac- counts are nearly always correct. Dishonesty is not
GENERAL SURVEY 31
one of their traits. Yet as a whole the people are not great readers, even of daily papers. They do not patronize public libraries. There are few, if any magazines, in Germany to be compared with Harper's or the Century. If there were, the laboring classes would not read them. Perhaps they could not afPord to buy them, even if interested in them. Still there is a kind of reading which is furnished them freely. It is partly religious, partly socialistic. Sermons of such men as Dr. Adolph Stoecker, formerly Court preacher, now the head of the Berlin City Missionary Society, and a Member of Parliament, and tracts full of sound advice well calculated to produce a content- ed mind, are largely circulated. Papers and tracts of an opposite tendency have also a wide circulation. Of the people's libraries we shall speak later.
Although no gatherings are allowed except under the eye of the police, many are held at which the doc- trines of socialism are freely discussed, together with the wrongs, real and imaginary, from which the peo- I)le suffer. These meetings are usually held in beer- gardens, and although in general there is not very much drunkeness, still far more beer is consumed than is good for those who use it. It is said by com- petent judges that the poorer classes are learning to drink, with far greater relish than formerly, a cheap kind of liquor, known as Brantwein, which is intoxi- cating and very hurtful. The government is desirous that these classes should continue to use beer. This is one reason why an increase in the tax on malt liquors has been so sturdily opposed.
Discontent in the poorer classes is not a bad sign. It has been a source of discouragement to many who
32 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
have had their welfare at heart that but few among them seem to care to improve their condition. Equal- ly disappointing is it to find that after leaving school, few manifest an interest in books, or in public affairs, while the mass are content with what they already know, and desire to have things continue as they are. In view of these facts, one ought to feel grateful that discontent has begun to show itself. It is a discon- tent which will need a great deal of enlightenment and patient leadership, though both, no doubt, in time, will come. The day cannot be far off when better wages will be paid for labor, when the lower classes will not be willing to live as they do now; when many among them will insist upon better opportunities for educa- tion and self=improvement. Just how this will be brought about, few would care to predict. Perhaps through Socialism, or the discussion of its principles. Certainly not by laws which muzzle the press, or de- prive the people of any of their rights as freemen. The rapid increase in the number of those who pro- claim themselves Socialists, indicates a degree of thoughtfulness which will certainly produce fruit.
The social life of the people, as has been said, is confined to the rank to which they belong. The workman is not admitted to the table of his em- ployer, nor invited to his parties, not even to his out-of-door parties. He may not aspire to the hand of his employer's daughter. Nor may a son of a manufacturer or contractor stoop to a matrimonial alliance with a woman from the ranks of labor. Nevertheless, such alliances are sometimes made. Nor is it as rare as it once was for a bright boy to push his way from servile conditions to those of
GENERAL SURVEY 88
honor and wealth. Socialism has created a desire for better conditions than those which now prevail. It has taught the people the advantage of a trained intellect, of co-operation, of unity in aim. If these better conditions are sought within the law, as tliey probably will be, we cannot withhold our sympathy from the movement which promises to secure them. Why should taxes be levied on the beggarly v/ages of a little child, and the great possessions of a prince pay no revenue to the gov(irnment? To ask the question is to answer it. That religion should flour- ish among a people v/ho can scarcely secure enough by unremitting toil, and the utmost frugality to keep body and soul together, is hardly to be expected. True, they need its consolations, and its stimulus, more than those who are in better temporal condi- tions, yet they rarely receive it in any such way as to make it a source of moral and spiritual j)ower in their lives. With many of these poorer people attendance at Church is merely formal, and from habit, rather than from a desire to worship God and enter into communion with Him. Their thoughts of God are determined by their thoughts of the rich manufac- turer, the high=born prince or the Emperor. God is a being to be honored, feared, obeyed, rather than loved and trusted.
It is hard to put one's self into the condition of the German peasant, or wage-earner. Each retains his traditional love for personal liberty, his sense of IDcrsonal importance, and yet cherishes a x^assionate love for his fatherland. Even his pastor hardly un- derstands him, or descends to his level. He often gpeaks to him in language which is several grades
H CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
above his thought. His appeals from the pulpit, or in private life, although not entirely rejected, have less effect than they might have, were they fully un- derstood. Very frequently they do not touch the person to vrhom they are addressed. Nor is this strange. A university man cannot easily think along lines which are familiar to those of the laboring classes who hear him preach, though there are some exceptions. Not a few pastors have studied the con- ditions of their parishes, and learned how to use the language of common life in their sermons. Not a few of the more conspicuous preachers, while fully convinced that a change in the conditions of living ought to be brought about, are persuaded that nothing will improve these conditions like the Gos- pel of Christ presented in a simple, spiritual way, and accepted in faith and love. A far larger number of men and women than is generally believed are seeking to reach the humbler classes by means which the Gospel sanctions, and which cannot fail to ele- vate those among whom they are laboring.
Even in Germany there is a middle class which exerts great influence. It is composed of energetic men of business, of men who, having served in the army, find the humdrum life of a peasant unendura- ble; of men who are in the service of the State either as conductors on the railways, as telegrajph operators, or as employees in the post-office; of men who enter the learned professions, are employed as teachers in private or public schools, or fill positions of import- ance in philanthropic institutions. If few of those who belong to this middle class are socially recognized by those belonging to the higher circles, their opinions
GENERAL SURVEY 85
on many questions of the day command attention and respect, In this middle class are found the men who pay the bills of the nation, v/ho have the brains of the nation, who edit the papers and write the books of the nation, and, above all, those Avho train the youth of the nation.
To stimulate effort, and to prevent the more suc- cessful from being jealous of those who by birth out- rank them, a few of the more distinguished middle class men, as previously stated, are ennobled, or given decorations which admit them to Court circles. A great farmer ranks as high as the rich manufacturer, the successful banker, the speculator, or the mer- chant prince of a city like Hamburg or Bremen. Yet none of these men would be willing that a mem- ber of his family should form an alliance with any of those whom they regard as socially beneath them; hence they have little expectation of being allied with those who are socially above them. Through their wealth their sons sometimes become oflScers in the army, while by marriage their daughters may be brought into court circles, but, as a rule, the mem- bers of very wealthy and highly respectable families are obliged to be socially content with the rank in which they are born.
Commissioned officers, both in the Army and in the Navy, are in the main selected from families that belong to the nobility. In some regiments the officers already in service have the privilege of deciding who may, and who may not, be admitted to their fellowship. However great his valor, a poor man's son has little hope of attaining a higher rank than that of a non- commissioned officer. There are of course exceptions.
36 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
for unusual merit generally compels recognition, but for the most part it is those who are favored by birth who Vv'in the prizes in life. Yet the noble born are brought into competition with the base born, and can keep their position year after year only by real merit, and can rise in it, only as high as their merit shows that they are worthy to rise. Hence not infrequently it comes to pass, yet not often enough to set aside the rule, that barriers of rank are broken, and that men from the lower strata of society reach the higher levels.
From what has been said it must not be inferred that members of differing social ranks are not con- stantly thrown together, and are not on familiar and friendly terms with each other. Nevertheless the so- cial lines between them are so strong as to render their obliteration practically impossible. The life of a man of wealth, be he banker, merchant, manufactur- er, or speculator on the Bourse, has little in common with the interests of the learned class, still less with those of the common people. The university profes- sor, the director of the gymnasium, the head of a pub- lic school, the manager of an asylum or a prison, find their social affinities among those whose thoughts are given to educational, philanthropic or literary sub- jects. The pastor, hard as he may try to reach the common people with friendly and Christian advice, has little real sympathy with them. He goes else- where for society. Yet far more frequently than in former j^ears do we meet iDersons in the ministry who are studying the social conditions of their parishes, and are seeking to bring about such changes in law and popular sentiment as will give everyone an ec^ual
GENERAL SURVEY 37
chance in life, aud enable everyone to make the most of it.
It need hardly be said that in conditions like these, it is very difficult to carry forvv^ard Christian work on the broad, generous scale of the Gospel, to give every man what he considers his just due, and yet to treat all as equal in the sight of God. This is the problem which aristocratic Germany is trying to solve. The difficulties of the solution are immensely increased by the intensely monarchical and military spirit which prevails, and by the feeling that whatever is, is right, and that toward v/ealth, birth, education and position, every less fortunate person ought to cherish a rever- ent regard. Many of these general statements will be more fully illustrated in the chapters which fol- low. In spite of the difficulties with which her peo- ple are contending, it will be our aim to show that Germany is indeed a Christian nation, and that Chris- tian life within her limits is far more general and in- fluential than is sometimes thought.
CHAPTER II.
THE INTELLECTUAL TRAINING OF THE PEOPLE.
Nowhere in the world is intellectual power prized more highly than in Germany. The standards of at- tainment in the professions are as high as they can well be made. In mental equipment, the pastors, laymen, physicians, teachers, and scientists of Ger- many have few, if any, rivals. Yet owing to the ex- istence of the peasant class, and the large number of mere wage earners of the social rank of the peasant the average intelligence of the people is not up to that which i)i'evailed in New England jprior to the Civil War of 1861-G5. Germany has no such news- paper press as ours. Nor is it free to criticize the government or existing institutions as is the press among English=speaking peoples. The German magazines, though numerous, are not widely circu- lated. The German journals and magazines are for special classes of readers, and for special objects. While admirably conducted, and exceedingly able, they do not, like the magazines and reviews with which we are familiar, appeal to the popular heart, or convey information on topics which interest everyone.
Among the children of working people there is neither the desire for, nor the hope of, obtaining such an education as prevails v/ith us. This is due partly to the difficulty of obtaining it, and partly to the fact that, in general, the sons of university men
38
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 89
are most anxious for learning, and so monopolize and crowd the professions. Others are content to tread in the paternal footsteps. With the increase of wealth there is an increase in the number of those who pat- ronize the Universities. Denominational periodicals, like those published in this country, are unknown in Germany. Those devoted to the interests of some particular phase of faith, or which represent the views of a wing of the Church, the right, the center, or the left, have but a limited circulation. Political journalg, which advocate measures vdiich the people can do lit- tle to bring about, do not attract many readers, al- though radical papers, like the Vorwdrls, of Berlin, are increasing in number and influence. Still, nearly everyone manages to keep informed on the general news of the day, to know what the government is pro- IDosing to do, whether the Army is to be increased, or diminished, and what are the prospects for better times in agricultural or industrial districts. But while this true, it is also true that wage^earners, as a class, whether in the city or the country, do not seem to have the interest in reading which is observed among wage^earners in America. Members of the burgher class, well educated as most of them are, do not care for books or papers, as those of correspond- ing rank do here. Nevertheless, great respect is ev- erywhere shown to men of learning. Peasants honor them, as do the burghers, from whose ranks the in- tellectual army receives many recruits. Outside the Army, in times of peace, the roads which lead to dis- tinction are by authorship, eloquence, scientific dis- covery, success in some department of art, in geo- graphical explorations, or through some rare and pe-
40 CHtilSTIAN LIFE IN GEHMANY
culiar intellectual gift. Distinction on the stage, or in music, brings substantial returns and honor. Statesmen acquire as much reputation for what they write, as for their ability in debate, or in leading a party. The men who obtain wealth are honored for their supposed mental power, quite as much as for the wealth they acquire. Intellect is a deity at whose shrine not a few worship.
A university man starts in life with a broad and thorough training. He is fitted to enter almost any vocation or field of study or research to which his tastes may attract him. He begins his active life as a scholar of no mean attainments. A little labor suffices to keep him informed as to the additions made to knowledge in the various departments of learning. Yet Germany is pre-eminently the coun- try of the specialist. Few who seek the highest honors in scholarship venture to cultivate more than a small portion of the wide field to which their atten- tion is drawn. Hence Germany is a country of au- thorities. Would one read the last word in any branch of learning it must be found in a German book. In practical affairs, like those connected with engineering, mining, agriculture, the apiolications of chemical principles, one cannot afford to disregard the theories or the methods which have found approval in Germany.
But we shall hardly appreciate the honor paid to cultivated intellect in Germany without carefully considering her system of education. In no other European county, Sweden possibly excepted, is ed- ucation so scientific. It is a system of which its advo- cates are naturally proud. Perfect as it seems to be,
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 41
some of the best minds in the Empire are continual- ly seeking to improve it. The system now followed in Prussia, and with slight modifications in every German province, is the result of centuries of thought and experiment. It is intended to reach every child in the Empire, to develop his faculties in a way best adapted to his native gifts, and to meet the demands of society and the State. In the Cabinet, the school and the Church are placed upon the same level. A person of great ability and exalted character, the Cultus Minister, is charged with their care. The theory is, that education and religion are of equal im- portance in the training of the citizen, that neither can be neglected without serious loss to the State. In a certain well understood sense, every teacher, as well as every pastor, is an oflBcer of the government, belongs to that complicated machine, which not only controls and defends the country, but uses its resourc- es, whether they consist of human lives or material possessions, for the country's good. This system of education is made efPective by a very large annual ap- propriation from the public revenues.
The schools may be classified as follows: first, the schools for the people, the " Volksschulen," which cor- respond to our primary and grammar schools; second, the *' Realschulen," which are of a first or second rank according as they fit youth for business, for oc- cupations which do not require a university training, or for those callings which do require it, but do not demand a knowledge of the classics; third the "Gym- nasia,'' with the pro=gymnasial schools, in which boys are prepared in the most thorough manner for every- thing which the universities teach. There are, in addi-
42 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
tion, separate schools for girls, who are not permitted to attend either the Realschulen, or the Gymnasia. There are technical schools, also schools of forestry, for tliose who are to have the charge of the forests, which for the most part belong to the government, and are very carefully guarded, schools of engineering, min- ing, electricity, the various departments of science, as well as many private schools for music, painting and special research. Then there are the schools in which the science of war, both upon land and sea, is taught to tliose promising young officers whose so- cial standing, moral character, and intellectual abil- ity, recommend them to the government as fit candi- dates for a three years course at the public expense.
It was the "Volks" Schools for which a law was designed, that would have given, as was believed, in- creased influence to the clergy at the expense of the teachers, which, a few years since, cost a cabinet min- ister his place, but which after all, would only have emphasized a little stronger than at present that moral and religious instruction, which the Protestant pastor, the Roman Catholic priest, or the Jewish Rabbi, is required to impart. These primary schools, which are practically free, at least in Prussia, are at- tended by pupils of both sexes from the age of six to fourteen. To a limited extent women are employed in them as teachers, as they are in girls' schools, chiefly. The grade of instruction is about the same as that in our grammar schools. Attendance is com- pulsory. No instructor is allowed to have more than ninety pupils in a single room. A larger number calls for an extra room, and an additional teacher. This increase continues till the building contains eight
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 4r{
rooms, or becomes an eight room school. Then an- other building, and a new school, are made necessary by law. In towns, cities, or villages, where there are twenty=five pupils belonging either to Lutheran, Ro- man Catholic, or Jewish families, a separate parish school may be opened, in which the pastor, or priest, or rabbi, gives a prescribed course of instruction. These schools, although often established by the churches, or the synagogues, are yet under state inspection and control, and receive state aid, though not always enough for their support. That is, the parish school may be treated as a Volksschule, or, if of a certain grade, may be regarded as a pro=gymnasial or a burgher school. In summer these schools open at 7 A. M. and close at noon. In the rural districts, for the sake of the older children whose work in the fields is val- uable, the schools open at G A. M. and close at 9 A. M. Then the younger children come and remain till 12 M. In the winter, the schools open and close an hour later. Exce^Dt in the larger towns, there are no Kindergartens, although there are many private schools for very young children. There are, also, supplementary schools, which furnish two hours in- struction on some week day, and two hours on Sun- day, for apprentices, or workmen of any sort, whose mental training has been neglected. Employers are obliged to see that their employees attend these schools. Instruction is given in German, book-keep- ing, correspondence, the art of making out bills, reck- oning, and drawing. It is given by teachers from the public schools, and is paid for out of the tax lev- ies. In some x)laces, as in Berlin, there are supple- mentary schools for girls, who are taught, in addition
44 CHRISTIAN LIFE iN GERMANY
to the subjects just named, industrial drawing, womanly handiwork, housekeeping, care for the sick, and in special instances, French, English, and gym- nastics. In the larger towns in which there is neither a Realschule nor a Gymnasium, there may be a Burgher, or a citizen's school. These are of two grades, a higher and a lower. They prepare their puj)ils either for the Realschule, the Gymnasium, or for business. They often take the place of the pro-gymnasial schools, in which for three or four years, the boy is drilled in the elements of education. Instruction is thorough and systematic. Whatever is done, is done so well that it need not be done again. Although a university education is not neces- sary in order to obtain a teacher's position, unless a graduate, one must si)end three years in a teachers' seminary, at the end of that time submit to an exam- ination, and if approved be content to begin v.'ork wherever there is an opening. The examination is repeated after a few years of service, so that no one who is incompetent may be retained in the schools. For a male teacher, the minimum salary is $250 a year, the maximum, $1,500. There are some perquis- ites as well as some opportunities for extra teaching, so that with the greater value of money in Germany than in the United States, the salary is not so small as at first appears. The Empire abounds in private schools, as well as in house, or home schools, in which persons of the highest attainments are often employed. Private teaching is a favorite occupation for a young minister while waiting for a parish.
For those boys who are looking forward to the university, and a professional life, there are, as has
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 45
been said, the pro-gymnasial schools in which the pupil remains till he is nine or ten j^ears of age, and from which he can pass, according to his aim in life, either to the Bealschiile or to the Gymnasium, properly so=^called. The Gymnasium is the charac teristic school of Germany. Here is the place where the foundations of scholarship are laid, where the hard work is done which produces the results which we so much admire as they appear later in life. The course of study is nearly the same in every one of the hun- dreds of Gymnasia which Germany supports. It is as thorough as it can be made, and cannot easily be shortened, either by hard study or superior ability. It extends through a period of nine or ten years, or from the age of nine or ten, to that of eighteen or nineteen. Many do not complete the course till some years older. The subjects taught are those which are taught in our high schools, academies, and colleges, so that graduation from them is nearly tantamount, save in the superiority of their discipline, to graduation from one of our smaller colleges. The study of the classical tongues, with mathematics, is made prominent; although other subjects, history (ancient and modern), philosophy, literature, science, and modern languages are not neglected. Regular instruction, for a fixed number of hours each week, is given in religion and in the Scriptures. To be the head of a Gymnasium is a great honor. A few of these Gymnasia are richly endowed and receive a limited number of pupils without cost. In general, the cost of tuition is about twenty^five dollars a year. The Realschule is a Gymnasium for practical life. Greek and Hebrew are drox^ped from the list of
46 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
studies. The time given to Latin is shortened. More attention is paid to modern languages, and to those subjects which we make prominent in our manual training schools. Those who desire, take a course of study which prepares them for the scientific lectures in the University, and for the study of subjects which do not depend upon a knowledge of the clas- sics. Some take a course which prepares for busi- ness, and for those professions whose final training is obtained in special schools like those in forestry, mining, metallurgy. The Rcalschide is growing in favor and is meeting the demand for practical teaching which prevails among Germans, as well as among Americans. Special, or technical schools, are numer- ous and excellent. A course in them usually occui^ies three years.
But the crown and glory of the German system of education is the University. When fully equipped it has four faculties, one for philosophy and the arts, one for law, one for medicine, and one for theology. In a few of (he Universities there are both Protestant and Koman Catholic theological faculties; in others only a Koman Catholic, or a Protestant faculty. In recent years provision has been made for thorough instruction in science, theoretical and experimental. The University is the finishing school in intellectual training. Its purpose is to impart knowledge, and to stimulate a desire for independent research. Pro- fessors are under no restraint of creed or religion. They are required to teach the truth as they see it, and are expected to know all that can be known about the subjects that fall within the scope of their dej)art- ments. They receive a certain sum from the govern-
INTELLECTUAL TRAININO 4ff
ment, which makes an annual grant to the universities of the nation, and also, wholly or in good part, the fees which come from the students who attend their lectures. For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the most coveted of all degrees given by the univer- sities, a course of four years in Philosophy and the Arts, is required, with an examination at the end of the course, which is a real test of merit, and an essay on a subject which proves one's ability to make original investigations, and to present their results in a form suitable for publication. Instruction is usually given by lectures, of which the student takes full notes, and in a Seminar, or a gathering of yonng men from the classes of the professor, who are willing to do original work under his direction. The lectures, however, are of a character to excite a desire to read a great deal upon the topics discussed, and to render the services of a private teacher {privat Doccnt) necessary and valuable. From this position of 2^ru tiat Docent most of the more distinguished German professors have risen to the chairs they now fill. Students of law, medicine, and theology are examined at the end of their university course by a board of experts in each j)rofession, which has authority to pronounce upon their fitness or unfitness for the positions they desire to fill. In Berlin, these exami. nations are severe. They are lenient nowhere. The young medical student who has passed his exami- nation is often sent to a hospital, or if he has received aid from the state, to the Army, where he is obliged to remain some years before venturing to practice on his ov/n account. The young lawyer is generally required to serve a sort of a^Dprenticeship
48 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
before he is permitted to begin life as an independ- ent counsellor. On leaving the University, the young theologian takes his first examination, and if approved by the board of examiners which the author- ities of the Church have appointed, may become an assistant of a city or a country pastor, or a teacher in some rich man's family, or in a parish school. Four subjects are assigned him for private study. These call for about four months' work. At the end of a year and a half he is ready for his second examination, which is partly written and part- ly oral, and occupies three days. If successful, the young man may preach in vacant pulpits, assist pas- tors in the public service, and announce himself as a candidate for settlement. But before this he must have completed a course of study in a Preacher's Sem- inary of longer or shorter duration, according to the attainment of the student. He may wait months, even years, for a parish. Vacancies are not as numerous in Germany, as in some other parts of the world, while for every desirable vacancy there are many ap- plicants. If the candidate should tire of waiting, he may continue to teach, become a chaplain in some benevolent institution or in the army, emigrate to a German colony, or be assigned to America. As he does not marry till he has an appointment, the long period of waiting often becomes very trying. In the country, where the first settlement is commonly found, the salary is $450 a year, which is supplemented, or- dinarily, with a house, rent free, and a garden. Every five years the salary is increased $125 a year, till it reaches a maximum of $900. A few parishes are en- dowed, and in these instances the incumbent receives
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 49
a very much larger income. While no minister is obliged to remain in the charge first obtained, he has the assurance that as long as he behaves himself he cannot be driven from it at the whim of a parishioner iivho thinks the minister too pointed in his sermons, or not pointed enough, and that a change would be beneficial. The income is increased by fees from weddings, funerals, bax)tisms, and confirmations. Although there are special schools for students of the- ology, and institutions for the training of evangelists and missionaries, there are no short cuts into the ministry of the National Churches. Yv^hen recognized as a pastor, a man has a place of honor, usefulness, and power, which increases in importance with his years. Neither in this profession, nor in any other, do the Germans believe in allowing their men to quit work while in good health, and in the full possession of their mental faculties.
The estimate which Germans put upon education is manifest in the time they devote to its acquisition, and in the system of schools they have called into ex- istence in order to impart it. Save in the lower grades, the schools are not free. Few, however, who really desire it, are debarred by poverty from study. There are scholarships, grants for those who need them, and such other aid as professors know how to obtain for favorite, or promising students. Money is sometimes earned by private teaching while at the University. For young men like Martin Luther, or the Chevalier von Bunsen, there are always ways to get on.
The schools of Germany have never been fuller than they are nov»% The Universities have never beeij
50 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
better patronized, or better manned. The love of learning, in the heart of what may be called Germany's scholarly class, has never been stronger than it is to= day. Parents were never readier to sacrifice their own comfort in order that their children may obtain the best possible education. They begin to save for this pur- pose as soon as the child is born. It is not surprising that in no other country there should be so large a class of men whose intellectual discipline has been of the first order, and who are so competent to act as teachers for the entire world. Nowhere else is learn- ing so prized for its own sake, or such pains taken to find out hov/ best to impart it to others.
It is easy to criticise a system of education like that which we meet iu Germany. It is vast, compli- cated, almost unchangeable. At times it seems to work hardship to the pupil, to fail in furnishing stim- ulus for the development of individual tastes, to de- stroy spontaneity; but when we see what this training machine has accomplished in the hands of those who have invented it, and who use it, we feel as if silence were more becoming than criticism. Yet we are war- ranted in saying that in one respect the German sys- tem is weak. It has not provided for the girls of the nation as generously and as carefully as it has pro- vided for the boys. It has seemed to look upon the training of girls as of less importance than that of boys. This is due to the prevailing opinion that wo- man is inferior to man, or that her education should be less extensive, and less thorough, than his. A fairly good education may be obtained in what are known as Daughter Schools, and Higher Girls' Schools, but a Vassar or a Wellesley, a Smith, or a South Hadley,
INTELLECTUAL TRAINING 61
cannot be found in the German Empire, With the exception of the University at Zurich, not a German speaking university is fully open to women. In dis- regard of the rules, a few professors have permitted women to listen to their lectures; but neither in the Healschule nor in the Gymnasium, nor in the Uni- versity, can they be received as regular students. Few German women have as yet availed themselves of the privilege of attending lectures in the University. The women one sometimes meets in the lecture rooms are found, on enquiry, to be from England, or from the United States. The day of woman's rights has not yet dawned in the Fatherland. Thanks to the Empress Frederick, and a few like-minded per- sons, better schools for young women are now spring- ing up. In such establishments as the Victoria In- stitute in Berlin, a woman may pursue her studies to almost any extent she desires. That Germany will long remain behind English speaking nations, in pro- viding for the education of her daughters, is improb- able. When that provision has been made, the intel- lectual life of the people will rise to heights hitherto unknown.
CHAPTER III.
THE MORAL AND RELIGIOUS LIFE OF GERMANY.
It is never safe for a foreigner to pronounce au- thoritatively ux3on the moral or religious condition of a country in which he only temporarily resides. While there can be no divergence of opinion on fun- damental principles, on many important matters standards differ in different countries. What would be wrong in the judgment of an American may seem entirely right to a German. Impressions, however, are made and inferences drawn, for which there may be more or less justification. Some of these impres- sions are given in the present chapter.
Both the moral and the religious conditions of the peox)lo seem to bo inherited. Tradition is a powerful agent in determining popular views. What the fathers have believed, the children believe, or hesitate ojjenly to reject. Birth and education have no small part in determining one's attitude toward religion. Not many are willing to confess that they have no religion. According to the census of 1890, only a few more than 13,000 people would permit themselves to bo registered as with- out faith in God. The majority of the people are, nominally, members either of the Roman Catholic, or of the Protestant Church. There are just about twice as many Protestants as Roman-
52
MORAL LIFE 53
ists. Protestants are to some extent divided into sects, although the majority are found in the nation- al or provincial Church. About 1,300,000 Old Luth- erans are found in the census returns. There are also a small number of Moravians, perhaps two score thousand Baptists and Methodists, a still smaller number of Anglicans, a few thousand Old Catholics, a few Mennonites, and about three quarters of a mil- lion Jews. All sects are tolerated by the govern- ment, although there is really little respect for them on the part either of the clergy or of the people. Men like Count Bernstorff do not hesitate to say that the sects are without much influence, although he and other generous=minded Lutherans v/ould not deny that the piety of those who have been gathered into the Baptist and Methodist churches has reacted oa the State Church and led its members to place more stress than formerly upon the " new birth " as a pre-requisite to receiving the sacrament of the Lord's Supper.
Very largely, as has been said, is membership in the Church looked upon as natural and inevitable. As the parent has the child baptised in infancy, it follovv's, as a matter of course, that the child, at the proper age will be confirmed, and enter upon the dis- charge of his duties as a Church member. There is no good reason why he should not. The system of faith he receives is intellectual in its nature, can be put into a form of v^7ords, is easily committed to mem- ory, and made to do duty through life. Very few even of the more spiritually minded among the pas- tors have any correct understanding of what we mean by revivals of religion, or of regeneration, as a pre-
54 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
requisite to Church membership. They look upon those who claim to have been converted in a revival, or who advocate revivals, as fanatics, who destroy the intellectual basis of religion, turn it into a mere emo- tion, and rob it of its power. In such circumstances it cannot be expected that attendance upon Church services would be universal, or even regular, though there be no set purpose to neglect them. If religion consists, as in so many minds it does, in the intellect- ual acceptance of certain statements of doctrine, and in conduct which harmonizes with the requirements of the State, of society, and of the Word of God, then, as there is no reason for giving emotion or the feelings any place in Christian experience, so there is no reason wdiy one should attend Church in order to strengthen one's faith, or to persuade one's self to do one's duty. Duty admits of no delay or excuse. Duty must be done. The only question is, What is duty ? The answer of the average Church member would be, "Believe in God, in His Word, attend His house of worship a few times each year, go to the communion at least annually, and, while being true to one's call- ing in life, love one's neighbor as one's self and God supremely." To be a Christian, and to emphasize the principles which Christ brought to light, is to live as the good of society demands, to obey law, to act out the principles of one's better nature. Relig- ion is ethical rather than spiritual, formal rather than experimental, a matter of deeds, rather than of life and character. When the claim is made that the na- tion is Christian, it is meant that its laws, customs, social and literary institutions, in their ethical basis, are Christian, rather than heathen; not that its indi-
MORAL LIFE 66
vidual citizens have consciously entered into fellow- ship with Christ and put themselves under the guid- ance of the Holy Spirit. More truly, perhaps, than in any other nation can the claim be maintained that in Germany, law, literature, the drama, and the every- day life of the people, are saturated with Christian principle, have received a Christian flavor, have been baptised with a Christian name. Not much is made of religion by way of public service, save on the Lord's Day, and on great occasions.
In the Universities no theological professor thinks of opening his lectures with prayer, as in our semi- naries for the training of ^oung men for the ministry. Nor in these great schools are there, even for theolog- ical students, anything like the "prayers" of our col- leges, or social meetings for the cultivation of one's spiritual life. There are " unions " of a few students for the consideration of spiritual topics, but the larger number of these unions, even among students for the ministry, are intellectual in their nature. Life in the other departments of the University, as well as in professional and technical' schools, though not openly infidel, is yet practically godless. Neither teacher nor student expresses his religious faith, if he cher- ishes any, in religious worship, nor, except on rare occasions, is he seen in the house of God. The Ger- man pastor does not count upon their assistance in his Christian work. Yet neither teacher nor student would avow himself an unbeliever. Each has re- ceived a religion which satisfies his intellect, and thinks it unneccessary to make any provision for the feelings.
While it is generally true that theological profes-
66 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
sors attend Church with tolerable regularity, as much cannot be said of theological students. Everyv/here there seems to be a tendency to identify morality with religion, and to make little of the forms of worship. Many do not come to Church till the liturgy is over. Sunday is a day of pleasure as well as of worship. It is held in no such reverence as in Great Britain and her colonies. In Berlin, and throughout the country, morning service is fairly well attended, although by a relatively small percentage of the people, save among Roman Catholics. Yet the Churches are usually full. In the evening at- tendance is scant, and is confined more to the work- ing classes, although popular preachers attract large audiences in the evening as well as in the morning. The more popular preachers are, with few exceptions, strictly evangelical in their belief. The people seem to want to hear an orthodox gospel, and to care little for essays or doctrinal discussions.
One of the crying evils in Berlin, and in some other large cities, has been a lack of Church build- ings. It has been impossible, even for those who care to attend Church, to find a seat within the edifice. Within the last few years this want of Church accommodation in the capital has, to a con- siderable extent, been remedied. Thirty or forty new houses of worship, large and convenient, have been erected, chiefly through the influence of the Emperor and the friends he has been able to interest in the project. Doubtless public moneys have been used to some extent, although lotteries, fairs, and special appeals have contributed their quota toward the cost. The presence of the royal family at the laying of the
MORAL LIFE 67
corner stones of these new structures, and at their dedication, the well known piety of the Empress, and the example of the Emperor in attending divine service, once a Sabbath at least, have had a whole- some influence on the people.
It is said by persons who have made careful exami- nation, that only about one= third of those who die in Berlin in any given year, are buried with religious services. This may be due, in part, to the cost of these services. A more decisive reason, however, is indif- ference. The Socialists, who are in the majority in Berlin, are avowedly indifferent to religion, although they are far from being wholly given up to infidelity. They do not feel kindly toward either the clergy or the Church, partly because both are connected with the State, and partly because Sunday is their day of pleasure, and the day uxoon which they meet, as do so many labor unions in the United States, for the dis- cussion of matters which affect them financially or have relation to their employers.
Nevertheless one would greatly err, were one to conclude that the Lutheran Church in Germany is dead or indifferent to the moral and spiritual welfare of its members. Nowhere in the world is the Eoman Catholic Church doing better work. Its relation to Protestantism makes this necessary. The zeal of Romanism reacts upon Protestants, so that both are benefited by spiritual competition. Of the Home and Foreign Mission work of these Churches we shall speak in subsequent chapters. It may suffice to say here that one cannot rightly charge Protestant paa- tors with indifference. Some are more earnest than others, less perfunctory in the discharge of their du-
58 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
ties. As a rule, all are outwardly faithful. They shirk no obligations which are laid upon them. Nor do they hesitate to hold as many religious services, public and private, as the people will attend. Not a few pastors in rural districts, during a part of the year, give up three or four evenings a week to the religious instruction of their young people. They strive also to prepare the people, by private conversa- tion, for the Lord's Supper. As a rule, sermons are simple, straightforward presentations of Gospel truth. If there are few Spurgeons or Beechers in the German puli)it, there are Dryanders, Frommels, Brauns, and Stoeckors, whom the multitude delight to hear. But sermons are the smallest part of a pastor's obligations toward his people. He lives for them. He is their friend and helper in whatever direction they need aid or sympathy. Sunday Schools are coming into vogue, or rather substitutes for them. As young men and young women, prior to marriage, are not allowed to mingle freely with each other, save in the presence of older people, or when solemnly betrothed, it is difficult to form Sunday Schools, or Societies of Christian Endeavor. Young men and young women are therefore compelled to meet their pastor separately for religious instruction. Among young men, societies have been multiplying of late, which may be called Young Men's Christian Associations. Many faithful women are gathering the younger children, on Sunday, for Biblical instruc- tion. Considering the circumstances in which he is placed, the average pastor does as well as can be ex- pected of him, at least until there is a spiritual awakening in other lands of which he shall hear, and
MORAL LIFE 69
of which he and his people shall feel the influence. From what has been said concerning the intellect- ual training of the German people, it will be inferred that there is great diversity of opinion among them on almost all subjects of human thought. With such love for intellectual pursuits, such opi^ortunities for them, such thoroughness of intellectual discipline, such emphasis laid on the duty of fearlessness and constancy in the effort to discover truth, there must inevitably be great differences of theological opinion, even where there is substantial agreement in funda- mental princiijles. In nothing is this more clearly seen than in the variety of views held by members of the same Church, and by pastors equally zealous and consecrated, concerning the doctrines of the Chris- tian religion, the nature, the meaning, and the value of the Word of God. Few of these critical students are willing to avow themselves unbelievers or even agnostics. As Christians they claim the right to reason upon the data which scholarship furnishes them. When so=called discoveries of truth are made they put these discoveries to the severest tests before accepting them as trustworthy. As criticism of the government is somewhat dangerous, as the field of practical statesmanship is substantially closed to the majority of the thinking men of the nation, and as the doctrines of the Church and the opinions of its living teachers are of the deepest interest to all who proft-ss to believe the revelations of the Christian religion, it is not strange that these doctrines and opinions, together with literature, science, art, music and the drama, should occupy a place in the thought- ful mind not accorded them in countries where the
60 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
press is free, where the principles of government and the acts of its representatives are fearlessly discussed and where the mind can exercise its privilege of selecting such objects for study or criticism as may suit it best. Intellectual activity like that in Germany cannot be repressed. Shut off from its legitimate ex- ercise in one direction, it will open channels for itself in another. If criticism of a human govern- ment is iDroliibited or restricted, greater liberty will be taken in criticizing the affairs of the kingdom of heaven.
As to moral life in Germany there is a wide diver- gence of opinion. Some, whose opportunities for observation have been exceedingly good, report un- favorably. Others again, whose opinions are entitled to the highest respect, assert that morals are not low- er than in the same classes in the United States. In either country there is a large number of people who are kept from wrongs doing only by the prevailing sentiment of society, or by fear of punishment. The moral problems in the two countries are largely the same. Intemperance, which in some sections of Ger- many is said to be increasing, shows itself less than on this side the Atlantic. The amount of beer and wine consumed is enormous. Nor is it diminishing although many wise and earnest men are advocating total abstinence, and by judicious publications are striving to show how much better it would be to em- ploy the money exx^ended for beer and wine for BomiCthing more nourishing. So long as the staple article of food for the common people is black bread, it is hardly probable that the use of beer will be given up. A grave and pressing danger is the temp-
MORAL LIFE 61
tatioii to substitute for beer a cheap kind of drink, wliicli is both intoxicating and injurious in its effect on the system. Earnest efforts are now put forth to prevent the people from using the wretched beverage known as Brant v^ein.
The Social Evil, though not licensed, is put under police inspection and control. It exists everywhere, certainly in all large towns, and everywhere makes its baleful effects visible. Although the woman whose steps take hold on death is not often seen on the streets, her habitation is known and easily found. According to the reports published in Berlin, about one^seventh of all births in the city are illegiti- mate. This means that many parents who by com- mon law, in the state of New York, for example, would be regarded as husband and v/ife, by reason of non-compliance with legal forms, are treated as if outside the pale of married life. Hence, while the number of children born outside the sanctions of wedlock is large, it is not so large as the police re- ports make it appear. One of the purposes of the Berlin City Mission is to persuade persons who have been, or are, living together, to be legally married, and thus secure legitimacy for their children. As these children cannot be confirmed unless baptised, or married in the Church unless their certificates of baptism be produced, it is of more importance than would at first appear that this legitimization for children be secured. The presence of large bodies of soldiers near a city always has a malign influence on large numbers of young women. Nor is the influ- ence of University students wholly good. Marriages, long deferred on account of a lack of income, are also
62 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
unfavorable to virtue. Nor can one avoid the feeling that, for some reason, sins against chastity are less severely condemned in Germany than in the United States. Very serious, too, for the morals of the people are the licensed lotteries, which are so univer- sally patronized. Government sanctions them, and obtains a portion of its revenues from them. They are resorted to for every kind of object. It is not thought improper to raise money for the building of a Church by means of a lottery. The amount of money which goes into the coflPers of lottery estab- lishments can hardly be estimated. The people are kept in a state of excitement nearly all the time, and if they fail to draw, as most do, they are encouraged to try again, in the hope of better luck. It is impossi- ble that there should be as healthy a moral tone in a community where the effort to secure something for nothing, or for less than its real value, is encouraged, as there is in a state of society where such an effort is treated with the condemnation we believe it deserves.
There is apparently more respect for law in Ger- many than in America. In Germany laws are made to be kept. The cities are so governed as to make it comfortable, convenient, and safe to live in them. They are governed for the benefit of their inhabitants, and not for the sake of office-holders. The records show fewer murders than in the United States, and a somewhat lower per cent, of crime. This may be because the population of Germany is so nearly ho- mogeneous, and because the newspapers are not per- mitted to publish the sickening details of crime. Still, even Germany has her epidemics of suicides,
MORAL LIFE 68
murders, thefts, and embezzlements. Her prisons are v>-ell filled. A good deal of attention is given to the f)roblems of prison reform, and with encouraging results. As a rule Germans are honest. One can safely trust their word. They are, moreover, honest as public officials. They are afiirmed to be incor- ruptible. It is affirmed, also, that bribes are un- known, that courts are places where the law is actu- ally administered, and where its officers make for themselves a reputation for integrity and virtue. The public money is never wasted save by mistake.
Patriotism is intense and universal. It shows itself no less in the faithful discharge of small duties than in those which are larger and more conspicuous. If there are some lapses in Germany from what we regard as a high and sound moral standard, judged by other standards, her attainments in virtue are not inferior to those of other countries, and countries, too, where Christian life seems to be more vigorous and self^asserting.
CHAPTER IV.
SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS IN GERMANY.
The religious condition of a country is determined very largely by its social and industrial life. Each acts and reacts upon the other. That the German people upon the whole are believers in the divine origin of Christianity tends to produce contentment and to render the problems of their government sim- pler than they would be otherwise. While the leaders of the Social Democracy are looked upon as danger- ous agitators, v/ho are seeking the overthrow of the government, or at any rate a change in its form, and are held to be the enemies of social order, hostile to any possession of property which is not under their control, it is not probable that anything like a major- ity of the rank and file of this Social Democracy, has any desire to bring about a revolution either in the forms of society or in government.
The natural conservatism of the German citizen counterbalances his intense love of personal liberty, and makes him shrink from any course which will change customs which have come down to him from the past, or overthrow a form of government which has done his country good service. He is fond of an unbroken tradition. He rejoices in the brave deeds of his ancestors, and is ready to risk his life, if need be, to imitate their example. He believes that
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SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS 65
through the present union of the German states in the Empire his people have risen to a great opportu- nity, are on the threshold of a future which will eclipse in glory and achievement anything known in history. If this naturally conservative disposition leads to a kind of formalism in his piety, it saves him from any violent break with its doctrines. Even where his reason, as he imagines, is against him, it binds him to the use of sound words in the expression of his religious convictions, which are both deep and real. It is easy for a German to believe in God. Against His authority he does not rebel. Nor does the severity of moral law trouble him; still less does he shrink from the command which requires him to love God suiDremely, and his neighbor as himself. He may have his own opinion about the way in which this obedience is to be shown; but, as to the com- mand, there can be, as he thinks, but one opinion. It is given in order to be obeyed, and he has no inten- tion to set it aside. This may be due, in part, to his habit of obeying his official superiors, whether in military or civil service, to the fact that all his life he has been used to forms of authority, but its real cause is more probably to be found in his nature. He is a person who loves authority, and is willing to recog- nize it in the divine Being.
In his habits of living, he is simple and frugal. With wage^earners this is a matter of necessity. In- come is too small to admit of extravagance. Rents are low, food and clothing are of the simplest. Those who belong to what we might properly call the mid- dle class, many of whom are in business for them- selves, are very careful in their expenditures. They
ee CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
do not allow themselves to live beyond their income. They strive to live so as to save a certain portion of the income every year. In the country, houses are small and poorly, though comfortably, furnished. In provinces, like Westphalia and Waldeck, the barn and the house of the peasant are under the same roof. The cow and horse occupy the lower story, or one side of the house, while the family lives above, or across a dividing way. One may often see hay crowded into the attic of the house, while children are at the win- dows of rooms above those set apart for the cattle. Pigs and hens are not far distant. Yet the people who thus live, and whose food is chiefly black bread, a little sausage and beer, do not look untidy, or as if they had insufficient nourishment. In the city, the majority, including also the well=to=do, live in flats, or apartments. In Berlin, a recent census shows that a single house accommodates fifty=seven persons, while on an average we find only seven in London. In Lon- don separate houses for every family are the rule. In Berlin, save in the suburbs, they are the exception. If rents for these apartments are rather high, the ag- gregate household expenses are far less than in Chi- cago, New York, or Boston. The standard of living is simijler. Entertainments cost less. Food and clothing cost less. Carriage hire is inexpensive, and it costs less to ride on the street cars or in the omni- buses. Then, too, there seems to be a feeling that American and English people eat too much, and are too fond of expensive food. With the conviction that simi3le ways best befit an honest state of society, are most healthful, as well as less costly, it is not surpris- ing that with the same amount of money, a German
SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS 67
can obtain far more from its expenditure than an American. Even princes make little display in their methods of living; some of them, indeed, have little money to spend, while those who have a great deal do not throw it away on frivolities. If they live com- fortably they do not seem to care to live extravagant- ly. In later years there has been an increasing ten- dency, among those who have acquired large fortunes, to increase personal expenses and to introduce stand- ards of housekeeping and entertainment which have caused much solicitude among the more thoughtful, and the lovers of the old simple ways. One of the causes of the bitter feeling against the Jews is the reckless manner in which the wealthier among them are spending their money in fast living.
To an American it seems as if the custom which prevents young peoi)le of a marriageable age from as- sociating with each other, save in the presence of their elders, could not be favorable to good morals. No one is benefited by being continually watched, by be- ing treated as if on the point of going astray. Mar- riages, which in the middle classes are not consum- mated very early, are less happy, one may believe, than they would be, were the parties to them allowed to associate more freely before the marriage contract is formed. There are too many go-betweens, there is too much consideration of money or income for un- ions of real affection. Still these do occur, and more frequently than one would think possible. An en- gagement is a great affair. Its solemnity is recog- nized by everybody. It is not often broken, never save for the most serious reasons. After an engage- ment has been ratified at the house of the future
68 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
bride, the young people are permitted to enjoy each other's society without hindrance. The period be- tween betrothal and marriage for most young persons is the happiest period of their lives. This is their honeymoon. Marriage may be delayed for years, but hence-forth the two people who have announced their purpose in the presence of relatives and friends to be- come husband and wife, are known as bride and bride- groom, and are received by the relatives of either party as members of the family. Families as a rule are large. Germans love children. Parents and children openly manifest their affection for each other. They make a great deal of birthdays, of Christmas, and Easter, and rarely allow these days to pass without exchanging some little present with one another. The love for social gatherings which unites families, or brings them together after the chil- dren are grown up and settled in homes of their own, is exceedingly strong.
