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III 1^1
CHURCH HISTORY
PROFESSOR KURTZ.
AUTHORIZED TRANSLATION FROM LATEST REVISED
EDITION BY THE
REV. JOHN MACPHERSON, M.A.
IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. IH.
HODDER AND STOUGHTON,
27, PATERNOSTER ROW.
MDCCCXC.
b u J <3
Butler & Tanner,
The Selwood Printing Works,
Frome, and London.
V.3
CONTENTS.
THIRD DrV^ISIOX.— -S'^CO.VZ) SECTION.
CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
I. BELATIONS BETWEEN THE DIFFERENT CHURCHES.
PAGB
§ 1.52. East and West ......... 1
(1) Roman Catholic Hopes 1
(2) Calvinistic Hopes 1
(3) Orthodox Constancy ....... 2
g 1.53. Catholicism and Protestantism 3
(1) Conversions of Protestant Princes .... 3
(2) The Restoration in Germany and Neighbouring
States 4
(3) In Livonia and Hungary 4
(4) The Huguenots in France .5
(5) The Waldensians in Piedmont 6
(6) The Catholics in England and Ireland ... 6
(7) Union Efforts 8
(8) The Lehnin Prophecy 10
§ 154. LUTHERANISM AND CaLVINISM 10
(1) Calvinizing of Hesse-Cassel 10
C-^) „ „ Lippe 12
(3) Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist. . . 12
(4) Union Attempts 13
§ 155. Anglicanism and Puritanism ...... 14
(1) The First Two Stuarts 15
(2) The Conunonwealth and the Protector ... 16
(3) The Restoration and Act of Toleration ... 17
VI
CONTENTS.
II. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH.
§ 156. The Papacy, Monkery, and Foreign Missions
(1) The Papacy
(2) The Jesuits and the Eepublic of Venice
(3) The Gallican Liberties
(4) Galileo and the Inquisition .
(5) Controversy on the Immaculate Conception
(6) Devotion of the Sacred Heart (7-8) New Congregations and Orders .
(9) The Propaganda
(10-12) Foreign Missions
(13) Trade and Industiy of Jesuits
(14) An Apostate to Judaism
§ 157. Quietism and Jansenism ....
(1) Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal
(2) Michael Molinos
(3) Madame Guyon and Fenelon
(4) Mysticism Tinged with Pantheism
(5) Jansenism : first stage ....
§ 158. Science and Art in the Catholic Church (1-2) Theological Science .... (3) Art a*d Poetry
III. THE LUTHEEAN CHUECH
§ 159. Orthodoxy and its Battles
(1) Christological Controversies
(2) Syncretist Controversy
(3) Pietist Controversy : first stage (4-5) Theological Literature .
§ 160. The Eeligious Life .
(1) Mysticism and Ascetism
(2) ,, „ Theosophy . (3-4) Sacred Song ....
(5) Sacred Music ....
(6) The Christian Life of the People
(7) Missions
IV. THE EEFOEMED CHUECH
161. Theology and its Battles ...
(1) Preliminaries of the Arminian Controvei'sy
(2) The Arminian Controversy .
(3) Consequences of the Arminian Controversy
CONTENTS. Vll
PAGB
(4-5) Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies .... 54
(6-7) Theological Literature 56
(8) The Apocrypha Controversy . . " . . . 58 § 162. The Religious Life 59
(1-3) England and Scotland 59
(4r-5) The Netherlands 64
(6) France 65
(7) Foreign Missions 66
V. ANTI- AND EXTRA-ECCLESIASTICAL PARTIES.
§ 163. Sects and Fanatics 66
(1) Socinians 67
(2) Bai^tists of the Continent 68
(3) English Baptists 69
(4-6) Quakers 70
(7-8) Labadie and Labadists 78
(9) Fanatical Sects 75
(10) Russian Sects 76
§ 164. Philosophers and Freethinkers 79
(1-2) Philosophy 79
(3-1) Freethinkers 82
THIRD SECTION. CHURCH HISTOEY IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
I. THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN EAST AND WEST.
§ 165. The Roman Catholic Church 84
(1) The Popes 85
(2) Old and New Orders 86
(3) Foreign Missions 87
(4) Counter-Reformation 87
(5) ,, „ in France 88
(6) Conversions 88
(7) Jansenism : second stage 89
(8) Old Catholic Church in Netherlands .... 90
(9) Suppression of Order of Jesuits 92
(10) Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy 93
(11-12) Theological Literature 94
(13) German Catholic Contribution to the Illumination . 96
(14-15) French Contribution to the Illumination ... 98
(16-17) Pseudo-Catholics 100
Vlll
CONTENTS.
PAGE
166. The Oriental Churches 102
(1) The Eussian State Church 103
(2) Eussian Sects 103
II. THE PEOTESTANT CHUECHES.
§ 167. The Lutheran Church before the " Illumination " (1-2) Pietist Controversies after Founding of Halle Uni versity ....
(3) Theology ....
(4) Unionist Efforts .
(5) Theories of Ecclesiastical Law
(6) Church Song ....
(7) Sacred Music ....
(8) The Christian Life and Devotional Literature
(9) Missions to the Heathen ....
§ 168. The Church of the Moravian Brethren
(1) Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood
(2) Founding of the Brotherhood
(3) Develoi^ment of Brotherhood to Zinzendorf's Death
(4) Zinzendorf's Plan and Work
(5) Extravagances of Zinzendorf
(6) Zinzendorf's Greatness
(7) Brotherhood under Spangenberg .
(8) Doctrinal Peculiarities of the Brotherhood
(9) Peculiarities of Worship among the Brethren
(10) Chi'istian Life
( 11) Missions to Heathen
§ 169. The Eeformed Church before the " Illumination "
(1) The German Eeformed Church .
(2) Eeformed Church in Switzerland
(3) The Dutch Eeformed Church (4-5) Methodism
(6) Theological Literature .
§ 170. New Sects and Fanatics .
(1) Fanatics and Separatists in Germany
(2) Inspired Societies in Wetterau .
(3) Dippel
(4) Separatists of Immoral Tendency
(5) Swedenborgians ....
(6) New Baptist Sects
(7) „ Quaker Sects
(8) Predestinarian-Mystical Sects
104
CONTENTS. IX
PAGE
171. Religion, Theology, and Literature of the " Illumi-
nation ".......... 139
(1) Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in English
Church 140
(2) Freemasons 143
(3-5) German " Illumination " 148
(6) Transition Theology 146
(7) Eationalistic Theology 147
(8) Supernaturalism 148
(9) Mysticism and Theosophy 149
(10) The German Philosophy 149
(11) German National Literature 150
(12) Pestalozzi 152
172. Church Life in the Period of the "Illumination" . 152
(1) The Hymnbook and Church Music .... '*158
(2) Eeligious Characters 154
(8) „ Sects .154
(4) Eationalistic " Illumination " outside of Germany . 155
(5) Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise . 155
FOURTH SECTION. CHUECH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
I. GENERAL AND INTRODUCTORY.
§ 173. Survey of Religious Movements of Nineteenth Cen- tury 157
§ l74. Nineteenth Century Culture in Relation to Chris- tianity and the Church 158
(1-2) The German Philosophy 158
(3) The Sciences 160
"(4) Jurisprudence 162
(5-7) National Literature 162
(8) Popular Education 165
(9) Art 166
(10) Music and the Drama 167
§ 175. Intercourse and Negotiations between the Churches 168
(1) Romanizing Tendencies among Protestants . . 168
(2) Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism . . 169
(3) Romish Controversy 170
(4) Roman Catholic Union Schemes 170
(o) Greek Orthodox Union Schemes 171
CONTENTS.
(6) Old Catholic Union Schemes
(7-9) Conversions . . . ,
(10) Luther Centenary, a.d. 1883 .
PAGE 171
172 173
II. PEOTESTANTISM IN GENEEAL.
§ 176. Eationalism and Pietism
(1) Old Eationalism .
(2) Pietism ,
(3) Konigsberg Eeligious Movement, a.d. 1835-1842
(4) The Bender Controversy
§ 177. Evangelical Union and Lutheran Sei
(1) The Evangelical Union
(2) Lutheran Separation . ^ (3) Separation within the Separation
§ 178. Evangelical Confederation
(1) Gustavus Adolphus Society .
(2) Eisenach Conference
(3) Evangelical Alliance .
(4) „ Church Alliance
(5) „ League
§ 179. LUTHERANISM, MeLANCHTHONIANISM, AND CaLV
(1) Lutheranism within the Union .
(2) „ outside the Union .
(3) Melanchthonianism and Calvinism
§ 180. The " Pkotestantenverein "
(1) Protestant Assembly .
(2) " Protestantenverein " Propaganda (3-5) Sufferings Endured
§ 181. Disputes about Forms of "Worship
(1) TheHymnbook
(2) Book of Chorales
(3) Liturgy .
(4) Holy Scriptures
§ 182. Protestant Theology in Germany
(1) Schleiermacher
(2) Older Eationalistic Theology
(3) Historico-Critical Eationalism
(4) Supernaturalism .
(5) Eational Supernaturalism .
(6) Speculative Theology .
(7) The Tubingen School .
CONTENTS.
XI
PAGE
(8) Strauss 198
(9) Mediating Theology ...... 199
(10) The Schleiermacher School 200
(11) Old Testament Exegetes 201
(12) Beck 202
(13) Lutheran Confessional Theology .... 203
(14) Hofmann, Oehler, etc 204
(15) Kahnis, Frank, etc 205
(16) Reformed Confessionalism 205
(17) Free Protestant Theology 206
(18) Critical Old Testament School 206
(19) Dogmatists — Biedermann 208
(20) Ritschl 208
(21) Opponents of Ritschl 210
(22) Writers on Constitutional Law 211
§ 183. Home Missions 212
(1) Institutions 212
(2) Order of St. John 213
(3) Gustav Werner of Wiirttemberg . . . .213
(4) Bible Societies . 214
§ 184. Foreign Missions 214
(1) Missionary Societies 215
(2) Europe and America 216
(3) Africa 216
(4) Livingstone 217
(5) Asia— India 218
(6) China 219
(7) Polynesia and Australia 220
(8) Missions to the Jews 221
(9) „ to Eastern Churches 221
III. CATHOLICISM IN GENERAL.
§ 185. The Papacy and States op the Church
(1) The First Four Popes of the Century
(2) Pius IX
(3) Overthrow of Papal States .
(4) Prisoner of the Vatican
(5) Leo XIII
§ 186. Various Orders and Associations .
(1) Society of Jesus and Related Ordei'S
(2) Other Orders and Congregations .
(3) The Pius Verein ....
222
223 224 225
227 228
230 230 232 233
XU CONTENTS.
PAGE
(4) Variotis German Unions 233
(5) Capital 234
(6-7) Catholic Missions 234
§ 187. Liberal Catholic Movements 236
(1) Mystical Irenical Tendencies 236
(2) Evangelical-E-evival Tendencies 237
(8) Liberal-Scientific Tendencies 238
(4) E-adical-Liberalistic Tendencies 238
(5) Attempts at Reform in Church Government . . 239 (6-8) „ to Found National Catholic Churches . 239
§ 188. Catholic Ultramontanism 241
(1) Ultramontane Propaganda 242
(2) Miracles 242
(3-5) Stigmatizations 243
(6) Manifestations of Mother of God in France . . 244
(7) „ „ „ in Germany . . 245
(8) Canonizations 245
(9) Discoveries of Relics 246
(10) Blood of St. Januarius 246
(11) Procession at Echternach 246
(12) Devotion of the Sacred Heart 247
(13) Ultramontane Amulets 247
(14) „ Pulpit Eloquence 248
§ 189. The Vatican Council 249
(1) Preliminary History of Council 250
(2) Organization of Council 251
(3) Proceedings of Council 252
(4) Acceptance of Decrees of Council .... 254
§ 190. The Old Catholics 256
(1-2) Formation and Development of Old Catholic Church
in Germany 256
(3) Old Catholics in other Lands 259
§ 191. Catholic Theology, especially in Germany . . . 261
(1) Hermes and his School 262
(2) Baader and his School 262
(3) Gtinther and his School 263
(4) J. A. Moliler 263
(5) Dollinger 264
(6) Systematic Theologians 265
(7) Historical Theology 266
(8) Exegetica] Theology 268
(9) Representatives of the New Scholasticism . . . 269
CONTENTS. Xlll
PAGE
(10) Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars . . . 269
(11) Theological Journals 270
(12) The Pope and Theological Science .... 270
lY. EELATION OF CHUECH TO THE EMPIKE AND TO THE STATES.
§ 192. The German Confederation ...... 271
(1) Imperial Commission's Decree 272
(2) Prince-Primate of Confederation of the Ehine . . 272
(3) Vienna Congress and the Concordat .... 273
(4) Frankfort Parliament and "Wiirzhurg Congress . . 274
§ 193. Prussia 275
(1) Catholic Clmrch to Close of Cologne Conflict . . 276
(2) Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism . . . 278
(3) Evangelical Church in Old Prussia to 1848 . . 280
(4) „ „ „ „ to 1872 . . 281 (5-6) , „ „ „ to 1880 . . 282 (7-9) „ „ „ Annexed Provinces . . 285
§ 194. North German Smaller States 288
(1) Kingdom of Saxonj'- 289
(2) Saxon Duchies 290
(3) Kingdom of Hanover 291
(4) Hesse 292
(5) Brunswick, etc 293
(6) Mecklenburg 293
§ 195. Bavaria 294
(1) Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity mider Maximilian I. . 295
(2) „ „ „ under Louis I. . . 296
(3) „ „ „ under Maximilian II.
• and Louis II 297
(4) Attempts at Eeorganization of Lutheran Church . 298
(5) Union in Palatine of the Ehine 299
§ 196. South German Smaller States and Ehenish Alsace
AND Lorraine .....•••• 300
(1) Upper Ehenish Church Province .... 300
(2) Catholic Troubles in Baden to 1873 .... 301
(3) Protestant Troubles in Baden 303
(4) Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau 305
(5) Protestant Wiirttemberg 307
(6) Catholic Church in Wiirttemberg .... 308
(7) Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine . . . 809
XIV
CONTENTS.
§ 197. The So-called Kulturkampf in the German Empire
(1) Aggression of Ultramontanism .
(2) Conflicts over Protection of Old Catholics
(3) Struggles over Educational Questions
(4) Ivanzelparagraph and Jesuit Law (.5) Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875
(6) Opposition in States to Prussian May Laws
(7) Share in Conflict by Pope .
(8) Encyclical Quod tmmquam .
(9) Papal Overtures for Peace .
(10) Prussian Government Conciliatory
(11) Conciliatory Negotiations
(12) Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures
(13) Definitive Conclusion of Peace .... (14-15) Independent Procedure of other German Governments
§ 198. Austria-Hungary
(1) Zillerthal Emigration ....
(2) The Concordat
(3) Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria
(4) Clerical Landtag Opposition in Tyrol .
(5) Austrian Universities ....
(6) „ Ecclesiastical Laws
(7) Protestant Church in Transleithan Provinces
§ 199, Switzerland ....
(1) Catholic Church in Switzerland
(2) Geneva Conflict
(3) Conflict in Basel-Soleure
(4) Protestant Church in German Switzer
(5) „ „ „ French
Holland and Belgium
(1) United Netherlands (2-4) Kingdom of Holland . (5-7) „ „ Belgiiim .
(8) Protestant Church in Belgium
Scandinavian Countries .
(1) Denmark ....
(2) Sweden
(3) Norway
§ 202. Great Britain and Ireland . (1) Episcopal State Church (2-3) Tractarians and Ritualists .
(4) Liberalism on Episcopal Bench
land
200.
§ 201.
CONTENTS.
XV
(5) Protestant Dissenters in England
(6) Scotch Marriages in England
(7) „ State Church .
(8) Scottish Heresy Cases . (9-10) Catholic Church in Ireland .
(11) „ „ „ England and Scotland
(12) German Lutheran Congregations in Australia
g 203. France
(1) French Church under Napoleon I.
(2) Restoration and Citizen Kingdom
(3) Catholic Church under Napoleon III. .
(4) Protestant Churches under Napoleon III.
(5) Catholic Church in Third French liepublic (6-7) French " Kulturkampf " . . . .
(8) Protestant Churches under the Third Republic
§ 204. Italy
(1) Kingdom of Sardinia .
(2) „ „ Italy . . (8) Evangelization of Italy
§ 205. Spain and Poetugal .
(1) Spain under Ferdinand VII. and
(2) „ „ Isabella II.
(3) „ „ Alphonso XII. .
(4) Evangelization of Spain
(5) The Church in Portugal
§ 206. Russia
(1) Orthodox National Church .
(2) Catholic Church .
(3) Evangelical Church
§ 207. Greece and Turkey .
(1) Orthodox Church in Greece .
(2) Massacre of Syrian Christians
(3) Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle
(4) Armenian Church .
(5) Berlin Treaty, 1878
Maria Christina
§ 208. United States of America
(1) English Protestant Denominations (2-3) German Lutheran Denominations
(4) „ Reformed „
(5) The Catholic Church .
370 371 371 872 874 876 377
378 378 380 381 381 382 384 387
389 389 390 392
394 395 395 396 397 399
400 400 402 404
406 406 407 407 408 409
410 411 412 414 415
XVI CONTENTS.
PAGE
§ 209. EoMAN Catholic States of South America . . . 415
(1) Mexico 416
(2) Republics of Central and Southern America . . 417
(3) Brazil 419
V. OPPONENTS OF CHUECH AND CHRISTIANITY.
§ 210. Sectaries and Enthusiasts in Roman Catholic and
Orthodox Russian Domains 420
(1-2) Sects and Fanatics in Roman Catholic Domain . . 421
(3) Russian Sects and Fanatics 424
§ 211. Sectaries and Enthusiasts in the Protestant Domain 426
(1) The Methodist Propaganda 427
(2) The Salvation Army 428
(3) Baptists and Quakers 430
(4) Swedenborgians and Unitarians 432
(5) Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations . . . 432
(6) Christian Communistic Sects 434
(7-8) Millenarian Communities 436
(9) New Israelites 438
(10) Catholic Apostolic Church of Irvingites . . . 440
(11) Darbyites and Adventists 442
(12-14) Mormons or Latter Day Saints 443
(15-16) Taepings in China 446
(17) Spii'itualists 449
(18) Theosophism or Occultism 451
§ 212. Antichristian Socialism and Communism . . . 452
(1) Beginnings of Modern Communism .... 453
(2) St. Simonism 453
(3) Owenists and Icarians 453
(4) International Association of Workmen . . . 454
(5) German Social Democracy 455
(6) Russian Nihilism '. 457
Chronological Tables 459
Index 485
SECOXD SECTION.
CHURCH HISTORY OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
I. — Relations betwean the Different Churches.
§ 152. East and West.
The papacy formed new plans for conquest in the domain of the Eastern church, but with at most only transient success. Still more illusory were the hopes entertained for a while in Geneva and London in regard to the Calvinizing of the Greek church.
1. Bomaii Catholic Hopes. — The Jesuit missions among the Turks and schismatic Greeks failed, but among the Abyssinians some pro- gress was made. By promising Spanish aid, the Jesuit Paez succeeded, 111 A.D. 1621, in inducing the Sultan Segued to abjure the Jacobite heresy. Mendez was made Abyssinian patriarch by Urban VIII. in A.D. 1626, but the clergy and people repeatedly rebelled against sultan and patriarch. In a.d. 1642 the next sultan drove the Jesuits out of liis kingdom, and in it henceforth no traces of Catholicism were to be found. — -In Russia the false Demetrius, in a.d. 1605, working in Polish Catholic intei-ests, sovight to catholicize the emph-e ; but this only convinced the Eussians that he was no true czar's son. When his Catholic Polish bride entered Moscow with 200 Poles, a riot ensued, in which Demetrius lost his life.*
2. Calvinistic Hopes. — Cyril Lncar, a native of Crete, tlien under Venetian rule, by long residence in Geneva had come to entertain a strong liking to the Reformed church. Expelled from his situation
1 Merimee, " The Russian Impostors : the False Demetrius." Lon- don, 1852.
VOL. III. 1 I
2 CHURCH HISTOTIY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
as rector of a Greek seminary at Ostrog by Jesuit machinations, he was made Patriarch of Alexandiia in a.d. 1602 and of Constantinople in A.D. 1621. He maintained a regular correspondence with Keformed divines in Holland, Switzerland, and England. In a.d. 1628 he sent the famous Codex Alexandrinns as a present to James I. He wrought expressly for a union of the Greek and Reformed churches, and for this end sent, in a.d. 1629, to Geneva an almost purely Calvinistic confession. But the other Greek bishops ojiposed his union schemes, and influential Jesuits in Constantinople accused him of political faults. Four times the sviltan deposed and banished him, and at last, in A.D. 1638, he was strangled as a traitor and cast into the sea. — One of his Alexandrian clergy, Metrojihanes Critopulus, whom in A.D. 1616 he had sent for his education to England, studied several years at Oxford, then at German Protestant universities, ending with Helmstadt, where, in a.d. 1625, he composed in Greek a confession of the faith of the Greek Orthodox Church. It was pointedly antago- nistic to the Eomish doctrine, conciliatory toward Protestantism, Avhile abandoning nothing essential in the Greek Orthodox creed, and showing signs of the possession of independent speculative power. Afterwards Metrophanes became Patriarch of Alexandria, and in the synod, presided over by Lucar\s successor, Cyril of Berrhoe, at Con- stantinople in A.D. 1638, gave his vote for the formal condemnation of the man who had been already executed.'
3. Orthodox Constancy. — The Russian Orthodox church, after its emancijiation from Constantinoi^le and the erection of an independent patriarchate at Moscow in a.d. 1589 (§ 73, 4), had decidedly the pre- eminence over the Greek Orthodox church, and the Russian czar took the place formerly occupied by the East Roman emperor as protector of the whole Orthodox church. The dangers to the Orthodox faith threatened by schemes of union with Catholics and Protestants indviced the learned metropolitan, Peter Mogilas of Kiev, to compose a new confession in catechetical form, which, in a.d. 1643, was for- mally atithorized by the Orthodox j^atriarchs as 'Op^o'Sofos oixoXoyia rijs Kado\LKi]s Kal anoaToXiKijs eKKXrjaiai r-qs dvaroXiKTjs. — Thirty years later a controversy on the eucharist broke out between the Jansenists Nicole and Arnauld, on the one side, and the Calvinists Claude and Jurieu, on the other (§ 157, 1), in which both claimed to be in agreement with the Greek church. A sjaiod was convened under Dositheus of Jeru- salem in a.d. 1672, at the instigation of French diplomatists, where the questions raised by Cyril were again taken into consideration.
> Neale, " History of the Holy Eastern Church," vol. ii., p. 356 If. Cyrillus Lucaris, " Confesdo Christiame FideV Geneva, 1633. Smith, " Collectanea de CijriUo Lucario."' London, 1707.
§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 3
Maintaining a friendly attitude toward the Komish church, it directed a violent polemic against Calvinism. In order to save the character of the Constantinopolitan chair for constant Orthodoxy, Cyi'il's con- fession of A.D. l(j'29 was pronounced a siiuiious, heretical invention, and a confession composed by Dositheus, in which Cyril's Calvinistic heresies were repudiated, was incorporated with the s3'nod"s acts.
§ 153, Catholicism axd Protestantism,
The Jesuit counter-reformation (§ 151) was eminently suc- cessful during the first decades of the century in Bohemia, The Westphalian Peace restrained its violence, but did not prevent secret machinations and the open exercise of all conceivable arts of seduction. Next to the conversion of Bohemia, the greatest triumph of the restoration was won in Prance in the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Besides such victories the Catholics were able to glory in the con- version of several Protestant princes. New endeavours at union were repeatedly made, but these in every case proved as fruitless as former attempts had done.
1, Conversions of Protestant Princes. — The first reigning prince who became a convert to Eomanism was the Margrave James III. of Badeu, He went over in a.d. 1590 (§ 144, 4), bvit as his death occurred soon after, his conduct had little inliuence iipon his people. Of greater consequence was the conversion, in a.d. 1614, of the Comit- palatine Wolfgano- William of Neuburg, as it prepared the way for the catholicizing of the whole Palatinate, which followed in a.d. 1685, Much was made of the passing over to the Catholic church of Christina of Sweden, the highly gifted but eccentric daughter of Gustavvis Adolphus. As she had resigned the crown, the pope gained no political advantage from his new member, and Alexander VII, had even to contribute to her support. The Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II., passed over to the Roman Catholic chtu-ch in a,d, 1697, in order to tiualify himself for the Polish crown ; but the rights of his Protestant subjects were carefully guarded. An awkAvardness arose from the fact that the prince was pledged by the directory of the Eegensburg Diet of a.d, 1653 to care for the interests of the evangelical church. Now that he had become a Catholic, he still formally promised to do so, but had his duties dlsjharged by a commissioner. tSubs •(iuent]3- this otHcer
4 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
was ordered to take his directions from the evangelical council of Dresden.
2. The Restoration in Germany and the Neighbouring States (§ 151, 1). — Matthias having, in violation of the royal letter of his predecessor Rudolph II. (§ 139, 19), refused to allow the Pi-otestants of Bohemia to build churches, was driven out ; the Jesuits also were expelled, and the Calvinistic Elector-palatine Frederick V. was chosen as prince in A.D. 1619. Ferdinand II. (a.u. 1619-1637) defeated him, tore \ip the royal letter, restored the Jesuits, and expelled the Protestant pastors. Efforts were made by Christian IV. of Denmark and other Protestant princes to save Protestantism, but without success. Ferdinand now issued his Restitution Edict of a.d. 1629, which deprived Protestants of their privileges, and gave to Catholic nobles unrestricted liberty to suppress the evangelical faith in their dominions. It was then that Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, in religious not less than political interests, made his appearance as the saviour of Protestantism.' The unhappy war was brought to an end in a.u. 1648 by the publication at Minister and Osnabriick of the Peace of Westphalia, which Innocent X. in his bull '■'■ Zelo ]Joinus Dei"' of a.d. 1(>"j1 pi'onounced " null and void, without influence on past, present, and future.'' Germany lost several noble provinces, but its intellectual and religious freedom was saved. Under Swedish and French guarantee the Augsburg Religious Peace was confirmed and even extended to the Reformed, as related to the Avigsburg Confession. The chtu'ch property Avas to be restored on January 1st, a.d. 1624. The political equality of Protestants and Catholics throughout Germany was distinctly secured. In Bohemia, however. Protestantism was thoroughly extirjjated, and in the other Austrian states the oppression continued down to the time of Joseph II. In Silesia, from the passing of the Restitution Edict, over a thousand churches had been violently taken from the evangelicals. No compensation was now thought of, but rather the persecution continued throughout the whole century (§ 165, 4), and many thou- sands were compelled to migrate, for the most part to Upper Lusatia.
3. Also in Livonia, from a.d. 1561 under Polish rule, the Jesuits gained a footing and began the restoration, but under Gustavus Adolphus from a.d. 1621 their machinations were brought to an end. — The ruthless Valteline Massacre of a.d. 1620 may be described as a Swiss St. Bartholomew on a small scale. All Protestants were mur- dered in one day. The conspirators at a signal from the clock tower
* Stevens, " Life and Times of Gustavus Adolphus."' New York, 1884. Trench, " Gustavus Adolphus in Germany, and other Lectures on the Thirty Years' "War." London. Gardiner, " The Thirty Years' War " in "Epochs of Modern History." London, 1881,
§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PROTESTANTISM. 5
in the early morning broke into the houses of heretics, and put all to death, down to the very babe in the cradle. Between four and five hundred were slaughtered.— In Hungary, at the close of the preceding centiu-y only thi-ee noble families remained Catholic, and the Protes- tant churches numbered 2,000 ; but the Jesuits, who had settled there under the pi-otection of Rudolph II. in 1579, resumed their intrigues, and the Archbishop of Gran, Pazmany, wrought hard for the restora- tion of Catholicism. Eakoczy of Transylvania, in the Treaty of Linz of A.D. 1645, concluded a league offensive and defensive wath Sweden and France, which secured political and religious liberty for Hungarj' ; but of the 400 churches of Avhich the Protestants had been robbed only ninet3^ were given back. The bigoted Leopold I., from a.d. 1655 king of Hungary, inaugurated a yet more severe persecution, which continued until the publication of the Toleration Edict of Joseph II. in A.D. 1781. The 2,000 Protestant congregations were by this time reduced to 105.
4. The Huguenots in France (§ 139, 17).— Henry IV. faithfully ful- filled the promises Avhich he made in the Edict of Nantes ; but under Louis XIIL, A.u. 1610-1648, the oppressions of the Huguenots were renewed, and led to fresh outbreaks. Richelieu withdrew their political privileges, but granted them i-eligious toleration in the Edict of Nismes, a.d. 1629. Louis XIY., a.d. 1648-1715, at the instigation of his confessors, sought to atone for his sins by purging his land of heretics. When bribery and court favour had done all that they could do in the waj^ of conversions, the fi^arful dragonnades began, A.D. 1681. The formal Revocation of the Edict of Nantes followed in A.D. 1685, and pei-secution raged with the utmost violence. Thousands of churches Avere torn down, vast numbers of confessors were tortiu'ed , burnt, or sent to the galleys. In spite of the terrible penal laws against emigrating, in spite of the watch kept over the frontiers hundreds of thousands escaped, and were received with open arms as refugees in Brandenburg, Holland, England, Denmark, and Switzer- land. Man}- fled into the wilds of the Cevennes, where under the name of Camisards they maintained a heroic conflict for years, until at last exterminated by an army at least ten times their strength. The struggle reached the utmost intensity of bitterness on both sides in A.D. 1702, when the fanatical and inhumanly cruel inquisitor, the Abbe du Chaila, was slain. At the head of the Camisard army was a yomig peasant, Jean Cavalier, who by his energetic and skilful con- duct of the campaign astonished the world. At last the famous Mar- shal Villars, by promising a general anxnesty, release of all prisoners, permission to emigrate with possessions, and religious toleration to those who remained, succeeded in persuading Cavalier to lay down his arms. The king ratified this bargain, only refusing the right of
6 CHURCH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
religious freedom. Many, however, sulomittcd ; Avhile others emigrated, mostly to England. Cavalier entered the king's service as colonel ; but distrusting the arrangements fled to Holland, and afterwards to England, Avhere in a.d. 1740 he died as governor of Jei'sey. In a.d, 1707 a new outbreak took place, accompanied by jjrophetic fanaticism, in conseqiience of repeated dragoniiades, but it was put do^vai by the stake, the galloAvs, the axe, and the wheel. France had lost half a million of her most pious, industrious, and capable inhabitants, and yet two millions of Huguenots deprived of all their rights remained in the land.^
5. The "Waldensians in Piedmont (§ 139, 25).— Although in a.d. 1654 the Duke of Savoy confirmed to the Waldensians their privileges, by Easter of the following year a bloody persecution broke out, in Avhich a Piedmontese arniA', together with a horde of released prisoners and Irish refugees, driven from their native land by Cromwell's severities, to whom the duke had given shelter in the valleys, perpetrated the most horrible cruelties. Yet in the desperate conflict the Waldensians held their grovmd. The intervention of the Protestant Swiss cantons won for them again a measure of toleration, and liberal gifts from abroad compensated them for their loss of property. Cromwell too sent to the relief of the sufferers the celebrated Lord Morland in a.d, 1658. While in the vallej's he got possession of a number of MSS. (§ 108, 11), which he took home with him and deposited in the Cam- bridge Library. In a.d. 1685 the persecution and civil war were again renewed at the instigation of Louis XIV. The soldiers besieged the vallej's, and more than 14,000 captives were consigned to fortresses and prisons. But the rest of the Waldensians plucked up courage, inflicted many defeats upon their enemy, and so moved the government in a.d. 1686 to release the prisoners and send them out of the country. Some fomid their Avay to Germany, others fled to Switzerland. These last, aided by Swiss troops, and led by their oAvn pastor, Henry Arnaud, made an attack upon Piedmont in a.d, 1689, and conquered again their own countrj-. They continued in possession, notwith- standing all attempts to dislodge them.
6. The Catholics in England and Ireland. — When James I., a.d. 1603- 1625, the son of Mary Stuart, ascended the English throne (i? 139, 11), the Catholics expected from him nothing short of the complete restora- tion of the old religion. But great as James' inclination towards
1 Bray, " Revolt of the Protestants of the Cevennes." London, 1870, Poole, " History of the Huguenots of the Dispersion.'' London, 1880, AgneAv, " Protestant Exiles from France in the B,eign of Louis XIV." 3 vols. London, 1871. Weiss, "History of French Protestant Refu- gees." London, 1854.
§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PEOTESTANTISM. 7
Catholicism may liavp bc^en, his love of despotic authority was still greater. He therefore rigorously suppressed the Jesuits, who disputed the royal siipremac3' over the church; and the bitterness of the Catholics now reached its height. They organized the so-called Gunpowder Plot, with the intention of blowing up the royal family and the whole Parliament at the first meeting of the house. At the head of the conspiracy stood Rob. Catesby, Thomas Percy of Northmnber- land, and Guy Fawkes, an English officer in the Spanish service. The plan Avas discovered shortly before the day appointed for its execution. On November 5th, a.d. 1605, Fawkes, with lantern and matches, was seized in the cellai-. The rest of the conspirators fled, but, after a desperate struggle, in which Catesby and Percy fell, were arrested, and, together with two Jesiiit accomplices, executed as traitors. Gi'eat severities were then exercised toward the Catholics, not only in England, but also in Ireland, where the bulk of the population Avas attached to the Eomish faith. James I. completed the transference of ecclesiastical property to the Anglican church, and robbed the Irish nobles of almost all their estates, and gifted them over to Scottish and English favourites. All Catholics, because they refused to take the oath of supremacy, i.e. to recognise the king as head of the church, were declared ineligible for any civil office. These oppressions at last led to the fearful Irish massacre. In October, a.d. 1641, a desperate outbreak of the Cath<ilics took place throughout the country. It aimed at the destruction of all Protestants in Ireland. The conspirators rushed from all sides into the houses of the Protes- tants, murdered the inhabitants, and drove them naked and heljdess from their homes. Many thousands died on the roadside of hunger and cold. In other places they were driven in crowds into the rivers and drowned, or into emiJty houses, Avhich were burnt over them. The number of those who suffei'ed is variously estimated from 40,000 to 400,000. Charles I., a.d. 1625-164!), was suspected as instigator of this terrible deed, and it may be regarded as his fii-st step toward the scaffold (!^ 155, 1). After the execution of Charles, Oliver Cromwell, in A.D. 1(549, at the call of Parliament, took feai'ful revenge for the Irish crime. In the two cities which he took by storm he had all the citizens cut down without distinction. Panic-stricken, the inhabitants of the other cities fled to the bogs. Within nine months the whole island was reconquered. Hundreds of thousands, driven from their native soil, wandered as homeless fugitives, and their lands Avere divided among English soldiers and settlers. During the time of the English Commonwealth, a.d. 1649-1660, all moderate men, even those who had formerly demanded religious toleration, not only for all Christian sects, but also for Jcavs and Mohammadans, and even atheists, were now at one in excluding Catholics from its benefit,
8 CHUECH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY.
because they all saw in the Catholics a party ready at any moment to prove traitors to their countr3^ at the bidding of a foreign sovereign. — The Restoration vmder Charles II. could not greatly ameliorate the calamities of the Irish. Religious persecution indeed ceased, but the property taken from the Catholic church and native owners still remained in the hands of the Anglican church and the Protestant occupiers. To counterbalance the Catholic proclivities of Charles II. (§ 155, 3), the English Parliament of a.d. 1678 passed the Test Act, which required every civil and militaiy officer to take the test oaths, condemning transubstantiation and the worship of the saints, and to receive the communion according to the Anglican rite as members of the State church. The statements of a certain Titus Gates, that the Jesuits had organized a plot for murdering the king and restoring the papacy, led to fearful riots in a.d. 1678 and many executions. But the reports were seemingly unfounded, and were probably the fruit of an intrigue to deprive the king's Catholic brother, James II., of the right of succession. When James ascended the throne, in a.d. 1685, he immediately entered into negotiations with Rome, and filled almost all offices with Catholics. At the invitation of the Protestants, the king's son-in-law, "William III. of Orange, landed in England in A.D. 1688, and on James' flight was declared king by the Parliament. The Act of Toleration, issued by him in a.d. 1689, still withheld from Papists the privileges now extended to Protestant dissenters (§ 155, 3).' 7. Union IfEorts. — (1) Although Hugo Grotius distinctly took the side of the Remonstrants (§ 160, 2), his Avhole disposition was essen- tially irenical. He attempted, but in vain, not only the reconciliation of the Arminians and Calvinists, but also the union of all Protestant sects on a common basis. Toward Catholicism he long maintained a decidedly hostile attitude. But through intimate intercourse with distinguished Catholics, especially during his exile in France, his feelings Avere completely changed. He now invariably expressed himself more favourably in regard to the faith and the institutions of the Catholic church. Its semi-Pelagianism was acceptable to him as a decided Arminian. In his " Votum pro Pace^'' he recommended as the only possible way to restore ecclesiastical union, a return to Catholicism, on the vmderstanding that a thorough reform should be made. But that he was himself ready to pass over, and was hindered only by his sudden death in a.d. 1645, is merely an illusion of
' Macaulay, " History of England from the Accession of James II." London, 1846. Hassencami), " History of Ireland from the Reforma- tion to the Union." London, 1888. Adair, " Rise and Progress of the Presbyterian Church of Ireland from 1623 to 1670." Belfast, 1866. Hamilton, "History of Presbyterian Church in Ireland." Edin., 1887.
§ 153. CATHOLICISM AND PKOTESTANTISM. 9
Eomish imagination.' — (2) King Wladislaus lY. of Poland thought a imion of Protestants and Catholics in his dominions not impossible, and with this end in view arranged the Religious Conference of Thorn in A.D. 1645. Prussia und Brandenburg were also invited to take part in it. The elector sent his court preacher, John Berg, and asked from the Duke of Brunswick the assistance of the Helmstadt theologian, George Calixt. The chief representatives of the Lutheran side were Abraham Calov, of Danzig, and John Hiilsemann, of Witten- berg. That Calixt, a Lutheran, took the part of the Keformed, intensified the bitterness of the Lutherans at the outset. The result was to increase the split on all sides. The Reformed set forth their opinions in the "JJecla ratio Tliorunenfiia" which in Brandenburg ob- tained symbolical rank. — (H) J. B. Bossuet, who died in a.d. 1704, Bishop of Meaux, used all his eloquence to prepare a ^\'^.y for the return of Protestants to the church in which alone is salvation. In several treatises he gave an idealized exposition of the Catholic doctrine, glossed over what was most offensive to Protestants, and sought by subtlety and sophistry to represent the Protestant system as contradic- tory and untenable.'-' Diu-ing the same period the Spaniard Spinola, Bishop of Neustadt, who had come into the country as father confessor of the empress, proposed a scheme of union at the imperial court. The controverted ^xiiuts were to be decided at a free coimcil, but the ]n-imacy of the pope and the hierarchical system, as fomided jure Iiiimano, were to be retained. In prosecuting his scheme, "with the secret suppoi't of Leopold I., Spinola, between a.d. 1670 and 1691, travelled through all Protestant Germany. He found most success, out of i-espect for the emperor, in Hanover, where the Abbot of Loccuni, Molanus, zealously advocated the proposed luiion, in which on the Catholic side Bossuet, on the Protestant side the great jjhilosopher Leibnitz, took part. But the negotiations ended in no practical result. That Leibnitz had himself been already secretly inclined to Catholicism, some think to have i^roved by a manuscript, found after his death, entitled in another's hand, " Systema Theoloijicitni Lelhnitii."' Favour- abh" disposed as Leibnitz was to investigate and recognise what was profound and true even in Catholicism, so that he reached the conviction that neither of the two churches had given perfect and adequate expres- sion to Christian truth, he has apparenth' sought in this work to make
1 Butler, "Life of Hugo Grotius." London, 1826. Motley, "John of Barneveld," vol. ii. New York, 1874.
' " An Exposition of the Doctrine of the Catholic Church in Matters of Controversj'." London, 168.5. "Yariations of Protestantism."' 2 vols. Dublin, 1836. Butler, " Some Account of the Life and Writings of Bishop Bossuet."' London, 1812.
10 CHUECH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
clear to himsplf wliat and liow much of specificall3'^ Catholic doctrines were justifiable, and to sketch out a system of doctrine occtipying a place superior to both confessions. In this treatise many doctrines are expressed in a manner quite divergent from that of the Tridentine creed, while several expressions show hoAv clearly he perceived the contradiction between his own Protestant faith and the Bomish system, amid all his attempts to effect a reconciliation.
S. The Lehnin Prophecy. — The hope entertained, about the end of the seventeenth century, by Catholics throughout Germany of the speedy restoration of the mother church Avas expressed in the so called Vaticininm Lehninense. Professedly composed in the thirteenth cen- tuiy by a monk called Hermann, of the cloister of Lehnin in Bi-anden- burg, it characterized with historical accuracy in 100 Leonine verses the Brandenburg princes do-\vai to Frederick III., of whose coronation in A.D. 1701 it is ignorant, and after this proceeds in a purely fanciful and arbitrary manner. From Joachim II., who openly joined the Ee- formation, it enumerates eleven members, so that the history is just brought down to Frederick "William III. With the eleventh the HohenzoUern dynasty ends, Germany is united, the Catholic church restored, and Lehnin raised again to its ancient gkny. Under Frederick William IV., the Catholics diligently sought to i)rove the genuinenesjs of the 2:»rophecy, and by arbitrary methods to extend it so as to include this prince. Lately " the deadly sin of Israel " spoken of in it has been pointed to as a proi)hecy of the KuJtur-hampf of our own day (§ 197)- The first certain trace of the poem is in a.d. 1693. Hilgenfeld thinks that its author was a fanatical pervert, Andr. Fromm, who was pre- \'iousl3' a Protestant pastor in Berlin, and died in a.d. 1()85 as canon of Leitmeritz, in Bfdiemia.
§ 154. Luther AxisM axd Calvinism.
The Reformed churcli made its way into the heart of Lutheran Grermany (§ 144) by the Calviuizing of Hesse- Cassel and Lippe, and by the adherence of the electoral house of Brandenburg. Renewed attempts to unite the two churches were equall}' fruitless with the endeavours after a Catholic-Protestant x;nion.
1. Calvinizing of Kesse-Cassel, A.D. 1605 1646.— Philip the Magnani- mous, died ir)(i7, left to his eldest son, William IV., one half of his territories, comprising Lower Hesse and Schmalcald, with residence at Cassel ; to Louis IV. a foiu'th part, viz. Upper Hesse, with residence at Marburg ; while his two j'oungest sons, Philip and George, were
5^ 154. LUTHEEANISM AND CALVINISM. 11
made counts, with tlieir i-esidence at Darmstadt. Philip died in 1588 and Louis in 1H04, both childless ; in consequence of Avhich the greater part of Philip's territory and the northern half of Upper Hesse Avith Marburg fell to Hesse-Cassel, and the southern half -with Giessen to Hesse-Dannstadt. — Landgrave William IV. of Hesse-Cassel sympa- thised with his father's union and levelling tendencies, and by means of general synods Avrought eagerly to seciire acceptance for them tlu'oughout Hesse by setting aside the ubiquitous Christologj^ (§ 1-12,9) and the Formula of Concord, while firmly maintaining the ( 'orpun DoclritHV Pliilippirum (§ 142, 10). The fourth and last of those general synods was held in 1.582. Further procedure was meanwhile rendered impossible by the increase of opposition. For, on the one hand, Louis IV., luider the influence of the acute and learned but contentious J?]gidius Humiius, professor of theology at Marburg, 157(3-1592, be- came more and more decidedly a representative of exclusive Luther- anism ; and, on the other hand, William's Calvinizing schemes became from day to day more reckless. His son and successor Maurice went forward more energetically along the same lines as his father, es- peciall}' after the death of his uncle Louis in 1(304, who bequeathed to him the Marburg part of his territories. These had been given him on condition that he should hold by the confession and its apolog}' as guaranteed b3- Cliarles V. in 1580. But in 1(305 he forbad the Marburg theologians to set forth the ubiquity theology; and when they protested, issued a foi-mal prohibition of the dogma witii its presuppositions and consequences, and insisted on the introduction of the Eefomied niunbering of the commandments of the decalogue, and the breaking of bread at the commimion, and the removal of the remaining images from the churches (§ 144, 2). The theologians again protested, and Avere deprived of their offices. The resiilt was the oiit- break of a popiilar tumult at Marburg, Avhich Maurice suppressed by calling in the military. When in several places in L^i^per and even in Lower Hesse opposition was i^ersisted in, and the resisting clergy could not be won over either by persuasion and threatening or by persecu- tion, Maurice in 1G07 convened consultative diocesan synods at Cassel, Eschwege, Marburg, St. Goar, and soon after a general synod at Cassel, which, giving exi:)ression on all points to the will of the landgi'Uve, drew up, besides a new hj-mnbook and catechism, a new " Christian and correct confession of faith," by which they openly and decidedly declared tlieir attachment to the Keformed church. Soon Hesse ac- cepted these conclusions, but not the rest of the state, A\here the opposition of the nobles, clergy, and people, in spite of all attempts to enforce this acceptance by military powei'. imprisonment, and deposi- tion, could not be altogether overcome. — ^Meanwhile George's son and successor, Louis V., 1.59(3-162(i, had been eagerlj' seeking to make capital
12 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
of those troubles iu liis cousin's domains in favour of the Dannstadt dynasty. He gave his protection to the professors expelled from Mar- burg in 1605, founded in 1607 a Lutheran university at Giessen, and made accusations against his cousin before the imperial supreme court, which in 1623, on the basis of the will of Louis IV. and the Religious Peace of Augsburg (§ 137, 5), declared the inheritance for- feited, and entrusted the electors of Cologne and Saxony with the execution of the sentence. These in conjunction Avith the troops of the league under Tilly attacked Upper and Lower Hesse •, the Lutheran University of Giessen was transferred to Marburg, and Upper Hesse, after the banishment of the Reformed pastors, went over wholly to the Lutheran confession. Maiu-ice, completely broken down, resigned in favour of his son William V., who Avas obliged to make an agreement, according to Avhich he made over Upi^er Hesse, Schmalcald, and Katzenelnbogen to George II. of Hesse-Darmstadt, the successor of Louis V. In consequence of his attachment to Clustavus Adolphus in the Thirty Y'ears' War the ban of the empire was pronounced npon William. He died in 1637. His widow, Amalie Elizal)eth, undertook the government on behalf of her young son William VI., and in 1646, after repeated victories over George's troops, made a new agreement with him, by which the territories taken away in 1627 were restored to Hesse-Cassel, under a guarantee, however, that the status quo in matters of religion should be pi-eserved, and that they should continue predominantly Lutheran. The university property was divided ; Giessen obtained a Lutheran, Marburg a Reformed institution, and Lower Hesse received a moderatelj^ but yet essentially Reformed eccle- siastical constitution.
2. Calvinizing of Lippe, A.D. 1602. — Count Simon VI. of Lippe, in his eventful life, was broixght into close relations Avith the Reformed Netherlands and Avith Maiirice of Hesse. His dominions were thoroughly Luthei'an, but from a.d. 1602 Calvinism was gradually introduced vinder the patronage of the prince. The chief promoter of this innovation Avas Dreckmeyer, chosen general sujjerintendent in A.D. 1599. At a A' isitation of churches in a.d. 1602, the festiA^als of Mary and the apostles, exorcism, the sign of the cross, the host, burning candles, and Luther's catechism Avere rejected. Opi^osing pastors Avere dejjosed, and Calvinists put in their place. The city Lemgo stood out longest, and persevered in its adherence to the Lutheran confession during an ele\'en years' struggle Avith its prince, from A.D. 1606 to 1617. After the death of Simon VI., his successor, Simon VII., alloAved the city the free exercise of its Lutheran religion.
3. The Elector of Brandenburg becomes Calvinist, A.D. 1613. — John Sigismvmd, a.d. 1608-1619, had promised his grandfather, John George, to maintain his comiexion Avith the Lutheran church. But his OAvn incli-
§ 154. LUTHEKANISM AND CALVINISM. 13
nation, which was strengthened by his son's marriage with a princess of the Palatinate, and his connexion with the Netherlands, made him forget his promise. Also his court preacher, the crypto-Calvinist Solomon Fink, contributed to the same result. On Christmas Day, a.d. 1613, he went over to the Reformed church. In order to share in the Augsburg Peace, he still retained the A\igsbiirg Confession, naturally in the form known as the Vatiata. In a.d. 1624, he issued a Calvinist confession of his own, the Coiifessio Siyi-smundi or Ma rch ica , which sought to reconcile the universality of grace with the particularity of election (§ 168, 1). His people, however, did r.ot follow the prince, not even his consort, Anne of Prussia. The court preacher, Gedicke, who would not retract his invectives against the prince and the Reformed confession, was obliged to flee from Berlin, as also another preacher, Mart. Willich. But when altars, images, and baptismal fonts were thrown out of the Berlin chvirches, a tumult arose, in A.n. 1615, which was not suppressed without bloodshed. In the following year the elector forbade the teaching of the rommunicaiio idioinatum and the libiquitas corporis (§ 141, 9) at the University of Frankfort-on-the- Oder. In a.d. 1614, owing to the publication of a keen controversial treatise of Hutter (§ 158, 5) he forbade any of his subjects going to the University of Wittenberg, and soon afterwards struck out the Formula of Concord from the collection of the symbolical books of the Lutheran church of his realm. — Continuation, § 169, 1.
4. Union Attempts. — Hoe von Hoenegg, of an old Austrian family, was frona a.d. 1612 chief court preacher at Dresden, and as spiritual adviser of the elector, John George, on the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War, got Lutheran Saxony to take the side of the Catholic emperor against the Calvinist Frederick V. of the Palatinate, elected king of Bohemia. In a.d. 1621, he had proved that " on ninety-nine points the Calvinists were in accord with the Arians and the Tuiks."' At the Religious Conference of Leipzig of a.d. 1631 a compromise Avas accei^ted on both sides ; but no practical result was secured. The Religious Conference of Cassel, in a.d. 1661, was a well meant endeavour by some Marburg Reformed theologians and Lutherans of the school of Calixt (§ 158, 2) ; but owing to the agitation caused by the Synergist controvex'sy, no important advance toward union could be accom- plished. The vmion efforts of Duke William of Brandenburg, a.d. 1640- 1688, were opposed by Paul Gerhardt, preacher in the church of St. Nicholas in Berlin. On refusing to abstain from attacks on the Reformed docti'ine he was deposed fi'om his office. He was soon aji- pointed pastor at Lilbben in Lusatia, where he died in a.d. 1676. — The most zealous apostle of universal Protestant union, embracing even the Anglican church, was the Scottish Presbyterian John Durie. From A.D. 1628 when he officiated as pastor of an English colony at Elbing,
14 CHURCH HISTORY OP SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
till his death at Cassel in a.d. 1B40, he devoted his energies un- weariedly to this one task. He repeatedly travelled through Germany, Sweden, Denmark, England, and the Netherlands, formed acquain- tance with clerical and civil authorities, had intercourse with them by word and letter, published a multitude of tracts on this subject ; but at last could only look back with bitter complaints over the lost labours of a lifetime.' — Continuation, § 169, 1.
§ 155, Anglicanism and Puritanism.-
On the outbreak of the English. Revolution, occasioned by the despotism of the first two Stuarts, crowds of Puritan exiles returned from Holland and North America to their old home. They powerfully strengthened their secret sympathisers in their successful struggle against the episcopacy of the State church (§ 131,0); but, breaking up into rival parties, as Presbyterians and Independents (§ 143, 3, 4), gave way to fanatical extravagances. The victorious jiarty of Indepen- dents also split into two divisions : the one, after the old Dutch style, simple and strict believers in Scripture ; the other, first in Cromwell's army, fanatical enthusiasts and visionary saints (§ IGl, 1). The Restoration, under the last two Stuarts, sought to re-introduce Catholicism. It was William of Orange, by his Act of Toleration of A.D. 1G89, who first brought to a close the Reformation struggles within the Anglican church. It guaranteed, indeed, all the
* "The Work of John Durie in behalf of Christian Union in the Seventeenth Century," by Dr. Briggs in Prenhyterian Review, vol. viii., 1887, pp. 297-30(3. To which is attached an account by Durie himself, Jiever before published, of his own union efforts from Juh', 1631, till September, 1633. See pp. 301-309.
2 Clarendon, " History of the Eebellion in England, 1649-1666." 3 vols. Oxford, 1667. Burnet, " History of his Own Time, 1660-1713." 2 vols. London, 1724, Guizot, " History of English Eevolution of 1640," London, 18.56, Gardiner, "History of England, 1603-1642." 10 vols, London, 1885, Marsden, " History of Early and Later Puri- tans, down to the Ejection of the Nonconformists in 1662." 2 vols. Loudon, 1853. Maeson, " Life of Milton,"' 4 vols. London, 1859 ff.
§ 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM. 15
pre-eminent privileges of an establishment to the Anglican and Episcopal church, but also granted toleration to dis- senters, while refusing it to Catholics.
1. The First Two Stuarts. -James I., doininated by the idea of tlie Yoyal svipremacy, and so estranged from the Presbyteriaiiism in which he was brouglit up (4? 1B9, 11), as king of England, a.d. lt)08-l()25, attached himself to the national Episcopal church, persecuted the English Puritans, so that many of them again fled to Holland (§ 148, 4), and forced Episcopacy upon the Scotch, Charles I., a.d. 1625-1649, went bej'ond his father in theory and practice, and thi;s incurred the hatred of his Protestant subjects. William Laud, from A.D. 1633 Archbishop of Canterbury, was the recklessly zealous pro- moter of his despotic ideas, representing the Episcoj)acy, by reason of its Divine institution and apostolic succession, as the foundation of the church and the pillar of an absolute monarchy. Laud used his position as primate to secure the introduction of his own theory into the public church services, among other things making the communion office an imitation as near as possible of the Romish mass. But when he attempted to force upon the Scotch such " Baal-Avorship " by the command of the king, they formed a league in a.d. 1638 for the defence of Presbyteriaiiism, the so called Great Covenant, and emphasised their demand by sending an army into England. The king, who had ruled for eleven j'ears witliout a Parliament, was obliged now to call together the representatives of the people. Scarcely had the Long Parliament, a.d. 1640-1653, in Avhich the Puritan element was supreme, pacified the Scotch, than oil was anew poured on the flames by the Irish massacx'e of a.d. 1641 (§ 153, 6). The Lower House, in spite of the persistent opposition of the court, resolved on excluding the bishops from the LTpper Housa and formally abolishing Episcopacy ; and in A.D. 1643, summoned the Westminster Assembly to remodel the organi- zation of the English church, at which Scotch representatives Avere to have a seat. After long and violent debates Avith an Independent minority, till a.d. 1648, the Assembly drew iip a Presbyterian con- stitution Avith a Puritan service, and in the Westminster Confession a strictly Calvinistic creed. But only in Scotland Avere these decisions heartily accepted. In England, notAvithstanding their confirmation by the Parliament, they I'eceived only partial and occasional accep- tance, OAving to the prevalence of Independent opinions among the people. — Since a.d. 1642, the tension betAveen court and Parliament had brought about the Civil AVar betAveen Cavaliers and Roundheads. In A.D. 1645, the royal troojjs Avere cut to pieces at Naseby by the parliamentary army under Fairfax and CromA\'ell. The king lied to
16 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
the Scotch, by whom he was surrendered to the English Parliament in A.D. 1647. But when now the fanatical Independents, who formed a majority in the armj', liegan to terrorise the Parliament, it opened negotiations for peace Avith the king. He was now ready to make almost any sacrifice, only on religious and conscientious grounds he could not agree to the unconditional abandonment of Episcopacy. Even the Scotch, whose Presbyterianism was now threatened by the Independents, as before it had been by the Episcopalians, longed for the restoration of royalty, and to aid in this sent an army into England in a.d. 1648. But they were defeated by Cromwell, who then dismissed the Parliament and had all its Presbyterian members either imprisoned or di'iven into retirement. The Independent remnant, known as the Rump Parliament, a.d. 1648-1653, tried the king for high treason and sentenced hini to death. On January 30th, a.d. 1649, he mounted the scaffold, on which Archbishop Laud had preceded him in A.D. 1645, and fell under the executioner's axe.'
2. The Commonwealth and the Protector. — Ireland had never yet atoned for its crime of a.d. 1641 (§ 153, 6), and as it refused to acknowledge the Commonwealth, Cromwell took terrible revenge in A.D. 1649. In A.D. 1650 at -Dunbar, and in a.d. 1651 at Worcester, he completely destroyed the army of the Scots, who had crowned Charles II., son of the executed king, drove out, in April a.d. 1653, the Rump of the Long Parliament, which had come to regard itself as a permanent institution, and in July opened, with a jjowerful speech, two hours in length, on God's ways and judgments, the Short or Barebones' Parlia- ment, composed of " pious and God-fearing men " selected by himself. In this new Parliament which, with prayer and psalm-singing, wrought hard at the re-organization of the executive, the bench, and the church, the two parties of Independents were represented, the fanatical enthusiasts indeed predominating, and so victorious in all matters of debate. To this ]iarty Cromwell himself belonged. His attachment to it, however, was considerably cooled in consequence of the excesses of the Levellers (§ 161, 2), and the fantastic policj' of the parliamentarian Saints disgusted him more and more. When there- fore, on December 12th, a.d. 1653, after five months' fruitless opposition to the radical demands of tlie extravagant majority, all the most moderate members of the Parliament had resigned their seats and returned their mandates into Cromwell's hands, he burst in upon
1 Mitchell, " The Westminster Assembly." London, 1882. Mitchell and Struthers, " Minutes of Westminster Assembly." Edinburgh, 1874. Macpherson, " Handbook to Westminster Confession." 2nd ed. Edinburgh, 1882. Hetherington, " History of Westminster Assembly'." 4th ed, Edinburgh, 1878.
§ 155. ANGLICANISM AND PURITANISM. 17
the psalm-singing remnant -with his soldiers, and entered upon his life-long office of the Protector of the Commonwealth with a new con- stitution. He proclaimed toleration of all religious sects, Catholics only being excepted on political grounds (§ 153, 6), giving equal rights to Presb^'terians, and offering no hindrance to the revival of Episcopacy. He yet remained firmlj^ attached to his early convictions. He believed in a kingdom of the saints embracing the whole earth, and looked on England as destined for the protection and spread of Protestantism. Ziirich greeted him as the great Protestant champion, and he showed himself in this role in the valleys of Piedmont (§ 153, 5), in France, in Poland, and in Silesia. He joined with all Protestant governments into a league, offensive and defensive, against fanatical attempts of Papists to recover their lost ground. When SjDain and France sued for his alliance, he made it a condition with the former that, besides allowing free trade with the West Indies, it should abolish the Inquisition and of France he required an assurance that the rights of Huguenots should be respected. And Avhen in Germany a new election of emperor Avas to take place, he urged the great electors that thej' should by no means allow the imperial throne to continue Avith the Catholic house of Austria. Meanwhile his path at home Avas a thorny one. He Avas obliged to suppress fifteen open rebellions during fi\-e 3'ears of his reign, countless secret plots threatened his life every day , and his bitterest foes Avere his former comrades in the camp of the the saints. After refusing the croAvn offered him in a.d. 1657, Avithout being able thereby to quell the discontents of i^arties, he died on September 3rd, a.d. 1658, the anniversary of his glorious victories of Dunbar and Worcester.'
3. The Restoration and the Act of Toleration.— The Restoration of ro5'alty under Charles II., a.u. 1660-1685, began Avith the reinstating of the Episcopal church in all the privileges granted to it under Elizabeth. The Corporation Act of December, a.d. 1661, Avas the first of a series of enactments for this purjwse. It required of all magis- trates and ci\'il officers that they should take an oath acknoAvledging the royal supremacy and communicate in the Episcopal church. The Act of Uniformity of May, a.d. 1662, Avas still more oppressive. It prohibited any clergyman entering the English pulpit or discharging any ministerial function, unless he had been ordained by a bishop, had signed the Thirtj'-nine Articles, and undertook to conduct Avorship
^ Carlyle, " CroniAvell's Letters and Speeches.'' 2a-o1s. London, 1845. Guizot, " Life of CromAvell."' London, 1877. Paxton Hood, '• OliA-er CromAvell." London. 1882. Picton, " OliA'er Cromwell."' London, 1878. Harrison, " OliA^er CroniAvell." London, 1888, Barclay, '• The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Common Avea 1th. "' London, 1877.
VOL. III. 2
18 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
exactU^ ill accorilance with tlip newly revised Book of Common Prayer. More than 2,000 Puritan ministers, who couhl not conscientiously sub- mit to those terms, were driven out of their churches. Then in June, A.D. 1664, the Conventicle Act was renewed, enforcing attendance at the Episcopal church, and threatening with imprisonment or exile all found in any private religious meeting of more than five persons. In the following year the Five Mile Act inflicted heavy fines on all nonconformist ministers who should approach within five miles of their former congregation or indeed of any city. All these laws, although primarily directed against all Protestant dissenters, told equally against the Catholics, whom the king's Catholic sympathies would willingly have sijared. When now his league with Catholic France against the Protestant Netherlands made it necessary for him to appease his Protestant subjects, he hoped to accomi^lish this and save the Catholics by his " Declaration of Indulgence " of a.d. 1672, issued' with the consent of Parliament, which suspended all penal laws hitherto in force against dissenters. But the Protestant non- conformists saAv through this scheme, and the Parliament of a.u. 167B passed the anti-Catholic Test Act (§ 153, 6). Equally vain were all later attempts to secure greater liberties and i)rivileges to the Catho- lics. They only served to develop the powers of Parliament and to bring the Episcopalians and nonconformists more closely together. After spending his whole life oscillating between frivolous unbelief and Catholic superstition, Charles 11. , on his death-bed, formally went over to the Eomish church, and had the communion and extreme unction administered by a Catholic priest. His bx'other and successor James II., A.D. 1685-1688, Avho was from a.u. 1672 an avowed Catholic, sent a decla- ration of obedience to Rome, received a papal nuncio in London, and in the exercise of despotic power issued, in a.d. 1687, a " Declaration of Freedom of Conscience," which, under the fair colour of universal toleration and by the setting aside of the test oath, enabled him to fill all civil and military offices with Catholics. This act proved equally oppressive to the Episcopalians and to Protestant dissenters. This intrigue cost him his throne. He had, as he himself said, staked three kingdoms on a mass, and lost all the three. William III. of Orange, A.D. 1689-1702, grandson of Charles I. and son-in-law of James II., gave a final decision to the rights of the national Episcopal church and the position of dissenl^ers in the Act of Toleration of a.d. 1689, which he passed with consent of the Parliament. All penal laws against the latter were abrcigated, and religious liberty Avas extended to all Avith the exception of Catholics and Socinians. The retention of the Corporation and Test Acts, lioAvever, still excluded them from the exercise of all political rights. They were also still obliged to pay tithes and other church dues to the Episcopal clergy of their
§156. PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 19
dioceses, and their marriages and baptisms had to he administM'ed in the parish chui'ches. Their ministers were also obliged to subscribe the Thirty -nine Articles, with reservation of those points opposed to their principles. The Act of Union of a.d. 1707, passed under Queen Anne, a daughter of James II., which miited England and Scotland into the one kingdom of C4reat Britain, gave legitimate sanction to a separate ecclesiastical establishment for each countrj'. In Scotland the Presbj'terian churches continiied the established church, while the Episcopal was tolerated as a dissenting liody. Congregationalism, how- ever, has been practically limited to England and North America.' — Continuation. § 'iO'i, 5.
II.— The Roman Catholic Church.
§ 15G. The Papacy, Moxkeky, and Foreign Missions.
Notwithstanding the regeneration of papal Catholicism since the middle of the sixteenth centurj^, Hildebrand's poli- tico-theocratic ideal was not realized. Even Catholic princes would not be dictated to on political matters b}^ the vicar of Christ. The most powerful of them, France, Austria, and Spain, during the sixteenth centmy, and subsequently also Portugal, had succeeded in the claim to the right of excluding objectionable candidates in papal elections. Ban and inter- dict had lost their power. The popes, however, still clung to the idea after they had been obliged to surrender the realit}', and issued from time to time powerless protesta- tions against disagreeable facts of history. Several new monkish orders were instituted during this century, mostly for teaching the young and tending the sick, but some also expressly for the promoting of theological science. Of all the orders, new and old, the Jesuits were by far the most powerful. They were regarded with jealousy and suspicion by the other orders. In respect of doctrine the Dominicans
* Guizot, " Richard Cromwell and the Restoration of Charles IL" 2 volsi London, 185G. Macphei-son, " History of Great Britain from the Restoration/' London, 1875.
20 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
were as far removed from tliem as possible witliin the limits of the Tridentine Creed. But notwithstanding any such mutual jealousies, they were all animated by one yearning desire to oppose, restrict, and, where that was possible, to uproot Protestantism. With similar zeal they devoted them- selves with wonderful success to the work of foreign missions.
1. The Papacy. — Paul V., a.d. 1605-1621, equally energetic in his civil and in his ecclesiastical i^olicy, in a struggle witli Venice, was obliged to behold the powerlessness of the papal interdict. His suc- cessor, Gregory XV., a.d. 1621-1623, founded the Propaganda, prescribed a secret scrutiny in papal elections, and canonized Loyola, Xavier, and Neri. He enriched the Vatican Library by the addition of the vahi- able treasures of the Heidelberg Library, which Maximilian I. of Bavaria sent him on his conquest of the Palatinate. Urban VIII., a.d. 1623-1644, increased the Propaganda, imj^roved the Eoman "Breviary" (§ 56, 2), condemned Jansen's Augustinus (§ 156, 5), and compelled Galileo to recant. But on the other hand, through his onesided ecclesiastical policy he was led into sacrificing the interests of the imperial house of Austria. Not only did he fail to give support to the emperor, but quite openly hailed Gustavus Adolphus, the saviour of German Protestantism, as the God-sent saviour from the Spanish- Austrian tyranny. For this he was pronounced a heretic at the imperial coiirt, and threatened with a second edition of the sack of Eome (§ 132, 2). At the same time his soul was so filled with fanati- cal hatred against Protestantism, that in a letter of 1631 he congratu- lated the Emperor Ferdinand II. on the destruction of Magdeburg as an act most jDleasing to heaven and reflecting the highest credit upon Germanj', and expressed the hoiie that the glory of so great a victory should not be restricted to the ruins of a single city. On receiving the news of the death of Gustavus Adolphus in 1632 he broke out into loud jubilation, saying that now " the serpent was slain which with its iDoison had sought to destroy the Avhole world." His successor, Innocent X., a.d. 1644-1655, though vigorously protesting against the Peace of Westphalia (§ 153, 2), was, owing to his abject subserviency to a woman, his own sister-in-law, reproached with the title of a new Johanna Paidssa. Alexander VII., a.d. 1655-1667, had the expensive guardianship of his godchild Christina of Sweden (§ 153, 1), and fanned into a flame the spark kindled by his predecessor in the Jansenist con- troversy (§ 156, 5), so that his successor, Clement IX., a.d. 1667-1670, could only gradually extinguish it. Clement X., a.d. 1670-1676, by his preference for Spain roused the French king Louis XIV., who avenged himself by various encroachments on the ecclesiastical ad-
§ 156. PAPACY, MONKEEY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 21
ministration in his dominions. Innocent XI., A.n. 1G76-1(>S9, was a jjowerful pope, zealously promoting the weal of the church and the Papal States by introducing discipline among the clergy and attack- ing the immorality that ^jrevailed among all classes of society. He unhesitatingly condemned sixty-five propositions from the lax Jesuit code of morals. Against the arrogant ambassador of Louis XIV. he energetically maintained his sovereign rights in his own domains, while he unreservedly refused the claims of the French clergy, urged by the king on the ground of the exceptional constitution of the Galilean church. Alexander VIII., a.d. 1689-1691, continued the fight against Gallicanism, and condemned the Jesuit distinction between theological and philosophical sin (§ 149, 10). Innocent XII., a.d. 1691- 1700, could boast of having secured the complete subjugation of the Galilean clergy after a hard struggle. He too wrought earnestly for the reform of abuses in the curia. Specially creditable to him is the stringent bull '■'■ Romamim decet potitificeyn''' against nepotism, which extirpated the evil disease, so that it was never again openh^ practised as an acknowledged right. — Continuation, § 165, 1.
2. The Jesuits and the Republic of Venice. — Venice was one of the first of the Italian cities to receive the Jesuits with open arms, A.D. 1530. But the influence obtained by them over public affairs through school and confessional, and their vast wealth accumulated from bequests and donations, led the government, in a.d. 1605, to forbid their receiving legacies or erecting new cloisters. In vain did Paul V. remonstrate. He then put Venice under an interdict. The Jesuits sought to excite the jjeople against the government, and for this were banished in a.d. 1606. The pious and learned historian of the Council of Trent and adviser of the State, Paiil Sarpi, proved a vigorous sup- porter of civil rights against the assumptions of the curia and the Jesuits. When in a.d. 1607 he refused a citation of Inquisition, he was dangerously wounded by three dagger stabs, inflicted by hired bandits, in whose stilettos he recognised the stilum curia'. He died in A.D. 1628. After a ten months' vain endeavour to enforce the inter- dict, the pope at last, through French mediation, concluded a peace with the rejjublic, without, however, being able to obtain either the abolition of the objectionable ecclesiastico-political laws or i^ermission for the return of the Jesuits. Only after the r(^public had been Aveak- ened through the tmfortunate Turkish war of a.d. 1645 was it fomid willing to submit. Even in a.d. 1653 it refused the offer of 150,000 ducats from the Jesuit general for the Turkish campaign ; but when Alexander VII. suppressed several rich cloistei's, their revenues were thankfully accepted for this purpose. In a.d. 1^57, on the pope's V)romise of further pecuniary aid, the decree of banishment was -with- drawn. The Jesuit fathers now returned in crowds, and soon regained
22 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
much of tlieir form"^!- influence and wealth. No pope lias ever since issued an interdict against any countiy.'
3. The Galilean Liberties. — Although Louis XIV. of France, a.d. 1043- 1715, as a good Catholic king, powerfully supported the claims of papal dogmatics against the Jansenists (§§ 15(3, 5; 164,7), he was "by no means' unfaithful to the traditional ecclesiastical polity of his house (§§ 9(), 21 ; 110, 1, i), 13, 14), and was often irritated to the utmost pitch by the pope's opposition to his political interests. He rigorously insisted upon the old customary right of the Crown to the income of certain vacant ecclesiastical offices, the jus regalia', and extended it to all bishoprics, burdened church revenues Avith militaiy pensions, confiscated ecclesiastical property, etc. Innocent XI. ener- getically protested against such exactions. The king then had an assembly of the French called together in Pai is on March IHth, a.i>. 1682, Avhicli issued the famous Four Propositions of the Galilean Clergy, drawn up by Bishop Bossuet of Meaux. These set forth the funda- mental rights of the French church : (1) In secular affairs the jjope has no jurisdiction over princes and kings, and cannot release their subjects from their allegiance ; (2) The spiritual power of the pope is subject to the higher authority of the geneiul councils ; (3) For France it is further limited by the old French ecclesiastical laws ; and, (4) Even in matters of faith the judgment of the pope without the approval of a genei'al assembly of the ch\irch is not luialterable. Innocent conse- quently refused to institute any of the newly appointed bishops. He was not even appeased bj- the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in A.n. 1685. He was pleased indeed, and praised the deed, and celebrated it bj'- a Te Deitm, but objected to the violent measures for the conver- sion of Protestants as contrary to the teaching of Christ. Then also there arose a keen striiggle against the naischievous extension of the right of asylum on the part of foreign embassies at Rome. On the pope's rei)resentation all the powers but France agreed to a restriction of the custom. The pope tolerated the nuisance till the death of the French ambassador in a.d. 1687, but then insisted on its abolition under pain of the ban. In consequence of this Louis sent his new ambassador into Rome Avith two companies of cavaliers, threw the papal nuntio in France into prison, and laid siege to the papal state of Avignon (§ 110,4). But Innocent Avas not thus to be terrorized, and the French ambassador Avas obliged, after eighteeii months' \'ain de- monstrations, to quit Rome. Alexander VIII. repeated the condemna- tion of the Four Propositions, and Innocent XIII. also stood firm. The French episcopate, on the pope's jiersistent refusal to install bishops
' Bargraves, " Alexander VII. and His Cardinals," Ed. by Robert- son. London, 1866,
§ 156. PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 23
nominated by the king, Avas at last constrainetl to submit. " Lj'ing at the feet of his lioliness," the bishops declared that everything con- cluded in that assembly was null and void ; and even Louis XIV., under the influence of Madame de Maintenon (§ 157, 8), -wrote to the pope in A.u. 1093, saying that he recalled the order that the Four Propositions should be taught in all the schools. There still, however, survived among the French clergy a firm conviction of the Gallican Liberties, and the droit de rec/ale continued to have the force of law.* — Continuation, § 197, 1.
. 4. Galileo and the Inquisition. — Galileo Galilei, professor of mathe- matics at Pisa and Piidua, who died in a.u. Kil'i, among his nvany distinguished services to the ph^'sical, mathematical, and astronomical sciences, has the honour of being the pioneer champion of the Copernican system. On this accoiuit he A\-as charged by the monks A\-ith contra- dicting Scripture. In a.d. 161(5 Paul V., tlu-ough Cardinal Bellarmine, tlu'eatened lum with the Inquisition and prison unless he agreed to cease from vintlicating and lecturing upon his heretical doctrine. Ha gave the required i^romis?. But in a.d. 1632 he published a dialogue, in which three friends discussed the Ptolemaic and Copernican systems, without any formal conclusion, but giving overwhelming reasons in favour of the latter. Urban VIII., in a.u. 163(j, called upon the In- tpiisition to institute a pi-ocess against him. He was forcetl to recant, was condemned to piison for an indefinite period, but was soon liberated through powerful influence. How far the old man of seventj'-two yeai-s of age was compelled by torture to retract is still a matter of coutrovei-sy. It is, however, quite evident that it was forced from him hy threats. But that Galileo went out after his recantation, gnashing liis teeth and stamping his feet, muttering, " Nevertheless it moves ! " is a legend of a romancing age. This, however, is the fact, that the Congregation of the Index declared the Copernican theory to be false, irrational, and directly' contrary to Scripture ; and that even in A.r>. 16(J0 Alexander VII., with apostolic authority, formally confirmed this decree and pi-onounced it ex catliedrd {% 149, 4) irrevocable. It was only in a.d. 1822 that the curia set it aside, and in a new edition of the Index (§149, 14) in a.d. 1835 omitted the Avorks of Galileo as Avell as those of Copernicus.- 5. The Controversy on the Immaculate Conception (tj 112, 4) received
* Cunningham, " Discussions on Church Principles." Edin., 1868. Chap. V. : " The Liberties of the Gallican Church," pp. 133-1(53.
2 Von Gebler, " Galileo Galilei and the Roman Curia," transl. by Sturge, London, 1879. Madden, "Galileo and the Inquisition." London, 1863. Brewster, "Martyrs of Science." Edin., 1841. Von Gebler denies that any condemnation ex cathedra A\-as given.
24 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
a new impulse from the nun Mary of Jesus, died 1665, of Agre^a i^ Old Castile, superior of the cloister there of the Immaculate Conception, writer of the " Mystical City of God." This book professed to give an inspired account of the life of the Virgin, full of the strangest absur- dities aboiit the immaculate conception. The Sorbonne pronounced it offensive and silly ; the Inquisition in Spain, Portugal, and Eome forbad the reading of it ; but the Franciscans defended it as a divine revelation. A violent controversy ensued, which Alexander VII. silenced in a.d. 1661 by expressing appi'oval of the doctrine of the immaculate conception set forth in the book. — Continuation, § 185, 2.
6. The Devotion of the Sacred Heart of Jesus. — The mm Margaret Alacoque, in the Biirgundian cloister of Paraji le Monial, born a.d. 1647, recovering from a painful illness when but three years old, vowed to the mother of God, who frequently appeared to her, perpetual chastity, and in gratitude for her recovery adopted the name of Mary, and when grown up resisted temptations by inflicting on herself the severest discipline, such as long fasts, sharp flagellations, lying on thorns, etc. Visions of the Virgin no longer satisfied her. She longed to lavish her affections on the Redeemer himself, which she exj^ressed in the most extravagant terms. She took the Jesuit La Colomhiere as her spiritual adviser in A.n. 1675. In a new vision she beheld the side of her Beloved opened, and saw his heart glowing like a sun, into which her own was absorbed. Down to her death in a.u. 1690 she felt the most violent burning pains in her side. In a second vision she saw her Beloved's heart burning like a furnace, into which were taken her own heart and that of her spiritual adviser. In a third vision he enjoined the observance of a special " Devotion of the Sacred Heart " by all Christendom on the Friday after the octave of the Corpus Cliristi festival and on the first Friday of every month. La Colombi^re, being made director, ^mt forth every effoit to get this celebration introduced throughout the church, and on his death the idea was taken up by the whole Jesuit order. Their efforts, however, for fully a century proved unavailing. At this point, too, their most bitter opponents were the Dominicans. But even without papal authority the Jesuits so far succeeded in introducing the absurdities of this cult, and giving expression to it in word and by images, that by the begin- ning of the eighteenth century there were more than 300 male and female societies engaged in this devotion, and at last, in a.d. 1765, Clement XIII., the great friend of the Jesuits, gave formal sanction to this sjiecial celebration. — Continuation, §188, 12.
7. New Congregations and Orders. — (1) At the head of the new orders of this century stands the Benedictine Congregation of St. Banne at Verdun, founded by Didier de la Cour. Elected Abbot of St. Banne in A.D. 15-'16, he gave his whole strength to the reforming of this
§ 156. PAPACY, MONKEEY, AND FOEEIGN MISSIONS. 25
cloister, which had fallen into luxurious and immoral habits. By a papal bull of a.d. 1604 all cloisters combining with St. Banne into a congi-egation were endowed with rich privileges. Gradually all the Benedictine monasteries of Lorraine and Alsace joined the union. Didier's reforms were mostly in the direction of moral discipline and asceticism ; but in the new congregation scholarship was represented by Calmet, Ceillier, etc., and many gave themselves to work as teachers in the schools. — (2) Much more important for the promotion of theological science, esjiecially for patristics and church history, was another Benedictine congregation founded in France in a.d. 1618 by Laurence Bernard, that of St. Maur, named after a disciple of St. Benedict. The members of this order devoted themselves exclusively to science and literary pursuits. To them belonged the distinguished names, Mabillon, Montfaucon, Eeinart, Martene, D'Achery, LeNourry, Durand, Surius, etc. They showed unwearied diligence in research and a noble liberality of judgment. The editions of the most cele- brated Fathers issued by them are the best of the kind, and this may also be said of the great historical collections which we owe to their diligence. — (3) The Fathers of the Oratory of Jesus are an imitation of the Priests of the Oratory founded by Philip Xeri (§ 149, 7). Peter of Barylla, son of a member of parliament, founded it in a.d. 1611 by building an oratory at Paris. He was more of a mystic than of a scholar, but his order sent out many distinguished and brilliant theologians ; e.g. Malebranche, Morinus, Thomassinus, Rich. Simon, Houbigant. — (4)lhe Piarists, Patres scJioIarum pioj-«7», were founded in Eome in a.d. 1607 by the Spaniard Joseph Calasanza. The order adopted as a fourth vow the obligation of gratuitous tuition. They were hated by the Obscxirantist Jesuits for their successful labom-s for the improvement of Catholic education, especially in Poland and Austria, and also because they objected to all partici]:iation in political schemes. — (.5) The Order of the Visitation of Mary, or Salesian Xuns, in- stituted in A.D. 1610 by the mj'stic Francis de Sales and Francisca Chantal (§ 157, 1). They visited the poor and sick in imitation of Elizabeth's visit to the Virgin (Luke i. 89) ; but the papal rescript of A.D. 1618 gave prominence to the education of children.
8. — (6) The Priests of the Missions and Sisters of Charity were both founded bj' Vincent de Paul. Born of poor parents, he was, after completing his education, captured bj^ pirates, and as a slave con- verted his renegade master to Christianit3'. As domestic chaplain to the noble family of Gondy he was characterized in a remarkable degree for unassuming humility, and he M-rought earnesth^ and successfully as a home missionary. In a.d. 1618 he founded the order of Sisters of Mercy, who became devoted nurses of the sick throughout all France, and in a.d. 1627 that of the Priests of the Missions, or Lazarists, who
26 CHUECH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
trcavelled the country attending to the spiritual and bodily wants of men. After the death of the Countess Gondy in a.d. 1625, he placed at the head of the Sistei-s of Mercy the widow Louisa le Gras, dis- tinguished equally for qualities of head and heart. Vincent died in A.u. 1660, and was subsequently canonized. > — (7) The Trappists, founded by De Ranee, a distinguished canon, who in a.d. 16(i4 passed from the extreme of worldliness to the extreme of fanatical asceti- cism. The order got its name from the Cistercian abbey La Ti'appe in Noi'inandy, of which Eance was commendatory abbot. Amid many difficulties he succeeded, in a.u. 1665, in thoroughly reform- ing the wild monks, who were called " the bandits of La Trappe.' His rule enjoined on the monks perpetual silence, only broken in iniblic prayer and singing and in uttering the greeting as they met, Menietito mori. Their bed was a hard board with some straw ; their only food Avas bread and water, roots, herbs, some fruit and vegetables, Avithout butter, fat, or oil. Study was forbidden, and they occiipied themselves witli hai'd field labovu'. Their clothing was a dark -brown cloak A\'orn on the naked body, Avith wooden shoes. Very few cloisters besides La Trappe submitted to such severities (§ 185, 2). — (8) The English Nuns, founded at St. Omer, in France, by Mary Ward, the daughter of an English Catholic nobleman, for the education of girls. Originally composed of English maidens, it A\as afterwards enlarged by receiving those of other nationalities, Avith establishments in Germany, Italy, and the Netherlands. It did not obtain papal con- firmation, and in a.d. 1630 Urban VIIL, giving heed to the calumnies of enemies, formally dissolved it on account of ari'ogance, insubordina- tion, and heresy. All its institutions and schools Avere then closed, Avhile Mary herself Avas imjji'isoned and gi\'en OA^er to the Inquisition in Home. Urban Avas soon conA'inced of hei' innocence and set her free. Her scattered nunsAvere noAv collected again, but succeeded only in a.u. 1708 in obtaining confirmation from Clement XL Their chief tasks Avere the education of youth and care of the sick. They Avere arranged in three classes, according to their rank in life, and Avere bound by their voavs for a year or at the most three years, after Avhich they might i-eturn to the Avorld and marry. Their chief centime Avas BaA'aria Avith i\w mother cloister in Miuiich. — Continuation, § 165, 2.
9. The Propaganda. — Gregory XV. gaA'e unity and sti'ength to the efforts for conA'ersion of heretics and heathens by instituting, m a.d. 1662, the C'oii(jre<jafio de Propagamla Fide. Urban VIIL in a.d. 1627 attached to it a missionary training school, recruited as far as possible from natives of the respective countries, like Loyola's CoUeijium Germanicum founded in a.d. 1552 (§ 151, 1). He Avas thus able every
' Wilson, " Life of Vincent de Paul." London, 1874.
§ 156. PAPACY, MONKERY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 27
Epiphany to astonish Romans and foreignei-s by what seemed a repeti- tion of the Pentecostal miracle of tongues. At this institvite training in all languages was given, and breviaries, mass and devotional books and handbooks were printed for the use of the missions. It was also the centre from ^vhich all missionary enterprises originated. — Con- tinuation, § '204, 2.
10. Foreign Missions. — Even during this centiuy the Jesuits excelled all others in missionary zeal. In a.u. 1008 they sent out from Madrid mission colonies among the wsindering Indians of South America, and no Spaniard could settle there -without their permission. The most thoroughly organized of these was that of Paraguay, in which, accord- ing to their own reports, over 100,000 converted savages lived happily and contented under the mild, patriarchal rule of the Jesuits for 140 years, a.u. 1()10-1750; but according to another Avell informed, though perha^w not altogether impartial, account, that of Ibagnez, a member of the mission, expelled for advising submission to the decree depriving it of political independence, the paternal government was flavoured by a liberal dose of slave-driver despotism. It was at least an undoubted fact, notwithstanding the boasted patriarchal idyllic character of the Jesuit state, that the order amassed great wealth from the proceeds of the industry of their prote(je!f. — Continviation, § 105, 'd.
11. In the East Indies (§ 150, 1) the Jesuits had uninterrupted success. In a.u. 1600, in order to make way among the Brahmans, the Jesuit Rob. Nobili assumed their dress, avoided all contact Avith even tlie converts of low caste, giving them the conununion elements not. directly, but by an instrument, or laying them down for them outside tlie door, and as a Clii'istian Brahman made a considerable impression u]>on the most exclusive classes. — In Japan the mission pi'ospects were dark (§ 1.50, 2). Mendicants and Jesuits opposed and mutually ex- communicated one another. The Catholic Spaniards and Portuguese were at feud among themselves, and only agreed in intriguing against Dutch and English Protestants. When the land was opened to foreign trade, it became the gathering point of the moral scum of all European countiies, and the traffic in Japanese slaves, especially by the Portuguese, brought discredit on the Christian cause. The idea gained groimd that the efforts at Christianization Avere but a prelude to conquest by the Spaniai'ds and Portuguese. In the new organization of the country by tlie .shioijuH Ijejasu all governors were to vow liostility to Christians and foreigners. In a.u. 1600 he forbad the obsei'vance of tlie Christian religion anywhere in the land. When the conspiracy of a Christian chiimio was discovered, he caused, in a.u. 1614, Avhole shiploads of Jesuits, mendicants, and native 2Ji'iests to be sent out of the country. But as many of the banished returned, death was threatened against all who might be found, and in a.u. 1624 all foreigners, with the ex-
28 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
ception of Cliiiiese and Dutch, ^\■e^e rigorously driven out. And now a bloody persecution of native Christians began. Many thousands fled to China and the neighbouring islands ; crowds of those remaining were buried alive or burnt on jules made up of the wood of Christian crosses. The victims displayed a martyr spirit like those of the earU^ days. Those who escaped organized in a.u. 1637 an armed resistance, and held the fortress of Arima in face of the shioyiin's army sent against them. After a three months' siege the fortress was conquered by the heli^ of Dutch cannon ; 37,000 were massacred in the fort, and the rest Avere hurled down from high I'ocks. The most severe enact- ments were passed against Christians, and the edicts filled with fearful curses against " the wicked sect " and " the vile God " of the Christians were posted on all the bridges, street corners, and squares. Christianity now seemed to be completely stamped out. The recollection of this work, however, was still retained down to the nineteenth centurj'. For when French missionaries went in a.d. 1860 to Nagasaki, they found to their surprise in the villages around thoiisands (?) who greeted them joyfully as the successors of the first Christian missionaries.
12. In China, after E.icci"s death (§ 150, 1), the success of the mission continued uninterrupted. In a.d. 1628 a German Jesuit, Adam Schell, went out from Cologne, who gained great fame at court for his mathematical skill. Louis XIV. founded at Paris a missionary college, which sent out Jesuits thoroughly trained in mathematics. But Dominicans and Franciscans over and over again complained to Rome of the Jesuits. They never allowed missionaries of other orders to come near their own establishments, and actually drove them away from places where they had begini to work. They even opposed priests, bishops, and vicars-apostolic sent by the Proi^agauda, declared their papal briefs forgeries, forbad their congregations to have any intei'- course with those " heretics," and under stispicion of Jansenism brought them before the Inquisition of Goa, Clement X. issued a firm-toned bull against such proceedings ; but the Jesuits gave no heed to it, and attended only to their own general. The papal condemnation a cen- tury later of the Jesuits' accommodation scheme, and their permission of heathen rites and beliefs to the new converts, complained against by the Dominicans, was equally fruitless. In a.d. 1(J45 Innocent X. forbad this practice on pain of excommvmication ; but still they con- tinued it till the decree was modified bj^ Alexander VII. in a.d. 1656. After persistent complaints by tlie Dominicans, Innocent XII. ap- pointed a new congregation in Rome to investigate the question, but their deliberations yielded no result for ten years. At last Clement XI. confirmed the first decree of Innocent X., condemned anew the so called Chinese rites, and sent the legate Thomas of Toiirnon in a.d. 1703 to enforce his decision. Tournon, received at first by the emperor
§ 156. PAPACY, MONI^RY, AND FOREIGN MISSIONS. 29
at Pekin with great consideration, fell into disfavour through Jesuit intrigues, -was banished from the capital, and returned to Nankin. But as he continued his ciforts from this point, and an attempt to jDoison him failed in a.d. 1707, he went to Macao, where he was piit in prison by the Portuguese, in which he died in a.d. 1710. Clement XI., in A.D. 1715, issued his decree against the Chinese rites in a yet severer foitn; hut the Franciscan who proclaimed the papal bull was put in prison as an offender against the laws of the country, and, after being maltreated for seventeen months, was banished. So proudly confident had the Jesuits become, that in a.d. 1720 they treated with scorn and contempt the papal legate Mezzabarba, Patri- arch of Alexandria, who tried by certain concessions to move them to submit. A more severe decree of Clement XII. of a.d. 1735 was scoffed at by being j^roclainied only in the Latin original. Benedict XIV. succeeded for the first time, in a.d. 1742, in breaking down their oppo- sition, after the charges had been renewed by the Capuchin Norbert. All the Jesuit missionaries were now obliged by oath to exclude all l^agan customs and rites ; but with this all the glory and wonderful success of their Asiatic missions came to an end. — Continuation, § 105, 3.
13. Trade and Indixstry of the Jesuits. — As Christian missions gene- rally deserve credit, not only for introducing civilization and culture along with the preaching of the gospel into far distant heathen lands, but also for having greatly promoted the knowledge of countries peoples, and languages among their fellow countr3anen at home, open- ing up ncAv fields for colonization and trade, these ends Avere also sei-ved by the Avorld-wide missionary enterprises of the Jesuits, and were in perfect accordance with the character and intention of this order, which aimed at univei-sal dominion. In carrying out these schemes the Jesuits abandoned the ascetical principles of their founder and their voav of poverty, amassing enormous Avealth by securing in many j^arts a practical uionopol3' of trade. Their fifth general, Aquaviva (§ 149, 8), secured from Gregory XIII., avowedly in favour of the mission, exclusive right to trade with both Indies. They soon erected great factories in all parts of the world, and had ships laden with valuable merchandise on all seas. They had mines, farms, sugar plantations, apothecary shops, bakeries, etc., founded banks, sold relics, miracle-working amulets, I'osaries, healing Ignatius- and Xavier-water (§ 149, 11), etc., and in successful legacy-hunting excelled all other orders. Urban VIII. and Clement XI. issued severe bulls against such abuses, but only succeeded in restricting them to some extent.— Continuation, § 165, 9.
14. An Apostate to Judaism. — Gabriel, or as he Avas called after circum- cision, Uriel Acosta, was sprung fi-om a noble Portuguese family, origi-
30 CHURCH HISTORY OP SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
nally JewLsh. Doubting Christianity in consequence of the traffic in indulgences, he at last repudiated the New Testament in favour of the Old. He refused rich ecclesiastical appointments, fled to Amsterdam, and there formally went over to Judaism. Instead of the biblical Mosaism, however, he was disappointed to find only Pharisaic pride and Talmudic traditionalism, against which lie Avrote a treatise in A.i). 1623. The Jews now denounced him to the civil authorities as a denier of God and immortality. The whole issue of his book was burnt. Twice the synagogue thundered its ban against him. The first was withdrawn on his recantation, and the second, seven years after, upon his submitting to a severe flagellation. In spite of all he held to his Sadducean standpoint to his end in a.d. 1647, when he died by his own hand froni a pistol shot, driven to despair by the iniceasing persecu- tion of the Jews.
§ 157. Quietism and Jansenism.