There are no national games in Germany as in England and America. The Germans care nothing for cricket, or base ball. The Universities do not challenge one another to games of foot ball, or to boat races. The typical German seems happiest when in a beer garden, listening to good music, smoking and drinking beer with his wife and children around him. For j)hysical exercise, outside of that which daily labor requires, the people seem to have little appreciation. No one can deny that the habits of life ordinarily cultivated are favorable to good morals, and to a social life into which the discussion of questions which unsettle religious faith rarely enters.
SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS 69
With the increase of manufactures there has come a congestion of population in manufacturing districts. Although the population is almost entirely German, there still arise many disagreements between the em- ployers and laborers as to wages. There are fewer of these strifes than in a country like ours, where so many persons of different nationalities and creeds con- gregate, and where many assume a menacing or hos- tile attitude toward those who give them em^Dloyment. Serious strikes have not infrequently taken place in these manufacturing districts, but most of them have been settled without the intervention of the govern- ment. Others, notably in the mining districts, have been put down by the heljD of soldiers, and a settle- ment effected to the disadvantage of labor. Hardly more frequently in Germany than elsewhere have strikes really brought advantage to those engaged in them. It is easier there, than here, or in England, to compel their settlement by force, even if such a method of settlement should satisfy no one. The scarcity of employment, and the knowledge that if one gives up a place hundreds are waiting to take it, hinder many of those who are dissatisfied with their pay, from re- fusing to work because they cannot secure its in- crease. Upon the whole, whatever be the reason, there seems to be less complaint of the injustice and avarice of employers in Germany than in our own country. Perhaps it is because the haste to become rich is not quite so feverish and overpowering as here.
The government ownership of railways, telegraphs, a few breweries, and industrial establishments, and the employment of a multitude of men in the civil service, where the tenure of position depends upon
70 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
competence and good behavior, tend to create a standard as to wages and the length of a day's labor, which are not without a steadying influence upon the vast army of wage-earners. Very few who are in government service would care to risk their position by a strike or by an agitation v/hich would bear any resemblance to a strike. Nevertheless, there are too many people in Germany for its soil and its indus- tries properly to support. Notwithstanding the ex- tensive fisheries, the increasing output of the mines, the strenuous efforts which are made to bring agri- culture to a higher state of perfection, and to open lines of trade to every part of the world, emigration continues to increase. The demands of the Army and Navy, added to the ordinary demands for labor, are insufficient to furnish opportunities for earning a comfortable livelihood to hundreds of thousands of the population. Hence the immense emigration which has been going on for years to the United States, and is now turning toward South Africa and South America. Letters from those who have prospered in these regions and especially in the United States create the desire for emigration in the minds of those who have remained at home, and so the stream of de- parture for new countries continues. But in spite of the drains which have been made on the population, the census of 1890 gave Germany nearly fifty millions of people, with a country only 208,425 square miles in extent. This is a population of a little less than 239 to the square mile, a larger population than is found in Massachusetts. Massachusetts has the West to depend upon for her food. Germany cannot pro- duce enough to feed her people. It may be doubted
SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS 7l
whether a country, exposed as she is to the hostility both of France and Kussia, can safely depend on the products of other countries for any portion of her food supply. It is estimated that about 92 per cent, of her territory, including that which is fitted for grazing purposes, is capable of cultivation; 49 per cent, of it is arable. Germany is very well wooded; her forests cover 25 per cent, of her territory, v/hile those of England cover only 3 per cent., and those of France 17 per cent. With an abundance of coal, and a large supply of peat, there is no danger of im- mediate suffering from lack of fuel. But unless a stop can be put to the present rapid expansion of the population, or some new method of increasing agri- cultural products be discovered, and new channels opened for trade, it would seem as if the question of earning enough to meet the home demand for food would soon become a very pressing one. It is, more- over, one that may add immensely to the difficulties which Social Democrats, and a few hot-headed anar- chists, now and then furnish the government. It is of no little importance that in such a condition of things there be a strong faith in eternal verities, and a wise leadership in the Christian church. That re- ligion will form an important element in the settle- ment of the present problems in Germany, the relig- ious nature and history of the people render evident. Germany is a land of experiments in religion. She has tried Materialism. This, as one who writes intel- ligently in one of the more trustworthy journals says, is " an old head, weary and worn," whose day is past. Proud as she has been, Materialism can do nothing now for the people. The people have discovered that
72 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
they need something spiritual to help them to bear their earthly burdens. Philosophy has had her day. She is still powerful with many stalwart thinkers. From Kant to Hartmann, not a few have looked to her to suggest a way out of the troubles which sur- round the laboring class. But Philosophy has no way to suggest. She can discuss difficulties, can weave theories together into a system: she cannot furnish practical and immediate aid to those who need it. Rationalism, whatever be its form, is une- qual to the demands of the higher nature of man. It cannot minister to the spirit. Even the advocates of an Ethical Religion find no firm ground upon which to stand, unless they build upon the foundation of the "apostles and prophets." Only so far as they present the doctrines which Christ taught can they really touch the people they desire to influence. A " new religion," " the religion of the future," in which we hear much of " reason," " the rights of man," of " progress," " the advancement of the race," has nothing for men and women who are hungry, who are friendless and hopeless, who want God, and the help which He alone can bring. Says one who has considered the question, " Both Catholic and Protestant must study the question of aid for the working, or wage class, together." They must be agreed as to the measures which shall be taken for the removal of the need which is most pressing. Wise Christian men are satisfied that nothing short of religion, earnest, practical, every^day religion, will lift suffering miners or other toilers out of their de- pressed condition, or give them courage to try to help themselves, and thus encourage others to unite to-
SOCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL MOVEMENTS 73
gether to make these attempts successful. It is for the " fourth, or laboring class," especially, that help is demanded. It is for this class that the two great Churches of Germany are trying to work together. Statistics show that out of every hundred Germans, forty-seven are farmers, or peasants, thirty- five em- ployed in the trades, and only nine engaged in stores, or in the sale of the products of industry. Yet the laws recently enacted are, it is claimed, chiefly in the interest of the smallest class, and opposed to all that concerns the agricultural welfare of the nation. Economically, it is asserted that the cause of Ger- many's depression is the inability of her peasant class to buy and pay for what it needs. Treaties with Russia, and laws governing trade with other countries, have discriminated against Germany her- self, and reduced the power of the farmers to pay off the debts which, to more than half their value, have accumulated against their farms, or even to pre- vent their steady increase. For more than half of the population the future is dark. In view of this condition of things, what has been and is the attitude of the Church in Germany. What is the Christian life there led? To what extent is the Church a powerful moulder and director of public opinion? To these questions answers, more or less full, will be given in the chapters which follow.
CHAPTER V.
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES ON CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY.
No one mourns more sincerely than the intelli- gently devout German Christian the formalism which prevailed in the Churches at the close of the last, and at the beginning of the present century. If Chris- tianity had a name to live, it did not have much else. There was little hearty belief in the Scriptures as a direct revelation from God. Attendance at Church services was slight. Sermons were cold, unattractive and lifeless. Philosophic rather than practical topics formed their themes. To the occupants of the pulpit the field of Natural Theology seemed more fruitful than that of Revealed Theology. The doctrines of sin and grace, outside of certain circles, were almost entirely neglected. For this condition of things there were many reasons. Some of them date back to Luther, and owe their existence to his failure to draw a sharp distinction between Church and State, to his comparative indifference to subordinate but important doctrines of the Gospel, and especially to his views as to the Sabbath. Nor were his views as to the Scriptures without effect on those who came after him. Too much has been made of his claim for the right of private judgment and perfect free-
74
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES 75
dom in the interpretation of Scripture; yet it cannot be denied that extreme radicals are not without a show of reason in their assertion that he was the great radical of his time, and that, with his spirit and methods of interpretation, he would be their leader to=day. Unfortunately these radicals lack, as a rule, the piety of Luther. They have none of his con- viction of sin, none of his desire for its for- giveness, none of his confidence in the great doc- trine of justification by faith. Whatever may have been the failure of Luther, in the way of formulating dogmas for subsequent ages to receive and defend, his writings, taken as a whole, are an antidote to the poison which a few men would extract from them. Still we cannot fail to regret that the Reformer was not more consistent with some of his own principles. He would thus have given his successors less excuse for the differences of opinion which soon exhibited themselves in their ranks. The barren disputes in theology in the seventeenth century, the failure to start missions in foreign lands, to lay upon the Churches the entire burden of their support, to con- fine their membership to regenerate persons, the ir- regularities connected with the Peasants' War, and the sufferings attending the Thirty Years' War, pre- pared the way for the dearth of spiritual life in the eighteenth century, and for the Rationalism which was dominant in all spheres of thought at the beginning and during the early years of the century now closing.
Some of the causes which led to a reaction in Chris- tian thought and life may here be briefly mentioned. In considering them we should not forget that
76 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Pietism and the Moravians were sources of great spiritual power during all these dark years. Their influence, often unrecognized, can hardly be over- estimated. Yet there were also external causes which influenced the religious life of the people. Prominent among these, perhaps deserving the first place on account of their effect upon the entire jjeople, were the military campaigns of the nation. It was the "War for Independence which brought the peo^ole to their knees, and led them to cry unto God for deliverance. French influence had corrupted everything. It had corrupted thought, morals, and religion. The political power of the nation had been trampled under foot. EfiPorts to throw off the French yoke, to break the power of Napoleon in one great battle at Jena, in 1806, had signally failed. The darkest day for the German people had dawned. In the depths of their humiliation they turned their thoughts unto God. They cried mightily unto Him. Philosophical theo- ries were thrown to the winds. What everyone wanted was divine help. It came. With the defeat of the French armies at Leipzig, in 1813, and the waning of Napoleon's influence, a better state of things, religiously, dawned. Church life revived, and Chi'istian doctrines were discussed in a more practi- cal, helpful way.
With this renewal of confidence in the political importance of the nation was connected an intel- lectual awakening of the utmost importance. This was brought about in the main by the writings of such men as Kant, Fichte, and Hegel. Into the Church and into the ranks of theologians such think- ers came as Schelling, Schleiermacher, Neander, and
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES 77
Tholuck, These men believed in a spiritual religion, based on doctrines so simple that the common mind could aj)prehend them. The addresses of Schleier- macher, brilliant alike as a thinker and XDreacher, (Reden) to the thinking men of the nation, brought thousands back to the faith, and confirmed within them the purpose to lead a Christian life. To the influence of Schleiermacher, more than to any one else, is due the revival of confidence in Christianity as a revelation from God, and of religious earnestness in the nation. Not without a favorable influence on the piety of the people were the writings of the Romanticists. But no writers have ever had a greater or more beneficent influence, taken as a whole, than Goethe, Schiller, and Lessing. This influence was all the stronger since no one of these men sought to defend Christianity, save indirectly, or was known in his day as a believer in Christianity. Out of this intellectual renaissance came such histor- ical writers as Niebuhr, Ranke, Hase, Dorner, Kahnis, such critical scholars as Gesenius, Delitzsch, Tischendorf , with a host of others, engaged in kindred fields, all contributing, more or less, to a deeper in- terest in the Scriptures, and in the religion which is founded upon them. Nor are we to set aside as of little value in awakening religious thought, the great army of novel writers, essayists, critics, journalists? and poets, who, although working chiefly for the day, have yet done a vast deal to create a new interest in the principles which underlie the " Sermon on the Mount."
The discussions which accompanied the efforts of Frederick William III., king of Prussia, to bring
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about in his dominions a union of the Lutheran and Keformed Churches, were not without favorable effect upon the religious life of his subjects. In spite of the very serious opposition from the proposed amal- gamation of the two bodies, each retaining to a certain extent its own confession of faith, into a single body, to be known as the Union Evangelical Church, and the refusal of some strong Churches to assent to the terms of the union, few would now venture to ques- tion the wisdom of the step which the king and his ministers were anxious to take. The union was effected in 1817, and although it embraces within its fellowship men whose opinions are extremely ortho- dox, as well as those who are liberal almost to the verge of unbelief, it has undoubtedly done much to increase the efficiency of the Church of the realm.
Christian journalism, and such reviews as the Studien und KrUiken, have also wrought well for the truth. Overlooking its bad taste in conducting its controversies, the personalities, bitter and unchristian which often appeared in its columns, it must be ad- mitted that the Kirchenzeihing, so long edited by Hengstenberg of Berlin, now published at Leipzig, and edited by Luthardt, exerted very great influence on the side of Christian truth. These intellectual and spiritual influences, set in motion during the first and second quarters of the century, have continued to make themselves felt with increasing power even to the present time. Whatever may be said as to the influence of the Universities, though upon the whole it has been favorable to Christian truth, or however large may seem to be the numbers of men high in public estimation who reject supernatural Christian-
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES 79
ity, it cannot be denied that the ministry has con- stantly grown more spiritually minded, and that, within the last fifty years, the Church has roused itself to special activities indicative of a new life.
It seems far fetched to say that the exciting scenes in France, in 1848, were favorable to German piety. Yet this is true. At that time Berlin only just es- caped a revolution. It was at the point of the bayo- net, one might almost say, that the promise of consti- tutional government was extorted from Frederick William IV. It was with great hesitation that he fulfilled his promise, and gave Prussia a constitution and a representative form of government. Previously the will of the Hohenzollerns had been absolute. Since that time the cause of civil and religious liberty has made immense progress. It was in the year 1848 also that Wichern secured the recognition by the church, through its representatives gathered at Wit- tenberg, of his work in the Kough House, {Eauhes Hans) at Hamburg, a branch of the work of the Ger- man churches now known as the "Inner Mission," and making its beneficent power felt throughout the German^speaking world. In an important sense is it true that since 1848 the political and Christian devel- opments of Germany have gone forward hand in hand.
The sense of obligation which the Emperor Wil- liam I., and his advisers, including Bismarck, felt in the government of a Christian nation was deepened by the victories gained in the short war with Austria, in 1866. This sense of responsibility was immensely increased through the triumphs over France in 1870 and 1871, and by the consolidation of the German
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Provinces into the German Empire. For a quarter of a century this Empire has existed, and every year has its attitude toward Christian truth grown more favorable. Perhaps it is as Christian in all its de- partments as a government well can be. Even in its military and civil service, it observes the forms which belong to a Christian nation. Nor are these forms meaningless. They express in a public way the wishes of the people, from the Emperor to his humblest sub- ject, for a Christian government.
The latest phase of free Christian thought is Ritsch- lianism. Its principles find their strongest advocates in such men as Harnack and Kaftan, of Berlin, and Hermann, of Marburg, although nearly all German Church historians are attached to this school of the- ology. The watchword of the school has been " back to Christ," back to the sources of truth. Its leaders are striving to do their work as students of the origi- nal documents of Christianity, in the spirit of Luther, and independently of the religious dogmas which Councils or learned men have formulated. The gen- esis of this school of thought is interesting. It grew out of the left wing of the Hegelian philosophy. While the right wing of this philosophical school made itself felt as an influence of great value to the Church, through Schelling and Schleiermacher in Berlin, the left wing in Strauss and Baur and the Tubingen school, seemed likely at one time to prove destructive to faith. As one of Baur's most promis- ing pupils, and thoroughly familiar with his methods of investigation and thought, Ritschl furnished the antidote to any influence his writings might exert in opposition to Christianity. He drew from them am-
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES 81
munition with which to destroy the armies of unbelief. While the object of much suspicion in Grermany, and very imperfectly understood either in England or in America, the Christian earnestness of the representa- tives of the Ritschlian school leaves no doubt as to their fundamental principles of belief, or of the sin- cerity of their purpose to serve the cause of Christ Both Ritschl and Schleiermacher felt the influence of Pietism. The latter was more or less a mystic to the day of his death. Brought up among the Moravians, he could never rid himself of the impressions which their simple piety made upon him in his youth. There is something in nearly all his writings, as there was in his preaching, indicative of his early training. As the historian and critic of Pietism, Ritschl fell perhaps unconsciously under its influence. This may be one of the reasons why his teachings have such a charm for many of the first order of mind. Were there any tendency to infidelity in his writings, this tendency would be met and resisted by the spirit of sincere piety with which they are animated. It would not be surprising if, through the influence which men like Francke, Pastor Harms, and other de- voted and successful pastors and teachers, have exert- ed on all branches of the Church, even Ritschlianism were finally to be accepted, with modifications doubt- less, as a part of that great contribution to Christian thought and activity which Germany is still continu- ing to make.
Another indication of a revived Church life is seen in the formation on the battle field of Ltitzen, in 1832, where ten thousand German Christians had gathered to celebrate the two hundredth anniversary
82 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
of the hero's death, of the Gustav Adolphus Verein, a society whose purpose is to aid in the building of Churches and the formation of Protestant communi- ties, chiefly in the Roman Catholic provinces of the country. It was thought that the formation of such a society would keep alive the memory of the great Swedish King who gave his life to the cause of Pro- testant principles, and that its very name would plead eloquently for the cause it represents. The history of the society shows that its founders builded even more wisely than they knew.
The celebration, in 1867, of the three hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the Reformation, combined with other causes to direct the attention of the people anew to the divine sources of the doctrines for which the Protestant Churches stand. Another impulse to faith was given by the dedication, with royal pomj), of the old Castle Church at Wittenberg, Oct. 31, 1892. In its restoration three Emperors had taken part. The successful effort to increase the number of Churches, and to create new parishes as they are needed, in Berlin, together with the well known inter- est of the royal household in all that concerns the spiritual welfare of the nation, have undoubtedly done something towards making Church attendance, sadly neglected as it still is, more fashionable than it once was, and to prevent many from expressing them- selves openly as opposers of religion.
No one can deny that there is a great deal of scepti- cism among scientific men in Germany. Nor are all the professors and students in the Universities favor- ably disposed toward Christianity. Fewer of the latter are interested in religion than among students
STIMULATING AND MODIFYING INFLUENCES 83
in our own country; but it may be doubted if a larger number of unbelievers among scientific men could be found in Germany than among us, or in England. Over the lack of spiritual life in her educated men devout pastors in Germany sincerely grieve. Very clearly do they see cause for alarm lest unbelieving men creep into the pulj^its of the Churches. This they are doing all that they can to prevent. Still, even in the Universities, the religious condition is better than it was twenty years ago. Belief in a revealed religion is not diminishing among educated men, Higher Criticism has not destroyed confidence in the Scriptures as the Word of God. Nor has it diminished the sense of personal responsibility for the spread of the knowledge of Christ over the world, and among those at home, whose condition is almost as deplora- ble as is the condition of unbelievers in heathen lands. Whoever studies with care the entire field of German history, literature, philosophy, and education since the days of Luther, will be convinced that while there is much to regret, and much still to be desired, the doctrines of the New Testament were never so popular among the people as now; that the Church, including pastors and laymen alike was never more aggressive thaii now, or more confident that the prin- ciples of Christ will everywhere finally prevail.
CHAPTER VI.
FOREIGN MISSIONS IN GERMANY.
The assertion is often made that the Church in Germany is destitute of spiritual life. The assertion rests on the assumijtion that Higher Criticism, whose results are published almost as soon as they are reached, is fatal to piety, and that a State Church cannot be interested to any considerable extent in aggressive Christian measures. The connection of Church and State is doubtless profitable neither to the one nor to the other, but of all Churches where this relation exists the condition of the national Church of Prussia, and that of the other provinces now incorporated in the Empire, are surely of the best. The works of the critics are read only by a few, and as every position taken by them is immediately subjected to the severest tests as soon as made known, with little prospect of ultimate acceptance, they are in general regarded by the rank and file of pro- fessed Christians with something like indifference.
A true test of the spiritual life of a Church is in the gifts of money and men, which its members make year by year to objects which are purely benev- olent. The number of persons whose lives are de- voted to philanthropic objects, both at home and abroad, is far larger than is commonly thought.' Considering the resources at the command of the'
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FOREIGN MISSIONS 85
German Churches, benevolent contributions are by no means insignificant. Averaged among all whose names are on the books of these Churches as the names of those who have been baptised and con- firmed, the amount given is painfully small; but if divided among those who are really regenerate, and upon whose shoulders the burdens of Church work rest, it is far from discouraging. There are two great channels through which the gifts of the Christian people of Germany are continually flowing, those of missionary work in foreign lands and of missionary work at home. The former is known as the Outer Mission, the latter as the Inner Mission. The work of the Inner Mission, in many respects one of the best organized and most remarkable in the world, will be described in future chapters.
For the statements in this chapter concerning the foreign work, although the reports of the various so- cieties have been carefully consulted, and many doc- uments have been read, the chief authority is Dr. Gustav Warneck, whose elaborate works on missions are well known, and whose little book for use in schools ("Die Mission in der Schule," Gtitersloh, 1893), written in a charming style and full of inter- esting anecdotes, has had a wide circulation. His statements have been carefully compared with those made by the late Dr. H. Gundert, wdiose summary of the history of foreign missions the world over is a marvel of condensation as well as of accuracy, (" Die evangelische Mission, ihre Lander, Volker, und Ar- beiten," Calv & Stuttgart, 1894.)
Practical and effective interest in Foreign Missions dates back to the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
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tury, or to the time of Angnstus Hermann Francke (1663-1727), founder of the Halle Orphan Asylum, and professor in the University of Halle. Quickened in his own spiritual life by association with the Pie- tists, and by careful study of the Bible, it was his personal influence which led such men as Ziegenbalg and H. Pliitschau to devote themselves to the foreign field. Through their writings and instructions, both as pastor and professor, a missionary spirit began to show itself in Germany, and money was sent Francke for the support of those who were willing to go abroad. He became the chief adviser of missiona- ries, one might almost say, a missionary society in himself.
As a matter of fact, however, Frederick IV. of Den- mark was the originator of the first foreign mission- ary work of modern times. His interest in the wel- fare of his subjects in the East Indian colonies led him, in 1705, at the suggestion of his court chaplain LUtkens, to undertake their evangelization. Thither went Ziegenbalg and Pliitschau, who were intimately associated with Francke. This earliest of continent- al missionary societies is generally known as the " Danish^Halle Society." Its chief station was at Trankebar, in Southern India, where, by the end of the century, a community of nearly 40,000 converts had been gathered. Here, for nearly a hundred years, as noble a set of men as ever entered the foreign field toiled unremittingly. For fifty years this w^as the home of Fabricius, who died in 1791. Fabricius was the translator of the Bible into the language of the people, and a co-laborer of the devoted Friedrich Schwartz (who died in 1798), in creating for them a
FOREIGN MISSIONS 87
Christian literature. Owing to the rise of Rational- ism at home and its deadening influence on the Churches, interest in missions waned, and the once flourishing and promising work in India fell into decay. Still it has not been without permanent re- sults, to which both the Leipzig Society of the pre- sent century and the London Missionary Society, have become heirs.
The influence of Francke was felt in another direc- tion where the results have shown themselves in un- broken missionary labors. In his youth. Count Zin- zendorf, the founder of the Moravian, or Brother Community, as it is usually called in Germany, was brought into somewhat intimate relations with the Halle professor. The spiritual impulse he then received remained with him through life.
In 1732, the Count gathered on his estate, at Herrnhut, a company of men and women who were ready to make a complete consecration of themselves and their possessions to the Lord. There are at present about 9,000 Moravians in Germany, and 22,000 more in England and America. From this little com- pany of believers, it was reported at the celebration of the one hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of the work, held at Herrnhut in 1882, that 2,209 persons had gone forth from their homes to serve in the foreign field, that there were then under their care 161 missionaries, who were laboring in twenty- one difPerent provinces or countries, at 120 stations and in 253 schools, in which there were 20,500 i)upils. Not less than 90,500 people were re- ceiving si^iritual instruction from these Christian teachers. Such missionary activity as this has hardly
88 CBRISTIAN LIFE m GERMANY
a parallel iji the history of the church. The entire Moravian community is a missionary society, every member of which is ready to go wherever he is asked to go, and whose ruling purj)ose is to preach the Gospel.
The present interest in missions, with the excep- tion of that among the Moravians, dates back to the beginning of the present century. It began with the awakening interest in spiritual things so generally manifest in different sections of Germany during and at the close of the wars for freedom. As the majority of the pulpits in the Church were then filled by men who were inclined to Rationalism, if not openly its advocates, and therefore indifferent to evangelistic work either at home or abroad, the first steps in the formation of missionary societies were taken by those pastors whose hearts the Lord had touched, and whose eyes the Lord had opened. For- tunately, these societies have been from the first, in- dependent of ecclesiastical authority. If the Church, represented by her leading men, refused her sanc- tion to the proceedings of some of her more zealous members, she could not complain if they sought to discharge their Christian duty through channels which they themselves opened and controlled. The organization of these missionary societies has been very simple, and representative only of those who contribute to their treasuries. A thorougly compe- tent committee chooses a Secretary or an Inspector, who is responsible for the direction of the work. More than anyone else, he decides who shall be sent out as missionaries, the kind of education they shall first receive, the fields they shall cultivate, the methods
FOREIGN MISSIONS 89
they shall pursue. It is from his pen that appeals go to the Churches and individuals for funds. He con- ducts the correspondence with the missionaries, and makes up the annual reports. In a very important sense the Secretary of any given society is the so- ciety itself. The aim of all missionary work has been, and continues to be, to gather self-sustaining and self=propagating communities in foreign lands. The standard of Christian living has been high. None are received into the Christian community save the children of believers, except upon an intelligent acceptance of Jesus Christ as the Son of God and the Forgiver of sins.
Neither at the beginning of this foreign work, nor till now, has it been thought wise to send out ministers alone. Men representing various trades and conditions of life have been received and commissioned in order that native communities might the sooner become civilized, or taught how to live in a civilized way, and how to sustain themselves by their own industry. Although the Leipzig Society was formed with the intention of sending out University men alone, that plan has been abandoned. None of the societies now attempt to secure University men alone, but select their candidates without regard to their rank, from among those who have the requisite piety, and other gifts of mind and heart, and train them for the fields to which they are to be assigned in schools established for this purpose. This course of training in general extends over six years, and if necessary may be pro- longed. Unmarried women have not as yet been em- ployed in the foreign field, to any great extent, al- though the experience of other countries has led to
90 CHEISTIAN LIFE TN GERMANY
a favorable consideration of the service they are fitted to render, and to tlie commissioiiing of a num- ber of them. Great care has been taken in the se- lection of wives for missionaries, and the heroism which husbands and wives have exhibited, and the brilliant success they have attained, show that this care has not been exercised in vain.
There are at present sixteen societies engaged in foreign missionary work. Their united income ia about three and one=half million marks annually, or four and onehalf millions if the million marks ob- tained by the Moravians from the fields they culti- vate, and the industries they engage in, be added. They sustain 625 missionaries in addition to native helpers, and have gathered into Christian communi- ties not far from 260,000 professed converts. No one can visit these communities without being im- pressed with the very great difference between them and the heathen communities round about them.
Appended, arranged in the order of their forma- tion, are the names of those missionary societies with a brief account of their organization, the fields of their activity, the sources of their income, the number of laborers they support, and, so far as figures can state them, the results of their labors.
1 — At the head of the list, as has been already said, stands the Moravian Missionary Society, which be- gan its work under Count Zinzendorf's direction in 1732. Its headquarters are at Herrnhut, although two= thirds of the Moravian communities are in Eng- land and America. Representatives from among these self=sacrificing Christians have toiled among the slaves on eight of the West India Islands, among
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the communities in Greenland and Labrador, among the Indians of North America, in Central America, in Surinam, in Australia, and on the snowy heights of the Himalayas. At the last reports, 123 main stations were cared for, with which, orderly communities, many of them fully self=sustaining, containing 92,000 souls, had been associated. Of the 1,452,150 marks ex- pended in 1894, all but 494,685 marks came from the mission fields, either as the gifts of converts, or as the profits of industries or trades in which the mis- sionaries are interested, or are carrying on.
2 — The Basel Society, formed in 1813, is essentially a German Society, although its mission house is in Basel, Switzerland, It began its work in the Cau- casus, but in consequence of a decree of the Czar in 1835, it was obliged to abandon it. The influence of the mission was not, however, wholly destroyed by the withdrawal of the missionaries. Lutheran com- munities formed in this region, and continuing to the present time, attest the fidelity of the early mission- aries, and the excellence of the foundations which they laid.
The Society now has three fields which it seeks to cultivate, one in West Africa, one in India, and one in China. On the Gold Coast, West Africa, it has ten main stations, where the missionaries look after 11,261 Christians. Connected with the Cameroon's mission are four stations into which only about 700 professed Christians have been gathered. On the Southwest coast of India there are twenty4hree sta- tions, into which have come more than 11,000 be- lievers. In Hongkong, and in the province of Can- ton, China, are fourteen stations with 3,600 converts.
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The Society sustained in 1893, 191 male missionaries, and 101 female missionaries. Of the latter, four were young women. In its schools were more than 12,000 pupils. It represents both the Lutheran and the Re- formed Churches, and has no difficulty in carrying on its work abroad on a strictly Gospel basis, although it is thought that missionaries , have been influenced, more or less, doctrinally, by the views of the Inspec- tor, or, as we would say, the Secretary, of the Society,
The income of this Society, exclusive of 115,400 marks raised on the mission fields, was, at the last re- ports, 942,620 marks, and was contributed by people living in Switzerland, Southern Germany, and the province of Wiirttemberg.
The following facts gleaned from the history of the Society will doubtless be found of interest. As early as 1800, pastor Janicke, of Berlin, opened a school for the training of missionaries. He began with seven students. In the twenty^seven years during which he continued to teach, he educated about eighty young men, most of whom entered the service of missionary societies, formed either in the Netherlands or in Eng- land. Encouraged by the example of this devoted man, C E. Spittler, of Wurttemberg, in union with 0. E. Blumhardt and F. Steinkopf, opened a school for the training of missionaries in Basel. At first they had no intention of forming societies for the sup- port of their pupils in foreign countries. They were satisfied to fit them for work in connection with so- cieties already organized in other nations. The com- mittee through whose agency the school was estab- lished, was formed Sept. 25, 1815. The school was opened Aug. 26th, 1816, with seven pupils. Blum-
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hardt was at its head, and soon became Inspector of the Missionary Society, which grew out of it. He was a man of great wisdom and laid the foundations of the Society deep and strong. His successor (1839), Wil- liam Hoffmann, was a man of rare gifts and large faith, who was able to interest the so-called educated world in foreign missions. This was for the time an important accomplishment. Gradually the Society enlarged its outlook, and although it has continued to receive the support of Pietistic circles, it soon won and has retained the confidence of large numbers who do not belong to those circles.
From 1849 to 1879, Josenhaus served as Inspector. A born organizer, he formulated the rules and deter- mined the aims and spirit of the very greatly broad- ened and extended work, in which, during these later years, the society has engaged. Since 1835, the amount collected by women in very small sums {Halb- bdtze, less than three cents), has met about one=third of the Society's expenditure. In 1860, a large mission house was erected at Basel, and steps were taken to enlarge the work abroad as fast as means would war- rant. A characteristic feature of the Basel Society is the favor it shows to missionary trading societies, in Africa and India, from which considerable profit ac- crues. The future of this, the oldest of the Grerman Societies of the century, is exceedingly hopeful. With a steadily increasing income, its work is sure to grow in importance and usefulness.
3 — A third Society of great influence is the Society generally spoken of as Berlin I or " the Society for the establishment of evangelical missions among the heathen, at Berlin." This Society has an income of
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about 360,000 marks a year. It is obtained chiefly from East Prussia. In doctrine it represents the Con- fessionel, or extreme orthodox party. It requires its missionaries, of whom it supports seventy, to accept the Augsburg Confession. Founded in 1824, as the result of a call issued the previous year by ten distin- guished Christian gentlemen of Berlin, it did not send out any missionaries till ten years later, although it planned to do so, and opened its seminary in 1830. For a long time, its only field was a very extensive one in South Africa, where it has stations in Cape Colony, Kaffirland, in the Orange Free State, in the Transvaal, and in Natal, There are fifty-three stations in this field numbering 26,000 Christians. More than 4,000 children are taught in the schools. For thirty years the results were small, but with true Christian patience the Society toiled on; and now, and indeed for the last fifteen years, the results have been en- couraging. In Africa, there are 54 ordained and five unordained missionaries. There are also 12 paid and 376 unj)aid helpers. The Society has a mission in Canton, and a Christian following there of 900 per- sons. It has planted a station in Dutch East Africa, and another on Lake Nyassa, in the interior of the " Dark Continent." Through the earnestness of its managers a great deal of interest in foreign missions has been excited at home.
4 — The Missionary Society of the Khine and Westphalia, or, since its headquarters are at Bar- men, the Barmen Society, was founded in 1828. In 1893, it had an income of 444,681 marks, obtained almost entirely from the Rhine Provinces and West- phalia. Its 101 missionaries, men and women, occu-
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py four large districts in West Africa, India, China, and New Guinea. In West Africa, its 28 stations, with their more than 28,000 adherents, are scattered like a net over Cape Colony, Namaqua, and Herero Land. The Cape Colony stations have become self-supporting, and contribute regularly to the sustaining of stations further north. In what is called the India of the Netherlands, the Society has 32 stations. These are situated in Borneo, Sumatra, and Nias. In Borneo, the work suffered, in 1859, severe persecutions, from v/hicli it v;as a long time in rallying. In Sumatra, success from the first has been beyond the Society's most ardent anticipations. More than 32,000 persons have confessed Christ. Native preachers and teachers are trained in a theo- logical seminary in the mission. The prospect at Nias is encouraging. In the province of Canton, there are three stations, and nearly 300 believers. In consequence of heavy financial losses, the Society was compelled, in 1881, to turn over the larger portion of its work in China to the Basel Society, and to Ber- lin I. It has recently entered Kaiser Wilhelm's Land in New Guinea, where it already has over 7,000 pupils in its schools. At the close of 1893, it had 51 students in its mission house at Barmen.
The history of this Society, like that of many others, shows how the Spirit of God prepares His children for the great work they are called upon to take up. In 1799, a small missionary Society was formed at Elberfeld, to circulate, within a limited area, news concerning the extension of the Kingdom of God in heathen lands. Through the influence of Blurnhardt, in 1815, a missionary union was formed
9$ CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
in Barmen, which subsequently united with the Society in Basel. About 1825, a missionary estab- lishment was called into existence in Barmen, and in 1828, through the union of the Societies of Barmen, Elberfeld, Cologne, Wesel, and Kavensberg, the Society of the Rhine was organized. Its first mis- sionaries went to South Africa in 1829, where very hard work was done, and very remarkable success obtained. Doctrinal differences and discussions at home have somewhat diminished the income of the Society and crippled its work. In 1898, nine mis- sionaries were ordained and commissioned. Two returned for needed rest, and eleven women were sent out.
5 — The North Dutch, or, since its mission house is at Bremen, the Breme See Missionary Society, like the Barmen organization, grew out of the union of several small missionary societies. It was organized in 1836, and opened its training school at Hamburg the follow- ing year. For fourteen years, or till the training school was closed and the headquarters v>'ere moved from Hamburg to Bremen, doctrinal differences impeded the work of the Society at home. The Society seeks to furnish a platform satisfactory both to Lutherans and to members of the Reformed Church, and work on the lines laid down has, since 1850, been measura- bly successful. In 1846, its first missionaries, six in number, were sent to New Zealand, where, without any additional helj)ers from Germany, they have evangelized the people among whom they settled. The next year (1847), the Society began a mission on the Slave Coast, in Africa, where it has since, very largely, concentrated its labors. Here, its vie-
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tories have been won at great cost of human life, and in the face of constant and unceasing difficulties. At four stations, it now has about 1,000 baptized persons in its parishes, while the prospects of more rapid growth are cheering. Recently, work has been started in Togoland. The Society has only ten mis- sionaries in its service. More than half its income of 124,879 marks, comes from the city of Bremen. Its missionary candidates are educated at Basel.
6 — The Leipzig Evangelical Society was intended to take up the work and enter into the labors of the old Danish=Halle Society. As early as 1819 an evan- gelical missionary Society was formed at Dresden and brought into working relations with the Basel Soci- ety. The increased attention given to Lutheran doctrine led to withdrawal from Basel, in 1882, and to the opening of a training school at Dresden in the following year. In August 1836, the Evangelical Lutheran Missionary Society was organized, and missionaries were sent to Southern Australia, where they soon became pastors of Churches formed of German emigrants. A little later, missionaries were sent out to Southern India. In 1845, Trankebar, the seat of the earlier missionary work, passed into the hands of the English Government, and in 1847 the Danish Missions' College, and the community gath- ered about it, were received by the Dresden Society. Work was also begun in other jjarts of India. Under the influence of Rev. Dr. Graul, who was Inspector of the Society from 1844 to 1860, its work assumed new and increasing importance. He removed its headquarters to Leipzig, and sought to make it the ageucy through which German Lutherans should
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discharge their missionary obligations. In 1879, a seminary for the training of candidates for the foreign field was established. Hitherto it had been the policy to send out University men alone. Al- though compelled to depart from its early custom, it yet set up, and still maintains, a high educational standard in its training school. In the year 1878- 1879, over 2,500 persons were added to the missionary communities.
The chief work of this Missionary Society is among the Tamuls of India. Here, in twenty=nine stations, are gathered 14,000 professed Christians, and in its schools, over 5,000 pupils. It has a theo- logical seminary, near Trankebar, for the training of native preachers and teachers. It emi^loys twenty- nine missionaries, seventeen native preachers and seventy-eight catechists. It has sent out pastors to Rangoon to look after the spiritual interests of Ger- mans living in that city. To its income of 339,000 marks in 1894, Saxony, Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklen- burg, and the Baltic Provinces contributed. The society has opened a mission in Dutch East Africa, near Kilima Njaro.
7 — A seventh society is the Gossner Missionary Union, or Berlin II. This Union was formed in 1836 by Johannes Gossner, the famous pastor of Berlin, then in the sixty4hird year of his age. Dissatisfied with the older Berlin Society, on account of the too great emphasis its managers were putting on ortho- doxy, or the doctrines of the Confessionel party, and the intellectual requirements upon which they in- sisted, he opened in 1836 his school for the training of candidates for the missionary field. One of his
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fundamental principles was that missionaries should be self=supporting. He taught them trades, as well as theology, and insisted on the formation of a truly manly, as well as a Christian, character. In ten years he sent out eight efficient men. These found fields of work, for the most part, in connection with other than German Societies, in Australia, India, North America, and West Africa. During the second ten years of his missionary activity, twenty-five of his pupils went to the Indian Archipelago, and thirty- three to stations on the Ganges and among the Kohls. Among the latter the ingathering was a rich one.
After Pastor Gossner's death, in 1858, a Committee and an Inspector took his place. Gradually some of the earlier princijples were dropiaed. At present the work is confined to the Kohls, and to stations on the Ganges. In 1868, work among the Kohls suffered severely from an unjust invasion by Anglicans and Jesuits, but even now not far from 40,000 Kohls pro- fess conversion. These are under the care of twenty- one ordained missionaries, seventeen native pastors, 185 catechists, and eighty^five teachers. The income of the society in 1892 was 159,880 marks, its expendi- tures 188,492 marks. The income is furnished from no particular section of Germany, but by those, wherever they live, who are in sympathy with the principles on which it was founded and on which it is at present managed.
In close connection with this Union, is the East Friesland Missionary Society, a small organization which is neither exactly a Society nor a Union. It was formed in 1834 by Pastor Fischer, and in 1877 attached itself, with its income of from 15,000 to
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18,000 marks, to the Gossner Union. The Confes- sionel party in East Friesland founded a preparatory school in 1884, and a training establishment in 1889. It supports one of the Hermannsburg stations. Its income is about 10,000 marks,
8 — The Hermannsburg Mission was founded by Pastor Ludvig Harms, of Hermannsburg, Hannover, who died in 1865, and is largely sustained by the gifts of a single community. At first he was zeal- ously engaged in the founding of the North Dutch Society. In 1849, Harms persuaded his parish to undertake the support of a mission colony alone. He preferred to call his mission the " Peasants' Mission." After four years of training, twelve missionaries and eight colonists sailed on their own ship to Natal. For a while every four years, then every two years, other colonists were sent out. In 1866 work was undertaken in India, among the Telegus; in 1875 in New Zealand; and afterwards in the interior of Aus- tralia. Through the Nestorian, Pera Johannes, work was in 1880 begun in Persia, sustained chiefly by the Lutherans of Alsace. After the death of its founder, his brother, Theodore Harms, became Inspector, but on account of the introduction of new ceremonies, he v/ithdrew from the Hannoverian Church. The Zulu War, in 1878, was disastrous to much of the Society's work in Zululand, nor has it yet fully recovered from the set-backs then received. Naturally, difficulties would arise on the mission fields among laborers sent out, as those were from Hermannsburg. It is not surprising that in 1884 new regulations were in- troduced. From sheer necessity some of the mission- aries had been compelled to take up trades. In 1885,
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Egmoiit Harms succeeded his father in the manage- ment of the mission, and in 1890 all diiSculties be- tween the mission and the Church of the Province were amicably settled. But the supx3orters of this mission were not all of one mind. In 1892, what is known as " The Free Church of Hannover," with ten pastors, and six pastors from the Hermannsburg sup- porters, united to found a mission in Africa, and an- other in New Zealand. The Hermannsburg commu- nity, under Pastor Ehlers, with its 2,000 souls, re- mains true to the old Society. The Society has no schools. It emphasizes pure doctrine, even more strongly than the orthodox party of the other Lu- theran Missionary bodies. In South Africa it has fifty stations, with nearly 20,000 adherents; twenty- three in the Zulu district, and twenty=seven in the Teschuana district. In India there are nine stations. In the year 1892, it had in its employ sixty-one mis- sionaries, and 314 native helpers. Its income for that year was 272,576 marks, furnished by the prov- ince of Hannover, although no inconsiderable por- tion of it came from Hermannsburg itself.
To these eight important Protestant Missionary So- cieties are to be added eight smaller Societies, which have sprung into existence for reasons which seemed to require their formation.
9 — The Pilgrim Mission of St. Chrischona, near Basel, founded in 1848 by Spittler, who had been one of the fathers of the Basel Mission, is at present do- ing very little strictly missionary work. Prior to 1886 it had missions in Egypt, and among the Gal- las of Abyssinia, a country which the king compelled them to leave. It is now carrying on its work among
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nominal Christians in the East. The Syrian Orphan House in Jerusalem has become self supporting, and its managers do some mission work in the city. Its income, according to the latest returns, was 47,812 marks.
10 — The Jerusalem Union, formed, in 1852, in connection with the establishment of the English^ German Bishopric of Jerusalem, at the pressing re- quest and under the influence of Bishop Gobat, who was aided in his efforts by the Chevalier von Bunsen, has sought to reach nominal Christians, German and English, living in Palestine. Its income is about 30,000 marks. The cost of Bishop Gobat's school, which is still prosperous, is not far from 15,000 marks annually.
11 — The Schleswig^Holstein Missionary Society, often called the Breklumer Society, from its head- quarters at Breklum, was founded in 1877. Great interest in missions in these Provinces had been ex- cited by Pastor Clans Harms, prior to his death in 1855. Before his time, men like P. Dame, who died in India in 1766, Hiis, who served the Basel Society in West Africa, and Rasmus Schmidt, who joined the Moravians and died in 1845, had done not a little to direct attention to work abroad. Bishop Koop- mann, and a leading member of the Consistory, Mr. Versmann, having carefully cultivated this feeling of obligation to the heathen world, the gifted Pastor Jensen, of Breklum, founded a society on his own re- sponsibility, Sept. 19th, 1876. On the tenth of April in the following year the mission house at this place was dedicated. November 24, 1881, the first mission- aries, four in number, were ordained. The Society
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has six stations and eleven missionaries among the Telegus in India, but has not yet established any Christian communities. These will no doubt come later. The income, in 1892, secured in the two Prov- inces it represents, was 54,102 marks. Unfortunately disagreements between Pastor Jansen and the man- agers of the Society, or rather with its Inspector, led to the withdra\val of the former in 1893, and to the formation of another Broklumer Society. It is hoped that the two societies will reunite ere long.
12 — The Neukirche Missionary Establishment, so called from the city, near Mors, in which it was founded, in 1882, by Pastor Doll, has seven stations in Java, managed by four missionaries and twenty- three native helpers. It has two stations in East Africa, under the care of five missionaries. Its mis- sion house and all its work depend for support on gifts received in answer to prayer. The income in 1892 was 52,577 marks, out of which an Orphan Asylum and nine evangelists employed in home work, were sustained.
13 — The Missionary Establishment in Neuendet- telsau, Bavaria, opened in 1843, educates preachers for the Germans in America and Australia. Since 1880, it has had a missionary station in Dutch New Guinea, where eight persons are at work. Its income in 1892 for missions was 21,325 marks.
14 — The General Evangelical Missionary Union was formed at Frankfurt, April 11, 1883, to represent the liberal element among the Lutherans of Germany and Switzerland. It seeks to reach the more cultured heathen peoples. It has four male and one female missionary in Japan, where it has gathered several
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small communities, and opened a seminary for the training of Japanese preachers. It has two mission- aries in China. Two German parishes in Japan, and one parish in Shanghai, are cared for. In 1892 its income of 88,753 marks, derived from the whole of Germany and from Switzerland, was less than that of the previous year by more than four thousand marks.