Down to the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Spanish Mystics (§ 149, 10), and especially those attached to Francis de Sales, were recognised as thoroughly orthodox. But now the Jesuits appeared as the determined opponents of all mj^sticism that savoured of enthusiasm. By means of vile intrigues they succeeded in getting Molinos, Guyon, and Fenelon condemned, as " Quietist " heretics, although the founder of their party had been canonized and his doctrine solemnly sanctioned by the pope. Yet more objectionable to the Jesuits was that reaction toward Augustinianism which, hitherto limited to the Dominicans (§ 149, 13), and treated by them as a theological theory, was now spread- ing among other orders in the form of French Jansenism, accompanied by deep moral earnestness and a revival of the whole Christian life.
1. Francis de Sales and Madame Chantal. — Francis Count de Sales, from Ail). 1602 Bishop of Geneva, i.e. in parlihu-s, with Annecy as his residence, had shown himself a good Catholic by his zeal in rooting out Protestantism in Chablais, on the south of the Genevan lake. In A.D. 1604 meeting the young widowed Baroness de Chantal, along with Avhom at a later period he founded the Order of the Visitation of Mary (g 15(5, 7), he )n-oved a good ])hysician to her amid her sorrow, doubts,
§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. 31
and temptations. He soup;lit to qualify himself for this task by read- ing the Avritings of St. Theresa. Teacher and scholar so in'ofited by their mystical studies, that in A.n. l(j()5 Alexander VII. deemed the one worthy of canonization and the other of beatification. In A.n. 1877 Pius IX. raised Francis to the dignity of doctor ecrlesiiv. His " Intro- duction to the Devout Life " affords a giiide to laymen to the life of the soul, amid all the disturbances of the world resting in calm con- templation and iniselfish love of God. In the Catholic Church, next to A Kempis' " Imitation of Christ," it is the most appreciated and most widelj- used book of devotion. In his " Tlieotime '^ he leads the reader deeper into the j^earnings of the soul after fello«-ship with God, and describes the perfect peace which the soul reaches in God.'
2. Michael Molinos.— After Francis de Sales a great multitude of male and female apostles of the new mystical gospel sprang up, and were favourably received bj- all the more moderate clmrch leadei-s. The reactionaries, headed by the Jesuits, sought therefore all the more eagerly to deal severely with the Spaniard Michael Molinos. Having settled in Rome in a.d. 1669, he soon became the most popular of father confessors. His " Spiritual Guide " in a.d. 1675 received the approval of the Holy Otfice, and Avas introduced into Protestant Germany through a Latin translation by Francke in a.d. 1687, and a German translation in A.D. 1699 by Arnold. In it he taught those ^\•ho came to the confessional that the way to the perfection of the Christian life, Avhich consists in peaceful rest in the most intimate communion with Gotl, is to be found in spiritual conference, secret pra^^er, active and passive contempla- tion, in rigorous destruction of all self-will, and in disinterested love of God, fortified, wherever that is possible, by daily commiuiion. The success of the book was astonishing. It promptly influenced all ranks and classes, both men and women, lay and clerical, not only in Italy, but also by means of translations in France and Spain. But soon a reaction set in. As early as a.d. 1681 the famous Jesuit Segneri issued a treatise, in which he charged Molinos' contemplative m3'sticism -with ouesidedness and exaggei'ation. He was answered by the pious and learned Oratorian Petrucci. A commission, appointed by the Inquisi- tion to examine the writings of \x>t\\ parties, pronounced the views of Molinos and Petrucci to be in accordance with church doctrine and Segneri's objections to be unfounded. All that Jesuitism reckoned as foundation, means, and end of piety was characterized as purely elementary. No hope could be entertained of winning over Innocent XI., the bitter enemy of the Jesuits. But Louis XIV. of France, at the instigation of his Jesuit father confessor, Lachaise, expressed
' Marsolier, " Life of Francis de Sales,'' translated by Coombes. London, 1812.
32 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
tlirough his ambassador his surprise that his holiness should, not only tolerate, but even encourage and support so dangerous a heretic, who taught all Christendom to undervalue the public services of the Church. In a.d. 1685 Innocent referred the matter to the tribunal of the Inquisition. Throughout the two years during which the investigation proceeded all arts were used to secure condemnation. Extreme statements of fanatical adherents of Molinos were not rarely met Avith, depreciating the public ordinances and ceremonies, confession, hearing of mass, church prayers, rosaries, etc. The pope, facile with age, amid groans and lamentations, allowed things to take their course, and at last confirmed the decree of the Inquisition of August 28th, A.D. 1687, by which Molinos was found gviilty of spreading godless doctrine, and sixty-eight propositions, partly from his ovn\ writings, partly from the vitterances of his adherents, were condemned as heretical and blasphemous. The heretic was to abjure his heresies publicly, clad in penitential garments, and was then consigned to lifelong solitary confinement in a Dominican cloister, Avhere he died in a.d. 1697.*
3. Madame Guyon and Fenelon.— After her husband's death, Madame Gnyon, in company with her father confessor, the Barnabite Lacombe, who had been initiated during a long residence at Home into the mysteries of Molinist mysticism, spent five years travelling through France, Switzerland, Savoy, and Piedmont. Though already much sus- pected, she won the hearts of many men and women among the clergy and laity, and enkindled in them by personal conference, correspond- ence, and her literary work, the ardour of mystical love. Her brilliant writings are indeed disfigured by traces of foolish exaggeration, fana- ticism and spiritual jn-ide. She calls herself the woman of Revelation xii. 1, and the mei-e de Ja (jrace of her adherents. The following are the main distinguishing characteristics of her mysticism: The necessity of turning away from everything creaturely, rejecting all earthly pleasure and destroying every selfish interest, as Avell as of turning to God in passive contemplation, silent devotion, naked faith, which dispensed with all intellectual evidence, and pure disinterested love, which loves God for Himself alone, not for the eternal salvation obtained through Him. On her return to Paris with Lacombe in A.D. 1686 the proper martyrdom of her life began. Her chief per- secutor was her steja-brother, the Parisian superior of the Barnabites, La Mothe, who spread the most scandalous reports about his half-sister and Lacombe, and had them both imprisoned by a royal decree in A.D. 1688. Lacombe never regained liis liberty. Taken from one jjrison to another, he lost his reason, and died in an asylum in a.d.
1 " Golden Thoughts from the ' Spiritual Guide ' of Molinos." With preface by J. H. Shoithouse. London, 1883.
§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. 33
WJ9. Madame Guyon, however, by the influent* of Madame de Main- tenon, was released after ten months' confinement. The favour of tliis royal dame was not of long continuance. Warned on all sides of the dangerous heretic, she broke off all intercourse with her in a.d. 1693, and persuaded the king to appoint a new commission, in a.d. 1694, with Bishoi^ Bossuet of Meaux at its head, to examine her suspected writings. Tliis commission meeting at Issj-, had already, in February, a.d. 1695, drawn up thirty test articles, when Fenelon, tutor of the king's grandson, and now nominated to the archbishopric of Cambray, Avas ordered by the king to take part in the joroceedings. He signed the articles, though he objected to much in them, and had four articles of his own added. Madame Guyon also did so, and Bossuet at last testified for her that he had found her moral character stainless and her doctrine free from Molinist heresy. But the bigot Maintenon was not satisfied with this. Bossuet demanded the surrender of this certificate that he might draw up another ; and when Madame Guyon refused, on the basis of a statement by the crazed Lacombe, she was sent to the Bastile in A.D. 1696. In a.d. 1697 Fenelon had written in her defence his " Explication des Ma.vimes des Saintes sur la Vie Interieur,^'' showing that the condemned doctrines of jjassive contemplation, secret prayer, naked faith, and disinterested love, had all been previously taught by St. Theresa, John of the Cross, Francis de Sales, and other saints. He sent this treatise for an opinion to Eome. A violent controversy then arose between Bossuet and Fenelon. The pious, well-meaning pope. Innocent XII., endeavoured vainly to bring about a good understanding. Bossuet and the all-powerful Maintenon wished no reconciliation, but condemnation, and gave the king and pope no rest till very reluctantly he prohibited the objectionable book by a brief in a.d. 1699, and condemned twenty-three propositions from it as heretical. Fenelon, strongly attached to the church, and a bitter iDersecutor of Protestants, made an unconditional surrender, as guilty of a defective exposition of the truth. But Madame Guyon continvied in the Bastile till a.d. 1701, when she retired to Blois, where she died in a.d. 1717. Bossuet had died in a.d. 1704, and Fenelon in a.d. 1715. She published only two of her writings : " An Exposition of the Song," and the " Moyen Court et Ires Facile defaire Oraison.'''' Many others, including her trans- lation and expositions of the Bible, were during her lifetime edited in twenty volumes by her friend, the Keformed preacher of the Palatinate, Peter Poiret.i
* Upham, " Life, Eeligious Opinions, and Experience of Madame de la Mothe Guyon, Avith an account of Fenelon." London, 1854. Brooke, " Exemplary Life of the Pious Lady Guion." Bristol, 1806, Butlerj " Life of Fenelon." London, 1810.
VOL. III. 3
34 CHUECH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY.
4. Mysticism Tinged with Theosophy and Pantheism. — Antoinette Bourignon, the daughter of a rich merchant of Lille, in Fraiice, while matron of a hospital in her native city, had in a.d. 1662 gathered around her a party of believers in her theosophic and fantastic reve- lations. She was obliged to flee to the Netherlands, and there, by the force of her eloquence in speech and writing, spread her views among the Protestants. Among them she attracted the great scien- tist Swammerdam. But when she introduced politics, she escaped imprisonment only by flight. Down to her death in a.d. 1680 she earnestly and successfully jDrosecuted her mission in north-west Ger- man3% Peter Poiret collected her writings and published them in twenty-one volumes at Amsterdam, in a.d. 1679.— Quite of another sort was the pantheistic mysticism of Angelus Silesius. Originally a Protestant physician at Breslau, he went over to the Eomish church in A.D. 1653, and in consequence received from Vieinia the honorary title of physician to the emperor. He was made priest in a.d. 1661, and till his death in a.d. 1677 maintained a keen polemic against the Protestant church with all a pei'vert's zeal. Most of his hymns be- long to his Protestant period. As a Catholic he wrote his " Chcrtihi- nischer Wander smanii,^'' a collection of rhymes in Avhich, with childish ■naivete and hearty, gushing ardour, he merges self into the abyss of the univtr-rsal Deity, and develops a system of the most pronounced pantheism.
5. Jansenism in its first Stage. — Bishop Cornelius Jansen, of Ypres, who died in a.d. 1638, gave the fruits of his lifelong studies of Augustine in his learned work, ^^ Aurjustinus s. cloctr. Aug. de humanm Naturce. Sanitate, .^f/ritudine, et Medicina adc. Pelafjianos et MasifiHenses,''' which was published after his death in three volumes, Louvain, 1640. The Jesuits induced Urban VIII., in a.d. 1642, to prohibit it in his bull In eminenti. Augustine's numerous followers in France felt themselves hit by this decree. Jansen's pupil at Port Royal from a.d. 1635, Duvergier de Hauranne, usually called St. Cyran, from the Benedictine monastery of which he Avas abbot, was the bitter foe of the Jesuits and Bichelieu, who had him cast into prison in a.d. 1688, from which he was liberated after the death of the cardinal in a.d. 1643, and shortly before his own. Another distinguished member of the party was Antoine Arnauld, doctor of the Sorbonne, who died in a.d. 1694, the youngest of twenty children of a parliamentary advocate, whose jjowerful defence of the University of Paris against the Jesuits called forth their hatred and lifelong pei-secution. His mantle, as a vigorous polemist, had fallen upon his youngest son. Very important too was the influence of his much older sister, Angelica Arnauld, Abbess of the Cistercian cloister of Port Eoyal des Champs, six miles from Paris, which vmder her became the centre of religious life and effort for all
§ 157. QUIETISM AND JANSENISM. 35
France. Around lier gathered some of the noblest, most pions, and talented men of the time : the poet Racine, the mathematician and apologist Pascal, the Bible translator De Sacj^, the church historian Tillemont, all ardent admirers of Augustine and determined oppo- nents of the lax morality of the Jesuits. Arnauld's book, "Z>e la fre'i/ueufc Coinminiion." was approved by the Sorbonne, the Parliament, and the most distinguished of the French clergy ; but in a.u. 1658 Inno- cent X. condemned five Jansenist propositions in it as hei'etical. The Augustinians now maintained that these doctrines were not taught in the sense attributed to them by the pope. Arnauld distinguished the quebtion du fait from the question clit droit, maintaining that the latter only were subject to the judgment of the Holy See. The Sorbonne, now greatly changed in composition and character, expelled him on account of this jwsition from its cor]ioration in a.u. 1656. About this time, at Arnauld's instigation, Pascal, the profound and brilliant author of '• Peiite'es .siir la HrJiijiov,"' began, under the name of Louis de Montaltf to publish his famous " Provincial Letters," which in an admirable style exposed and lashed with deep earnestness and biting wit tlie base moral principles of Jesuit casuistrj-. The truly annihi- lating eftect of these letters upon the reputation of the powerful order could not be checked by their being burnt by order of Parliament by the hangman at Aix in a.d. 1657, and at Paris in a.d. 1660. But meanwhile the specifically Jansenist movement entered upon a new phase of its development. Alexander VII. had issued in a.d. 16o(j a bull which denounced the application of the distinction dn fa it and dit droit to the papal decrees as derogatory to the holy see, and affirmed that Jansen taught the five pi-opositions in the sense thcA' had been condemned. In order to enforce the sentence, Annal, the Jesuit father confessor of Louis XIV., obtained in 1661 a royal decree requiring all French clerg}', monks, nuns, and teachers to sign a formula uncondi- tionally accepting this bull. Those who refused were banished, and fled jnostly to the Netherlands. The sorely oppressed nuns of Port Royal at last reluctantly agreed to sign it ; but they Avere still per- secuted, and in a.d. 1664 the new ai'chbishop, Pei-efixe, inaugurated a more severe persecution, placed this cloister under the interdict, and removed some of the nuns to other convents. In a.d. 1669, Alexander's successor, Clement IX., secured the submission of Arnauld, De Sacy, Xicole, and many of the nuns by a policy of mild connivance. But the hatred of the Jesuits was still directed against their cloister. In a.d. 1705 Clement XI. again demanded full and unconditioned acceptance of the decree of Alexander VII., and when the nuns refused, the pope, in a.d. 1708, declared this convent an iri-edeemable nest of heresy, and oi'dered its suppression, which was carried oiit in A.D. 1709. In a.d. 1710 cloister and church were levelled to the
36 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
ground, and the very corpses taken out of their graves.i — Continua- tion, § 1(35, 7.
§ 158. Science and Art in the Catholic Church.
Catholic theology flourished during the seventeenth cen- tury as it had never done since the twelfth and thirteenth. Especially in the liberal Galilean church there was a vigorous scientific life. The Parisian Sorbonne and the orders of the Jesuits, St. Maur, and the Oratorians, excelled in theological, particularly in patristic and historical, learning, and the contemporary brilliancy of Reformed theology in France aftorded a powerful stimulus. But the best days of art, especially Italian painting, were now past. Sacred music was diligently cultivated, though in a secularized style, and many gifted hymn- writers made their appearance in Spain and Germany.
1. Theological Science (§ 149, 14). — Tlie parliamentary advocate, Mich, le Jay, published at his oAvn expense the Parisian Polyglott in ten folio vols., a.d. 1629-1645, which, besides complete Syriac and Arabic translations, included also the Samaritan. The chief contributor Avas the Oratorian Morinus, who edited the LXX. and the Samaritan texts, which he regarded as incomparably superior to the Masoretic text cor- rupted by the JeA\-s. The Jansenists produced a French translation of the Bible with practical notes, condemned by the pope, but much read by the people. It was mainly the work of the brothers De Sacy. The New Testament was issued in a.d. 1667 and the Old Testannent somewhat later, called the Bible of Mons from the fictitious name of the place of publication. Richard Simon, the Oratorian, who died in a.d. 1712, treated Scripture with a boldness of criticism never before heard of within the church. While oj^posed by many on the Catholic side, the curia favoured his Avork as undermining the Protestant doctrine of Scripture. Cornelius a Laplde, who died a.d. 16B7, exjiounded Scripture according to the fourfold sense. — In systematic theology the old scholastic method still held sway. Moral theology was wrought out in the form
1 Beard, "Port Eoyal." 2 vols. London, 1861. St. Amour, " Journal in France and Borne, containing Account of Five Points of Controversy between Jansenists and Molinists." London, 1664. Schimmelpenninck, " Select Memoirs of Port Royal." Fourth edition. 2 vols. London, 1835,
§ 158. SCIENCE AND AKT IN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH. 37
of casuistiy with miexampled lasciviousness, especially by the Jesuits (§ 149, 10). The work of the Spaniard Escobar, who died in a.d. 1669, i-an through fifty editions, and that of Busembaum, professor in Cologne and afterwards rector of Miinster, Avho died a.d. 1668, went througli seventj' editions. On account of the attempted assassination of Louis XV. hy Damiens in a.d. 1757, with which the Jesuits and their doctrine of tyrannicide were charged, the Parliament of Toulouse in a.d. 1757, and of Paris in a.d. 1761, had Busembaum"s book publicly burnt, and several popes, Alexander VII., VIII., and Imiocent XL, condemned a number of propositions from the moral writings of these and other Jesuits. Among polemical writers the most distinguished were Becanus, who died in a.d. 1624, and Bossbet (§ 1.53, 7). Among the Jansenists the most prominent controversialists were Nicole and Arnauld, who, in order to escape the reproach of Calvinism, sought to prove the Catholic doctrine of the supper to be the same as that of the apostles, and were answered by the Eeformed theologians Claude and .Jurieu. In apologetics the leading place is occupied hy Pascal with his brilliant '■'■Pense'es."' Huetius, a French bishop and editor of Origeu, who died in a.d. 1721, replied to Spinoza's attacks on the Pentateuch, and applying to reason itself the Cartesian principle, that philosophy must begin with doubt, pointed the doubter to the supernatural revealed truths in the Catholic chiirch as the only anchor of salvation. The learned Jesuit Dionysius Petavius, who died in a.d. 1652, edited Epiphanius and "\\-rote gigantic chronological works and numerous violent polemics against Calvinists and .Jansenists. His chief work is the imiinished patristic-dogmatic treatise in live vols, folio, a.d. 1680, '• De theolofjicis Dofjinatibiis:.'' The Oratorian Thomassinus wrote an able archseological work : " Vctiis rt Xova E<-<:1. Dii^fipVina circa Beiiejicia et Benefiriariofs.'^
2. In church history, besides those named in § 5, 2, we may mention Pagi, the keen critic and corrector of Baronius. The study of sources was vigorously pursued. We have collections of mediaeval writings and documents by Sirmond, D'Achery, Mabillon, Martene, Baluzius; of acts of councils by Labbe and Cossart, those of France by Jac. Sirmond, and of Spain by Aguirre; acts of the martyrs by Ruinart; monastic rules by Holstenias, a pervert, who became Vatican librarian, and died at Home a.d. 16(il. Dufresne Ducange, an advocate, who died in A.D. 1688, wrote glossaries of tlif medianal and barbarous Latin and Greek, indispensable for the study of documents belonging to tliose times. The greatest prodigy of learning was Mabillon, who died in A.D. 1707, a Benedictine of St. Maur, and historian of his order. Pet. de Marca, who died Archbishop of Paris a.d. 1662, wrote the famous work on the Galilean liberties ^'De Concordia Sacerdotii et Ivijjerii.''^ The Jansenist doctor of the Sorbonne, Ellas du Pin, who died a.d. 1719, wrote
r"
6392
38 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
•'XoiiveNe £ihliothc(i>(e des Aiifciirs EccJes.^'' in fort.y-seven vols. The Jesuit Maimbourg, elied a.d. 1G86, compiled several party histories of Wiclilism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism ; but as a Gallican was deprived of office by the pope, and afterwards supported by a royal pension. The Antwerp Jesuits Bolland, Henschen, Papebroch started, in a.u. 1G4H, the gigantic work " Acta <S'«Hr/o?"«))i," carried on by the learned members of their order in Belgium, known as Bollandists. It was stopped by the French invasion of a.d. 1794, when it had reached October 15th with the fifty-third folio vol. The Belgian Jesuits continued the work from A.D, 1845-1867, reaching in six vols, the end of October, but not displaying the ability and liberality of their predecessors. In Venice Paul Sarpi (§ 155, 2) wrote a history of the Tridentine Council, one of the most brilliant historical works of any period. Leo AUatius, a Greek convert at Rome, who died in a.d. 16(i9, wrote a work to show the agreement of the Eastern and Western churches. Cardinal Bona distinguished himself as a liturgical writer. — In France pulpit elo- quence reached tlie highest pitch in such men as Flechier, Bossuet, Bourdaloue, Fenelon, Massillon, and Bridaine. In Vienna Abraham a St. Clara inveighed in a humorous, grotesque Avay against the corruption of manners, with an undercurrent of deep moral earnestness. Similar in style and spirit, but much more deeply sunk in Catholic super- stition, was liis contemijorary the Capuchin Martin of Cochem, who missionarized the Rhine Provinces and western Germany for forty years, and issued a large number of popular religious tracts. — Con- tinuation, t? 1()5, 14.
3. Art and Poetry (§ 149, 15). — The greatest master of the musical school founded by Palestrina was Allefjri, whose Miserere is performed yearly on the Wednesday afternoon of Passion Week in the Sistme Chapel in Kome, The oratorio originated from the application of the lofty music of this school to dramatic scenes drawn from the Bible, for purely musical and not theatrical performance. Philip Neri patronized this music freely in his oratory, from Avhich it took the name. This new church music became gradually more and more secularized and approximated to the ordinary opera style. — In ecclesiastical architecture the Renaissance style still prevailed, but debased with S'^nseless, taste- less ornamentation. — In the Italian school of painting the decline, both in creative power and imitative skill, was very marked from the end of the sixteenth century. In Spain during the seventeenth century religious painting reached a high point of excellence in Murillo of Seville, who died in a.d. 1682, a master in representing calm meditation and entranced felicity. — The two greatest poets of Spain, the creators of the Spanish drama, Lope de Vega (died a.d. I(i85) and Pedro Calderon (died A.D. 1681), both at first soldiers and afterwards priests, flourished during this century. The elder excelled the younger, not only in
§ 159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. 39
fruitfulness and versatility (1,500 comedies, 320 autos, § 115, 12, etc.), but also in poetic genius and patriotism. Calderon, with his 122 dramas, 78 festival plays, 200 preludes, etc., excelled De Vega in artistic expression and Leauty of imagery. Both alike glorify the Inquisition, but occasionally subordinate Mary and the saints to the great redemption of the cross. — Specially deserving of notice is the noble German Jesuit Friedr. von Spee, died a.d. 1G85. His spiritual songs show deep love to the Saviour and a profound feeling for nature, approaching in some respects the style of the evangelical hjnnn-writers. Spee was a keen but unsuccessful opponent of witch prosecution. Another eminent poetic genius of the age was the Jesuit Jac. Balde of Munich, who died in a.d. 1G8S. He is at his best in l3a-ical poetry. A deep religious vein runs through all his Latin odes, in Avhich he enthusiastically appeals to the Virgin to raise him above all earthly passions. To Herder belongs the merit of rescuing him from oblivion.
III. — The Lutheran Church.
§ 159. Orthodoxy and its Battles.^
The Formula of Concoi-d commended itself to the hearts and intelligences of Liillierans, and secured a hundred years' supremacy of orthodoxy, notwithstanding two Christological controversies. Clradually, however, a new dogmatic scho- lasticism arose, which had the defects as well as the excellences of the mediseval system. The orthodoxy of this school deteriorated, on the one hand, into violent polemic on confessional differences, and, on the other, into itndue depreciation of outward forms in favour of a spiritual life and personal piety. These tendencies are represented by the S3'ncretist and Pietist controversies.
1. Christological Controversies. — (1) The Cryptist and Kenotist Contro- versy between theGiess-n and Tubingen theologians, in a. u. 1019, about Christ's state of humiliation, led to the publication of many violent treatises down to a.d. 1G26. The Kenotists of Giessen, with Mentzer and Feuerborn at their head, assigned the humiliation only to the human nature, and explained it as an actual Kevucns, i.e. a complete but voluntary resigning of the omnipresence and omniiMtence im-
1 Dorner, '-History of Protestant Theology,"' vol. ii., pp. 98-251,
40 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
manent in His divinity (Krijais, but not XP'?''''?), yt't so that He could have them at His command at any moment, c.y. in His miracles. The Cryptists of Ttibingen, with Luc. Osiander and Thumm at their head, ascribed humiliation to both natures, and taught that all the while Christ, even secundum carnein, was omnipresent and ruled both in heaven and earth, but in a hidden way ; the humiliation is no Kivua-is, but only a Kpv\pi!. After rej^eated unsuccessful attempts to bring about a recon- ciliation, John George, Elector of Saxony, in a.d. 1623, accepted the Kenotic doctrine. But the two parties still continued their strife.' — 2. The Liitkemann Controversy on the humanity of Christ in death was of far less iniportance. Liitkemann, a professor of philosophy at Rostock, affirmed that in death, because the unity of soul and body Avas broken, Christ was not true man, and that to deny this was to destroy the reality and the saving power or his death. He held that the incarnation of Clxrist lasted tlii'ough death, because the divine nature was connected, not only with the soul, but also with the body. Liitkemann was obliged to quit Rostock, but got an honourable call to [Brunswick as superintendent and court preacher, and there died in A.D. 1655. Later Lutherans treated the controversy as a useless logomach}'.
2. The Syncretist Controversy — Since the Hofmann controversy (§ 141, 15) the University of Helmstadt had shown a decided huma- nistic tendency, and gave even greater freedom in the treatment of doctrines than the Formula of Concord, which it declined to adopt. To this school belonged George Calixt, and from a.d. 1614 for forty years he laboured in promoting its interests. He was a man of wide culture and experience, Avho had obtained a thorough knowledge of chuix-h history, and acquaintance with the most distinguished theologians of all churches, during his extensive foreign travels, and therewith a geniality and breadth of view not by any means common in those days. He did not indeed desire any formal union between the different churches, but rather a mutual recognition, love, and tolerance. For this purpose he set, as a secondary principle of Christian theologj^, besides Scripture, as the primary principle, the consensus of the first five centuries as the common basis of all churches, and sought to represent later ecclesiastical differencies as unessential or of less con- sequence. This was denounced by strict Lutherans as S3aicretism and Cryptocatholicism. In a.d. 1639 the Hanoverian preacher Buscher charged him with being a secret Papist. After the Thorn Conference of A.D. 1645, a violent controversy arose, "which divided Lutherans into two camps. On the one side were the viniversities of Helmstadt and K(3nigsberg ; on the other hand, the theologians of the electorate of
1 Bruce, " Humiliation of Christ," p. 131. Edin., 1876.
§159. ORTHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. 41
Saxony, Huls:?manii of Leipzig, Waller of Dresden, and Abr. Calov, ■who died professor in Wittenberg in a.d. 1686. Calov wrote twenty-six controversial treatises on this subject. Jena vainly sought to mediate between the parties. In the Theolofjoriim Sax. Consenms re pet it us Fid ei vera Liifherancr of A.u. I(j55, for which the Wittenberg divines failed to secure symbolical authority, the following sentiments were branded as Syncretist errors : That in the Apostles' Creed everything is taught that is necessary to salvation ; that the Catholic and Eeformed systems i-etaiu hold of fundamental truths ; that original sin is of a merely privative nature ; that God iiidirecte, improjirie, et per accidens is the cause of sin ; that the doctrine of the Trinity was first clearly revealed in the New Testament, etc. Calixt died a.d. 1656 in the midst of most violent conti-oversies. His son Ulrich continued these, but had neither the ability nor moderation of his father. Even the peaceably disposed Conference of Cassel of a.d. 16(il (§ 154, 4) onh^ poured oil on the flames. The strife lost itself at last in actions for damages between the younger Calixt and his bitter opponent Strauch of Wittenberg. Wearied of these fruitless discussions, theologians now turned their attention to the rising movement of Pietism. ^
8. The Pietist Controversy in its First Stage.— Philip Jacob Spener born in Alsace in a.d. 1635, was in his thirty-first year, on account of liis spirituality, distingiiished gifts, and singularly wide scholarship, made 2)resident of a clerical seminary at Frankfort-on-Main. In a.d. 16H(j he became chief court jn-eacher at Dresden, and provost of Berlin iu A.D. 1691, when, on account of his intense earnestness in pastoral woi-k, he had been expelled from Dresden. He died in Berlin in a.d. 1705. His 3'ear's attendance at Cleneva after the completion of his currici;lum at Strassburg had an important influence on his Avhole future career. He there learned to value discipline for securing puritj'' of life as well as of docti'ine, and was also powerfully impressed by the practical lectures of Labadie (§ 163, 7) and the reading of the "Practice of Piety" and other ascetical writings of the English Puritans (§ 162, 3). Though strongly attached to the Lutheran church, he believed that in the restoi'ation of evangelical doctrine by the Wittenberg Keformation, " not by any means had all been accom- ])lished that needed to be done,"' and that Lutlieranism in the form of The orthodoxy of the age had lost the living poM^er of the reformers, and was in danger of burA-ing its talent iu dead and barren service of the letter. There was therefore a pressing need of a new and ■\\'ider reformation. In the Lutheran church, as the depository of sound doctrine, he recognised the fittest field for the develojiment of a
1 Dowding, "German Theology during the Thirty Years' War: Life and Correspondence of G. Calixt." 2 vols. Oxfoi'd, 1863.
42 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
{genuinely Christian life ; but he heartily apjireciated any true spiri- tual movement in whatsoever church it aros.^. He went back from scholastic doi^matics to H0I3' Scripture as the living s'ource of saving kno-\\'leclge, substituted for the external orthodox theology the theology of the heart, demanded evidence of this in a pious Christian walk : these were the means by which he sought to promote his reformation. A whole series of Lutheran theologians of the seventeenth century (§ 159) had indeed contributed to this same end by their devotional works, hymns, and sermons. What Avas new in Spener was the con- viction of the insnfiiciency of the hitherto used means and the undue prominence given to doctrine, and his conseq uent_ effc>rt vigorously made to raise the tone of the Christian life. In his childlike, pious humility he regarded himself as by no means called to carry out this work, but felt it his duty to insist upon the necessity of it, and indicate the means that should be used to realize it. This he did in his work of a.d. 1G75, '■■Pia UesiderUi."' As it was his aim to recom- mend biblical practical Christianity to the heart of the individual Christian, he revived the almost forgotttm doctiine "Of Spiritual Priesthood " in a separate treatise. In a.d. 1670 he began to have meetings in his own house for encouraging Christian piety in the commtmity, which soon were imitated in other j^laces. Spener's in- fluence on the Liitheran church became greater and Avider through his position at Dresden. Stirred up by li4s spirit, three young graduates of Leipzig, A. H. Francke, Paul Anton, and J. K. Schade, formed in A.D. 1686 a private Collerjia PliUobiUira for practical exposition of Scripture and the delivery of public exegetical lectures at the univer- sity in the German language. But the Leipzig theological faculty, with J. B. Carpzov II. at its head, charged them with despising the public ordinances as well as theological science, and with favouring the views of separatists. The Collefjia PliilobihUca was suppi-essed, and the three friends obliged to leave Leipzig in a.i>. 161)0. This marked the beginning of the Pietist controversies. Soon afterwards Spener Avas expelled from Dresden ; but in his new position at Berlin he secured great influence in the appointments to the theological faculty of the new iniiversity founded at Halle by the peace-loving elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg, in opposition to the contentious universities of Wittenbei'g and Leipzig. Francke, Anton, and Breithaupt Avere made professors of theology. Halle now Avon the position Avhich Wittenbei-g and Geneva had held during the Reformation period, and the Pietist controversy thus entered upon a, second, more general, and more critical epoch of its history.' — Continuation, § 166, 1.
1 Wildenhahn, " Life of Spener," translated by Wenzel. Phila- delphia, 1881. Guericke, " Life of A, H. Francke."' London, 1847.
§ 159. OETHODOXY AND ITS BATTLES. 43
4. Theological Literature (§ 142, 6).— The '• PliUolofj'm Sacra "' of Sol. Glassius of Jeiia, puLlislicd in a.d. 1(328, lias ranked as a classical Avork for almost two centuries. From a.u. 1G20 till the end of the century, a lively controversy was carried on about the Greek style of the New Testament, in which Lutherans, and especially the Eeformed, took part. The purists maintained that the New Testament idiom was pure and classical, thinking that its inspiration Avould otherwise be endangered. The first historico-critical introduction to the Scriptures Avas the " Officina Bihiica '' of Walther in a.d. 16£3(). Pfeiffer of Leipzig gained distinction in biblical criticism and hermeneuties by his " Critioa Sacra" of a.u. 1H80 and '■• Herjueiieiificd"' of a.d. 1(>S4. Exegesis now made progress, notwithstanding its depend(niceon traditional interpre- tations of doctrinal proof passages and its mechanical theoi'y of in- spiration. The most distinguished exegetes were Erasmus Schmidt of Wittenberg, Avho died in a.d. 1(j87 : he Avrote a Latin translation of New Testament with admirable notes, and a very useful concordance of the Greek New Testament, under the title Tafie^ov, which has been revised and improved by Bruder ; Seb. Schmidt of Strassburg, Avho wrote com- mentaries on several Old Testament books and on the Pauline epistles 5 and Ahr. Calov of "Wittenbfn-g, who died in a.d. 1686, in his 74th year, whose " Biblia III itsf rata." in four vols., is a Avork of amazing research and learning, butcompos .1 wholh' in the interests of dogmatics. — Little Avas done in the depai''aaeut 'of church liistory. Calixt aAvakened a new enthusiasm for historical studies, and Gottfried Arnold (§ 159, 2), pietist, chiliast, and theosophist, bitterly opposed to every form of orthodoxj', and finding true Christianity only in sects, separatists, and heretics, set the Avhole theological Avorld astir by his " Unparteiisclie Kirchen- uud Ketzcr-historie,'^ in a.d. 1699 (§ 5, B).
5. The orthodox school applied itself most diligently to dogmatics in a strictly scholastic form. Hutter of Wittenberg, Avho died in a.d. 161(i, Avrote " Loci communes thcoloijici "' and " Compendium Loc. Theol."' John Gerhard of Jena, Avho died in a.d. 1687, published in a.d. 1610 his " Loc. Tlieolojjici " in nine folio a'oIs., the standard of Lutheran orthodoxy. J. Andr. Quenstedt of Wittenberg, Avho died a.d. 1688, exhibited the best and Avorst of Lutheran scholasticism in his" Tlieol . didact ico-polemica .''' The most important dogmatist of the Calixtine school Avas Conrad Horneius. Calixt himself is knoAvii as a dogmatist only by his lectures ; but to him Ave oAve the generally adopted distinction betAveen morals and dogmatics as set forth in his " Epilomc theol. Moralis."' — Polemics were can-ied on vigorousl3^ Hoe von Hoenegg of Dresden (§ 154, 8, 4) and Hutter of Wittenberg Avere bitter ojjponents of Calvinism and Bomanism. Hutter Avas styled by his friends Malleus Calcinistorum and RedonatuH Lutlierus. The ablest and most dignified polemic against Romanism Avas that of John Gerhard in his " Confcssio C'atholica."'
44 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Nich. Hunnius, son of ^Egul. Hunnius, and Hntter's successor at Wit- tenberg, from A.D. 1623 superintendent at Liibeck, distinguished him- self as an able controversialist against the papacy by his '■'■Demonstratio Miniiterii Lidherani Divini afque Leyitimi.'''' Against the Socinians he Avrote his '■'■ Examen Erroriim Phothiiaiioriim,''^ and against the fanatics a " Chr. Examination of the new Paracelsist and Weigelian Theology."' His jJi'incijDal work is his " AidaK€\pis de FiindamentaJi Dissensu Doc- trince LutJi. et Calcin.''' His '' Epitome C'redendortim " went through nineteen editions. The most incessant controversialist "was Abr. Calov, who wrote against Syncretists, Papists, Socinians, Arminians, etc. — Continuation. § 107, 4.
§ IGO. The Religious Life.
The attacliment of the Lutheran church of this age to pure doctrine led to a one-sided over-estimation of it, often ending in dead orthodoxy. But a succession of able and learned theologians, who recognised the importance of heart theology as well as sound doctrine, corrected this evil tendency by Scripture study, preaching, and faithful pastoral work. A noble and moderate mysticism, which was thoroughly ortho- dox in its beliefs, and opposing orthodoxy only where that had become external and mechanical, had many influential reiDresentatives throughout the whole country, especially during the first half of it. But also separatists, mystics, and theosophists made their appearance, who were decidedly hostile to the church. Sacred song flourished afresh amid the troubles of the Thirty Years' War ; but gradually lost its sublime objective church character, which was poorly com- pensated by a more flowing versification, polished language, and elegant form. A corresponding advance was also made in church music,
1. Mysticism and Asceticism. — At the head of the orthodox mys- tics stands Jolm Arndt, His •' True Christianity '" and his " Paradies- (jiirtlein "' are tlie most ^videly read Lutheran devotional books, but called forth the bitter hostility of those devoted to the maintenance of a barren orthodoxy. He died in a.u. 1621, as general superinten- dent at Celle. He had been exi)elled from Anhalt because he would
§ 160. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. 45
not condemn exorcism as godless superstition, and A\-as afterwards in Brunswick publicly charged by his colleague Denecke and other Lutheran zealots with Papacj^, Calvinism, Osiandrianism, Flacianism, SchAvenckfeldism, Paracelsism, Alchemism. etc. As men of a similar spirit, anticipators of the school of Spener, may be named John Gerhard of Jena, with his '■' MecUtationea Sacrcc'''' and " Schola jndali'^^'' and Christian Scriver, whose "Gotthold"s Emblems" is well known to English readers. Rahtmann of Danzig maintained that the word of God in Scripture has not in itself the po-\\-er to enlighten and convert men except tlnrough the gracious inflvience of God's Spirit. He was supported, after a long delay, in a.d. 1626 by the University of Rostock, but opposed by Konigsberg, Jena, and Wittenberg. In A.D. 1628, the Elector of Saxony obtained the opinion of the most famous theologians of his realm against Rahtmann ; but his death, which soon followed, brought the controversy to a close. — The Wilrttemberg theologian, John Valentine Andrea, grandson of one of the authors of the Formula of Concord, was a man of striking originality, famous for his satires on the corruptions of the age. His '• Order of Eosi- crucians,"' published at Cassel in a.d. 1614, ridiculed the absurdities of astrology and alchemy in the form of a satirical romance. His influence on the church of his times was great and wholesome, so that even Spener exclaimed : " Had I the power to call any one fr-oni the dead for the good of the church, it -would be J. V. Andrea." His later devotional work was almost completely forgotten until attention Avas called to it by Herder, i
2. Mysticism and Theosophy.— A mystico - theosophical tendency, partly in outward connexion with the chvirch, partly without and in open opposition to it, Avas fostered by the alchemist Avritings of Agrippa and Paracelsus, the theosophical Avorks of Weigel (§ 146, 2) and by the profound revelations of the inspired shoemaker of Gor- litz, Jacob Boehme, phiiosoph us teitfonicus, the most talented of all the theosophists. In a remarkable degree he combined a genius for speculation Avith the most unfeigned piety that held firmly by the old Lutheran faith. Even Avhen an itinerant tradesman, he felt himself for a period of seven days in calm repose, surrounded by the divine light. But he dates his profound theosophical enlightenment from a moment in a.d. 1-594, Avlien as a young journeyman and married, throAvn into an ecstasy, he obtained a knoAvledge of the divine niA's- teries doAvn to the ultimate principles of all things and their inmost quality. His theosophj', too, like that of the ancient gnostics, springs out of the question about the origin of evil. He solves it by assuming
1 Jennings, '• The Eosicrucians : their Rites and Mysteries." Lon- don, 1887.
46 CHURCH HiSTOilY OF SEVENTEEKTH CENTUHY.
an emanation of all things from God, in ■vvliom fire and light, bitter and sweet qualities, are thoroughly tempered and perfectly combined, "while in the creature derived by emanation from hira they are in disharmony', but are reconciled and i-educed to godlike harmony through regeneration in Christ. Though opposed by Calov, he was befriended by the Dresden consistorj'. Boehme died in a.d. 1624, in retirement at Gorlitz, in the arms of his family.' — In close connexion with Boelnnists, separatists, and Pietists, yet differing from them all, Gottfried Arnold abused orthodoxy and canonized the heretics of all ages. In a.d. 1700 he wrote " The Mystery of the Divine Sophia." When Adam, originally man and woman, fell, his female nature, the heavenly Sophia, was taken from him, and in his place a woman of flesh Avas made for him out of a rib •, in order again to restore the paradisiacal perfection Christ brought again the male ]Dart into a virgin's womb, so that the new creature, the regenerate, stands before God as a " male-virgin " ; but carnal love destroys again the con- nexion thus secured with the heavenly Sophia. But the very next 3-ear he reached a turning-point in his life. He not only married, but in consequence accepted several appointments in the Lutheran church, without, however, signing the Forni\ila of Concord, and applied his literar3' skill to the ]jr( id action of devotional tracts.
8. Sacred Song (§142, 3). — The first epoch of the development of sacred song in this century corresponds to the period of the Thirty Years' War, a.u. 1618-1648. The Psalms of David were the model and pattern of the sacred poets, and the profoundest songs of the cross and consolation bear the evident impress of the times, and so individual feeling comes more into prominence. The influence of Opitz was also felt in the church song, in the greater attention given to correctness and purity of language and to the careful construction of verse and rhyme. Instead of the rugged terseness and vigour of earlier days, we now find often diftuse and overflowing titterances of the heart. John Hermann of Glogau, who died in a.d. 1647, composed 400 songs, embracing these : " Alas ! dear Lord, what evil hast Thou done '? ' " O Christ, oiu- true and only Light " ; " Ere yet the dawn hath filled the skies"; "O God, thou faithful God," Paul Flemming, a physician in Holstein, Avho died in a.d. 1640, Avrote on his join-ney to Persia, " Where'er I go, whate'er my task." Matthew Meyffart, professor and pastor at Erfurt, who died in a.d. 1642, Avrote " Jerusalem, thou city fair and high." Martin Einkart, jjastor at Eilenburg in Saxony, who died a.d. 1648, wi-ote, " Now thank Ave all our God." Appelles von Lowenstern, avIio died a,d. 1648, com- posed, " When anguished and perplexed, with many a sigh and
1 Martensen, " Life and Works of Jacob Boehme," London, 1886.
§ 160. THE EELIGIOUS LIFE. 47
tear."' Joshua Stegmann, suppviutMident iu Eintfln, svIk) died a.d. 1G32, AvrotP, "Abide among us Avitli thy grace."' Joshua Wegelin, pastor in Augsburg and Pressburg, Avrote, " Since Christ is gone to heaven, his home."' Justus Gesenius, su]jerintendent iu Hanover, who di"d in a.d. 1B7B, Avrote, '• When sorrow and remorse."' Tob. Glaus- nitzer, pastor in tlie Pahitinate, who died a.d. 1648, wrote, " Blessed Jesus, at tliy word." The poets named mostly belong to the first .Silesian school gathered round Opitz. A more independent position, though not uninfluenced by Opitz, is taken up by John Rist, who died iu A.D. 1667. He composed 658 sacred songs, of which many are re- markable for their vigoiu", solemnity, and elevation ; e.g. " Arise, the kingdom is at hand " ; " Sink not yet, my soul, to slumber " ; " O living Bread from heaven " ; " Praise and thanks to Thee be sung."' At the head of the Konigsbi>rg school of the same age stood Simon Dach, pro- fessor of poetry at Konigsberg, who died in a.d. 165J). He composed 150 spiritual songs, among which the best known are, " O how blessed, faithful souls, are ye! " "Wouldest thou inherit life with Christ on high ? " The most distinguished members of this school are : Henry Alberti, organist at Konigsberg, author of " God Avho madest earth and heaven " ; and George Weissel, pastor in Konigsberg, who died in a.d. 1655, aiithor of " Lift up 3'our heads, ye mighty gates."
4. From the middle of the seventeenth century sacred song became moi'e subjective, and so tended to fall into a diversity of groiips. No longer does the church sing thi-ough its poets, but the poets give direct expression to their individual feelings. Confessional songs are less frequent, and their place is taken by hymns of edification with refe- rence to various conditions of life ; songs of death, the cross and con- solation, and hymns for the family become more numerous. "With objectivity special features of the church song disa^Dpear in the hymns of the period ; but some of its essential characteristics remain, especially the poj^ular foran and contents, the freshness, liveliness, and simplicity of diction, the truths of personal experience, the fulness of faith, etc. We distinguish three groups : (1) The Transition Group, passing from objectivity to sul)jectivity. Its greatest masters, indeed after Luther the greatest saci'ed poet of the evangelical church, is luidoubtedly Paul Gerhardt, Avho died a.d. 1676, the faith witness of the Lutheran faith under the wars and in persecution (§ 154, 4). In him we find the new subjective tendency in its noblest form ; but there is also present the old objective style, giving immediate expression to the consciousness of the church, adhering tenaciously to the confession, and a grand popular ring that reminds us of the fulness and power of Luther. His 131 songs, if not all church spngs in the narrower sense, are almost all genuine poems : e.r/. " All my heart this night rejoices " -, " Cometh sunshine after rain " ; " Go forth, my heart, and
48 CHUECH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
seek delight'*; "Be thou content: be still before"; "O world, behold upon the tree " ; " Now all the woods are sleeping " ; and " Ah, wounded head, must thou? " based on Bernard's Salve, caput cruentatum. To this school also belongs George Neumark, librarian at Weimar, who died in a.d. 1681, author of " Leave God to order all thy ways." Also John Franck, burgomaster at Gr;ben in Lusatia, who died a.d. 1677, next to Gerhardt the greatest poet of his age. His 110 songs are less popular and hearty, but more melodious than Gerhardt's ; e.g. " Redeemer of the nations, come " ; " Y'e heavens, oh haste your dews to shed " ; " Deck thj'self, my soul, with gladness." George Albinus, pastor at Naumburg, died a.d. 1679, wrote : " Not in anger smite us, Lord " ; " World, farewell ! Of thee I'm tired."— (2) The next stage of the sacred song took the Canticles instead of the Psalter as its model. The spiritual marriage of the soul is its main theme. Feeling and fancy are predominant, and often degenerate into sentimentality and trifling. It obtained a new impulse from the addition of a mystical element. Angelus Silesius (§ 156, 4) was the most distinguished repre- sentative of this school, and while Protestant he composed several beautiful songs ; e.y. "O Love, who formedst me to wear"; "Thou holiest Love, Avhom most I love " ; " Loving Shepherd, kind and true." Christian Knorr v. Rosenroth, who died at Sulzbach a.d. 1689, wrote '• Daj'spring of eternity." Ludamilie Elizabeth, Countess of ScliAvarz- burg-Rudolstadt, who died in a.d. 1672, wrote 215 " Songs of Jesus." Caspar Neumann, professor and pastor at Breslau, died a.d. 1715, wrote, "Lord, on earth I dwell in pain." — (3) Those of Spener's Time and Spirit, men who longed for the regeneration of the church by practical Christianity. Their hjonns are for the most part character- ized by healthj- piety and deep godliness. Spener's own poems are of slight importance. J. Jac. Schiitz, Spener's friend, a lawyer in Frank- fort, who died a.d. 1690, composed only one, but that a very beautiful li3ann : " All praise and thanks to God most high." Samuel Rodigast, rector in Berlin, died a.d. 1708, wrote, " Whate'er my God ordains is right." Laurentius Laurentii, musical director at Bremen, died a.d. 1722, wrote, " Is my heart athirst to know ? " " O thou essential Word."— Gottfried Arnold, died a.d. 1714, wrote, " Thou who breakest every chain"; "How blest to all thy followers, Lord, the road!" — In Denmark, where previously translations of German hymns Avere vised, Thomas Kingo, from a.d. 1677 Bishop of Ftinen, died a.d. 1708, was the much-honoured founder of Danish national h3'mnology.i — Con- tinuation, § 166, 6.
1 All the translations of hymns referred to in this and the pre- ceding section are from Miss Winkworth's " Lijra (jennanica." Lon- don, 1885.
§ 160. THE EELIGIOUS LIFE. 49
5. Sacred Music (§ 142, 5). — The church music in the beginning of the seventeenth century was affected by the Italian school, just as church song was by the influence of Opitz. The greatest master during the transition stage was John Criiger, precentor in the church of St. Nicho- las in Berlin, died a.d. I(i62. He Avas to the chorale what Gerhardt was to the church song. We have seventy-one new melodies of his, admirably adaj^ted to Gerhardt's, Hunnius's, Franck's, Dach's, and Rinkart's songs, and used in the church till the present time. With the second half of the century we enter on a new period, in which expression and musical declamation perish. Choir singing now, to a great ex- tent, supersedes congregational singing. Henry Schlitz, organist to the Elector of Saxony, died a.d. 1672, is the great master of this Italian sacred concert st3de. He introduced musical compositions on pas- sages selected from the Psalms, Canticles, and prophets, in his " Sijm- plionice Same''' of a.d. 1629. After a short time a radical reform was made by John RosenmuUer, organist of Wolfenbiittel, died a.d. 1686. A reaction against the exclusive adoption of the Italian stj'le was made by Andr. Hammerschmidt, organist at Zittau, died a.d. 1675, one of the noblest and most pious of German musicians. By working up the old church melodies in the modern style, he brought the old hymns again into favour, and set h;yanns of contemporary^ poets to bright airs suited to modern standards of taste. The acconnDlished musician Rud. Ahle, organist and burgomaster at Miihlhausen, died a.d. 1673, introduced his own beautiful airs into the church music for Sundays and festivals. His sacred airs are distinguished for youth- ful freshness and power, penetrated by a holy earnestness, and quite free from that secularity and frivolousness which soon became un- pleasantly conspicuous in such music. — Continuation, § 167, 7. ,
6. The Christian Life of the People — The rich development of sacred poetry proves the wonderful fulness and spirituality of the religious life uf this age, notwithstanding the manj^ chilling separatistic controversies that prevailed during the terrible upheaval of the Thirty Years' War. The abundance of devotional literature of i^ermanent worth witnesses to the diligence and piety of the Lutheran pastors. Ernest the Pious of Saxe-Gotha, who died a.d. 1675, stands forth as the ideal of a Christian prince. For the Christian instruction of his people he issued, in the midst of the confusion and horrors of the war, the famous Wei- mar or Ernestine exposition of the Bible, upon which John Gerhard wrought diligently, along Avith other distinguished Jena theologians. It appeared fii-st in a.d. 1641, and by a.d. 1768 had gone through fourteen large editions. A like service was done for South Germany by the " Wiirttemberg Summaries," composed by three Wiirttemberg theologians at the request of Duke Eberhard III., a concise, practical exposition of all the books of Scripture, Avhich for a century and a
VOL. III. 4
50 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
half formed the basis of the weekly services {Bihehtumlen) at Wiirt- temberg. — Continuation, § 167, 8.
7. Missions. — In the Lutheran church, missionary enterprise had rather fallen behind (§ 142, 8). Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden carried on the Lapp mission with new zeal, and Denmark, too, gave ready assistance. A Norwegian pastor, Thomas Wt'sten, deserves special mention as the apostle of the mission. A Gei'iuan, Peter Heyling of Liibeck, "\\-ent on his own account as a missionary to Abj'ssinia in a.d. 16B5, while several of his friends at the same time went to other eastern lands. Of these others no trace whatever has been found. An Abyssinian abbot who came to Europe brought news of Heyling. At first he was hindered by the machinations of the Jesuits ; but when these were expelled, he found favour at court, became minister to the king, and married one of the royal family. What finally came of him and his work is unknown. Toward the end of the century two great men, the philosopher Leibnitz and the founder of the Halle Orphanage, A. H. Francke, warmly espoused the causa of foreign missions. The ambitious and pretentious schemes of the philosopher ended in nothing, but Francke made his orphanages, training colleges and centres from which the German Lutheran missions to the heathens were vigo- rously organized and successfully wrought. — Continuation, § 167, 9.
IV.— The Reformed Church.
§ IGl. Theology and its Battles. The Reformed scholars of France vied with those of St. Maur and the Oratory, and the Reformed theologians of the Netherlands, England, and Switzerland were not a whit behind. But an attempt made at a general synod at Dort to unite all the Reformed national churches under one confession failed. Opposition to Calvin's extreme theory of predestination introduced a Pelagianizing current into the Reformed church, which was by no means confined to pro- fessed Ai'miuians. In the Anglican church this tendency appeared in the forms of latitudinarianism and deism (§ 164, 3) ; while in France it took a more moderate course, and approximated rather to the Lutheran doctrine. It was a reaction of latent Zwinglianism against the dominant Cal- vinism. The Voctian school successfully opposed the intra-
§ 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. 51
rlu;tion of the Cartesian philosopliy, and secured supremacy to a scholasticism which hekl its own alongside of that of the Lutherans. Iii opposition to it, the Cocceian federal school undertook to produce a purely biblical system of theology in all its departments.
1. Preliminaries of the Arminian Controversy. — In the Confessio Bel- ij'ira of A.D. 15G2 the Protestant Netherlands had already a strictly Calvinistic symbol, but Calvinisin had not thoroughly j^ermeated the church doctrine and constitution. There were more opponents than supporters of the doctrine of jDredestination, and a Melanch- thonian-synergistic (§ 141, 7), or even an Erasmian-semipelagian, (§ 125, 8) doctrine, of the freedom of the -will and the efficacy of grace, was more frequently taught and preached than the Augustinian- Calvinistic doctrine. So also Zwingli's view of the relation of church and state Avas in much greater favour than the Calvinistic Presbj'- terial chui'ch governmimt with its terrorist discipline. But the return of the exiles in a.d. 1572, who had adopted strict Calvinistic vicAvs in East Friesland and on the Lower German Rhine, led to the adoption of a purely Calvinistic creed and constitution. The keenest opponent of this movement was Coornhert, notary and secretary for the city of Haailem, who combated Calvinism in numerous writings, and depre- ciated doctrine generally in the interests of practical living Chris- tianity. Political as well as religious sympathies Avere enlisted in favour of this freer ecclesiastical tendencj-. The Dutch War of Inde- pendence Avas a struggle for religious freedom against Spanish Catholic fanaticism. The j'oung republic therefore became the first home of religious toleration, Avhich Avas scarcely reconcilable Avith a strict and exclusive Calvinism. — MeanAvhile Avithin the Cah'inistic church a controversy arose, Avhich divided its adherents in the Netherlands into two parties. In ojDposition to the strict Calvinists, Avho as supra- lupsarians held that the fall itself Avas included in the eternal coinis.i'ls of God, there arose tlie milder infralapsarians, A\'ho made pre- destination come in after the fall, Avhich Avas not predestinated but only foreseen In' Ctod.
2. The Arminian Controversy.— In a.d. 1588, James Arminius (born A.u. 1560), a pupil of Beza, but a declared adherent of the Ramist philosophy (§ 143, (3), Avas appointed pastor in Amsterdam, and ordered by the magistrates to controvert Coornhert's universalism and the infralapsarianism of the ministers of Delft. He therefore studied Coornherfs Avritings, and by them Avas shaken in his earlier beliefs. This Avas shoAvn first in certain sei'mons on passages from Romans, Avhich made him suspected of Pelagianism. In a.d. 1603 he
52 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
was made theological professor of Lej-den, A\'here lie found a bitter opponent in his supi'alapsarian coUeagite, Fi-ancis Gomarus. From the class-rooms the controversy spread to the pulpits, and even into domestic circles. A public disputation in a.d. 1608, led to no pacific result, and Anninius continued involved in controversies till his death in A.D. 1609. Although decidedly inclined toward tmiversalism, he had directed his polemic mainly against supralai^sarianism, as making God himself the author of sin. But his followers went beyond these limits. "When denounced by the Gomarists as Pelagians, they ad- dressed to the provincial parliament of Holland and West Friesland, in A.D. 1610, a remonstrance, Avhich in five articles repudiates supra- lapsarianism and infralapsariansm, and the doctrines of the iri'esis- tibility of grace, and of the impossibility of the elect finally falling away from it, and boldly asserts the universality of grace. They were hence called Hemonstrants and their opponents Contrai-emon- strants. Parliament, favourably inclined toward the Arminians, pro- i.ounced the difference non-fundamental, and enjoined peace. When Vorstius, who was practically a Socinian, was apjoointed successor to Arminius, Gomarus charged the Hemonstrants with Socinianism. Their ablest theological representative was Simon Episcopins, who succeeded Gomarus at Leyden in a.d. 1612, supported by the distin- guished statesman, Oldenbarneveldt, and the great jurist, humanist, and theologian, Hugo Grotius of Eotterdam. Maurice of Orange, too, for a long time sided with them, but in a.d. 1617 formally Avent over to the other party, whose well-knit unity, strict discipline, and rigorous energy commended them to him as the fittest associates in his struggle for absolute monarchy. The reioublican-Arminian party was conquered, Oldenbarneveldt being executed in 1619, Grotius escaping by his wife's strategem. The Synod of Dort was convened for the purpose of settling doctrinal disputes. It held 154 sessions, from Nov. 13th, 1618, to May 9th, 1619. Invitations were accepted by twenty-eight theologians from England, Scotland, Germany, and Switzerland. Brandenburg took no part in it (§ 154, 3), and French theologians were refused piermission to go. Episcopius presented a clear and comprehensive apology for the Remonstrants, and bravely defended their cause before the sjniod. Refusing to submit to the decisions of the sjmod, they were at the fifty-seventh sessioir expelled, and then excommunicated and deprived of all ecclesiastical oifices. The Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession were vniani- mously adopted as the creed and manual of orthodox teaching. In the discussion of the five controverted points, the opposition of the Anglican and German delegates prevented any open and manifest insei'tion of supralapsarian theses, so that the synodal canons set forth only an essentially infralapsarian theory of predestination. —
§ 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. 53
Eeiaonsti'aiit teachers were now expelled from most of the states of the union. Onh^ after Man]-ice's death in a.d. 1()'2.5 did they ventux-e to retnni, and in a.d. 1630 they were allowed by statute to erect churches and schools in. all the states. A theological seminary at Amsterdam, presided over by Episcopius till his death, in a.d. 1643, ros? to be a famous seat of learning and nursery of liberal studies. The number of congregations, however, remained small, and their importance in church historj^ consists rather in the development of an independent chvirch life than in tlie revival of a semipelagian and rationalistic type of doctrine^
3. Consequences of the Arminian Controversy. — The Dort decrees were not accepted in Brandenburg, Hesse, and Bremen, where a nrode- rate Calvinism continued to prevail. In England and Scotland the Presbyterians enthusiastically approved of the decrees, whereas the Episcopalians repudiated them, and, rushing to the other extreme of latitudinarianism, often showed lukewarm indifferentism in the Avay in which tliey distinguished articles of faith as essential and non- essential. The -worthiest of the latitudinarians of this age was Chillingworth, who sought an escape from the contentions of theo- logians in the Catholic church, but soon returned to Protestantism, seeking and finding peace in God's word alone. Archbishoji Tillot- son was a famous pulpit orator, and Gilbert Burnet, who died a.d. 1715, was aiithor of a •' History of the English Reformation."' In the French Reformed church, where generally strict Calvinism prevailed, Amyrault of Saumur, who died a.d. 1664, taught a nniversalismus lii/potheticits, according to which God by a decretum niiivenale et liypo- theticum destined all men to salvation through Jesus Christ, even the heathen, on the ground of a Jides implicita. The only conditioir is that they believe, and for this all the means are afforded in (jratia renistihilis^ while by a decretum ahsolufum el ispeciale only to elect liersons is granted the (jratia irresiiitih'dh. The synods of Alen^on, A.D. 1637, and Charenton, a.d. 1644, supported by Blondel, Daille, and Claude, declared these doctrines allowable ; but Du Movilin of Sedan, Rivetus and Spanheim of Leyden, Maresius of Groningen, and others, offered violent opposition. Amj^ault's colleague, De la Place, or
' The '• AVorks of Arminius,"' transl. by NichoUs, to which are added Brandt's '• Life of Arminius,"' etc. 3 vols. London, 1825. Scott, " Translation of Articles of S^niod of Dort."' London, 1818. Hales, " Letters from the Synod of Dort." Glasgow, 1765. Calder, " Life of Simon Episcopius." New York, 1837. Cunningham, " Reformation and Theology of Reformati(m " : Essay VIIL, "Calvinism and Ar- minianism," pp. 412-470. Motley, '-John of Barneveldt."' 2 vols. London, 1874.
54 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Placa'us, who died a.d. 1655, went still further, repudiating the un- conditional imputation of Adam's sin, and representing original sin simply as an evil which becomes guilt only as our own actual trans- gression. The synods just named condemned this doctrine. Some- what later Claude Pajon of Saiunur, who died a.d. 1685, roused a bitter discussion about the universality of grace, by maintaining that in conversion divine providence wrought only through the circumstances of the life, and the Holy Spirit through the word of God. Several French synods condemned this doctrine, and affirmed an immediate as well as a mediate operation of the Spirit and pro- vidence.— Genuine Calvinism v/as best represented in Switzerland, as finally expressed in the Formula Consensus Helvetica of Heidegger of Zurich, adojjted in a.d. 1675 by most of the cantons. It was, like the Formula Concordia', a manual of doctrine rather than a confession. In opposition to Amyrault and De la Place, it set forth a strict theory of predestination and original sin, and maintained with the Buxtorfs, against Cappellus of Saumur, the inspiration of the Hebrew vowel jjoints.
4. The Cocceian and Cartesian Controversies. — If not the founder, certainly the most distinguished representative in the Netherlands of that scholasticism which sought to expound and defend orthodoxy, was Voetius, who died a.d. 1676, from a.d. 1607 pastor in various plac(?s, and from a.d. 1634 professor at Utrecht. A completely diffe- rent course was pursued by Cocceius of Bremen, who died a.d. 1669, professor at Franeker in a.d. 1636, and at Leyden in a.d. 1650. The famous Zurich theologian, Bullinger (§ 138, 7), had in his " C'ompend. liel. C'Ar." of a.d. 1556, viewed the whole doctrine of saving truth fi'om the point of view of a covenant of grace between God and man ; and this idea was afterwards carried out by Olevianus of Heidelberg (§ 144, 1) in his " De Siihstantia Fa'dcris,''' of a.d. 1.585. This became the favourite method of distribution of doctrine in the whole German Reformed chxirch. In the Dutch church it was regarded as quite unobjectionable. In England it was adopted in the Westminster Confession of a.d. 1648 (§ 155, 1), and in Switzerland in a.d. 1675, in the Formula Cotise7ifins. Cocceius is therefore not the founder of the federal theology. He simply gave it a new and independent develop- ment, and freed it from the trammels of scholastic dogmatics. He distinguished a twofold covenant of God with man : thefwduf opcrum ». «fp//nYe before, and the fa' d us rji-nt ice after the fall. He then sub- divided the covenant of grace into three economies : before the law until Mos?s ; under the laAv nntU Christ ; and after the law in the Christian chui'ch. The history of the kingdom of God in the Christian era was arranged in seven periods, cori'esponding to the seven aiiocalyptic epistles, trumpets, and seals. In his treatment of
§ IGl. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. 55
his theme, he repudiateil philosopliy, scholasticism, and tradition, antl held simply by Hcriptiire. He is thus the founder of a purely biblical theolog}'. He attached himself as clossly as possible to the prevailing ]n-edestinationist orthodoxy, but only externally. In his view the sacred history in its various epochs adjusted itself to the needs of human personality, and to the growing capacity for appropriating it. Hence it was not the idea of election, but that of gi'ace, that prevailed in his system. Christ is the centre of all historj^, spiritual, ecclesias- tical, and civil ; and so everything in Scripture, history, doctrine, and jjrophecy, necessarily and immediately stands related to him. The O.T. prophecies and types point to the Christ that was to come in the flesh, and all history after Christ points to his second coming ; and 0. and N.T. give an outline of ecclesiastical and civil history down to the end of time. Thus tjqjology formed tlw? basis of the Cocceian theology. In exegesis, however, Cocceius avoided all arbitrary alle- gorizing. It was Avith him an axiom in hermeneiitics. Id siynifican verba, quod significare ixtsfsunt in intc(jra oi'ationc, sic vt oiiniiiio inter ne conveniaiit. Yet his typology led him, and still more many of his adherents, into fantastic exegetical errors in the jn'ophetic treatmen t of the seven apocalyptic periods.
b. A controversy, occasioned by Cocceius' statement, in his com- mentary on Hebrews in a.u. 1658, that the Sabbath, as enjoined by the O.T. ceremonial law, was no longer binding, Avas stopped in A.n. 1659 by a State prohibition. Voetiiis had not taken part in it. Bvit Avhen Cocceius, in a.u. 1()H5, taught from Romans iii. 25, that believers under the laAV had not full " ai^eo-is," only a " Trdpeo-is,"' he felt obliged to enter the lists against this " Socinian " heresy. The controversy soon spread to other doctrines of Cocceius and his followers, and soon the whole populace seemed divided into Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5). The one hurled offensive epithets at the other. The Orange political party sought and obtained the favour of the Voetians, as before they liad that of the Gomaiists ; Avhile the liberal republican party coa- lesced Avith the Cocceians. Philosophical questions next came to be mixed up in the discussion. The philosophy of the French Catholic Descartes (ij 16J, 1), settled in a.d. 1629 in Amsterdam, had gained ground in the Netherlands. It had indeed no connexion Avith Cliristianit}' or church, and its theological friends Avished only to have it recognised as a formal branch of study. But its fundamental principle, that all true knoAvledge starts from doubt, appeared to the representatives of orthodoxy as threatening the church with serious danger. Even in A.n. 1648 Voetius opposed it, and nriainly in conse- (luence, of his polemic, the States General, in a.d. 165(), forbad it being taught in the miiversities. Their common oi>position to scholasti- cism, hoAvever, brought Cocceians and Cartesians more closely to one
56 CHUECH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
another. Theology now became influenced by Cartesianism. Koell, professor, at Franeker and Utrecht, who died a.d. 1718, taught that the divinity of the Scriptures must be proved to the reason, since the testimonium Spir. s. inter num is limited to those who already believe, rejected the doctrine of the impiitation of original sin, the doctrine that death is for believers the punishment of sin, and the application of the idea of eternal " generation " to the Logos, to whom the predi- cate of sonship belongs only in regard to the decree of redemption and incarnation. Another zealous Cartesian, Balth. Bekker, not only repudiated the superstitions of the age about witchcraft (i? 117, 4), but also denied the existence of the devil and demons. The Cocceians were in no way responsible for such extravagances, but their oppo- nents sought to make them chargeable for these. The stadtholder, William III., at last issued an order, in a.d. 1694, which checked for a time the violence of the strife.
6. Theological Literature. — Biblical oriental philology flourished in the Eefornied church of this age. Drnsius of Franeker, who died a.d. 1616, was the greatest Old Testament exegete of his day. The tAvo Buxtorfs of Basel, the father died a.d. 1629, the son a.d. 1664, the greatest Christian i-abbinical scholais, wrote Hebrew and Chaldee grammars, lexicons, and concordances, and maintained the antiquity and even inspiration of the Hebrew vowel points against Capijellus of Saumur. Hottinger of Zurich, who died a.d. 1667, vied with both in his knowledge of oriental literature and languages, and wrote exten- sively on biblical philology, and besides found time to write a com- prehensive and learned chiuxh history. Cocceius, too, occupies a respectable place among Hebrew lexicographers. In England, both before and after the Restoration, scholarship Avas found, not among the controversial Puritans, but among the Episcopal clergj'. Brian Walton, who died a.d. 1661, aided by the English scholars, issued an edition of the '• London Polj'glott "' in six vols., in a.d. 1657, which, m completeness of material and appai'atus, as well as in careful textual criticism, leaves earlier editions far behind. Edm. Castellus of Cam- bridge in A.D. 1669 published his celebrated '■• Lexicon Heptaglottum." The Elzevir printing-house at Amsterdam and Leyden, boldly assum- ing the prerogatives of the whole body of theological scholars, issued a textus receptus of the N.T. in a.d. 1624. The best established exegetical results of earlier times were collected by Pearson in his great compen- dium, the "C'riVzfz >Vacj'/," nine vols, fol., London, 1660; and Matthew Pool in his " Sijnopsis Crificorum,'''' five vols, fol., London, 1669. Among the exegetes of this time the brothers, J. Cappellus of Sedan, who died A.D. 1624, and Louis Cappellus II. of Sainnur, who died a.d. 1658, were distinguished for their linguistic knowledge and liberal criticism. Fococke of Oxford and Lightfoot of Cambridge wei-e specialh- eminent
§ 161. THEOLOGY AND ITS BATTLES. 57
orientalists. Cocceins Avrote commentaries on almost all the books of Scripture, and his scholar Vitringa of Franeker, who died a.d. 1716, gained great reputation by his expositions of Isaiah and the Apocalypse. Amons, the Arminians the famous statesman Grotius, Avho died a.d. 1645, was the greatest master of grammatico-historical exposition in the centur3", and illustrated Scripture from classical literature and philology. The E,t'f(irmed church too gave bi'illiant contributions to biblical archgeology and history'. John Selden wrote ^'De Sijndriift Vett. Heh.,^^ '■•Ue dViH iSV/r?*,"' etc. Goodwin wrote "Moses and Aaron." Ussher wrote ^- Annalra V. et X.T."' Spencer wrote '■•De Leyihus HehP The Frenchman Bochart, in his '• Hlerozoiron " and " Phaley" made - admii-able contributit)ns to the natural history and geographj- of the Bible.
7. Dogmatic theolog\- was cultivated mainly in the Netherlands. Maccovius, a Pole, Avho died a.d. 1644, a jirofessor at Franeker, intro- duced the scholastic method into Reformed dogmatics. The Synod of Dort cleared him of the charge of heresy made against him bj' Amesius, but condenmed his method. Yet it soon came into verA' general use. Its chief representatives were Maresius of Groningen, Voetius and Mastricht of Utreclit, Hoornbeck of Leyden, and tlie German Wendelin, rector of Zerbst. Among the Cocceians the most distinguished were Heidanus of Leyden, Alting of Groningen, and, above all, Hermann "Witsius of Fi'aneker, whose " Economy of the Covenants " is written in a conciliatory spirit. The most distinguished Arminian dogmatist after Episcopius was Phil. Limborch of Amsterdam, who died a.d. 1712, in high repute also as an apologist, exegete, and historian. The greatest dogmatist of the Anglican church was Pearson, avIio died a.d. 16S6, author of '' An Exposition of the Creed."' The Frenchman Peyrerius obtaineil great notoriety from his statement, founded on Romans v. 12, that Adam was merelj'the ancestor of the Jews (Gen. ii. 7), while the Gentiles were of jjre- Adamite origin (Gen. i. 26), and also by maintaining that the flood had been only jjartial. He gained release from prison by joining the Catholic church and recanted, but still held by his earlier views. — Ethics, consisting hitherto of little more than an exposition of the decalogue, was raised by Amyrault into an independent science. Amesius dealt with cases of conscience. Grotius, in his " Dc Veritnfe Rel'uj. Chr."' and Abbadie, French pastor at Berlin, and afterwards in London, who died a.d. 1727, in his '• Ve'rite de la Bel. Chn't.,'^ distinguished themselves as apologists. Claude and Jurieu gained high reputation as controversialists against Catholicism and its persecution of the Huguenots. — The Reformed church also in the interests of polemics pursued historical studies. Hottinger of Ziirich, S|)anheim of Leyden, Sam. Basnage of Ziitpfen, and Jac. Basnage of the Hague, produced general chureli histories. Among the
58 CHURCH HISTORY OP SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
numerous liistorical monogi-aiihs the most important are Hospinian's "7Jc Templix,''' "Z>e Moncic/ii.s,'^ " 7>c Fcsfi.s,''' ^^ Hist. Sact'amcntaria" " Hi.sforia Jesuitica " ; Blondel's '' Ps-.-/sjV/or«.y,'' " De la Primaute de PEijl.,^'' ^^ Question si tine Femme a etc Ansinne au Sicf/e Papal'''' (§ 82, G), " Apolofjia sent. Hieron. dc Preshyt.^^ Also Daille of Saumur on the non- genuineness of the " Apostolic Constitutions " and the Ps.-Dionysian writings, and his "2>e Usu Patrum''' '\n opposition to Cave's Catholi- cizing over-estimation of the Fathers, We have also the English scholar Ussher, who died a.u. I(i56, " Brit. ErdesiarHin Antiqnitafes " ; H. Dodwell, who died a.d. 1711, " Z>m. Ciiprianicce^.etc; Wm. Gave, Avho died a.u. 171B, "Hist, of App. and Fathers," ^- Scyijjtonini Erclst. Hist. Litcraria.,"' etc. — Special mention should be made of Eisenmenger, professor of oriental languages at Heidelberg. In his ^' Entdecktes Judenthuni," two vols, quarto, moved by the over-bearing arrogance of the Jews of his day, he made an immense collection of absurdities and blasphemies of rabbinical theology from Jewish writings. At his own expense he printed 2,000 copies ; for these the Jews oftered him 12,000 florins, but he demanded 530,000. They noAV persuaded the court at Venice to confiscate them before a single cojw was sold. Eisenmenger died in a.d. 1704, and his heirs vainly sought to have the copies of his work given up to them. Even the appeal of Frederick I. of Prussia was refused. Only when the king had resolved, in a.d. 1711, at his own expense to piiblish an edition from one copy that had escaped con- fiscation, was the Frankfort edition at last given back.
8. The Apocrypha Controversy (§ 136,4).— In a.d. 1520 Carlstadt raised the question of the books found only in the LXX., and answered it in the style of Jerome (i? 50, 1). Luther gave them in his translation as an ajjpendix to the O.T. with the title " Apocrypha, i.e. Books, not indeed of Holy Scripture, but useful and worthy to be read." Reformed c;onfessions took iqj the same position. The Belgic Confession agreed indeed that these books should be read in church, and proof passages taken from them, in so far as they were in accord with the canonical Scriptures. The Anglican Book of Common Prayer gives readings from these books. On the other hand, although at the Synod of Dort the pi-oposal to remove at least the apocryphal books of Ezra or Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Be! and the Dragon, was indeed rejected, it was ordered that in future all apocryphal books should be printed in smaller type than the canonical books, should be separately paged, with a special title, and with a preface and marginal notes where necessary. Their exclusion from all editions of the Bible was first insisted on by English and Scotch Puritans. This example was followed by the French, lint not by the German, Swiss, and Dutch Keformed churches. — Con- tinuation, § 182, 4.
i^ 1G2. THE RELIGIOUS LIFE. '^^^
§ 1G2, The Religious Life.^ The religious life in the Reformed church is characterized generally by harsh legalism, rigorous renunciation of the world, and a thorough earnestness, coupled with decision and energy of will, which nothing in the Avorld can break or bend. It is the spirit of Calvin which impresses on it this character, and determines its doctrine. Only where Calvin's influence was less potent, e.g. in the Lutheranized German Reformed, the catholicized Anglican Episcopal Church, and among the Cocceians, is this tendency less apparent or altogether wanting. On the other hand, often carried to the utmost extreme, it appears among the English Puritans (§§ 143, 3; 155, 1) and the French Huguenots (§ 153,4), where it was fostered by persecution and oppression.
1. England and Scotland. — During the period of the English Revohi- ti.jn (S 155, 1, 2), after the overtlirow of Episcopacy, Puritanism became dominant; and the incongruous and contradictory elements already existing within it assumed exaggerated proportions (iij 143, 3, 4), until at last the opposing parties broke out into violent contentions with one another. The ideal of Scottish and English Presbyterianism was the setting up of the kingdom of Christ as a theocracy, in which church and state were blended after the O.T. pattern. Hence all the institutions of church and state Avere to be founded on .Scripture models, Avhile all later developments Avere set aside as deteriorations from that standard. The ecclesiastical side of this ideal was to be realized by the establishment of a spiritual aristocracy represented in l)reshyteries and synods, which, ruling the presbyteries through the synods, and the congregations through the presbyteries, regarded itself as called and under obligation to insjDect and supervise all the details of the i)rivate as well as public life of church members, and all this too by Divine right. Regarding their sj'stem as alone having divine institution, Presbyterians could not recognise any other religious or ecclesiastical ])arty, and must demand uniformity, not only in regard to doctrine and creed, but also in regard to constitution, discipline,
1 Barclay, " The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the Com- monwealth.'' Second ed. London, 1877. Dr. Stoughton's "History of Religitni in England from Opening of Long Parliament to End of Eigliteenth Centurv." London.
GO CHUECH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.-
and worship.! — On the other hand, Independent Congregationalism, inasniucli as it made prominent tlie N.T. ideas of the priesthood of all believers and spiritnal freedom, demanded unlimited liberty to each separate congregation, and nnconditional equality for all individual church members. It thus rejected the theocratic ideal of Presbyteri- anism, strove after a purely democratic constitution, and recognised toleration of all religious views as a fundamental principle of Chris- tianity. Every attempt to secui-e uniformity and stability of forms of worship Avas regarded as a repressing of the Spirit of God operating in the church, and so alongside of the public services private con- venticles abounded, in Avhich believers sought to promote mutual edification. But soon amid the upheavals of this agitated period a fanatical spirit spread among the various sects of the Independents. The persecutions luider Elizabeth and the Stuarts had awakened a longing for the return of the Lord, and the irresistible advance of Cromwell's army, composed mostly of Independents, made it appear as if the millennium was close at hand. Thus chiliasm came to be a fundamental principle of Independency, and soon too prophecy niade its appearance to interpret and prepare the way for that Avhich was coming. From the ^f/Zerers of the old Dutch times Ave now come to the Saints of the early CroniAvell period. These regarded themselves as called, in consequence of their being inspired by God's Spirit, to form the " kingdom of the saints " on earth promised in the last days, and hence also, from Daniel ii. and vii., they Avere called Fifth Monarchy Men. The so called Short Parliament of a.d. 1653, in Avhich these Saints Avere in a majority, had already laid the first stones of this structure by introd vicing civil marriage, Avith the strict enforce- ment, hoAvever, of MattheAV \. 32, as Avell as by the abolition of all rights of patronage and all sorts of ecclesiastical taxes, Avhen CroniAvell dissoh'ed it. The Saints had not and Avould not liaA^e any fixed, formvi- lated theological sj^steni. They had, hoAvever, a most lively interest in doctrine, and produced a great diA-ersity of Scripture expositions and dogmatic vieAvs, so that their deadly foes, the Presbyterians, could hurl against them old and neAV heretical designations by the hundred. The fmidamental doctrine of predestination, common to all Puritans, Avas, even with them, for the most jjart, a jiresupposition of all theological speculation.
2. At the same time Avith the tSaiHfa there appeared among the Indei:)endents the Levellers, ])olitical and social revolutionists, rather than an ecclesiastical and religious sect. They were unjustly charged
' See Macpherson, "Presbyterianism " (Edin., 1883), ])]>. 8-10, Avhere charges of intolerance such as those made against Presbyterian ism in the text are repudiated.
§ 162. THE EELIGIOUS LIFE. 61
■with claiming an equal distribution of goods. Over against the absolutist theories of the Stuarts, all the Independents maintained that the king, like all other civil magistrates, is answerable at all times and in all circumstances to the people, to whom all sovereignty originally and inalienably belongs. This principle was taken by the Levellers as the starting-point of their reforms. As their first regula- tive principle in reconstructing the commonwealth and determining the position of the church therein they did not take the theocratic constitiition of the O.T., as the Presbyterians did, nor the biblical i-evelation of the N.T., as the moderate Independents did, nor even the modern professed pro])hecy of the '• Saints," but the law of nature as the basis of all revelation, and already grounded in creation, with the sovereignty of the people as its ultimate foundation. While the rest of the Independents held by the idea of a Christian state, and only claimed that all Christian denominations, with the exception of the Catholics (§ 153, 6), should enjoy all political rights, the Levellers demanded complete separation of church and state. This therefore imjjlied, on the one hand, the non-religiousness of the state, and, on the other, again with the exception of Catholics, the absolute freedom, independence, and equality of all religious parties, even non-Christian sects and atheists. Yet all the -while the Levellers themselves were earnestly and warmlj' attached to Christian truth as held by the other Independents. — Roger Williams (§ 163, 3), a Baptist minister, in a.d. 1681 transplanted the first seeds of Levellerism from England to Nc)rth America, and by his writings helped again to spread those views in England. When he returned home in a.d. 1651 he found the S'3ct already flourishing. The ablest leader of the English Levellers was John Lilburn. In a.d. 1638, when scarcely twenty years old, he was flogged and sentenced to imprisonment for life, because he had piinted Puritan writings in Holland and had them circulated in England. Released on the outbreak of the Revolution, he joined the Parliamentary army, was taken prisoner hy the Roj-alists and sentenced to death, but escaped by flight. He Avas again imprisoned for writing libels on the House of Lords. Set free by the Rump Parliament, he became colonel in Cromwell's army, but was banished the country when it was found that the spread of radicalism en- dangered discipline, ffill the dissolution of the Short Parliament liis followers were in thorough sj^npatlu' with the Saints. After- wards their ways went more and more apart ; the Saints diifted into (Quakerism (§ 163, 4), while the Levellers degenerated into deism {§ 164, 3).
3. Out of the religious commotion prevailing in England before, during, and after the Revolution there sprang up a voluminous devotional literature, intended to give guidance and directions for holy
62 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
living. Its luHuence was felt in foi'L'ign lands, espeeialh' in tlip Re- formed chni'clies of the continent, and even German Lutheran Pietism was not nnafft'cted by it (§ loi), 8). That this movement was not con- fined to the Pui'itans, among Avhom it had its (Origin, is seen from the fact that duiing the seventeenth century man}' such treatises were issued from the University Press of Cambridge. Lewis Bayly, Bishop of Bangor a.d. 1616-1632, Avrote one of the most popular books of this kind, " The Practice of Piety," which was in a.d. 1635 in its thirty-second and in A.u. 1741 in its fifty-first edition, and was also widely circulated in Dutch, French, German, Hungarian, and Polish translations. — Out of the vast number of important ])ersonages of the Revolution jieriod "we name the following three : (1) In John Milton, the highly gifted poet as well as eloquent and powerful politician, born a.d. 1608, died a.d. 1674, -we find, on the basis of a liberal classical training received in youth, all the motive powers of Independency, from the original Puritan zeal for the faith and Reformation to the politico-social radicalism of the Levellers, combined in full and vigorous operation. From Italy, the beloved land of classical science and artistic culture, he was called back to England in a.d. 1640 at the first outburst of freedom-loving enthusiasm (§ 155, 1), and made the thunder of his conti'oversial treatises ring over the battlefield of parties. He fought against the narrowness of Presbyterian control of conscience iKJt less energetically than against the hierarchism of the Episcopal church ; vindicates the permissibility of divorce (in view, no doubt, of his o\^'n first unhappy marriage) ; advanced m his '•'■ Areopayitica " of a.d. 1644 a plea for the unrestricted liberty of the press ; pulverized in his '■^ Ivonodastes"' oi a.d. 1649 the Eu-w;/ /3a(Tj\tK77, ascribed to Charles I. ; in several tracts, " Defcnsio ^yro Popido AtKjlicano,''' etc., justified the execution of the king against Salmasius's "Z>r/i?«.s/o liejjia pro Carolo /." ; and, even after he had in a.d. 1652 become incurably blind, he continued unweariedly his polemics till silenced by the Restoration. The ^^ Iconoclast ex"' and ^- Defowio'^ were burned by the hangman, but he himself was left unmolested. He now devoted himself to poetry. " Paradise Lost " appeared in a.d. 1665, and " Paradise Regained " in a.d. 1671. To this period, when he had probably turned his back on all existing religious parties, belongs the composition of his " De dortrlna C/iri.stiaiia" a first attempt at a purely biblical theology, Arian in its Christology and Arminian in its soteriology.' — (2) Richard Baxter, born a.d. 1615, died a.d. 1691, was quite a different sort of man, and showed throughout a decidedly irenical tendency. At once attracted and repelled by the Independent movement in
» Masson, " Life of John Milton." 4 vols. London, 1859. Pattison, "Milton" in "English Men of Letters" series. London, 1H,S0.
§ 162. THE EELIGIOUS LIFE. 63
Cromwell's army, lie joined the force in a.d. 1645 as military chaplain, hoping to moderate, if not to check, their extravagances. A severe illness obliged him to withdraw in a.d. 1647. After his recovery he returned to his former post as assistant-minister at Kidderminster in "Worcestershire, and there remained till driven out by the Act of Uniformity of a.d. 1662 (§ 155, 8). Those fourteen years formed the period of his most successful labours. He then composed most of his numerous devotional works, three of which, '• The Saint's Everlasting Best," " The Reformed Pastor," " A Call to the Unconverted," are still widely read in the original and in translations. At first he hoped much from the Restoration ; but when, on conscientious grounds, he refused a bishopric, he met only with persecution, ill treatment, and imprisonment. Through "William's Act of Toleration of a.d. 1689, he was allowed to pass the last year of his life in London. On the doctrine of predestination he took the moderate position of Amy- rault (§ 161, 3). His ideal church constitution Avas a blending of Presbyterianism and Episcopacy, by restoring the original episcopal constitution of the second century, when even the smaller churches had each its own bishoj) with a presbytery by his side.' — (3) John Bunyan, bom a.d. 1628, died a.d. 1688, was in his youth a tinker or brazier, and as such seems to have led a rough, "wild life. On the outbreak of the Civil "War in a.d. 1642, he Avas drafted into the Parliamentary army.- At the close of the Avar he married a poor girl from a Puritan familj'', Avhose only marriage portion consisted in tAvo Puritan books of dcA-otion. It Avas noAV that the birthday of a ncAv spiritual life began to daAvn in him. He joined the Baptist Indepen- dents, the most zealous of the Saints of that time, Avas baptized bj' them in a.d. 1655, and travelled the country as a preacher, attracting thousands around him CA'cryAvhere by his glorious eloquence. In A.D. 1660 he Avas throAvn into prison, from Avhich he Avas released by the Indulgence of a.d. 1672 (§ 155, 3). He noAV settled in B;^dford, and from this time till his death, amid jiersecution and oppression, continued his itinerant preacliing Avith e\'er-increasing zeal and success. " The Pilgrim's Progress " was Avritten by him in
1 '^ Heliquice Baxterianoe: Baxter's Narrative of most Memorable Passages m his oavu Life." London, 1696. Orme, " Life and Times of Richard Baxter, Avith Critical Examination of his "Writings." Lon- don, 1830. Stalker, "Baxter" in ''Evangelical Succession Lectures." Second series. Edinburgh, 1883.
- Fronde disputes this, and saA's, p. 12, that probably he Avas on the side of the Ro3'alists. BroAvn has slioAvn it to be almost certain that in 1644, not 1642, Bunj'an, then in his sixteenth year, joined the Parliamentary forces. See BroAvn's "Life," j^p. 42-52.
64 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
prison. It is an allegory of the freshest and most lively form, worthy to rank alongside the " Imitation of Christ "(§ 114, 7). In it the fanatical endeavour of the Saints to rear a millennial kingdom on earth is transfigured into a struggle overcoming all hindrances to secure an entrance into the heavenly Zion above. It has passed through numberless editions, and has been translated into almost all known languages. '
4. The Netherlands.— From England the Reformed Pietism was transplanted to the Netherlands, where William Teellinck may be regarded as its founder. After fniishing his legal studies he resided for a while in England, Avhere he made the acquaintance of the Puritans and their writings, and was deeply impressed with their earnest and pious family life. He then went to Leyden to study theology, and in a.d. 1606 began a ministry that soon bore fruit. He was specially blessed at Middelburg in Zealand, where he died a.d. 1629. His writings, larger and smaller, more than a hundred in number, in which a peculiar sweetness of mystical love for the Redeemer is combined with stern Calvinistic views, after the style of St. Bernard. Avere circulated widely in numerous editions, eagerly read in many lands, and for fully a century exerted a powerful influence throughout the whole Reformed church. Teellinck in no particular departed from the prevailing orthodox^', but unwittingly toned down its harshness in his tracts, and with the gentleness charac- teristic of him counselled brotherly forbearance amid the bitterness of the Arminian controversy. In spite of much hostility, which his best efforts could not prevent, many imiversity theologians stood by his side as warm admii-ers of his -writings. It will not be wondered at that among these was the pious Amesius of Franeker (§ 161, 7), the scholar of the able Perkins (§ 143, 5) ; but it is more surpris- ing to find here the powerful champion of scholastic orthodoxy, Voetius of Utrecht, and his vigorous partisan, Hoornbeeck of Leyden. Voetius especially, who even in his preacademic career as a pastor had pursued a peculiarly exemplary and godly life, styled Teellinck the Reformed Thomas a Ivempis, and owned his deep indebtedness to his devout writings. He opened his academic coiirse in a.d. 1634 with an introductory discourse, " De Pietate cum ,Scientia conjunijenda,'''' and year after year gave lectures on ascetical theology, out of which
' Brown, '• Life of Banyan." London, 1885. Autobiography in " Grace Abounding," 1622. Southey, " Life of John Bunyan." London, 1830. Macaulay, " Essay on Bunyan," in Edinhurijh Review, 1830. Froude, "Bunyan," in "English Men of Letters." London, 1880. Nicoll, " Bunyan," in " Evangelical Succession Lectures." Thijrd series, Edinburgh, 1883.
§ 162. THE KELIGIOUS LIFE. 65
prew his treatisa published in a.d. 1664, '• Ta 'At7-/c77Tt^-d s. Exerr.ita Pielatis in nsum Juventutia Acad.,'' -which is a complete exposition of evangelical practical divinity in a thoroughly scholastic form.
5. During the controversy in the Dutch Eeformed Church between Voetians and Cocceians, beginning in a.d. 1658, the former favoured the pietistic movement. In the German Pietist controversy the Cocceians were with the Pietists in their biblical orthodoxy joined with confessional indiiferentism, but with the orthodox in their liberality and breadth on matters of life and conduct. The earnest, practical piety of the Voetians, again, made them sympathise with the Lutheran Pietists, and their zeal for pure doctrine and the Church confession brought them into relation with the orthodox Lutherans. As discord between the theologians arose over the obligation of the Sabbath la-\v, so the difference among the people arose out of the ciuestion of Sabbath observance. The Voetians maintained that the. decalogue prohibition of any form of work on Sabbath was still fully binding, while the Cocceians, on the ground of Mark ii. 27, Galatians iv. 9, Colossians ii. 16, etc., denied its continued obligation, their wives often, to the annoyance of the Voetians, sitting in the windows after Divine service with their knitting or sewing. But the opposition did not stop there ; it spread into all departments of life. The Voetians set gi-eat value upon fasting and private meditation, avoided all public games and X'^a^'s, dressed plainly, and observed a simple, pious mode of life; their pastors wore a clerical costume, etc. The Cocceians, again, fell in with the customs of the time, mingled freely in the mirth and pastimes of the people, went to public festi- vals and entertainments, their women dressed in elegant, stylish attii-e, their pastors were not bound by hard and fast symbols, but had full Scripture freedom, etc. — Continuation, § 169, 2.
6. France, Germany, and Switzerland. — The Reformed church of France has gained impei'ishable renown as a martyr-church. Fana- tical excesses, however, appeared among the prophets of the Cevenues (§ 153, 4), the fruits of Avhicli continued down into the eighteenth cen- tury, and appeared now and again in England, Holland, and Germany (§ 160, 2, 7). — In Germany the Eeformed church, standing side by side with the numerically far larger Lutheran church, had much of the sternness and severity that characterized the Komanic-Calvinistic party in doctrine, worship, and life greatly modified ; but where the Eeformed element was predominant, as in the Lower Ehme, it was correspon- dingly affected by a contrary influence. The Eeformed church in Germanj^ in its service of praise kept to the psalms of 3Iarot and Lobwasser (§ 143, 2). Maurice of Hesse published Lobwasser's in A.D. 1612, accompanied by some new bright melodies, for the use of the chui-chcs in the land. Liitheran hynms, however, gradually
VOL. III. 5
06 CHUECH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY.
found their Avay into the Eefornied chtu'ch, which also produced two gifted poets of its own. Louisa Henrietta, Princess of Orange, Avife of the great elector, and Paul Gerhardt's sovereign, wrote '"Jesus my Redeemer lives "' ; and Joachim Neander, ]iastor in Bremen, wrote, " Thou most Highest! Guardian of mankind," ''To heaven and earth and sea and air," " Here behold me, as I cast me." — In German Switzerland the noble Breitinger of Zurich, who died a.d. 1(345, the greatest suc- cessor of Zwingli and Bullinger, wrought successfully during a forty years' ministry, and did much to revive and quicken the church life. That the spirit of Calvin and Beza still breathed in the church of Geneva is proved by the reception given there to such men as Andrea (§ 160, 1), Labadie (§ 163, 7), and Spener (§ 159, 3).