15 — The Society for Evangelical Lutheran Mis- sions in East Africa, founded in 1886 at Hersbruck, in Bavaria, as the result of the efforts of Pastor Itta- meier, has received under its care persons educated in the Neuendettelsauer missionary establishment, and employs them at three stations among the Wakamba. Its income in 1892, was 23,400 marks. This, togeth- er with a capital of 67,000 marks, and its stations, it transferred in 1892 to the Leipzig Society.
16 — An Evangelical Society for Dutch East Africa, (Berlin III.) was organized in Berlin in 1886, by Pastor Diestelkamp. Its operations are conducted in Daressalaam, Tanga, and Hohenfriedeberg and Hoffnungshohe in the interior. Pastor von Bodel- schwingh, of Bielefeld, furnishes deaconesses and sisters for its service. Its income is only about 17,700 marks a year.
These are really all the distinctively Missionary Societies of the country, although there are at least half a dozen others, working here and there for some special purpose, or on account of some special views as to the proper methods of sending the Gospel to the heathen.
A Dutch China Alliance Mission was established 1890, at Barmen, under the influence of P. Transon, a Swede, who aroused much enthusiasm in many
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circles for the Inland Mission of Hudson Taylor. The amount of its income is not yet given, but during the years 1890-92 eight persons were sent to China.
In Berlin, in 1891, Pastor Scheve formed a Mis- sionary Union for Cameroon; but its first missionary, Steffins, died in October, 1893, and this for a time hindered its operations.
Several Unions, like that of the East Friesian, which has existed for fifty years, the Konigsberg Missionary Society, the Central Missionary Union of Bavaria, the Cameroon Union in Stuttgart, and many others which do not send out missionaries, furnish money for the above named Societies.
It must have been observed that several of the later Societies were formed in order to meet the wants of those portions of Africa which have recently come under German protection. The extension of " the German sphere of influence " has awakened a sense of obligation to the people living in the regions em- braced within this sphere. Thither, Protestants and Roman Catholics alike are sending missionaries, both preachers and teachers.
Three Unions of women, which, either directly, or through other Societies, seek to do mission work, should here be mentioned.
1 — The Berlin Women's Union for China. This was formed in 1850 by Pastor Kuak. It supports an Orphan House and a Foundling's Home at Bethesda, Hongkong. In 1892 its income was 19,362 marks.
2 — The Women's Union for the education of women in the East, sends out teachers who usually work in connection with English Missions in India. The Union was formed in the house of the wife of
lOe CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Minister Eichorn, in 1842, Its income, in 1892, was 19,775 marks.
3 — The Kaiserswerth Home sends out deaconesses to Palestine and other Oriental countries, to establish hospitals and open schools, as they have opportunity. In 1851, Pastor Fliedner sent four deaconesses to Palestine, where a school called Talitha Ciimi, was opened, and at once became successful. Almost immediately, 110 Arabic girls entered it. There are schools and hospitals in Beirut, Egypt, and Smyrna. The income of the Kaiserswerth establishment for 1892 was 218,400 marks.
The growing interest in foreign missionary service, which has led even the liberal element in the church to regard missionary work as essential to the life of the Church at home, renders it necessary that some- thing should be said concerning the methods, aims, and sj)irit in which these missions are conducted. That these may not be misrepresented, a summary of them is translated and condensed from Warneck's work named above.
The guiding principles of German missionary work, as stated by Warneck, are these: The preaching of the Gospel in the language of the natives; the trans- lation of the Bible, or portions of it, and the creation of a Christian literature, as rapidly as may be, in their language; the establishment of schools of various grades, beginning with those of a primary grade, in which teachers and preachers can be trained among the people for whom the missionaries labor. Only a few Societies, like the Hermannsburg, disbelieve in schools. As a rule, the educational is the more
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prominent part of German missionary work; yet preaching holds everywhere the highest j)lace.
No persons, unless children of believers, are re- ceived by baptism into the Christian community, except on confession of personal faith in Jesus Christ as the only begotten Son of God, and in the forgive- ness of sins through His grace. The conversion of individuals is made the first aim, though missionaries are encouraged to seek to Christianize entire commu- nities, but always through the employment of moral and spiritual means. They are never to degrade the sacrament of baptism, as the Eoman Catholics do, by the baptism of masses of people, by death=bed bap- tism.s, or by baptizing children secretly. Baptized children, when old enough to be taught, and elder persons who have been received into the Christian community, are gathered into classes, and instructed not only in the Scriptures and the meaning of the articles of faith given in the catechism, bat are taught that they must hold themselves responsible for the support of their own schools. Churches, teachers, and preachers. They are also taught their obligation to provide for the spiritual enlightenment of other communities. Great care is taken to select and educate promising pupils for native teachers and preachers.
Among the so=called "nature peoples," German missionaries seek to introduce the principles of Chris- tian civilization, as well as those of Christianity. They seek to make their inseparable union evident. In giving the Gospel to people of culture, Germans feel that they may soon entrust its proclamation to the
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converts themselves. Everywhere missionaries are to show by their compassion, interest and sympathy that they are the true followers of Christ.
Those who enter upon missionary service are ex- pected to do so in response to a divine call. No matter how low the social rank of the would=be mis- sionary, if he approve himself by his gifts and charac- ter to those who represent the Societies, he will be received, educated, and sent out to the field of his choice, where he v^'ill be sustained as long as he is able to discharge the duties of his position. As the apostles were fishermen and tax-gatherers, so carpen- ters, peasants, tradesmen, and other representatives of the different occupations of the home land, are willingly set apart for foreign service. But none are commissioned until they have been trained and fitted for the special work they are sent out to do. The missionary is responsible to the Society which sup- ports him, and although granted large liberty, both in doctrine and in methods of service, he is yet expected to carry out the wishes of those who have been en- trusted with the management of the Society he serves.
The managers of these Societies are chosen by those who contribute to them. The wishes of the contrib- utors are made known through the various Unions, or small local Societies, which gather the money which the larger Society expends. These larger Societies are therefore thoroughly representative of their constituents. Hence the number of Societies in Germany, rejjresenting each a locality, divergence in doctrinal opinions, in methods of missionary proce- dure, or organized to meet some x^ressing need which existing bodies are either overlooking or disregarding.
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The Bacrifices M^iicli some of these missionary fields have demanded are frightful. Yet neither the missionaries themselves, nor the Societies which send them out, have been willing to abandon these fields. This has been especially true of those operating on the Gold and Slave Coasts of Africa. Of 148 men and 81 women sent by the Basel Society from 1828 to 18S4 to the Gold Coast, 55 men and 24 women died. Of the survivors, 62 men and 36 women were com- pelled to return home and give up their work. That is, out of 229 persons assigned to this field in 56 years, 177 either died in it, or were obliged to return to their native land. For ten years not a convert was made. At the end of thirty years only 385 had been baptised. Since that time progress has been more rapid. In 1891 it could be reported that 10,347 per- sons had been received into the Christian community, and that more than 5,000 pupils were taught in the schools. An almost equal fatality, with less apparent success, has attended the efforts of the Bremer Society to Christianize the Slave Coast; yet the pros- pects for future growth here are encouraging.
Missionary literature in Germany is abundant and interesting. The annual reports of the larger soci- eties, and the magazines they publish, give fresh in- formation from the various fields, and thus contribute not a little to the sx)iritual life in the home Churches. The work of such men as Warneck, Grundemann, and Gundert, render it easy for all who will, to inform themselves as to this ever-enlarging field of Christian activity.
The number of persons who give to Foreign Mis- sions, in proportion to the entire Protestant popula-
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tion of Germany, is, it is true, small. Nor are the gifts of the rich conspicuous, as is often the case in England and in the United States. But in propor. tion to the number of persons in the National Church who have really been born again, the gifts for Foreign Missionary work are perhaps as large as in either of the countries just named. Nor may we forget that comparatively little general interest in Missions was manifested even up to the forties, and that with the excitements growing out of the disturbances of 1848, the war with Austria in 1866, with France in 1870-71, and the formation of the Empire, attention has nat- urally been drawn to political matters rather than to the work of the Church. Many of the German preachers have cared little for foreign work. Some have openly opposed it. In Westphalia, where the missionary spirit is now the strongest, fifty years ago, when Volkenning gave missionary instruction, gen- darmes were present to j)reserve the peace. In Halle, when Prof. Guericke spoke on the subject, the pres- ence of the police was necessary. Now, men who call themselves freethinkers advocate the cause of missions, and have formed a society through which to spread their views. More significant still is it that imperial authority requires instruction to be given in the public and the higher schools on the nature and work of missions, and that such a work as Warneck's "Die Mission in der Schule,^^ has reached a sixth edition.
To the question, "Why was the interest in missions BO long in showing itself in this land of the Re- formers?" various answers may be given. In the six- teenth century the Reformers had all they could do to
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protect themselves against Rome, and to preach the GosiDel as they had discovered it anew in the Bible. The century following was disturbed by the Thirty Years' War, and by useless discussions of doctrinal subjects. The countries discovered during this cen- tury belonged almost entirely to Spain and Portugal, and were sacredly set apart as possessions of the Roman Catholic Church. For Protestant missionary activity there was, in truth, little call. In the eight- eenth century, we have the Danish=Halle Society, with its work in India, and the still active Moravian Missionary Communities. But for the most part work during this century was confined, as it was thought it should be, to the "still in the land"; i. e., to the mystics, or pietists, who not infrequently, in the early years of the present century, sought spiritual nourishment in the so-called conventicles rather than in the regular Churches. The terrible war M'ith Napoleon and the final struggle for independence, together with the growing indifference of the common people to religion of any kind, and the increase of Rationalism in the educated classes, with many marked exceptions, indeed, prevented anything like an earnest missionary work during the first quarter of the nineteenth century. But the quickened spir- itual activity in England made itself felt more or less on the Continent, and led to attemiDts, here and there, to send the Gospel abroad. Unsuccessful in their efforts to persuade the National Church to take up missionary work, those whose hearts drew them to it, formed themselves into little bands, issued their ap- peals for men and money, opened training schools, selected the fields to be cultivated, and quietly began
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to send out tlieir missionaries. Considering the means at their disposal, these missionaries have ac- complished a great deal. They have laid foundations upon which later generations will have little difficulty in rearing the institutions of a thoroughly Christian civilization.
The question is often asked, " Why do not German Protestants unite in the support of one great Mis- sionary Society?" Partly because these societies came into existence before the formation of the Em- pire, when the Provinces differed widely in their political views, when their Churches differed somewhat in doctrine and manner of working, and partly be- cause exact agreement on matters about which it is possible to discuss, is not a German characteristic. Nor is it at all probable that a union of these Socie- ties would be desirable. Representing as they now do, all phases of Protestant Christian life in the Em- pire, and all phases of doctrinal belief, they appeal to local interests, as well as to the feeling of obligation which every believer ought to feel.
By the present arrangement, missionary knowledge is more extensively circulated, and is given a more personal interest, than would be possible if there were but one great Society. As the cost of adminis- tration in all these Societies is very small, and the local or doctrinal interest in them is very decided, it is doubtful if it would be wise to advise their union to any considerable extent.
Increase of funds is, however, very necessary. With the increase of wealth in the Churches, with a steady increase in the number of those who feel their obliga- tions to their unbelieving brethren abroad, with the
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development of lay activity in the Church, with the organization of Sunday Schools in still greater num- bers, as well as of Societies for young men and young women, in which the fundamental teachings of the Bible are not only taught, but carefully dis- cussed, it would seem probable that interest in mis- sionary work will grow rapidly, and be accompanied by a corresponding increase in funds with which to carry it on.
CHAPTER VII.
SKETCH OF EVENTS LEADING TO THE ORGANIZATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INNER MISSION.
With the death of Luther and the discussions be- tween the Reformed and Lutheran branches of the Protestant Church in Germany and bordering coun- tries, the spiritual power of the Reformation was greatly w'eakened. It seemed at times as if it were almost wholly gone. It was in this condition of things that Pietism appeared and accomplished its beneficent work, bringing to the front such men as Spener and Francke, the latter the founder, in 1695, of the now famous Orphan House at Halle. But even Pietism could not fan life again into a Church which had fed on theological disputes and formalism till it had hardly any power left for the perception of spiritual truth. Hence the rise and spread of Rationalism, and its influence among the most cultured and original minds in the country. During the larger part of the 18th, and the first quarter of the 19th, centuries, the Church seemed to be in a profound slumber. Ministers preached ethi- cal discourses, baptised and confirmed the children of Church members, but did not look for any signs what- ever of regeneration. Corresponding to the reign of Deism in England, to that of the Encyclopedists Voltaire and Diderot, in France and French=speaking
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countries, and to the era of French infidelity in America, was the reign of Rationalism, or formal piety, in Germany.
Strange as it may seem, as was affirmed in the previous chapter, the wars in which Germany was compelled to engage contributed not a little to the revival of spiritual religion. They opened the eyes of the people to a sense of their responsibilities. The terrible defeat at Jena, in the autumn of 1806, drove them to God as their only helper and defender. During the subsequent wars for independence they kept steadily in mind their absolute dependence on the Most High for victory. Nor can it be doubted that the union, in 1817, of the Lutheran and Re- formed Churches in Prussia, the tercentenary of the Reformation, under the auspices and almost by the command of Fred. Wm. III., was a step of great im- portance in the religious life of the Prussian people. Literature, too, through the writings of Goethe, Herder, Schiller, and Lessing, had immense influence in awakening religious thought and creating a feeling of moral responsibility to God. The philosophy of Kant was a still more powerful factor in the change of religious attitude which was soon to appear. Notwith- standing the apparent unbelief in many circles, it is now admitted that the agitation in the philosophical world caused by the writings of Kant, and his success- ors, Fichte, Hegel, Schelling, and by the ministry and professorship of Schleiermacher in Berlin, was a prime agency in leading men's minds back to thoughts of God, and to a hearty acceptance of the Christian religion. Since the union of the Churches on Luther day, 1817, and the publication of Schleier-
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macher's addresses to the thinking men of the nation, there can be traced a steadily growing interest in a religion which makes itself felt in life and character. The stirring events of 1848, though mainly political, also turned men's thoughts to God, and led the more spiritually minded pastors to meet the spiritual needs of the people. If the majority of the pulpits were in the hands of Rationalists, a sufficient number were controlled by men who believed in the " new birth " and the Deity of our Lord to give importance to their efforts, and to secure a hearing for their words. Meanwhile, the interest in Foreign Missions, which had become so powerful in England, had reached Germany. Society after society was formed, each vrith a small constituency, to give the Gospel to the heathen. While not undervaluing this movement, nor withholding from it their assistance, men like Flied- ner at Kaisers werth, and Wichern at Hamburg, began to feel the necessity of doing something for the hea- then at home. Hence the great establishment at Kai- serswerth, with its subsequent development of spirit- ual power for the world through the revival of the order and the work of deaconesses. Hence the equally important movement at Horm, near Hamburg, led by Wichern, which called into existence the " Rough House," and brought about the re=establishment of the diaconate of the Primitive Church. Never to be forgotten for its influence on the spiritual life of the Evangelical Church is the Wittenberg Day in the Synod of 1848, when the needs of the people were set forth with great impressiveness by Wichern, and the Church, through its representatives, was persuaded to give hearty a^^proval to the work outlined by him, and
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described in the two words, " Inner Mission." This work has never been carried on by the Church au- thorities as such. Although receiving its aid and sympathy, it was first and last a movement independ- ent of the Church as a national and political insti- tution.
The war for the possession of Schleswig-Holstein, in 1864, that against Austria in 186G, that against France in 1870-71, the favors which Bismarck and the old Emperor showed men of simj^le Christian faith, the constant declaration by these men of their belief that they were serving God in the high stations they filled, and their confident ajixjeals to Him for aid, deepened still further the conviction in the minds of the people that true religion is something greatly to be desired, even as a protection against one's enemies. Since the founding of the Empire and the assumi3- tion of responsibility which that step involved, there has been a growing sense of religious responsibility on the part of many of the wisest leaders of the peo- ple, and a more evident desire to meet it through a simpler and heartier faith in Jesus Christ and His teachings.
With eyes open to perceive the needs of men and women, who, through compliance with prescribed forms, had been received into the Church, it became clear to large numbers of pastors, who had the good of their parishes at heart, as well as to not a few among the laity, that something ought to be done to save this material which the Church claimed as its own, and to prevent the increase of religious indiffer- ence, and even of crime, on the part of those to whom,
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in the rites of baptism and confirmation, the Church had given its blessing.
As an object lesson, showing vvhat might be done, there stood in Halle the Orphan House of Francke. Those who were unable to visit it, could read descrip- tions of its work, and, in the writings of its illustrious founder, catch something of his aims and spirit. In these writings are suggestions of almost all that the Inner Mission has undertaken. As preacher, pro- fessor, author and organizer of educational, industrial and benevolent institutions, Francke was far in ad- vance of his time. For the generations after him he wrought more wisely and efficiently than he or his contemporaries knew.
Nor have the writings of other Pietists been with- out a spiritually quickening influence. Thus there has grown up quietly, not as the result of the efforts of any single man, but rather in obedience to a heav- enly vision which many have seen, a work fdr the needy at home, which for extent, variety, and success, may challenge the admiration of the world. If its primary object has been preventive, it has never hesi- tated to undertake, wherever possible, the less attrac- tive, because less hopeful, work of rescuing the lost.
Lovers of precedent as Germans are, reverent toward the past, and ready to honor great names, it is only natural that, while studying present conditions and preparing to meet present needs without delay, the founders of this Mission to their own people should investigate thoroughly aiid with intense inter- est the methods employed by the Church in the past to help the jooor, and save from temporal and eternal destruction those nominally within its fold.
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Before describing the work of this Mission as it is now carried on, it will be profitable to review briefly the work done by men to whom its founders and man- agers have turned for stimulus and instruction.
In this historical sketch, as in all that pertains to the labors of the Inner Mission, Schaeffer (Leitfaden der inneren Mission) has been freely followed. It will aid us in our understanding of the feeling and purposes of the men who in the late forties and the early fifties gave themselves to the work of saving " the heathen at home," if we look for a moment at benevolence in the time of Pietism and Rationalism, or as it revealed itself during the period from A. D. 1650 to 1835. Spener is generally regarded as the founder of Pietism. In doctrine and conduct he ad- hered to the principles of the Reformers. This is hardly true of all his successors, although they de- declared it to be their purpose to put into practice the principles of the Reformation, and through their faith revive the dead. Undoubtedly there was much in Pietism which was of very great value. It filled an important place in the development of Christian life in Reformation lands. But in all its leaders we ob- serve a painful lack of the freshness of spirit and soundness of judgment characteristic of Luther. Its tendency is toward a certain sort of legality, to ascetic practice or aloofness from the world. It was pre- served from destruction by the principle that the way to show love for God is to help one's neighbor. Through its self-sacrifice for others it preserved its own life. It also emphasized the doctrine of person- ality. It saw the importance of seeking to save indi- vidual souls. Hence the effort of Francke, at Leipzig,
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to interest his fellow -students in the study of the Bible, his insistence during the earlier years of his ministry on the need of personal regeneration, and at Halle, his intense interest in the saving of neglected children. Hence the founding and work of his Or- phan House, in which the education of these children was made the first object. Naturally, this philan- thropic haven became the center of the Pietistic movement, the rallying=point for those whose spiritual needs were best met by what Pietism was supposed to teach. The school grew, increasing rapidly in size and influence, till now, with its connected establish- ments of higher education and industry, it is the largest school in Germany, if not in the world. Nev- ertheless it may be questioned if the system of edu- cation at first pursued at Halle were altogether health- ful. Though it provided sufficiently for the recrea- tion and amusement of the children, for the forming of little circles within the Church, here and there* over the country, it tended to a narrowness and exclu- siveness which showed themselves later on in spirit- ual pride and arrogance. Perhaps, as opposed to Rationalism, the methods which Pietism chose to follow were wise, although in this latter day they do not altogether meet with approval. Strange as it at first appears. Pietism leads almost inevitably to Ra- tionalism. Faith in an inner light encourages a con- fidence in self which finally believes in nothing but pure reason.
In the middle of the present century, when thoughts of constitutional liberty and a revived Em- pire were in the air, German Christians began to con- sider how best to meet their increasing responsibili-
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ties. In their studies, the more thoughtful among the ministerial leaders reviewed the history of the be- nevolent work of the Church. They saw that it was the purpose of Christ to destroy the works of the devil, first, by repairing the injury he had wrought in the human heart, and afterwards in society and the world. Through faith, Jesus would free the Bouls of men from sin and death; through the works of kindness, on the part of regenerate men. He would free society from the evils of sin, from poverty, wretchedness, and ruin. Hence it was natural that for a time there should be a communal life among believers in Jerusalem, that means should be gathered for their support in all the Churches which Paul had established in the great cities of the Roman world, tliat it should become a delight to those who had received such gifts as had been imparted by the brethren in Judea, to try and pay them in the less valuable yet more needed gifts of money and person- al service. It was equally natural that the wants of this Christian community should be carefully consid- ered and met by persons in whom everyone had con- fidence. Hence the appointment of deacons, whose first duty was the relief of need, but who were not prohibited from preaching as they found op]3ortunity. The principle involved in this benevolence was that of i)ersonal administration, a principle which has been kept uppermost in all that the Inner Mission has attempted to do.
Subsequently, from the end of the first to the be- ginning of the third century, or to the time of what is sometimes called the Martyr Church, help was given directly to families. There were no benevolent es-
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tablisliments, since it would have been folly to erect them, as their inmates would at once have been marked for persecution and death. Those who had means gave freely out of love, not as if to satisfy a claim which the needy person might put forward as a right, but in the hope of preventing families from breaking up, temporarily, or being separated. Dur- ing this period, deacons, deaconesses, widows, and a few especially pious women of approved wisdom and consecration, were active in the distribution of this benevolence. The whole work was under the direct supervision of the bishop, or the minister of the par- ish, v/ho with a few exceptions knew personally all the members of his flock. Those Mdio were in prison were visited and encouraged bravely and hopefully to meet a martyr's death. Those who were condemned to labor in the mines were not forgotten, nor were their families permitted to suffer. As the Christian communities increased in size, this personal visita- tion became more difficult, and the necessity for cen- ters where the poor might meet, or be brought to- gether and cared for under a single roof, more press- ing.
From the beginning of the fourth to the end of the sixth century, the wants of the poor were generally met in establishments called into existence for this very purpose. The personal element of the adminis- tration of benevolence became less lorominent. The number of those receiving assistance was too great to admit of personal inquiry into every individual case. The world itself seemed to be declining. The major- ity of the people were poor. Taxes were increas- ingly high and hard to pay. A large tract in the
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Campagna, about A. D. 400, was allowed to become a desert because its owners could not meet the taxes levied upon it. Even children were sold to satisfy the tax-gatherer. Morals grew lax, and fleshly sins increased. Those who had wealth, and were willing to aid their unfortunate fellow Christians, preferred to give through the Church authorities, rather than trouble themselves with its personal distribution. This distribution was made through deacons, whose numbers in consequence rapidly increased. It is said that in the time of St. Chrysostom there were a hun- dred deacons attached to the Church of St. Sophia at Constantinople. For months St. Chrysostom fed 7,700 persons daily. With the diminution of per- sonal service, the manifestation of individual interest and the exercise of personal love almost entirely van- ished. It is easy therefore to see how soon the clois- ter and the hospital came to be closely connected with the care of the poor. To the cloister, the man who was weary of the world could retire. Here he escaped the burden of taxes. Hither came those who were hungry. Here children were educated, and here were rooms for strangers, in which they could securely rest when on their travels. Hospitals be- came necessary, at first, for the inmates of the clois- ter, and afterward for others. Two hospitals founded during the fourth century, one by Basil at Csesarea, and another at Edessa by Ephraem Syrus, became famous. During this period the conviction spread that alms put away sin, that gifts to the Church would secure blessedness in the life to come. It is sad to think that even benevolence may be made a source of corruption, both for giver and receiver.
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At first careful efforts were made to exercise charity only toward the worthy, but after a time its almoners grew negligent, and even looked upon poverty as a virtue.
Notwithstanding this fact, we still turn with ten- der interest to the time when Cyprian was exercising large charity toward the poor of his extensive parish, when the golden=mouthed preacher, through his dea- cons and deaconesses, and with the assistance of the rich and beautiful widow, Olympias, who refused to re-marry even at an Emperor's request, sought to alleviate the sufferings which were so pressing at Constantinople. With like interest we also turn to the era when Ambrose of Milan, another noble Chris- tian hero, was using his resources in the same unself- ish manner, and when Augustine, despite his love for philosophy and theological controversy, could not forget the poor. If less were done by Jerome at Rome, and at Bethlehem, it was because he had less with which to do. Yet it was his friend Fabiola who built the first house for the sick in Rome, or in the West. It was Paula, who lived near Jerome in the city where our Lord was born, who built a house for pilgrims in that city, and spent all she had on the poor. While it cannot be said that the benevolence of the Church or the Empire was wisely managed, yet no one who reviews, however superficially, its history, can fail to perceive its greatness, or doubt the piety and the Christian joy with which it was so often exercised.
Benevolence in the Middle Ages was exercised al- most entirely through the convent the monastery, and the hospital. During this period houses were
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built in which livings, or some part of a living, as the bread or the fire needed by the inmates, were pro- vided. The tendency was toward a multiplication of establishments, in which the needy could be re- ceived without disturbing Church dignitaries or men of wealth. Hospitals for lepers, after the Crusades were over, abounded. It is affirmed that there were 19,000 of them in Europe. Such was the tremendous penalty paid for invading the East, in order to snatch the sepulchre from the infidel. Some of these hos- pitals were very large: in others, the inmates were few. Everywhere beggary became a profession. The beggar felt that in giving one an opportunity to re- lieve his wants he was doing him a favor.
Some of the emperors — far-seeing men like Charles the Great — anxious for the welfare of their subjects, did all they could to alleviate the ills of a poverty which they could discover no means of preventing. The successors of the wise Charles neglected his counsels and took no pains to see that only the wor- thy received aid, and that industry, and thrift were encouraged.
Much was done for the poor by individuals. Fran- cis of Assisi, though without means of his own, yet counseled and practiced the largest benevolence. Elizabeth, Countess of Thuringia, both voluntarily, and under the influence of her confessor, Conrad of Marburg, filled her life with deeds of charity.
At the time of the Reformation the country swarmed with persons who lived by begging. "This caused no wonder,'- says Luther, "as the monks make a religious service out of the work of begging." The idea of merit in this kind of life was rudely
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shattered through the doctrine of justification by faith, which the Reformers preached. Efi'orts were soon put forth to diminish the evih Collections were enjoined, and persons appointed, as in the early Church, to attend to their distribution, and to see that only such as were really in need, received them. Luther himself, and most of his associates and his immediate successors, took great interest in the con- dition of the poor. Luther gave away nearly every- thing that came to him. Bugenhagen, pastor in Wittenberg, was a splendid example of a minister who responded to the personal needs of his flock. John Hess, of Breslau, and Catharine Zell, of Strass- burg, were famous for their self-sacrificing labors on behalf of the poor. The latter, who was a pastor's wife, discovered ways to feed almost a thousand per- sons in times of persecution, and for weeks together she had from fifty to sixty needy persons at her table. John Valentine Andrea, who receives the warm praise of Spener for his attempts to put life into the cold orthodoxy of his time (1586-1654), was another of the men who spared not themselves for the sake of the brethren.
In the time of Pietism and Rationalism, as has al- ready been said, efforts were made to bring back into life the personal methods employed in the New Tes- tament Church. Nor was it thought that the mere satisfying of hunger, or the clothing of the naked, or the i3roviding the homeless with shelter, constituted true benevolence. Pietism saw — and this must be set down to its credit — through the eyes of such men as Francke, that the first great need to be met was to put an end to ignorance and idleness. Hence his
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early and his continued interest in the education of neglected children, and afterward of all children whose advantages were not as good as they might be. In Baron von Canstein (1667-1719), he had a friend whose wealth was freely used in promoting the work of the Halle Orphan House. Beata Sturm of Stutt- gart (1682-1730), dedicated her time, her thought, and her means to the care of the needy. No one was ever turned empty from her door.
Gottfried Zahn, and the two brothers, Woltersdorf, the one the founder, the others the organizers and real founders of the orx)lian house at Bunzlau (1705-1758), are also worthy of mention as among the noblest and most generous men of their time.
John Augustus Urlsperger (1728-180G), of Augs- burg, anxious to combat the growing unbelief of his time, sought to organize something like the Society for the Promoting of Christian Knowledge, in Eng- land, which finally united with a Society in Basel, which had for its object the furthering of pure doc- trine, and true godliness. Out of this Society after- wards sprang the Basel Bible Society, the Mission- ary Society, the establishment for Brothers, and that for children at Beuggen, the Deaf and Dumb institution at Kielien, the Pilgrim Mission at Chris- chona, now chiefly a place where persons are edu- cated for Foreign Missionary service. Through his writings and earnest addresses, Urlsperger was the forerunner of many, who with pen and voice, have done yeoman service in saving the Fatherland from unbelief. Nor ought we to omit mention of the work of John Tobias Kiessling (1743-1824), a wealthy merchant of Nuremberg, whose daily life was a proc-
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lamation of the Gospel; of Hans Nielen Hauge (1771-1824), of Norway, who became a lay preacher of great repute and power; of John Frederick Ober- lin (1740-1826), who with the help of his faithful ser- vant, Louise Schepper, who cared for the children, made his parish at Steinthal, Alsace, a model jjarish for the world; of John Falk, (1768-1826), of Dantzig, who founded the first House of Refuge in Germany, at Weimar; or of John Henry Pestalozzi (1746-1827), the father of the modern science of teaching, and of a method of saving that which without personal aid would have been worse than lost.
The names of some of the persons who have been prominent in the Inner Mission, with a brief refer- ence to the branch of service to which they have de- voted themselves, will indicate the place which this form of benevolence has taken in modern German Christian life.
At the head of the list stands Christian Henry Zeller (1779-1860), of Wtlrttemberg and educated for a lawyer. Early becoming a teacher, he was, while still young, chosen Inspector, or head of the school for poor children, and for the training of teachers for similar schools, at Beuggen, near Basel. Here he remained forty years, devoting himself with great singleness of purpose to a work in which he achieved wonderful success. At his funeral Prof. Auberlen said of him: " His gToatness consisted in this, that he remained small." Even Pestalozzi was impressed with his tremendous moral strength. Through his writings, and with the aid of his noble Vt'ife, his influence was far-reaching and beneficent.
Another Yv^tirttemberger, Christian Frederick Spit-
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tier (1782-1867), without learning or extraordinary intellectual gifts, but possessed of exliaustless energy, and uncommon power to interest other men in be- nevolent undertakings, became prominent in the founding of the Basel Foreign Missionary Society, of the institution at Beuggen, just named, for the instruction of the children of the poor, and the train- ing of their teachers, of the Pilgrim Mission at the same place, of several institutions for Jews and Greeks, of an institution for the Deaf and Dumb, of a Deaconess' House at Riehen, as well as of half a dozen smaller institutions in other places. To his activity there was no end. His life was one of faith and prayer with constant tokens of the presence of the Holy Spirit.
In Hans Ernst, Baron von Kottwitz, (1757-1843), we have a man of remarkable gifts and thorough consecration, Ernst was born in Schlesia; in early youth he was a page at the Court of Frederick the Great, and afterward became an officer in the Army and a favorite in society. Brought into association with the Moravians, he was converted, and led to de- vote himself to the work of diminishing the suflPerings of the poor. In 1806, a year of distress, he obtained possession of some unused barracks in Berlin, took up his abode in them, gathered 600 or more of the most needy about him, furnished them bread, day by day, provided them with work, and made them feel that in him they had a true friend. After the Gov- ernment relieved him of this responsibility, he still remained with his poor people, unwilling to be sepa- rated from them, even for a brief season. He ex- ercised great influence over such men as Tholuck,
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Otto von Gerlach, Neander, Stier, and Wichern. A characteristic anecdote of him occurs in the report of a conversation with Fichte the philosopher. Said the latter; "The child prays, the man wills." "Pro- fessor," replied the Baron, " I have 600 poor people to care for, and often I do not know whence I shall obtain bread for them. Then I do not know how to help myself in any other way than to pray." Fichte was silent a moment, then, with tears rolling down his cheeks, he answered, " Yes, dear Baron, my philo- sophy does not go so far as that."
Another nobleman of singular consecration was Count Adelbert von der Eecke Volmarstein. (1791- 1878). Through experiences obtained during the Napoleonic wars he w^as led to found a House of Refuge at Overdyke, in Westphalia. When the rooms here became too small for the numbers waiting to occupy them, trusting in God for the means needed to carry out his enterprise, he purchased the Cloister Dtissenthal, near Diisseldorf, with its massive build- ings and its extensive lands. Here he and his wife, the Countess Mathilde von Pfeil, who was of like spirit, remained for twenty=five years, or until broken in health, aiding not only the poor, and saving mul- titudes of them for the kingdom of God, but interest- ing other men of high rank in service similar to that in which he was engaged. Retiring to his estate in Crasnitz, Schlesia, after he had reached the age of seventy, and when the Institution at Dtissenthal was on its feet, he there founded, in connection with a house for deaconesses, a large institution for idiots and epileptics, and revived what he called the Order of Samaritans. Not even in old age could he be
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content to rest from his labors. Through industrial efforts, limited to his own lands, he was able greatly to improve the condition of working people in Cras- nitz.
Amalie Sieveking (1794-1859), known as the Ham- burg Tabitha, was one of the noblest and most useful women of her day. She was converted after the death of a brother, by the reading of Thomas a Kem- pis, the Bible, and the addresses of Francke. While yet young she sought to interest the daughters of the welhto^do in Hamburg in the welfare of the poor. Her first thought was to form a Protestant sisterhood, but as her appeal for volunteers, in the cholera season of 1831, was not responded to by a single person, she determined to enter the hospital alone. Here, first as nurse, then as assistant, then as overseer, she gained a place in the confidence and affection of her townsmen which she never lost. In 1832 she organ- ized the Woman's Union for the care of the poor and sick, which still exists, and has since served as a model of many similar unions. Near the close of a life of self=sacrificing activity and rare usefulness, she re- quested that, as a final proof of her sympathy with the poor, and her disapproval of costly funerals, she might be buried in a cofiin exactly like those which the city furnishes for the people who are buried at its expense.
A man of far-reaching influence during his life, of unusual spiritual gifts, and of great organizing ability and unwearied activity, was John Evangelist Gossner, of Berlin (1773-1862). He was born in Schwabia, of Roman Catholic parents, and was educated in Roman Catholic institutions. Always earnestly evangelical,
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he remained a priest in the Church of his fathers for several years. His preaching, though popular with his congregations, gave offense to the authorities, so that finally, in order to be true to his convictions, he was compelled to become a Protestant. His long pastorate in Berlin is too well known to need descrip- tion. Crowds hung upon his ministry in the Beth- lehem Church. While a pastor he founded the Elizabeth Hosj)ital, and called into existence a Foreign Missionary Society which has proved a great blessing to the world. United with the Hospital was a Deaconesses, Home in which young women were especially trained for the care of the sick, and for such other Christian work as might be congenial to them. More than thirty years have passed since this father-in^God, old and full of good works, fell asleep, mourned not in Berlin alone, but throughout Ger- many and the Christian world.
The interest, both in Home and Foreign Missions, manifest in Gossner, was exhibited also by Christian Gottlob Barth (1799-1862). Born in Stuttgart, trained in a Pietistic family, with a passion for read- ing, especially sensitive to sxoiritual and intellectual influences, he was early drawn into the field of au- thorship, where even to the last he continued active. When ten years old he wrote a Bible history, which he adorned with pictures and presented to his school companions. Thwarted in his desire to become a missionary by his mother's opposition, after exten- sive travels throughout Germany and Holland, he settled in the parish of Mottlingen, near Calv, where he entered with great zeal into the work of the Mis- sionary Society, and the work of the House of Re-
INNER MISSION 183
f uge at Stammheim. Neither did he fail to look after the spiritual welfare of his parishioners nor neglect his brethren in the ministry. In letters, lectures, sermons, and by means of a missionary magazine, he kept alive the interest of the people in the welfare of the heathen abroad. Becoming acquainted with the work of the London Tract Society on one of his jour- neys, he was not content till he had organized a sim- ilar publishing society for Germany. The first work sent out by this Society was a Biblical History, which has been translated into many languages, and which in 1877 had reached its 239th edition. To this were added Church histories, a monthly magazine for young people, various kinds of Biblical hand-books, geographies, books of nature, antiquities, and a small Biblical commentary. In the midst of these labors, preaching was a refreshment. Barth never married. Through his love of work, and his interest in the spiritual life of Germany, as well as in that of the world, he became one of the most prominent and useful men of his century.
Of John Henry Wichern (1808-1881), founder of the Rough House and restorer of the order and work of deacons, it would be difficult to speak too highly. In consequence of losses inflicted by the wars and of the early death of his father he was compelled, even as a boy, to contribute by private teaching to the support of the family. In early youth he fought his way through the Rationalism of the time into the clear light of evangelical truth. By the aid of friends he was enabled to attend the University of Gottin- gen, where Prof . Lticke proved a real friend to him. Later, he studied in the University of Berlin, where
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he was brought into contact with Neander, and through the mediation of Baron Kottwitz, into friend- ship with him. He was also greatly indebted to Schleiermacher. At the close of his studies he be- came a candidate for a parish in Hamburg. During this period of candidacy traces of his later activity appear. He formed plans for a school for the educa- tion of poor children, and wrote and delivered a lec- ture on the demoralization of youth, with reference in it to the work of such persons as Amalie Sieve- king, Baron Kottwitz, and Dr. Julius. He became Superintendent of Pastor Rautenburg's Sunday^^ school, in Hamburg, the first in Germany, and in this position found a wide field for his activity in spiritual things. Here he learned thoroughly the condition and neerls of the poor, and through his vis- itation from house to house saw how to help them. It was while pursuing his work in the Sunday-school that he became acquainted with Amanda Bohme, his future wife, a woman of extraordinary ability. The beginning of his work, in a small house in Horm, near the city, put at his disposal by a friend, was suf- ficiently unpretending. Living with his mother, at first, three, then twelve, boys were received into his home. Gradually other houses were added, each forming a home for the children who occupied them. Wichern lived with the children, taught them, sang with them. Needing aid, the idea of re-establishing the diaconate, or as it is generally called, the broth- erhood, occurred to him. From this there has result- ed an amount of good which can be compared only with that wrought through the revival of the order of deaconesses by Fliedner. Out of the perception of
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the needs about him, arising in part from the utter indifference of the people among whom he lived, he came to the conviction that a mission to nominal members of the Church at home was an indispensable as a mission to the heathen. Hence the name which he gave his work. Inner Mission (Die innere Mis- sion). With him the work assumed a triple form, the education of children, the training of men to teach them, and that peculiar service which fre- quently is needed in order to save the unbelieving and the indifferent. From this time, through visits made to the Kough House, where the roughest boys were received and trained into useful men, through journeys, by conferences, by lectures, and the publi- cation of "Flying Leaves" (die fliegende Blatter), Wichern created an interest in his work which still continues. The great day for him and for his mis- sion was the Church day at Wittenberg, Oct. 1848. Rhiem, his assistant, became the head of the Rough House, and thus enabled Wichern to yield to the wish of the King and become one of the authorities of the Church. This required him to reside for a portion of each year at Berlin. Thus his influence was widened and a larger circle of friends for his school secured. In order that the people of the capital might see what had been done in Hamburg, the Johannesstift in Berlin was called into existence, where for several years Dr. Stoecker, the head and front of the Berlin City Mission, has j)reached nearly every Sunday with great power, and whence tracts and sermons are sent out over the country by thousands. But Wichern's labors in the capital at the command of the King were too severe for his strength, and though after his
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resignation of the high oflBce which his Sovereign had given him he lived a few months, and took up his work at Horm with something of his old energy, the end had come. He rested in peace in 1881, having exem- plified his chosen motto throughout his whole life, "This is the victory that overcometh the world, even your faith,"
The work of Theodor Fliedner (1800-1864), at Kaiserswerth, and in many other places, which natur- ally follows that of Wichern, will be described in the chapter devoted to the deaconess movement.
Through William Lohe (1808-1872), more than any other man, has the interest of the National Church been drawn to the kind of activity exhibited by persons such as those already named. Of good family, enjoying the instruction and friendship of Rector Roth in the Gymnasium of Nuremberg, and of Professor Kraft at Erlangen, then in a half year at Berlin meeting such men as Schleiermacher, and in various places making his extraordinary gifts as a preacher evident, so radical and outspoken were his convictions of truth that the authorities hesitated to give him a parish equal to his abilities. Men like Professor Hofling in Erlangen, declared that they had never heard such preaching as his. In 1837, he settled in the little village of Neuendettelsau. As preacher, watcher of souls, catechiser and instructor of youth in this parish, he did a marvellous work. But changes wrought in a single parish were only a part of what he accomplished for his generation. He sought to serve the whole Bavarian Church, and had the satisfaction of seeing his labors in her behalf re- v>'arded in a great increase of her spiritual power.
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Then he turned his attention toward the establish- ment of a Deaconess' House, and of a Mission House, or Theological Seminary, as we would say, in which ministers are trained for the American field. It was in order to obtain the assistance he required for these objects, that he organized the society for " Inner Mission in the sense of the Lutheran Church." This society began its work in 1840, though it was not formally recognized till ten years later. It had several branches or divisions, one of which provided for the education of young men who should carry the Gospel to their brethren in America, and whose work and views are best represented by the Iowa Synod, while another division formed itself into a sort of Tract society for the circulation of Christian litera- ture.
Around the Deaconess' House there were soon grouped an Idiot Asylum, a House of Refuge, a Magdalenium, and an Hospital. A school, first for poor children, then a boarding-school of a high order, for young ladies, also sprang into existence. Special care was taken in the training of the deacon- esses, whose work in some respects differs consider- ably from those who go forth from Kaiserswerth.
A very remarkakle man, a Wiirttemberger, the son of a minister, was Sixtus Charles Kapff (1805- 1879). It was said of him that the grace of baptism never left him. Having enjoyed the education which Wiirttemberg afforded, he went through the lower seminary on the Tubingen foundation, and immedi- ately became pastor of a church at Kornthal, which had separated from the National Church. He had little difficulty in persuading his people to return to
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the Church which they had left, and through his own spiritual experiences as a Pietist he became, both as a minister and in political life, of great service to the poor. In Stuttgart, as p)astor of an immense parish, and in positions of the highest importance — at once a member of various benevolent societies, a man of ready speech, willing to serve the cause which needed him most, one of Wichern's trusted helpers,— Kapff was at his death one of the most useful and pox)ular men in Southern Germany.
Gustavus Werner (1809-1887), who settled in the village of Waldorf, in Wiirttemberg, was disting- uished for his interest in the education of little children, in industrial schools, and in houses of refuge. Inclining toward Swedenborgianism, and strongly opposed to the Wiirttemberg Pietism, he naturally disagreed with the authorities of the Church and finally withdrew from it. This gave him time to devote himself entirely to the House of Refuge, which he had opened at Reutlingen. Here one kind of establishment after another came into existence, such as schools for teaching agriculture, training in the trades, and various other forms of in- dustry, till it would seem as if he had done all that was possible for one man to do to alleviate misery, make his fellowmen helpful to themselves, and attract them into the kingdom of God. In order to meet his financial needs, he formed a stock company, through which, and also by the aid of friends, he was able to carry out his plans successfully. Isolated from Church relations, Werner remained during his life, observes Schaeffer, a hero in patience as in work.
From these references, brief as they are, to some of
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the persons m'Iio have been conspicuous in the work of the Inner Mission, it will be seen that its sphere is far wider than its name would suggest. It not only includes works of mercy and piety, as ordinarily understood, but that large class of humanitarian efforts embraced under the words education, training for special positions in life, deliverance from tempta- tion, rescue of fallen women, care for the sick, work among neglected classes of men, such as cab drivers, street car conductors, railway men, shopkeepers, young people from the country — in fact every possible form of service by which man can be benefited in this world or prepared for the next. In the following chapters an attempt is made to set forth some of the methods which spiritually-minded pastors and equal- ly earnest laymen have employed to save the material for which they feel that God has made them respon- sible.
CHAPTER VIII.
PREVENTIVE METHODS EMPLOYED BY THE INNER MISSION.
1. Care of little children.
Long before the people were wholly aroused to the necessity of protecting little children against the bad influences to which they are exposed by the neglect of their parents, efPorts had been put forth, here and there, to counteract these influences, and to impress on the minds of the little ones a sense of their obli- gation to God and society. As early as 1802, the Princess Pauline received children into her care at Detmold, and watched over them while their mothers or rightful guardians were at work in the factories or in the fields. In the country it had long been neces- sary for the mother and the elder children to go into the fields at harvest time, and at other times during the year to engage in some kind of employment one or more days in the week in order to obtain sufficient food for the family. The practice had been to leave the little ones with some kind-hearted neighbor, or with a girl not old enough to work in the fields, but capable of caring for children. As a matter of course, the children were more or less neglected Often they were brought under positively bad influ- ences. They were, moreover, frequently exposed to contagious disease, and through lack of proper food
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PREVENTIVE METHODS 141
at the proper time, sometimes became ill and lost their lives.