7. Foreign Missions. — Prom two sides the Keformed chvu'ch had outlets for its Christian love in the work of foi-eign missions ; on the one side by the cession of the Portuguese East Indian colonies to the Netherlands in the beginning of the seventeenth century, and on the other side by the continuous formation of English colonies in North America throughout the whole century. In regard to missionary effort, the Dutch government followed in the footsteps of her Portuguese predecessors. She insisted that all natives, before getting a situation, shoiild be baptized and have signed the Belgic Confession, and many who fulfilled these conditions remained as they had been before. But the English Puritans settled in America showed a zeal for the con- version of the Indians more worthy of the Protestant name. John Eliot, who is rightly styled the apostle of the Indians, devoted him- self with unwearied and self-denying love for half a century to this task. He translated the Bible into their language, and founded seventeen Indian stations, of which during his lifetime ten were destroyed in a bloody war. Eliofs ^^■ork was taken up by the May- hew family, who for five generations wrought among the Indians. The last of the noble band, Zacharias Mayhew, died on the mission field in a.d. 1803, in his 87th year.' — Continuation, § 172, 5.
v.— Anti' and Extra-Ecclesiastical Parties. § 1G3. Sects and Panatics.
Bocinianisin during the first decades of the century made Extraordinary progress in Poland, but then collapsed under the persecution of the Jesuits. Related to the continental
• '-Life of John Eliot, Apostle of the Indians," By John Wilson, afterwards of Bombay. Edin., 1828.
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 67
Anabaptists were the English Baptists, who rejected infant baptism ; while the Quakers, who adopted the old fanatical theory of an inner light, set baptism and the Lord's supper entirely aside. In the sect of the Labadists we find a blending of Catholic quietist mysticism and Calvinistic Augustinianism. Besides those regular sects, there were various individual enthusiasts and separatists. These were most rife in the Netherlands, where the free civil constitu- tion afforded a place of refuge for all exiles on account of their faith. Hei-e onl}^ was the press free enough to serve as a thoroughgoing propaganda of mysticism and theosophy. Finally the Eussiau sects, hitherto little studied, call for special attention.
1. The Socinians (§ 148, 4).— The most important of the Sociniau congregations in Poland, for the most part small and composed almost exclusively of tlie nobility, %vas that at Bacaii in the Sendomir Pala- tinate. Founded in 1569, this city, since 1600 under James Sieninski, son of the founder, recognised Socinianism as the established religion ; and an academy was formed there which soon occupied a distin- guished position, and gave such reputation to the place that it could be spoken of as " the Sarmatian Athens."' But the congregation at Lublin, next in importance to that of Eacau, was destroyed as early as 1627 by the mob irnder fanatical excitement caused by the Jesuits. The same disaster befell Kacau itself eleven years later. A couple of idle schoolboj's had thrown stones at a wooden crucifix standing before the city gate, and had been for this severely iJunished by their ])arents, and turned out of school. The Catholics, however, made a complaint before the senate, where the Jesuits secured a sentence that the school should be destroyed, the church taken from "the Arians,'' the printing press closed, but the ministers and teachers outlawed and branded with infamy. And the Jesuits did not rest until the Keichstag at Warsaw in 1658 issued decrees of banishment against " all Arians," and forbad the profession of " Arianism '' luider pain of death. — The Davidist non-adoration party of Transylvanian Uni- tarians (§ 148, 3) was finally overcoane, and the endeavours after conformity with the Polish Socinians prevailed at the Diet of Deesch in 1638, where all Unitarian communities engaged to offer Avorship to Christ, and to accept the baptismal formula of Matthew xxviii. 19. And under the standard of this so called Complanatio Deesiana 106 Unitarian congregations, with a membership of 60.000 souls, exist in
68 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
Transylvania to this day.— In Germany Socinianism had, even in the beginning of the century, a secret nnrsery in the University of Altdorf, belonging to the territory of the imperial city of Nuremberg. Soner, professor of medicine, had been won over to this creed by Socinians residing at Leyden, where he had studied in 1597, 1598, and now used his official position at Altdorf for, not only instilling his Unitarian doctrines by means of private philosophical conversations into the minds of his numerous students, who flocked to him from Poland, Transylvania, and Hungary, but also for securing the adhesion of several German students. Only after his death in 1612 did the Nuremberg council come to know about this propaganda. A strict investigation was then made, all Poles were expelled, and all the iSocinian writings that could be discovered were. burned. — The later Polish Exultants sought and found refuge in Germany, especially in Silesia, Prussia, and Brandenburg, as well as in the Reformed Pala- tinate, and also founded some small Unitarian congregations, which, however, after maintaining for a while a miserable existence, gra- dixallj' i^assed out of view. They had greater success and spread more widely in the Netherlands, till the states-general of 1653, in conse- quence of repeated synodal protests, and on the ground of an opinion given by the University of Leyden, issued a strict edict against the Unitarians, who now gradually pdssed over to the ranks of the Remonstrants (§ 161, 2) and the Collegiants. Also in England, since the time of Henry VIII., antitrinitarian confessors and martyrs were to be found. Even in 1611, under James I., three of them had been consigned to the flames. The Polish Socinians took occasion from this to send the king a Bacovian Catechism ; but in 1614 it was, by order of parliament, burned by the hands of the hangman. The Socinians were also excluded from the benefit of the Act of Toleration of 1689, which was granted to all other dissenters (§ 155, 3). The progress of deism, however, among the ujjper classes (§§ 164, 3 ; 171, 1) did much to prevent the extreme penal laws being carried into execution. — The following are the most distinguished among the numeroxis learned theologians of the Augustan age of Socinian scholarship, who contri- buted to the extending, establishing, and vindicating of the system of their church by exegetical, dogmatic, and polemical writings : John Crell, died 1631 ; Jonas Schlichting, died 1661 ; Von Wolzogen, died 1661 •, and Andr. Wissowatius, a grandson of Fatistus Socinus, died 1678; and with these must also be ranked the historian of Polish Socinianism, Stanislaus Lubienicki, died 1675, whose "Hist. Reformat. PoIoniccB^'''' etc., was published at Amsterdam in 1685.
2. The Baptists of the Continent.— (1) The Dutch Baptists (g 147, 2>. Even during IMenno's lifetime the Memionitcs had jplit into the Coarse and the Five. The Coarse, vho had abandoned much of the primitive
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 69
severity of the sect, and -were by far the most numerous, Avere again divided during the Arminian controversy into Remonstrants and Pre- destinationists. The former, from their leader, Avere called Galenists, and from having a lamb as the sj-mbol of their Church, Lambists. The latter were called Apostoolers from their leader, and Sunists because their churches had the figure of the sun as a symbol. The Lambists, who acknowledged no confession of faith, were most nume- rous. In A.D. 1800, however, a union of the two parties was eflfected. the Sunists adopting the doctrinal position of the Lambists. — During the time when Arminian pastors were banished from the Netherlands, tlu-ee brothers Van der Kodde fomided a sect of Collegiants, which repudiated the clerical office, assigned preaching and dispensation of sacraments to laymen, and baptized only adults by immersion. Their l)lace of baptism was Eliynsburg on the Rhine, and hence they were lalled Eh3msburgers. Their other name was given them from their assemblies, which they stjded collegia.— {2) The Moravian Baptists (§ 147, 3). The Thirty Years' "War ruined the flourishing Baptist congregations in Moravia, and the reaction against all non-Catholics that followed the battle of the White Mountain near Prague, in a.u. 1020, told sorely against them. In a.d. 1622 a decree for their banish- ment was issued, and these quiet, inoffensive men were again homeless fugitives. Remnants of them fled into Hungar3^ and Transylvania, only to meet new persecutions there. A letter of jDrotection from Leopold I., A.D. 1659, seciu'ed them the right of settling in tlu-ee counties around Pressburg. But soon these rigorous persecutions broke out afi-esh ; they were beset by Jesuits seeking to convert them, and when this failed they were driven out or annihilated. At last, by A.D. 1757-1702, they were completely broken up, and most of them had joined the Roman Catholic church. A few families preserved their faith by flight into South Russia, where they settled in Wir- schenka. When the Tolei-ation Edict of Joseph II., of a.d. 1781, secured religious freedom to Protestants in Austria, several returned again to the faith of their fathers, in the hope that the toleration would be extended to them; but they were bitterly disappointed. They now betook themselves to Riissia, and together with their brethren alreadj^ there, settled in the Crimea, Avhere they still consti- tute the colony of Hutersthal.
B. The English Baptists. — The notion that infant baptism is objec- tionable also found favour among the English Independents. Owing to the slight importance attached to the sacraments generallj', and more particularly to baptism, in the Reformed church, especially among the Independents, the supporters of the practice of the church in regard to baptism to a large extent occupied common ground with its opponents. The separation took place only after the
70 CHURCH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY. '
rise of the fanatical prophetic sects (§ 161, 1). We must, however, distinguish from the continental Anabaptists the English Baptists, ■who enjoyed the benefit of the Toleration Act of William III., of a.u. 1689, along Avith the other dissenters, by maintaining their Indepen- dent-Congregationalist constitution (§ 155, 3). In a.d. 1691, over the Arminian question, they split up into Particular and General, or Regular and Free Will, Baptists. The former, by far the more numerous, held by the Calvinistic doctrine of gratia particularis; while the latter rejected it. The Seventh-Day Baptists, who observed the seventh instead of the first day of the week, were founded hy Bami^field in a.d. 1665.^ — From England the Baptists spread to North America, in a.d. 1630, whex^e Roger Williams (§ 162, 2), one of their first leaders, founded the little state of Rhode Island, and organized it on thoroughly Baptist-Independent principles.^ — Continuation, § 170, 6. 4. The Quakers — George Fox, born a.d. 1624, died a.d. 1691, was son of a poor Presbyterian weaver in Drayton, Leicestershire. After scant schooling he went to learn shoemaking at Nottingham, but in a.d. 1643 abandoned the trade. Harassed by spiritual conflicts, he wandered about seeking peace for his soul. Upon hearing an Independent preach on 2 Peter i. 19, he Avas moved loudly to contradict the preacher. " What Ave haA'e to do Avith," he said, " is not the A\^ord, but the Spirit by Avhich those men of God spake and Avrote.*' He aa'^s seized as a disturber of public Avorship, but AA'as soon after released. In a.d. 1649 he traA'elled the country preaching and teaching, address- ing every man as "thou," raising his hat to none, greeting none, attracting thousands by his preaching, often imprisoned, flogged, tortui'ed, hunted like a Avild beast. The core of his preaching A\'as, not Scripture, but the Spirit, not Chi'ist Avithout but Christ Avithin, not outAvard Avorship, not churches, "steeple-houses," and bells, not doc- trines and sacraments, but only the inner light, AA'hich is kindled by Cod in the conscience of e\'ery man, reneAved and quickened by the Spirit of Christ, Avhich suddenly lays hold upon it. The number of his folloAvers increased from day to day. In a.d. 1652 he found, along Avith his friends, a kindly shelter in the house of Thomas Fell, of Smarthmore near Preston, and in his AA^fe Margaret a motherly
1 Crosby, " History of the English Baptists." 4 vols. London, 1728. Ivimey, " History of the English Baptists from 1688-1760." 2 vols. London, 1830. Ci'amp, " History of the Baptists to end of 18th Cen- tury." 3 A'ols. London, 1872.
- Backus, " History of the English-American Baptists." 2 vols. Boston, 1777. Cox and Hoby, "The Baptists in America." NeAv Y'ork, 1836. Hague, "The Baptists Transplanted." etc. NeAv York, 1846.
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 71
comisellor, who devoted her whole life to tlie cause, Tliej' called themselves '■ The Society of Friends." The name Quaker was given as a term of I'eproach bj' a violent judge, whom Fox bad '• quake before the word of God." fAfter the overtlu-ow of the hopes of the Saints througli the dissolution of the Short Parliament and Crom- well's apostasy (^ 155, 2). many of them joined the Quakers, and led tliem into revolutionary and fanatical excesses. Confined hitherto to the northern counties, they now spread in London and Bristol, and over all the south of England. In January, a.d. 1655, they held a fort- night's general meeting at Swannington, in Leicestersliire. Crowds of apostles went over into Ireland, to North America and the West Indies, to Holland, German}', France, and Ital}-, and even to Con- stantinople. The}' did not meet with great success. In Ital}'- they encountered the Inquisition, and in Xorth America the severest penal laws were passed against them. In a.u. 1(J5(J James Xaylor, one of their most famous leaders, celebrated at Bristol the second coming of Christ '• in the Spirit," by enacting the scene of Christ's triumi^hal entry into Jerusalem. But the king of the new Israel was scoui'ged, branded on the forehead with the letter B as a blasphemer, had his tongue pierced with a redhot iron, and was then cast into prison. ]\rany absurd extravagances of this kind, which drew down upon them frequent persecutions, as well as the failure of their foreign missionarjr enterprises, brought most of the C^uakei's to adopt more sober views. The great mother Quakeress, Margaret Fell, exercised a powerful influence in this direction. George Fox, too, out of whose hands the movement had for a long time gone, now lent his aid. Naylor himself, in a.d. 1659, issued a recantation, addressed '"to all the people of the Lord," in whichUie made the confession, "My judgment Avas turned away, and I was a captive under the jjower of darkness."
5. The movement of Quakerism in the direction of sobriet}-- and common sense was carried out to its fullest extent diu'ing the Stuart Restoration, a.d. 1660-1GS8. Abandoning their revolutionar}^ tenden- cies through dislike to Cromwell's violence, and giving up most of their fanatical extravagances, the Quakers became models of quiet, orderly living. Eobert Barclay, by his '• CatecJiesis et Fidei Confess io,''' of a.d. 1673, gave a sort of symbolic expression to their belief, and vindicated his doctrinal i^ositions in his " Thcologim veie Christiame Apologia " of a.u. 1676. During this period many of them laid do-vni their lives for their faith. On the other side of the sea they formed powerful settle- ments, distinguished for religious toleration and brothei'ly love. The chief in-omoter of this new departure was 'William Penn, a.d. 163-i- 1718, sou of an English admiral, who, while a student at Oxford, A\as impressed by a Quaker's preaching, and led to attend the prayer and fellowship meetings of the Friends. In order to break his con-
72 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY,
nexion with this part}-, his father sent him, in a.d. 1661, to travel in France and Italy. The frivolity of the French court failed to attract him, but for a long time he Avas spellbound by Amj'rault's theological lectures at Saumur. On his return home, in a.d. 1664, he seemed to liave completely come back to a Avorldly life, when once again he was arrested bj' a Quaker's preaching. In a.d. 1668 he formally joined the society. For a coutroversial tract, Tlie Sandy Foundation Shaken, he was sent for six months to the Tower, where he composed the famous tract, Xo Crons, no Crown, and a treatise in his own vindica- tion, " Innocency with her Open Face.'' His father,' who, shortly before his death in a.d. 1670, was reconciled to his son, left him a yearly income of £1,500, with a claim on Government for £16,000. In spite of continued jjersecution and oppression he continued unweariedly to promote the cause of Quakerism by speech and pen. In a.d. 1677, in company with Fox and Barclay, he made a tour through Holland and Germany. In both countries he formed many friendships, but did not succeed in establishing any societies. His hopes now tui-ned to North America, where Fox had already wrought with success during the times of sorest persecution, a.d. 1671, 1672. In lieu of his father's claim, he obtained from Government a large tract of land on the Delaware, with the light of colonizing and organizing it inider English suzerainty. Twice he went out for this purpose himself, in a.d. 1682 and 1699, and formed the Qiiaker state of Pennsylvania, with Philadelphia as its capital. The first principle of its constitu- tion was universal religious toleration, even to Catholics.^
6. The Quaker Constitution, as fixed in Penii's time, was strictly demo- cratic and congregationalist, with complete exclusion of a clerical order. At their services any man or woman, if moved by the Spirit, might pra}', teach, or exhort, or if no one felt so impelled they would sit on in silence. Their meeting-houses had not the form or fit- tings of churches, their devotional services had neither singing nor music. They repudiated water baptism, alike of infants and adults, and recognised only baptism of the Spirit. The Lord's sup^oer, as a symbolical memorial, is no more needed by those who are born again.
* Of special importance for the early history of the Quakers are, " Letters of Early Friends," edited by Robert Barclay, a descendant of the Quaker ajjostle. London, 1841. '"Fox's Journal; or, Historical Accounts of his Life, Travels, and Sufferings."' London, 1694. Penn, " Summary of History, Doctrines, and Discipline of Friends." London, 1692. Tallack, "George Fox; the Quakers and the Early Baptists." London, 1868. Bickley, " George Fox and the Early Quakers." Lon- don, 18R4. Stoughtoi), '• AV. Penn, Founder of Pennsylvania." Lon- don, 1883,
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 73
Moutlily gatherings of all iudepeudent members, quarterly meetings of deputies of a circuit, and a yearly synod of representatives of all the circuits, administered or drew up the regulations for the several societies. The Doctrinal Belief of the Quakers is completely dominated by its central dogma of the '• inner light," which is identified with reason and conscience as the common heritage of mankind. Darkened and weakened by the fall, it is requickened in us by the Spirit of the glorified Christ, and possesses us as an inner spiritual Christ, an inner Word of God. The Bible is recognised as the outer word of God, but is Tiseful only as a means of arousing the inner word. The Calvinistic doctrine of election is decidedly rejected, and also that of vicarious satisfaction. But also the doctrines of the fall, original sin, justification by faith, as well as that of the Trinitj', are very much set aside in favoiir of an indefinite subjective theology of feeling. The operation of the Holy Spirit in man's redemption and salvation outside of Christendom is frankly admitted. On the other hand, the ethical-practical element, as shown* in works of benevolence, in the battle for religious freedom, for the abolition of slavery, etc., is bi'ought to the front. In regard to life and manners, the Quakeis have distinguished themselves in all domestic, civil, industrial, and mercantile, movements by quiet, peaceful industr}"-, strict integrit}', and simple habits, so that not only did thej' amass great wealth, but gained the confidence and i-espect of those around. They refused to take oaths or to serve as soldiers, or to engage in sports, or to indulge in any kind of luxury. In social intercourse they declined to acknowledge any titles of rank, would not bow or raise the hat to any, but addressed all by the simple " thou." Their men wore broad- brimmed hats, a plain, simple coat, without collar or buttons, fastened by hooks. Their women wore a simple gray silk dress, with like coloured bonnet, without ribbon, flower, or feathers, and a plain shawl. Wearing mourning dress was regarded as a heathenish cus- tom.i — Continuation. § 211, 3.
7. Labadie and the Labadists — Jean de Labadie, the scion of an ancient noble family, born a.d. 1610, was educated in the Jesuit school at Bordeaux, entered the order, and became a priest, but was released from office at his own wish in a.d. 1639, on account of delicate health. Even in the Jesuit college the principles that manifested themselves
* Sewel, " History of the Quakers."' 2 vols. London, 1834, Cun- ningham, " The Quakers, from their Origin in 1624 to the Present Time." London, 186S. Barclaj^, " Apologj' for the True Christian Divinity: a Vindication of Quakerism." 4th ed. London, 1701. Clark- son, " A Portraiture of Quakerism." 3 vols. London, 1806. Eown- tree, '• Quakerism, Past and Present." London, 1839.
74 CHUECH HISTOEY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTUEY.
in his later life began to take root in him. B3' Scripture study he was led to adopt almost Augaistiniaai views of sin and grace, as well as the conviction of the need of a revival of the church after the apostolic pattern. This tendency was confirmed and deepened by the influence of Spanish Quietism, Avhich even the Jesuits had favoured to some extent. [In the interest of these views he wrought labori- ously for eleven years as Catholic priest in Amiens, Paris, and other places, amid the increasing hostility of the Jesuits. Their persecu- tion, together with a growing clearness in his Augustinian convic- tions, led him formally to go over to the Reformed church in a.d. IGoO. He now laboiired for seven years as Reformed pastor at Montauban. In a.d. 1657, owing to political suspicions against him spread by tlie Jesuits, he withdrew from Montauban, and, after two years' labour at Orange, settled at Geneva, where his preaching and household visitations bore abundant fruit. In a.d, 1666 he accepted a call to Middelburg, in Zealand. There he was almost as successful as he had been in Geneva ; but there too it began to ajjpear that in him there burned a fire strange to the Reformed church. The French Reformed synod took great offence at his refusal to sign the Belgic Confession. It Avas found that at many points he was not in sympathy with the church standards, that he had written in favour of chiliasm and the 'Apokatastasis, that in regard to the nature and idea of the church and its need of a reformation he was not in accord with the views of the Reformed cluTrch. The synod in 1668 suspended him from office, and, as he did not confess his errors, in the follow- ing year deposed liim. Labadie then saw that what he regarded as his lifework, the restoration of the apostolic church, was as little attainable within the Reformed as within the Catholic church. He tlierefore organized his followers into a separate denomination, and was, together with them, banished by the magistrate. The neigh- bouring town of Veere received them gladly, but Middelbtirg now jjer- suaded the Zealand council to issue a decree banishing them from that town also. The j)eople of Veere were ready to defy this order, but Labadie thought it better to avoid the risk of a civil war by voluntaiy AV'ithdrawal ; and so he went, in Augvtst, a.d. 1669, with about forty followers, to Amsterdam, where he laid the foundations of an apostolic church. This new society consisted of a sort of monastic household consisting only of the regenerate. They hired a commodious house, and from thence sent out spiritual Avorkers as missionaries, to spread the principles of the " new church " throughout the land. Within a j^ear they numbered 60,000 souls. They disi^ensed the sacrament according to the Reformed rite, and preached the gospel in conventicles. The most important gain to the party was the adhesion of Anna Maria V(3n Schilrman, born at Cologne a.d. 1607 of a Reformed family, but
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 75
i5ettled from a.d. 1623 with her mother in Utrecht, celehrated for her unexampled attainment in languages, science, and art. When in a.d. 1760, the government, urged bj^ the sjaiod, forbad attendance on the Labadists' preaching, the accomplished and pious Countess- l)alatine Elizabeth, sister of the elector-palatine, and abbess of th(^ i-ich cloister of Herford, whose intimate friend Schiirman had been for forty j'-ears, gave them an asj-lum in the capital of her little state.
8. In Herford " the Hollal^ders " met with bitter opposition from the Lutheran clergj^, the magistracy, and populace, and were treated by the mob with insult and scorn. They themselves also gave onlj'- too good occasion for ridicule. At a sacramental celebration, the aged Labadie and still older Schiirman embraced and kissed each othei- and began to dance for joy. In his sermons and -writings Labadie set forth the Quietist doctrines of the limitation of Christ's life and suffer- ings in the mortification of the flesh, the duty of silent prayer, the sinking of the soul into the depths of the Godhead, the communitj^ of goods, etc. Special offence was given by the private marriage of the three leaders, Labadie, Yvon, and Dulignon with young wealthy ladies of society, and their views of marriage among the regenerate as an institution for raising uj) a pvire seed free from original sin and brought forth witliout pain. The Elector of Brandenburg, hitherto favourable, as guardian of the seminary was obliged, in answer to the complaints of the Herford magistracy, to appoint a commission of inqviiry. Labadie wrote a defence, which was published in Latin, Dutch, and German, in which he endeavoured to harmonize his mys- tical views with the doctrines of the Reformed church. But in a.d. 1671 the magisti-ates obtained a mandate from the imperial court at Spires, Avhich threatened the abbess with the ban if she continued to harboui- the sectaries. In a.d. 1672 Labadie settled in Altona, where he died in A.D. 1674. His followers, numbering 160, remained here undisturbed till the war between Denmark and Sweden broke out in a.d. 1675. They then retired to the castle of Waltha in West Friesland, the jjroperty of three sisters belonging to the party. Schiirman died in A.D. 1678, Dulignon in a.d. 1679, and Yvon, who now had sole charge, Avas obliged in a.d. 1688 to abolish the institution of the community of goods, after a trial of eighteen years, being able to pay back much less than he had received. After his death in a.d. 1707 the community gradually fell off, and after the iiroperty had gone into other hands (in the death of the last of the sisters in a.d. 1725, the society final]}' broke up.
y. During this age various fanatical sects sprang up. In Thuringia, Stiefel and his nephew Meth caused much trouble to the Lutheraii clergy in the beginning of the century by their fanatical enthusiasm,
76 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
till convinced, after twenty years, of the errors of their ways. Drabicius, who had left the Bohemian Brethren owing to differences of belief, and then lived in Hungary as a weaver in poor circumstances, boasted in A.D. 1G38 of having Divine revelations, prophesied the overthrow of the Ai;strian dynasty in a.d. 1657, the election of the French king as emperor, the speedy fall of the Papacy, and the final conversion of all heathens ; but was put to death at Pressburg in a.d. 1G71 as a traitor with cruel tortures. Even Comenius, the noble bishop of the Moravians, took the side of the prophets, and published his own and others' proiDhecies under the title " L^ix in Tenebrisy — Jane Leade of Norfolk, influenced by the writings of Bohme, had visions, in which the Divine Wisdom appeared to her as a virgin. She spread her Gnostic revelations in numerous tracts, founded in a.d. 1670 the Philadelphian Society in London, and died in a.d. 1704, at the age of eighty-one. The most important of her followers was John Pordage, preacher and ph5'sician, whose theological speculation closel3'' resembles that of Jac. Bohme. To the Eeformed church belonged also Peter Poiret of Metz, pastor from a.d. 1664 in Heidelburg, and afterwards of a French con- gregation in the Palatine-Zweibriicken. Influenced by the writings of Bourignon and Guyon, he resigned his pastorate, and accompanied the former in his wanderings in north-west Germany till his death in 1680. At Amsterdam in a.d. 1687 he wrote his mystical work, '• V Ecojiomie Divine''' in seven vols., Avhich sets forth in the Cocceiau method the mysticism and theosophy of Bourignon. He died at Ehynsburg in a.d. 1719. — From the Lutheran church proceeded Giftheil of Wiirttemburg, Breckling of Holstein, and Kuhlmann, who went about denouncing the clergj^, proclaiming fanatical views, and calling for impracticable reforms. Of much greater importance was John George Gichtel, an eccentric disciple of Jac. Bohme, who in a.d. 1665 lost his situation as law agent in his native town of Begensburg, his property, and civil rights, and suffered imprisonment and exih; from the city for his fanatical ideas. He died in needy circumstances in Amsterdam in a.d. 1710. He had revelations and visions, fought against the doctrine of justification, and denounced marriage as forni- cation which nullifies the spiritual marriage with the heavenly Sophia consummated in the new birth, etc. His followers called themselves Angelic Brethren, from Matthew xxii. 20, strove after angelic sinless- ness by emancipation from all earthly lusts, toils, and care, regarded themselves as a priesthood after the order of Melchizedec for propi- tiating the Divine wrath. — Continuation, § 170.
10. Russian Sects. — A vast number of sects sprang up within the Rus- sian church, which are all included under the genei-al name Easkolniks or apostates. They fall into two great classes in their distinctive character, diametrically opposed the one to the other. (1) The
§ 163. SECTS AND FANATICS. 77
Starowerzi, or Old Believers. Tliey originated in a.d. 1652, in con- sequence of the liturgical reform of the learned and powerful patri- arch Nikon, which called forth the violent opposition of a large body of the peasantry, who loved the old forms. Besides stubborn adhesion to the old liturgy, they rejected all modern customs and luxuries, held it sinful to cut the beard, to smoke tobacco, to drink tea and coffee, etc. The StaroAverzi, numbering some ten millions, are to this day distinguished by their pure and simple lives, and are split up into three parties : (i.) Jedinoicerzi, who are nearest to the orthodox church, recognise its priesthood, and are different only in their reli- gious ceremonies and the habits of their social life ; (ii.) The Starov- bradzi, who do not recognise the priesthood of the orthodox church ; and (iii.) the Bcspopoidschini^ who have no priests, but only elders, and are split up into various smaller sects. Under the peasant Philip Pustosiwat, a party of Starowerzi, called from their leader Philippin-:, fled during the persecution of a.d. 1700 from the government of Olonez, and settled in Polish Lithuania and East Prussia, where to the num- ber of 1,200 souls they live to this day in villages in the district of Gumbinnen, engaged in agriciiltural pursuits, and observing the rites of the old Russian church.— (2) At the very opposite pole from the Starowerzi stand the Heretical Sects, which repudiate and con- demn everything in the shape of external church organization, and manifest a tendency in some cases toward fanatical excess, and in other cases toward rationalistic spiritualism. As the sects showing the latter tendency did not make their appearance till the eighteenth century (§ 166, 2), we have here to do only with those of the former class. The most important of these sects is that of the Men of God, or Spiritual Christians, who trace their origin from a peasant, Danila Filipow, of the province of Wladimir. In 1645, saj' they, the divine Father, seated on a cloud of flame, surrounded by angels, descended from heaven on Moiuit Gorodin in a chariot of fire, in order to restore true Christianity in its original purity and spiritualit}-. For this purpose he incarnated himself in Filipow's pure bod}-. He coin- manded his followers, Avho in large numbers, mainly dra\\-n from the peasant class, gathered around him, not to marrj', and if already married to put away their wives, to abstain from all intoxicating drinks, to be present neither at marriages nor baptisms, but above all things to believe that there is no other god besides him. After some years he adopted as his son another peasant, Ivan Suslow, who was said to have been boni of a woman a hundred years old, by com- municating to him in his thirtieth year his own divine natui-e. Ivan, as a new Christ, sent out twelve apostles to spread his doctrine. The Czar Alexis put him and forty of his adherents into prison; but neither the kncut nor the rack could wring from them the mysteries
78 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
of their faith and worship. At last, on a Friday, the czar caused the new Christ to be crucified ; but on the following Sunday he appeared risen again among his disciples. After some years the imprisoning, crucifying, and resurrection were repeated. Imprisoned a third time, in 1672, he owed his liberation to an edict of grace on the occasion of the birth of the Prince Peter the Great. He now lived at Moscow along with the divine father Filipow, who had hitherto consulted his own safety by living in concealment in the enjoyment of the adoration of his followers unmolested [for thirty years, supported by certain wealthy merchants. FilipoAv is said to have ascended up in the pre- sence of iTiany witnesses, in 1700, into the seventh and highest heaven, where he immediately seated himself on the throne as the " Lord of Hosts," and the Christ, Susloiv, also returned thither in 1716, after both had reached the hundredth year of the human existence. As Suslow's successor appeared a new Christ in Prokopi Lupkin, and after his death, in 1732, arose Andr. Petrow. The last Christ mani- festation was revealed in the person of the unfortmiate Czar Peter III., dethroned by his wife Catharine II. in 1762, who, living mean- while in secret, shall soon retnrn, to the terrible confusion of all unbelievers. With this the historical tradition of the earlier sect of the Men of God is brought to a close, and in the Skopsen, or Emiuchs, who also venerate the Czar Peter HI. as the Christ that is to come again, a new development of the sect has arisen, carrying out its principles more and more fully (§ 210, 4). Other branches of the same party, among which, as also among the Skopsen, the fanatical endeavour to mortify the flesh is carried to the most extravagant length, are the Morelschiki or Self-Flagellators, the Dumbies, who Avill not, even under the severest tortures, utter a sound, etc. The ever- increasing development of this sect-forming craze, which found its Avay into several monasteries and nunneries, led to repeated judicial investigations, the penitent being sentenced for their fault to confine- ment in remote convents, and the obdurate being visited with severe corporal punishments and even Avith death. The chief sources of information regarding the history, doctrine, and customs of the "Men of God" and the Skopsen are their o-wn numerous spiritvial songs, collected by Prof. Ivan Dobrotworski of Kasan, which were sung in their assemblies for worship Avith musical accomjianiment and solemn dances. On these occasions their prophets and prophetesses were- wont to prophesy, and a kind of sacramental supper was celebrated with bread and water. The sacraments of the Lord's supper and baptism, as administered by the orthodox church, are repudiated and scorned, the latter as displaced by the only effectual baptism of the Spirit. They have, indeed, in order to avoid persecution, been obliged to take part in the services, of the orthodox national church,
§ 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. 79
and to confess to its priests, avoiding, however, all reference to the sect.i
§ 1G4. Philosophers and Freethinkers.^
Tlie mediseval scholastic pliilosophy had outlived itself, even in the pre-Eeformation age ; yet it maintained a linger- ing existence side by side with those new forms which the modern spirit in philosophy was preparing for itself, ^e hear an echo of the philosophical ferment of the sixteenth century in the Italian Dominican Campanella, and in the Englishman Bacon of Verulam we meet the pioneer of that modern philosophy which had its proper founder in Descartes. Spinoza, Locke, and Leibnitz were in succession the leaders of this philosophical development. Alongside of this philosophy, and deriving its weapons from it for attack upon theology and the church, a number of freethinkers also make their appearance. These, like their more radical disciples in the following centmy, regarded Scripture as delusive, and nature and reason as alone trustworthy sources of religious knowledge.
1. Philosophy.— Campanella of fStilo in Calabria entered the Dominican order, Taut soon lost taste for Aristotelian philosophy and scholastic theology, and gave himself to the study of Plato, the Cabbala, astrology, magic, etc. Suspected of republican tendencies, the Spanish govern- ment put him in prison in a.d. 1599. Seven times Avas he put upon the rack for twenty-four hours, and then confined for twenty-seven years in close confinement. Finally, in a.d. 162(3, Urban VIII. had him transferred to the prison of the papal Inquisition. He was set free in
1 Heard, " The Russian Chvu-ch and Eussian Dissent.'' London. 1887. Mackenzie Wallace, " Eussia," chaps, xiv., xx. 2 vols. Lon- don, 1877. Palmer, " The Patriarch and the Tsar." 6 vols. London. 1871-1876.
^ Ueberweg, " History of Philosophy," vol. ii., pp. 31-135. Piinjer, '■ History of the Christian Philosophy of Eeligion from the Eefor- mation to Kant." Edin., 1887. Pfleiderer, '• Philosophy of Eeligion," vol. i. London, 1887. Erdmamvs *' History of Philosophy." 3 vols. London, 1889.
80 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
A.D. 1629, and received a papal pension ; but further persecutions by the Spaniards obliged him to fly to his protector Richelieu in France, Avhere in a.d. 1639 he died. He composed eighty-two treatises, mostly in prison, the most complete being " Philosopliia liationaJis,''^ in five vols. In his ^' Atlieismns TriMvijjhafus''' he appears asan apologist of the Romish system, but so insufficiently, that many said Atheismus TriumpJians was the more fitting title. His " Monarchia Messice " too appeared, even to the Catholics, an abortive apology for the Papacy. In his" Civitas Solis,''' an imitation of the " Republic " of Plato, he proceeded upon communistic principles. — Francis Bacon ofVerulam, long chancellor of England, died A.D. 1626, the great spiritual heir of his mediaeval namesake (§ 103, 8), Avas the first successful reformer of the plan of study followed by the schoolmen. With a prophefs marvellous grasp of mind he organized the whole range of science, and gave a forecast of its future development in his " De Augmentis " and " Xovum Orrjanon.^'' He rigidly separated the domain of hnowledrje, as that of philosophy and nature, grasped only by experience, from the domain of faith, as that of theology and the church, reached only through revelation. Yet he maintained the position : PhUosoi^hia obiter lihata a Deo ahdncit, ^:>/e«e hausta ad Deum reducit. He is the real author of empiricism in philosophy and the realistic methods of modern times. His public life, however, is clouded by thanklessness, want of character, and the taking of bribes. In a.d. 1621 he was convicted by his peers, deprived of his office, sentenced to imprisonment for life in the Tower, and to pay a fine of £-10,000 ; but was pardoned by the king.' — The French Catholic Descartes started not from experience, but from self-consciousness, with his " Cogito ergo, sum'''' as the only absolutely certain proposition. Beginning with doubt, he rose by pure thinking to the knowledge of the true and cer- tain in things. The imperfection of the soul thus discovered suggests an absolutely perfect Being, to whose perfection the attribute of being belongs. This is the ontological proof for the being of God.— His ])hilosophy was zealously taken up by French Jansenists and Ora- torians and the Reformed theologians of Holland, while it Avas bitterly opposed by such Catholics as Huetius and such Reformed theologians as Voetius." — Spinoza, an apostate Jew in Holland, died a.d. 1677,
' "Bacon's Works," ed. by Spedding, Ellis, and Heath. 14 vols. London, 1870. Spedding, " Letters and Life of Lord Bacon." 2 vols. London, 1862. Macaulay on Bacon in Edinburgh Review for 1837. Church, "Bacon" in vol. v. of "Collected Works." London, 1888. Nichol, " Bacon : Life and Pilosophy." 2 vols. Edin., 1888.
2 " Descartes' Method, Meditations, and Principles of Philosophy." Transl. by Prof. Veitch. Edin., 1850 ff. Fischer, '• Descartes and his School." London, 1887.
§ 164, PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. 81
gained little influence over his o-^\ni generation by his profound pan- theistic philosophy, -which has powerfully affected later ages. A violent controversy, however, was occasioned by his " Tradatus Theo- logico-jMliticus,^'' in which he attacked the Christian doctrine of revela- tion and the authenticity of the O.T. books, especially the Pentateuch, and advocated absolute freedom of thought. i (2) John Locke, died a.d. 1704, with his sensationalism took up a position midway between Bacon's empiricism and Descartes' rationalism, on the one hand, and English deism and French materialism, on the other. His " Essay concerning Human Understanding " denies the existence of innate ideas, and seeks to show that all our notions are only pi'oducts of outer or inner experience, of sensation or reflection. In this treatise, and still more distinctly in his tract, " The Eeasonableness of Christianity," intended as an apology for Christianity, and even for biblical visions and miracles, as well as for the messianic character of Christ, he openly advocated pure Pelagianism that knows nothing of sin and atonement." — Leibnitz, a Hanoverian statesman, who died a.d. 171G, introduced the new German philosophy in its first stage. The philo- sophy of Leibnitz is opposed at once to the theosophy of Paracelsus and Bohme and to the empiricism of Bacon and Locke, the pantheism of Spinoza, and the scepticism and manichaeism of Bayle. It is indeed a Christian philosophy not fully developed. But inasmuch as at the same time it adopted, improved upon, and carried out the rationalism of Descartes, it also paved the way for the later theological rationalism. The foundation of his philosophy is the theory of monads wrought out in his " J7ieocZicee " against Bayle and in his ^^ Noiiveaux iJssazs," against Locke. In opposition to the atomic theory of the materialists, he re- garded all phenomena in the world as eccentricities of so called monads, i.e. primary simple and indivisible substances, each of which is a minia- ture of the whole universe. Out of these monads that radiate out from God, the primary monad, the world is formed into a harmony once for all admired of God : the theory of pre-established harmony. This must be the best of worlds, otherwise it would not have been. In opposition to Bayle, who had argued in a manichsean fashion against God's goodness and wisdom from the existence of evil, Leibnitz seeks to show
' Willis, " Spinoza : his Ethics, Life, and Influence on Modern Thought." London, 1870. Pollock, " Spinoza : his Life and Philo- sophy." London, 1880. Martineau, "Spinoza." London, 1882. " Spinoza, Four Essays by Land, Von Floten, Fischer, and Eenan." Edited by Prof. Knight. London, 188-1.
^ " Locke's Complete Works." 0 vols. London, 1853. Cousin, " Ele- ments of Psychology: a Critical Examination of Locke's Essay." Edin., 1858. Webb, •• Tntellectualism of Locke." London, 1858.
VOL. III. 6
82 CHURCH HISTORY OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
that this does not contradict the idea of the best of -worlds, nor that of the Divine goodness and -wisdom, since finity and imperfection belong to the very notion of creature, a metaphysical evil from which moral evil inevitably follo-ws, yet not so as to destroy the pre-established harmony. Against Locke he maintains the doctrine of innate ideas, contests Clarke's theory of indeterminism, maintains the agreement of philosophy "with revelation, Avhicli indeed is above but not contrary to reason, and hopes to prove his system by mathematical demonstration. ^ — Continuation, § 171, 10.
3. Freethinkers. — The tendency of the age to thro-^v off all positive Christianity first sho-wed openly itself in England as the final outcome of Levellerism (§ 162, 2). This movement has been styled naturalism, because it puts natin-al in place of revealed religion, and deism, because in jalace of the redeeming Avork of the triune God it admits only a general providence of the one God. On philosophic groiuids the English deists affirmed the impossibility of revelation, inspira- tion, prophecy, and miracle, and on critical grounds rejected them from the Bible and history. The simple religious system of deism embraced God, j)rovidence, freedom of the -will, virtue, and the immortality of the soul. The Christian doctrines of the Trinity, original sin, satis- faction, justification, resurrection, etc., -n'ere regarded as absurd and irrational. Deism in England spread almost exclusively among upper- class laymen ; the people and clergy stood finnly to their positive beliefs. Theological controversial tracts -were numerous, but their polemical force "was in great measure lost by the latitudinarianism of their authors. — The principal English deists of the century -were (1) Edward Herbert of Cherbury, a.d. 1581-1648, a nobleman and states- man. He reduced all religion to five points : Faith in God, the duty of reverencing Him, especially by leading an upright life, atoning for sin by genuine repentance, recompense in the life eternal. — (2) Thomas Hobbes, a.d. 1588-1679, an acute philosophical and political ■writer, looked on Christianity as an oriental phantom, and of value only as a support of absolute monarchy and an antidote to revolution. The state of nature is a helium omnium contra omnes ; religion is the means of establishing order and civilization. The state should decide what religion is to prevail. Every one may indeed believe Avhat he will, but in regard to churches and worship he must submit to the state as represented by the king. His chief work is " Leviathan ; or, The Matter, Form, and Power of a Commonwealth, Ecclesiastical and Civil.'" — (3) Charles Blount, who died a suicide in a.d. 1693, a rabid opponent of all miracles as mere tricks of priests, Avrote " Oracles of
1 Guhrauer, " Leibnitz : a Biographj-." Transl. h\ Mackie. Boston, 1845.
§ 164. PHILOSOPHERS AND FREETHINKERS. 83
Reason." ^'- Hell g to Loiei."' '-Great is Diana of the Ephesians,"' aiul translated Philostratus' "Life of Apollonius of Tj^ana."'— (4) Thomas Browne, a.d. 1G35-1G82, a physician, -who in his " Heligto Medici " sets forth a mystical supernaturalism, took uj) a purely cleistio ground in his '• Vulgar Errors,'' published three years later. — Among the opponents of deism in this age the most notable are Richard Baxter ( § 162, 3) and Ralph Cud worth, a.d. 1617-1688, a latitudinarian and Platonist, who sought to prove the leadhig Christian doctrines by the theory of innate ideas. He wiote '-Intellectual System of the Universe '' in a.d. 1678. The pious Irish scientist, Robert Boyle, founded in London, in a.d. 1691, a lectureship of £40 a j^ear for eight discourses against deistic and atheistic unbelief. ^ — Cont inflation, § 171, 1.
4. A tendency similar to that of the English deists was represented in Germany b^' Matthias Knutzen, who sought to found a freethinking sect. The Christian -' Coran " contains onh^ lies ; reason and conscience are the true Bible ; there is no God, nor hell nor heaven ; priests and magistrates should be driven out of the world, etc. The senate of Jena University on investigation foiuid that his pretension to 700 folloAvers was a vain boast. — In France the brilliant and learned sceptic Peter Bayle, a.d. 1647-1706, was the apostle of a light-hearted inibelief. Though son of a Reformed pastor, the Jesuits got him over to the Romish church, but in a year and a half he apostatised again. He now studied the Cartesian philosoi>hy, as Reformed professor at Sedan, vindicated Protestantism in several controversial tracts, and as refugee in Holland composed his famous ^- Dictionnaire Historiqup ct C'ritiqjie,'' in which he avoided indeed open rejection of the facts of revelation, but did much to unsettle by his easy treatment of them. — Continuation, § 171, 3.
' Leland, " View of Principal Deistical Writers in England." 2nd ed. 2 vols. London, 1755. Halyburton, '' Natural Religion Insuf- ficient ; or, A Rational Inquiry into the Principles of the Modern Deists." Edin., 1714. Tulloch, "Rational Theology and Christian Philosophy in England in the 17th Century." 2 vols. Edin., 1872. Cairns, " Unbelief in the 18th Centur}',"' chap, ii., " Unbelief in the 1 7th Centurv." Edin.. 1881.
THIRD SECTION.
CHURCH HISTORY OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.i
I. — The Catholic Church in East and West.
§ 1G5. The Roman Catholic Church.
During the first half of the century the Roman hierarchy .suffered severely at the hand of Catholic courts, while in the second half storms gathered from all sides, threatening its very existence. Portugal, France, Spain, and Italy rested not till they got the pope himself to strike the deathblow to the Jesuits, who had been his chief supporters indeed, but who had now become his masters. Soon after the German bishops threatened to free themselves and their people from Rome, and what reforms they could not effect by ecclesi- astical measures the emperor undertook to effect by civil measures. Scarcely had this danger been overcome when the horrors of the French Revolution broke out, which sought, along with the Papac}'', to overthrow Christianity as well. But, on the other hand, during the early decades of
1 Lecky, " History of the Rise and Influence of the Spirit of Batio- nalism in Europe." 2 vols. London, 1873. Hagenbach, "German Rationalism." Edin., 1865. Hagenbach, " History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries." 2 vols. London, 1870. Leslie Stephen, " His- tory of English Thought in the 18th Century." 2 vols. London, 1876. Civirns, " Unbelief in the IStli Century." Edin.; 1881.
8i^
§ 165. THE EOMAN CATPIOLIC CHUECH. 85
the century Catholicism had gained many victories in another way by the counter-reformation and conversions. Its foreign missions, however, begun with sucli promise of success, came to a sad end, and even the home missions faded away, in spite of the founding of various new orders. The Janseuist controversy in the beginning of the century entered on a new stage, the Catholic church being driven into open semi- Pelagianism, and Jansenism into fanatical excesses. The church theology sank very low, and the Catholic supporters of " Illuinination " far exceeded in number those who had fallen away to it from Protestantism.