In the city where the conditions of life are harder to meet than in the country, and where neighbors are less accommodating, it has been found necessary to entrust the little ones to the care of women who call themselves " waiters," and who for rather large pay render inconsiderable service.
As early as 1844, a creche, or public nursery, was opened in Paris for the care of the infant children of hard= working mothers. In seven years there were four hundred of these creches in France. Catholic Germany speedily imitated the example which France had set, and last of all came Protestant Ger- many. Vienna was the first place in which German^ speaking people employed this method of caring for the children of needy parents. Here children are received from the age of four weeks till well into their third year. They are received on the working days of every week, and are cared for during the en- tire working hours of these days. For this service a slight charge is made. The children received must have been born in wedlock, be in good health, and have been exposed to no contagious disease. For their care rooms are needed for attendants, a large room for the babes, and a quiet place where they can sleep. Means must also be provided for feeding them at regular intervals. The babes sleep in little beds, for no cradles are allowed. The toys with which they play are simple and harmless. The cloth- ing which they wear when they are brought from home in the morning is removed, and is exjposed to the air and cleaned, if need be, while clothing, pro-
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vided by the creche itself, is put on in its place. On entering the creche in the morning, the little one is carefully washed. It is of the highest importance that the matron or person in charge of the establish- ment should be well fitted for her responsible place, that she have a love for children, be acquainted with their needs, and thus be able wisely to select her helpers. Often the matron is a deaconess, who has been carefully trained for this kind of service. As they are able to receive instruction the little ones are taught good habits, obedience, pleasant plays, and are shown how to walk, run, and speak. If the local Church is interested in the creche or Krippe, as it nearly always is, the words of a simple prayer are also taught. There are, besides this, singing and cheerful story telling. At the present time there are large numbers of these Krippen in existence in Ger- many, and the number is increasing with the in- creasing need. As the name comes from " crib" — the manger at Bethlehem — so the atmosphere of the establishment must be that of love. It is deemed best, if possible, to have the Krippe belong to a sys- tem of schools, or to a Deaconess' House or an Hospi- tal, in order that it may not depend for its support on what it can raise itself.
This support is usually secured through some so- ciety which has the confidence of the community, to which contributions are regularly made. The Ger- mans do not look with favor on Foundling Homes. They think they encourage the sins which render them necessary, Still they are by no means un- known.
2. Schools for little children.
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For children a little below three years of age, and up to six, the Inner Mission has called into existence a school known as the " Warteschule," or infant school. For some reason Froebel's system of Kin- dergartens has not been very popular in Germany; perhaps because it puts all children on a level, takes no account of the distinctions of class, teaches all children in the same way, and makes them work at their studies when they ought to be at play. These, at all events, are some of the objections urged against the system which Froebel and his friends advocated.
To this infant school children of legally married parents can be brought, subject to the usual regula- tions as to health and exposure to contagious disease. The theory is that children of this age should be with the mother as much as possible. The aim, therefore, is to care for them only on such days as the mother is compelled to leave home in order to earn something for the support of the family. If, as in the case of children in the Krippe, the needs of the country are less pressing than those of the city, they are by no means small even in the country. Oberlin, at Steinthal, Alsace, was one of the first pas- tors to perceive the need, and take measures to meet it. In this he was aided by his servant, the never-to? be=forgotten Louise Schepper, whose love for little ones and inborn skill in caring for them rendered her work a model for others to follow. In 1809, Prof. Wadzeck founded a similar school in Berlin. Later on Fliedner, seeing the need of such a school, opened one in connection with his work at Kaiserswerth. Then came a school in which teachers could be trained for these schools, and subsequently one for
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girls of the better classes, till, finally, provision was made for the education of children of all ranks and conditions.
Schools of these various kinds abound in Germany. They are attached to nearly every Deaconess' Home. In different sections of the country they pass under different names, but have the same general character and aim. A large room, on the ground floor where possible, a sufficient number of low desks, a few tables, a cupboard in which the equipment of the school may be stored, a garden or its equivalent for a playground, a room with a few beds, where the little ones when tired out may rest and sleep, are the machinery required for the starting of such a school. Obviously, the woman in charge must possess the pe- culiar gifts requisite for one in her place, and when the school numbers more than forty, she must have an assistant. The children are taught good behavior and obedience, and are encouraged in habits of ob- servation. They are also trained in storytelling, that is, in the power to relate a simple fact or incident, and are encouraged to spend a good deal of their time in play. Carefully washed as they enter the school, they are taught how to wash themselves dur- ing the day, although every attempt at anything like formal instruction is avoided. Such food as is needed is provided by the school itself. The charge made for the care of the child is so small as to be a burden to no one. The difficulties met with in a school like this are irregularity in attendance, and the danger that even here, rules take the place of that love by which such little ones ought to be governed. Here, too, efforts are made to impress the minds of
PREVENTIVE METHODS 146
the children with a sense of their duty to God, and their dependence upon Him for everything they re- ceive. A striking difference between these schools and those which the State has nov/ begun to support, is in their religious atmosphere. No child is kept in them beyond his sixth year. Through the children, parents are often reached, and as the result of teachers' visits, many of the homes of the poor have greatly improved both in appearance and comfort.
The theory upon which the Inner Mission has pro- ceeded in originating and maintaining these schools is that of prevention. If the child can be kept from evil during his formative years, if he can receive a positive impulse toward good from those who are qualified to teach him, if he can be brought into con- tact with persons of Christian character, of good manners and correct speech, it is thought that crimi- nal statistics will be diminished and excellent material thereby saved to the State. The results have more than met anticipations. The v/ork has been con- ducted from the first in a religious spirit, as a Chris- tian duty, and as such is supported almost entirely by gifts from Christian people.
3. The Sunday=school.
This is now described as the Children's Church ser- vice, and it is a good deal more common than is sup- posed. It has been generally recognized that the regular service on Lord's Day morning is unsuited to children of ten years of age and under, and that, if they are to be benefited at all by Sunday services, special effort must be made to interest them.
Where pastors have given careful and faithful cat- echetical instruction the need of Sunday-schools has
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been less apparent. In the large parishes which many pastors have to look after, not infrequently the children have been neglected. In 1825, a Sunday- school was founded in St. George, a suburb of Ham- burg, by J. G. Oncken, a Baptist bookseller, aided by the Lutheran Pastor Rautenberg. Here Wichern found one of his first fields of usefulness. Forty years later, or, to be precise, in 1865, came the im- pulse to Sunday-school work through Mr. Woodruff of Brooklyn, N. Y., and the interest taken in it by Pastor Tiesmeyer of Bremen. Through his inter- preter, Brochelmann, Mr. Woodruff opened a school at Heidelberg. The opposition to these schools came chiefly from pastors and teachers. It seemed like a reflection on the labors of pastors to have a second service on the same day, and to hold it in the very place where they had preached a sermon. Gradually the oj)position wore away. Usually a school once or- ganized demonstrated its value, and attracted to its service, not the pastor only, but laymen capable of interesting and instructing children. So far, efforts have not been made to retain the young in Sunday- school beyond confirmation. It is supposed that those who have become confirmed are old enough to profit by the regular service of the Church. Young men, however, are encouraged to form Bible classes for independent and systematic study. The number of these schools is increasing, and it has been found in Germany, as elsewhere, that in them women often make the best teachers. Many women on Sunday afternoons teach classes of little children at their own homes.
4. A fourth way in which the Inner Mission strives
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to save the youth of the land is through Oi'XDhau Houses. Of these there were not many half a cen- tury ago. What the State has done since in i^rovid- ing them, is very largely due to the influence of those who have worked through the Inner Mission. Effec- tive work in them began with Francke, in his Orphan House, as early as 1695. Most are familiar Vv'ith his words, when he found one morning four German dol- lars and a few pence in the box he had set out for contributions toward the education of the poor: "That is a magnificent capital. With that something worth while must be done: I shall begin a school for the poor." "That "says his rejDorter, (Schaeffer, p. 73) " was the beginning of the Orphan House which still flourishes. With its 3,300 pupils, (nearly 100,000 from the first) and its 470 dependents, it is the largest establishment of the kind in Germany, if not in the world." The spirit and purpose of the school and of all that is done in connection with it, are indicated in these words: "An ounce of living faith is v'ortli more than a hundred=weight of mere historical knowledge, and a little drop of true love, than a sea of knowledge of all secrets." " The way to happiness through the Gos- X^el is a way of love, of peace, and a quiet spirit." When children learn this way, the best possible has been done for them. Imitating this work of Francke, Zahn and the Wortlinsdorf brothers in 1712 wrought with great success in an Orphan House at Bunzlauer, Schlesia. A still earlier attemj)t even than that of Francke to care for orphans was made in Basel, in 1667, though little came of it.
At the beginning of the 18th century, people regard- ed Orphan Houses with distrust. It was thought
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better, that as far as possible, orphan children should be provided for in private families. But experience has shown it to be impracticable to secure families in such numbers as are needed, or of the character that are needed. Parents fear the injury likely to be done to their own children through the introduction of those who have been neglected. Many who are will- ing to receive the children offered, even for the small pay given, prove on investigation to be utterly unfit to have their care. Since the time of Pestalozzi, orphan training in orphan asylums has been looked upon v.'ith increasing favor. It is now felt that a good asylum is preferable to a family where the influences are often hurtful. Children are kept in the Asylum, (often those who have one parent living are received) till they are ten years old, and are ready for confirma- tion. Girls are retained somewhat longer, or till they are old enough to resist the temptations to which their sex is i^eculiarly exposed. The pupils are taught the ordinary branches which pupils of the same age are taught in the Public Schools, and in addition are taught manual work. In the better Asylums, the methods of instruction given in private families and in the public institutions are combined.
5. The education and preservation of youth.
Here, first of all, are the schools where servant girls work with their hands, and thus, by actual practice, learn how to work. They are taught how to sew, to patch, to knit, and to darn. In sx^ite of the fact that these matters are now taught in the Public Schools, there is a great lack of skill in them, on the part not only of servant girls but even of v/omen, who as wives and mothers have homes of their own. A few
PREVENTIVE METHODS U9
hours' instruction in the theory of sowing or knitting is not enough. There must be i^ractic(\ This is necessary to make a happy home, to make the income go further, to give respectability to one's ap- pearance. This practical knowledge is often of value as a means of self = support for those who are depend- ent on the work of their own hands for a livelihood. Schools where instruction of this kind could be im- parted were opened almost simultaneously in different sections of Germany. Among those who contributed most to their success in North Germany, was Rosalie Schalenfeld, who began her work in 1861. A school teacher by the name of Buhl, in the same year intro- duced industrial teaching into the schools of Wiirt- temberg. In 1865 instruction of this sort was given in Berlin, and soon after the Victoria Bazaar became a place where articles made by women in need could be sold for their benefit. Attendants of these schools are vromen v»'ho can spare a fev/ hours in the week from home duties and whose domestic education has been neglected, girls still in school, and such other persons as feel sure they will be profited by instruc- tion of this sort. A deaconess is very often at the head of the school. Sometimes a city missionary, perceiving the need which exists, interests a few women to group themselves together and provide a school of the kind described. Various ties bind the pupils together. In all the schools, efforts are put forth to strengthen faith and make the personal Christian life more real and earnest. It takes little beside a willing mind, and the requisite skill in teaching, to found such a school and render it suc- cessful. The schools are often combined with house-
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keeping and cooking schools, which are now becom- ing numerous in Germany. In addition to the schools just named, are schools for the training of servant girls. These were established in order not only that those attending them might be better fitted to discharge the duties which belong to their profes- sion, but that their moral character might be so strengthened as to protect them against the tempta- tions which prove the ruin of so many of their number. In Germany, as in America, there has been, and still is, complaint about servant girls. Sometimes the complaint rests on good grounds. Not infrequently it is quite as much the fault of the mistress as of the girl that service is unsatisfac- tory. The mistress is unable to tell the servant what she wishes done, or to show her how to do her work; or she is hard-hearted, inconsiderate, and treats her servant as if she were a machine, or a beast of burden, and as if, without instruction, she could do at once any- thing required of her. What wonder if there is waste in the household, or if the servants oftentimes deem themselves justified in adding to their wages by taking from the stores of the family, and add to their pleasures by mingling in social circles whose atmos- phere is moral death. To remedy the defect on the part of those who employ servants and those who serve, Fliedner, in 1854, in the face of a great deal of opposition, opened a school in Berlin for the instruc- tion of servant girls. It was located at Marthashof, and was made a part of a much larger establishment. It was under the care of deaconesses, and it soon became very popular. Families wanting serv- ants were encouraged to apply to this school for them
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and servants out of employment were encouraged to return to a Servants' Home established in the same court till places for them could be secured. Only girls of good reputation were received by Fliedner, or are received now. In the group of establishments in Berlin, girls may be instructed in every department of household labor, in washing, cooking, sewing, in the care of children, as v/ell as in good manners and good morals. Great care is taken in schools of this kind, which have now sprung up all over Germany, to give religious instruction, and to develop the religious life.
In Servants' Homes, to which allusion has been made, there is provision for girls who come from the country to the city to obtain work. For these inex- perienced girls evil disposed persons are constantly on the lookout. For a small sum, and with oppor- tunity to earn a good part of the disbursement, these girls are received into a comfortable, often into an attractive home, and when they seek its shelter they are heartily welcomed. They are aided in securing the places for which they are fitted, and which are entirely respectable. They are made to feel, further, that at any time in their lives, a visit from them will be agreeable to those in charge of the institution. The result has been that out of the thousands of girls who have been trained in this school or temporarily connected with it, very few have been led away into sin. It is rare indeed that one who has been an in- mate of the Fliedner establishment ever comes to be treated in the Charite Hospital or the Hospital for fallen women.
Homes have also been provided for factory girls. Careful examination into the conditions prevailing in
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the places where young women leaving homo and seeking to earn their own living were compelled to stay, made it clear that they were almost uniformly bad, morally, that young women were thrown into the society of men who had coarse tongues and loose morals. In these boarding houses they had only a place to sleeiD. Naturally the dance hall became at- tractive, and before one was conscious of it the paths of sin were trodden.
This work of protection began in Stuttgart, in 1867. It was soon taken up in Eisenach and in Basel. Roman Catholics have been prominent in it. Several of these Homes for working women are to be found in and near Munich. In some of them only those engaged in the same branch of work are received. Such Homes are easiest to manage, and are thought to produce the best results. In other Homes, all who are engaged in any depart- ment of industry find a refuge.
The various Homes differ in their discipline, but earnest efforts are made to avoid anything suggestive of the Prison or the public institution. As far as may be, the atmosr)here and spirit are those of a jparental home. Arrangements for eating and sleep- ing are simple, yet attractive. The ajopointments, while never extravagant or luxurious, are generally pleasing. Nor do the inmates meet the actual cost for what is done for them. Whatever deficiency there is comes from the Societies which stand back of the Homes, and which have called them into exis- tence. While social life and friendship between the inmates are encouraged, pains are taken to fill the HomxC v.'ith a religious spirit. In Protestant Homes,
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where only girls who have been confirmed are re- ceived, it is assumed that they have been brought up under the influence of the Church, and that both they themselves and their parents wish tliis influence continued.
There are tv/o kinds of these Homes: those in which persons are taken for a fixed time, and those in which they are taken without any reference to time. The former are known as the closed homes, and are very easy to manage; the latter are the open homes, and are not altogether easy of control. The persons at the head of them, often a man and his wife, a deacon, if possible, or a deaconess, need peculiar gifts to win the confidence of those v/lio come to them, and at the same time conduct the establishments on a suc- cessful business basis.
In the larger towns and cities there have been formed, in recent years, a good many Sunday and Young Women's Societies. The object is to furnish a place with associations which will draw together young women of about the same age, and engaged in the same employment, and enable them the better to resist temptation. For servants and working girls these Societies are beginning to be very popular. There are more than thirty of them in Berlin alone. Fran Banker Losch was instrumental in their earlier organization, and is still prominent in their manage- ment. Her paper is their organ.
All that is required for the starting of one of these Societies is a number of like= minded young women, and an older woman who will open her house to them or meet them every Sunday afternoon in a room which they have hired for the object. To do this,
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Sunday after Sunday, year in and year out, calls for not a little self=sacrince. This sacrifice has been cheerfully made by many Christian women, and with results which bring an abundant reward.
Homes have also been established in the larger cities for hoys away from their father^s house, at school. Teachers do not now receive pupils from the country and the smaller towns into their own fami- lies in anything like the numbers of former years. The little fellows who come to the great city for their education have a study in one house, sleep else- where, and eat in still another i)lace. They can have no home feeling in this sort of a life. It is felt that this field, which has not as yet been cultivated to any extent, promises a rich harvest. What is wanted is a place, a sort of Y. M. C. A., which shall serve as a home for these young students where they shall find opportunities for amusement, perhaps for sleeping and eating, and at any rate for social intercourse. There is such a Home at Leipzig, another at Stuttgart. To the latter a chaplain is attached, whose duty it is to look after the young fellows, and to hold a Sunday service for them. They are encouraged to cultivate singing, and such games as can be carried on in a garden attached to the home. The library is of no small importance.
Inns for Homes are to be found in almost every considerable town in Germany. They are intended to co=ox3erate with Inns for the working people, One of these was opened in Berlin in 1854. The first year only fifty=four persons patronized it, v/hile the second year one hundred and ten made use of its privileges. Working men are chiefly desired, and those who are
PREVENTIVE METHODS 155
on their way to or from some engagement as wage- earners. Of these Inns there are now more than four hundred in the Empire, and they are under careful management. They are Christian and sympathetic. The man at the head of them is usually a deacon, or a brother, who, with his wife, has been trained for the position he fills. To the Inn there is often joined a Hospiz, or boarding-house, for the sake of j)rofit. Ordinarily there are not more than fifty beds in one of these Homes. If these are not enough to meet the demand, it is thought better to open a second Inn than to enlarge the first. The head of the house must be a whole-hearted, noble=souled man, with a wife like him, so that the confidence of the inmates may be secured from the moment they enter it. It is also regarded as important that the salary be inde- pendent of the income of the Inn, lest the keeper should be tempted to conduct it with an eye only to profit, for while it is desirable that expenses should be met, it is not desirable that they be met at the cost of that for which the Inn exists, the saving of those who patronize it. Prayers are conducted morning and evening. A blessing is asked at the table. The atmosphere of the Home is Christian. Attendance at prayers is not compulsory, but is encouraged. The men are also encouraged to treat the inn=keeper as their friend, and to appeal to him for such advice and assistance as they most need.
In these and similar ways members of the Church of Prussia and each of the provinces now united in the Empire, are striving to diminish the temptations to which children of tender age, youth, and even persons of mature years, are ex-
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posed. Stimulated by the results of these efforts, Government has done a great deal in the last fifty years through preventive measures to save its subjects from leading wasted lives. It has also made its Houses of Correction and its Reform Schools places where a wise Christian influence has been exerted. Still there is more to be done than has yet been at- tempted, although in the direction of prevention the field is now fairly well covered. It is the popular belief that it is wise to save the material of the Na- tion before it goes astray, and that it is wiser to edu- cate a child in principles of morality and self=respect than to punish him when grown for conduct which seems to him natural — that it is cheaper to keep him out of prison than after his dismissal from prison to be compelled to order him to go there, and then deal with him as an enemy both of Society and the State.
6. Education Societies.
In considering the measures taken to keep youth from temptation and provide for the training of chil- dren, the question must have often been asked: How is the expense for all this preventive and educational work met? In reply it may be answered, first, that the Germans know how to get a great deal out of a little. The small charges they make those who be- come inmates of their benevolent institutions, meet, to a much larger extent than v/ould be deemed possi- ble, the cost of these institutions. Still there are deficiencies for which provision must be made. These deficiencies are most pressing in the education of children. Those children who have parents to care for them are in the main left out of consideration,
PREVENTIVE METHODS 157
It is only when parents are immoral, nej.;lectful, or in some way incapable of performing their duties, that benevolence becomes operative. Those children whose conduct and character are already contami- nated by the atmosphere of sin in which they have lived are sent to Keform Schools, where such saving influences are brought to bear upon them as are pos- sible. The children of the very poor are provided for by Societies formed for the purxjose. As there are few families in which it is really desirable to place children who must be separated from their parents, institutions to receive and care for them are indispensable. The leader or manager of an Educa- tion Society must be a man of good judgment, skillful in reading character, and able to advise wisely as to the special course of study to be pursued. Since Pestalozzi's time Education Societies have increased in number, and have accomplished an excellent work. In addition to furnishing the necessary funds for the pupil's support, the manager sees that they are brought under Christian influences, and even after confirmation, he strives to follow the prot6g6s of the Society with friendly care and advice.
There are many establishments in which boys are received and taught to work. Education is given in such branches of industry as are best suited to indi- vidual taste or genius. Dismissed from these estab- lishments when prepared for confirmation, efforts are made to secure such a start for the inmates as will contribute to their success in life and make for the development of a truly Christian character.
Owing to peculiar industrial conditions in many lo- calities Public Schools are in session only during the
158 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
first half of the day. While this arrangement favors those parents whose boys are needed on the farm, or are in any way able to contribute by their labor to the support of the family, many pupils are left to roam the streets in the afternoons or to busy themselves as they please. Where parents are occupied, or careless, boys are likely to get into bad company, or to contract habits which render their downfall swift and easy. Certain benevolently disposed persons have therefore provided places where these idle boys, with the consent of their parents, can be received, and given instruction, supplemental to that imparted in the Public School. Where land is plenty, as it is in or near most of the larger towns, they are taught the principles of gardening, the care of trees and flowers, how to look after cattle and horses, how to keep the barn and house tidy, how to prepare the ground for those simple crops on which agricultural prosperity so largely depends. Some are taught the elements of a trade, such as carpentry, blacksmithing, masonry, or some other occupation of advantage in after life. For their labor, these pupils, who come entirely of their own will, receive a small sum each day, which is reckoned up at the end of every month, and, unless the condition of the family demands it, is deposited in a savings bank to the credit of those who have earned it. Should the family need it, the money is paid at once. Bad behavior is punished not only with ex- pulsion from the school, but with the forfeiture of deposits. So far as it can be done, work in these voluntary schools is made pleasant and easy. Through its variety, it often becomes attractive, as well as instructive. In these schools there is a good
PREVENTIVE METHODS 159
deal of singing, of marching to music, and of that kind of exercise in which boys of exuberant life take delight. Through appropriate religious exercises a reverent recognition of God is secured. The boys who attend these schools are in considerable demand as aiDprentices. A school of this character, ojiened at Darmstadt in 1828, has now 400 boys under its care. Similar schools at Heilbronn, Altoona, and Dresden have flourished greatly. The plan has been to fill up the unoccupied hours of the day with employments at once pleasant and profitable. For the more common trades, and also for farm work an uneducated man serves as a teacher, but for instruction in books, which is often essential, a well trained professional teacher of experience, and of an undoubted Christian charac- ter is sui:)plied. Some of the drawbacks in the work are the irregularity of attendance on the part of the pupils, and the utter indifference of parents to the welfare of the children. Discipline is a matter of some difficulty, as these schools must always be vol- untary, so conducted as not to abridge the freedom of the pupils. There are a few schools where girls, who are in the same condition as their brothers, are received.
In Young Peoples' Societies there is a growing in- terest. In a country where the people are inclined to form a "Union" for almost every object they de- sire to accomplish, this is natural. At present about a thousand Unions, for young men alone, have been organized. They are the result of efforts put forth by earnest pastors to prevent young men, chiefly of the working classes, from yielding to temptations pe- culiar to their age and condition in life. The sugges-
160 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
tion that such Societies be formed, came from Pastor Meyenrock, of Basel, as early as 1768. Under his leadership this plan of reaching young men by salu- tary influences was for many years very successful. Then came a period of decline, followed by a revival of interest in this method of work about the year 1835, when many influential pastors and professors spoke out strongly in its favor. In 1847, Young Men's Societies had become so numerous that they were associated together as a Bund, or League, and in 1867 were brought still closer together, in the Union formed by the provinces of the Rhine and Westphalia. Since that time. Young Peoples' Unions have had a rapid growth in all parts of the Empire. Holland and Switzerland, like Germany, have begun to look after their young people. In France, Socie- ties of young men have attracted to their member- ship Christian young men of culture, who use them as centers from which to carry on efficient Christian work. In the three countries just named, the pur- pose of these organizations is to strengthen Christian faith and protect from evil. In England and Amer- ica, these Unions have been rendered unnecessary by the broader and more democratic Young Men's Chris- tian Association. For some reason, perhaps because of the impossibility of overcoming class distinctions, the Young Men's Christian Association has not flour- ished in Germany, although the Association in Ber- lin has a fine property, and is doing a much needed work. The same is true of the Association in Ham- burg, but the Societies described above, which are in fact Young Men's Christian Associations, are best suited to German parishes and to the social condi-
PREVENTIVE METHODS 161
tions which prevail in them. Either because he sug- gests its formation, or is most active in bringing it about, the pastor is usually chosen as the manager of each local Society, and is responsible for its pro- gramme. To its work, two or three evenings a week are often devoted. The membership fee is from six to twelve cents a month. In the most advanced Soci- ety, none are received under eighteen years of age. For their highest efficiency, it has been found that a few real Christians are necessary as a nucleus. The broad aim is religious and social culture, and the un- folding of the better and nobler qualities of a young man's nature in such conditions as will stimulate him in his desire to attain the highest possible suc- cess in life. In many of the Societies, classes for the study of the Bible are formed, with the pastor as teacher. Meetings are often held for the discussion of religious questions. Certain so=called Sunday So- cieties, hire a room, which serves as a refuge for those whose homes are unattractive, to which they can invite their friends, and where they can find the fellowship they desire. Most of the Societies, through some of their members, engage in Christian work of some kind among soldiers, in prisons, or among spe- cial classes of wage= earners, to whom they can at least hand a paper or a tract, and speak a friendly word. Although the theory of the Church is that when a person has been confirmed he is old enough, and strong enough to care for himself, experience has made it evident that Unions of young people, both for young men and young women, are of great service. Many have been formed, even for children of eight and ten, and while in general, pastors have
162 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
organized and conducted them, well-educated laymen are here discovering a promising and attractive field of usefulness. If the Church hitherto has been a Church of ministers only, the signs are that many who belong to the laity will soon become active and aggressive in it.
CHAPTER IX.
THE PRESERVATION OF THOSE WHO ARE IN DANGER.
One of the objects of the Inner Mission is to fol- low with Christian influences those who are deprived of the privilege of attending regularly the services of the house of God. " Separate coals," say the managers of this Mission, "will not burn. They must be brought together." Although Protestants are relatively two to one as compared with Roman Catholics in Germany, there are sections of the coun- try in which the evangelical element is very small. Those who represent the latter live far from each other. With but rare exceptions, they find it diffi- cult to attend Church, and often the distance is very great. The children of these " dispersed among the Romanists" are deprived of the advantages of the Protestant school, and of the religious instruction supplied by the Protestant pastor. Even if the Evangelicals were desirous of founding a Church and a school, with pastor and teacher, it would be a seri- ous matter to secure the means necessary for such an undertaking. It was for this reason that, on Nov. 6, 1832, the two hundredth anniversary of the battle of Ltitzen, and of the death of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, the Gustav Adolphus Verein or Church and Parsonage Building Society, was organ-
163
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ized by the ten thousand Germans who had met on the battle^ field in memory of the hero. The j)rime object of the Society was to furnish aid to those whose lot is cast among Roman Catholics, and who are un- able from their own resources to build Churches, establish schools, or sustain a pastor and teacher. For nine or ten years the work of the Union was dis- appointing; its real prosperity dates from 1841, when Prelate Zimmermann, of Darmstadt, assumed its con- trol. He awakened German Protestants to a sense of its importance. Contributions increased rapidly. Parishes were laid out in the Catholic sections of the country, and rallying^points provided for the scattered members of the evangelical fold. The principles of the Society are those of the entire Evangelical Church, rather than of any single section of it. By its statutes, it is placed within the Church, but above all party divisions.
Its leaders have often been greatly tried by lack of piety on the part of those who have formed the new parish. Many have taken an interest in the building of a Church who have cared nothing for doctrines of grace, but have been influenced solely by their hatred of Romanism. After the edifice is completed such people almost invariably lose their interest in the work of the parish, rarely attend Church service, and render slight aid to the pastor. With such obstacles to contend against it is hard to do efiicient Christian service. It is doubly hard in a town or country where the majority of the people are Romanists. Not infrequently mixed marriages and social relations carry Evangelicals over into the Church of Rome, or render them indifferent to the principles of the
PRESERVATION FROM DANGER 165
Church in whicli they were born. Yet upon the whole the work of the Society has been successfuL Not less than 28,000,000 marks, or more than $7,000, 000, have been gathered and expended in the last fifty years. The Society ministers without prejudice to members of the Reformed and the Lutheran faith.
As a counterweight to this society, whicli by some is thought rather liberal, there was formed, in 1853, what is called the Lutheran Gotteskasten, a society which M^orks actively, although less extensively, than the Gustav Adolphus Verein, in strictly confessionel, i. e. extremely orthodox, circles. Yet it grants assist- ance to those members of the Lutheran Church who live where the majority of the people are of the Reformed faith. It aids in the erection not only of suitable buildings for schools, but in the support of pastors and teachers. There are also Societies with a similar aim in German=speaking Switzerland, and in Russia. Stimulated by Protestant activity, Roman Catholics, through their Boniface Society, aid in the formation of parishes, and in the erection of Churches for those of their faith.
The methods pursued by these Church^ Building and Parish=Creating Societies do not greatly differ from those pursued in the United States. The nucleus of a parish is gathered first of all, either through a missionary pastor, or as the result of the earnest spiritual life of a few families living in a needy district. If the people are able and willing to assume their proper share of the responsibility for the support of the parish when organized, measures are taken to provide the necessary buildings. Em- phasis is put upon the fact that spiritual life alone
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must be the source of power in the new parish, that vvorlclliness, or opposition to Rome, will not supply the force needed in the formation of a Church, or in the carrying forward of its work.
The report of the Gustav Adolphus Verein in Oct., 1894, was as follows: This Society now embraces 45 chief societies, with 1827 branch, 509 women's, and 10 students', societies. During the year 1892-3, it assisted 1698 parishes and institutions of benevo- lence, at a cost of over 1,121,980 marks, or nearly $300,000. Since 1844, it has expended 28,191,220 marks, and has aided 4,028 parishes. More exactly, it has aided in the building of 17,833 Churches or places for divine service, 707 school houses, and 702 parsonages. It has aided in paying the debt on 704 church buildings, and acquired 171 sites for Churches, school houses, and cemeteries, helped to pay 1366 debts on Church buildings, and contributed to the support of 2,136 pastors and teachers. It has helped to support 58 seminaries and other institutions of learning, 507 houses in which candidates for confirm- ation are temporarily received, free of cost, besides aid- ing the treasuries of thirty establishments for the care of the widows of ministers and teachers. It has thus united in itself the duties of a Church Building Society, an Education Society, a Home Missionary Society, and a Ministerial Aid Society, and in fifty years has dis- pensed the very large sum, for Germany, of $7,000,000. The special aim of the Verein has been to save souls through conversion, and then, out of these saved souls, to form parishes which shall act as a leaven in Catholic Germany. Efforts have also been put forth
PRESERVATION FROM DANGER 167
to furnish the Gospel to evangelical Germans dwell- ing in foreign lands. Even in countries where a pure Gospel is proclaimed, it is not so effective as when song, prayer, and sermon are in one's native tongue. Many Christians at home think the old Mays must be preserved, the old liturgy and the old hymns used, or the emigrant will forget his Father- land. In Paris and Lyons, there are schools and Churches, with numerous Societies for Christian work for the German residents of those cities. In Paris, there is a Home for servant girls similar to that in Berlin. There is a school also for women who are to be teachers. To contributions gathered on the field for the support of this work, gifts from the home Churches are added. This foreign work is under the care of a committee, composed of such men as Von Bodelschwingh, Mast, and Fresius.
There are several German parishes in Switzerland. In Rome and Florence, an important work for Ger- man residents has been carried on for many years. A new Church edifice will undoubtedly soon be erected in Rome. The work in Spain, under Pastor Fritz Fliedner, is said to be important and promising. In London there are scattered parishes which might be more closely united to their mutual advantage. In Holland, Scandinavia, and Portugal there are a few parishes. In addition to parishes in South Eastern Europe, Roumania, Bulgaria, and Servia, parishes have been formed in Constantinople, Smyrna, Beirut, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Cairo. Formerly these oriental parishes were under the care of the Prussian^ English Bishop of Jerusalem, but as this bishopric
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has been divided, and no one appointed to represent Germany, parishes in the East are at present almost independent, in some cases entirely so.
With the growing emigration to South America, increasing efPorts have been made, and with success, to organize parishes there. But the great work of the German Churches in the foreign jfield has been in North America. Here, while German influ- ence has not always been favorable to religion, no one can deny that the Lutheran Church, English and German, has been a spiritual power. It is enough sim- ply to refer to the influence of such religious bodies as the Synodal Conference of Missouri, the General Coun- cil, the General Synod, the Evangelical Synod, and half a dozen smaller bodies, all of them eager in the de- fence of what seems to their members Gospel truth. In Germany, there are several schools in which min- isters and teachers are prepared for service in the United States. Although something has been done in this direction for South America, the ministerial ofhce there has frequently been made a matter of gain rather than of Christian self-sacrifice. Not much as yet has been accomplished for Australia, Thus far, neither the Gustav Adolphus Verein, nor the Government, through the Cultus Minister, has expended much money for German settlers abroad. Yet many attempts have been made to excite an in- terest in these settlers on the part of those who remain at home. It is said that the German soon forgets his native land, that he speedily adapts him- self to his new environments, that his children care little for his language, that the third generation in America is completely Americanized, Something
PRESERVATION FROM DANGER 169
must be done, it is urged, to preserve a closer union than now exists between the Churches in the United States and other foreign countries, and those at home. Prussia has taken some steps toward bringing about such a union, but nothing really effective has yet been accomplished.
Special dangers attend that class of German labor- ers who either wholly, or at certain seasons of the year, leave their homes for places where they can obtain better wages than they are ordinarily paid. Thus thousands of peat diggers, grass mowers, tile makers, piece workers, are found during the larger portion of the year in Holland. Their work is hard. Family influences are broken up. Habits of intem- perance and immorality are easily formed. Neither Churches nor pastors are present to exercise restrain- ing influence. Of late years, pastors have tried to follow these members of their parishes into Holland, remaining with them for a time, and holding divine service among them, distributing Christian literature, providing them with copies of the Word of God, and visiting them in their miserable habitations when the day's work is over. In this way they keep them from giving themselves up to sin.
From Eastern Germany, many persons, chiefly of the peasant class, are accustomed in harvest time to seek work wherever it can be found. Men and wo- men, girls and boys, go out together in great crowds. From the way in which they live, as well as through their association in the fields, much immorality has resulted. Children have been deprived of school privileges. In fact, nearly all moral restraint has been taken away. Appeals have been made to the
170 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
farmers, or the employers of this migrating multi- tude, to furnish those who compose it suitable places to sleep and eat, and to see that they are put under overseers who will do what they can to prevent im- morality. It is for the State to see that the children attend school.
In previous years there has been great moral laxity among the men who have been engaged in building railways, turnpikes, and canals. Coming, as nearly all these laborers do, from the lower ranks of society, or being those whose sinful past has degraded them to a point where they are content to live in dirt, it is not strange that drunkenness and sins of the flesh abound among them. Within a few years barracks, or shelter houses, have been furnished these laborers, and certain persons have devoted their lives to efforts to reach them with the Gospel. These bar- racks are so constructed that they can be taken down readily and put up again. As far as possible, men are given separate rooms, although the partitions be- tween the mens' rooms are of boards. Visits of local pastors have been abundant and in many in- stances welcome. These places of shelter are closed at ten o'clock every night. There are peculiar temp- tations for those who live in river and canal boats. Where the entire family has its home on the boat, the moral dangers are less than where the man is single. Now that Christian people pay visits to these boatmen, it is not unlikely that regular services will in future be held for them when in port. It is also thought that Inns will soon be established where the boatmen may for a little while find a home, and where they will be brought into a Christian atmos-
PRESERVATION FROM DANGER 171
phere, and made acquainted with Christian people. Such an Inn at Berlin, Christian people are confident would receive large patronage. They also feel that thought should be given to the education of the children who live on these boats.
Since 1884, that is, since the commercial life of Germany assumed new importance, Missions for Sea- men have received a good deal of attention. Not only has the welfare of sailors on board ship been sought, but provision has been made for them when on land. The Central Seamen's Committee has its headquarters in Berlin, but there is a Committee in Hamburg and other ports. At Hamburg there is a Sailors' Home, with a pastor or chaplain, whose duty it is to seek the sailor's welfare. Something has also been done for German sailors at Cardiff, Wales, and at Capetown, South Africa. What is needed, it is affirmed, is a union between ship-owners, and the friends of the sailors, to keep the latter out of the hands of the land=sharks, vrlio are ready to strip them of their earnings the moment money comes into their hands. It is also thought that captains may, if they will, render efficient aid in protecting those under them from the immoral and almost wholly destruc- tive influences which meet them the moment port is reached. It is an encouraging sign that people are beginning to see that Sailors' Homes are needed, as well as more extensive provision for the com- fort and moral well being of the sailor than has hitherto been deemed necessary.
As about ninety per cent, of all German emigrants go to the United States or to Canada, a Committee has been in existence many years to meet these emi-
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grants as they land in New York. This Committee furnishes them a temporary home, if necessary, and directs them on their further journeys. Latterly, it has become a habit with German pastors to give those who seek a home in a new country a letter cer- tifying to good standing in the Church at home, and commending its possessor to the care of the pastor of the Church near which they may live in the country of their adoption.
CHAPTER X.
CARE OF DEFECTIVES AND THE SICK.
Of defectives and the sick there are several classes. For some of them the Government has made provis- ion, although in the earlier days of the Inner Mission it had done comparatively little for them. Among those to whom Christian benevolence first turned its attention were the deaf and dumh. There are at present about forty thousand of this class in the German Empire. As the misfortune from which most sufifer, comes from defective organs which are caused, or at any rate made worse, by lack of nourishing food and warm clothing, they are found more frequently among the poor than among the rich. They are often met with among the children of blood relatives. Work in their behalf, through the sign language, was begun in Paris early in the last century by Charles Michel. About the middle of the century, Eppendorf introduced the word method, with the utterance of sounds, but as he would not impart the secret except for a large sum of money, it did not come into general use for many years. It is now more commonly employed, even in France, than the sign language.
These poor children make a piteous appeal to a compassionate heart, since they cannot be properly taught in the public schools, even if the teachers in
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these schools are disposed to give them a great deal of extra attention. Still less successfully can they be taught at home. Nothing remains but to remove them to an institution, where they will receive that bodily care which is needful, as well as that peculiar instruction without which their lives are a continual misery. On reaching the age of seventeen, the mute is j)repared for work in favorable surroundings, and taught to earn his living. Those interested in the welfare of the mute early decided that he should be taken from his parents, by law, if they will not otherwise consent, when not more than seven years old. In large towns, like Berlin, services are held for these mutes on Sunday, and wherever they live, care is taken on the part of the Asylum in which they have been taught, to follow and encourage them when- ever they are in need. Tlie religious aim is to instruct these unfortunate youth in the principles of the Gos- pel, and thus aid them to bear cheerfully the burdens which they are taught to believe their Heavenly Father has mysteriously imposed upon them. In allied institutions, those afflicted with the habit of stammering or stuttering, are received and are often wholly, or partially, cured. Societies whose object is to collect in small sums from every part of Germany the money required for the support of these institutions, or for the bodily or spiritual welfare of those who are sent to them, are the outgrowth of the Christian spirit which prevails in the Churches.
There are about forty thousand hlind persons in the Empire, Since many who are threatened with the loss of sight can be cured if looked after at birth, it is necessary to furnish physicians for the poor, and
CARE OF THE SICK 175
persons to teach timid or heedless parents their re- sponsibility if they refuse to permit the skilled phy- sician to exercise his healing power. Many sufiPer from inflammation of the eye or from what is called Egyptian eye=sickness. Nearly all are improved if not permanently healed by better care. With the decrease of poverty is closely connected a decrease in the number of the blind. Severe penalties are visited on physicans through whose carelessness new= born children lose their sight.
A rare capacity for music in Theresia von Paradis, of Vienna, made it clear to Valentine Hauy, in Paris, about the middle of the last century, that the blind have the power to learn. He at once set about estab- lishing institutions in which they could be taught. He originated one in Berlin, and not long after an- other in St. Petersburg, but as his forte was discov- ery, rather than organization, he accomplished less than was anticipated. The next step was taken in Vienna by John William Klein, a man with practi- cal ideas. Knowing very little of his x^redecessor's methods, he secured a blind child on whom to ex- periment, taught him how to take care of himself in life, and having done this brought him to the city authorities, who were struck with wonder at what they saw. Mr. Klein was the author of several val- uable treatises, and the founder of an institution for the blind.
Prof. Zeune, of Berlin, was influenced by Hauy, and during the Napoleonic wars took a few blind chil- dren into his own home and taught them carefully, ac- cording to the principles at that time in vogue. The jnost distinguished of his pupils was John Knie, who
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became the head teacher in the Asyhim for the Blind at Breslaii, Schlesia. He was a living, and therefore convincing, witness of what can be done for the blind. The institution at Dresden was opened by a pupil of Zeune's, named Flemming, though he was not blind. It was his son=in'law. Director George, who exerted such influence while at Dresden and after leaving the city. For many years, these Asylums, like those for the mutes, were sustained by private donations, though at present Government meets their expense. The object of instruction is to supplement the missing organ by a proper use of the other or- gans which God has provided. The moment this is done, a state of dependency is exchanged for a state of independence, self-support and contentment. Till he is ten, a boy born blind is permitted to attend the Public School as by so doing he will learn a great deal by listening to what is said. Ear, hand, understand- ing, memory, can here be taught. If the home sur- roundings are bad, experts say the blind jjupil should be taken to the preparatory school for the blind un- der compulsion on the part of the State if need be. Here he must remain till he is eighteen, at least, or till he has mastered a profession, by which he can earn his own living. Special attention is given to music, instrumental and vocal, and great care is taken that the latter is not of the kind that disposes to beg- ging. After the time for confirmation has passed, the pupil is taught as many branches of simple hand= work as is possible, so that he may never be at a loss for means of support. Sometimes efforts are made to sell the products of these blind toilers, and thus contribute something to their comfort. But what-
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ever else the Government does, it does not look after the religious welfare of its blind subjects. This is left for the Inner Mission to do. And this it does faithfully and systematically.
As the result of the influence of the Inner Mis- sion, a few Asylums have been established for those blind persons who, having passed through the ordinary asylums and prepared themselves for work, are yet unable to obtain it, or to make it productive. These es- tablishments, which follow their inmates with their care, are not required for the majority of those who are born blind, although help is sometimes asked for in the furnishing of materials to be used in self-sus- taining labor, and in the sale of the product, together with frequent visits, and, in cases of great distress, the giving or the loaning of money. Money is loaned only to those who are known to be worthy. Here the Mission has the field almost entirely to itself. In Asylums for the blind and for mutes, persons of both sexes are received.
For no class of unfortunates does Christian benev- olence feel a more genuine sympathy than for idiots and epileptics. Of idiocy the Germans distinguish three forms, weakmindedness, imbecility, and mental weakness connected with a misshapen body. At times the so-called idiot seems to be suffering only from immobility of mind, or mental inertness. Thus there are all degrees of idiocy, from a slight helpless- ness, or clumsiness of mind, to its apparently entire absence. Medical skill has not yet discovered any cure for mental weakness, nor are its causes fully un- derstood, although it may often be traced to a com- bination of causes. There are 57,000 of these sufferers
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in Germany, and Government has done very little for them. Care for them, and for epileptics, has been left almost entirely to private benevolence. This has come chiefly from Christian circles, and through appeals sent forth by societies connected with the Inner Mission. There is hardly any branch of be- nevolent service which requires greater skill, jDatience, and self-denial, than the service rendered these de- fectives. Few of them can work. Yet everybody sees that they need occu^Dation, an occupation suited to their condition, and that this can best be furnished by the institution in which they have their home.
The first among German=speaking people to draw attention to the need of this class of dependents was Dr. Guggenbuhl, of Switzerland, a man who made promises of which few were fulfilled. His es- tablishment at Abendberg, near Interlaken, had to be given up, although at first money was sent to him in large sums. About the same time. Dr. Seguin, of Paris, began his work with the weak=minded. His principle was that instruction is better then attempts to remove the cause of weakness, or efforts to repair the weakened body. By order of the Government efforts in behalf of this class of defectives were early made at Hubertsberg, Saxony, then at Ecksberg, Bavaria, by the Roman Catholic pastor Probst, also at Mariaberg and Stetten, Wtirttemberg. Pastor Lohe, of the Lutheran church, did something for idiots at Neuendettelsau, Bavaria, but it was not till pastor Julius Disseldorf, of Kaiserswerth, began to send out his writings that general interest in the condition of idiots was aroused, and institutions were opened for them in every German province. There
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are now forty four of these institutions sustained by the money which Societies, organized for the purpose under the authority of the Inner Mission, collect. In most of these institutions epileptics are received, although in later years efiPorts have been made to keep idiots and epileptics apart. Von Bodelschwingh has a colony of the latter in Bielefeld, among whom both deacons and deaconesses are constantly employed. Experience has shown that it is not so necessary as is sometimes thought, to separate idiots and epileptics. While the latter are not infrequently curable, idiots never are. In the treatment of these defectives, cer- tain facts have been made clear. The establishment in which they are received ought to be large, with many divisions, and under the care of teachers trained for their duties, with skilled attendants and physicians, who are not only masters in their profes- sions, but whose hearts are full of the love of God. Bodily care is of the first importance. School in- struction of the simplest kind is required. In giving this instruction women, who possess tact and patience, are more successful than men. There are some things which a weak-minded child cannot learn. He cannot be made to understand figures, or anything abstract. Concrete objects, which appeal to sight and memory, rather than to intelligence, excite his interest. Each pupil must be taught separately, and instructed in accordance with individual needs. Where work has been introduced, it has jiroved one of the best means of instruction. In a few cases, weak=minded children have been admitted to the Pub- lic Schools, where they have their own rooms, and are taught apart from the other pupils. In many in-
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stances the feeble=minded pupil has not only been prepared for confirmation in this way, but rendered capable of self-support. It is only those who have given attention to work among idiots who realize what an immense improvement has been made in their condition, both mentally and physically. Though somewhat slow in caring for them, Christian benevo- lence in Germany is now atoning for past neglect.
Till within a comparatively recent period, Germany paid little attention to the demands which cripples, and persons with mutilated limbs, justly make on thoughtful benevolence. A deformed or crippled child, when sent to school with other children, is often exposed to much suffering from the taunts to which it has often to submit from those among whom it is thrown. Naturally a bitter feeling soon springs uj) in the heart. The little one thinks that God has forsaken him, and life becomes a burden. Pastor Knudson, of Denmark, once a missionary in India, was among the first to devote himself to work among cripples. Since 1872, he has been able to render life more tolerable for at least 1700 of them. He roused Sweden to consider the needs of this class of its sub- jects, and as a result institutions for cripples have sprung up throughout that country. Since 1879 there has been an institution for them in Stockholm, supported by a special society. France has also been interested in them, but for many years the only in- stitution where these cripples could be cared for in Germany, was at Munich. Its ruling spirit was John Nepomuck Edler von Kurtz, who never had less than a hundred under his care at any one time. Both boys and girls were received. The Government
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of Bavaria finally adopted the school. In 1885, the care of cripples was undertaken in Stammheim, Wtirttemberg, in Ludwigsberg, in Bielefeld, and at Nowawes, near Pottsdam, where large numbers of cripples are now received and taught to work as they are able. Yet the field is far from fully cultivated. Education, according to the rank of the parents, religious instruction, and technical training for self- support, are the main objects of institutions for cripples. The Societies back of them are as a rule, well sustained. Some Societies aid parents to care for their children at home. They furnish a missing limb, the needed medical advice, and not infrequently persuade parents to send the child to an institution, where the protracted care called for may be fur- nished. The right kind of care, given at the right time, often renders subsequent life endurable. It has been proved that mental development must not be pushed too fast. Neither ought the pupil to under- take any work beyond his strength. Experience has shown that as the cases to be cared for differ widely from each other, inventive powers of a high order are often needed by the instructor, as well as by the physician in charge of the institution. The aim is to do the best that can be done for the cripple, and as the days of miracles are passed, no parent is en- couraged to look for a complete cure for his child, but only for improvement in his condition, and for the development of a state of mind which will bear with patience God's appointments.
There are a great many bow-legged, pale, sicJdy, scrofulous children in Germany. They are met with both in the country and in the city, though they are
182 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
more numerous in the city, than in the country. As the causes of this misfortune are living in cellars, and under the roof in the city, miserable care or total neglect in the country, and insufficient food in both city and country, Vacation Colonies, as well as salt and sea baths, have been provided for these pale little sufferers. Dr. V/erner began his benevolent work by founding the Bethesda, in Ludwigsburg. Another institution for these little ones, which became a model for many others, was that founded near Osna- bruck, in Rothenfelde. In these establishments, where bathing is constantly employed, the children are for the most part under the care of deaconesses. These Vacation Colonies are a kind of rescue for weak, pining children. They are a sort of children's summer home. The children who suffer most are sent to the establishments where the best care is given. Others are sent to private families, which receive and provide for them at a slight cost. The time allotted for this outing is from four to six weeks. Care is taken to select the more needy jBrst. For the worst cases, several periods in the institution are required, in order to restore health. The manage- ment is something like that in a Hospital, although efforts are made to give the children a jjleasant time, to furnish them some needed instruction, and to impress their minds with a sense of their dependence upon God. To make sound healthy children out of those sent to these institutions is a problem which the teacher or the attendant is expected to solve. The results of this form of benevolence have been fully as satisfactory as has been the expenditure of fresh air funds in America.
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From the beginning of the work of the Inner Mis- sion one of its prime objects has been to provide for the Bick; especially for those who are sick in a Hospi tal. Hospitals have grown out of the sense of respon- sibility which thoughtful Christians feel for those who cannot care for themselves. These Hospitals have proved to be battle=^ fields against disease, Uni- versities in which physicians are taught and trained. Sickness in itself, as has often been said, is one of God's teachers. Hence, in early times, Christian men of influence and wealth began to provide for the care of the sick. At first the responsibility was solely upon the Church, as a whole; later on it rested upon the bishops. Then there arose benevolent Orders, as we have seen, of knights, monks, and nuns, whose members devoted themselves to the care of the sick. In the cloister, or attached to it, an Hospital came into existence. After the Reformation, the care of the sick, became a calling, a profession, to be followed for gain. Hospital masters received their appoint- ments from city authorities. When the places obtained were remunerative, the sick were neglected. Even at the beginning of the i^resent century the condition of Hospitals in Europe was very bad. In Germany, improvement in their condition began in 1886, with the revival of the order of deaconesses. These godly women gave personal attention to the sick. They called public attention to the condition of the Hospitals. The wars that followed made the demands of the sick and the wounded still more im- perative. Orders were formed to meet these demands. First came the Evangelical Order of St. John, an Order formed in 1852 under the auspices of Frederick
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William IV. In 1867, the Maltese Order was formed by tlie Roman Catholics. Womens' Societies for aiding the sick also sprang up here and there. Last of all, came the Society of the Red Cross, whose acti- vity and special work are chiefly shown on the battle- field. In Germany, the four systems of hospital erection or arrangement are as follows: viz. the block, pavilion, corridor, and barrack system. No matter what system is employed in the construction of the Hospital, careful provision for ventilation is made and nothing that medical science can sug- gest, is overlooked. Provision for the Hospitals is on a generous scale. This is due to the influence of such nurses as deaconesses and brothers have made, and to the public interest which the reports of these nurses have awakened.
The supreme control of the Hospital is in the hands of physicians. All who serve in the Hospital are required to follow their directions implicitly, The administrative care, ?. e. the purely business part of the Hospital, is in the hands of an officer who is ap- pointed by the Committee responsible for this care. Where the Hospital is large, a chaplain is provided for its inmates. He conducts morning and evening devotions, asks a blessing at the table, arranges for regular Sunday service, and embraces every favorable opportunity for friendly and Christian conversation. His position is one of great delicacy as well as respon- sibility. It is through him, chiefly, that a Christian atmosphere is introduced into the Hospital. Nothing like proselyting is attempted, or allowed. Efforts are made, however, to persuade sick and dying men to believe in the Saviour, though no one is asked or
CARE OF THE SICK 186
expected to change hia religion. In the Infirmaries, which are simpler in their arrangement and less costly than Hospitals, while bodily healing is sought, although many are afflicted with incurable diseases, spiritual blessings are presented as special objects of desire. All this is due directly to the work and the influence of the Inner Mission.
For the insane, who are now cared for generously and wisely by the Government, private benevolence furnishes such religious influence as is desirable. As insanity differs so greatly in its manifestations and in its nature, great skill in dealing with the sufferers is required. Attendants on the insane, many of whom are deaconesses and brothers, (both are employed at Kaiserswerth), must be experts. At present the no= restraint system is as far as possible followed. In order that the Asylum may appear like home, a min- ister Ls often employed to conduct religious service, even when personal conversation is impracticable. When insane persons are brought to the Asylum early in life, or immediately after the signs of insanity appear, it is affirmed that about two4hirds of their number are curable.
The difference between the care which German Christians, and Christians in America or Europe show the classes above mentioned, may not in reality be very great. In Germany the care is regular and systematic, and it is the object of definite, continuous thought. There are special laborers for special classes of the needy or the suffering, and they are trained for the work they undertake. This work is made a life-work, not something to be taken up to-day and laid aside to=morrow. It is work which is done
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in a Christian spirit, with a Christian aim, and in the conviction that it constitutes a calling in life for which God Himself has fitted those who enter upon it. Though voluntary, yet the Church regards this work of its members as a part of the duty she owes her fellow^men, and through gifts regularly made and officially sanctioned, she provides for it.
CHAPTER XI.
SAVING THE LOST.
While the chief aim of the managers of the Inner Mission is to prevent people from falling into temp- tation, or yielding to it, and thus being lost, they are by no means indifferent to the duty of trying to rescue those who are looked upon as lost. No part of this work is more difficult than the contest against Prostitution. Only those who have given attention to this matter can have any idea of the extent of the difficulties to be overcome. In Berlin alone, the police estimate the number of those who make gain out of their bodies at nearly 30,000, others 50,000. Not only are those who thus prostitute themselves ruined, morally and spiritually; those also are ruined who by their patronage make this kind of life possible and profitable. A standing Army renders the contest against the evil more difficult. Nor is the presence of students in the University towns any aid to those engaged in it. Although open solicitation is not allowed, the portion of the city where vile women congregate is well knov/n and easily found. It is needless to add that the trade which grows out of Prostitution is one of immense pecuniary profit. Hardened men and depraved women are constantly on the lookout for ignorant and innocent girls, to take the place of those who drop out of the ranks of this sinful army. A few drift into it almost naturally.
187
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Impure thoughts, unclean conversation, the dance in the country tavern, with its opportunities for sins of the flesh, the friendly soldier M^ho makes love to the servant girl, and under j)romise of marriage leads her from the paths of virtue and then leaves her to bear the burden of her shame alone, are suggestive of some of the causes which contribute to the permanent downfall of vast numbers. The thoughtless or help- less country girl who goes to the great city to seek her fortune, in entire ignorance of the pitfalls which lie open on every hand, the factory girl, and the seamstress whose scant wages hardly sustain life, often become an easy prey to those who are con- stantly seeking whom they may devour. To their shame be it said, there are parents who rear daughters for this kind of life, and are impatient till they are old enough, through their sacrifice on this altar of infamy, to add to the income of the family. If the old Germans were famous for their chastity, this is not true of all their descendents. In every city per- haps without an exception, this great moral swamp exists. The efforts made to remove it at the time of the Reformation, have in these later times been earnestly renewed. The deadly miasma arising from it is more destructive than the raging of an epidemic, the dreaded presence of cholera, or even of war.
As in so much else which has elevated the moral standards of society, and encouraged Christians to lift them higher and still higher, Fliedner led the way in the crusade against Prostitution. To him, so early as 1833, the first penitent Magdalen came for shelter. Another and another followed in her steps. Soon his garden house was exchanged for an asylum,
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till in city after city Magdaleniums sprang up. Of these there are at present in the whole of Germany, more than twenty. They are well arranged, and their influence has been extremely helpful. In more than half their number, deaconesses reside, and in this work, as in all else in which they engage, they have proved themselves ministering angels.
In 1848 and thereafter. Pastor Heldring, of Hol- land, lifted up a battle=cry against the evil. His trumpet=call was heard even in Germany. His Asylum at Steenbeck, opened in 1848, became a model for other Asylums having a similar purpose in view. Superintendent Bastian, in Bernberg, Pastor G. Schlosser, in Frankfort on the Main, and Gen- eral Superintendent Baur, are regarded as leaders in this effort to rescue the fallen.
The Asylum must be in a city, easy of access, friendly in appearance, and sympathetic in its atmos- phere. It must bear no resemblance to a prison. Its doors must stand open to receive and dismiss. No other compulsion than that which comes from a Christian life and a Christian heart may be exer- cised. It is nevertheless possible to use wise meth- ods to encourage those who visit the Asylum to walk in the paths of virtue. The family idea must be made prominent in the establishment. Those who enter are to be made at home at once. They have entire freedom; they are under no surveillance. Younger women are kept from those who seem bent on continuing the life they have begun. Those who fly to this place of refuge are enrolled as regular in- mates only after a period of probation which tests the sincerity of their desire to reform. It has been
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found wise to have the Magdalenium near some other benevolent institution, and to have it so situated as to furnish sufficient work for the support of the in- mates. While all are received without cost to them- selves, they are at once taught to work, and encour- aged to do that which they can do the best. Few are found previously accustomed to work of any kind, and this, doubtless, is one of the causes of their failure in life. Most of these girls provide for themselves, while in the Asylum, by taking in washing. Some go into the kitchen of the establishment. Others labor in fields or gardens. Some do fine sewing. All are industrious. On an average, a stay of two years is required of every inmate. The lust which causes crime must be rooted out, and a firm principle intro- duced into the heart to take its place and fortify against further transgression.
Each Home is furnished with corridors, in which there are separate beds for each girl. These are sep- arated from each other by partitions. In each of these corridors a deaconess, or a trusted woman. Bleeps, and acts as a kind of overseer and friend. Over the whole establishnent is the House-mother. When possible she is a deaconess, who has been trained for the kind of service the place she fills re- quires. In addition to piety of the truest kind, she has need of great wisdom, and a patience which nothing can exhaust. It is hard not to resort at times to something like force in keeping the girls from returning to their lives of sin. The feelings which these girls manifest, after remaining for a time in the asylum, are very puzzling. Nearly all are intensely nervous. Tears and outbursts of anger, physicians
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say, are from the same source. Nothing but a motherly, Christian heart can endure the trials which dealing with these unfortunate women imposes.
It is often a matter of great difficulty to persuade even penitent Magdalens to enter these asylums. There is a prejudice against them. Midnight meet- ings are held to attract those who, having entered upon this life of prostitution, are awakening to its horrors, and desire to leave it. Christian women, deaconesses employed as parish visitors, and others whose duties bring them into contact with prostitutes in the hospitals, especially in the Charit6 at Berlin, are on the lookout for such as may be saved.
There is at least one place in Germany where parents can take daughters who have vicious inclina- tions. Since 1873 there has been a home at Bonn to which girls who have borne an illegitimate child may come from the lying-in hospital, and be helped to overcome the disgrace attached to it. There are places, also, for girls too old for the Keform School, and not old or hardened enough for these Asylums. But all who have had anything to do with the problem of saving this class of the morally lost unite in testifying to its extreme difficulty, as well as to its terribly destructive influences upon all branches of society. The vice in England, save in a few sea- ports, is left to regulate itself. In Belgium, Holland, Denmark, and France, it is regulated by law. In Germany it is endured, with no other attempts to suppress it than to keep it out of sight, and by Christian effort to pluck now and then a brand from the burning.
Hitherto Germany has suffered less from the evils
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of Drunkenness than most other countries. Drunk- enness is a growing evil. Germans seem to take more naturally to the stronger drinks than the wine- loving populations of Latin countries. Through the use of Brantwein and Schnapps, the health of many has been undermined. Habits have, in addi- tion, been formed which are fatal to prosperity and happiness. Toward the end of the thirties, the tem- j)erance movement in England and America began to make itself felt in Germany. Frederick William III. sent for Robert Baird of the United States, famous as an advocate of temperance, and caused his book to be translated and circulated among his subjects. Pastors and government officials took hold of the matter at once and made temperance reform popular. Improvement in public morals ere long showed itself. In 1845 eighty^four distilleries failed for lack of pa- tronage. Two hundred and six reported little busi- ness. In Hannover, half the Brantwein tax fell off. In Saxony, the use of strong drinks diminished with equal rapidity. But the excitements of the year 1848 seemed to undo all that had been accom- plished for temperance. Huber and Wichern did their best to withstand the growing tendency to drink, and they had many earnest fellow=workers. Since 1877, there has been a Temperance Society in Geneva, with numerous branches in Germany. Efforts, too, are made, more commonly than formerly, to persuade men to abstain even from moderate drink- ing, not because it is a sin, but because of its example, and dangerous tendencies. In various ways, and in almost all classes, efforts are put forth to destroy the power of intemperance. Since 1884, a Total Absti-
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nence Society has shown no little earnestness in com- batting the evil, and through the influence of some very prominent men, including University professors, its supporters are increasing. But the drink=habit, fostered no doubt by the universal use of beer among the lower classes, and of wine among the upper classes, and the prevalence of the feeling that it is foolish to give up one's liberty and refuse to drink moderately, render it exceedingly difficult to push temperance work with the success attainable in Eng- lish-speaking countries. Yet there are those who devote their lives to efforts to persuade men to give up these drinking habits, and the testimony which many of them furnish as to the blessings of total abstinence, is encouraging. In the seven or eight of the Asylums connected with the Inner Mission, the methods pursued, after making due allowance for diversity of custom, do not differ greatly from those pursued in our own country. Of the Keeley Cure, little use has, as yet, been made. Christian physicians feel, as is felt with us, that a new life is the only sure defence against the drinking habit.
The Asylums to which the unfortunate victims of drink are brought are so arranged as to seem home- like. Christian influences are brought to bear on the sufferer. Prayer, morning and evening, with a bless- ing asked before every meal, is a feature of these asy- lums. Sunday services are provided for their inmates. Assistants are responsible not only for the care which the body needs, but for that also which (he mind requires. Quack medicines are not allowed. A stay of two years is thought necessary for a perfect cure. Moderate drinking is not favored. When
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habits are fixed, the patient is encouraged to go out again into the world, but is advised to surround him- self, as far as possible, with associates who will not lead him into temptation. As in the case of those who are sent out from the Magdaleniums, a certain oversight from the Asylum follows the so-called reformed men. They are allowed to return to these Asylums as often as they please for advice and help. Coffee houses are favored. Societies, also, whose object is to inform the public as to the evils and dan- gers of drunkenness, and to create a sentiment in favor of total abstinence, or at least of temperance, are formed. Legislation to a certain extent is favored. Instruction in the public schools as to the effect of the use of alcoholic drinks on the body, sim- ilar to that given in our own public schools, is greatly to be desired. Many public men, including the Emperor, are alive to the dangers which threaten society from the growing use of intoxicants. There is hope that ere long temperance crusades will be carried on throughout the whole country.
Of those who are without work, there are two great classes: those who are afraid of work, would not take it if it were offered, and those who really desire it, but cannot obtain it. The two classes may be char- acterized as the helpless and the vicious. It is not always an easy task to discriminate between worthy and unworthy aj)plicants for aid. The latter often seem to have the best claim on charity. They can tell the best story, and their recommendatory papers are often excellent. But the requirement to earn what they receive before they receive any- thing has been found a pretty good test. There
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are many establishments where a roofless wan- derer may spend the night. In wood== yards near by, one may earn one's food. A list of places where work is wanted is also kept by the managers of these establishments, and often by the police, to whom a tramp may appeal, if he can appeal nowhere else. To these places the wanderer is directed. Many, perhaps most, of the places for shelter are un- der the supervision of the police. They soon dis- cover the character of those who frequent them. These lodgifig-hoiises are for the convenience of those who travel from place to place in search of work. A paper, signed by the keeper, testifies to the fact that use has been made of the shelter ofPered, and adds such further statements as the condition of the person seems to call for. While these stations often furnish opportunities for weeding out the vicious and providing for the worthy, scheming indi- viduals or professional beggars sometimes take advan- tage of them, and secure recommendations which they by no means deserve. Laziness is not unknown among those who travel over the country, professedly in search of employment. A law, strictly enforced, prevents begging at the door. The person who gives, as well as the person who receives, if the latter can be caught, is punished. Those put in charge of these night=shelters, and other establishments for the aid of those out of work, are chosen for their ability to minister to the needs of those with whom they are thrown in contact. It is not enough to furnish employment for a day; it must be steadily furnished, and those receiving it encouraged to continue in it till they become self-sustaining, rex^utable citizens.
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There are some who have not the physical strengtl" to work all the while; others have no ability them, selves to secure work, or to keep it without aid, when they have it. To provide for 200,000 unemployed men (in the seventies there were said to be this num- ber), is a matter of no small difficulty. Hence the Homes for Working Men (Arbeitercolonien), which to the number of several hundreds have sprung up within the last twenty or thirty years in different parts of the Empire. These Homes are industrial establishments where various trades are carried on under the oversight of competent persons. The pro- duct is sold at the market price, the money obtained going to the support of the Home. Those who apply for admission are not the vicious, the lazy, or the wretchedly poor, but those who are really anxious to earn their own living, but who for some reason are unable to find an opportunity to do so. They are often discouraged men. All who are received, are received with a warm welcome. Food and comforta- ble lodging are furnished. Work, of the kind to which applicants are accustomed, is provided. They are aided to get a job outside if possible. In entering the Home the applicant promises obedience to its rules. There are certain light punishments for diso- bedience, while the extreme penalty is dismissal. A few of these Homes are sustained by grants from the Government, and a few are cared for by Roman Catholics. Most of them are under the care of Pro- testants, who have formed Societies which gather money to meet the deficiency which often shows itself in their income. These Homes are managed by a large Committee, which appoints from its mem-
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bers a sub=comniittee, which selects the responsible head for each Home, A pastor is generally attached to the Home. The person who looks after its eco- nomic needs must be a man trained to this kind of work, a brother, if possible; at any rate a man who will be a brother to those who come under its shel- tering roof. While no attempts are made to force the inmates to be religious, as in all other institu- tions with which members of the National Church have to do, a religious spirit jjervades the Home. By influences silently exerted, men are influenced to look with favor upon the principles and institutions of Christianity. Men are allov»'ed to remain in these Homes as long as may be necessary. The aim is to re-establish in the minds of those who are discour- aged, not only a desire to obtain regular and self= supporting occupation, but to convince them that they can again take their places in society, as self= respecting, self-sustaining citizens.
These Homes, which seem to owe their origin for the present generation to Pastor von Bodelschwingh, of Bielefeld, are pretty widely scattered over the German Provinces. They can receive from less than a hundred each, up to nearly three hundred appli- cants. As men are coming and going every day, it will easily be seen how large a place they flll in a Christian system of benevolence.
In the care of p7w'so??s and their inmates, the same difiiculties have been met with in Germany as in other countries. The impulse toward improvement in pris- on discipline came from John Howard, of England, who died in 1790, and Elizabeth Fry (English) who died in 1845. Fliedner began his work in the prison at
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Diisseldorf as early as 1826, and learned from the pris- oners, whom he regularly visited, something of the needs of society at large. For more than fifty years, prison discipline has aimed at reform as well as i)un- ishment. Formerly it did not look beyond the inflic- tion of penalty. Before Fliedner's day prisoners of all ages and degrees of criminality were thrown together. Women are now no longer confined in the same prison with men. Thanks to the influence of the Church there has been improvement in the j^risons themselves, in their sanitary condition, in their management, and in the treatment of prisoners. In these matters, the great and the noble, and even crowned heads, have in- terested themselves. Oscar I., of Sweden, who died in 1859, wrote a book on prison management, and his successor has not been unmindful of his duty toward those who are in prison. Frederick William IV. se- cured the passage of a law providing for solitary con- finement. At first the law was absolute, but later it was modified to suit the needs of all classes of crim- inals. At the present time not only the chaplain and the oflBcers of the prison visit the criminal in his cell, but friends are permitted also to visit him. Here he works, eats and sleeps. If he is taken out for air or exercise, he wears a mask over his face, so that fel- low=prisoners may not recognize him. In the House of Correction at Plotzensee, near Berlin, in which about 1800 persons are confined, those who occupy separate cells wear their masks when they leave their rooms for the boxes provided for them during school hours, and during the hours of service on Sunday. Here the teacher and the pastor can see them, but they cannot see each other. It is the worst and the
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best of the criminals who are thus separated; the worst that their influence for evil may not be exercised on those who are not yet completely hardened, the best that they may not learn more evil than they now know. According to the report of this prison, from fifteen to twenty per cent, of its inmates lead good lives after serving out their term of confinement. This is due to the salutary moral and Christian in- fluence brought to bear upon them.
There are several Societies which look after the in- terests of prisoners and study the conditions under which they are confined. One of the oldest, as it is one of the best, is the Rhenish='Westphalia Society, founded by Fliedner in 1826. For service among women, deaconesses are most sought for; for work among men, in addition to a chaplain, brothers and teachers are needed who will be in hearty sympathy with the men, and do everything in their power to encourage them to begin a new life.
All Christian work, even if done by persons ap- proved by the Church, is done under the eye of the prison officers. Guarantees as to the fitness of visi- tors to have access to prisoners must be furnished by the Societies or Christian bodies they represent. Up to this time, probably not more than one hundred deacons and deaconesses are engaged in regularly visiting the prisons. Not all prisons grant this liber- ty of visitation even under restrictions. But every- where efforts are ]put forth to save the prisoner, and unless he is a hardened criminal, with a lifelong sen- tence, or a sentence of death hanging over him, the hope is cherished that he may yet be saved for society.
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The hardest and best work iov prisoners is done after their sentence has been served. For some the penalty is only a fine, with a few days'confinement. Others pay a fine and spend years within prison Avails. Others again are confined for a period varying from a single day to five or even fifteen years. Those who have been under the influence of Army Officers, for whom x)laces have been made as prison^keeiDcrs, are not so likely to leave their place of confinement im- j)roved in their morals, as those who have been under the care of men who have made the care of prisons a study and a profession. Hence the need for Socie- ties to look after dismissed prisoners, to give them a welcoming hand, an encouraging word, and to pro- vide a shelter where they will not be immediately brought into temptation which they will hardly be able to resist. The prisoner must be encouraged to cherish hope for the future. His family, if he has one, should be urged to receive him cordially and aid him in his efforts to lead a reputable life. Work should be obtained for him, in the place where he formerly resided if temptations there are not too great; if they are, then among strangers. The mem- bers of this Society for the reclamation of the dis- missed prisoner watch over him till he is again fairly on his feet. It is however by no means easy to get these men on their feet. Society, as a whole, is against them. Members of their own households are against them. The iron=hearted legality of the State is against them. The lack of real benevolence on the part of those who profess to love the Master, and who sometimes seek to aid them, is against them. The natural sinfulness and perversity of the human heart
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are also against them. The chief effort, there- fore, from the moment when the Christian min- ister or teacher comes into contact with the prisoner, during the years of his confinement till he receives his liberty, must be directed to persuading him to be- come a Christian. Those who would save him when dismissed from prison must also make it clear to him that it is only with Christ's help that he can become a new man and pass the remainder of his life in a useful and honorable career. More necessary than efforts to convert the prisoner are efforts to prevent his becoming again a transgressor, and thus falling once more into the hard hand of the State.
Enough has been said to show that the least en- couraging of the fields which come under the care of the Inner Mission, are those in which attempts are made, without weariness or impatience, to recover the lost. The fact that society looks upon the fall- en woman, the drunkard, the thriftless wage-earner, the beggar, and the released prisoner, as pests, with- out hope either for this life or the next, adds to the enormous difficulty of rescuing them. Nothing short of the grace of God can create within the breasts of these unfortunate f)eople a feeling of self-respect, a desire to try to regain the position among their fellow creatures which they have lost, or impart to them the courage to try to regain it. Yet in spite of all draw- backs Christian benevolence feels that the results even among such as these, are a sufficient reward for all the cost, and that the methods here described must be followed as long as they are needed.
CHAPTER XII.
THE CIRCULATION OF CHRISTIAN LITERATURE.
One of the v/ays in which efforts are made to in- struct the peox^le in a knowledge of themselves, c*f God, and their relations to Him, is by the careful and systematic circulation of the Scriptures. Early in the history of German Protestantism the circulation of the Scriptures became general. In the Public Schools their use was compulsory, yet at first the Bible was neither universally nor intelligently read. It was Luther who awakened an interest in Bible^ reading among the masses. This was accomx)lished by his masterly translation of the Scriptures into the language of the i^eople, and by the emphasis he placed on the doctrine of salvation through faith rather than through works. His doctrine of justifica- tion by faith alone was a key to the understanding of the meaning of the Scriptures which the people were not slow to use. Pietism added greatly to the circu- lation of the Word of God. It was Baron von Cans- tein, a friend of Francke, who founded at Halle, in 1712, the Canstein Bible Society, the first of its kind in Germany and in some respects the model Society of the country. A hundred years later, the Stuttgart Bible Society was formed, and, in 1814, at Berlin the Prussian Society. These were followed by other So- cieties, until now there are twenty^six organizations in the German Empire devoted to the circulation of the
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, CIRCXJLATWN OF CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 203
Scriptures. The impulse favorable to tliis movement may have had its origin in the formation and work of the London Bible Society, which came into existence in 1804. Roman Catholics have not favored the cir- culation of the Scriptures among the people, although a translation has been made, which has received the approval of the Bishops, and under certain conditions may be put into the hands of those who desire to read it. In the editions in common use the Apocrypha is bound up with the Old and New Testaments, but with the understanding, that while it is good for reading, it has no authority as the insiDired Word of God. The Bible is printed, as in America, without note or comment, save that, in some editions, maps have been inserted, together with a preface, and a glossary of difRcult words. A few commentaries for the use of the peoj)le have met with a large sale. For many years, those having the welfare of the German Church at heart have sought to introduce a new, or at least a revised, translation of the Scriptures into pub- lic worship. Partial success only has attended these efforts, the people clinging almost superstitiously to Luther's Bible. The difficulties in the way of secur- ing a new translation were far greater than in England. One has, however, been made under the direction of pastor Monckeberg, of Hamburg, which the Can- stein Society has published. This translation has received the approval of all the Provincial Churches, with the exception of the Church of Mecklenberg. It is probable that ere long the so=called Probe (proof) Bible will come into general use. Translations made by scholars such as Weizsacker, (the N. T. only), and other prominent Bible students, find ready sale,
204 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
and are doing a great deal to quicken interest in Bible reading.
The larger Societies employ special agents and send out their Bibles from central stations, as well as from branch stations, in difPerent sections of the country. As far as possible these Bibles are sold at a price sufficient to meet the cost. Free distribution, though not uncommon, is less general than in Ameri- ca. Pastors, school teachers, and other friends of the Bible are expected to aid in its circulation, as well as in its intelligent use. While colporteurs are employed at certain seasons of the year to ijicrease sales, and to aid in the better understanding of the Bible, the chief reliance for increased knowledge of the Scriptures and greater love for them, is upon their larger use in the public services of the Churches, the establishment of Sunday-schools, of Young People's Societies, and Societies for Reading the Bible, and of pastor's classes for its devotional and critical study. Societies of women who read the Bible according to a different plan, year by year, are not unknown. In spite of the criticism of rationalizing scholarship, the people look uj)on the Bible as the " Word of God, " the " Bread of Life, " the " Written Christ," and the " Bearer of the Spirit of God." Nowhere is the Bible more highly esteemed than in Germany.
To a much greater exteiit than a stranger would deem possible, the majority of the German peoxale are disinclined to reading of any sort. Many read carelessly whatever comes into their hands. Those who are anxious to introduce good reading into the homes of wage=earners, and peasants, have first of all to awaken a desire in their minds to read, and then
CIRCULATION OF CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 205
to guard against the destructive influence of bad lit- erature. Hence the demand for Tract Societies, or Unions, for the spread of Christian, or at least, of Ijrofitable reading. By a tract is meant a short com- jjosition, Christian in spirit and aim, popular in form and contents, and therefore heljoful in its influence. In introducing and employing this method of spread- ing information among the people, the influence of Luther was decisive, while Pietism and the sects have contributed to its use. No method can be sim- pler or more natural. In England, Hannah More, desirous of counteracting French infidelity, which in her day was powerfully affecting the thought of the nation, led the way in the writing and circulat- ing of tracts, and gave the impulse which resulted in the formation, in 1799, of the London Tract So- ciety. Several Societies with a similar aim have since that time come into existence in Germany. Among them may be named the Christian Union, in North Germany ( 1811 ) , the Wupperthal Tract Society ( 1814 ) , The Chief Union for the spread of Christian writings of an Edifying Character in the Prussian states, Ber- lin (1814), the Lower Saxony Tract Society, Ham- burg (1820), the Evangelical Book Foundation, Stuttgart, the Press Union of Calv, organized by Dr. Barth (1833), the Basel Union for the Spread of Christian Literature (1834), the Agency of the Kough House, Hamburg (1842), the Evangelical Book LTnion of Berlin (1845), and a Division of the Society for the Work of the Inner Mission in the Sense of the Lutheran Church in Bavaria (1850). It will thus be seen that there is no lack of channels through which good reading can reach the people.
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The business of these Societies is carried on in a very simple way, and at the smallest cost. A depot for the storing of tracts is about all that is required, in addition to an agent to supervise and secure their cir- culation. This agent is responsible to a Committee which appoints him and supervises his work. Col- porteurs are employed to a considerable extent, but often for only that portion of the year, say just before Christmas, when work on the farm is dullest, and wage=earners are oftenest idle. These colporteurs are allowed to carry about a few little trinkets as an aid to the sale of their books or tracts, but they are ex- pected everywhere to exert a Christian influence, and to arouse, if possible, an interest in Christian reading. Of their sales and their work they make careful reports. No tract is printed without the sanction of the Committee of the Society whose name it bears, nor is any man, pastor, teacher, volunteer laborer, or colporteur permitted to offer a tract to anyone, either on sale or as a free gift, till after he himself has read it and mastered its contents. The tract dis- tributor is also expected to know the person whom he approaches, as well as the tract which he seeks to circulate. It has been very difficult to obtain suitable material for distribution in the tract form. Not only must the tract be popular. Instructive, evangelical; it must be adapted to those who are to be reached by it. Experience has shown that tracts which do good serv- ice in England or America, are of little value in Germany. Hence in recent times, the effort has been, not to circulate a great quantity of tracts, but to secure those which are of the right kind, and then place them in the hands of persons who will be pro-
CIRCULATION OF CHRISTIAN LITERATURE 207
fited by them. Illustrations are introduced into this kind of literature to a much greater extent than with us. Oftentimes an attractive cover seems to lend an in- terest to that which is within. Brief lives of such men as Francke, Wichern, Fliedner, statements of the frauds connected with the exhibition of the so= called Holy Coat at Treves, published by private firms in Bremen, Leipzig, and elsewhere, and sold for two or three cents each, have done excellent serv- ice.
To create a desire for good reading and to meet the demand for it when created, there have been formed what are known as People's Libraries, which contain from a hundred volumes up. The selection of these Libraries is a matter of much importance. Every- thing sectarian or professional is excluded. Only that which is popular, and at the same time instruc- tive, is admitted. Ordinarily the librarian serves without pay; and not infrequently, when a local Union provides the books, those who wish to borrow them can take them out free of cost, though some- times a small charge is made for the use of the library. Many ministers who have now passed away have written books for these popular libraries. Among them may be mentioned such men as pastor Al- bert Vitzius, Berne ( Jer. Gotthelf ), who has described village life truthfully and vividly; pastor Rudolph Oeser, of Hesse, (Glaubrecht,) who has done the same for the life of the common peoiile in his native Province; and iDastor Caspari, of Munich, who has described far off events and fcir off countries in a manner so lifelike as to render his writings exceed- ingly attractive. Among those who are still living,
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pastor Frommel, Court preacher at Berlin, and pastor Nietsclimann, of Halle, have the ear of the people to an unusual degree. Of these libraries there are two sorts: those which seek only to attract and instruct the people, and those which are strictly religious in their character. In the formation of libraries for in- struction, the governments of Wiirttemberg and Sax- ony have taken great interest and rendered much aid. The larger the library the more important is it that its custodian should be a man who knows books, and the people among whom he lives and for whose use the library is designed. More than any other person he can determine the kind of reading which those who patronize the library should select. If his influ- ence is greatest in the country, it is by no means small in the city, where these libraries for the people also abound. No little good has been done through Unions formed to furnish newspapers, magazines, and other profitable reading to Prisons and Hospitals, and through special Societies, like that in connection with the Berlin City Mission, which seek to put printed sermons into the hands of those whose duties keep them at work Sunday, or whose inclinations rarely lead them to a house of worship. Nothing is more striking to one who studies the methods which German Christians employ to reach the masses with good literature, than its abundance and cheapness and the ease with which it is everywhere obtained.
CHAPTER XIII.
THE SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE.
The German Church of to-day has not been insen- sible to the needs of the people in the aggregate. Social Congresses are held in which pastors and in- telligent laymen discuss, with the thoroughness for which the country is celebrated, the relation of capi- tal to labor, the condition of the working people in the country and in the city, the moral and spiritual needs of the masses, and the best methods of meeting and combating religious doubt or open infidelity. A powerful Society has been formed, which meets once a year to consider how the aggressions of the Church of Rome can be checked and the traditional rights of Protestantism preserved and strengthened. As new phases of need appear, earnest men band themselves together to study and meet them. While this has been done, the old work of the Inner Mission has not been neglected. At present, increasing attention is given to cities, for this is the era of great towns and of congested populations, although the wants of rural districts are not overlooked. To many, life in a city is a temptation which often ends in moral and spirit- ual disaster. The city seems to be the natural home of those who are indifferent to religion, careless of its ordinances, neglectful of the marriage ceremony, and even of the sacred rites of Christian burial. The influence of the careless and indifferent on one
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210 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
another is hurtful. On those who are not confirmed in moral depravity, it is altogether bad. To meet these evils, and the more open sins which spring from them, is one of the objects of German City Missions.
Although the work of City Missions in Europe, began in Glasgow in 1826, with David Nasmith and his eight assistants, and in London in 1835, where now more than four hundred laborers are constantly employed, the good work was not introduced into Germany till 1848, when Wichern began mission work on a small scale in the city of Hamburg. Eleven years later, or in 1859, he laid the foundations of a similar work in Berlin. Since that time Mis- sions have been formed in most of the larger cities of the German States.
In these Missions three main objects are kept in view, (1) the sanitary condition of the people and their dwelling houses, cleanliness in their food, clothing, and personal habits, the frequency of their removals from place to place; (2) their moral con- dition, their manner of life, their exposure to temp- tation on account of the character of the neighbor- hood in which they live, the crowded condition of the apartments they occupy,- and (8) their relations to the Church, of which perhajDS the majority, through baptism and confirmation, are j)rofessed members. Neither in Glasgow nor in London can anything sectarian be taught in connection with their City Missions; nor can the interests of any par- ticular Church be furthered. Missionaries, chiefly laymen, visit from house to house, present Bible truth, pure and simple, furnish such material aid as
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 211
is within their power, but make no effort whatever to persuade people to connect themselves with any par- ticular denomination of Christians. They are satis- fied if those they visit become Christians. They work, as do City Missionaries in Germany, among different classes of the people, — soldiers, the police, sailors, dockmen, cab drivers, street=car men, and young persons who seem to lack strength to resist the temptations to immoral living which surround them.
In Germany, City Mission work in general is not dependent on the Church. As sects have slight influ- ence, their peculiar beliefs are scarcely considered in the effort to save the people from moral and spiritual ruin; nor is it for a moment supposed that they are permanently saved until they have become Christians. There are no attempts to allure them by games or to entrap them by the promise of temporal good; the effort is made at once and continually to bring them back into the Church, to persuade them to attend its services, prize its ordinances, and accept its blessings. The temporal gifts the missionaries bring, they bring as Christians, and present them in a Christian spirit, in the hope of winning those who receive them to the Master whom they serve.
The Missions in Hamburg, Berlin, Bremen, Bres- lau, Dresden, Stuttgart, Frankfurt on the Main, Magdeburg, Carlsruhe, Munich, and many other places are under the control of a pastor who is thor- oughly interested in the work he has in charge, and who has sjpecial gifts for carrying it on. In Berlin, Dr. Stoecker, the eloquent Court preacher, member of parliament, author, editor and lecturer, is Superin-
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tendent of the mission. Every Sunday, services, which are thronged, are held in the building which is known as the Johannesstift, the center from which all the work of the Mission proceeds. Dr. Stoecker^s sermons, with other Christian literature, are circulated throughout the city and the German=speaking world, chiefly by the aid of money given for the purpose.
A Central House like the one in Berlin around which everything connected with mission work may gather, a place where those in need can come for temporal aid, or friendly advice, is indispensable. Often the City Mission is simply the Inner Mission for the city in which it is located. It undertakes to do for the people within the limits of the city all that the larger body does for the people throughout the Empire. A bureau of statistics is at the service of those who care to consult it. Hither those come who are hungry, out of work, discouraged, or in trouble of any sort. Those connected with the Mission seek to bestow their charities wisely, to discover and rebuke professional beggars, to promote industry and frugal- ity, to create feelings of hope and courage in all whom they aid. Without a House, or rooms in which the superintendent and some of his assistants may live, an assembly hall, and rooms in which commit- tees and friendly societies may meet, successful mis- sion work is welhnigh impossible. Such a House becomes at once the center of a far-reaching, ever= widening Christian activity. Through its influence those who furnish money for its erection and support, and those who occupy it, seek to meet and supply the varied needs of those who are to be saved for the kingdom of God.
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Only those engage in this mission service who feel themselves true children of God, and have a real passion for sonls: devout laymen, who have been trained as deacons, or deaconesses, or voluntary laborers whose hearts have been filled with divine grace. By such the sick are visited, those who are burdened with poverty are made glad, and those who are struggling against temptation are encouraged to persevere till they gain the victory. Bibles and tracts are sold at a nominal price, or are given away. Persons living together illegally are persuaded to be married according to law, to have their children bap- tised, once more to attend church, or at least the ser- vice at the Mission. Released prisoners, fallen but repentant women, servant girls exposed to tempta- tions from unscrupulous men, are not forgotten. The care of the sick is chiefly in the hands of the deacon- esses, while the "brethren" visit the needy and dis- tressed. Bibles are distributed and every effort which can be put forth is made to introduce good reading into homes that lack profitable and helpful books. But not till the persons visited are brought into connection with some local Church, and thus come under the personal care of the minister of that Church, is the missionary's work looked upon as completed.
Each Church to a greater or less extent, carries on missionary work among its own people. Yet in par- ishes which number from 80,000 to 100,000 persons it is welhnigh impossible, even where three or four pastors are grouped together, and trained assistants are employed, to do satisfactory pastoral work, though every year shows an improvement in this direction.
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As new Churches are built, parishes are made smaller, and the number of assistants is increased to meet the demands of the rapidly growinp: city populations. In doing this, the aid of the City Mission, and especially that of deaconesses, the crown and glory of whose work is service in the Church, has been of inestimable value. It need hardly be said that the deaconesses employed in this service must enjoy the confidence and recognition of the pastor and authorities of the Church with which they are connected, whose sick they visit, whose needy children they instruct, whose wandering ones they seek to bring back to the fold, and whose Christian spirit they everywhere represent. Very helpful service is rendered the poor through Unions. These often have their own agents, where possible, deaconesses, or persons trained to visit and give aid to those who require assistance. To the Unions which sustain them these laborers are respon- sible. Sometimes Unions of women gather funds from the entire country, and distribute them through those whom they employ. Sometimes a deaconess collects money herself for cases of pressing need; sometimes she brings the poor and rich together; at other times she receives or secures for a needy family unsaleable pieces of meat from butchers, hard bread from bakers, and shop-worn articles of clothing from storekeepers. Now and then she takes the place of a sick mother in the care of the house, or she acts as nurse for a sick child, or a sick husband. On occa- sion, too, she looks after the sanitary conditions of the home, or teaches a daughter, or a poorly instructed wife, how to care for the family. She also interests neighbors in a family which may stand in need of
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 215
attention for a considerable time. Again she brings together little children and forms them into a school, or secures some one to look after the babes while the mothers are away at work. Both in her own life and by her words she seeks to teach lessons of unselfish- ness and Christian charity. In all this varied and Christlike work, she needs, as she manifests, rare gifts of organization, the pov/er to make a little accomplish a great deal, skill in awakening latent forces, and in directing them when awakened. What the poor often lack is not money, but the ability to earn money, and wisdom in its use, when earned. The Christian visitor shows her troubled and per- l^lexed friends how to get rid of poverty, how to eecure and i3reserve health, how to overcome vicious habits, how to fill the home with the sweetness and light of a Christian life. She is ever wisely on her guard lest she should make promises which she may not be able to fulfil, lest she should assume burdens in the way of responsibility for rent, which she will find it hard to bear, lest she should spend too much time in collecting for the needy, lest she should look upon a particular section of a city as her special field of labor, and thus become jealous of others, who may also be anxious to aid in its cultivation. She is careful not to become the foster mother of too many children at their baptism, and thus bring herself into a false position in relation to them.
The care of the poor is at the best a difficult task. The causes of poverty, moral as well as material, require careful study. They can be removed only through personal ministrations. This the early Church well understood, and for three centuries at least freely
2i6 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
rendered them. The State, as we have already seen, began to give its aid in support of the poor in days immediately following the reign of Constantine. The Church did very much for the poor in the Middle Ages, yet chiefly through the income of special funds provided for the purpose, and by an administration of charity which increased its claimants. Beggars looked upon begging as a profession, through which they were ministering to the Christian growth of those whom they asked for aid. Men gave, if they gave at all, for their own sake, rather than to alleviate suffering or to honor God. In the sixteenth century the Church went back to the personal methods of the pre^Constantine period. At present, for many classes of sufferers, the State assumes the entire expense, and looks to the Church only to supply that personal sym- pathy which belongs to her very atmosphere. As the results of criticism, which a great army of Christian helpers have made, the methods of the State have been improved, and are becoming better every year. Now, she seeks to avoid the danger of increasing the numbers of the class she is compelled to aid. Since 1852, the Chalmers method, with modifications, and known as the Elberfeld method, has met with wide approval.