1. The Popes-— Clement XI., 1700-1721, protested in vain against tho Elector Frederick III. of Brandenburg assuming the cro-vvn as King Frederick I. of Pi'ussia, on Jan. 18th, a.d. 1701. In the Spanish wars of succession he sought to remain neutral, but force of circumstances led him to take up a position adverse to German interests. The new German emperor, Joseph I., a.d. 1705-1711, scorned to seek confirmation from the pope, and Clement consequently had the usual prayer for the emperor omitted in the church services. The relations became yet more strained, owing to a dispute about the jus primarum pj-ecum, Joseph claiming the right to revenues of vacancies as the patron. In A.D. 1707, the pope had the joy of seeing the German army driven out, not onh* of northern Italy, b\it also of Naples by the French. Again they came into direct conflict over Parma and Piacenza, Clement claiming them as a papal, the emperor claiming them as an imperial, fief. No pope since the time of Louis the Bavarian had issued the ban against a German emperor, and Clement ventured not to do so now. Eefusing the invitation of Louis XIV. to go to Avignon, ho was obliged either unconditionally to grant the German claims or to try the fortune of Avar. He chose the latter alteiiiative. The miser- able papal troops, however, were easily routed, and Clement "\\-as obliged, in a.d. 1708, to acknowledge the emperor's brother, the Grand- duke Charles, as king of Spain, and generallj' to yield to Joseph's very moderate demands. Clement was the atithor of the constitiitiou Uniffenitus, which introduced the second stage in the history of Jan- senism. After the short and peaceful pontificate of Innocent XIII. A.D. 1721-1724, came Benedict XIII., a.d. 1724-1730, a pious, well-mean- ing, narrow-minded man, ruled by a worthless favourite. Cardinal Cofcicia. He wished to canonize Gregory VII.. in the fond hope of thereby gecuring new favour to his hierarchical views, but this was
86 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
protested against by almost all the court'?. All the greater was the number of monkish saints with which he enriched the heavenly firma- ment. He promised to all Avho on their death-bed should say, " Blessed be Jesus Clnist," a 2,000 years' shortening of purgatorial pains. His successor Clement XII., a.d. 1780-1740, deprived the wretched Coscia of his offices, made him disgorge his robberies, imposed on him a severe fine and ten years' imprisonment, but afterwards resigned the management of everything to a greedy, grasping nephew. He was the first pope to condemn freemasonry, a.d. 1736. Benedict XIV., a.d. 1740-1758, one of the noblest, most pious, learned, and liberal of the popes, zealous for the faith of his church, and yet patient with those ■who differed, moderate and wise in his political procedure, mild and just in his government, blameless in life. He had a special dislike of the Jesuits (§ 155, 12), and^ jestingly he declared, if, as the curialists assert, "all law and all truth" lie concealed in the shrine of his breast, he had not been able to find the key. He wrote largely on theology and canon law, founded seminaries for the training of the clergy, had many French and English works translated into Italian, and was a liberal patron of art. To check ])opular excesses he tried to reduce the number of festivals, but Avithout success. — Continuation in Paragraphs 9, 10, 13.
2. Old and New Orders.— Among the old orders that of Chigny had amassed enormous A\ealth, and attempts made by its abbots at refor- mation led only to endless quarrels and divisions. The abbots now- squandered the revenues of their cloisters at court, and these insti- tutions were allowed to fall into disorder and decay. When, in a.d; 1790, all cloisters in France were suppressed, the city of Clugny bought the cloister and church for £4,000, and had them both pulled down.— The most important new orders were : (1) The Mechitarist Congregation, originated by Mechitar the Armenian, who, at Constantinople in a.d. 1701, founded a society for the religious and intellectual education of his countrymen ; but when opposed by the Armenian patriarch, fled to the Morea and joined the United Armenians (§ 72, 2). In a.d. 1712 the pope confirmed the congregation, Avhich, during the war with the Turks Avas transferred to Venice, and in a.d. 1717 settled on the island St. Lazaro. Its members spread Roman Catholic literature in Armenia and Armenian literature in the West. At a later time there Avas a famous Mechitarist college in Vienna, Avhicli did much by Avriting and publishing for the education of the Catholic youth. — (2) Treres Ignorantins, or Christian Brothers, founded in a.d. 1725 by De la Salle, canon of Eheims, for the instruction of children, Avrought in the spirit of the Jesuits through France, Belgium, and North America. After the expulsion of the Jesuits from France in a.d. 1724, they took their place there till themselves driven out by the. Bevolution in a.d^
§ 165. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 87
1790.1— (3) rp]^,. Liguorians or Redemptorists, founded in a.d. 1732 by Liguori, an advocate, Avho became Bishop of Kaples in a.d. 1762. He died in a.d. 1787 in his ninety-first year, was beatified by Pius VII. in A.D. 1816, and canonized by Gregory XVI. in a.d. 1839, and pro- claimed doctor ecdesioi by Pius IX. in a.d. 1871 as a zealous defender of the immaculate conception and papal infallibility. His devotional writings, which exalt Mary by superstitious tales of miracles, were extremelj^ popular in all Catholic countries. His new order was to minister to the poor. Ho declared the pope's Aviil to be God's, and called for unquestioning obedience. Only after the founder's death did it spread bej-ond Ital3\ — Continuation, § 186, 1.
3. Foreign Missions. — In the accommodation controversy (§ 156, 12), the Dominicans prevailed in a.d. 1742 ; but the abolishing of native customs led to a sore persecution in China, from wliich only a few remnants of the church were saved. The Italian Jesuit Beschi, with linguistic talents of the highest order, sought in India to make use of the native literature for mission purjioses and to place alongside of it a Christian literature. Here the Capuchins opposed the Jesuits as successfully as the Dominicans had in China. These strifes and perse- cutions destroyed the missions. — The Jesuit state of Paraguay (§ 156, 10) was put an end to in a.d. 1750 by a compact between Portugal and Spain. The revolt of the Indians that followed, insp)ired and directed by the Jesuits, wliich kept the combined powers at bay for a Avhole year, was at last quelled, and the Jesuits expelled the country in A.D. 1758. — Continuation § 186, 7.
L The Counter-Reformation (§ 1.53, 2).— Charles XII. of Sweden, in A.D. 1707, foi'ced the Emperor Joseph I. to give the Protestants of Silesia the benefits of the Westphalian Peace and to restore their churches. But in Poland in a.d. 1717, the Protestants lost the right of building new churches, and in a.d. 1738 were declared disqualified for civil offices and places in the diet. In the Protestant city of Thorn the insolence of the Jesuits roused a rebellion which led to a fearful massacre in a.d. 172-1. The Dissenters sought and obtained protection in Kussia from a.d. 1767, and the partition of Poland between Russia, Austria, and Prussia in a.d. 1772 secured for thenr religious toleration. In Salzburg the archbisho]), Count Firmian, attempted in a.d. 1729 a conversion of the evangelicals by force, who had, with intervals of perse- cution in the seventeenth centmy, been tolerated for forty years as <iuiet and inoffensive citizens. But in a.d. 1731 their elders swore on the host and consecrated salt (2 Chron. xiii. 5) to be true to then- faith.
* "Wilson, "The Christian Brothers, their Origin and Work. With a Sketch of the Life of their Founder, the Venerable Jean Baptiste de la Salle.'' London, 1883. *
88 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
This "covenant of salt'' was interpreted as rebellion, and in spite of the intervention of the Protestant princes, all the evangelicals, in the severe winter of a.d. 1731, 1732, were driven, with inhuman cruelty, from hearth and home. About 20,000 of them found shelter in Prussian Lithuania ; others emigrated to America. The pope praised highly " the noble " archbishop, who othemvise distinguished himself only as a huntsman and a drinker, and b}' maintaining a mistress in princeh' splendour.
5. In France the persecution of the Huguenots continued (§ 153, 4). The " jjastors of the desert " performed their duties at the risk of their lives, and though many fell as martyrs, their places were quickly filled by others equally heroic. The first rank belongs to Anton Court, pastor at Nismes from a.d. 1715 ; he died at Lausanne a.d. 1760, where he had founded a theological seminary. He laboured unweariedly and successfully in gathering and organizing the scattered members of the Reformed church, and in overcoming fanaticism by imparting sound instruction. Paul Eabaut, his successor at Nismes, A^-as from A.D. 1730 to 1785 the faithful and capable leader of the martyr church. The judicial murder of Jean Calas at Toulouse in a.d. 1762 presents a hideous example of the fanaticism of Catholic Erance. One of his sons had hanged himself in a fit of passion. When the report spread that it was the act of his father, in order to prevent the contemplated conversion of his son, the Dominicans canonized the suicide as a martyr to the Catholic faith, roused the mob, and got the Toulouse ]jarliament to put the unhapi^y father to the torture of the wheel. The other sons were forced to abjure their faith, and the daughters were shut up in cloisters. Two years later Voltaire called attention to the atrocity, and so wrought on public opinion that on the revision of the proceedings by the Parisian parliament, the innocence of the ill-used family was clearly proved. Louis XV. paid them a sum of 30,000 livres ; but the fanatical accusers, the false Avitnesses, and the corrupt judges were left unpunished. This incident improved the position of the Protestants, and in a.d. 1787 Louis XVI. issued the Edict of Ver- sailles, hj which not only complete religious freedom but even a legal civil existence was secured them, -whicli Avas confirmed by a law of Napoleon in a.d. 1802.
6. Conversions. — Pecuniary interests and prospect of marriage with a rich heiress led to the conversion, in a.d. 1712, of Charles Alexander Avhile in the Austrian service ; but when he became Duke of Wilrttem- burg he solemnly undertook to keep things as they were, and to set up no Catholic services in the country save in his own court chapel. Of other converts Winckelmann and Stolberg are the most famous. While Winckelmann, the greatest of art critics, not a religious but an artistic ultramontane, was led in a.d. 175i throiigh religious indif-
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 89
ference into the Romish church, the -warm heart of Von Stolberg was inducod, mainly by the Catholic Princess Gallitzin (§ 172, 2) and a French emigrant, Madame Montague, to escape the chill of rationalism amid the incense fumes of the Catholic services. — Continuation, § 175, 7.
7. The Second Stage of Jansenism (§ 157, 6). — Pasquier Qnesnel, priest of the Oratory at Paris, suspected in 1675 of Gallicanism, because of notes in his edition of the works of Leo the Great, fled into the Netherlands, -(vhere he continued his notes on the N.T. Used and recommended by Noailles, Archbishop of Paris, and other French bisho])s, this " Jan- senist " book was hated by the Jesuits and condemned by a brief of Clement XI. in a.d. 1708. The Jesuit confessor of Louis XIV., Le Tellier, selected 101 iDropositions froni the book, and induced the king to urge their express condemnation bj'' the pope. In the Constitution Unigenitus of a.d. 1713, Clement pronounced these heretical, and the king required the expulsion from parliament and church of all who refused to adopt this bull, which caused a division of the French fliurch into Acceptants and Appellants. As many of the condemned ]iropositions were quotetl literally by Quesnel from Augustine and other Fathers, or were in exact agi-eement with biblical passages, Noailles and his party called for an explanation. Instead of this the jjope threatened theni Avith excommunication. In a.d. 1715 the king died, and under the Duke of Orleans' regency in a.d. 1717, four bishops, Avith solemn appeal to a general council, renounced the papal con- stitution as irreconcilable with the Catholic faith. They were soon joined by the Sorbonne and the universities of Eheims and Nantes, Ai'chbishop Noailles, and more than twenty bishops, all the congre- gations of St. Maur and the Oratorians A\-ith large numbers of the secular clergy and the monks, especially of the Lazarists, Dominicans, Cistercians, and Camaldulensians. The pope, after vainly calling them to obej', thundered the ban against the Appellants in a.d. 1718.- But the parliament took the matter up, and soon the aspect of affaii's was completely changed. The regent's favourite, Dubois, hoping to obtain a cardinal's hat, took the side of the Acceptants and carried the duke with him, who got the parliament in 1720 to acknowledge the bull, with express reservation, however, of the Galilean liberties, and began a persecution of the Appellants. Under Louis XV. the persecution became more severe, although in many ways moderated by the influence of his former tutor. Cardinal Fleury. Noailles, who died in 1729, was obliged in 1728 to submit unconditionally, and in A.D. 1730 the parliament formally ratified the bull. Amid daily increasing oppression, many of the more faithful Jansenists, mostly of the orders of St. Maur and the Oratoiy, fled to the Netherlands, where they gave way more and more to fanaticism. In 1727 a young
90 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
Jansenist priest, Francis of Paris, died with the original text of the appeal in his hands. His adherents honoured him as a saint, and numerous rejaorts of miracles, which had been Avrought at his grave in Medardus churchyard at Paris, made this a daily jilace of pilgrim- age to thousands of fanatics. The excited enthusiasts, who fell into convulsions, and uttered proj)hecies about the overthrow of church and state, grew in numbers and, with that mesmeric power which fanaticism has been found in all ages to joossess powerfully influenced many who had been before careless and profane. One of these was the member of parliament De Montgeron, who, from being a frivolous scoffer, suddenly, in 1732, fell into violent convulsions, and in a three- volumed work, "Zw Verite des Miracles Operes 2^ctr V Intercession cle Francois de Paris,'''' 1737, came forward as a zealous apologist of the party. The government, indeed, in 1732 ordered the churchyard to be closed, but portions of earth from tlie grave of the saint continued to effect convulsions and miracles. Thousands of convulsionists throughout France were thrown into prison, and in 1752, Archbishop Beaumont of Paris, with many other bishops, refused the last sacra- ment to those who could not prove that they had accej^ted the con- stitution. The grave of "St. Francis," however, was the grave of Jansenism, for fanatical excess contains the seeds of dissolution and every manifestation of it hastens the catastrophe. Yet remnants of the party lingei'ed on in France till the outbreak of the Revolution, of Avhich tht'y liad ]Ji'ophesied.
8. The Old Catholic Church in the Netherlands.— The first Jesuits appeared in Holland in a.d. 1592. The form of piety fostered by superior and inferior clergy in the Catholic church there, a heritage from the times of the Brethren of the Common Life (§ 112, '9), was directed to the deepening of Christian thought and feeling ; and this, as well as the liberal attitude of the Archbishop of Uti'echt, awakened the bitter opposition of tlie Jesuits. At the head of the local clergy Avas Sasbold V(5smeer, vicar-general of the vacant archiepiscopal sen (if Utrecht. Most energetically he set himself to thwart the Jesuit machmations, Avhich aimed at abolishing the Utrecht see and putting the church of Holland under the jurisdiction of the papal nuncio at Cologne. On the gi-ound of suspicions of secret conspiracy Vosmeer Avas banished. But his successors refused to be overruled or set aside by the Jesuits. Meanwhile in France tlie first stage of the Jansenist controversy had been passed through. The Dutch authorities had heartily Avelcomed the condennied book of their pious and learned countryman ; but when the five propositions Av^ere denounced, they agreed in repudiating them, Avithout, hoAvever, admitting that they had been taught in the sense objected to by Jansen. The Jesuits, therefore, charged them Avith the Jansenist heresy, and issued in
§ 165. THE EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 91
A.D. 1697 an anonymous pamphlet full of Ij'ing insinuations about the origin and progress of Jansenism in Holland. Its beginning was traced back to a visit of Arnauld to Holland in a.d. 1681, and its effects were seen in the circulation of prayer-books, tracts, and sermons, urging diligent reading of Scripture, in the depreciation of the worship of Mary, of indulgences, of images of saints and relics, rosaries and scapularies (§ 188, 20), processions and fraternities, in the rigor istic strictness of the confessional, the use of the common language of the country in baptism, marriage, and extreme unction, etc. The archbishop of that time, Peter Codde, in 'order to isolate him, was decoyed to Rome, and there flattered Avith hypocritical ]jretension3 of goodwill, while behind his back his deposition Avas carried out, and an apostolic vicar nominated for Utrecht in the 15ei"son of his deadly foe Theodore de Cock. Bvit the chapter refused him obedience, and the States of Holland foi-bad him to exercise any official function, and under threat of banishment of all Jesuits demanded the inunediate return of the archbishop. Codde Avas noAV sent doAvn Avith the papal blessing, but a formal decree of deposition folloAved him. MeauAvhile the government pronounced on his riA'al De Cock, Avho aA'^oided a trial for high treason by flight, a 'sentence of perpetual exile. But Codde, though j)ersistently recognised by his chapter as the rightful archbishop, Avithheld on conscientious grounds from discharging official duties doAvn to his death in a.d. 1710. Amid these disputes the Utrecht see remained vacant for thirteen years. The flock Avere Avithout a chief shei)herd, the inferior clergy Avithout dii-ection and supi^ort, the people Avere Avrought upon by Jesuit emissaries, and the vacant pastorates Avere filled by the nuncio of Cologne. Thus it came aboi;t that of the 300,000 Catholics remaining after the Keformation, only a few thousands contintied faithful to the national party, Avhile the rest became bitter and extreme ultramontanes, as the Catholic church of Holland still is. Finally, in a.d. 1723, the Utrecht chapter took courage and chose a new archbishop in the person of Cornelius Steenowen, ReceiAdng no ansAver to their reqiiest for papal confirmation, the chapter, after Avaiting a year and a half, had him and also his three successors consecrated by a French missionary bishoj), Varlet, Avho had been driA'en aAvay by the Jesuits. But in order to jirevent the threatened loss of legitimate consecration for future bishops after Varlet's death in A.D. 1742, a bishop elected at Utrecht Avas in that same year ordained to the chapter of Haarlem, and in a.d. 1758 the neAvly founded bishopric of Deventer Avas so supplied. All these, like all subsequent elections, Avere duly reported to Rome, and a strictly Catholic confession from electors and elected sent up ; but each time, instead of confirmation, a frightful ban Avas thundered forth. This,
92 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
however, did not deter tlie Dutch government from fonnally recognis- ing the elections. — Meanwhile the second and last act of the Jansenist tragedy had been played in France, Many of the persecuted Appel- lants sought refuge in Holland, and the welcome accorded them seemed to justif}'' the long cherished suspicion of Jansenism against the people of Utrecht. They repelled these charges, however, by con- demning the five propositions and the hei'esies of Quesnel's book ; but they expressly refused the bull of Alexander VII. and its doctrine of papal infallibility. This put a stop to all attempts at reconciliation. The church of Utrecht meanwhile prospered. At a council held at Utrecht in a.d. 1765 it styled itself " The Old Eoman Catholic Church of the Netherlands," acknowledged the pope, although under his anathema, as the visible head of the Christian church, accepted the Tridentine tlecrees as their creed, and sent this with all the acts of council to Eonie as proof of their oi'thodoxj'. The Jesuits did all in their power to overturn the formidable impression which this at first made there ; and the}^ were successful. Clement XIII. declared tho council null, and those who took part in it hardened sons of Belial. But their church at this day contains, under one archbishop and two bishops, twenty-six congregations, numbering G,000 soids.' — Continua- tion, § 200, 3.
!). Suppression of the Order of Jesiuits, A.D. 1773.— The Jesuits had striven with grooving eagerness and success after Avorldly power, and instead of absolute devotion to the interests of the papacy, their chief aim was now the erection of an independent political and hierarchical dominion. Their love of rule had sustained its first check in the overthroAv of the Jesuit state of Paraguay ; but they had seciu'ed a great part of the world's trade (§ 156, 13), and strove successfully to control Eui'opean politics. The Jansenist controversy, however, had called forth against them much popular odium; Pascal had made them ridiculous to all men of culture, the other monkish orders Avere hostile to them, their siiccess in trade roused the jealousy of other traders, and their interference in politics made enemies on every hand. The Portuguese government took the fi.rst decided step. A revolt in Paraguay and an attempt on the king's life Avere attributed to them, and the minister Pombal, whose reforms they had opposed, had them banished from Portugal in a.d. 1759, and their goods confiscated. Clement XIII., a.d. 1758-1769, chosen by the Jesuits and under their infltience, protected them by a bull ; but Portugal refused to let the bull be proclaimed, led the papal nuncio over the frontier, broke off all relations with Eomc, and sent whole shiploads of Jesuits to the
^ Neale, "History of the so called Jansenist Chv;rch of Holland." Oxford, 1858.
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 93
pope. France followed Portugal's example when the general Ricci had answered the king's demand for a reform of his orders : Sitit vt sunt, aid non sint. For the enormoiis financial failure of the Jesuit La Valette, the whole order was made responsible, and at last, in a.d. 1764, banished from France as dangerous to the state. Spain, Naples, and Parma, too, soon seized all the Jesuits and transported them beyond the frontiers. The new papal election on the death of Clement XIII. was a life and death question with the Jesuits, but courtly influences and fears of a schism prevailed. The pious and liberal Minorite Ganganelli mounted the papal throne as Clement XIV., a.d. 1769- 1774. He began with sweeping administrative reforms, forbad the reading of the bull In cccna Domini (§ 117, 3), and, pressed by the Bourbon court, issued in a.d. 1773 the bull Dovdnus ac Redemtor Xoster suppressing the Jesuit order. The order numbei'ed 22,600 members and the pope felt, in granting the bull, that he endangered his own life. Next year he died, not without suspicion of jjoisoning. All the Catholic courts, even Austria, put the decree in force. But the heretic Frederick II. tolerated the order for a long time in Silesia, and Catherine II. and Paul I. in their Polish provinces. — Pius VI., a.d. 1775-1799, in many respects the antithesis of his predecessor, was the secret friend of the exiled and imprisoned ex-Jesuits. After the outbreak of the French Revolution, a proposal was made at Rome, in a.d. 1792, for the formal restoration of the order, as a means of saving the seriouslj^ imperilled church, but it did not find sufticient encouragement.
10. Anti-hierarchical Movements in Germany and Italy.— Even before Joseph II. could carrj^ out his reforms in ecclesiastical polit}', the noble elector Maximilian Joseph III., a.d. 1745-1777, with greater moderation but complete success, effected a similar reform in the Jesuit-overrun Bavaria. Himself a strict Catholic, he asserted the supremacy of the state over a foreign hierarchy, and by reforming the churches, cloisters, and schools of his country he sought to improve their position. But under his successor, Charles Theodore, a.d. 1777-1799, ever3^thing was restored to its old condition. — Mean- Avhile a powerful voice was raised from the midst of the German prelates that aimed a direct blow at the hierarchical papal system. Kicholas von Hontheim, the suflragan Bishop of Treves, had under the name Justimts Fcbroiiius published, in a.d. 1763, a treatise De Statu Ecdesice, in which he maintained the supreme authority of genei*al councils and the independence of bishops in opposition to the hierar- chical pretensions of the ix)pes. It was soon translated into German, Fi'ench, Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. The book made a great im- pression, and Clement XIII. could do nothing against the bold defender of the liberties of the church. In a.d. 1778. indeed. Pius VI. had the
94 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
poor satisfaction of extorting a recantation from the old man of seventy-seven j'-ears, but he lived to see j-et more deadly storms burst upon the church. Urged by Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria, the pope, in A.D. 1785, had made Munich the residence of a nuncio. The episcopal electors of Mainz, Cologne, and Treves, and the Archbishop of Salzburg, seeing their archiepiscopal rights in danger, met in congress at Ems in a.d. 178G, and there, on the basis of the Febronian proofs, claimed, in the so called Punctation of Ems, practical inde- pendence of the pope and the restoration of an independent German national Catholic chiirch. But the German bishops found it easier to obey the distant pope than the near archbishops. So they united their opposition A\'ith that of the pope, and the undertaking of the archbishops came to nothing. — More threatening still for tlie existence of the hierarchy was the reign of Joseph II. in Austria. German emperor from a.d. 1763, and co-regent with his mother Maria Theresa, lie began, immediately on his succession to sole rule in a.d. 1780, a radical reform of the whole ecclesiastical institutions throughout his hereditary possessions. In a.d. 1781 he issued his Edict of Toleration, by which, under various restrictions, the Protestants obtained civil rights and liberty of worship. Protestant places of worship were to have no bells or towers, were to pay stole dues to the Catholic priests, in mixed marriages the Catholic father had the right of educating all his children and the Catholic mother could claim the education at least of her daughters. By stopping all episcopal commimications with the papal curia, and i)utting all papal bulls and ecclesiastical edicts under strict civil control, the Catholic church was emancipated from Roman influences, set under a native clergy, and made service- able in the moral and religious training of the people, and all her institutions that did not serve this end Avere abolished. Of the 2,000 cloisters, 606 succumbed before this decree, and those that remained were completely sundered from all connexion with Eome. In vain the bishops and Pius VI. protested. The pope even went to Vienna in A.D. 1782 ; but though received with great respect, he could make nothing of the emperor. Joseph's procedm^e had been somewhat hasty and inconsiderate, and a reaction set in, led by interested ]iarties, on the emperor's early death in a.d. 1790. — The Grand-duke Leopold of Tuscany, Joseph's brother, with the aid of the pious Bishop Scipio von fiicci, inclined to Jansenism, sought also in a similar way to reform the church of his land at the Sjmod of Pistoia, in a.d. 1786. But here too at last the hierarchy prevailed.
11. Theological Literature.— The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes, A.D. 1685, gave the deathblow to the French Reformed theology, but it also robbed Catholic theology in France of its spur and incentive. The Huguenot polemic against the papac}-, and that of Jansenism against
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 95
the semi-pelagianism of the Catholic church, were silenced ; but now the most rabid naturalism, atheism, and materialism held the field, and the chui'ch theology was so lethargic that it could not attempt any serious opposition. Yet even here some names ai'e worthy of being- recorded. Above all, Bernard de Montfaucon of St. Maur, the ablest antiquarian of France, besides his classical works, issued admirable editions of Athanasius, Chr5'SOstom, Origen's " Hexajila^"' and the " L'oUectio Nova Patrinn.''^ E. Renaudot, a learned expert in the oriental languages, wrote several works in vindication of the " Pcrpitaite de Ja Foi cath.,'''' a history [of the Jacobite patriarchs of Alexandria, etc., and comjjiled a ^- Collectio litin/jicintm Oriental,'^ in two vols. Of per- manent worth is the ^^ Bibliofheca Sacra '^ of the Oratorian Le Long, which forms an admirable literary-historical apparatus for the Bible, The learned Jesuit Hardouin, who pronounced all Greek and Latin classics, with few exceptions, to be monkish products of the thirteenth century, and denied the existence of all pre-Tridentine genei-al councils, edited a careful collection of Acts of Councils in twelve vols, folio in Paris, 1715, and compiled an elaborate (du'onology of the Old Testament. His pupil, the Jesuit Berruyer, wrote a romancing " Hist. (Ill Peuple de Dieit,''' which, though much criticised, was widely read. Incomparably more impoi'tant was the Benedictine Calmet, died a.d. 1757, whose " Dictioiwaire de la Bible " and " Commeiitaire Littered et Critique "' on the whole Bible are really most creditable for their time. And, finally, the Parisian professor of medicine, Jean Astruc, deserves to be named as the founder of the modern Pentateueli criticism, whose " Conjectures sur les Meinoiies Originaux,'^ etc., appeared in Brussels A.D. 1753. — "Within the limits of the French Revolution the noble theosophist St. Martin, died a.d. 1805, a warm admirer of Bohme, A^'rote his brilliant and ]irofound treatises.
12. In Italy the most important contributions were in the depai'tment of historj-. Mansi, in his collection of Acts of Councils in thirty-one vols, folio, A.D. 1759 ff., and Muratori, in his " Scriptores Per. Italic.,'^ in twenty-eight vols., and " Antiquitt. Ital. Med. ..-E'tw'," in six vols., show brilliant learning and admirable impartiality. Ugolino, in a gigantic work, " Thescturus Antiquitt. ss.,''' thirty-four folio vols., a.d. 1744 fl'., gathers together all that is most important for biblical archseologj-. The three Assemani, uncle and two nejjhews, cultured Maronites in Rome, wrought in the hitherto unknown field of Syrian literature and history. The uncle, Joseph Simon, librarian at the Vatican, wrote " Bihliotheca Orientalist'' in four vols., a.d. 1719 fi"., and edited Ephraem's works in six vols. The elder nepheAv, Stephen Evodius, edited the 'L4cto ss. Martyrum Orient, et Occid.,''' in two vols., and the younger, Joseph Aloysius, a " Codex Liturgicus Pedes. Univ.,''^ in thirteen vols. Among dogmatical works the " Thcologia liist.-dogm.-schoJastica." in eight vols.
96 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
folio, E.ome, 1739, of the Augustinian Berti deserves mention. Zaccaria of Venice, in some thirty vols., proved an indefatigable opponent of Febronianism, Josephinism, and such-like movements, and a careful editor of older Catholic works. The Augustinian Florez, died a.d. 1773, did for Spain what Muratori had done for Italy in making col- lections of ancient writers, which, with the continuations of the brethren of his order, extended to fifty folio volumes. — In Germany the greatest Catholic theologian of the century was Amort. Of his seventy treatises the most comprehensive is the " Thcologia Edectlca, Moralis et Scholastica,^^ in four vols, folio, a.d. 1752. He conducted a conciliatory polemic against the Pi'otestants, contested the mysticism of Maria von Agreda (§ 156, 5), and vigorously controverted super- stition, miracle-mongering, and all manner of monkish extravagances. To the time of Joseph II. belongs the liberal, latitudinarian super- natm-alist Jahn of "Vienna, whose "Introduction to the Old Testament," and "Biblical Antiquities" did much to raise the standard of biblical learning. For his anti-clericalism he was deprived of his professorship in A.D. 1805, and died in a.d. 1816 a canon in Vienna. To this century also belongs the greatly blessed literary labours of the accomplished mystic, Sailer, beginning at Ingolstadt in a.d. 1777, and continued at Dillingen from a.d. 1784. Deprived in a.d. 1794 of his professorship on pretenoe of his favouring the Illuminati, it was not till a.d. 1799 that he was allowed to resume his academic work in Ingolstadt and Landshut. By numerous theological, ascetical, and philosophical tracts, but far more powerfully by his lectures and personal inter- oourse, he sowed the seeds of rationalism, which bore fruit in the teachings of many Catholic universities, and produced in the hearts of many pupils a warm and deep and at the same time a gentle and conciliatory Catholicism, which heartily greeted, even in pious Pro- testants, the foundations of a common faith and life. Compare § 187, 1. — Continuation, § 191.
13. The German-Catholic Contribution to the Illumination.- The Catholic church of Germany was also caii-ied awaj' with the current of " the Illumination," which from the middle of the century had overrun Protestant Germany. While the exorcisms and cures of Father Gassner in Eegensburg were securing signal triumphs to Catholicism, though these were of so dubious a kind that the bishops, the emperor, and finally even the curia, found it necessary to check the course of the miracle worker, Weishaupt, professor of canon law in Ingolstadt, founded, in a.d. 1776, the secret society of the Illuminati, which spread its deistic ideas of culture and human perfectibility through Catholic South Germany. Though inspired by deadly hatred of the Jesuits, Weishaupt imitated their methods, and so excited the suspicion of the Bavarian government, which, in a.d. 1785, suppressed the order
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 97
and imprisoned and banished its leaders. — Catholic theology too was affected by the rationalistic movement. But that the power of the church to curse still survived was proved in the case of the Mainz pi'ofessor, Laurence Isentiehl, who applied the passage about Immanuel, in Isaiah vii. 14, not to the mother of Christ, but to the wife of the prophet, for which he was deposed in a.d. 1774, and on account of his defective knowledge of tlieology was sent back for two years to the seminar}'. "When in a.d. 1778 he published a learned treatise on the same theme, he was put in prison. The pope too condemned his exposition as pestilential, and Isenbiehl " as a good Catholic " retracted. Steinbiihler, a young jurist of Salzbui'g, having been sentenced to death in a.d. 1781 for some contemptuous words abotit the Catholic ceremonies, was pardoned, but soon after died from the ill-treatment he liad received. The rationalistic movement got hold more and more of the Catholic universities. In Mainz, Dr. Blau, professor of dogmatics, promulgated with imjninity the doctrine that in the course of cen- turies the church has often made mistakes. In the Austrian univer- sities, under the protection of the Josephine edict, a whole series of Catholic theologians ventured to make cynically free criticisms, espe- cially in the field of church historj*. At Bonn University, founded iu A.D. 1786 by the Elector-archbishop of Cologne, there were teacher.s like Hedderich, who sportively described himself on the title page of a dissertation as "J«?/i quater Eomce damnatus^"' Dereser, previously a Carmelite monk, -who followed Eichhorn in his exposition of the biblical miracles, and Eulogius Schneider, who, after having made Bonn too hot for him bj' his theological and poetical recklessness, threw himself into the French Revolution, for two years marched through Alsace with the guillotine as one of the most dreaded monstei's, and finally, in a.d. 1794, was made to lay his own head on the block. — At the Austrian universities, under the protection of the toleranii .Tosephine legislation, a whole series of Catholic theologians, Eoyko, "Wolft", Dannenmaj-r, Michl, etc., criticised, often with cynical plain- ness, the proceedings and condition of the Catholic church. To this class also, in the first stage of his remarkably changeful and eventful career, belongs Ign. Aur. Fessler. From 1773, a Cajjuchin in various cloisters, last of all in Vienna, he brought down upon himself the bitter hatred of his order by making secret reports to the emperor about the ongoings that prevailed in these convents. He escaj^ed their enmity by his appointment, in 1784, as professor of the oriental languages and the Old Testament at Lemberg, but was in 1787 dis- missed fi'om this oifice on account of various charges against his life, teaching, and poetical writings. In Silesia, in 1791, he went over to the Protestant church, joined the freemasons, held at Berlin the pest of ;i rouncillor in f ci'lrsi'^.sticul and (.ducatioual affairs for t!ie VOL. III. 7
98 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
newly won Catholic provinces of Poland, and, after losing this position in consequence of the events of the war of 1806, found employment in Russia in 1809 ; first, as professor of oriental languages at St. Peters- burg, and afterwards, when opjjosed and persecuted there also on suspicion of entertaining atheistical views, as member of a legal commission in South Russia. Meanwhile having gradually moved from a deistical to a vague mystical standpoint, he was in 1819 made superintendent and president of the evangelical consistory at Saratov, with the title of an evangelical bishoia, and after the abolition of that office in 1833 he became general superintendent at St. Petersburg, Avhere he died in 1839. His romances and tragedies as well as his theological and religious writings are now forgotten, but his "Remini- scences of his Seventy Years' Pilgrimage," published in 1824, are still interesting, and his ''History of Hungar}"," in ten volumes, begun in 1812, is of permanent value.
14. The French Contribution to the Illumination. — The age of Louis XIV., with the morals of its Jesuit confessors, the lust, bigotry, and hypocrisy of its court, its dragonnades and Bastile polemic against revivals of a living Christianity among Huguenots, mystics, and Jansenists, its pro^Dhets of the Ce-^-ennes and Jansenist convulsionists, etc., called forth a spirit of freethinking to Avhich Catholicism, Jansen- ism, and Protestantism appeared equally ridiculous and absurd. This movement Avas essentially different from English deism. The prin- ciple of the English movement was common sense, the universal moral consciousness in man, with the powerful weapon of rational criticism, maintaining the existence of an ideal and moral element in men, and holding by the more general principles of religion. French naturalism, on the other hand, was a j)hilosophy of the espi-it, that essentially French lightheartedness which laughed away everything of an ideal sort with scorn and wit. Y^'et there was an intimate relationship between the two. The philosophy of common sense came to France, and was there travestied uito a philosophy d'esprit. The organ of this French philosophy was the '• Enciidopedie " of Diderot and D'Alembert, and its most brilliant contributors, Montesquieu, Helvttius, Voltaire, and Rousseau. Montesquieu, a.d. 1689-1755, whose " Esprit des Lois " in two years passed through twenty -two editions, wrote the " Lettres Persanes,"' in which with biting wit he ridiculed the political, social, and ecclesi- astical condition of France. Helvetius, a.d. 1715-1771, had his book, " De VEsprit,'''' burnt in a.u. 1759 by order of parliament, and was made to retract, but this only increased his influence. Voltaire, a.d. 1694-1778, although treatmg in his writings of philosophical and theoloo'ical matters, gives only a hash of English deism spiced with frivolous wit, showing the same tendency in his historical and poetical works, giving a certain eloquence to the commonest and filthiest sub-
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 99
jects, as in his " P«rc//f "' and '^ Candkle."' He obtained, lio-\vever, an immense influence tliat extended far past liis ovm. days. To the same class belongs Jean Jacques Eousseau, a.d. 1712-1778, belonging to the Roman Catholic chnrch only as a pervert for seventeen years in the middle of his life. Of a nobler nature than Voltaire, he yet often sank into deep immorality, as he tells -without reserve, but also without any hearty j)enitence, in his Confessions. His whole life was taken up with the conflict for his ideals of fi-eedom, nature, human rights, and human happiness. In his " Confrat Social " of a.d. 1762, he conunends a retimr to the natui-al condition of the savage as the ideal end of man's endeavour. His '■ Emile " of a.d. 1761 is of epoch-making- importance in the history of education, and in it he eloquently sets forth his ideal of a natural education of children, while he sent all his own (natural) children to a foundling hospital. — The physician De la Mettrie, who died at the coiu't of Frederick the Great in a.d. 1751, carried materialism to its most extreme consequences, and the German- Frenclunan Baron Holbach, a.d. 1723-1789, wrote the " Systeme de la Xatare,'^ Avhich in two years passed thi'ough eighteen editions.^
15. These seeds bore fruit in the French Revolution. Voltaire's cry " Ecrasez rinfame,'^ was directed against the church of the Inquisition, the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and the dragonnades, and Diderot had exclaimed that the world's salvation could onlj^ come when the last king had been strangled with the entrails of the last i^riest. The constitutional National Assembly, a.d. 1789-1791, wished to set aside, not the faith of the people, but only the hierarchy'', and to save the state from a financial criiSs by the goods of the church. All cloisters were suppressed and their property sold. The number of bishops was reduced to one half, all ecclesiastical offices without a pastoral sphere were abolished, the clergy elected by the i)eople paid by the state, and liberty of belief recognised as an inalienable right of man. The legis- lative National Assembly, a.d. 1791, 1792, made all the clergy take an oath to the constitution on pain of deposition. The pope forbad it under the same threat. Then arose a schism. Some 40,000 priests Avho refused the oath mostly quitted the country. Avignon (§ 110, 4) had been incorporated in the French territory. The terrorist National Convention, a.d. 1792-1795, which brought the king to the scaftbld on January 21st, a.d. 1793, and the queen on October 16th, prohibited all (Jiiristian customs, on 5th October abolished the Christian reckoning of time, and on November 7th Christianity itself, laid waste 2.000
1 Cairns, " Unbelief in the Eighteenth Century," chap, iv., " Un- belief in France." Edinburgh, 1881. Morley, "Diderot and the Encyclopedists." 2 vols. London, 1878. Morley, '"Voltaire." Lon- don, 1872. Lange, " History of Materialism." 3 vols. London. 1877.
100 CHUECH HISTOEY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTUET.
churches and converted Notre Dame into a Temple de la liaison, where
a ballet-dancer represented the goddess of reason. Stirred up by the fanatical baron, " Anacliarsis " Cloots, " the apostle of human freedom and the personal enemy of Jesus Christ," the Archbishop Gobel, now in his sixtieth year, came forward, pi'oclaiming his whole past life a raud, and owning no other religion than that of freedom. On the other hand, the noble Bishoii Gregoire of Blois, the first priest to support the constitution, who voted for the abolition of royalt}^, but not the exe- cution of the king, was not driven by the terrorism of the convention, of which he was a member, from a bold and open profession of Chris- tianity, appearing in his clerical dress and unweariedly protesting against the vandalism of the Assembly. Eobespierrei himself said, " Si T)icu ii'exiiitait 2^0,^1 il faudrait Vinventer,'''' passed in a.d. 1794 the I'esolution, Lc i^eiiple franqais reconnait VEtre sitpreme et VimmortaliM de Vdme, and issued an order to celebrate the /e7e de V Eti'e supreme . Tlie Dix'ectory, a.d. 1795-1799, restored indeed Christian Avorship, but favoured the deistical sect of the Theophilanthropists, whose high- swelling phrases soon called forth public scorn, while in a.d. 1802 the first consul banished their worship from all churches. But mean- Avhile, in a.d. 1798, in order to nullify the opposition of the pope, French armies had overrun Italy and proclaimed the Church States a Eoman Republic. Pius VI. was taken i^risoner to France, and died in A.D. 1799 at Valence under the rough treatment of the French, with- out having in the least compromised himself or his office."
IG. The Pseudo-Catholics. — (1) The Abrahamites or Bohemian Deists. When Joseph II. issued his edict of toleration in a.d. 1781, a sect which had hitherto kept itself secret under the mask of Catholicism made its appearance in the Bohemian province of Pardubitz. The Abrahamites were descended from the old Hussites, and professed to follow the faith of Abraham before his circumcision. Their fundamental doctrine Avas deistic monotheism, and of the Bible they accepted only the ten commandments and the Lord's Prayer. But as they would neither attend the Jewish synagogue nor the churches of any existing Chris- tian sect, the emperor refused them religious toleration, drove them from their homes, and settled them in a.d. 1783 on the eastern fron- tiers. Many of them, in consequence of persecution, returned to the Catholic church, and even those who remained steadfast did not transmit their faith to their children.
1 This saying is usually attributed to Voltaire, He used the ex- pression in attacking Pierre Bayle. — Erdmann's " Hist, of Phil.," vol. ii., p. 158. Ueberweg, " Hist, of Phil.," vol. ii., p. 125.
- Pressense, "The Church and the devolution."' London, 1869. Jervis, " The Galilean Chiirch and the Bevolution." London, 1882.
§ 165. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 101
17. (2) The Frankists.— Jacob Leibowicz, the son of a Jewish rabbi in Galicia, attached himself in Turkej-, where he assumed the name of Frank, to the Jewish sect of the Sabbatarians, who, repudiating the Talmud, adopted the cabbalistic book Sohar as the source of their more profound religious teachinjr. Afterwards in Podolia, which was then still Polish, he was esteemed among his numerous adherents as a Messiah sent of God. Bitterly hated by the rabbinical Jews, and accused of indulging in vile orgies in their assemblies, many of those Soharists were thro^\•n into prison at the instigation of Bishop Dembowski of Kaminetz. But when they turned and accused their opponents of most serious crimes against Christendom, and, at Frank's suggestion, pointing out what they alleged to be an identity between the book Sohar and the Christian doctrine of the Trinity and incarna- tion, made it known that they were inclined to become converts, they Avon the favour of the bishop. He arranged a disputation between the two parties, pronounced the Talmudists beaten, confiscated all avail- able copies of the Talmud, dragged them through the streets tied, to the tail of a horse, and then burnt them. Dembowski, however, died soon after in a.d. 1757, and the cathedral chapter expelled the Soharisls from Kaminetz. They appealed to King Augustus III. and to Arch- bishop Lubienski of Lemberg, renewing their profession of faith in the Trinity, and jn'omising to be subject to the poi:)e. In a disputation with the Talmudists lasting thi'ee daj-s they sought to prove that the Talmudists used Christian blood in their services, which afterwards led to the death of five of the Jews thus accused. By Frank's advice, who took part neither in this nor in the former disputation, but Avas t he secret leader of the AA'hole moA-ement, they noAv formally applied for admission into thf? Catholic church, and their leader noAV entered Lemberg in great state. They actualh^ submitted to be thus driven by him, and 1,000 of his adherents Avere baptized at Lemberg. Frank Avas baptized at "WarsaAv under the name of Joseph, the king himself acting as sponsor. In all Catholic journals this event Avas celebrated as a signal triumph for the Catholic church. But Frank among his oAvn disciples contintied to play the role of a niiracle-Avoi'king IMessiah. Hence in a.d. 1760 the Inquisition stepped in. Some of his folloAvers Avere imprisoned, others banished, and he himself as a hercsiarch con- demned to confinement for life with hard labour, from Avhich after thirteen years he Avas liberated on the first partition of Poland in a.d. 1772, through the faA'our of Catherine II., Avho employed him as secret political agent. Feeling that his life Avas insecure in Poland, he Avent to MoraA'ia, and at Briinn reorganized his niimerous and attached foUoAvers into a Avell-knit society, by Avhich he Avas revered as the incarnation of the Deitj'-, and his beautiful daughter Eva, brought up by her noble godmother, as " the divine Emuna." Hoav he was per-
102 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
mitted, tinder tlie protection of tlie Catholic clmrch, to continue here for sixteen j^ears, playing the rule of a Messiah, and to amass such -wealth as enabled him to pvirchase, in A.n. 1788, from the impoverished prince of IIomburg-Birstein his castle at Offenbach, with all the privileges attached to it, is an insoluble myster3^ He noAv called himself Baron von Frank, formed with his followers from Moravia and Poland a brilliant establishment, which outwardly adhered to the Eoman Catholic church, although he very seldom attended the Catholic ser- vices. Frank died in a.d. 1791, and- was buried AAdth great pomp, but without the presence of the Catholic clergy. His daughter Eva was able to maintain the extravagant establishment of her father for twenty-six years, when the debt resting on the castle reached three million florins. At last, in a.d. 1817, the long-threatened catastrophe occurred. Eva died suddenlj', and a coffin said to contain her body was actually with all decorum laid in the grave.
§ IGG. The Oriental Churches.
The oppressed condition of the ortliodox church in tlie Ottoman empire continued unchanged. It had a more vigorous development in Eussia, where its ascendency was unchallenged. Although the Russian church, from the time of its obtaining an independent patriarchate at Moscow, in A.D. 1589, was constitutionally emancipated from the mother church of Constantinople, it yet continued in close religious affinity with it. This was intensified by the adop- tion of the common confession, drawn up shortly before b}^ Peter Mogilas (§ 152, 3). The patriarchal constitution in Russia, however, was but short-lived, for Peter I., in 1702, after the death of the Patriarch Hadrian, abolished the patriarchate, arrogated to himself as emperor the highest ecclesiastical office, and in a.d. 1721 constituted " the Holy ^>ynod," to which, under the supervision of a procurator guarding the rights of the state, he assigned the supreme direction of spiritual and ecclesiastical affairs. To these proposals the Patriarch of Constantinople gave his approval. In this reform of the church constitution Theophanes Proco- powicz, Metropolitan of Novgorod, was the emperor's right
§ 166. THE OEIENTAL CHURCHES. 103
hand. — The monopln'site cliurcli of Abj'ssinia was again* (luring tliis period the scene of Christological controversies.