In this work of caring for the poor, there are four factors; the State, the Church, special Societies, and Individuals. Aid given on one's personal responsi- bility, experience has proved to be the worst possible. It is given without accurate knowledge of the need, oftentimes simply to rid one's self of the beggar. In contrast with the thoughtless aid from the individual is the legal aid from the State. This is given through forms of law, under certain fixed conditions, and is
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 217
received, not as something for which to cherish grate- ful feelings, but as a right created by the conditions in which the recipient is placed. Societies, through those whom they employ, strive to meet the demands of certain classes for which they obtain funds in answer to special appeals. The charity they dispense is neither small nor unimportant. The Church, where she is worthy her name, seeks through her member- ship to supply the lack which other agencies fail to meet. Often it is enough that she gives personal attendance, always in a Christian spirit, to the sick, or that fhe encourages, with hopeful and instructive words, the dependent and disheartened. It is this kind of work that the Church seeks to do, in cities by means of the City Mission, in the country at large by means of the Inner Mission.
Since 1870 the German States have sought to pro- tect themselves against impostors, by law, and by defining the residence of those applying for assist- ance. The purpose of these precautions is to throw the expense of providing for the support of those who are actually needy on the place from which they come or in which they really reside.
Care for the sick and wounded in time of war, or sufferers from pestilence, has now assumed vast pro- portions.
Humanitarian efforts in these directions are con- fined almost entirely to the present century. History reports as terrible the sufferings of those who were left helpless on the battle field of Leipzig, in 1813. The horrors of the Crimean War, in 1854, made an irresistible ajipeal to women like Florence Night- ingale, and those who furnished her with means to
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alleviate the sufferings of the English soldiers and their allies. But the real birth of the new benevolence toward sufferers from war, by common consent seems to have taken place during the Italian Cam- paigns of 1859. A great step forward was taken at Geneva, Aug. 7, 18G4, when the convention there in session decided that the wounded and the sick, in the dwellings they occupy, should be treated as neutrals, and that physicians and attendants should be deemed non combatants. From this decision came the Ked Cross movement, with its beneficent results. In the Schleswig=Holstein war, deacons from Duisberg, deaconesses from Kaiserswerth and other places, Sisters of Compassion, Brothers from the Eough House, and members of the Order of St. John, rendered never'tO'be=forgotten service. In 1863, a Union of those who were willing to hold themselves ready for service like this in time of war was formed at Wtirttemberg, and another the follow- ing year, in Prussia. The Central Committee of this Prussian Union resides in Berlin. On this Commit- tee, and representing the government, is a person of high military rank, who is appointed by the Emperor. The war of 1866 made it still more evident than be- fore, that a closer union between those from civil life v.'ho are v/illing to care for the sick and wounded in time of war and the military authorities must be sought. This was partially brought about in the war of 1870-71. Since that time efforts have been made to train for field service all who are willing to render it, and to secure the closest possible union between these volunteer helpers and the military authorities. At present it is understood that all these helpers, no
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 219
matter from what quarter they come, shall be under military control, and as completely so as if they were enlisted soldiers. They are free to enter, or remain out of, the service. Having entered it, they are free neither to leave it till the stress is over, nor to under- take any service save that assigned to them by the proper military officers. From this arrangement, much is expected. Members of several Societies are prei3aring themselves for this service, and in some in- stitutions, like that at Kaiserswerth, special training for it is required. There are not a few Roman Cath- olic Unions whose members have declared themselves ready for this service, whenever needed. The good that training will do was abundantly shown in the cholera days, at Hamburg, in 1893. Terrible as were the distress and fatality, both would have been far worse but for the presence of deaconesses, sisters of mercy, and others, men and women, who, at the risk of their own lives, did not hesitate to render the care which those who were stricken, so greatly needed.
In selcctmg persons to train for' service to be ren- dered in pestilence and war, care must be exercised to obtain those whose temx^erament and abilities fit them for it. Equal care must be taken in imparting instruction. Provision also must be made for em- ployment in time of peace, else the outbreak of war would find even trained volunteers unequal to an emergency. As far as possible, these diflaculties have been met, till now it is believed that no country has a better or larger corps of trained workers ready to do duty on a field of battle, or be sent to an hospital filled with the victims of an epidemic, than Germany. Nearly all these volunteers are professed Christians,
220 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
and will render the service required of them in a spirit of love for their Master, in the hope of leading those to whom they minister into His Kingdom.
The questions of Sunday rest, of the relation of schools to the Church, of dwellings, and of economy, or of savings banks, call for brief discussion.
Two different classes of people seek, for precisely opposite reasons, the preservation of Sunday : one class wishes a day of worship and spiritual improvement, the other a day of release from labor and bodily rest. The class to which Social Democrats belong holds many of its meetings on Sunday, and employs it in visiting, or in whatever way ministers most to the pleasure of its individual members. Christian people, and those who are conservative in their polit- ical ideas, believe in a Sunday which shfiU be devoted to worshi]3, at least in the morning, a day on which servile work shall cease, but on which friends may visit each other and meet in social gatherings. There are still others who have no care whatever for the day, who, as far as may be, continue their ordi- nary occux3ations, or devote the day entirely to pleas- ure. Nowhere is it kept with the strictness and reverence visible in Scotland, or even in the United States. Formerly most of the smaller stores were open on Sunday. A recent Prussian law requires them to be closed during the hours of morning serv- ice, but allows them to remain open a portion of the afternoon. Many think the law has had a good in- fluence. In some sections of the country, certain hours are set apart for the instruction of apprentices, and other young men whose education is deficient, and who have no time for study on week days. Many
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 221
earnest Christiaus, in Germany, are putting forth strenuous efforts to secure very stringent laws provid- ing for Sunday rest. They are striving also to secure its proper religious observance. Their wish is that no business shall be transacted on the Lord's Day, that food shall be simple, that even friendly Unions shall hold no meetings on this day, and that attend- ance at Church shall be regular. There has been a great unwillingness to give up Sunday gains. Offi- cials have hesitated to favor a law which might seem to infringe upon personal liberty. Yet, on the whole, it is thought that the day is better observed, and is devoted to better uses, than it was a score of years since,
A serious question, and one which has been very earnestly and even passionately discussed, is the re- lation oftJie scJiool to the Church. Shall the school be dependent upon the Church, or in such relations with it as practically to give pastors authority over its teachers? This is really the question at issue. Naturally, teachers as a class favor independence of ecclesiastical control, even if that control be wisely and rarely exercised. Schools supported by Church funds, or provided through tuition paid by members of a parish, are of course subject to the authority of those who sustain it. Of these schools, Protestant and Catholic, the number is large. But there are other schools, which are maintained by the State and by such tuition as the State chooses to charge. Over these schools, it is not desirable, most teachers think, that pastors, or priests, should have control. Proba- bly few, even of those who really attend Church, would be willing to have the Bible excluded from the
222 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
school as a text=book, or to have regular religious in- struction given up. None save Social Democrats, and a small number of agnostics or atheists belonging to the cultured classes, want Godless schools, or the secular schools of Holland, or of the United States. There is, however, a feeling, which is wide^spread, that if pastors give instruction in the doctrines of the Church, they should do it with the consent and at the request of the teachers, and not as a right which the teacher is powerless to withhold. The excited feeling which was aroused a fev/ years ago over the school question has by no means wholly subsided. There are a good many Unions which exist for no other pur- pose than to keep religion in the school, not for- mally, but in reality. Since 1883, the influence of the Evangelical School Congress has been great and de- cided. The extraordinary influence of the profound- ly Christian instruction imparted in the Gymnasium of Gtitersloh, the character and eminence of the men it has sent into the world since its foundation in 1851, render it an object lesson to which the advo- cates of the Christian school point with great satis- faction. There is no doubt that many pastors have shown a love of jDower in the control of schools which cannot be too sternly rebuked. On the other hand, it would be extremely unfortunate were the present bitter feeling between many teachers and pastors to continue.
The question of snitahle dweUlngs for the poor, and even for ordinary workmen, is one of no slight importance. It is a sanitary question which neither the State nor society can venture to disregard. To questions concerning the character of the dwelling,
SOCIAL NEEDS OF THE PEOPLE 223
the presence of more than one family in a single room, and the immorality which such a condition fos- ters, members of the Inner Mission long since called attention. Building Societies have not been as popu- lar or as successful in Germany as in England. Since 1853, the suburb for working peox)le in Miilhausen, Alsace, where homes are secured through the aid of kindly disposed individuals, has given rise to favorable comment. Several homes for workmen have been se- cured at Bielefeld, through Pastor von Bodel- schwingh's Workingmen's Home Union. Those who ha^'e given most thought to the subject favor one of two things: a single house where possible, contain- ing not less than 3,000 cubic feet of space for a fami- ly; if this is not possible, then houses in what may be termed "a colony," in which four families shall live under the same roof, two on the lower, and two on the upper floors. Here the homes are placed so near each other as to render co-operation, in matters of mutual concern, natural and easy. In a suburb laid out in this way certain laws are necessary, to which all who enjoy its advantages must give willing obedi- ence. But the great end sought is to arouse in the workingman a desire to own a home of his own, to show him how he may do this, and, through Building and other Societies, to help him to put the idea into practice. Hence the importance of savings banks, in which very small sums may be deposited, and which are retained, till by constant additions and the inter- est, they become quite large. These banks are not so common in Germany as in England, yet arrange- ments through the post-office, encourage the frugal- minded to put their savings where they will draw in-
224 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
terest and be perfectly secure. Christian people favor these banks, partly because of the value of econ- omy to those who j)ractice it, partly because those M'ho have something saved are better citizens, and partly because Social Democrats are opposed to this method, of saving, saying, as they constantly do, "a working- man cannot save." When a workingman becomes a capitalist, however small, he ceases to be a Social Demo- crat. He has no desire to overturn existing institu- tions, or to destroy the government of his country.
CHAPTER XIV.
THE SPECIAL FORCES BY WHICH THE WORK OF THE INNER MISSION IS CARRIED ON.
DEACONESSES AND BEOTHEKS.
Having thus traced the work which Christian peo- ple in the German National Churches are trying to do for those who nominally belong to these Churches but are suffering morally or physically, either from causes for which they are not personally responsible, or as the result of their own wrong doing, it remains to consider the trained forces M'hich have been put un- der requisition to take the lead in this work of relief and restoration.
Of transcendent importance is the Deaconess' Movement in Germany, to which we would direct attention as well as to the efforts which have been made, and with considerable success, to revive the or- der of deacons in the Church, although those who have joined this order have not as yet been placed un- der ecclesiastical authority.
If the first quarter of the century and the earlier years of the second quarter, are memorable for the in- terest awakened in Foreign Missionary work, the latter is no less memorable for revived interest in Christian work at home. No feature of this movement, which has for its object the saving and developing of mater- ial which, through the sacrament of baptism and the
225
226 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
rite of conJSrmation, has been professedly brought in- to the Church, is of greater significance than that which resulted in reviving the ancient order of dea- conesses. Here the name of Theodore Fliedner (1800-1864), early in the twenties made pastor of the X^arish of Kaiserswerth, on the Rhine, is prominent. Although he was by no means the first even in Ger- many to consider the wisdom of restoring to woman the place she had occupied in the early Church as dea- coness, he was obviously the divinely chosen agent for its accomplishment.
A few words may here not be out of place as to the personal history of this remarkable man. The son of a poor pastor at Eppstein, a member of a large family, he spent his boyhood and youth under the pressure of scant means. The early death of his father made it very difficult for him to obtain an education. Through sheer necessity he learned how to live on very little; great self-denial carried him through the Gymnasium. Almost entirely supporting himself, he took his University course at Giessen, and at Got- tingen. The rationalism of the Universities was not to his mind, nor did he ever weaken in his faith in the miracles and resurrection of Christ, After a brief joeriod spent as a teacher in private families he was appointed to the charge of the little Protestant parish in the Roman Catholic town of Kaiserswerth. The failure of a trusted business house in 1822 brought the parish to the verge of bankruptcy. To the au- thorities of the Church it seem.ed hardly worth while to continue work in it. Two other parishes, either of them more desirable than that in Kaiserswerth, were offered Fliedner, but he refused them, saying that he
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 227
would not be a hireling, but would remain with his people in their sufPerings. For their sake he travelled through portions of Germany, Holland, Brabant, and England, to obtain funds for the support of his parish. Succesful in this, he found, as his biogra- phers affirm, something far better than money: he found faith. Not altogether wanting in this at first, he returned to Kaiserswerth a very different man from what he was when he left it. His journeys were useful to him in many ways. His visits to prisons, in England especially, opened his eyes to the sufPerings of those under confinement in Germany. Through his personal influence, in 1826, the Prison Society of the Rhine Provinces and Westphalia was organized. This was the first Society of the kind on the Conti- nent. For years he regularly visited the prison at Dtisseldorf every fourteen days. Here he met the woman, Friedereke Mtinster, who as his first wife was destined to take a prominent and determinative part in his life^^work. Having perceived that bodily care, coupled with spiritual instruction, was greatly needed in the Prisons and Hospitals of his native land, Flied- ner gradually came to see that in some way the Scriptural order of deaconesses must be revived. As an unknown man, the pastor of an insignificant parish, he felt that he himself could not take the lead in the movement to bring about this greatly desired result. Hence his earnest effort to persuade some of his more distinguished brethren to go forward in the matter. None would respond to his appeals. On the contrary, all declared, with practical unanimity, that as he (Fliedner) had evidently been called of God to the work, he ought to assume its responsibility and ^
228 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
trust God to send him both the sick and the money to care for them.
On September 13, 1883, there came to the house of the Kaiserswerth pastor, who had meanwhile acquired a reputation for unusual kindness of heart, a woman, named Minna, begging for protection and assistance. She had just been freed from prison, and every repu- table home, she found, was closed against her. In the garden attached to the parsonage there was an unoccupied house, about twelve feet square, which Fliedner and his wife opened to her as a temporary place of refuge. A second penitent girl soon followed the first. The sleeping^room was in the attic of the little building, and was reached through a window by ft ladder, which a servant brought at bed time, and removed as soon as the young women mounted to their place of rest. This was the beginning of the work in which Fliedner and his wife had been so anxious to interest men of influence and wealth. Failing in this, these two Christian people deter- mined to bear the burden alone and rely upon God to help them. In three years the number of applicants had so increased that a building si3ecially adapted to their wants became indispensable. So on April 20th, 1836, with little money in sight, but with a firm conviction that it would come, Fliedner purchased a house near his own home, promising that before the end of the year he would pay 2,300 thalers (rather more than $1600) for it. In November the promise was redeemed. Thus the first great step toward the Kaiserswerth establishment was taken. On May 30th, of this memorable year, articles, by which the Verein, or Society of the Provinces of the Rhine and West-
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 229
phnlia was formed, were si^med in the house of Count Anton of Stolberg. On October 13th, the lower story of the house obtained by Fliedner for an Hos- pital was furnished as well as it could be with the poor material which had been sent in for the purpose. A week later, in response to Fliedner's appeal for deaconesses, came Gertrude Reichardt (1788-18G9), of Ruhort. She was a woman of true piety and rare executive ability. As the daughter of a physician, and his frequent assistant, she brought to this field of work the gifts and experience which were urgently needed. In this consecration of her life to purely benevolent work, we have the beginning of that dea- coness' movement which has filled the G erman world with its blessings. By July, 1895, 932 sisters, though laboring in widely=separate fields, called Kaiserswerth their home, w^hile connected with it there are at home and abroad about seventy Mother Houses which have sprung into existence from the impulse given by the work of Fliedner, in which are not far from 9,000 deaconesses, who, with true Christian devotion are now pursuing their helpful calling. They are at work in 780 hospitals, 168 homes for the poor and feeble, 125 orphan houses, 48 nurseries, 20 homes for the reclamation of fallen women, 16 industrial schools, 50 establishments for the training of servant girls, 80 establishments for the weak-minded and epileptic, 2 asylums for the insane, 2 for the blind, 39 Magda- leniums, 9 prisons, 7 boarding houses, or hospices, 451 schools for little children, and as pastors assistants in 1,017 iparishes. Sixty-three of these mother houses were represented at the Kaiserswerth Conference in 1891. These Mother Houses are in a certain sense
230 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
affiliated, and yet are entirely independent of each other in government and procedure. Less than twelve only of kindred establishments were not rei)resented in the Conference. The united income of these various Homes, so far as can be ascertained, is about 9,500,000 marks annually. This represents the earnings of the establishments themselves, as well as the gifts which are made to them.
Deaconesses from Kaisers werth are now at work in 220 places, and in every part of the world. In their Hospitals they care, every year, for more than 60,000 patients, to say nothing of those brought in for temporary treatment. They have rendered splendid service in times of war, even upon the battle=field, and in epidemics such as cholera, typhus, scarlet fever, and measles. In Hospitals under their own care, in those belonging to the State, and in more than 2,500 private homes, they are a blessing and a help and comfort to those whom they serve.
The main object which Fliedner had in mind was not the mere alleviation of bodily distress, the care of prisoners, or persons who, neglected in their own poverty-stricken homes or in Hospitals, were wast- ing away for lack of proj)er attention, but to re- vive and deepen spiritual life. In the Christian women of the Church he saw an unused force which he heard the command of God to employ. He there- fore made the institution at Kaiserswerth, first of all, a i^lace where those who were willing to serve God as deaconesses, should be prepared for their high call- ing by instruction in the principles of their religion, and by the discharge of duties which would strength- en their faith in God. With Fliedner, the religious
TBE FORCES EMPLOYED 231
motive was the prevailing motive, as it has been with his deaconesses. These deaconesses are sent out into world to preach a Gospel of regeneration. Promise of reform is never made except to those who are will- ing to seek a new life through faith in the Lord Jesus, and by a hearty acceptance of His principles.
As Kaiserswerth has borne so prominent a part in the newly=awakened spiritual life of the German people, it will be of interest to trace its growth from the arrival of that discouraged prisoner who, in 1833, found narrow yet sheltering quarters in the little gar- den house of a poor pastor, up to its present pro- portions. Dr. Julius Disselhoff, its Director and his- torian, is the authority whose statements are here followed. These are found in a little book jiublished by him in 1893,
The steiD which really committed the Fliedners to the work of their lives was the purchase (A^Dril 20, 1836) of a house for an HosiDital. Behind them finan- cially was the Rhenish Society, already mentioned, in whose name the property was obtained, and by which it was held. In order to bring the work into close connection with the Church, it was decided at the outset that the Synod of the Evangelical Churches in the provinces of the Rhine and West- phalia should manage it, and be responsible before the world for the property which might accumulate at Kaiserswerth. The Synod names the Committee, of which the president of the Synod is ex officio a member, and whose chairman represents Kaisers- werth in courts of law, and in the Government or matters which concern the Church. The charter de- sired was obtained in 1846. The Committee appoints
282 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMNAY
the Inspector, who is always a minister, and the deaconess, who is looked upon as the female head of the establishment. Each special department, as it has grown up around the original House of Refuge and Hosjntal, has its own chief, although all are re- sponsible to the Inspector and the deaconess associ- ated with him in the control and direction of the institution. Fliedner and his wife were the first to fill these offices of house-parents.
The house-father and mother are set apart for their office with solemn ceremonies by the Committee responsible for the whole work. Although the Com- mittee purchases the property, decides upon repairs and necessary improvements, makes and fills new offices, it cannot, save as its advice is sought, inter- fere in the direct management of the work. In the so-called daughter-houses the establishments which in imitation of Kaiserswerth have here and there sprung up, no other title is given the deaconess en- trusted with the management of each institution than that of sister-in^charge. In Kaiserswerth, every sis- ter is made to feel that she has a home to which in illness or age she can return, either for rest, or to spend the remaining years of life. The spirit in Kaiserswerth, and its related homes, is a family spirit
There is a religious service in every Home, and a daily order of life which is the same in the mother and daughter establishments. The atmosphere in them all is an atmosphere of love shown in devoted service. Candidates for reception into any of these homes must be unmarried, although widows under a certain age, and without children, are not excluded.
TEE FORCES EMPLOYED 2SS
These candidates must be in good health, and possess the moral, intellectual and spiritual gifts which the calling they propose to follow demands. Only those between 18 and 36 years of age are received. Parents or guardians give their consent in writing, while pastors and other influential persons add their commendation. The candidate must come voluntarily, and consent to pass through a period of probation long enough to test her fitness for her proposed life-work. First of all, there is a six weeks' trial, in order that the young woman and her advisers may have opportunity to de- cide, from something like actual experience, if it be worth while for the candidate to enter upon the real probationary period. When the decision is favorable, the candidate is assigned to a deaconess suited by disposition and experience to receive her, and is brought by her into close and intimate relations with fifteen or twenty of the inmates of the house. This is in order that separation from former friends may not at first be too keenly felt. If for any reason the result of the six weeks' trial is unfavorable, the candi- date quietly returns home and nothing more is said. At the beginning of the first year's probation the candidate is put under the care of a sister, who ia known as the teacher of probationers, from whom she learns the duties she is to discharge, and by whom she is introduced to those who are to be her most intimate associates. Any failures in her education are carefully looked after. The first year the sisters' dress is not worn. It is sufficient if during this year the candidate habituates herself to the life of the in- stitution, makes it wholly her own, and is actually at home in it. The close of the year is usually marked
23i CHlitSTIAy^ LIFS 7xV GERMANY
Ijy some little festival of congratulation, v/bicli server, as a stepping=stone to the service of the second year. The novitiate does not always end with a second year; the probationary period may be extended at the pleasure of the authorities of the Home. With the beginning of the second year, the dress of a sis- ter is assumed, and the person wearing it may accom- pany the deaconesses in their work outside the Home, or remain in it, as she may elect. At the end of the novitiate, the candidate is solemnly set apart as a deaconess, and promises to obey the rules of the House, and to be true to God in the service ux)on which she enters. She takes no vow which binds her permanently to the life of a deaconess, although it is understood that only obligations to parents, or the feeling that she ought to marry, will release her from it. She retains the control of her private prop- erty, and is free to dispose of it by will as she pleases. Of 3,091 persons received on trial during the years 1836-1893, 1,389 became deaconesses. From 1836 to 1895, only 185 deaconesses died, a fact suggestive of the care which is taken of their health, and of the efforts made to render their life pleasant and at- tractive.
There are two classes of deaconesses: (1) those who care for the sick, who are usually in Hospitals, and (2) those who teach. To the former class belong those who work in Magdalen Asylums, and in such institutions as the New Charity in Berlin. Ordinarily the sister goes wherever she is directed although no sister leaves Germany, save with her consent. In the care of male patients in Hospitals, she is fur- nished a male assistant for such offices as she cannot
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 235
properly discharge. Her dress is the simple dress of her order. This the Home furnishes, as it furnishes also a little pocket money for necessary expense. For her labor, those who are able, pay a small sum to the Home, but she herself receives nothing. From the poor nothing is asked. Pupils in the schools are charged a small sum for tuition, and those who are trained as teachers or servants, pay enough to meet the expense of their board. The accounts of the dif- ferent Homes are kept separately'', but all are care- fully examined and audited.
At the beginning, the important princii)le was rec- ognized that if the work were of the Lord, it would grow, and that department after department would necessarily be added, as calls for them might come. Up to 1840, two additions had been made to the building first purchased as an Hospital. Subsequently these additions, as well as the building itself, gave XDlace to a building far larger and in every way more convenient. These improvements were completed in 1843, and still another house was added during the year. In 1854, was founded the Feierabendhaus, or Home of those deaconesses who had done their work in life, and were waiting the Master's call to enter into rest.
By the year 1886, when Kaiserswerth celebrated its fiftieth anniversary, there were, in addition to the original house, which had been built over for the accommodation of the deaconesses, and in which they had their sleeping^rooms, dining=halls, chapel, and rooms for administration, together with wards for the sick, several large groups of other buildings, each one of which had been erected in response to a de-
236 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
mand which could not be set aside. On the Frond- berg, an elevation at no inconvenient distance from the house first occupied by Fliedner, are the build- ings containing 210 beds, now used for an Hospital. In the Hospital, children and adults have separate wards, while there are wards also for cases which ought to be isolated. Here is the new Church, which was consecrated November, 1888. Adult patients are received for 75 j)ennies a day (less than 20 cents), children for 50 pennies a day (less than 12 cents). The buildings were not completed till 1889.
Since the work at Kaiserswerth began while Flied- ner was still visiting the prisons at Dusseldorf, where his attention had frequently been directed to the needs of released female convicts and the demand for an Asylum for penitent women, it is not surprising that his work for the rescue of women was, and con- tinued to be prominent. The house obtained for this Asylum, after the garden house had become too small, has been enlarged again and again, till now it furnishes shelter for from twenty to thirty girls daily. The theory entertained from its opening has been that only those can be helped who come to the Asy- lum of their own accord. Those who do come, and are willing to stay, are taught useful work. When necessary, as it generally is, they receive instruction in the rudiments of learning. They are encouraged in every way possible, and after a suitable time spent with the sisters, are aided in finding a permanent home with sympathetic people. Not less than one== third of those received have been restored to an up- right life, another third has been greatly aided, while
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 237
the remaining third has unhappily gone back to a life of sin.
A very important part of Fliedner's work was the opening of a Seminary, or Normal School, for the training of young women as teachers in the Public and the Girl's Schools of Germany. In this signifi- cant departure from the prevailing custom of employ- ing male teachers chiefly, Fliedner led the way. As early as 1833, he had opened a knitting school for little children, and to it in the next year, children of all religious beliefs were made welcome. Then came a school of all grades for girls, and finally a Seminary, in which teachers for these schools could be trained. Very soon this Normal School acquired a reputation as one of the best in the region, and its graduates were in great demand. Nor has this de- mand for the Fliedner pupils ever ceased, for the pu- pils have been taught those things which promise to be of most use in life. They have been educated, as Germans often say, for their calling in life. In re- ceiving pupils into the Higher School for Girls, daughters of teachers, ministers, and of the educated of the middle class are favored. A certain number of orphans are received free; others are admitted at half price. The monthly pay, including board, is for the elementary schools 36 marks ($9), and for those of a higher grade, 45 marks ($11.25).
Out of the experiences which came to Fliedner in these schools grew the conviction that an Orphan House must be added to the establishment. In this provision was made for the needy daughters of par- ents who had once been in good circumstances,
238 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
daughters of teachers, ministers, and men employed in the service of the State. Fully a quarter of the forty children received, are educated gratuitously. The new Home now stands on the Himmelreich, not far from the buildings on the Frondberg.
Early in his work, the sympathy of Fliedner went out to inscme women, who up to this time had been greatly neglected. His desire was to secure a Home for them where they might be properly cared for, and be under the Christian influence of the deaconesses. In this effort Frederick William IV. of Prussia took a deep interest and with his private funds aided it generously in realizing its object. The Asylum, for such it really was, was opened in 1852. At first it could accomodate only from 35 to 40, but thirty years later an enlarged building was put up on the Johan- nesberg, where it is surrounded with beautiful grounds. In the same parkdike region is a building for convalescents, and another for those whose ail- ments seem to defy treatment. On what is known as the Paul Gerhardt Foundation, there has been erect- ed a building in which aged and feeble women who have been left alone in life find a home. This de- partment of Fliedner's work has not been placed on a wholly charitable basis. While intended chiefly for those somewhat advanced in years, a few young wom- en are received. Those who wish two rooms pay 1,500 marks annually, those who are content with one, 1,000 marks, while to those who are willing to share their room with another, 600 marks are charged. Some sleep in a dormitory and pay only 300 marks a year. For these sums everything, save washing and cloth- ing, is provided.
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 239
To meet a growing demand for tlio education of young women who are looking toward the life of a deaconess, but are too young to enter upon the noviti- ate, a preparatory school was opened in 1865. The number admitted at any one time is limited to twenty. Here those who have been compelled to live in places at once unpleasant and unfavorable to spiritual devel- opment are received. The school has more than met the anticipations of its founders, and as far as possi- ble its atmosphere has been that of a loving father's house.
In addition to the buildings thus briefly mentioned, there are administration buildings, and houses in which some of the officials of this great establishment reside. All cluster around the original Hospital opened by Fliedner in 1836. In their gradual in- crease and improvement we can see what God can ac- complish in a single generation through one man's energy and consecration. Fliedner never looked up- on his work as anything more than an objectdesson for piety and benevolence to observe and study. Through his provision for the sick, the helpless, the homeless, for orphans, for the infirm, the aged, the insane, and the incurable; in his schools, for the educa- tion of little children, young ladies, and teachers, and for the life of a deaconess, he simply indicated what might be done in other places, and by other pastors, to save material which would otherwise be lost, or be in- efficient in the service which many Christians desire to render. In this work he felt that he could do nothing except with the aid of deaconesses. Hence his contin- ual devotion to that feature of his work, and the care he took to keep it in the foreground.
240 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Kaisers werth was fortunate both in its founder and in the woman who, as Fliedner's wife, became its first spiritual mother. This good lady died suddenly in 1842, but her place was taken a year later by Caroline Bertheau, who had had large experience in the hos- pitals of Hamburg. She was a woman of great abili- ty, thorough consecration, and was loved and honored by all who were brought under her influence. She survived her husband, who died October 8, 1864, till 1892, and thus was able to continue his influence down to a very recent period.
A glance at the work in periods will indicate its increasing hold on the public. At the end of the first ten years, deaconesses were employed in fifteen Hospitals and five other places. Out of 108 in all, thirty were still in their novitiate. Ten years later, there were 244 sisters, and 75 on trial, serving the needy in 59 difiFerent localities. At the death of Fliedner, 415 were ministering to the wants of their fellow creatures in 110 different places. At the time of the Jubilee, 1886, 715, with 176 still on trial, were laboring in 200 Hospitals, Asylums, private homes, and schools. In 1893, 867 sisters, 206 with their novitiate incomplete, were at work in 233 varied charges.
From the opening of Fliedner's house to the first deaconess, till nov/, nearly seveniy mother-Jwiises have come into existence, sex3arated from each other as widely as Syria and America. Connected with them, as has been said, is an army of hardly less than 9,000, whose energy is exerted in a truly Christian spirit, and with almost matchless wisdom, in the care of the sick, the recovery of the lost, and the educa-
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 2il
tion of the ignorant. The special providence of God has been shown, not less in the character and wisdom of the persons who have had charge of the different departments of this varied work, than in the devotion and gifts of those who have taken upon themselves the vows and responsibilities of the order. Equally remarkably has this providence been exemplified in the friends raised up for the work at Kaiserswerth, and in other sections of Grermany, as well as in for- eign lands. Nearly everywhere in Germany have Societies been formed for the support of these Dea- coness Homes, and for their enlargement as their work has demanded. This fact is not only indicative of the interest which the Christian public has mani- fested in the deaconesses as such, but is prophetic of the increasingly large place which women are to fill in the development of the power of the German Church in the future.
At an early period in the history of the work, it became evident that for the deaconesses, as well as for the inmates of the different homes which were clustering around Fliedner's at Kaiserswerth, a health resort in the mountains was necessary. For many, a complete change of air, scenery and mode of life, seemed to be indispensable. In answer to prayer, accompanied always with the use of means, a suitable place was found at Salem, near Batengen. Here are rooms for twenty sisters. On the same X)iece of ground, but so far removed from the rest- ing-place of the deaconesses as not to disturb them, buildings have been put up in which orphans, con- valescents, and servants from Kaiserswerth, en- joy their annual outing.
242 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Wallbaum House, near Hattingen on the Ruhr, is also used as a health resort. Under the terms of the will by which, in 1874, this property came into the possession of the Kaiserswerth establishment, there was to be built upon it an asylum for convalescent children. These are bo cared for as in no way to in- terfere with the comfort of the deaconesses. Provis- ion is here made for about a hundred children, and thirty deaconesses.
Mere hints must suffice as to what these Kaisers- werth sisters have wrought in the " daughter estab- lishments " found here and there throughout the country. In 1849, in response to earnest and re- peated solicitations, Fliedner opened a home for orphan girls at Altdorf, near Pless, in Upper Schlesia. In consequence of the fatalities connected with the prevalence of the typhus fever in 1847-8, and the lack of food, Count and Countess von Stolberg brought together on their estate about 120 children in the upper story of a building which had been de- signed for a stable. Subsequently, the Prince of Pless had the first story of the building also arranged for their comfort. The whole house, with a good sized barn, and the proper out= buildings, in August 1849 was turned over to the Committee which had Kaiserswerth in charge. At first, thirty four half- starved children were received as permanent inmates of the new asylum. So dulled by disease and want of proper food were they that for months it vras al- most impossible to awaken in their minds interest in anything. After the cholera season of 1852, the number rapidly increased to eighty. Soon after the war of 1866, the number increased to one hundred.
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 2i3
The average in the Asylum is now about eighty, the children being nearly all from very poor families. Four deaconesses look after the children's health, and two give them instruction. From the more than 500 girls who have hero been taught, fed and clothed, some have become excellent servants, others have married, while a considerable number have become deaconesses.
A school for the education and training of girls from the middle and higher classes, was founded at Hilden, near Dtisseldorf, May 15, 1861, and has more than justified the anticipations of its patrons. When Fliedner opened this school, in a rented house with a small garden attached, he was not sure that there was a demand for the sort of school he had in mind. But the school grew rapidly, and in October, 18G5, the commodious and convenient buildings now occupied were dedicated amid the liveliest manifes- tations of pleasure on the part of the people of the city and the friends of Kaiserswerth. More than sixty girls board in the institution, at a cost of 750 marks each a year. Half as many day scholars also enjoy its advantages. To meet the spiritual wants of the pupils, a chaplain devotes his time to them, and on Sunday conducts divine service in a room set apart for the purpose. To supplement the instruc- tion given by eight deaconesses, two male and two female teachers are employed. The number of young women educated here, who come from all over the continent, as well as from Great Britain, is already more than 1,500. A close union between the graduates of the school and its teachers has been kept up from the first,
2U CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
A very different work from this was begun at Marthashof, in North Berlin, in 1851 — namely a home for servant girls of Evangelical faith. The purpose was to provide a home at a small cost, about five cents a day, and a training school for such as needed special instruction before going out to serv- ice. The charge for training was fixed at ten cents a day. For the sake of those who wished to fit them- selves to take care of little children, a school was opened for the needy little ones of the neighborhood. This school has continued till now, with an attend- ance of about 200. In the free, or public school, opened soon after, and still maintained, there are about 600 pupils. Provision was made for twelve girls and three deaconesses. At first there w^as a great deal of opposition to the undertaking: it was even ridiculed in the best circles, some saying that servant girls would never avail themselves of its priv- ileges, that even if they were inclined to do so, it was so far from the city that they would not go out to it. But they did, and in two years the number of rooms in use had been doubled. In 1868, the entire court, occupied by the training house, the home, and the schools, together with the houses and gardens belong- ing to it, was purchased. In the latter year there were on an average 98 girls in the home. At present, the number is not less than 140, for whose care and instruction the services of thirteen deaconesses are required. It will thus be seen that the home has become popular, both with servants and their em- jjloyers. Since its opening not less than 20,000, or about 1,000 a year, have here found a temporary abid- ing place. From as many as 3,000 families in a sin-
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 245
gle year have requests come for servants. The girls have been permitted to do a large part of the work of the establishment, and in this way have lessened the cost of their stay in it. To it, when ill or out of work, they are always welcomed back. Simply on the side of protection, the Mission has been of ines- timable value.
A similar work, though on a smaller scale, is car- ried on in the Mariannenstift, at Erefeld. Two sis- ters began work here in 1884, in buildings provided by a benevolent lady. These in time proved far too small, and in 1888, the home was enlarged and re^ dedicated. Forty-five girls are now cared for in the training school. For ten of the inmates, while seek- ing a place for service there are temporary lodgings provided. A pressing want has also been met in a boarding house for young women. This has proved both a protection to those enjoying its shelter as well as a source of profit to those managing it. During the year 1892, 106 girls were received under its roof. In the day school for little children, there are about 80 puj)ils, while the Sunday school is attended by 170 pupils of both sexes. Five deacon- esses find here all that they can do.
An asylum for erring ivomev, at Brandenberg, which has been in existence since October 1856, was, in August, 1865, turned over to Kaiserswerth, and three deaconesses were detailed for its management. A fourth deaconess was soon added. From twenty to thirty women immediately came to the shelter of this friendly home each day, and many were per- suaded and helped to return to an honorable life. The average number in the now enlarfjed and im-
246 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
l^roved home is more than thirty. Funds for the support of the institution have been provided by a Society, whose members either themselves contribute the sum necessary, or obtain it from their friends.
No statement of Fliedner's service to mankind would be complete which should overlook his influ- ence outside of Germany. As early as 1847, Bishop Gobat was anxious for a Kaiserswerth Hospital in Jerusalem, but not till 1850-51 were funds provided for its sux)port. During the latter winter, Fliedner visited the Holy City, taking with him four deacon- esses, to whom the oversight of the Hospital was assigned. The house which Frederick William IV. had set ax)art for the purpose was too small, and in other ways unfit for it. A dwelling house was finally obtained on Mount Zion, and was dedicated May 4, 1851. The Hospital was open to persons of all na- tionalities and beliefs. The confidence of the people, soon won, has never been lost. In 1855, a school for little girls was opened on the flat roof of the building in which the sisters had their home. Throe years later, over thirty girls Avere in attendance as regular pupils. Meanwhile better and larger build- ings had been secured for the Hospital. In Febru- ary, 1868, " Talitha Cumi," a home for girls on the JafPa road, outside the walls of the city, was dedica- ted and occupied, and the buildings within the city used for the sick. This year there were eighty=nine girls in the school, while the Hospital was full to overflowing. In 1867, a special physician was ob- tained for the Hospital, and from four to five deacon- esses were constantly employed in it. Eight deacon- esses now look after the 113 Arab girls in the school.
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Many native girls have been trained for general benevolent work in the country, and to be useful heads of their own homes. Never were Hospital and school more useful than they are to-day, but the funds needed for their support are still inadequate.
As far back as 1853, two deaconesses opened a school in a rented house in Smyrna, where neither language nor custom, nor even climate, was under- stood. By the end of the year, the number of girls receiving instruction had increased from 14 to 50. A year later, through the favor of a person of very high standing, these sisters were occupying their own home. Here they were able to receive a few scholars as boarders, in addition to their day pupils, and to extend the curriculum of study and thus bo- gin a training-school for young women. New build- ings in consequence became necessary. In 1859, 150 girls were under instruction. The building in which the sisters taught, had been built especially for them and was admirably adapted to their needs. Then a fire came, and everything had to be begun anew. With great labor, and at a large expense the new buildings were ready for occupation by the end of 1861, and the work again went prosperously forward. Reviewing what had been done in 1882, it was found that fully 2000 girls had been educated in these schools.
The sufferings caused by the cholera, in 1865, made the need of an orphan house apparent. The next year a place was ready for twenty = four orphans. In 1872, a second house was obtained, and used for a school till 1876, when, yielding to pressing necessi- ties, rooms were this year opened for the blind and those troubled with diseases of the eye.
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In 1890, after the Armenians and the Greeks of Smyrna had provided for the instruction of their chil- dren in their own language, and the deaconesses could look upon their mission as teachers as successfully accomplished, it was decided to make the school they had hitherto kept, a school for German girls alone, and in addition to instruction in other branches, to give them careful instruction in English, French, and Greek. For German families residing in the Levant, this school has become a great blessing. The health resort for Smyrna is at Karatasch, on the sea.
A Deaconess' Hospital was opened in Alexandria, Egypt, in 1858. It was opened at the earnest re- quest of the Europeans living in the city. Here, as at many other i^laces, Fliedner found that more money was needed than he had anticipated. Thanks to the generosity of those who saw the need of the Hospital, funds were at length obtained, so that ten years later a comfortable building had been secured, and furnished with all the needful appliances of a first= class Hospital. On an average, from sixty to seventy patients in the v/ards require the services of eleven deaconesses. As many as 50,000 persons a year have here been treated for affections of the eye. In 1880, a school for little children was opened and taught by a deaconess till relieved by a woman who had herself been educated in one of the seminaries which the missionaries had supported.
So, in consequence, in part, of the excitement in Europe, occasioned by the massacre in Syria of 1860, an orphan house was this year opened in Beirut, and early in October of that year two deaconesses were
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on tlie ground. By the end of the month, four others had reported for duty, and at the end of the year ten were employed in a house whic;h meanwhile had been rented and was unexpectedly filled with widows and orphans. A second house was secured in order that the children might be separated from the women and be unhindered in their studies. The house had two large gardens, and was near the sea. By Christmas, 1860, 130 orphans were present in the Home to receive presents, and to learn the meaning of the festival they were taught to keep. As it was neither possible nor desirable to send these Arab girls back to the villages from which they had fled, and as the mothers of many of them could never be found, it was decided that an attempt should be made to secure a Home for them on the slopes of Lebanon. In March, 1862, their Home was ready for occupation; it was named Zoar, in commemoration of the deliverance which had come to its inmates. Here, for more than thirty years, eight sisters have given instruction in the German and Arabic lan- guages to about 130 girls. The Zoar Union, whose members live in the East, has been of great service in raising funds for the support of the work at Zoar, as well as in the city of Beirut, where, in 1862, a boarding school of a high order was oxDened for girls whose parents were well to do. Here nine deacon- esses and several female teachers are constantly em- ployed. The profit from this branch of the work meets some of the deficiencies in other departments of it. Up to 1879, there was room for only 80 girls, but with the needed increase in buildings secured, 120 are now receiving instruction. Divine service is
250 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
held in the prayer hall of the school for the Germans who reside in the city. The health resort for this re- gion, and for visitors from Jerusalem and Egypt, is in the pleasant little village of Araya, high up on Lebanon and commanding a charming view of the city and bay. Here reside a deaconess and an orphan trained in the Asylum, to care for the guests during the heated season, and, during the winter, to teach the children of the village.
Out of respect for the English residents who con- tributed generously toward its equipment, the Hospital in Cairo is named after Queen Victoria. Opened as late as 1882, with only two deaconesses in charge, it has since proved as useful as has been the Hospital in Alexandria. It has rooms for isolating those afflicted with contagious diseases. In a single year 25,000 cases of eye^affection have been treated. The Hospital has forty=four beds and is open to all without regard to faith or nationality. Such benevo- lence has not been without its efifect even on the Mohammedans, The income here has been slightly in excess of expenditure.
Since 1860, the deaconesses have had a school for the training and education of young girls in Florence. For some years its growth, though steady, was un- obtrusive. At present about 120 girls are receiving instruction, most of them from the better classes, chiefly Italians. There are twenty boarders, for whom there is adequate room. The esteem in which the school is held is shown by the privilege granted it of visiting the Pitti Gardens when they are closed to the public.
In all the establishments thus far mentioned, with
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the single exceiDtion of the New Charity Hospital, in Berlin, work is done in connection with Kaisers- werth. As daughfer-hoiises, they are subject to the regulations which control the inmates of the Mother House, and their inmates are expected to exhibit the same spirit of love for the needy, and of consecra- tion to the service of the Heavenly Father as in the case of those in the Home on the Rhine,
A great deal of work is done in various Hospitals not under the control of deaconesses, a work which is done at the request of the proper authorities, and in accordance with their wishes. Five deaconesses serve constantly in the Hospital of the Knights of St. John, Beirut. Others serve in Rome, Constanti- nople, Bucharest, London, and New York. Some are at work in the City Hospitals at Elberfeld, Frank- furt=on4he=Main, Kircheim, and Teck, in Wurttem- berg, and in Berlin, whore in the New Charity, nine deaconesses look after the 120 to 130 erring women who are brought into it every day. Since 1844, they have also aided pastors in carrying on the work of their parishes, and have been of very great assistance in City Missions.
Summarily stated, Kaiserswerth deaconesses are engaged in seven mother-houses in jBfty=four Hospi- tals, in twenty-one houses for providing work for, or taking care of, the sick and poor, in four health resorts, in seventy parishes, in many Unions, or So- cieties, formed for the benefit of servant and working girls, in thirty=two schools for the education and careful training of orphans, in forty-one schools for little children, in eight schools for servant girls, in connection with which is an agency for securing
252 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
places for them, and in two industrial schools. As private nurses they are everywhere in demand. To appeals for service in the homes of the rich, response is made only when other appeals have been met.
Many women who have been unable or unwilling to take the full preparatory course required, or to assume the vow demanded, but are yet in full sym- pathy with the deaconesses and the management of their homes, are, to a certain extent and under recog- nized conditions, permitted as associate sisters to share in the work of the deaconesses. Those who spend some time in the novitiate, but who for various reasons deem it unwise to complete it, exercise a salutary influence as Christian women in the homes in which they reside. To a far greater extent than would at first be realized is the influence of the dea- coness' movement felt. As a Christian movement, wholly in the interest of the people, and of the most needy among them, it has left its impress on fields not directly cultivated by it, and has determined very largely, both the direction and the spirit of Christian efifort among and in behalf of the German people.
Akin to the service they render, and to the spirit which animates them, to the great establishments and order of deaconesses, yet fewer in number and less influential, are the Homes in which the deacons, or as they are more generally called in Germany the " brothers," are trained for work in the Inner Mission.
Special emphasis is put on the kind of service ren- dered, as well as upon its form. For the former the word " deacon," as used in the New Testament, is the more appropriate; for the latter the word "brother." Although in the New Testament Church the deacon
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did not fail to preach, the chief duly of his office was care for the poor. In the Primitive Church ho was a simple helper of the presbyter and bishop, but in the course of a few centuries, as the number of the deacons increased, he became a member of the clergy. As the Church did not cease to be benevolent when the diaconate ceased to be the channel through which its gifts for the needy flowed, there sprang up natur- ally in the Middle Ages, brotherhoods and sister- hoods, as of the Common Life, to take the place which the employment of deacons as preachers had left vacant.
When Wichern, of the Rough House, and Fliedner, of Kaiserswerth, under the pressure of the need which their great work revealed, revived the ancient order of deacons, or brothers, it was with the purjjose of making it representative both of the service rendered the poor in primitive times, and of the benevolent associations of the Middle Ages. They did not intend, save to a very limited degree, to employ these men as preach- ers, or to make them officers of the Church. They were to be heljpers of the Churches, administrators of gifts entrusted to them by the benevolent, friends and assistants of the poor and helpless. Their special mission was to members of the National Church. They were to save those who had been baptised and confirmed, but either had drifted away from the Church, or were in danger of doing so. This work was to be preventive as well as benevolent.
The kind of service in which they engage is varied. They give instruction to children who otherwise would be without it, and through the instrumentality of Houses of Refuge they rescue those who have fallen
251 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
into sin. They labor also in Or^jlian Houses, in houses where those who are suffering from contagious diseases are gathered; and have special duties in Hospitals and in establishments which care for the feeble minded, and the insane. They are moreover sent to Houses of Correction, and to the great Prisons of the Empire. They are attached to what are known as the Arbeitercolonien, or places where the man who is out of work can go for a time, earn his support, and from them as a j)oint of departure, go out to secure the employment he desires. They are com- missioned also to scattered communities of Germans in foreign lands. One of their special duties is the management of the inns found in almost every large town, where the poor for a small sum find lodging, food, and shelter for a night, and where they are sure of receiving sympathy if in distress, and assistance if they are fighting against intemperance, or any other sin of the flesh. Every year witnesses an enlarge- ment of the kind of service which these brothers, with their wives, are rendering their fellowsmen. They are now doing a great deal of City Mission work. The following list of Brother Houses, taken from Schilfer (pp. 225-6), will be of interest:
1. The Rough House at Horn, near Hamburg, established by Wichern in 1833, now under the care of his son. This is the largest House of the kind in Germany, and has served as a model for other Houses to follow.
2. The House at Duisburg, organized by Fliedner, in 1845, where the inmates give special attention to the care of the sick.
3. The House at Ziillchow, near Stettin, founded in
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1850 by G. Jahn, and controlled by him till his death in 1888, when it came under the management of his son. This is the only House in Germany which is not under the control of a pastor. It is supported chiefly by gardening and other industrial occupations.
4. The House at Reinstedt, in the Hartz, founded in 1850 by Philip von Nathusius, now under the care of pastor Kobelt. This House is united with very large Idiot and Epileptic Asylums, in which its in- mates work.
5. The so=called Johannesstift in Berlin, founded by Wichern in 1858, as a copy of the Rough House at Hamburg, and now managed by Pastor Phillips.
6. The Stefansstift near Hannover, founded in 1869, and still led by Pas+or Fricke.
7. Obergorbitz, near Dresden, founded in 1873, and led by Pastor Hohne.
8. Carlshohe, near Ludwigsburg, founded in 1876, and under the care of Pastor Halm.
9. The Brother Establishment at Bielefeld, a part of the great institutions there called into life by the indefatigable Pastor von Bodelschwingh. This House, founded in 1877, is under the special charge of Pastor Stilrmer.
10. In East Prussia there is the House at Carls- hof, near Rastanburg, founded in 1883 by Pastor Dr. Dembowsky, and still under his care.
11. The House at Kraschnitz, near Militsch, in Schlesia, is the latest addition to the benevolent es- tablishments for deaf and dumb, and for deaconesses founded by Count von der Recke. This House is led by Pastor Tachel.
256 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
12. The House at Nurenberg, founded in 1890 by Pastor Rcindel, and still in his hands.
13. The House at Basel, managed by Pastor Stahel.
14. The House at Haarlem, led by Pastor Zegers, and known as the deacons' establishment (Meer en Bosch).
The related establishments are as follows:
1. One at Beuggen, near Basel, founded in 1822 by Zeller and Si^ittler, now under the care of Spittler's nephew. In this House teachers are trained.
2. There is a similar House at Lichtenstern, in Wtirttemberg, founded in 1836 by Zeller, and now controlled by Pastor Schlitter.
3. A third House, situated in Wiirttemberg, was opened in 1845 by Pastor Sayler, and is still con- ducted by him.
4. At Krischona, near Basel, there is a Home founded by Spittler in 1840, now under the care of Rappard, in w^hich x^ersons are trained for service in connection with the Inner Mission, or for work abroad.
5. At Neuendettelsau, in Bavaria, there is a Sem- inary in which preachers are educated for North America and Australia. The seminary was founded as some say by Lohe, in 1842, but was brought into active operation by F. Bauer in 1846. Recently it has assumed the support of a mission to the heathen.
6. The Bugenhagensstiff, at Ducherow, founded in 1866 by Rosenstedt, is a prei3aratory school for those who propose to enter the foreign missionary field.
7. There is also a Seminary for the training of
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preachers for Nortli America at Kropp, in Schleswig, under the care of Pastor Paulsen,
8. Pastors Jensen and Buhrmann haA^e a Seminary with a similar object at Brechlum, near Bredstedt, in the same province.
Two establishments originally founded as Brother^ Houses are now Houses of Refuge, viz., one at Dussel- thal near Dusseldorf, founded in 1820 by Count von der Recke, but now managed by Pastor Karsch; the other at Puckenhof, near Erlangen, founded in 1853, and controlled by teacher Michel.
Since 1876 these various Brother^ Houses and Sem- inaries have united themselves into a Conference which meets at stated times for the discussion of the subjects which come before them in their various fields of Christian activity.
As has been hinted in the above enumeration, each establishment has its special leader, or head (Vorsteher), who, with rare exceptions, is a pastor. Associated with him, and really exercising control over the entire establishment, is a Committee care- fully selected from those who have contributed the funds for the House, or otherwise made its w^ork possible.
Those who seek to enter one of these Houses in order to be trained as a deacon or a brother, must be between twenty and thirty years of age, sound in body and mind, blameless in life, free from military duty, and possessed of the gifts which are indispen- sable to success in their chosen occupation. They must 1)6 unmarried, and may not even be engaged. Proof of sincere Christian character must also be pre- sented. The course of instruction, which begins in ear-
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nest after a period of probation which itself often lasts several months, usually occupies three years. It is of a threefold nature: religious, for the deepening, strengthening, and broadening of the spiritual life already begun; general, consisting of instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, book-keeping, com- IDOsition; and professional. The latter relates to the nature, purpose, and extent of the entire work carried on under the comprehensive name of Inner Mission.
While these Houses are not permanent Homes for those trained in them, as are the Homes in which deaconesses are instructed, any brother can return to them when in difficulty, for advice and such assistance as he may need against those who would take advan- tage of him, or for aid in obtaining new employment. Ordinarily, the contract which he makes with his em- ployers wdien he enters upon his w^ork, is drawn up by the head of his House. No brother assumes a vow, or is obliged to continue a brother any longer than he pleases. Everything is voluntary. Some who wish to engage in the work done by the brother- hoods, but who for various reasons have not taken the prescribed course of training are, if competent, received as voluntary associates. Of these the num- ber is quite large.
Of great importance in the training of a brother is the spirit of the House in which he lives, its method of living, its traditions, its history, its rules, its re- ligious services, and the festivals it observes. Often the House has its own religious service on Sundays, though not infrequently its inmates worship in the Church nearest them. Of special importance is the
THE FORCES EMPLOYED 259
spirit of the man who leads the House, and is respon- sible for the atmosphere which pervades it. In near- ly all cases there is training in agriculture, in gar- dening and the care of flowers, in the management of cattle, and in various kinds of handicraft. Indeed, no one is received into the establishment at all who cannot supjoort himself by his personal labor. Everything is practical, the aim being to fit each in- mate for the greatest possible usefulness as a follower of Christ. While all receive instruction in vocal music, a few are carefully trained in instrumental music. This is regarded as of great importance for those who as keepers of inns, visitors of the sick and the fallen, and workers in City Missions, will fre- quently be called upon to lead in the service of song. The inn keeper, for example, is ex^Dected to gather his guests about him night and morning for devotion. Those who enter these Houses, are for the most part, peasants, carpenters, hand=v/orkers of some sort, small tradesmen, shop=keepers, and teachers. They are j)eople who have not had great advantages in the way of education, or of social opportunities, but whose simple manner of life, earnest piety, and natural gifts fit them for the service they de- sire to undertake. Through their efforts, a vast amount of good has already been accomplished; and with the rapid growth of Sunday schools, Young Men's Christian Associations, City Mission and Evangelistic work, their opportunity for usefulness must greatly increase.
CHAPTER XV.
THE SOCIAL AND MORAL CONDITION OF GERMANY SINCE THE ACCESSION OF WILLIAM I.
Observers who are pessimistic by nature see in the changes introduced during the last thirty-five years nothing which they can apijrove. In their eyes the influence of the Empire has been morally and spirit- ually disastrous. It is doubtful, they often affirm, if the military strength acquired by the consolidation of the German provinces has been of real economic value to the people. In the old days the peasants were better off and less discontented than they now are. Artisans received better wages, at least relative- ly to the cost of living. Manufacturers and the larg- er land-owners were more prosperous. Their rela- tions with employes were more intimate and friendly than in these days of keen competition and social un- rest. For a generation, at least, life in Germany, on its moral and spiritual side, has, according to the pessimists been losing its former vigor.
Optimists, on the other hand, although admitting that changes have occurred which have brought with them no little suffering, and which call for new eco- nomic and even new political adjustments, are sure that improvement in all directions has been steady, with the promise of permanence. They do not for- get the growth of Social Democracy during the
260
PRESENT CONDITIONS 2G1
period under review, nor do they close their eyes to the anxiety its rapid increase among the laboring classes of the cities, and even in the country, has caused the most thoughtful and patriotic men in the Nation. They say that this growth has apparently reached its limit. From it there is now really noth- ing to fear. Its criticisms have done good. They have called attention to evils which will soon be removed. Even the National Churches, which form- erly were neglectful of their responsibility to the poor, are rousing themselves to their duty in this direction, and were never in better spiritual condi- tion than now. Ministers are everywhere alive to the serious moral and social problems of the day, and are studying them with all the thoroughness which characterizes the scholarship of the German special- ist.
Gifts for missions, foreign and domestic, are in- creasing every year. Certain large cities like Leipzig excepted, attendance at Church has increased during the last decade. This is due, in part, to a livelier interest among the people themselves in the things for which the Church stands, and in part to the inter- est the Eoyal Family shows in the religious welfare of the Empire. This interest in the Royal Circle makes itself manifest in regular attendance on divine wor- ship, in unwonted energy in the building of new and the repairing of old Church edifices, in the care taken to be on the right side of every moral question, and in the use of all possible means to promote the wel- fare of the poorest and weakest, as well as of the richest and strongest, among the people. Compar- ing present conditions with those which prevailed at
262 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
the beginning of the century under Rationalism, or at the middle of the century when Idealism had largely lost its power and Materialism had taken its place, that is, when the work of the Inner Mission was almost entirely in the future, optimists say there has been a real and permanent advance, both in the apprehension and in the application of Christian principles.
Perhaps it would be nearer the truth to affirm that in the changes which have occured during this transition period there has been much of good and no little of evil. In some localities, evil seems to have gotten the mastery; in others it is easy to perceive that good is in the ascendancy. Undoubtedly in industrial and mining centers the cleavage between the classes which labor and those who employ them was never so wide as at present. Those who form the under=side of society, the proletariat, feel more keenly than they did thirty* five years since the misery of their condition. Social Democratic leaders have drawn the contrasts between poverty and wealth so sharply that only the blind can fail to see them. As wealth and intelligence are by these leaders made responsible for the existence of poverty and the sorrows it brings with it, it is not strange that bitterness of feeling should be created, and that out of sheer desperation and hatred against those more fortunate than themselves vice and crime among the poor should increase. It has been part of the Social Democratic plan to antagonize the Church, not only as a religious institution, but as an institution of the State, and consequently an agency of oppres- sion.
It is through Social Democratic speeches and liter-
PRESENT CONDITIONS 263
ature that much of the present hostility among the poor to the services of the Church and its ministers is due. Desi)ite this fact, it is more than probable that the hostility will finally be overcome, and that these now alien hosts will be won back to the only institu- tion in the country which seeks their temporal and spiritual good. The saddest feature of the present situation is the wide-spread unbelief among the richer and welleducated classes. Sometimes this un- belief is openly expressed; at other times it manifests itself in indifference and neglect. Church patrons seem to feel, and not infrequently, that they dis- charge their whole duty to the Church if they visit it once or tv/ice a year, in connection with their official obligations, or to give 6clat to some Church festival.
Yet, taken as a whole, the pulpit has never been more able or earnest than it now is. Never did the Churches throughout the Empire seem to be grow- ing more rapidly in apparent power or spiritual life. Laborers in foreign fields, and in the equally difficult fields at home, were never more numerous or efficient. There is scarcely a social or moral want in the whole land for which a " society" designed to effect its remo- val, does not exist. While there is much discussion in learned circles as to many objects hitherto held as sacred, the rank and file of those who belong to the National Churches of Prussia and the allied Provin- ces are soundly evangelical. Education, industry in all its branches, social relations, the administration of justice, the methods of benevolent activity, were never animated by a more truly Christian spirit than at present.
To show the truth of these affirmations, and at the
264 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
same time make plain both the dark and the bright side of the picture, we shall describe as briefly as possible, the conditions of representative sections of the German i^eople as they are found in various parts of the Empire. In doing this we take as a guide the volume on the moral, religious, and social develop- ment of Germany during the last thirty=five years, published in 1895 at Gtitersloh, and prepared by ex- perts of the higliest standing. This work is edited by Licentiate Weber, well known for the interest he has taken in social questions, and for the part he has had in organizing and directing the discussions of the Social Congress.
To discover the real conditions of German life we must study carefully its characteristic institutions. Of these one of the most fundamental and important is the home, that survival of paradise, which, as is often said, has resisted the destructive influences of sin. Among no people at present in existence, or of which we have any record, is there, or has there been a truer appreciation of the blessings of domestic life than among those who belong to the German race. If, since the Reformation, a student of German soci- ety is pointed to the great place which men trained in the parsonages of Germany have filled in public life, it becomes at once apparent that from these par- sonages there have gone forth influences which have made themselves felt in every home in the country. Even more than in the pulpit has the home life of the pastor been a source of blessing to his parish. The value which the pastor and his family have set upon it has had much to do Y;ith the high position which the family occupies in the minds of all classes of the
PRESENT CONDITIONS 265
people. It would almost seem as if the German wo- man had received a special endowment from her Cre- ator for the place she fills as wife and mother. That she may be fitted for this sovereignty in the heart and the home is the object of her ambition and the aim of her education. To those who are familar with rural life in Germany, nothing is more beautiful than the attachment which unites parents and children and gives to the word home an almost sacred mean- ing in their minds.
It is often asserted that within the last decade the power of the home has been percei)tibly weakened. It is no longer what it was a generation since. Chil- dren who go out into the world to make a living or obtain a fortune for themselves, do not return to it as they once did as a place of rest, joy and inspiration. It has ceased, in a very considerable degree, to be the source of moral and spiritual life for the nation. No one can deny that the home has, within recent years, been compelled to contend with some bitter foes. The economic conditions of the country have not been favorable to peace in the household. It has been difficult for the wage=earner to supply the wants of those dependent upon him. Uncertainty and irregu- larity of employment have often separated the family, and thus weakened the tie between its members. Long hours, no Sunday rest, necessity for labor on the part of the mother and the elder children, in order to obtain the necessaries of life, have robbed the home of many of the attractions it had in earlier and more prosperous times.
An open and x^ersistent enemy of the home has ap- peared in the Social Democracy. While pretending
266 CHRISTIAN' LIFE IN GERMANY
to be greatly shocked at marriages for money or con- venience, among those who belong to the wealthy and educated classes, and to approve those only which are based on love, Social Democracy, through some of its prominent leaders, has sought to undermine the foundation upon which the home is built, by de- nying the sanctity and permanence of the marriage relation. Not only have these leaders advocated di- vorce at the pleasure of the parties concerned, but the establishment of institutions to be sustained at public expense in which the children of those who live to- gether for a shorter or a longer period shall be cared for, and educated for the part they may afterwards take in the social machine. With the true Social Democrat, marriage thus becomes a matter of mere convenience or pleasure. That it is of Divine ajv pointment, and is to be contracted only under the sanctions of religion he neither believes nor admits.
Were it known in the rural districts, where, through the advocacy of better economic conditions, the Social Democrat is now trying desperately to win support- ers, that he is really an enemy of the home, he would hardly obtain a hearing. Even to better his income, the peasant is not ready to sacrifice his wife and his children. Whatever else he loses, he clings to his home. So strong is the love of home that not a few, under stress of poverty, and in disregard of legal sanctions, still live together as man and wife. They have no thought of ever separating from each other. To all intents and purposes they are truly married. In many of the States of the American Union this relation would be legalized under the common law, though in Germany it cannot be. The chil.
Present conditions 267
dren of parents who fail to obtain the sanction either of the State or of the Church for the rehition they occupy to each other, are treated as illegitimate, and are reported as born out of wedlock. This somewhat anomalous relation of men and women who deem themselves guilty of no crime, accounts in part for the very large percentage of so-called illegitimate children among German^speaking xDcoples. Although these children are baptised and confirmed, a slight difference in the form of the ceremony often affects the recipients unpleasantly. With the best of inten- tions the bond is hardly so strong between those who thus enter upon what ought to be marriage relations for the sake of a home, and out of v/hat they deem true love, as if it had been formed under the sanc- tions of the laws of man and God. Often, too, the homes thus established are not quite what they would have been had the parents been more respectful toward social and Divine requirements.
Nor are even the homes of wealth and luxury, of learning and position, wholly exemj)t from moral dis- aster. Where marriages have been contracted for the sake of a position in society, to increase one's income, or to unite certain families, domestic felicity is rare. That homes thus formed should be places of strife, that marital infidelity should be frequent, that chil- dren should be neglected, turned over to servants, exposed to temptations which are rarely resisted, or furnished with an education which disqualifies them for the real duties of life, is only what ought to be anticipated. No home can be what it should be, or exert the influence on its inmates which it is de- signed to exert, where divine sanctions and divine
266 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
commandments are disregarded. In general this is so thoroughly understood throughout Germany that even where parents are somewhat shaken in their own faith, they seek for the sake of their children, to pre- serve religious forms and cultivate a sjjirit of rever- ence toward God and the Church.
Special temptations and dangers for the home are made greater by circumstances for which those to whom they come are not responsible. For the poor man, not only has the difficulty of supporting his family endangered the happiness and stability of his home, but the increasing tendency to the cities in search of work, or in the expectation of higher wages has introduced a feeling of unrest into his mind. This tendency is aggravated by a growing desire to change one's habitation which the ease and cheap- ness of railway travel help to gratify. Prior to 1867, in certain sections of the country, as in East Prussia, one could not leave the place of one's birth save with the consent of the authorities, and after the payment of an emigration tax. One was also compelled to pay for the privilege of settling elsewhere. Since that year men can go where they please and work for anyone who will employ them.
As a matter of course, government officials and military men live wherever duty takes them, often apart from their families. Even where separation is not required, a frequent change of home has many dis- advantages. It is impossible to transport from one city or village to another the memories which cluster around the place of one's birth, to find in a hired house many of the pleasures of the home of one's childhood. What is the new home? For those even
PRESENT CONDITIONS 269
v;ho can pay a respectable rent, often only a few rooms in a barrack=like structure, each the copy of hundreds of others near it, while for the poor it is a single room in a cellar, or under the roof of a great apartment house, which must serve at once as kitch- en, parlor, dining=room and bed=room not only for parents and children, often grown up children, but for lodgers also, even of both sexes. Such condi- tions among the jioor were formerly more frequent, one is glad to say, than they are now. Even yet they are not unknown. Where quarters are more tolerable, they are generally in those sections of the city which are chiefly given over to vice, and where children are brought up in an atmosphere of moral death.
That homes may not be entirely without individu- ality, those whose incomes warrant it, have been en- couraged to purchase houses in the suburbs and live there. In thousands of cases this has been done. Health ofTicers have sought to secure better sanitary laws for the city, and to prevent the crowding of many persons into a single room. Benevolent men have been encouraged in their efforts to furnish ten- ements at a moderate price, in which ordinary day laborers may live and enjoy some of the comforts of a home. Many who are neither rich nor poor have nevertheless been led, on account of the increasing expense of living, into boarding houses. Hotel life is more popular than it once was. The cost of main- taining a household has prevented many fairly welh to do men from marrying. This has added to the number of women, especially in the higher classes, who are compelled to live single. Yet the ideal life
270 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
in the mind of every man and woman in Germany is life in one's own home. In spite of the vicissitudes to which the home has been exi30sed, it still exists in all its integrity, its central authority, the German housewife, the recipient both of honor and love. She can, if she will, stick to her old customs. She can, if she will, accompany her husband and children wherever they go for pleasure. She can make the home, and life in it, for every member of her household, with rare exceptions, just what she desires. If, in certain localities, parental discipline is less rigorous than formerly, if the introduction of the newspaxDer into the home, and the multiplication of books render the supervision of the reading, whether of children or of servants, a matter of great difficulty, if servants are less frequently treated as if they belonged to the household than they once were, and are therefore left to find amusement where they please, and in what society they please, the home still remains a characteristic feature of German life. Both among the high and the low, by prince and peasant it is prized above most other possessions.
It would be strange if amid the social and indus- trial changes of a generation, such as that which has just passed, there had not been in some sections of the country a lowering in the moral tone of domestic life. There is less simple piety in the home atmos- phere, and less attention is paid than one might ex- pect to its preservation. At this one should not wonder. Nor is it so easy to attend Church in a strange city, whither one has gone simply for the Bake of work, as it was in the little village where one
PRESENT CONDITIONS 271
was born, and where one could call all the inhabi- tants by name. Neither is it so easy to find time for Bible reading, Christian song and family prayer, when every day in the week, Sunday included, is taken up in work from sunrise till after sunset, as it was in the country, where many an hour was left free for the purpose. It is not quite so easy to be satis- fied with the tract and calendars which the colpor- teur furnishes, as it was before the introduction of socialistic literature. Papers not only occupy the attention of those who are in social distress because of the times in which they are living, but novels also, which are sometimes vile and polluting, though intensely exciting, and written avowedly to make it clear that no permanent change for the better can be hoped for till in a great social revolution the favor- ites of society give up their lives and their posses- sions. That in the face of these trials the home has preserved its place, and, with few exceptions, is as powerful as ever, is splendid testimony to the divin- ity of its origin, and to the strength of its hold on the German people. Here, as in other Christian countries, the sentiment prevails,
" Be it ever so homely, There is no place like home."
There can be little question that, in general, the influence of the higher classes has been unfavorable to Christian life. Wealth has largely neglected the Church and the duties of the Christian religion. The enormous fortunes which a few possess, the in- creasing love of pleasure everywhere apparent, and the intense desire to increase gains already secured
272 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
in order to make greater display, have been a fearful strain on those who have sought to retain even a nominal connection with the Church.
Not all, one may thankfully add, have given them- selves uj) to material things. Some manufacturers, like Krupj), have spent vast sums for the benefit of their employes; and in providing for their physical welfare have not been unmindful of their intellectual and spiritual needs. Others, like the late Baron von Siemens, have sought to cultivate kindly relations between themselves and those in their service. Alike in the country and in the city, families of large means and thorough culture have retained a simple faith in the Gospel, which is delightful to contemplate. Within the last ten years all agree that there has been a steady increase in attendance at Church on the part of the higher classes, while they have also a deeper interest in those things which the Church represents. Still the dangers from wealth and the material pleasures which it often emphasizes have not yet passed away, even if we are warranted in believing they may pass away ere long. The National Churches have not been able to meet successfully the terrible temptations to which the country was exposed through the payment of the French indemnity after the v.'ar of 1870-71, and through the immediate circu- lation among the people of the milliards of which it was made up. The siDCculations on the Bourse, to which the introduction of so much money into the country gave rise, proved exceedingly demoralizing, for everyone was seized with a sudden desire to be- come rich. Those whose previous experiences had taught them " the ins and outs " of a speculative life,
PRESENT CONDITIONS 273
managed to secure fortunes, and to prepare for the crash which they knew must eventually come. Mul- titudes were ruined. Jews, whose business had been stock dealing and si^eculation, could hardly fail to reaiD immense harvests of gain. This increased the hatred which had previously existed against them and furnished fuel for the fires of anti=Semite crusades. But political agitations do not bring back material prosperity, nor do they feed the hungry. When all hope of obtaining a share in the wealth imagined to be v.ithin their reach, had vanished from the minds of the people as a whole, when it was seen that the financial condition in which they were left was worse than that which had existed previous to the war, complaints began to be heard which have not yet ceased. One need not be surprised at the growth of the Social Democracy when its leaders affirm that their object is to secure better economical conditions for the laboring classes, and to punish those who are thought to have obtained their fortunes unjustly, and at the expense of the people. Physical conditions have often been indescribably bad. In such circum- stances one cannot expect that any great interest would be shown in religion. Present sufferings cry out for alleviation. The life that now is must be reudered tolerable before attention can be directed to that which is to come. Yet every day, in the larger cities, and even in the rural districts, side by side with the poverty of the laboring classes one meets ostentatious displays of wealth on the part of those who make slight contributions through brain or pocket to the well-being of the needy. As if this were not enough to excite jealousy and hatred against
274 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
the dilettanti rich, their pleasures, and the aims they ajjparently cherish, have been demoralizing alike to themselves and to the poor. Setting at nought in their own conduct the laws of God, and turning their backs upon the Church and its ministry, they have furnished an example which the hosts of IDoverty have not been slow to imitate.
But even more serious, at least among the middle classes, than the unfavorable influence of wealth, and the life which it has been leading, have had on piety, is the influence of the learned classes. The attention which, since 1860, has been given to natural science at the expense of subjects more intimately concerning man, has led many of those pursuing it to cherish materialistic views of the origin of the world, to look upon man himself as a development from mere matter, and to think of his soul as a functional part of the body. If at the beginning of the century, faith even in the X)resence of Rationalism was strong in God, in immor- tality, and in virtue, that faith has constantly grov/n weaker, till in certain circles, especially between 1865 and 1880, it was almost entirely given up.
At the beginning of this period, the philosophy of learning and of wealth was that of Schopenhauer, a philosophy of doubt and despair. If the philosophy of Edward von Hartmann, which to some extent replaced it, is on the whole an improvement upon that of Schopenhauer, even on Hartmann's theories life is hardly worth living. With minds of a certain cast, Schopenhauer and von Hartmann prepared the way for a revival of the philosophy and asceticism of Buddha. Some sort of religion is for the human mind indispensable. What better faith, some have thought,
PRESENT CONDITIONS 275
to adopt in lieu of faith in Christ, than faith in an ori- ental saint — what better substitute for the self=denials of the Gospel than those of the sage of India? Scho- penhauer himself is said to have looked favorably on the claims of Buddhism, and to have advocated its ascetic principles, though in his own life, at Frankfurt^ on^the-Main, he took no pains to practise the theories which he approved in others. Much as he had to say about the blessings of death, he was among the first to leave the city on the approach of cholera. It remained for Nietzsche to proclaim a philosophy of mere pleasure and unlimited power for wealth and culture. With him might makes right. Purely Machiavellian in his theories, he admires such men as Caesar Borgia, and attacks Christianity and its Author with a coarseness rarely met with outside his pages. In the entire New Testament he finds but one character worthy his approval, the character of Pilate! He would live in the present, and limit his enjoyments, no matter how coarse they are, only by his ability to secure them.
For those who turn in sorrow from such theories as these, even Egydy's " One only Christendom " furnishes no real help. For this new religion, is, as its critics have shown, but a worn=out Rationalism clothed in new garments. Yet the hunger for some- thing better than modern philosophy or the religion of the East can present, has led to the formation in many of the larger cities of ethical societies, in which at least the semblance of good morals is taught and l^ractised. Possibly this is the last halt which culture will make on its return to the pure religion of Christ. Thanks to the modesty of science herself, in the face
276 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
of prol)leii]S which she cannot solve in her laborato- ries, and of myriads of questions to which she can give no satisfactory answer, there has been a decided reaction in thoughtful minds in favor of the older views as to the origin of the world and the place of man in it. Not only is confession of ignorance vol- untarily made by eminent scientists; students also have been encouraged to turn their attention once more to the profound problems connected with the origin, the nature, and the destiny of man. Now that it is seen that he is by far the most important being on the planet, that all things point to him as the object for which all else exists, it is admitted by many scientific students that there may be a personrd God; that man may possess a spiritual nature; that a future life is not impossible; that there is a well- marked distinction between right and wrong, virtue and vice; and that it may be wise to strengthen the Church as an institution that must always fill an im- portant place in the culture of man. It is not too much to say that in the so=called contest between science and the principles of a Christian philosophy, although a full and open surrender is not to be looked for, the latter have won.
But science should not be compelled to bear the whole burden of the infidelity among students of nature. Unbelief in a divine revelation almost inevi- tably accompanies superficial studies of any kind. Of these Germany has had her full share. Dilettanti students, of whom there have been many, make few contributions to faith. For a person who con- fines himself to a single branch of study it is difficult to realize that there are other departments of learn-
PRESENT CONDITIONS 2l1
ing as important as his own, or that, so long as he confines himself to one department, he can acquire no completely harmonious view of nature, or of man in his relation to it.
Criticism of the Scriptures by such men as Baur and his successors, the Life of Christ by Strauss, and other treatises of a similar character, published in order to cast doubt on the integrity and trustworthi- ness of the Word of God, have produced unbelief in the minds of large numbers of thinking people. The scholarshix) of the present day, however, is able to show that few of the conclusions of the earlier critics are in accordance with the facts, and that the reasons for confidence in the Scriptures have not been weak- ened by previous attacks on their integrity.
Parties in the Church, such as a center, a right and left wing, among professed believers in Christ, have had a bad influence, both without and within the Church. Doctrinal divisions, save for reasons evident to all, are always injurious to piety. It is a matter of rejoicing that, in the presence of common dangers, dogmatic divisions in the Church are being laid aside, and that the leaders of these divisions are CO operating earnestly together in efforts to win back to the Church the multitudes which their own neg- lect and the false teachings of avowed unbelievers have rendered indifferent or hostile.
For many years wealth and learning have lacked a common bond of union. At the beginning of the century literary aspirations brought them together. Then came the desire, long cherished and finally realized in the wars of 1870-71, for a united Ger- many. Under the pressure of great social dangers
278 CHltlSTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
and in the presence of problems concerning the nature and destiny of the human soul, it is not im- possible that another principle of union may be found, and that under its application the Church and its institutions will become stronger than ever. In the Roman Catholic portion of the population this union already exists. As the result of the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the Falk Laws, the latter the out- come of the Kulturkampf, Romanism has gained in power and spirituality. At present it has more free- dom and enjoys greater privileges than the National Church of Prussia. By its persistent and successful struggles with the government it has drawn a consid- erable number of the votaries of fashion into its fold. From the ranks of wealth and learning those have come who seek a refuge from the uncertainties of discussion and a peace of conscience which obe- dience to authority can alone furnish. Reaction in matters of religion is by no means rare. There is no little wisdom in the assertion, attributed to Dr. Adolph Stoecker, that the dogma of papal infallibil- ity is the answer to the ape theory of man. Darwin- ism and its evolutionary successors are in a measure responsible for the recent aggression and more dog- matic attitude of the Roman Catholic Church. If in the presence of the materialism of the times, and in spite of the sneers of infidelity, the Church of Rome has held its own, and even made notable conquests, it ought not to be diifficult for Protestantism to do the same. As a matter of fact, Protestantism has held her own. While every year furnishes reports of accessions to Rome from the Protestant Church,
PtlESENT CONDITIONS 279
these accessions are more than equalled by gains from Romanism,
Perhaps we shall be more in sympathy with those who have the welfare and growth of the Church as a burden on their hearts, if we consider a little more carefully than we have yet done, the economic condi- tion of the people during the past generation, as well as their present condition.
The position occupied by the middle class in Ger- many is one of real difficulty and of growing dissat- isfaction. It stands midway between the proletariat and the ranks of wealth and culture. Comparatively few of its members are rising into the circles above them, while many, unable to maintain themselves in their present position, are sinking to the level of the proletariat. These changes are due not to anything for which this class can itself be blamed, but to the economic conditions of the times. Agricultural de- pression, for example, and the seeming inability of the law-making power to do anything to remove it, have brought suffering into homes once full of peace and plenty. Small farmers have been obliged to dispose of their holdings, and to earn a scanty livelihood by working for large landowners. Some go to the city and almost at once assume a lower social posi- tion than they have hitherto held. A few find a means of support in keeping boarding-houses, restau- rants, or small hotels. As a rule these places become centers of corruption and vice. The old custom of renting land in small portions from the larger farmers, paying for it in work, and receiving aid in plowing from the great farm in return for extra work, is less
280 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
frequent than formerly, even in Eastern Prussia. Wages are paid in money rather than in kind. Though this is satisfactory to the recipient, wages so paid are worth less than those received under the old method. Money slips through the wage=earner's fingers. He does not know how to spend it wisely. Finding it harder and harder to live in the country, becoming discouraged when there, and losing his interest in the Church because of his increasing poverty, it could not be expected that in the city, or that anywhere among strangers he would pay much attention to religious things. Yet an earnest pastor will often find his heart responsive to his appeals, and its possessor quite ready to return to an alle- giance which he has temporarily thrown off. If these changes are more frequent in the eastern portion of Germany than elsewhere, they are not unknown in any section of the country.
Far worse, in reality, even if the pain of his condi- tion is not as keenly felt, is the situation of the day- laborer in the country. Unlike the land^renter, he has never quite been his own master. He has pre- served his independence, and does so still, but he has never known the luxury, even if he has long lived in the same house or hut, of calling anything his own. He has been content with day wages. Frequently the necessities of the family have compelled the wife and the elder children to work in the fields, at least during some seasons of the year. Prior to 1870, these daydaborers lived in comparative comfort. They earned but little, and though they needed little, they often lived on the edge of want. With the decrease in the profits of farming, wages grew less,
PRESENT CONDITIONS 28i
and as the price of provisions did not decrease, but rather advanced, the comfort of the day laborer dimin- ished. He did not know what to do. Never over virtuous, although not openly vicious, the price which girls could command in the city tempted some families belonging to this class to encourage their daughters to enter upon a life of sin. At the same time the sons of the household, at as early an age as possible, sought the larger town as affording a better oj)portunity for a life of crime. From what other source than the country, and from what other families than those low in social standing and suffering from want, can come so naturally the supply of that great army of fallen women, of whom Dr. Stoecker says five thousand are registered in Berlin alone, and that not less than fifty thousand altogether are known to live in that city! Hov; can there be less than this number, if it be true, as some excellent authorities assert that nine= tenths of the male population of the city patron- ize them! At any rate, the revelations of the Hospitals make up a fearful record.
In their work these day^laborers have been com- IDelled to compete with companies of so-called free laborers, who, under contract, are brought from dis- tant sections of Germany to gather in the harvests, or render some other needed service. The steam= threshing machine has now made it possible to free the grain from the straw in a few days of work. The old method of beating it out with a flail gave em- ployment to large numbers nearly the whole winter. Where land has become too valuable for flax^raising, weaving in the homes has largely ceased, and this source of income has been taken from the poor coun-
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try wage-earner. No wonder lie is discouraged. Carried by his ambition to the city, he soon becomes disheartened even there. What can he do? The work he wants is not to be had: there is not enough of it for all. It ought to be no surprise to anyone, if in his hopelessness he seeks relief in suicide. This side of death he and his have no hope. If for a time he manages to find means of support in the city, or in the manufacturing town, he easily falls a prey to the Social Democrat, who promises to improve his social condition and inflames his mind v/ith thoughts of revolution. To persons in this social condition it is very difficult to present the truths of the Gospel. The cares of this world destroy even the sense of spiritual perception.
The changes which press so heavily on the small landholder and the day=laborer press with equal severity, although difPerently, upon large landown- ers, and render it impossible for them to prevent the sufferings of those to whom hitherto they have fur- nished the means of subsistence. Many of these fall into debt and become slaves of drink and the gaming table. Then the money lender has them in his power. Small country traders and artisans also suffer. Great sections of country at times seem to fall into a kind of despair. If in such circumstances the old faith in religion remains sacred, if the old respect and reverence for the Church and its minis- ters are retained, it is all that can be expected. Even this is a triumph of grace. Instances not a few could be given where this has been done, where suffering on the part of the lower classes has called forth sympathies and ministries on the part of those
PRESENT CONDITIONS 283
socially above tliem, which have laid the foundation, not only of close relations, but of lifelong friend- ships. The fact that the Church and the clergy- are awake to the conditions which everywhere prevail is one of the lioj3eful signs of the times.
But indifferent as the conditions are, they are not wholly bad. Take the country through, at least five- sixths of those who might be looked upon as belong- ing to the middle class are, in a small way, indepen- dent. Some of them are employers of labor. Me- chanics often employ other mechanics, and work by their side. Statistics show that the number of per- sons engaged in some kind of manufacturing and who do not employ more than five assistants, bears a very large proportion to the whole wage=giving class. Even if smaller manufacturers get their work, as they frequently do, from large establishments, they take it to their own shops, where they are their own masters.
Probably the life most dangerous to good morals and most liable to extreme suffering is that led in the great m.anufacturing centers and in the cities. Here wage-earners, once respectable, through lack of econ- omy, imprudent marriages, loss of work, reduction of wages, sickness or accident, are often suddenly reduced to poverty. The pressure of competition for many years has rendered the relation between the great manu- facturer and his help very strained. To a company of weavers who complained to Bismarck, in 1865, that their wages had been reduced while the cost of living was constantly increasing, the statesman re- plied that while he would do all that could be done for them, they must not blame emi3loyers for a con- dition of things everywhere prevailing. Since that
284 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
time, in many branches of industry, wages have been raised. In other respects, much has been done for the wage-earner. Laws have been enacted for his protection. His hours of work have been shortened. Companies have been formed to insure him against sickness, accident, and old age. Yet, in spite of all this, his condition has not greatly improved. In 1865 the Bebel^Liebknecht movement began. In 1877 appeared the Geneva manifesto, calling uj)on the proletariat the world over to unite against author- ity of every kind, and against every form of privi- lege. This was the foundation of that Social Demo- cratic movement which, while it has brought no eco- nomical advantages to those connected with it, and has not diminished the loyalty of the larger portion of its adherents either to country or Sovereign, has yet been the cause of much anxiety to statesmen and Christian patriots, since its leaders have not hesitated to avow principles, the logical outcome of which is the destruction of every form of authority, the denial of the right of personal property, the breaking up of the family and the home, and the re-establishment of anarchy and barbarism.
CHAPTER XVI.
EFFORTS AND MEASURES TO MEET THE NEW DANGERS OF THE TIME.
Alive to the dangers of the time, men like Dr. Stoecker have devoted themselves to mission work in the cities, and to the spread of Christian literature among the people. From Berlin as a center, they reach every part of the land. The sermons of the great preacher, tracts from wise and ready pens, in- teresting and instructive pajaers, find their way every week into thousands of needy homes. Through the Inner Mission persons are trained to meet young men and women who come from the country to the city, and protect them against the pitfalls spread for their feet. It is often possible to persuade those who have left their homes in the rural districts from a desire for greater freedom and in the hope of obtain- ing larger wages, to return thither. Into homes of discouragement and want in the city these minister- ing servants of a Christian humanity find their way, and with words of friendly sympathy revive hope in hearts whence it had almost died out. Under the influence of persons like Licentiate Weber, ministers, professors in the Universities, men employed in the civil service of the country, and eminent laymen, some of them of noble birth, and representing all shades of theological opinion, now meet together
285
286 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
annually, in a Social Congress, to consider the condi- tions of labor, the duties which capital owes to it, to the Church, to the Government, to wealth, and to learning and privilege of every kind. A rich litera- ture on these subjects has already been created, and much done to imx)lant a better feeling in the minds of those who had been seriously alienated from every- thing that called itself Christian. Now that the eyes of the ministry, of professors in the Universities, of members of the nobility, of great landowners, of manufacturers, and of men of influence in all walks of life, have been opened to the misery of vast num- bers of their fellow creatures, no efiPorts on the part of the Government to prevent the discussion of these matters in public assembly will prevent their discus- sic»n, at least in private and through the press. To these matters the best Christian thought and the highest wisdom of political science are directing their attention.
Herculean efforts are also being made to win back to the Church those who have wandered from her, nor will these efforts cease till the wanderers are re- claimed. The methods employed are varied, but in aim and spirit they are one. The ruling principles are supreme love to God, and the treatment of every man as if he were the neighbor whom we are to love as we love ourselves. When these principles shall have been universally accepted, the economic ills from which Germany is suffering will vanish, together with most of the other ills that afflict her. As these principles are proclaimed from thousands of pulpits every Sunday, it is not too much to hope that they ynW triumph, and that the Church of the Reforma-
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 287
tion will be restored to her old place in the hearts of the people. Those who are engaged in what seems to many from other countries the unchristian, anti== Semitic crusade, say that they are governed by a Christian spirit. They do not hate the Jew as a man, nor have they any enmity against his religion. They affirm, however, that the principles by which he acquires wealth are not only demoralizing to trade, but destructive of common honesty, that the in- fluence he is exerting on youth is corrupting in the extreme, and that the life which he leads after he has obtained wealth is a life wholly wanting in elevation of purpose and self-sacrificing deeds. To this arraignment there are, of course, exceptions, and these are gratefully acknowledged. But, in general, so anti-Semites say in self-defense, those whom they oppose are doing more than any other class of citi- zens to undermine the moral foundations of society. It is for this reason that anti=Semitism survives, and continues to attract high==minded men to its ranks. But whatever be one's final judgment of the move- ment, it must be admitted that it reveals the exist- ence of a strong moral purpose among gifted and prominent men both in Church and State. Like other currents of thought and methods of procedure, it suggests more than it asserts. It shows that the tendency is toward purer and simpler standards of living, greater honesty in business life, to the incul- cation of a more brotherly feeling between rich and poor, and to an attempt to realize on earth the prin- ciples of the Kingdom of God. To the realization of such aims as these the activity of the German Church is now directed.
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Let it be admitted, as it must be, that at present the laboring classes quite generally are alienated from the Church and her institutions, and, in consequence of the struggle for life, are giving little thought to a life to come. For this alienation we can easily ac- count. Its causes are not permanent, and since some of them have been discovered we may be sure they v/ill be removed. Over against this separation of the masses from the ministries of the Church, are to be placed the tens of thousands who still adhere to them, and the ever growing number of those who be- lieve in them with a heartiness hitherto almost un- known. Since the era of the sixties Sunday=schools have sprung into existence and have rapidly over- spread the land. Through the children who attend these schools thousands of homes, previously inacces- sible, are reached with Christian literature. Acting upon the principle that the formation of character is better than its reformation, the Church is endeavoring to seek out those who have been confirmed, instead of allowing them, after the fashion of an earlier day, to drift away into worldliness and sin. They are gathered into Societies for Young Men and Young Women, and put under the care of persons whose wisdom and piety fit them to be leaders of these So- cieties. With increasing demands on the time and energies of the pastor, the aid of consecrated men and vromen in the ranks of the Church has become neces- sary. Objections, which even recently existed, against their employment are fast passing away. Pas- tors cannot do the work which the numerous activities of the Church render indispensable. Putting aside old prejudices, they have called upon this one and that
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 289
one among the trusted members of their Churches for assistance. Thus laymen, with hearts full of Chris- tian love, have been drawn into one reform after another, till now there is a great army in the aggre- gate, fighting against the destructive influences of evil. The time cannot be far off when laymen will take as prominent a part in every form of Church work as is taken by them in Great Britain or in the United States. The tendency toward this employment of the laity is one of the most hopeful signs of the day. In this discovery of a Christian force, which has long lain dormant, the Church is becoming conscious of her real strength. She is perceiving that she has as many channels through which to send out her bless- ings to the people, as she has earnest believers within her fold. She has also come to see that the jperson- ality of the individual worker is of importance, that benevolence is worth more when dispensed by a con- secrated deaconess or brother, than when bestowed in a merely formal manner by a State official. That large numbers of laymen, in the aggregate, are con- sidering their personal responsibility for the life and influence of the Church accounts for the steady in- crease in her contributions for benevolent objects, and is a hopeful augury for the future.