1. The Russian State Church.— From the time of the liturgical rofor- matiou of the Patriarch Nikon (§ 163. 10) a new and peculiar service of song took the i^lace of the old unison stj'le that had previously pre- •^ailed in the Eu-ssian church. Without instrumental accompaniment, It was sustained simply by ]Jowerful male voices, and was executed, at least in the chief cities, Avith musical taste and charming simplicity. Among the theologians, the above-named Procopowicz, who died in A. 11. 1736, occupied a prominent position. His "Handbook of Dog- matics,"' without departing fi'om the doctrines of his church, is characterized by learning, clearness of exposition, and moderation. From the middle of the century, however, esjiecially among the superior clergj-, there crept in a Protestant tendency, which indeed held quite firmly bj^ the old theology of the oecumenical sjniods of the Greek Church, but set aside or laid little stress upon later doctrinal developments. Even the celebrated and widely used catechism, drawn uji originally for the use of the Grand-duke Paul Petrovich, by his tutor, the learned Platon, afterwards Metropolitan of Moscoa\', was not quite free from this tendency. It found yet more decided f'xpression in the dogmatic handbook of Theophylact, archimandrite of Moscow, published in a.d. 1773. — Continuation, § 20(5, 1.
2. Russian Sects— To the sects of the seventeenth century (§ 163, 10) are to be added spiritualistic gnostics of the eighteenth, in which we find a blending of western ideas with the old oriental mysticism. Among those were the Malakanen, or consumers of milk, because, in spite of the orthodox prohibition, they used milk during the fasts. They rejected all anointings, even chrism and priestly consecration, and acknowledged only spiritual anointing by the doctrine of Christ. They also volati- lized the idea of baptism and the Lord's supper into that of a merely spiritual cleansing and nom-ishing by the word of the gospel. Other- ■\vise they led a quiet and honourable life. More important still in regard to numbers and influence were the Duchohorzen. Although belonging exclusively to the peasant class, they had a richly developed theological system of a speculative character, with a notable blending of theoso]->hy, nwsticism. Protestantism, and rationalism. Thej- idealized the doctrine of the sacraments after the style of the Quakers, would have no special places of worship or an ordained clergj-, refused to take oaths or engage in military service, and led peaceable and useful lives. They made their first appearance in Moscow in the beginning of the eighteenth century imder Peter the Great, and spread through other cities of Old Eussia.— Continuation, § 210. 3.
3. The Abyssinian Church (§§ 64, 1 ; 73, 2).— About the middle of
104 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY..
the century a monk ajipeared, proclaiming that, besides the commonly admitted twofold birth of Christ, the eternal generation of the Father and the temporal birth of the Virgin Mary, there was a third birth through anointing with the Holy Spirit in the baptism in Jordan. He thus convulsed the whole Abyssinian church, Avhich for centuries liad been in a state of spiritual lethargy. The ahuna with the majority of his church held by the old doctrine, but the new also found many adherents. The split thus occasioned has continued till the present time, and has played no unimportant part in the politico- dynastic struggles of the last ten years (§ 184, 9).
II. — The Protestant Clmrclies.
§ 167. The Lutheran Church before " the Illumination."
By means of the founding of the University of Halle iu A.D. 1694 a fresh impulse was given to the pietist move- ment, and too often the whole German Church was embroiled in violent party strifes, in which both sides failed to keep the happy mean, and laid themselves open to the reproach of the adversaries. Spener died in a.d. 1705, Francke in A.D. 1727, and Breithaupt in A.u. 1732. After the loss of these leaders the Halle pietism became more and more gross, narrow, unscientilic, regardless of the Church con- fession, frequently renouncing definite beliefs for hazy pious feeling, and attaching undue importance to pious forms of expression and methodistical modes of life. The conven- tionalism encouraged by it became a very Pandora's box of sectarianism and fanaticism (§ 170, 1). But it had also set up a ferment iu the church and in theology which created a wholesome influence for many years. More than 6,000 theologians from all parts of Germany had down to Franckc's death received their theological training in Halle, and carried the leaven of his spirit into as many churches and schools. A whole series of distinguished teachers of theology now rose in almost all the Lutheran churches of the German states, who, avoiding the oncsidedness of the
§ 167. LUTH. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION. " 105
pietists and tlieir opponents, tanglit and preached pure doc- trine and a pious life. From Calixt they had leai'nt to be mild and fair towards the Reformed and Catholic churches, and by Spener they had been roused to a genuine and hearty piety. Gottfried Arnold's protest, onesided as it was, had taught them to discover, even among heretics and sectaries, partial and distorted truths ; and from Calov and Loscher the}' had inherited a zeal for pure doctrine. Most eminent among these were Albert Bengel, of Wlirttemberg, who died in A.D. 1752, and Chr. Aug. Crusius of Leipzig, who died in a.d. 1775. But when the flood of " the Illumina- tion " came rushing in upon the German Lutheran Church about the middle of the centmy, it overflowed even the fields sown by these noble men.
1. The Pietist Controversies after the Founding of the Halle University (§ 159, 3). — Pietism, condemned by the orthodox universities of Leipzig and Wittenberg, Avas i)rotected and encoi^raged in Halle. The cro\vds of students flocking to this new seniinary roused the ■vvrath of the orthodox. The "Wittenberg faculty, with Deutschmaini at its head, issued a manifesto in a.d. 1695, charging Spener with no less than 264 eiTors in doctrine. Xor were those of Leipzig silent, Carpzov going so far as to style the mild and peace-loving Spener a proccUa ecclesia:. Other leading opponents of the pietists were Schel- Avig of Dantzig, IMaj-er of Wittenberg, and Fecht of Eostock. When Spener died in a.d. 1705 his opponents gravely discussed whether he could be thought of as in glor}'. Fecht of Eostock denied that it could be. Among the later cham]jions of pure doctrine the worthiest and ablest was the learned Loscher, superintendent at Dresden, a.d. 1709-1747, Avho at least cannot be reproached with dead orthodoxy. His " Volhtiindigev Timothcus Verinus,'^ two vols., 1718, 1721, is by far the most important controversial work against pietism.^ Fi'ancis Buddeus of Jena for a long time sought ineffectually to bring about a reconciliation between Loscher and the pietists of Halle. In a.d. 1710 Francke and Breithaupt obtained a valorous colleague in Joachim Lange ; but even he was no match for Loscher in controversj-. ]Mean-
' Hagenbach, " History of Church in the 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. i., pj). 109, 116. 2 vols. New York, 1S09. Dorner, '' History of Protestant Theology." vol. ii., p. 208.
106 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTUET.
■vvliiie pietism had more and more permeated the life of the people, and occasioned in many places violent popular tumults. In several states conventicles were forbidden ; in others, e.(j. Wtirttemberg and Denmark, they -were allowed.
2. The orthodox regarded the pietists as a neAV sect, Avitli dangerous errors that threatened the pure doctrine of the Lutheran Church ; Avhile the pietists maintained that they held by pure Lutheran orthodoxy, and only set aside its barren formalism and dead externalisni for biblical practical Christianity. The controversy gathered round the doctrines of the new birth, justification, sanctification, the church, and the millennium. («) The new birth. The orthodox maintained that regeneration takes place in baptism (§ 141, 13), every baptized person is regenerate ; but the new birtli needs nursing, nourishment, and growth, and, where these are wanting, rea-wakeuing. The jiietists identified awakening or conversion with regeneration, considered that it was effected in later life through the word of God, mediated by a corporeal and sjnritual penitential struggle, and a consequent spiritual experience, and sealed by a sensible assurance of God's favour in the believer's blessed consciousness. This inward sealing marks the beginning, introduction into tlie condition of babes in Christ. They distinguished a tlicoloijia viatoriim, i.e. the symbolical church doctrine, and a theologia regcnitorum, which has to do with the soul's imier condition after the new birth. They have conseqtiently been charged with maintaining that a true Christian who has arrived at the stage of spiritu.al manhood may and must iri this life become free from sin. — {h) Justification and Sanctification. In opposition to an only too pre- valent externalizing of the doctrine of justification, Spener has taught that only living faith justifies, and if genuine must be operative, though not meritorious. Only in faith proved to be living by a pious life and active Christianity, but not in faith in the external and objective promises of God's word, lies the sure guarantee of justifica- tion obtained. His opponents therefore accused him of confounding justification and sanctification, and depreciating the former in favour of the latter. And, though not by Spener, yet by many of his followei's, justification was put in the background, and in a onesided manner stress was laid upon practical Christianity. Spener and Francke had expressly preached against Avorldly dissipation and frivolity, and condemned dancing, the theatre, card-playing, as detrimental to the progress of sanctification, and therefore sinful ; while the orthodox regarded them as matters of indifference. Besides this, the pietists held the doctrine of a day of grace, assigned to each one Avithin the limit of his earthly life (terminisrn), — (c) The Church and the Pastor- a^te. Orthodoxy regarded word and sacrament and the ministry Avhich administered them as the basis and foundation of the church ; pietism
§ 167. LUTH. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION." 107
held that the intlividual believers determined the character and exist- ence of the church. In the one case the church was thought to beget, nurse, and noiirish believers; in the other believers, constituted, main- tained, and renewed the church, accomplishing this best by conventicles, in which living Christianity preserved itself and diffused its infliience abroad. The orthodox laid great stress upon clerical ordination and the grace of office ; pietists on the person and his faith. Spener had taught that only he Avho has experienced in his own heart the poAver of the gospel, i.e. he who has been born again, can be a true preacher and pastor. Loscher maintained that the official acts of an uncon- verted preacher, if only he be orthodox, may b(! blessed as well as those of a converted man, because saving poAver lies not in the person of the preacher, but in the word of G od which he preaches, in its purity and simplicit}', and in the sacraments Avhich he dispenses in accordance with their institution. The pietists then went so far as absolutely to deny that saving results could follow the preaching of an unconverted man. The proclamation of forgiveness by the church without the inward sealing had for them no meaning ; yea, they regarded it as dangerous, because it quieted conscience and made sinners secure. Hence they keenly opposed private confession and churchly absolution. Of a special grace of office they would know nothing : the true ordination is the new birth ; each regenerate one, and such a one onlj-, is a true priest. The orthodox insisted above all on pure doctrine and the chvirch confession ; the pietists too regarded this as necessary, but not as the main thing. Spener decidedly maintained the duty of accepting the church symbols ; but later jsie- tists rejected them as man's work, and so containing errors. Among the orthodox, again, some went so far as to claim for their symbols absolute innnruiity from error. Spener's ojiposition to the compulsor}* use of fixed Scripture portions, pjrescribed forms of prayer, and the exorcism fornuilary occasi(5ned the most violent contentions. On the other hand, his reintroduction of the conilrmation service before the first communion, which had fallen into general desuetude, was imitated, and soon widely prevailed, even among the orthodox. — (d) Eschatolog}'. Spener had interpreted the biblical doctrine of the 1,000 years' reign as meaning that, after the overthrow of the papacy and the conversion of heathens and Jews, a period of the most glorious and tmdisturbed tranquillity would da^vn for the kingdom of Clu-ist on earth as prelude to the eternal sabbatli. His oyiponents denounced this as chiliasm and fanaticism.— (p) There Avas, finallA', a controA-ersA' about DiAdne providence occasioned by the founding of Francke's orphan house at Halle. The pietists pointed to the establishment and groAA-th of this institvition as an instance of immediate divine proA'i- denc^ ; A\'hile LOscher, by indicating the common means emploA'ed to
108 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
secui-e success, i-educed the whole aiFair to the domain of general and daily providence, withoiit denying the value of the strong faith in God and the active love that characterized its founder, as well as the importance of the Divine blessing which rested upon the work.*
o. Theology (§ 159, 4). — The last two important representatives of the Old Orthodox School were Loscher, who, besides his polemic against ]jietism, made learned contributions to biblical philology and church history ; and his companion in arms, Cyprian of Gotha, who died in A.D. 1745, the ablest combatant of Arnold's " KetzerJiistorie,'^ and opponent of union efforts and of the i^apaoj-. — The Pietist School, more fruitful in practical than scientific theology-, contributed to devotional literature many works that will never be forgotten. The learned and voluminous writer Joachim Lange, who died a.d. 1744, the most skilful controversialist among the Halle pietists, author of the " Halle Latin Grammar," which reached its sixtieth edition in a.d. 1809, published a commentary on the Avhole Bible in seven folio vols, after the Cocceian method. Of importance as a historian of the Reformation was Salig of Wolfenbiittel, who died in a.d. 1738. Christian Thomasins at first attached himself to the pietists as an opponent of the rigid adherence to the letter of the orthodox, but was repudiated by them as an indifFerentist. To him belongs the honour of having turned public opinion against the persecution of Avitches (§ 117, 4). Out of the (contentions of pietists and orthodox there now rose a '^hird school, in Avhich Lutheran theology and learning were united with genuine piety and profound thinking, decided confessionalism with modera- tion and fairness. Its most distinguished representatives Avere Hollaz of Pomerania, died 1713 {^' Examen Thcolofjicum Acroamatiatm"'') '^ Buddens of Jena, died 1729 {''Hist. Eccht. I'.T.," '' Instit. Thcol. Uocjma,"' " Isagoge Hist. Theol. Univ. '') ; J. Chr. Wolf of Homburg, died 1739 {'' BiUioth. Hebr.,'' '' Curce Philol. et Crit. hi iY.T."); Weis- mann of Tubingen, died 1747 (" Hist. Eccht.'''') ; Carpzov of Leipzig, died a.u. 1767 as superintendent at Liibeck {'' Critica s. V.T.,'^ '■'Intro- ihictio ad Lihros cen. V.T.,"' ''Apparatus Antiquift. s. Cod ids ''''); J. H. Michaelis of Halle, died 1731 (" Bihlia. Hchr. c. Variis Lectiotiibiis ct Brev. Annott.,''^ " Uberiorcs Annott. in Hagiograjjh.") ; assisted in both by his learned nephew Chr. Ben. Michaelis of Halle, died 1764 ; J. G. Walch of Jena, died 1755 {" Einl. in die Religionsstreitiglceiteyi,'''' " Bih- lioth. Theol. Selecta.;-' "BiUioih.Pafristica," "Ltither's Wcrke'') ; Chr.Meth. Pfaff of Tubingen, died 1760 {"K. G., K. Becht, Dogmatik, Moral''}; L. von Mosheim of Helmstadt and Gottingen, died 1755, the father of modern church history ("Institt. Hist. Exist.,'''' "Commentarii Rebus Christ, ante Constant. J/.," "Dissertationes,''^ etc.) ; J. Alb. Bengel of
' Dorner, "History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 208-227.
§167. LUTH. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION." 109
Stuttgart, died 1752 {"Gnomon X.T.,'' a commentary on the N.T. distinguished by pregnancy of expression and profundity of thought ; from his interpretation of Revelation he expected the millennium to begin in a.d. 1836)-, and Chr. A. Crusitis of Leipzig, died 1775 {" Hy- pomnemata ad Theol. Propheticam:'')—A. fourth theological school arose out of the application of the mathematical method of demonstration by the philosopher Chr. von WolflF of Halle, %vho died a.d. 1754. Wolff attached himself to the philosophical system of Leibnitz, and sought to unite philosophy and Christianity ; but luider the manipulation of his logico-mathematical method of proof he took all vitality out of the sj'stem, and tlie pre-established harmony of the world became a purely mechanical clockwork. He looked merely to the logical ac- curacy of Christian truths, Avithout seeking to penetrate their inner meaning, gave formal exercise to the understanding, while the heart was left empty and cold ; and thus inevitably revelation and myster}-- made way for a mere natural theology. Hence the charge brought against the system of tending to fatalism and atheism, not only \>y narrow pietists like Lange, but by able and liberal theologians like Buddeus and Crusius, was quite justifiable. By a cabinet order of Frederick William I. in a.d. 1728 Wolff A\as deposed, and ordei'ed within two days, on pain of death, to quit the Prussian states. But so soon as Frederick II. ascended the throne, in a.d. 1740, he recalled the philosopher to Halle from Marburg, where he had meanwhile taught with great success.' Sig. Jac. Baumgarten, the pious aiid learned professor in Halle, who died in a.d. 1757, was the first to introduce Wolffs method into theology. In respect of contents his theolog}^ occupies essentially the old orthodox ground. The ablest ])romoter of the sj'stem was John Carpov of Weimar, who died in a.d. 1768 (" T/ieo/. EeveJata Meth. Scioitifica Adornata''). When applied to sermons, the Wolffian method led to the most extreme insipidity and absurdity.
4. Unionist Efforts. — The distinguished theologian Chr. Matt. Pfaff, chancellor of the University of Tubingen, who, without being num- bered among the pietists, recognised in jjietism a wholesome reaction against the barren worship of the letter wliich had characterized orthodox}', regarded a union between the Lutheran and Eeformed churches on their common beliefs, which in importance far exceeded the points of difference, as both practicable and desirable ; and in a.d, 1720 expressed this opinion in his " AUoquium Irenicum ad Proles- (antes,'''' in which he answered the challenge of the '• Corpus Evangeli-
1 Dorner, '■ History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 266-279. Hagenbach, ■• History of Church in 18th and 19th Centuries," vol. i., pp. 117-127.
110 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
corum " at Regen sburg (§ 153, 1). His proposal, however, found little favour among Lutheran theologians. Not only Cyprian of Goth a, but even such conciliatory theologians as "Weismann of Tubingen and Mosheim of Helmstadt, opposed it. But forty years later a Liitheran theologian, Heumann of Guttingen, demonstrated that " the Reformed doctrine of the supper is true," and proj^osed, in order to end the schism, that Lutherans shoxild drop their doctrine of the supper and the Reformed their doctrine of predestination. This pamphlet, edited after the author's death by Sack of Berlin, in a.d. 1764, produced a great sensation, and called forth a multitude of replies on the Lutheran side, the best of Avhich were those of Walch of Jena and Ernesti of Leipzig. Even within the Lutheran church, however, it found con- siderable favour.
5. Theories of Ecclesiastical Law- — Of necessity during the first cen- tiuy of the Protestant church its government was placed in the hands of the princes, who, because there were no others to do so, dispensed the jura episcopalia as prcecipua membra ecdesim. What was allowed at first in the exigency of these times came gradually to be regarded as a legal right. Orthodox theology and the juristic system associated with it, especially that of Carpzov, justified this assumption in what is called the episcopal system. This theory firmly maintains the mediaeval dis- tinction between the spiritual and civil powers as two independent spheres ordained of God ; but it installs the prince as summiis epi- scojMs, combining in his person the highest spiritual with the highest civil authority. In lands, however, where more than one confession held sway, or where a prince belonging to a different section of the church succeeded, the practical difficulties of this theory became very apparent ; as, e.g., when a Reformed or Romish prince had to be regarded as nummus episcopus of a Lutheran church. Driven thus to seek another basis for the claims of royal supremacy, a new theorj'', that of the territorial system, was devised, according to which the prince possessed highest ecclesiastical authority, not as prmcipuum memhrum ecclesla', but as sovereign ruler in the state. The headship of the church was therefore not an index^endent prerogative over and above that of civil government, but an inherent element in it : cujus regio, illius et religio. The historical development of the German Reformation gave support to this theory (§ 126, 6), as seen in the proceedings of the Diet of Spires in a.d. 1526, in the Augsburg and Westphalian Peace. A scientific basis was given it by Puifendorf of Heidelberg, died a.d. 1694, in alliance with Hobbes (§ 163, 3). It was further developed and applied by Christian Thomasius of Halle, died A.D. 1728, and by the famous J. H. Bohmer in his "/«s Ecdesiastkiim Fotestantium.'''' Thomasius' connexion with the pietists and his indif- ference to confessions secured for the theory a favourable reception
§ 167. LUTH. CHUECH BEFOKE "THE ILLUMINATION." Ill
in tliat party. Spener himself indeed preferred the Calvinistic presbyterial constitution, because only in it could equality be given to all the three orders, miniiterium ecclesiasticum, ma (j id rat u s politic it fs, itattis (cconomiciis. This protest by Spener against the two systems was certainly not without influence upon the construction of a third theory, the collegial system, proposed by Pfaff of Tubingen, died a.d. 1760. According to this scheme there belonged to the sovereign as such only the headship of the cluu'ch, ji<s circa sacra, while i\\Q jura in sacra, matters pertaining to doctrine, worship, ecclesiastical law and its administration, installation of clergy, and excommunication, as jura collegialia, belonged to the whole body of church members. The normal constitution therefore required the collective vote of all the members tlu'ough their synods. But outward circumstances during the Reformation age had necessitated the relegating the discharge of these collegial rights to the princes, which in itself was not tmallow- able, if only the position be maintained that the prince acts ex cojurnisso, and is under obligation to render an account to those who have counnissioned him. This system, on account of its democratic character, found hearty supporters among the later rationalists. But as a matter of fact nowhere A\'as an}'' of the three S3'stems consistently carried out. The constitution adopted in most of the national churches was a weak vacillation between all the three.*
(j. Church Song (§ 159, 3) received, during the first half of the cen- turj'', many valuable contributions. Tavo main groups of singers may be distinguished : (1) The j)ietistic school, characterized by a biblical and [practical tendency. The spiritual life of believers, the work of grace in conversion, growth in holiness, the varying condi- tions and experiences of the religious life, Avere favoiirite themes. They Avere fitted, not so much for use in the public services, as for private devotion, and feAV comparatively have been retained in col- lections of church hymns. The later productions of this school sank more and more into sentimentalism and allegorical and fanciful play of Avords. AVe may distinguish among the Halle pietists an older school, A.D. 1690-1720, and a younger, a.d. 1720-1750. The former, coloured by the fervent piety of Franeke, produced simple, hearty, and often profound songs. The most distinguished representatiA-es Avere Freylinghausen, died a.d. 1739, Francke"s son-in-laAV, and director of the Halle Orphanage, editor in a.d. 1717 of a hymn-book Avidely used among the pietists, Avas author of the h3anns " Piu-e Essence, spotless Fount of Light," '■ The day expires "' ; Chr. Fr. Richter, physician to the Orphanage, died a.d. 1711, author of thirty -three beautiful hymns,
1 Corner, "History of Protestant Theology,"' vol. ii., pp. 259-261. Geflfcken, " Church and State," 2 vols. Lon.,l8S7, vol. i., pp. 456-503.
112 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
including '• God, -vvliom I as Love have known " ; Emilia Juliana, Countess of Schwarzbnrg Eudolstadt, died a.d. 1706, who wrote 580 hymns, including " Who knows how near my end may be ? " Schroder, pastor in Magdeburg, died a.d. 1728, wrote " One thing is needful : Let me deem " ; Winckler^ cathedral preacher of Magdeburg, died a.d. 1722, author of " Strive, when tliou art called of God " ; Dessler, rector of Nuremburg, died a.d. 1722, composer of " I will not let Thee go. Thou hel]D in time of need," "O Friend of souls, how well is me"; Gotter,died A.D. 1735, who wrote, " O Cross, we hail thy bitter reign " ; Cresselius, pastor in Dusseldorf, author of " Awake, O man, and from thee shake." The younger Halle school represents pietism in its period of decaj'. Its best representatives are J. J. Eambach, professor at Giessen, died A.D. 17B5, who wrote '-J am baptized into thy name" ; Allendorf, court preacher at Cothen, died a.d. 1773, editor of a collection of poetic i-enderings from the Canticles. — (2) The poets of the orthodox part}', although opposed to the pietists, are all more or less touched by the fervent piety of Spener. Neumeister, pastor at Hamburg, died a.d. 175U, was an orthodox hymn-writer of thoroughlj^ conservative tendencies, zealously opposing the onesidedness of pietism, with a strong, ardent faith in the orthodox creed, but without much significance as a poet. Sclimolck, pastor at Schweidnitz, died a.d. 1737, wrote over 1,000 hymns, including "Blessed Jesus, here we stand," '-Hosanna to the Son of David! Eaise," "Welcome, thou Victor in the strife." Sol. Franck, secretary to the consistoxy at Weimar, died a.d. 1725, wrote over 300 hymns, including " Rest of the weary, thou thyself art resting now." The mediating party between pietism and orthodoxy, represented by Bengel and Crusius in theology, is represented among hymn-Avriters by J. Andr. Eothe, died a.d. 1758, and by Mentzer, died a.d. 1734, com- poser of " Oh, would I had a thousand tongues ! " In a.d. 1750 J. Jac. von Moser collected a list of 50,000 spiritual songs printed in the German language. — Continuation, § 171, 1.
7. Sacred Music (§ 159, 5). — Decadence of musical taste accompanied the lowering of tlie poetic standard, and 2''iftists Avent e\en further than the orthodox in their imitation and adaptation of operatic airs. Freylinghausen, not only himself composed many such melodies, but made a collection frona various sources in a.d. 1704, retaining some of the moi-e popular of the older times. — There now arose, amid all this depraA'ation of taste, a noble musician, Avho, like the good householdei', could bring out of his treasure things ucav and old. J. Seb. Bach, the most perfect organist Avho ever lived, Avas musical director of the School of St. Thomas, Leipzig, and died a.d. 1750. He tiu'ued enthusiastically to the old chorale, Avhich no one had ever understood and appreciated as he did. He harmonized the old chorales for the organ, made them the basis for elaborate organ studies, gaA'e expression to his profoundcst
§167. LUTH. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION." 113
feelings in his musical compositions and in his recitatives, duets, and airs, reiDroduced at the sacred concerts many fine old chorales -wedded to most appropriate Scripture passages. He is for all times the un- rivalled master in fugue, harmony, and modulation. In his passion music we have expression given to the profoundest ideas of German Protestantism in the noblest music. After Bach comes a master iu oratorio music hitherto unapproached, G. Fr, Handel of Halle, who, from A.D. 1710 till his death in a.d. 1759, lived mostly in England. For twenty-five years he Avrought for the opera-house, and only iu his later years gave himself to the composing of oratorios. His operas are forgotten, but his oratorios will endure to the end of time. His most perfect work is the '-Messiah," which Herder describes as a Christian epic in music. Of his other great compositions, "Samson,"' "Judas Maccabeeus," and '• Jephtha " may be mentioned. ^
8. The Christian Life and Devotional Literature. — Pietism led to a powerful revival of religious life among the peoj^le, which it sustained by zealous preaching and the publication of devotional works. A similar activity displayed itself among the orthodox. Francke began his charitable labours with seven florins ; but with undaunted faith he started his Orphanage, writing over its door the words of Isaiah xl. 31. In faith and benevolence Woltersdorff was a worthy successor of Francke ; and Baron von Canstein applied his whole means to the founding of the Bible Institute of Halle. Missions too Avere now pro- secuted with a zeal and success which witnessed to the new life that had arisen in the Lutheran church. — A remarkable manifestation of the pietistic spirit of tliis age is seen in Ihe Praying Children in Silesia, A.D. 1707. Children of four years old and upward gathered in open fields for singing and prayer, and called for the restoration of churches taken away by the Catholics. The movement spread over the Avhole land. In vain Avas it denounced from the pulpits and forbidden by the au.thorities. Opposition only excited more and more the zeal of the children. At last the churches were opened for their services. The excitement tlien gradually subsided. It was, however, long a subject of discussion between the pietists and the orthodox ; the latter denouncing it as the Avork of the devil, the former regard- ing it as a wonderful awakening of God's grace. — Best remembered of the many devotional writers of this period are Bogatsky of Halle, died A.D. 1774, whose " Golden Treasury " is still highly esteemed ; - and Yon Moser, died a.d. 1785, who lived a noble and exemplary life at Stuttgart amid much sore persecution. The great need of simple explanation
^ Burney, " Life of Handel." London, 17S1.
- Kelly, " Life and "Work of Von Bogatsky : a Chapter from the Eohgious Life of the Eighteenth Century."' London, 18S9. VOL. III. 8
114 CHURCH HISTOEY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
of Scripture appears from the great sale of such popular commentaries as those of Pfaff at Tubingen, 1730, Starke at Leipzig, 1741, and the Halle Bible of S. J. Baumgarten, 1748.
9. Missions to the Heathen. — The quickening of religious life b}' pietism bore fruit in new missionary activity. Frederick IV. of Denmark founded in his East Indian possessions the Tranquebar mission in a.d. 1706, under Ziegenbalg and Plutschau. Ziegenbalg, who translated the New Testament into Tamil, died in a.d. 1719. From the Danish possessions this mission carried its work over into the English Indian territories. Able and zealous^workers were sent out from the Halle Institute, of whom the greatest was Chr. Fr. Schwartz, who died in a.d. 1798, after nearly fifty years of noble service in the mission field. In the last quarter of the century, however, mader the influence of rationalism, zeal for missions declined, the Halle society broke np, and the English were allowed to reap the harvest sown by the Lutherans. The Halle x^rofessor Callenberg founded in a.d. 1728 a society for the conversion of the Jews, in the interests of which Stephen Schultz travelled over Europe, Asia, and Africa, preaching the Cross among the Jews. Christianity had been introduced among the Eskimos in Greenland in the eleventh century (§ 93, 5), but the Scan- dinavian colony there had been forgotten, and no trace of the religion which it had taught any longer remained. This reproach to Chris- tianity lay sore on the heart of Hans Egede, a Norwegian pastor, and he found no rest till, supported by a Danish-Norwegian trading house, he sailed with his family in a.d. 1721 for these frozen and inhosjoitable shores. Amid almost inconceivable hardships, and with at first but little success, he continued to labour nnweariedly, and even after the trading comjoany abandoned the field he remained. In a.d. 1733 he had the unexpected joy of welcoming three Moravian missionaries, Christian David and the brothers Stach. His joy was too soon dashed by the spiritual pride of the new arrivals, who insisted on modelling every- thing after their own Moravian principles, and separated themselves from the noble Egede, when he refused to yield, as an unspiritual and unconverted man. Egede, on the other hand, though deeply offended at their confounding justification and sanctification, their contempt of pure doctrine, and their unscriptural views and mode of speech, was ready to attribute all this to their defective theological training. He rewarded their unkindness, when they were stricken down in sore sickness, with unwearied, loving care. In a.d. 1786 he returned to Denmark, leaving his son Paul to carry on his work, and continued director of the Greenland Mission Seminary in Copenhagen till his death in a.d. 1758.^ — Continuation, § 171, 5.
* Hough, " The History of Christianity in India.'' B vols. London,
§ 168. CHUECH OF THE MORAVIAN BEETHREN. 115
§ 1G8. The Church of thic Moravian Brethren.^
The highly gifted Count Ziuzendorf, inspired even as a boy, out of fervent love to the Saviour, with the idea of gather- ing together the lovers of Jesus, took occasion of the visit of some Moravian Exultants to his estate to realize his cherished project. On the Hutberg he dropped the mustard seed of the dream of his youth into fertile soil, where, under his fervent care, it soon gi-ew into a stately tree, whose branches spread over all European lands, and thence through all parts of the habitable globe. The society which he founded was called " The Society of the United Brethren." The fact that this society was not overwhelmed by the extravagances to which for a time it gave way, that its fraternising with the fanatics, the extravagant talkin wdiich its members indulged about a special covenant with the Saviour, and their not over-modest claims to a peculiar rank in the kingdom of God, did not lead to its utter overthrow in the abyss of fanaticism, and that on the sli^Dpery paths of its mystical marriage theory it was able to keep its feet, presents a phenomenon, which stands alone in church history, and more than anything else proves how deeply rooted foiander and followers were in the saving truths of the gospel. The count himself laid aside many of his extravagances, and what still remained was abandoned by his sensible and prudent successor Span- genberg, so far as it was not necessarily involved in the fundamental idea of a special covenant with the Saviour. The special service rendered by the, society was the protest which it raised against the generally prevailing apostasy. During this period of declension it saved the faith of many
l'S39. Sherrmg, '-History of Missions in India,"' edited by StorroAv. London, 1888. Pearson, '■ Memoirs, I^ife, and Correspondence of Chr. Fr. Schwartz,-' etc. 2 vols. London, 1834.
^ Hagenbach, '• History of the Christian Church in the ISth and 19th Centuries,"' New York. ISGO ; Lectures XVIII. and XIX., pp. o98-d-J5;
116 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
pious souls, affording tliem a welcome refuge, with rich spiri- tual nourishment and nurture. With the reawakening of the religious life in the nineteenth century, however, its ad- herents lost ground in Europe more and more, by maintaining their old onesidedness in life and doctrine, their depreciatory estimate of theological science, and the quarrelsome spirit which they generally manifested. But in one province, that of missions to the heathen, their energy and success have never yet been equalled. Their thorough and well-organized system of education also deserves particular mention. At present the Society of the Brethren numbers half a million, distributed among 100 settlements or thereabout.
1. The Founder of the Moravian Brotherhood, Nic. Ludwig Count von Zinzendorf and Pottendorf, -was born in Dresden in a.d. 1700. Spener was one of his sponsors at baptism. His father dying early, and his mother marrying a second time, the boy, richly endowed with gifts of head and heart, was brought up by his godly pietistic grand- mother, the Baroness von Gersdorf. There in his earliest youth he learned to seek his happiness in the closest personal fellowship with the Lord, and the tendency of his Avhole future life to yield to the impulses of pious feeling already began to assert itself. In his tenth year he eatered the Halle Institute under Francke, where the pietistic idea of the need of the ecdesiolce in ecclesia took firm possession of his heart. Even in his fifteenth year he sought its realization by founding among his fellow students " The Order of the Grain of Mustard Seed" (Matt. xiii. 31). After completing his school course, his uncle and guardian, in order to put an end to his pietistic extrava- gances, sent him to study law at the orthodox University of Witten- berg. Here he had at first to suffer a sort of martyrdom as a rigid pietist swimming against the orthodox current. His residence at Wittenberg, however, was beneficial to him in freeing him uncon- sciously of the Halle pietism, which had restrained his spiritual development. He did indeed firmly maintain the fundamental idea of pietism, ecclesiolce in ecclesia, but in his mind it gained a wider significance than pietism had given it. His endeavours to secure a personal conference, and where possible a union, between the Halle and Wittenberg leaders were unsuccessful. In a.d. 1710 he left Wittenberg and travelled for two years, visiting the most distinguished repre- sentatives of all confessions and sects. This too fostered his idea of a grand gathering of all who love the Lord Jesus. On his return home,
§ 168. CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN. 117
in A.D. 1721, at the wish of his relatives he entered the service of the Saxon government. But a religious genius like Zinzendorf could find no satisfaction in such employment. And soon an o]3portunit3' presented itself for carrjang out the plan to which his thoughts anil longings were directed. i
2. The Founding of the Brotherhood, a.d. 1722-1727. The Schmalcald, and still more the Thirty Years', War, had brought frightful suffering and persecution upon the Bohemian and Moravian Brethren. Many (^f them sought refuge in Poland and Prussia. One of the refugees Avas the famous educationist J. Amos Comenius, A\ho died in a.d. 1671, after having been bishop of the Moravians at Lissa in Posen from 1648. Those who remained behind were, even after the Peace of Westphalia, subjected to the cruellest oppression! Only secretly in their houses and at the risk of their lives could they A\-orship God according to the faith of their fathers ; and they were obliged Ymblicly to profess their adherence to the Romish church. Thus gradually tlie light of the gospel was extinguished in the homes of their descendants, and only a tradition, becoming ever more and more faint, remained as a memory of their ancestral faith. A Moravian carpentei', Clu'istian David, born and reared in the Romish church, but converted by evangelical preaching, succeeded in the beginning of the eighteenth century in fanning into a flame again in some families the light that liad been quenched. This little band of believers. Tinder David's leading, went forth in a.d. 1722 and sought refuge on Zinzendorf's estate in Lusatia. The count A\-as then absent, but the steward, M-ith tlie hearty concurrence of the count's grandmother, gave them the Hutberg at Berthelsdorf as a settlement. With the words of Psalm Ixxxiv. 4 on his lips, Christian David struck the axe into the tree for building the first house. Soon the little toAvn of Herrnhut had arisen, as the centre of that Christian society Avhich Zinzendorf now sought with all his heart and strength to develop and promote. (Iradually other Moravians dropped in, but a yet greater number from far and near streamed in, of all sorts of religioiLs revivalists, juetists, separatists, followers of Schwenckfeld, etc. Zinzendorf had no thought of separation from the Lutheran church. Tlie settlers Avere therefore put luider the pastoral care of Rothe, the ■worthy pastor of Berthelsdorf (§ 1(36, 6). To oi-ganize such a mixed multi- tude was no easy task. Only Zinzendorf's glorious enthusiasm for the idea of a congregation of saints, his eminent organizing talents, the wonderful elasticity and tenacity of his will, the extraordinary jirudence, circumspection, and wisdom of his management, made it ])ossible to cement the incongruous elements and avoid an open breach.
^ Spangeuberg, " Life of Count Zinzendorf."' Loudon, 1838.
lis CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
The JMoravians insisted upon restoring their old constitution and discipline, and of the others, each wished to liave prominence given to Avhatever he thought specially important. Only on one point were they all agreed, the duty of refusing to conform to the Lutheran church and its pastor Eothe. The count, therefore, felt obliged to form a new and separatist societ}'. Personally he had no special liking for the old Moravian constitution ; but the lot decided in its favour, while the idea of continuing a pre-Eeformation martj'r church was not without a certain charm. Thus Zinzendorf drew up a con- stitution with old Moravian forms and names, on the basis of which the colony was established, August l^th. a.d. 1727, under the name of the United Brotherhood.
S. The Development of the Brotherhood down to Zinzendorfs Death, A.i). 1727-17G0. — With great energy the new society i^roeeeded to found settlements in German^'-, Holland, England, Ireland, Denmark, Norway, and North America, as well as among German residents in other lands. In a.d. 1784, Zinzendorf submitted to examination at Tubingen as candidate for license, and in a.d. 1737 received episcopal consecration from the Berlin court preacher, Jablonsky, who was at the same time bishop of the Moravian Brethren, which the same prelate had two years previously granted to Dr. Nitschmann, another member of the society. The efforts of the Brethren to spread their cause now attracted attention. The Saxon government in a.d. 1736 sent to Herrnhut a commission, of which Loscher was a member. But in A.D. 1736, before it submitted its report, ■\^-hich on the whole was favourable, Zinzendorf quitted the country, probably by the elector's command at the instigation of the Austrian government, Avhich objected to the harbouring of so many Bohemian and Moravian emigrants. Like all those at this time persecuted on account of religion he took refuge in Wetterau (§ 170, 2). With his little family of pilgrims he settled at Eonneburg near Btldingen, founded the prosperous churches of Marienborn and Herrnhaag, and travelled extensively in Europe and America. This period of exile Avas the period when the society Avas most successful in spreading outwardly, but it was also the period Avhen it suffered most from troubles and dissensions Avithin. It Avas bitterly attacked by Lutheran theologians, and much more A'enomously by apostates from its OAvn fold. The Brethren at this time afforded only too much ground for misunder- standing and reproach. To this period belongs the famous fiction of a special coA'enant, the Pandora-box of all other absurdities ; the development of the count's own theological AueAvs and i:ieculiar form of expression in his numerous Avorks ; the composition and introduction of unsaA'oury spiritual songs, Avitli their si]l,y conceits and many blasphemous and CA'en obscene pictures and analogies ; the market-
§ 168. CHURCH OF THE MOBAVIAN BRETHREN. 119
crier laudations of their cliurch, the not always piire methods of propaganda, the introduction of a marriage discipline fitted to "break down all modest restraints ; and, finally, the so-called NiecUicJikeiten, or boisterous festivals. Even the i^ietists opposed these antinomian excesses. Tersteegen, too (§ 169, 1), whose mystic tendenc}' inclined him strongly toward pietist views, reproached the Hermhuters with frivolity. This polemic, disagreable as it was, exercised a wholesome influence upon the society. The count became more guarded in his language, and more prudent in his behaviovir, wdiile he set aside the most objectionable excrescences of doctrine and i^ractice that had begmi to show themselves in the community. At last, in a.d. 1747, the Saxon government rejieated the edict of banishment so far as the person of the founder was concerned, and when, two years later, the society expressly accepted the Augsburg Confession, it was formally recognised in Saxony. In this same year, a.d. 1749, an English act of parliament recognised it as a church with a pure episcopal succession on equal terms with the Anglican episcopal church. — Zinzendorf continued down to his death to direct the affairs of this church, which hung upon him with childlike affection, reflecting his personality, not only in its excellences, but also in all its extravagances. He died in A.D. 1760 in the full enjoyment of that blessedness which his fervent love for the Saviour had brought him.
4. Zinzendorf s Plan and Work.— While Zinzendorf received his first im- pulse from pietism, he soon perceived its onesidedness and narrowness. He would have no conventicle, but one organized community ; no ideal invisible, but a real visible church ; no narrow methodism, but a rich, free administration of the Christian spirit. He did not, in the first instance, aim at the conversion of the world, nor even at the reforma- tion of the church, but at gathering and preserving those belonging to the Saviour. He hoped, howevei-, to erect a reservoir in Avhich he might collect ever^^ little brooklet of living -water, from which he might again -water the Avhole Avoild. And when he succeeded in organizing a community, he was quite convinced that it Avas the Philadelphia of the Apocaljrpse (iii. 7 fF.), that it introduced " the Philadelphian period " of church history, of which all prophets and apostles had prophesied. His plan had originally reference to all Christendom, and he even took a step toward realizing this universal idea. In order to build a bridge between the Catholic church and his own community, he issued, in a.d. 1727, a Christo-Catholic hjnim- book and prayer-book, and had even sketched out a letter to the pope to accompany a copy of liis book. He also attempted, by a letter to the patriarchs and then to Elizabeth, empress of Russia, to interest the Greek church in his scheme, dwelling tipon the Greek extraction of the church of the Moravian Brethren (§ 79. 2). His gathering of
120 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
members, lio-\ve\'er, was practicall.y limited to the Protestant churches. All confessions and sects afForded him contingents. He was himself heartily attached to the distinctive doctrines of the Ltitheran church. But in a society whose distinctive characteristic it was to be the gathering point for the pious of all nationalities, doctrine and con- fession could not be the uniting bond. It could be only a fellowship of love and not of creed, and the bond a community of loving sentiment and loving deeds. The inmost principle of Lutheranism, reconciliation by the blood of Christ, was saved, indeed was made the characteristic and vital doctrine, the one i^oint of union between ]\Ioravians, Lutherans, and Reformed. Over the thi-ee parties stood the count himself as ordinarius ; but this gave an external and not a confessional unity. The subsequent acceptance of the Augsburg Confession, in a.d. 1749, was a political act, so as to receive a civil status, and had other- wise no influence. Instead then of the confession, Zinzendorf made the constitution the bond of union. Its forms were borrowed from the old Moravian church order, but dominated and inspired by Zinzen- ilorf 's own spirit. The old Moravian constitution was episcopal autl clerical, and proceeded from the idea of the church ; while the new constitution of Herrnhut was essentially presbj'terial, and proceeded from the idea of the community, and that as a commiinion of saints. The Herrnhut bishops were only titular bishops ; they had no diocese, no jurisdiction, no loower of excommunication. All these preroga- tives belonged to the united eldership, in which the lay element Avas distinctly predominant. Herrnhut had no pastoi-s, but only preach- ing brothers; the pastoral care devolved upon the elders and their assistants. But beside these half-Lutheran and pseudo-Moravian peculiarities, there was also a Donatist element at the basis of the constitution. This lay in the fundamental idea of absolutely true and pure children of God, and reached full expression in the con- cluding of a special covenant with the Saviour at London on Sept. 16th, A.D. 1741. Leonard Dober for some years administered the office of an elder-general. But at the London synod it was declared that he had not the requisite gifts for that office. Dober now wislied to i-esign. While in confusion as to whom they could appoint, it flashed into the minds of all to appoint the Saviour Himself. " Our feeling and heart conviction was, that He made a special covenant with His little flock, taking us as His peculiar treasure, watching over us in a special way, personally interesting Himself in every member of our community, and doing that for us perfectly which our previous elders could only do imperfectly."
5. Among the numerous extravagances which Zinzendorf counte- nanced for a time, the following may be mentioned. (1) The notion of the motherhood of the Holy Spirit. Zinzendorf described the holy
§ 168. CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN. 121
Trinity as " man, woman, and child."' The Spirit is the mother in three respects : the eternal generation of the Son of God, the conception of the Man Jesus, and the second birth of believers. (-2) The notion of the fatherhood of Jesus Christ (Isa. ix. 6). Creation is ascribed solely to the Son, hence Christ is our special, direct Father. The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ is only, " in the language of men, our father-in-law or grandfather." (3) In reference to our Lord"s life on earth, Zinzendorf delighted in using terms of contempt, in order to emphasize the depths of His humiliation. (4 j In like manner he uses reproachful terms in speaking of the style of the sacred Scriptures, and the inspired community prefers a living Bible. (5) The theory and practice of mystical marriage, according to Ephe- sians v. 32. The community and each member of it are spiritual brides of Christ, and the marriage relation and begetting of children were set forth and spiritualized in a singularly indelicate manner.
G. Zinzendorf s greatness lay in the fervency of his love of the Saviour, and in the yearning desire to gather under the shadow of the cross all who loved the Lord. His weakness consisted not so much in his manifested extravagances, as in his idea that he had been called to found a society. To the realizing of this idea he gave his life, talents, heart, and means. The advantages of rank and cultm-e he also gave to this one task. He was personally convinced of his Divine call, and as he did not recognise the authority of the written word, but only subjective impressions, it is easily seen how he would drift into absurdities and inconsistencies. The end con- templated seemed to him supremely important, so that to realize it he did not scruple to depart from strict truthfulness. — Zinzendorf.s ■\\Titings, over one hundred in number, are characterized by origi- nality, brillianc}', and peculiar forms of expression. Of his 2,000 hymns, mostly improvised for i^ublic services, 700 of the best were revised and published by Knapp. Two are still found in most collec- tions, and are more or less reproduced in our English hymns, "Jesus still lead on,"' and " Jesus, Thy blood and righteousness.''