In every country there are myriads who care only for themselves, who have plenty of money for per- sonal pleasure but none for the Master, who are slaves of drink and open sin, who anxiously shun honest occupations and devote themselves to crime as a profession; but we must remember at the same time that there are also myriads who seek after the high- est life, and in character and action strive to realize
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the highest ideals. HajDpily the number of those who still retain respect for the i3rinciples of Christ is large, even in Germany. There, as in America, it has become the custom to report the evil that men do. Of the good that is done the Press is, for the most part, silent. Outside of Germany we do not judge the Christian character of a nation by the re- ports its Daily Press gives of the vices of the people. In Germany, as elsewhere, we must search for the good that is done silently, and seek the acquain- tance of those who are striving to stem the tides of sin and make the nation an essential part of the Kingdom of God. The German Church is meeting the dangers which threaten her social life in her own way. She is meeting them with the weapons she can best use. She is proceeding with the wisdom, the patience, and the thoroughness, which are character- istic of her best trained men. That she will eventu- ally succeed in removing the dangers which now lie in the path of her social and Christian life ought not to be questioned.
It is instructive, as well as encouraging to observe the means by which the present j)ai"tial reaction against infidelity and indifference to religion has been brought about, and a new vitality imparted to the Christian institutions of the State. Among these means, not the least important is the awakening of earnest Christian patriots within the Church to the real needs of the age and to the discerning of the " signs of the times." When it was seen whither the Darwinian theory of the Origin of Species, the De- scent of Man, and related scientific theories, were tending, devout students of nature began to ask if
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 291
these theories were true and in accordance with facts, and if so, whether they could not be brought into harmony with the revelations of the Word of God. Ere long it was discovered that while retaining faith in Christianity one need give n]) nothing which science has demonstrated to be true. Furthermore, it became evident, that in spite of the criticisms on the Bible, and the systems of materialistic philos- ophy which had cast their baleful shadows over so many influential schools of thought, there was no real necessity for ceasing to trust in a joersonal Savior, or in what seem to be the self-evident facts of human nature. Hence the revival, within the last twenty years in nearly all the National Churches, of the old conviction that men are sinful, and that without re- generation through the agency of the Holy Spirit they cannot enter into the Kingdom of Heaven. The growing pressure of new responsibilities con- nected with the development of the Empire gave a clearer vision of the nature and extent of the duties that men owe to one another if they would carry out the fundamental principles of their religion, supreme love to God and love to one's neighbor as to one's self. It furthermore became evident to all thought- ful men, that Christian benevolence and Christian activity must take on new forms, or the Church would lose power with the masses to say nothing of those in the higher ranks of life. An admirable agency through v/hich to meet these pressing demands of the new era presented itself in the Inner Mission, which Wichern, of the Rough House, Hamburg, had so warmly commended to liis brethren at Wittenberg in 10-18. Since that appeal of the great philanthropist,
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ministrations in the name of humanity and the Christian religion have been so varied and extensive as to challenge the admiration of the entire Christian world. In them all the need of personal service has received the chief emphasis.
In the ten years immediately following Wichern's address at Wittenberg comparatively little was done, though there was a solid, if slow, growth. Since 1860, and in a marked manner since the recognition of William I, as Emperor of United Germany, the ex- pansion of the work undertaken in the name of the Inner Mission has been raj)id and cheering.
Indirectly, two causes have contributed to this: a keener perception of the importance of religious in- struction in all grades of schools, and the increasing attention throughout Prussia to the need of a better observance of Sunday. Although the school law urgently pressed a few years ago, was withdrawn at the last moment, as some felt, unwisely, still its pro- visions in reference to religious instruction in many cases are likely to be carried out. Pastors are sure to give more careful attention than formerly to the kind of instruction imparted in the schools, and where it is not satisfactory, to become res^oonsible for it themselves. In j)arochial schools, Protestant and Catholic, this instruction has always been consistent and thorough. In other schools, in theory at least, instruction in the Scriptures and in the fundamental principles of the Christian religion, has long been a part of the curriculum. The ethical value of such a course of study, even if it is somewhat formal, can easily be seen. In view of the opposition of Social Democracy, and of a vowed u nbelievers, Chri sti an people
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 293
are insisting with more earnestness than ever that this instruction shall continue to be given, and with all the fullness which the law requires.
In order to render it possible for the laboring classes to attend Church, at least once a day, the law- making power in Prussia, under the so=called Sunday legislation, freed them as far as could be done, from the obligation to work on that day. Certain kinds of work are altogether prohibited, while other kinds are limited to certain portions of the day. No work that will disturb worship during its accustomed hours is permitted. Stores and shops which provide food for the people can remain open till about half an hour before the time for morning service. Of course a great deal of public work is still held to be neces- sary. Trains are run, though somewhat less in number, as usual. The mails are carried, and letters are distributed on Sunday, as on other days of the week. Some manufacturing establishments continue their work on Sunday, with a force varying from one- half to thirty per cent., of the whole number of persons ordinarily employed. While every employ^ is free to work, or to refuse to work, as a matter of fact, the fear of losing one's place compels one to yield to the wishes of those who are in authority. Although the Sunday laws are not all that could be desired, they are a great improvement on previous conditions, since the Government recognizes the religious charac- ter of the Sabbath and people are encouraged to attend Church. It is too soon to say how many avail them- selves of the privilege. It would be strange if with those who had long neglected Church, partly from force of habit, partly because they are obliged to work
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on that day as on any other, and partly from growing indifference to moral and spiritual obligations, an im- mediate improvement in Church going showed itself. It is more natural to suppose that peoi)le freed from burdens of work would at first employ the day in rec- reation, in making excursions, in visiting friends, or in anything which contributes to personal pleasure. Those who have shown the most interest in the wel- fare of the people are confident that fidelity on the part of pastors, city missionaries and Christians generally^ will result in bringing thousands into the Church who have not hitherto been in the habit of attending it, and who in fact have been prevented by their duties from doing so, as well as in gradually reviving and strengthening the religious life of the nation.
But the chief agency for effectively reaching those who are hostile or indifferent to religion, is the activity of Christian love. Nothing so clearly illus- trates the power of this love as the present working of the Inner Mission. Primarily designed to win back and save those who in name were connected with the Church, and for whom, under her constitution, the Church deemed herself responsible in the exercise of compassion toward these wandering ones, she has not failed to proclaim to them the grace and love of God in Jesus Christ.
As David von Augsburg said, in the thirteenth century, "All the poor, the sick, the heavy at heart, all who grieve, all sinners, all the sorrow which has been, and shall be in the world, are to be gathered up into the hospital of the heart and there given the compassion which is needed." Wichern's words, on that memorable day at Wittenberg, (September 22,
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 295
1848) have borne fruit: "The Evangelical Church bears witness that love belongs to me as truly as faith. Christ must be preached not only in the living Word of God, but in divine deeds, of which the highest is that of delivering love. If the church accepts her call to the work of the Inner Mission, then for her there dawns the day of a new future. But no day- break is possible without penitence. We must all bow down before a guilt which we have both inherited and made personal. This penitence must form the boundary between the old and the new period of the Church. Then will she announce the message which the Master entrusted to her, the delivering power of His grace."
The growth of the work upon which Wichern laid such stress shows how greatly it was needed. It has constantly received the blessing of God. In 1833, there were but four "Mother Deaconess' Homes" in all Germany, and with these central establishments but few branch houses were connected. In these "Mother Homes" women were trained for personal Christian service among the sick, the ignorant, the poor, and the vicious. Perhaps there were as many Koman Catholic Orders open for women ready to de- vote themselves to a life of Christian charity. These have increased very rapidly in number since that time. In 1891, Schaeffer reports the existence of Bixty4hree " mother houses for deaconesses," with a correspondingly large number of dependent establish- ments, from which nearly eighty-five hundred " sisters " go out constantly to their self-denying labors. The number of these consecrated women cannot now be less than nine thousand, and new " mother houses "
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are springing up as the demand for them makes itself felt. Differing from each other and from the original home oi3ened at Kaiserswerth by Flieduer in certain details of management, they agree in the princii^les of Christian love, which they make promi- nent as the motive of their efforts to reach and save the perishing. The National Union of Women, with upwards of nine hundred branch unions, designed at first to meet the necessities of war, but even in times of peace finding a wide field for its benevolence, together with the Red Cross Society with its repre- sentatives in every German State, have discovered that the Christian spirit, so characteristic of the deaconess, and of the Inner Mission, is indis- pensable in their work. Where there is no formal connection with the Inner Mission, there seems to be an almost unconcious purpose to imitate its methods and manifest its spirit.
The fields (as shown in previous chapters) which the Inner Mission is now cultivating are by Schaeffer reduced to seven. Each of these fields is large and inclusive. They are designed for (1) the education and instruction of children, (2) the education and i^reservation of youth, (3) the rescue of the lost, (4) the preservation of those who are in danger, (5) the care of cripples and the sick, (6) for the distribution of Christian literature, and (7) for efforts to meet and remove social needs.
Essentially the same classification is given by Wurster, P. Kruse of Langenburg, and other writers on the Inner Mission. An essential part of the work of this Mission is the effort to seek out and train for future service those who are called of God to render it.
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 297
At present the income of these Deaconess' Homes alone is not less than nine and a half million marks annually, besides the amount required to support and carry forward other branches of Inner Mission benevolence. If, at first sight, it should appear that the Inner Mission were seeking almost exclusively to alleviate bodily suffering, to remove social conditions, to rescue the lost, in a word, to render life in this world more tolerable, it soon becomes evident that it really aims at winning the objects of its charity back to the Church, and to hearty allegiance to Christ. As one result of these efforts, Romanism, Judaism and Humanitarianism in Germany have been roused to a benevolent activity which reaches out after those who naturally fall within the sphere of their influence. Another result is that the State has become more hu- mane and more Christian in its spirit and its legisla- tion, and has assumed the care and support of thou- sands of unfortunates in whom half a century since it seemed to have no interest.
That the leaders of the Protestant Churches have entered upon a crusade against the devastation which sin has wrought in the professed members of these Churches is extremely laudable. They are not to be charged w^ith selfishness: they are simply trying to be faithful to their own. In this they are not un- mindful of the necessities of those who are without their communion. Through these exhibitions of brotherly interest and willing self-sacrifice, the Church is regaining some of her old power with the masses. She is also showing those who live for pleasure, and find that only in material things, that there are objects to which their energy and money
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may be devoted which would impart to life a depth of joy of which they have had no experience. The infidelity of culture and of materialism also has been obliged to confess that the Christian activies of large numbers within the Church owe their existence to motives in regard to which unbelief is a stranger. Through the tender ministrations of personal love, the soil of indifference and selfishness has been broken up and made ready for the seeds of imperishable truth.
These changes in the attitude of vast numbers toward the Church and her ministers, clearly visible to those who search for them, and are most intimately acquainted with the characteristics of the German people, have been wrought mainly within twenty years, and largely during the last decade. That we are justified in looking for a decided increase in the near future, in the interest now taken [in the Church and her legitimate work in evangelization and works of beneficence, is the opinion of those who are filling her pulpits and are engaged in administering her charities.
But the Church of the Reformation, in which so many take pride and which is now striving as she never before strove in her history to discharge her duty toward the wayward, the poor, and the neglected, is something more than a mere organization for works of charity and mercy. As her members believe, she is the source of true doctrine for the people. Through her the revelations of God to men are made known. This does not mean that she may claim any infallibil- ity as a teacher and expounder of dogmas, or that she is fettered in her exposition of truth by creeds or
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 29<)
catechisms, but that her Mission is to present the words and life of Christ in simple, intelligent language to her hearers, that through the indwelling Spirit she can do this authoritatively, or with such strict loyalty to truth that she may safely be followed as a religious guide. Her ojjinions on matters of faith are therefore of value. While posing neither as a de- fender of orthodoxy nor as a champion of liberalism, she claims to be in such relations with God and His revealed truth, as to justify the position she seeks to fill as a teacher commissioned from above. Through the union of persons, cherishing substantially the same views with reference to the fundamental doc- trines of Christian faith and practice, she is a fellow- ship of believers. In this fellowship, which is also a living organism, made such by divine purpose, abides the spirit of peace, of love, of helpfulness, of self-sacrifice. Here, among the disciples of the Lord, is a refuge for the weary and heavy laden. Yet this fellowship is not the mere union of those who are drawn together by the fact that they cherish similar aims and are ruled by the same spirit. While recog- nizing a similarity of purpose and motive, the fel- lowship formed under it is perfected and protected by a Constitution, by laws which have been carefully considered and heartily accepted, and by customs which one is not at liberty to disregard. In other words, the Church has an outward form, which even unbelievers cannot fail to perceive. Through this form she accomplishes her mission in the world. Hence the emphasis which is so constantly placed on the observance of Church Law, the recognition of authority in the Church and the care to make
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it plain to all that duties must be discharged, if privileges are to be enjoyed. Within the fellow- shij) thus protected by the forms with which it is clothed, any who will, may find warm and loving welcome. It is also held that the Church is the con- science of the community. This means that from her pulpits the sins of the community, the nation, indi- viduals, and bodies of individuals are pointed out, the duties which men owe to each other are clearly set forth, and any deviation from these duties is earnestly, fearlessly rebuked. In order that the Church may be equal to the exalted position she oc- cupies as the religious guide of the people, and the channel through which truth is to find its way to them, her leaders realize more and more the duty of being- led by the Spirit, while yet holding to the "form of a sound doctrine." For many j^ears her ministers have ai^prehended truth intellectually, rather than through exj^erience, and have taught principles of Christian faith and conduct, as they w^ould teach the princiiDles of moral or ethical science. There has been a ten- dency toward formalism in piety and toward satisfac- tion with mere external propriety in conduct. In many quarters there has been in this a marked change. The Eitschlian School, for example, insists ujDon experience as a test of truth. Even those who do not belong to this school and who have a horror of its teachings, are compelled to admit that its test is one which cannot be safely set aside. If, in many instances confirmation still serves as an introduction to society, or as marking the arrival at an age when the person can be left to himself, pastors are seeking to make it a public, a conscientious, an intelligent
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 301
confession of saving faith in the Lord Jesus, and the beginning of an active Christian life.
Nor has Germany been wholly insensible to the spiritual influences which have powerfully affected England and America during the last thirty years. The visits and souhstirring words of Pearsall Smith have touched some hearts. Averse by nature to any- thing that savors of fanaticism, and therefore hostile to revivals in the English sense of the term, the fresh- ness with which old truth has been presented by evangelists from across the channel, has contributed in no small degree to the spiritual fervor which so frequently exibits itself in Germany to-day. Cer- tain Christian institutions have been received directly from abroad. Mr. Woodruff of Brooklyn, introduced Sunday-schools into the country, and taught the peo- ple how to make use of them. Through Von Bodel- schwingh, so well known by reason of his benevolent enterprises at Bielefeld, German Christians have be- come acquainted with the Young Men's Christian Association and, in a modified form, are giving it an important iDlace in the machinery of their Church work. Drummond is read in Germany with as much pleasure as in Great Britain, even if less widely. In common with his brother in the United States, the spiritually = minded pastor mourns over the lack of vitality in the Church as a whole, and over his own Church in particular. He sees the evils of the times and strives to remove them. He rebukes a tendency to a laxity in religious belief which leaves nothing positive upon which to stand. He would have men of positive views in the theological chairs of the Univer- sities, organize and establish Seminaries in which men
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of pure evangelical faith shall teach candidates for the ministry. Even the so called liberal minister, though belonging to the extreme left, would ascribe X)iety to no one who does not love God supremely and his neighbor as himself. That is, liberalism has not diminished the sense of obligation to work through the channels of benevolence which the Church has opened, or to preach the Gospel on which her foun- dations are laid.
With a brief survey of the actual condition of the National Churches of Germany, as furnished in late reports, this chapter will close.
By far the largest and most aggressive body of Protestant Evangelical Christians on the Continent is the Union Evangelical Church of Prussia. She is a true representative of Luther's teaching and spir- it, a careful expounder of the Bible as he understood it, a lover of Christian song, and a wise instructor in Christian doctrine of the youth of the nation. Judged by her numbers, the ability of her ministers, the fame of her scholars, the devotion and heroism of her missionaries, the wisdom with wdiich she dispenses benevolence at home, she is a worthy sister of the Evangelical Churches of Great Britain and America. With all her faults, she is still true to her noble history. Within her borders less than six per cent, of the children of Protestant parents remain unbaptized. Few young women or young men are indifferent to the rite of confirma- tion, or to the instruction in the doctrines of the Church which precedes it. Not many marriages take place outside the Church, although these, more frequently than in previous years, are solemnized
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 303
by the civil magistrate. The civil form of marriage is less formal and less costly. New parishes are estab- lished every year: in 1892, eighty^four were formed. In the building of new houses of worship, and in the repairing of those which had fallen into decay, there has been, within the last six years, surprising activ- ity, especially in cities like Berlin. In the year 1892, 5,766,577 persons partook of the sacrament. Though this is not convincing evidence that every one of this large number of communicants has been born again, it is evidence that a great many people in Prussia prize the sacraments of the Church very highly, and have some appreciation of their worth. It should not be forgotten that nearly all pastors re- quire communicants to meet them privately for spe- cial preparation to approach the Lord's Table on the Sunday. But large as this number of communicants is, it is somewhat less than half the Protestant pop- ulation of the State. The relative proportion of com- municants to the entire population differs in the various Provinces of Prussia. In the Ehine Prov- inces, where the influence of the Reformed Church is very strong, the number is less than elsewhere. Church collections in Prussia for benevolent pur- poses in 1892 amounted to 1,134,854 marks, or one quarter of that number of dollars, a small sum for each member of the National Church, but quite a respectable sum considering the proportion of those who actually contribute. Gifts for special objects made by the living and by will, amounted, in 1892, to 2,231,330 marks, thus making the voluntary gifts of the Church nearly 400,000 marks in excess of the amount furnished by the Government and obtained by
304 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
taxation for the support of the National Church of Prussia. This is not a record of which to be ashamed.
Like the church of Prussia, the National Church of Saxony is welhorganized and well=governed. This Church has felt the influence of Pietism, in Dresden more than anywhere else, and in time nat- urally came under the influence of Rationalism. But the doctrines of Luther finally prevailed. Such men as Luthardt, Kohlschtitter, Meier and Lober have helped to stem the tide of unbelief. Of the children born of Protestant parents in 1892, 95.3 per cent, were baptized. Of marriages 96.45 per cent, were solemnized by the authorities of the Church. Although in Leipzig, only 23.5 per cent, partook of the sacrament during the year, the average for all Saxony was 48.85 per cent. Eight new par- ishes were formed, nineteen permanent positions for pastors were secured, eight positions for assistant pastors, six new Church buildings were dedicated,and twenty were renewed. The Church collections were 127,543 marks, or, wath the gifts for special objects, 397,543 marks.
The condition of the Church in Hannover resem- bles that of Saxony. It is a small Church. Yet, in 1892, 59.5 per cent, of its membership partook of the sacrament. Baptism and marriages were rela- tively the same as in Saxony. During the six years prior to 1892 the gifts for all purposes were about 200,000 marks annually. In this province such men as Ludvig Harms, Petri Mtinkel, Niemann, have left behind them an influence for good which will not soon cease to be felt.
In Bavaria, where the prevailing religion is Roman
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 805
Catholic, the spiritual life of the National Protestant Church has been vigorous. It is an interesting fact that during recent years Romanism has made its largest gains in North Germany, while the largest gains of Protestantism have been made in Southern Germany, In Bavaria we meet the names of such men as Harless, Hofling, Thomasius, and Hofmann. These men were stars of the first magnitude. Lohe, Wucheror, and others have impressed a strongly Lu- theran character on the Churches of this Province, and have stimulated them to earnest Christian ac- tivity, The influence of the Reformed professor and preacher, Krafft, has been felt throughout the Lu- theran communion. Of Protestant children born in Bavaria in 1892, 99.54 per cent, were baptized. Of marriages, 98.92 per cent, received the sanction of the Church. Of mixed marriages, that is, where one of the parties is a Protestant and the other a Cath- olic, 53.8 per cent, were performed by Protestant ministers. Gifts of benevolence reached the sum of 1,180,078 marks, or an average of ninety pennies, a little less than twenty=three cents, for every nominal Protestant in Bavaria. This was at the time the high- est average reached in any National Protestant Church in the Empire. In 1894, these gifts amounted 1,505, 928 marks, an average of a mark and a quarter, or about thirty=one cents for each Protestant in Bavaria. Figures taken from the "Chronik" of the Leipzig Christian World (No 6, 1896), are very interesting. Of 38,754 children born of Protestant parents, in 1894, 38,582 were baptized, Thirty^five children who were more than a year old received the rite of bap- tism. One person, born in 1868, was also baptized
30G CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
Of the marriages between Protestants more than half were performed by a Christian minister; 8,049 against 7,984 performed by a civil magistrate. Of mixed marriages, more than half received tlio sanction of the Protestant Church. Attendance upon the parochial schools was slightly below the average of 1893. Of 234 persons who withdrew from the National Church during 1894, 181 became Roman Catholics, 49 joined some religious sect, Baptist, Methodist, or Anglican, 6 went to Free Religious Societies, 1 be- came a Jew, while 10 joined no religious organization. The additions to the National Church were 189, 77 from the Roman Catholic, 1 from the Old Catholic Com- munion, 19 from sectarian Churches, and 16 from Jewish bodies. Not less than 68.5 per cent, of the Protestant population partook of the Lord's Supper.
The Church of the Province of Wurttemberg, mildly Lutheran, is pietistic in the best sense of the word. Beck, Kapff, Gerock, Burk, Weitbrecht and Kiibel have determined the character of the Christian life here. Conventicles have been favored, and special meetings held for reading and explaining the Bible, and for private edification. Higher Criticism has had less influence in Wurttemberg than elsewhere. Only 58 children of Protestant parents failed to receive the ordinance of baptism during the year 1892. Of these, 36 were in Stuttgart. Only 198 couples were married outside the Church. Gifts for benevolent objects amounted to 517,000 marks.
The Church in Baden has long been rent by strife. "Schenkel against Uhlmann" has been the cry. Although the tendencies are at present toward evangelical forms of belief, the contest is by no
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 307
means at an end. The influence of Rothe, evan- gelical and spiritually minded as lie was, has helped Schenkel and the Protestantenverein, or the party of the extreme left. Rothe seemed to be willing that the State should absorb the Church. In Baden, liberalism has been extremely intolerant. Outwardly, the conditions of the Church seem prosper- ous. Even "liberals" take a deep interest in the work of the Inner Mission as well as in social ques- tions. Not less than 98 per cent, of the children of Protestant parents were baptized in 1892, while 97.2 per cent, of the marriages took place in the Church. Of mixed marriages, 55. 8B per cent, were performed by a Protestant pastor. More than 55 per cent, of the constituency of the Church x3artook of the sacrament. Gifts for benevolent objects averaged seventy pen- nies for each member of the State Church, a large average considering the circumstances.
In the Archdukedom of Hesse, different types of belief and piety prevail. It was from the Church in Hesse that Baur and Schlosser came. In this Duke- dom, careful attention is paid to the forms of relig- ion. In 1892, every child but one, born of Protestant parents, was presented for baptism. Of the children of mixed marriages, 52.21 per cent, were baptized. In Upper Hesse, 129.23 per cent, of those nominally connected with the Church partook of the sacrament. This means that a good many came to the Table more than once during the year. In what is known as Rhine^Hesse, 73.74 per cent, came to the Table, and in the districts bordering on Baden 54.91 per cent. In cities where Social Democracy has large influence, the number of communicants is small. In Offenbach
303 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
for example, the numbers are 12.53 per cent., in May- ence 25.93 per cent. The total benevolent contribu- tions amount to 249,294 marks. Reports from the Church in Kur Hesse, of which Cassell is the chief city, are more encouraging than formerly. Through the influence of the Consistory at Cassell, disagree- ments have been removed, and a new impulse has been given to Christian life and Christian work. For this, much is due to the wisdom and piety of such men as Zockler and Grau.
One can hardly say that the condition of the Schles- wig-Holstein Church is satisfactory. Doctrinally, the Church is hyper^orthodox, although liberalism of an extreme type is also found. In some places strong tendencies toward Free Church Confessions are observ- able. Yet in certain aspects reports are encouraging, In 1893, the baptisms embraced 93.98 per cent, of the births, and 94.23 per cent, of the marriages. Still, although a Lutheran country, only 28 per cent, of those connected with the Church partook of the communion, a lower average than in the countries on the Rhine, where the higher standards of the Reformed Churches for admission to the communion are not without effect on members of the National Church. Contributions, notwithstanding the wealth of the province, are small, reaching in 1893 only 40,864 marks, or not quite a tenth of what was given in the same year in the Rhine Provinces.
The Church of Mecklenberg, on which Klieforth is said to have fixed the stamp of a lifeless orthodoxy, does not stand in very close relations to the other Churches of the Empire. Earnest pastors complain of the attendance at Church, and gifts are small.
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 309
Spiritually =minded laymen think that the pastors are not in such sympathy with their people as they might be, and that this is one of the chief reasons why the religious conditions are not more favorable. Still, even here, the Inner Mission finds faithful supporters and the Saviour many outsiDoken witnesses.
It was not to be expected that the Church would make any deep impression on the life and opinions of the entire population of such cities as Hamburg Oldenburg, and Bremen. Yet these cities contain some of the most earnest Christians in Germany. The liberality and aggressiveness of some Churches in Bremen have long been known. But the tendency in general is to neglect Church ordinances, and to set a low estimate on the work of pastors. In Oldenburg the gifts for benevolence were but 9,850 marks, while in Hamburg only 73 per cent, of the children of Protestant parents were baptised, and 16 per cent, of the marriages took place outside the Church.
In the Dukedom of Anhalt, and in the Thuringian States, conditions are somewhat better. In Anhalt, in 1892, baptisms were 99.4 per cent, of the births, in Schwartzburg,5Rudolphstadt, 99.84 per cent., in Sachsen-Meiningen, 99.01 per cent. Marriages in each of the these places were respectively 98.6 per cent., 99.55 per cent., and 100 per cent. The number of communicants was small, being 30.87 per cent., 38.7 per cent., and 31.67 per cent., of the Church member- ship. Of gifts, there are no reports.
Such a review as the above makes it plain why in many quarters there should be a complaint of a lack of pastors who are wholly devoted to their work, and who are preaching the doctrines of grace with ear-
310 CHRTSTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
nestness and enthusiasm. We see, too, why it is that so few laymen devote time and means to the spread of the principles of the kingdom of God, They have heard nothing from the pulpit to interest them in these principles. They have been accustomed to look upon the Church as an institution designed for the benefit of pastors, and for which pastors may justly be held responsible. But, as has been shown in the earlier pages of this chapter, there has been a great change both in the spirit of pastors and in the attitude of laymen toward Christian work. This change, brought about in part through the new prob- lems to be solved and the new duties to be discharged, is likely to be still more marked in the future. In personal work connected with the Inner Mission, in the writing of books and articles in defense of Chris- tianity, gifted and earnest laymen are finding fields of usefulness of whose existence they had not even sus- pected. Pastors are discovering that no sermons are so interesting, either to themselves or to their hearers, as those which set forth the simple doctrines of grace and which strengthen and stimulate faith in a personal Saviour.
The consequences of unbelief, especially in the form of Materialism, are showing themselves with a distinctness which is justly felt to be alarming. These have appeared in a tendency toward brutality in crime, and even in the pleasures which the uncul- tivated classes of society seek. The reason for this lies close at hand. If this life is all, if there is no future, if man is nothing but matter, there need be no sense of responsibility, no thought of eternity, no fear of a judgment to come. The stronger may right-
EFFORTS TO MEET NEW DANGERS 311
fully take advantage of the weak. The contest for existence may be conducted according to the laws of selfishness. Men may be scholarly, scientific, famil- iar with recent discussions in political economy and natural science, and still remain brutal in feeling, insensible to moral obligation, full of hate toward all who in any way thwart their purposes. It is from unbelief as a root that now, as in the days of the apostle, the sins of the flesh sirring.
It is because this has been so clearly perceived that a revival of spiritual earnestness has in late years made itself felt, that fresh emj^hasis has been put on righteousness as an essential element in Chris- tian character, that the Church has set herself, with a determination without a parallel in her history, to meet and withstand the positive influence of unbelief and the withering blight which has followed the merely nominal faith of so many of her members. Hence the efiPorts to counteract the false assumptions of infidelity, misleading conclusions drawn from the study of natural science, palpable errors in Christian doctrine, hasty interpretations of the Scrijptures, and general neglect of the ordinances of the house of God. These efforts have not been without result. The increased attendance at Church is an indication that the people are beginning to think more highly of her services as a help to their own better life and greater happiness. They are perceiving that the Church is interested in them, is seeking their welfare even in this life, and are beginning to believe that for a life hereafter there are provisions and promises which they will do well to consider. The success of these efforts of the last decade is encouraging pastors to a
313 CHRISTIAN LIFE IN GERMANY
study of other means for reaching the people than those previously employed, and to a self -forgetfulness in their own personal work very rare fifty years ago.
In order to meet the dangers which are threatening from Roman Catholic aggressions and assumptions, and to prevent the drift from the higher circles to its communion, an Evangelical Bund, or League, has been formed which meets annually, and to which some of the most distinguished Protestants in the Empire are giving approval and assistance. One of its main ob- jects is to show that the Christianity which Cathol- icism seeks to spread, and with which it w^ould have its followers content, is not the Christianity of the New Testament, the Christianity which Luther preached, the Christianity which can help men to live as they ought to live in this world, and which will fit them for the world to come. Nor is the League blind to the temporal advantages Catholics are seeking to obtain from the Government, and to the burdens which, through their close political organization, they are constantly bringing upon Protestants.
During the annual sessions of the Social Congress, to which reference has more than once been made, the more pressing social questions of the day are dis- cussed in a Christian spirit, and with all the thor- oughness which men like Wagner and Harnack of Berlin, and pastors such as Stoecker can give them. But those who see the needs of the time most clearly, and are studying them most thoroughly, are con- vinced that the Church is the chief agency through which the people are to be reached, and through whose influence the evils which at present afflict society, are to be removed. It is for this reason that
Jefforts to meet new dangers SU
Sunday Schools are prized, and are increasing in number, that Societies for Young People and even for Adults, in which the Bible is made a special object of study, are multiplying, that special services are arranged for children, and for those whose duties pre- vent their attendance at the regular services on the Sabbath. It is for this reason, also, that in some sections of Germany evangelists are employed, chiefly as helpers of overworked pastors, and that where it is possible parishes too large for one man to look after, are divided, or additional ministers are secured. The era of Church building, over which so many in Ger- many rejoice, has dawned because public sentiment recognizes the fact that apart from the Gospel, noth- ing can meet the wants of human nature or solve the problems which present themselves in the German Nation. Many of those who have the ear of the people, from the pulpit, through the press and the professor's chair, are urging them to look to Christian teachers for moral and spiritual guidance, rather than to those who believe only in philosophy, or in science, to search the Word of God for principles with which to build up character and secure happi- ness, rather than give heed to the assertions of men who would substitute for the clear and simjjle state- ments of this Divine Word, the theories of a new political economy, or of a destructive Social Democra- cy. In spite of the opposition of outspoken unbelief and of stolid indifference, true religion is steadily regaining its power with the masses, is winning them back to the Church, to a sincere faith in Jesus Christ as the Saviour of men, and is thus laying the foundations of universal contentment and perma- nent prosperity.
INDEX.
Abstinence, total, . . . 192 Adolphus, Gustavus, death, 163
Ambrose, 124:
Andreas, John Valentine, 126
Anglicans, 53
Anton, Count, 229
Arbeitercolonien, . . . 196 Army, service in, ... 24 Association, Y. M. C, . 58 Asylum, Halle Orphan, . 86 Auberlen, Prof., .... 128 Angsburg, David von, . . 294
Augustine, 124
Baptists 53
Baird, Robert, .... 192
Barmen, 95, 96
Barth, Christian Gottlob, 132
Basel, 92
Basel, Miss. Soc. sacrifices, 109
Basil, 123
Bastian, Supt., .... 189 Bauer, Gen. Supt., . . . 189 Baur, Ferdinand, . . 80, 256 Bazaar, Victoria, . . . 149 Bebel — Liebknecht move- ment, 284
Beck, 306
Bernstorflf. Count, ... 53 Bertheau, Cornelius, . . 240 Bismarck, . . 79, 117, 283 Blumhardt, C. E., ... 92
Bodelschwingh, von, 104,
167, 179, 197, 223, 255, 301 B5hme, Amanda, . . . 134 Boniface Society, Roman
Catholic 165
Borgia, Caesar, .... 275 Bourse, speculations on, .
.... 36, 272, 307 Brantwein, ... 31, 61. 192
Braun, 58
Brecklum, 102
Brochelmann, .... 148 Brother Houses, list of, . 254
Buddha, 274
Buddhism, 275
Bugenhagen, 126
Buhl, 147
Buhrmann, 257
Bund, Evangelical, . . . 312 Bunsen, Charles von, . . 49 Cabinet, Church and school
represented in, . . . 41
Campagna, 123
Canstein, Baron von, 127, 202 Catholics, Roman, number
of, .... 51, 52, 56 Chalmers, method of, . 216 Caspari, pastor, . . . 297 Catholics, Old, .... 53 Charles, the Great, . . .125 Chrysostom, 123
315
.".16
INDEX
Church, union with State, 22 method of representa- tion, 22
lack of buildings, . . 56 work of Lutheran and
Cath. Churches, . . 57 Union Evangelical, . . 78 City Missionary Society,
Berlin, 31
Congress, Social, . 264, 286 Conrad, of Marburg, . . 125 Constantine, presConstan-
tine, 216
Creche, Ill
Criticism, Higher, . . 83, 81
Cyprian, 124
Dame, P., 102
Darwinianism, .... 290 Deism, in England, . . . 114
Delitzsch, 78
Dembowsky, Dr., . . . 255 Democrats, Democracy, Social, ... 30, 64, 71, 220, 224, 260, 262, 265, 266, 278, 282, 292, 307
Diderot, 114
Diestelkamp, 104
Disseldorf, Julius, . . . 178 Disselhoff, Dr. Julius, . . 231 Decent, privat, .... 47
Dorner, 78
Dryander, 53
Education, Prussian system, 41
Egydy, 275
Ehlers, pastor, .... 101 Eichorn, Minister, . . . 106
Elberfeld, 95
Elizabeth, Countess of
Thuringia, .... 125 Emperor, head of Church, 22
Emigration, 70
Encyclopedists, .... 114 Endeavor, Christian, . . 58
England, 21
Ephraem Syrus, . . . 123
Eppendorf, 173
Ernest, Hans, Baron von
Kottwitz, .... 129
Fabiola, 124
Fabricius, 86
Falk, John, 128
Fichte, 76, 115
Fischer, pastor, .... 99 Fliedner, .... 106, 116, 134, 136, 143, 148, 150, 188, 199, 207, 226, 230 Fliedner, Fritz, .... 167 Foundlings' Home, . . . 142 Francis Assisi, .... 126 France, influence of, in 1848, 79 Francke, 81, 86, 87, 114, 118,
119, 126, 131, 147, 202, 207 Frederick IV, of Denmark, 86 Frederick, Emperor, . . 51
Fresius, 167
Frioke, pastor, .... 255
Froebel, 143
Frommel, 58
Games, National, ... 68 George, Director, . . . 176 Gerhardt, Paul, .... 238 Gerlach, Otto von, . . . 130
Gerock, 306
Germany —
a Christian nation, . 19,37 a military camp, ... 23 social distinctions in, . . 25 intellectual ability, . . 26
poverty of, 27
size of, 78
INDEX
31?
Germany —
country of specialists and of authorities, . 40
Gesenius, 78
Gobat, Bishop, . . . .102
Goethe, 77, 115
Gossner, Johannes, 98, 99, 131
Gran, 308
Granl, Dr 97
Grundemann, 109
Guggenbuhl, Dr., . . . 178
Guericke, 110
Gudert, Dr. H., .... 85
Gundert, 109
Gymnasium, Gymnasia, .
20, 26, 36, 41, 42, 44, 45 Hadring, pastor, . . . 189
Hahn, pastor, 265
Harless, 305
Harms, Glaus, .... 102 Harms, Egmont, .... 101 Harms, Ludvig, pastor,
. . 81, 100, 304 Harms, Theodor, ... 100
Harnack, 80, 312
Hartmann, Eduard von, 72, 274
Hase, 78
Hauge, Hans Nielson, . 128 Hauy, Valentine, .... 135
Hegel, 76, 115
Hengstenberg, .... 78
Herder, 115
Hermann, 80
Hermannsburg, . . 100, 106
Herrnhut, 87
Hersbruck, 104
Hess, John, 126
H5ffliag, Prof., . . 136, 305 Hoffman, William, . 93, 305 Hohne, pastor, .... 255
House, Rough, . 71, 116, 135
Hbuer, 192
Idealism, 262
India, 86, 87
Ittameier, pastor, . . . 104 Intemperance, .... 60 Institute, Victoria, Berlin, 51 Janicke, pastor, Berlin, . 92
Jena, 76, 115
Jerome, 124
Jensen, pastor, . 102, 103, 725
Jews, 53, 67
Josenhaus, 93
Julius, Dr., 134
Kaftan, 8o
Kahnis, 78
Kant, .... 72, 76, 115 Kapff, Sixtus Charles, 137, 306 Karsch, pastor, .... 257 Keeley Cure, .... 193 Kempis, Thomas h., . . 131 Kiessling, John Tobias, . 127 Kindergartens, . . . 43, 143 Kirchenzeitang, die, . . 78 Klein, John William, . . 175
Klieforth, 308
Knudson, pastor, . . . 180 Kobelt, pastor, .... 255 Kohlschniitter, .... 304 Kottwitz, Baron, . . . 134
Kraft, Prof 136, 305
Krippe, die, . . . 142, 143
Krupp, 26, 272
Kruse, P., 296
Kttbel, • 306
Law, respect for .... 62
Leipzig, 76,97
Lessing, 77,115
Libraries, Peoples', . . 207 LOber, ....... 304
318
INDEX
L6he, William, 136,178,256,305
Lotteries, 62
Losch, Frau Banker, . . 153
LGcke, Prof., 133
Luthardt, Prof., . . . 78,30i
Luther, Martin, 49,74,75,80,83,
114,125,126
Lutherans, 53
Lutherans, Old, .... 53
Lfitkens, 86
Llitzen, 80,163
Magazines, compared with
Harper's The Century, 31 Marriage, Customs, . . 67,68 Marthashof, Berlin, . 150,244
Mast 167
Materialism 71,262
Mennonites, 53
Methodists, 53
Meier, 304
Meyenroch, Pastor, . . . 160 Michel, Charles, teacher,173,2o7
Minna 228
Minister, Cultus, . . . 22,41 Missions, City, .... 210 Mission, die aussere, ... 83 Mission, die innere, 79,85,111, 117,118,121,128,133,139,145, 146,163,177,178,183,209,223, 254,285,296,310. Missionary Societies, Order of formation, . . .
Moravian, 90,91
Basel, 91
Berlin 1 93,94
Rhine and Westphalia, 95,96 North Dutch (German) or
Bremer, 96
Leipzig, 97
GoBsner, Berlin II. . . 98
Herrmansburg, . . . 100 Pilgrim Mission, . . . 101
Jerusalem, 102
Schleswig=Holstein, . . 102 Die Neukirche, . . . 103 Neuendettelsau, . . . 103 General Evangelical Mis- sionary Union, . . 103 The Society for Evangel- ical Lutheran Missions in East Africa, . . 104 The Evangelical Society for Dutch East Africa, or Berlin III. . . .104 Dutch China Alliance, . 104 East Friesian, Kdnigs-
burg, 105
Central of Bavaria, . . 105 Cameroons Union, Stutt- gart, 105
Societies of women, . . Berlin, for education of
women in the East, . 105
Kaiserswerth, .... 106
Moravians, . . . 53,76,81,88
Moravian Missions, . . 90,91
Mttnkel, Petri, .... 304
Napoleon, 76
Nasmith, David, .... 210 Nathusius, Philip von, . 255
Neander, 130,134
Nepomuck, John Edler von
Kurtz, 180
New England, 38
Niebuhr, 77
Niemann, 304
Nietschmann, .... 208 Nightingale, Florence, . . 213
Nietzsche, 275
Oberlin, JohnFredreick,128,143
INDEX
3ia
Officers in army and navy, 35 Oe?er, Rudolph, .... 207
Olympias, 124
Oncken, J. G 146
Oscar I. of Sweden. . . . 198 Paradis, Theresia von, . 175 Pastor, position, authority, 49 efforts to know parish, 34,36 Patriotism, .... 63,119
Paula, 124
Pauline, Princess, . . . 140 Paulsen, pastor, .... 257
Periodicals, 39
Pestalozzi, John Henry,128,157 Phillips, pastor, . . . 255 Philosophy, Dr. of, . . . 47
Philosophy, 72
Pietist Pietism, 76,81,114, 118,120,126,304.
Pilate, 275
Pless, Prince, 242
Pldtzensee, Prison at, . 198
Pltitschau, 86
Probst, pastor, .... 178
Prostitution, 187
Protestants, number, divi- sions, 52,53
Protestantenverein, . . 307
Ranke, 77
Rappard, 256
Rationalism and Ration- alists, 72, 75
87,111,114,116,119,120, 126,262,274,275,304. Rautenberg, pastor, . 134,146 RealschGle, . . 42,45,46,57 Reche, von der. Count, 255,257 Reichardt, Gertrude, . . 229 Reindel, pastor, .... 256 Religion, ethical, ... 72
Riis, 102
Ritschl, Ritschlian, Rit-
schlianism, . . 80,81,300
R6the, 307
Roth, Rector, 136
Salyer, pastor, .... 258 Schaefifer, . . . 119^295,296 Schalenfeld, Rosalie, . . 149
Schelling, 76,80
Schenkel, 306,807
Schleswig=Holstein, . . ,117 Schepper, Louise, . . 129,243
Schiller, 77,151
Schlitter, pastor, .... 25 Schlosser, G. . . . 189,307
Schmidt, 102
Schnapps, 192
Schools, secular classifica- tion, . . . 41,42,43,44,45 Daughter, Higher for girls, 50
Sunday, 58,113
Schopenhauer, . . . 274,275
Schwartz, 86
Seguin, Dr 178
Seminar, 47
Seminary, preacher's, . . 48
Siemens, 26
Sieveking, Amalie, . . . 131 Smith, Pearsall, .... 301 Social Congress, . . . . 286 Social Democrats, Democ- racy, Socialism, So- cialists, . 30,31,32,33,57,71
Spener 114,119,126
Spittler, C. E 92
Spittler, Christian Freder- ick, 138,256
Stahel, pastor, .... 256
Steinkopf, E 92
Stier, ....... 130
820
INDEX
Stoecker, Dr. Adolph, . . 31,58,135,211,212,278,281, 312.
Strauss 80,277
Strikes, 69
Studien und Kritiken, die 78 Storm, Beata, .... 126 Stfirmer, pastor, .... 255 Sunday, use of, . . . . 56,57
Sweden, 40
Tachel, pastor, .... 255 Taylor, Hudson, . , . 105 Teacher, examination, sal- ary, etc., 44
Theology, Natural and Re- vealed, 74
Tholuck, 77,129
Thomasius, 305
Tiesmeyer, pastor, . . 146
Tischendorf, 38
Tract Societies, . 205 et seq.
Trankebar, 86,98
Transon, P 104
Tflbingen, 80
Uhlmann, 306
University, Universities,
39,46,47,49,53,68,78,83. University man, advantage
in life, 40,55
University of Ztirich, . . 51
Urlsperger, 306
Verein, Gustav Adolphus, 130
Versmann, 102
Victoria, Queen, .... 250 Vitzius, nom de plume, Jer
Gotthelf, 207
Volkenning, 110
Volksschule, . . . 41,42,43 Volmarstein, Count Adel-
bert, 130
Voltaire, 114
Vorwarts, 39
Wadzeck, Prof 143
Wage earner, condition, . 28
Wagner 312
Waldeck, 66
War, civil 38
for independence, ... 76
Peasants' Thirty Years . 75
Warneck, Dr. Gustav,85,106,109
Weber, Licentiate, . 264,285
Weitbrecht, 306
Weizacker, 203
Werner, Dr. Gustav, . 138,182 Westphalia, 28,29,66,95,96,
110,130.
Wichern, 79,116,130,133,134,135
138,183,184,192,198,207.214
215,291,238,246,292,294,295
William 1 79,293
William, Frederick III.
77,115,192. William, Frederick IV, . 79 Wittenberg, Day, ... 116 Dedication Castle Church 52 Woodruff, .... 146,301 Wortlinsdorf Brothers, . 147
Wurster, 296
Wartemberg, 92
Zahn, Gottfried, . . 127,147 Zegers, pastor, .... 250 Zell, Catharine, .... 126 Zeller, Christian Henry,128,256
Zeune, Prof 175
Ziegenbalg, 86
Zimmermann, pastor, . . 164 Zinzindorf, Count, . . 87 ZOckler, 306
BW6056 .W72®
Christian life in Germany as seen In the
Princeton Theological Semmary-Speer Library
1 1012 00059 2008
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