7. The Brotherhood under Spangenberg's Administration — For its pre- sent form the Brotherhood is indebted to its wise and sensible bishoi), Aug. Gottl. Spangenherg, who died a.d. 1792. Born in 1704, he became ])ersonally acquainted with Zinzendorf in 1727, after ho had com- pleted his studies at Jena under Buddseus, and continued ever after on terms of close intimacy with him and his communit}'. Through the good offices of G. A. Francke, son and successor of A. H. Francke, he Avas called in Sept., 1732, to the office of an assistantship in the theological faculty at Halle, and appointed school inspector of the Orphanage ; but very soon offence was taken at the brotherly fellow- ship which he had, not onl}' with the society of Herrnhut, but also
122 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
with other seijaratists. The misunderstanding that thus arose led in April, 1733, to his deprivation under a royal cabinet order, and his expulsion by military po-wer from Halle. He now formally joined the communion of the Brethren. The first half of his signally blessed ministry of sixty j^ears among the Moravians was chieflj'' devoted to foreign mission work, both in their colonies abroad and in their stations in heathen lands. In Holland in 1734, in England and Denmark in 1735, he obtained official permission for the founding of Moravian colonies in Surinam, in the American state of Georgia, and in Santa Cruz, the forming and management of which he himself undertook, besides directing the mission work in these places. Ee- turning from America in 1762, he won, after Zinzendorfs death, so complete an ascendency in the church in every respect, that he may well be regarded as its second founder. At the Synod of Marienborn, in A.D. 1764, the constitution was revised and perfected. Zinzen- dorfs monarchical prerogative was surrendered to the eldership, and Spangenberg prudently secured the withdrawal of all excrescences and extravagances. But the central idea of a special covenant was not touched, and Sept. 16th is still held as a grand pentecost festival. In the fifth section of the statutes Qf the United Bretliren at Gnaden, 1819, it distinguishes itself from all the churches as a "society of true children of God ; as a family of God, with Jesus as its head."' In the fourth section of the '-Historical Account of the Constitution of the United Brethren at Gnaden, 1823,"' the society is described as " a company of living members of the invisible body of Jesus Christ ■' ; and in its litany for Easter morning, it adds as a fourth particular to the article of the creed: "I believe that our brothers X. X. and our sisters X. X. have joined the church above, and have entered into the joy of the Lord."' The synod of a.d. 1848 modified this article, and generally the society's distinctive views are not made so prominent. This liberal tendency had dogmatic expression given to it in Spangenberg"s '■^ Idea F'ulei Fratnimy Only a few new settlements have been formed since Zinzendorfs death, and none of any importance; while the hitherto flourishing Moravian settlements in Wetteraii were destroyed and their members banished, in A.D. 1750, by the reigning prince. Count von Isenburg-Biidingen, on account of their refusing to take the oath of allegiance. — After the first attempt to establish societies among the German emigrants in Livonia and Esthonia in a.d. 1729-1743 had ended in the expulsion of the Herrnhuters, these regions proved in the second half of the century a more fruitful field than any other. They secui-ed there a relation to the national church such as they never attained unto else- where. They had in these parts formally organized a church within the church, -whose members, mostl}' peasants, felt convinced that they
§ 168. CHURCH OF THE MORAVIAN BRETHREN. 123
had been called bj' the Lord's own voice as His chosen little flock, a proceeding which caused infinite trouble, especially in Livonia, to the faithful pastors, who perceived the deadly mischief that was being wrought, and witnessed against them from God's word. This protest was too powerful and convincing to be disregarded, and now, not only too late, but also in too half-hearted a way, Herrnhut liegan, in a.d. 1857, to turn back, so as to save its Livonian institute by inward regeneration from certain overthrow.
S. The doctrinal peculiarities of the Brotherhood cannot be quite cor- rectly- described as un-Lutheran, or anti-Lutheran. Bengel smartly chai-acterized them in a single plu-ase : " They plucked up the stock of sound doctrine, stripped oft what was most essential and vital, and retained the half of it," which not only then, but even still retains its truth and worth. Salvation is regarded as proceeding pureh^ from the Son, the God-Man, so that the relation of the Father and of the Holy Spirit to redemption is scarcely even nominal ; and the redemp- tion of the God-Man again is viewed one-sidedh^ as consisting only in His sufferings and death, while the other siele, that is grounded on His life and resurrection, is either carefully passed over, or its fruit is rei^resented as borrowed from the atoning death. Thus not only justification, but sanctification is derived exclusively from the death of Clu'ist, and this, not so much as a forensic substitutionary satis- faction, although that is not expressly denied, but rather as a Divine love-sacrifice which aAvakens an answering love in us. The Avhole of redemption is vicAved as issuing from Christ's blood and wounds ; and since from this mode of viewing the subject God's grace and love are made prominent rather than His righteousness, Ave hear almost exclusively of the gospel, and little or nothing of the laAV. All jn-eaching and teaching Avere avoAvedly directed to the aAvakening of pious feelings of love to God, and thus tended to foster a kind of religious sentimentalism.
i>. The peculiarities of worship ainoug the Brethren Aveve also directed to the excitement of pious feeling ; their sensuously- SAveet sacred music, their church h3-mns, OA-ercharged Avith emotion, their richly deA'eloped liturgies, their restoi-ation of the cnjape Avith tea, biscuit, and chorale-singing, the fraternal kiss at communion, in their earlier Oi&ys also AA^ashing of the feet, etc. The daily AvatcliAvord from the O.T. and doctrinal texts from the N.T. were regarded as oracles, and Avere intended to giA^e a special impress to the religious feelings of the day. As early as a.d. 17'27 they had a hymn-book containing 972 hynuis. Most of these Avere compositions of their own, a true reflection of their religious sentiments at that period. It also con- tained Bohemian and Moravian hymns, translated b}- Mich. "Weiss, and also many old favourites of the CA-angelical church, often sadly
124 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
mutilated. By a.d. 1749 it had received twelve appendices and foiir supplements. In these appendices, especially in the tv/elfth, the one- sided tendency to give prominence to feeling was carried to the most absurd lengths of caricature in the use of offensive and silly terms of endearment as applied to the Saviour. Zinzendorf admitted the defects of this production, and had it suppressed in 1751, and in Lon- don prepared a new, expurgated edition of the hymn-book. Undei- Si:)angenberg'3 presidency Christian Gregor issued, in a.d. 1778, a liymn-book, containing 542 from Zinzendorf "s book and 308 of his own pious rhymes. He also published a chorale book in a.d. 1784. Among their sacred poets Zinzendorf stands easily first. His only son, Christian Eenatus, who died a.d. 1752, left behind him a number of sacred songs. Their hymns were iisuallj' set to the melodies of the Halle pietists.
10. In regard to the Cliristiau life, the Brotherhood withdrew from politics and society, adopted stereotyped forms of speech and peculiar iisages, even in their dress. They sought to live undisturbed by controversy, in personal communion with the Saviour. Their separa- tism as a covenanted people may be excused in view of the unbelief prevailing in the Protestant church, but it has not been overcome by the reawakening of spiritual life in the Church. As to their ecclesi- astical constitution, Christ Himself, as the Chief Elder of the church, should have in it the direct government. The leaders, founding upon Proverbs xvi. 33 and Acts i. 26, held that fit expression was given to this principle by the use of the lot ; but soon opposition to this prac- tice arose, and with its abandonment the "special covenant"' theory lost all its significance. The lot -was used in election of office-bearei-s, sending of missionaries, admission to membership, etc. But in regard to marriage, it Avas used only by consent of the candidates for mar- riage, and an adverse result was not enforced. The administration of the affairs of the society lay with the conference of the united elders. From time to time general s3aiods with legislative power were summoned. The membership Avas divided into groups of married, widowed, bachelors, maidens, and children, with special duties, separate residences, and also special religious services in addition to those common to all. The church officers Avere bishops, presbyters, deacons, deaconesses, and acolytes.
11. Missions to the Heathen. — Zinzendorf's meeting with a West Indian negro in Copenhagen aA\-akened in him at an early period the missionary zeal. He laid the matter before the church, and in a.d. 1732 the first Herrnhut missionaries, Dober and Nitschmann, went out to St. Thomas, and in the following year missions Avere esta- blished in Greenland, North America, almost all the West Indian islands, South America, among the Hottentots at the Capo, the East
§169. EEF. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION." 125
Indies, among the Eskimos of Labrador, etc. Their missionary en- t-erprise forms the most brilliant and attractive part of the history of the MoraAdans. Their procedure was admirably suited to vm- cultured races, and only for such. In the East Indies, therefore, they Avere unsuccessful. They Avere never wanting in self-denying missionaries, who resigned all from love to the Saviour. They were mostly pious, capable artisans, who threw themselves Avith all their hearts into their ncAv Avork, and de\'oted themselves A\-ith affectionate tenderness to the advancement of the bodily and spiritual interests of those among Avhom they laboured. One of the noblest of them all Avas the missionary patriarch Zeisberger, Avho died in a.d. 1808, after toiling among the IS'orth American Indians for sixty-three j-ears. These missions Avere conducted at a surprisingly small 'outlay. The Brethi-en also interested themselves in the conA^ersion of the Jcavs. In A.D. 1738 Dober Avrought among the JeAvs of Amsterdam ; and Avith greater success in a.d. 1739, Lieberkiihn, Avho also visited the JeAvs in England and Bohemia, and A\-as honoured by them Avith the title of " rubbi." '
§ 169. The Reformed Church before the --Illu- mixatiox."
The sharpness of the contest between Calvinism and Lutheranisni was moderated on both sides. The union efforts prosecuted during the first decades of the century in Germany and Switzerland were always defeated by Lutheran opposition. In the Dutch and German Reformed Churches, even during the eighteenth century, Cocceianism was still in high repute. After it had modified strict Calvinism, the opposition between Reformed orthodoxy and Arminian heterodoxy became less pronounced, and more and more Arminian tendencies found their way into Reformed theology. What pietism and Moravianism Avere for the Lutheran church of Germany, Methodism was, in a much
» Spangenberg, '• Account of Manner in Avhich the Uiiitas Fratium Propagate the Gospel, and Carry on their Missions among the Heathen." London, 1788. Holmes, "Historical Sketch of the Missions of the United Bretkren for the Propagation of the Gospel among the Heathen from their Commencement doAvn to 1817.'' London. 1827.
126 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
greater measure, and with a more ouduriug influence, for the episcopal church of England.
1. The German Reformed Church.— The Brandenburg dynasty matin unwearied efforts to eifect a union between the Lutheran and Reformeil churches throughout their territories (§ 154, 4). Frederick I. (III.) instituted for this purpose in a.d. 1703 a collerjium caritativum, under the presidency of the Keformed court preacher Ursinus (ranked as bislaop, that he might officiate at the royal coronation), in which also, on the side of the Reformed, Jablonsky, formerly a Moravian bishop, and, on the part of the Lutherans, the cathedral preacher Winkler of Magdeburg and Llittke, provost of Cologne-on-the-Spree, took part. Spener, who wanted not a made union but one which he himself Avas making, gave exjoression to his opinion, and soon passed over. Llittke after a few sederiints withdrew, and when AVinkler in a.d. 1703 pub- lished a plan of union, Arcanum rcgiiun, which the Lutheran church merely submitted for the apjjroval of the Reformed king, such a storui of opposition arose against the project, that it had to be abandoned. In the following year the king took up the matter again in another way. Jablonsky engaged in negotiations Avith England for the introduction of the Anglican episcopal system into Prussia, in order by it to build a bridge for the ixnion with Lutheranism. But even this plan failed, in consequence of the succession of Frederick William I. in A.D. 1713, whose shrewd sense strenuously opposed it. — The vacil- lating statements of the Covfessio Siginniundi (§ 154, 3) regarding predestination made it possible for the Brandenburg Reformed theo- logians to understand it as teaching the doctrine of particular as well as ruiiversal grace, and so to make it correspond with Brandenburg Reformed orthodoxy. The rector of the Joachimsthal Gjannasium in Berlin, Paul Volkmanii, iu a.d. 1712, interpreted it as teaching universal grace, and so iu his T/icses fheoloyicm he consti-ucted a system of theologj^, in Avhich the divine foreknowledge of the result, as the reconciling middle term between the particulai'ism and uni- versalism of the call, was set forth in a manner favourable to the latter. The controversy that was aroused over this, in which even .Tablonsky argued for the more libei'al view, while on the other side Barckhausen, Volkmann's colleague, in his Arnica CoUatio Doctrinoi clc Gratia, quam vera ref. confitetur JEcclcsia, cum Doctr. VolJcmanni, etc., came forward under the name of Pacificus Verinus as his most deter- mined Disponent, Avas put a stop to in a.d. 1719 by an edict of Frederick William I., which enjoined silence on both parties, Avithout any result liaving been reached. — One of the noblest mystics that e\'er lived Avas Gerhard Tersteegen, died a.d. 17G0. He takes a hiiih rank as a sacred
§169. EEF. CHURCH BEFORE "THE ILLUMINATION." 127
poet. Anxious souls made pilgrimages to him from far and near for comfort, counsel, and refreshment. Though not exactly a separatist, he had no strong attachment to the church.' — The prayer-book of Conrad Mel, pastor and rector at Hersfeld in Hesse, died a.d. 1733, continues to the jiresent daj- a favourite in pious families of the Eefomied communion.
2. The Reformed Church iu Switzerland.— The Helvetic Confession, with its strict doctrine of predestination and its peculiar inspiration theory (§ 161, 3), had been indeed accepted, in a.d. 1675, by all the Reformed cantons as the absolute standard of doctrine in chnrch and school ; but this obligation was soon felt to be oppressive to the conscience, and so the Archbishop of Canterbury and the kings of England and Prussia repeated!}' interceded for its abrogation. In Geneva, though vigorously opjiosed by a strictly orthodox minoritj^, the Venerable Comparjnie succeeded, in a.d. 1706, -\\ith the rector of the Academy at its head, J. A. Turretin, whose father had been one of the principal authors of the formula, in modifying the usual terms of subscription, Sic sentio, sic projiteor, sic docebo, et contrarium non doceho, into Sic doceho quoties hoc arfjumentiim tractandum suscijjiam, contrarium non docebo, nee ore, nee calamo, nee privatim, nee piuhliee ; and afterwards, in A.D. 1725, it Avas entirely set aside, and adhesion to the Scriptures of the O. and N.T., and to the catechism of Calvin, made the only obliga- tion. More persistent on both sides was the struggle in Lausanne ; yet even there it gradually lost gi'ound, and by the middle of the century it had no longer any authority in Switzerland. — The union efforts made by the Prussian dynasty found zealous but unsuccessful advocates in the chancellor Pfaff of Lutheran Wtirttemberg (§ 167, •i), and in Eeformed Switzerland in J. A. Turretin of Geneva.
3. The Dutch Reformed Church. — Toward the end of the seventeenth century, in consequence of threats on the part of the magistrates, th<^ passionate violence of the dispiite between Voetians and Cocceians (§ 162, 5) was moderated ; but in the beginning of the eighteenth centiuy the flames burst forth anew, reaching a height in 1712, when a marble bust of Cocceius was erected in a Leyden church. An obsti- nate Voetian, Pastor Fruytier of Eotterdam, was grievously ofleuded at this proceeding, and published a controversial pamphlet full of the most bitter reproaches and accusations against the Cocceians, which, energetically replied to by the accused, was miich more hurtful than useful to the interests of the Voetians. At last a favourable hearing Avas given to a word of peace which a highly respected Voetian, the
* " Tersteegen : Life and Character, with Extracts from His Letters and "Writings." London. 1832. Winkworth, "Christian Singers of Germany."' London, ISU'J.
128 CHURCH HISTOKY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
venerable preacher of eiglity j^ears of age, /. Mor. Mommers, addressed to the parties engaged in the controvers3^ He published in a.d. 1738, under the title of " Euhdus,''' a tract in which he proved that neither Cocceius himself nor his most distinguished adherents had in any es- sential point departed from the faith of the Eeformed church, and that from them, thei-efore, in spite of all difterences that had since arisen, the hand of fellowship should not be withheld. In consequence of this, the magistrates of Groningen first of all decided, that forthwith, in fill- ing up vacant pastorates, a Cocceian and Voetian should be appointed alternately ; a principle which gradually became the practice through- out the whole countr}^. At the same time also care was now taken that in the theological faculties both schools should have equal repre- sentation. But meanwhile also new departures had been made in each of the two parties. Among the Voctians, after the pattern formerly given them by Teellinck (§ 162, 4), followed up by the Frisian preacher Theod. Brakel, died a.d. 1669, and further developed by Jodocus von Lodenstein of Utrecht, died a.d. 1677, mysticism had made considerable progress : and the Cocceians, in the person of Her- mann Witsius, drew more closely toward the pietism of the Voetians and the Lutherans. The most distinguished representative of this conciliatbry party was F. A. Lampe of Detmold, afterwards professor in Utrecht, previously and subsequently pastor in Bremen, in high repute in his church as a hymn-writer, but best known by his com- mentary on John. — These conciliatory measures were frustrated bj^ the publication, in a.d. 1740, of a work by Schortinghuis of Groningen, which pronounced the Scriptures unintelligible and useless to the natural man, but made fruitful to the regenerate and elect by the immediate enlightenment of the Holy Spirit, evidenced by deep groanings and convulsive writhings. It -^^as condemned by all thr; orthodox. The author now confined himself to his pastorate, where he was richly blessed. He died in a.d. 1750. His notions spread like an epidemic, till stamped out by the imited cfTorts of the civil and ecclesiastical authorities in a.d. 1752.
4. Methodism.— In the episcopal church of England the living power of the gospel had evaporated into the formalism of scholastic learning and a mechanical ritualism. A reaction was set on foot by John Wesley, born a.d. 1703, a young man of deep religious earnestness and fervent zeal for the salvation of souls. During his course at Oxford, in A.D. 1729, along with some friends, including his brother Charles, be founded a society to promote pious living.' Those thus leagued together were scornfully called Methodists. From a.d. 1732, George WMtefield, born in a.d. 1714, a youth burning v/ith zeal for his own
' For a slightly different account see Tyerman, vol. i., p. 66.
§ 169. REF. CHUECH BEFORE " THE ILLUMINATION." 129
and his fellow men's salvation, wrought enthusiastically along with them. In a.d, 1735 the brothers AVesley went to America to labour for the conversion of the Indians in Georgia. On board ship they met Nitschmann, and in Savannah Spangenberg, who exercised a powerful influence over them. John Wesley accepted a pastorate in Savannah, but pnc(5untered so many hindrances, that he decided to return to England in a.d. 1738. "Whitefield had just sailed for America, but returned that same year. Meanwhile "Wesley visited Marienborn and Herrnhut, and so became personall}^ acquainted witli Zinzendorf. He did not feel thoroughly satisfied, and so declined to join the society. On his return he began, along with Whitefield, the great work of his life. In many cities thej' founded religious socie- ties, preached daily to immense crowds in Anglican churches, and ■when the churches were refused, in the open aii', often to 20,000 or even 30,000 hearers. They sought to arouse careless sinners hy all the terrors of the law and the horrors of hell, and by a thorough repen- tance to bring about immediate conversion. An immense number of liardened sinners, mostly of the lower orders, were thus awakened and bnjught to repentance amid slu'ieks and convulsions. Whitefield, A\ho divided his attentions between England and America, delivered in thirty-four years 18,000 sermons; Wesley, who survived his younger companion by twenty -one years, dying in a.d. 1791, and was wont to say the world was his i^arish, delivered still more. Their association with the Moravians had been broken off in a.d. 1740. To the latter, not only was the Methodists' stjde of preaching objectionable, but also their doctrine of "Christian perfection," according to Avhich the true, regene- I'ate Christian can and must reach a jierfect holiness of life, not indeed free from temptation and error, but from all sins of weakness and sinful lusts. Wesley in turn accused the Herrnliuters of a dangerous tendency toward the errors of the quietists and antinomians. Zin- zendorf came himself to London to remove the misunderstanding, but did not succeed. The great Methodist leaders Avere themselves sepa- rated from one another in a.d. 1741. WhitefieWs doctrine of grace and election was Calvinistic ; Wesley's Arminian. — From a.d. 1748 the Countess of Huntingdon attached herself to the Methodists, and secured an entrance for their preaching into aristocratic circles. With all her humility and self-sacrifice she remamed aristocrat enough to insist on being head and organizer. Seeing she could not play this I'ole with Wesley, she attached herself closely to Whitefield. He became her domestic chaplain, and with other clergymen accompanied her on her travels. Wherever she went she posed as a " queen of the Methodists," and was allowed to preach and carry on pastoral work. She built sixty -six chai^els, and in a.d. 1768 founded a seminary for training preachers at Trevccca in Wales, under tlic oversight of tlie able and VOt,. m, ()
130 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
gentle Jolm rietclier, reserving supreme control to herself. After WhitefielcVs death, in a.d. 1770, the opposition between the Cah'inistic followers of "Whitefielcl and the Arminian "Wesley ans burst out in a much more violent form. Fletcher and his likeminded fellow labourers were charged with teaching the horrible heresy of the universality of grace, and were on that account discharged by the countess from the seminary of Trevecca. They now joined Wesley, around whom the gi-eat majority of the Methodists had gathered.
5. The Methodists did not wish to separate from the episcopal church, but to work as a leaven within it. Whitefield was able to maintain tliis connexion by the aid of his aristocratic countess and her relationship with the higher clergy ; but "Wesley, sjjurning such aid, and trusting to his great powers of organization, felt driven more and more to set up an independent societ}-. "When the churches were closed against him and his fellow workers, and preaching in the open air Avas forbidden, he built chapels for himself. ^ The fu'st was opened in Bristol, in a.d. 1739. When his ordained associates were too few for the work, he obtained the assistance of lay preachers. He founded two kinds of religious societies : The united societies embraced all, the hand societies only the tried and proved of his followers. Then he divided the united societies again into classes of from ten to twenty persons each, and the class-leaders were required to give accurate accounts of the spiritual condition and progress of those under their care. Each member of the united as well as the hand societies held a society ticket, which had to be renewed quartei-ly. The outward affairs of the societies were managed by steivards, who also took care of the poor. A number of local societies constituted a circuit with a super- intendent and several itinerant preachers." Wesley superintended all the departments of oversight, administration, and arrangement, sup- ported from A.D. 1744 by an annual conference. Daily preaching and devotional exercises in the chapels, weekly class-meetings, monthly watchnights, quarterly fasts and lovefeasts, an annual service for the i-enewing of the covenant, and a great multiplication of prayer- meetings, gave a special character to Methodistic piety. Charles Wesley composed hymns for their services. They carefully avoided collision with the services of the state church. The American Metho- dists, who had been up to this time supplied by Wesley with itinerant missionaries, in a.d. 1784, after the War of Independence, gave vigo- rous expression to their wish for a more independent ecclesiastical con-
^ Wesley himself continued to preach in the open air till nearly the end of the year 1790.
- Further details as to the organization of the societies are given in Tyerman, 1st ed., vol. i., pp. 444, 445.
§169. EEF. CHURCH BEFOEE -'THE ILLUMINATION." 131
stitution, wliich led Wesley, in opposition to all riglit order, to ordain for them by his own hand several preachers, and to appoint, in the person of Thomas Coke, a superintendent, -who assumed in America the title of bishop. Coke became the founder of the Methodist Episcopal Church of America, -which soon outstripped all other denominations in its zeal for the conversion of sinners, and in consequent success. The breach -ndth the mother church was completed by the adoption of a creed in which the Thirty -nine Articles were reduced to twenty-five. At the last conference pi-esided over by Wesley, a.d. 1790, it was announced that they had in Britain 119 circuits, 313 preachers, and in the United States 97 circuits and 198 preachers. After Wesley's death, in a.d. 1791, his autocratic sui^remacy devolved, in accordance with the Methodist "Magna Charta," the Deed of Declaration of a.d. 1784, upon a fixed conference of 100 members, but its hierarchical organization has been the cause of many subsequent splits and divisions.i
6. Theolog^ical Literature -Clericus, of Amsterdam, died a.d. 1736, an Ai'minian divine, distinguished himself in biblical criticism, herme- neutics, exegesis, and church historj^. J. J. "Wettstein was in a.d. 1730 deposed for heresy, and died in a.d. 1754 as professor at the Remon- strant seminary at Amsterdam. His critical edition of the X.T. of a.d. 1751 had a great reputation. Schultens of Leyden, died a.d. 1750, introduced a new era for O.T. philolog}^ by the comparative study of related dialects, especially Arabic. He wrote commentaries on Job and Proverbs. Of the Cocceian exegetes we mention, Lampe of Bremen, died a.d. 1729, '-Com. on John," three vols., etc., and J. Marck of Leyden, died a.d. 1731, "Com. on Minor Prophets."' In biblical antiquity, Reland of Utrecht, died a.d. 1718, Avrote ^•Pahcstina ex vett.
■ Southey, " Life of John Wesley." London, 1820. Isaac Taylor, " Wesley and Wesleyanism." London, 1851. Tj'erman, " Wesley's Life and Times." 2 vols. 4th ed. London, 1877. Urlin, " Church- man's Life of Wesley." London, 1880. Abbej- and Overton, " English Chiirch in 18th Century." 2 vols. London, 1879. Lecky, " History of England in the ISth Century." 2 vols. London, 1878. Stoughton, '• Historj' of Religion in England to End of 18th Centur}"."' 0 vols. London, 1882. — Jackson, •• Life of Charles Wesle3\'' 2 vols. London, 1841.— Tj-erman, "Life of Whitefield." 2 vols. London, 1877.— Macdonald, "Fletcher of Madeley." London. — Smith, "History of Methodism." 3 vols. London, 1857. Stevens, " History of Methodism." 3 vols. KeAv York, 1858. Stevens, " History of the Methodist Epi- scopal Church in the United States." 4 vols. New York, 1864. Bangs, " History of the Methodist Episcopal Church." 4 vols. ]^ew York. 1839.
182 CIITTRni HTSTOEY OF EIGIITEEXTII CENTURY.
monum. Ilhts/r. Anllijuitt. .<?«."'; in occlesiastical antiquity, Bingham, died A.D. 1723, " Ori.e;ines Ecclest. ; or, Antiquities of the Christian Church," ten vols., 1724, a niasterpipce not yet superseded. Of Eng- lish apologists who wrote against the deists, Leland, died a.d. 1766, " Advantage and Necessity of the Christian Revelation " ; Stackhouse, died A.D, 1752, "History of the Bible." Of dogmatists, Stapfer of Bern, died A.D. 1775, and Wyttenbach of Marburg, died a.d. 1779, who fol- lowed the Wolffian method. Among church historians, J. A. Turretin of Geneva, died a.d. 1757, and Herm.Venema of Franeker, died a.d. 1787. — The most celebrated of the writers of sacred songs in the Eng- lish language was the Congregationalist i:)reacher Isaac "Watts, died A.D. 1748, whose " Hymns and Spiritual Songs," which first appeared in A.D. 1707, still hold their place in the h^nnnbooks of all denomina- tions, and have largely contributed to overthrow the Reformed preju- dice against using any other than biblical psalms in the public service of praise.
§ 170. New Sects and Tanatics.
The pietism of the eighteenth century, like the Reforma- tion of the sixteenth, was followed by the appearance of all sorts of fanatics and extremists. The converted were col- lected into little companies, which, as ccclesiohc in ccclcsia, preserved the living flame amid prevailing darkness, and out of these arose separatists who spoke of the church as Babylon, regarded its ordinances impure, and its preaching a mere jingle of words. They obtained their spiritual noiirish- ment from the mystical and theosophical writings of Bohme, Gichtel, Guyon, Poiret, etc. Their chief centre was Wet- terau, where, in the house of Count Casimir von Berleburg, all persecuted pietists, separatists, fanatics, and sectaries found refuge. The count chose from them his court officials and personal servants, although he himself belonged to the national Reformed church. There was scarcely a district in Protestant Germany, Switzerland, and the Netherlands where there were not groups of such separatists ; some mere harmless enthusiasts, others circulated pestiferous and immoral doctrines. Quite apart from pietism Sweden- borgianism made its appearance, claiming to have a new
§- 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 133
revelation. Of the older sects the Baptists and the Quakers sent off new swarms, and even predestinationism gave rise to a form of mysticism allied to pantheism.
1. Fanatics and Separatists in Germany. — Juliana von Asseburg, a young lady highly esteemed in Magdeburg for her piety, declared that from her seventh year she had visions and revelations, especially about the millennium. She found a zealous supporter in Dr. J. W, Petersen, superintendent of Lilnebm-g. After his marriage with Eleonore von Merlau, Avho had similar revelations, he proclaimed by •word and Avriting a fantastic chiliasm and the restitution of all things. He was deposed in a.d. 1692, and died in a.d. 1727.^ Henry Horche, professor of theology at Herborn, was the orginator of a similar movement in the E-eformed church. He founded several Philadel- jjhian societies (§ 162, 9) in Hesse, and composed a " mystical and )jrophetical bible," the so called '• Marburg Bible," a.d. 1712. Of other fanatical preachers of that period one of the most prominent Avas Hochmann, a student of law expelled from Halle for his extravagances, a man of ability and eloquence, and highly esteemed by Tersteegen. Driven from place to place, he at last found refuge at Berleburg, and died there in a.d. 1721. In Wiirttemberg the pious court chaplain, Hedinger, of Stuttgart, died a.d. 1703, was the father of j^ietism and separatism. The most famous of his followers were Gruber and Rock, Avho, driven from Wiirttemberg, settled with other separatists at Wetterau, renouncing the use of the sacraments and public worship. Of those gathered together in the court of Count Casimir, the most Hvuineut were Dr. Carl, his physician, the French mystic Marsay, and J. H. Haug^ who had been expelled from Strassburg, a proficient in the oriental languages. They issued a great number of nwstical works, chief of all the Berleburg Bible, in eight vols., 1726-1742, of which Haug Avas the principal author. Its exposition proceeded in accordance Avith the threefold sense ; it vehemently contended against the church doctrine of justification, against the confessional writings, the clerical order, the dead church, etc. It showed occasionally profound insight, and made brilliant remarks, but contained also many trivialities and absurdities. The m3-sticism which is prominent in this work lacks originalitA', and is compiled from the mystico-theosophical writings of all ages from Origen down to Madame CTU3-on.
2. The Inspired Societies in "Wetterau. — After the unfortunate issue of the Camisard War in a.d. 1705 (§ 153, 4) the chief of the prophets
* Hagenbach, "History of Cliurch in lyth and 19th Centuries," vol. i., pp. 159-164.
134 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
of the Ceveniies fled to England. They were at first well received, but were afterwards excommunicated and cast into j^rison. In a.d. 1711 several of them went to the Netherlands, and thence made their way into Germany. Three brothers, students at Halle, named Pott, adopted their notion of the gift of inspiration, and introduced it into Wetterau in a.d. 1714. Gruber and Rock, the leaders of the separatists there, Avere at first opposed to the doctrine, but were overpowered by the Spirit, and soon became its most enthusiastic champions. Prayer- meetings were organized, immense lovef easts Avere held, and by itinerant brethren an ecclesia amhnlcdoria was set on foot, by which spiritual nourishment was brought to believers scattered over the land and the children of the prophets were gathered from all coun- tries. The " utterances " given forth in ecstasy Avere calls to repen- tance, to prayer, to the imitation of Christ, revelations of the divine will in matters affecting the communities, proclamations of the near approach of the Divine judgment upon a depraved church and Avorld, but without fanatical-sensual chiliasm. Also, except in the contenijit of the sacraments, they held by the essentials of the church doctrine. In A.D. 1715 a split occurred between the true and i\-\Q false, among the inspired. The true maintained a formal constitution, and in a.d. 1716 exckided all who Avould not submit to that discipline. By a.d. 1719 only Rock claimed the gift of inspiration, and did so till his death in a.d. 1749. Gruber died in a.d. 1728, and with him a pillar of the society fell. Rock Avas the only remaining prop. A ncAv era of their history begins Avith their intercourse Avith the Herrnhuters. Zinzen- dorf sent them a deputation in a.d. 1730, and paid them a visit in person at Berleberg. Eock's profound Christian jiersonality made a deep impression upon him. But he Avas offended at their contempt of the sacraments, and at the convulsive character of their utterances. This, however, did not hinder him from expressing his reverence for their able leader, Avho in return Aasited Zinzendorf at Herrnhut in a.d. 1732. In the interests of his OAni society Zinzendorf shrank from identifying himself Avith those of ^"Wetterau. Rock denomiced him as a ncAv Babylon-botcher, and he retaliated by calling Rock a false prophet. When the Herrnhuters Avere driA'en from Wetterau in a.d. 1750 (§ 168, 3, 7), the inspired communities entered on their inheri- tance. But Avith Rock's death in a.d. 1749 prophecy had ceased among them. They sank more and more into insignificance, until the revi\'al of spiritual life, a.d. 1816-1821, brought them into prominence again. Government interference drove most of them to America.
3. Quite a joeculiar importance belongs to J. C. Dippel, theologian, physician, alchemist, discoverer of Prussian blue and oleum clippelii^ at first an orthodox opponent of pietism, then, through Gottfr. Arnold's influence, an adherent of tlie pietists, and ultimately of the
§ 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 135
separatists. In a.d. 1697, under the name of Chritstianus DeniocrKiis, he began to write in a scoffing tone of all orthodox Christianity, with a strange blending of mysticism and rationalism, but without any trace yjrofound Christian experience. Persecuted on every hand, exiled or imprisoned, he went liither and thither through Germany, Holland, Denmark, and Sweden, and found a refuge at last at Berleberg in a.d. 1729. Here he came in contact with the inspired, who did everj'thing in their power to win him over ; but he declared that he would rather give himself to the devil than to this Spirit of God. He was long intimate with Zinzendorf, but afterwards poured out upon him the bitterest abuse. He died in the count's castle at Berleberg in a.d. 1734.1
4. Separatists of Immoral Tendency. — One of the worst was the Buttlar sect, founded by Eva von Buttlar, a native of Hesse, who had married a Trench refugee, lived gaily for ten years at the court of Eisenach, and then joined the pietists and became a rigid separatist. Separated from her husband, she associated with the licentiate Winter, and founded a Philadelphian societ3^ at Allendorf in a.d, 1702, where the foulest immoralities were practised. Eva herself was reverenced as the door of paradise, the new Jerusalem, the mother of all, Sophia come from heaven, the new Eve, and the incarnation of the Spirit. Winter was the incarnation of the Father, and their son Appenfeller the incarnation of the Son, They pronounced marriage sinful ; sen- sual lusts must be slain in spiritual communion, then even carnal association is holy. Eva lived Avitli all the men of the sect in the most shameless adulterj-. So did also the other women of the com- munity. Exi^elled from Allendorf after a stay of six weeks, they sought unsuccessfully to gain a footing in various places. At Co- logne they went over to the Catholic church. Their immoralities reached their climax at Liide near Pyrmont. Winter Avas sentenced to death in a.d. 1706, but was let off with scourging. Eva escaped the same punishment by flight, and continued her evil practices un- checked for another j'ear. She afterwards retiu'ned to Altona, where Avith her followers leading oiitAvardly an honourable life, she attached herself to the Lutheran church, and died, honoured and esteemed, in a.d. 1717. — In a similar Ava3^ arose in a.d. 1739 the Bordelum sect, founded at Bordelum by the licentiates Borsenius and Biir ; and the Briiggeler sect, at Briiggeler in Canton Bern, where in a.d. 1748 the brothers Ivohler gave themselves out as the two ■\^•itnesses (Eev. xi.). Of a like nattire too was the sect of Zionites at Eonsdorf in the Duchy of Berg. Elias EUer, a manufactui-er at Elberfeld, excited by mys-
1 Ha genbach, "History of the Church in the ISth and 19th Cen- turies," vol. i.. pp. 168-175.
13G CHUKCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
tical Avritings, married in a.u. 1725 a rich old widow, but soon found inoi-e pleasure in a handsome young ladj', Anna von Buchel, avIio by a nervous sympathetic infection was driven into prophetic ecstasj'. She iDroclaimed the speedy arrival of the millennium ; Eller identified her with the mother of the man-child (Eev. xii. 1). When his wife had pined away through jealousy and neglect and died, he married Buchel. The first child she bore him was a girl, and the second, a bo3', soon died. When a strong oiDposition arose in Elberfeld against the sect, he, along with his followers, founded Eonsdorf, as a IS'ew Zion, in a.d. 1737. The colony obtained civil rights, and Eller w^as made burgomaster. Anna having died in a.u. 1744, Eller gave his colony a new mother, and practised every manner of deceit and tyramay. After the infatuation had lasted a long time, the eyes of the Reformed pastor Schleiermacher, grandfather of the famous theo- logian, were at last opened. By flight to the Netherlands he escaped the fate of another revolter, whom Eller persuaded the authorities at Dusseldorf to put to death as a sorcerer. Every complaint against himself Avas quashed by Eller's bribery of the officials. After his death in a.u. 1750 his stepson continued this Zion game for a long time.
5. Swedenborgianism. — Emanuel von Swedenborg was born at Stock- holm, in A.u. 1688, son of the strict Lutheran bishop of West Goth- land, Jasper Swedberg. He was appointed assessor of the School of Mines at Stockholm, and soon showed himself to be a man of encj'clo- psedic information and of speculative ability. After long exami- nation of the secrets of nature, in a condition of magnetic ecstasy, in which he thought that he had intercourse w'ith spirits, sometimes in lieaA'en, sometimes in hell, he became convinced, in a.u. 1743, that he was called by these revelations to restore corrupted Christianity by founding a church of the New Jerusalem as the finally perfected church. He published the apocalyptic revelations as a new gospel : ^^ Arcana Codedia in Scr. s. Deteda,'''' in seven vols. ; " Ve7'a Chr. lieL,"' two vols. After his death, in a.u. 1772, his " Vera Christiana Eeligio *' was translated into Swedish, but his views never got much hold in his native country. They spread more widely in England, where John Clow^es, rector of St. John's Church, Manchester, translated his writ- ings, and himself wrote largely in their ex]3osition and commendation. Separate congregations with their own ministers, and forms of Avor- ship, sprang up through England in a.u. 1788, and soon there were as many as fifty throughout the country. From England the Ncav Church spread to America. — In Germany it Avas specially throughout Wiirt- temberg that it fotmd adherents. There, in a.u. 1765, Oetinger (§ 171, 0) recognised Sweden borg's rcA'elations, and introduced many elements from them into his tht'osojiliical system. — Swedenborg's religious
§ 170. NEW SECTS AND FANATICS. 137
S3'stem was speculative mysticism, with a physical basis ami ratio- nalizing results. The aim of religion with him is the opening of an intimate correspondence between the sjDiritu^al world and man, and giving an insight into the mystery of the connexion between the two. The Bible (excluding the apostolic epistles, as merely exposi- tory), pre-eminently the Apocalyjise, is recognised by him as God's word •, to be studied, however, not in its literal but in its spiritual or inner sense. Of the church dogmas there is not one which he did not either set aside or rationalistically explain awa}-. He denounces in the strongest terms the chiu'ch doctrine of the Trinitj*. God is ■with him only one Person, who manifests Himself in three different forms: the Father is the principle of the manifesting God ; the Son, the manifested form ; the Spirit, the manifested activity. The purpose of the manifestation of Christ is the uniting of the human and Divine: i-edemption is nothing more than the combating and overcoming of the evil spirits. But angels and devils are spirits of dead men glori- fied and damned. He did not believe in a resurrection of the flesh, but maintained that the spiritual form of the body endures after death. The second conaing of Christ will not be personal and visible, but spiritual through a revelation of the spiritual sense of Holy Scripture, and is realized by the founding of the church of the New Jerusalem.'
G. New Baptist Sects (^ 163, 3).— In "Wetterau about a.d. 1708 an anabaptist sect arose called Dippers, because tliC}- did not recognise infant baptism and insisted iipon the complete immersion of adult believers. They appeared in Penns3-lvania in a.d. 1719, and founded settlements in other states. Of the " perfect " they required absolute separation from all worldly practices and enjoyments and a simple, a]iostolic style of dress. To baptism and the Lord's supper they added washing the feet and the fraternal kiss and anointing the sick. Tlv Seventh-day Baptists observe the seventh instead of the first day of th(> -sveek, and enjoin on the " perfect " celibacy and the commtmitj' of goods. New sects from England continued to spread over America. Of these were the Seed or Sucker Baptists, Avho identified the non-elect ■\vitli the seed of the serpent, and on account of their doctrine of pre- destination regarded all instruction and care of children useless. A similar predestinarian exaggeration is seen in the Hard-shell Baptists, who denounce all home and foreign missions as running counter to the Divine sovereignty. Many, sometimes called Campbellites from their founder, reject any party name, claiming to be simply Christians,
1 Tafel, " Documents concerning the Life and Character of Sweden - borg." 3 vols. London, 1875. White. " Emanuel Swedenborg, his Life and Writings."' 2 vols. London, l«(j7.
138 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
and acknowledge only so mucli in Scripture as is expressly declared to be " the word of the Lord/' The Six-Principles-Baptists limit their creed to the six articles of Hebrews vi. 1, 2. The brothers Haldane, about the middle of the eighteenth centurj', founded in Scotland the Baptist sect of Haldanites, Avhich has Avith great energy applied itself to the practical cultivation of the Christian life. — Continuation, §§ 208, 1 ; 211, 3.
7. New Quaker Sects. — The Jumpers, who sprang up among the 3Iethodists of Cornwall about a.d. 1760, are in principle closely allied to the early Quakers (§ 163, 4). They leaped and danced after the style of David before the ark and uttered inarticulate ho^vls. They settled in America, where they have adherents still. — The Shakers originated from the prophets of the Cevemies who fled to England in a.d. 1705. They converted a Quaker family at Bolton in Lancashire named "Wardley, and the community soon grew. In a.d. 1758 Amia Lee, wife of a farrier Stanley, joined the society, and, as the apocalyptic bride, inaugurated the millennium. She taught that the root of all sin was the relationship of the sexes. Maltreated by the mob, she emigrated to America, along wdth thirty companions, in a.d. 1774. Though per- secuted here also, the sect increased and formed in the State of New York the Millennial Church or United Sociefij of Believers, Anna died in A.D. 1784 ; but her prophets declared that she had merely laid aside the earthly garb and assumed the heavenly, so that only then the veneration of " Mother Anna " came into force. As Christ is the Son of the eternal Wisdom, Anna is the daughter ; as Christ is the second Adam, she is the second Eve, and spiritual mother of believers as Christ is their father. Celibacj^, community of goods, common labour (chiefly gardening), as a pjleasure, not a burden, common domestic life as brothers and sisters, and constant intercourse with the spirit world, are the main points in her doctrine. By the addition of voluntary proselytes and the adoption of poor helpless children the sect has grown, till now it numbers 3,000 or 4,000 souls in eighteen villages. The capital is New Lebanon in the State of New York. The name Shakers Avas given them from the quivering motion of body in their solemn dances. In their services they march about singing " On to heaven we will be going," " March heavenward, yea, victorious band,'' etc. Like the Quakers (§ 163, 6) they have neither a }ninistr3' nor sacraments, and their whole manner of life is modelled on that of the Quakers. The purity of the relation of brothers and sisters has always been free from suspicion.'
' Evans, " Shakers : Compendium of Origin, History, Principles, and Doctrines of tlie United Society of Believers in Christ's Second ComiuiT."' New York. 1859. Dixon, '• New America." 2 vols. 8th ed.
§171. EELIGION, ETC., OF "THE ILLI'MINATION." 139
8. Predestinarian-Mystical Sects.— The Hebrseaiis, founded by Ver- schoor, a licentiate of the Eefornied church of Holland deposed under suspicion of Spinozist views, in the end of the seventeenth century, held it indispensably necessary to read the word of God in the original. They Avere fatalists, and maintained that the elect could commit no sin. True faith consisted in believing this doctrine of their own sinlessness. About the same time sprang up the Hattemists, followers of Pontiaan von Hattem, a preacher deposed for heresy, with fatalistic views lik«! the Hebrseans, but with a strong vein of pantheistic mj-sticism. True ])iet3^ consisted in the believer resting in God in a purely passive manner, and letting God alone care for him. The two sects united under the name of Hattemists, and continued to exist in Holland and Zealand till about a.d. 1760.
§ 171. Eeligiox, Theology, and Literature of the " Illumination." ^
In England during the first half of the century deism had still several active propagandists, and throughout the whole century efforts, not altogether unsuccessful, were made to spread Unitarian views. From the middle of the centurj', A\-hen the English deistic unbelief had died out, the " Illu- mination," under the name of rationalism, found an entrance into Germany. Arminian pelagianism, recommended Ly brilliant scholarship, English deism, spread by translations and refutations, and French naturalism, introduced by a great and much honoured king, were the outward factors in securing this result. The freemason lodges, carried
London, 1869. Nordhoff, " '£\w. Communistic Societies of the United States." London, 1871.
* Pusej', " Historical Inquiry into the Causes of the Prevalence of .Rationalism in German^-."' London, 1828. Eose, "The State of Protestantism in Cxermany.'' Oxford, 1829. Saintes, " A Critical History of Rationalism in Germany, from its Origin till the Present Time."' London, 1819. Lecky, " History of the Else and Influence of the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe." 2 vols. London, 1873. Farrar, '• Critical History of Free Thought in Reference to the Christian Religion."' London, 1863. Hagenbach, " German Rationa- lism." Edinburgh, 1865. Hurst, "History of Rationalism."' Isew York, 1865. Gostwick, "German Culture and Clii-istianitj-, their Controversy, 1770-1880."' Kew York, 1882.
1-10 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
into G-ermany from England, a relic of medisevalism, aided the movement by their endeavour after a universal religion of a moral and practical kind. The inward factors were the Wolffian philosophy (§ 1G7, 3), the popular philosophy, and the pietism, with its step-father separatism (§ 170), which immediately prejDared the soil for the sowing of rationalism. Orthodoxy, too, with its formulas that had been outlived, contributed to the same end. German rationalism is essentially distinguished from Deism and JSTaturalism by not breaking completely with the Bible and the church, but eviscerating both by its theories of accommodation and by its exaggerated representations of the limitations of the age in which the books of Scripture were written and the doctrines of Christianity were formulated. It thus treats the Bible as an important document, and the church as a useful religious institution. Over against rationalism arose supernaturalism, appealing directly to revelation. It was a dilution, of the old church faith by the addition of more or less of the water of rationalism. Its reaction was therefore weak and vacillating. The temporary success of the vulgar rationalism lay, not in its own inherent strength, but in the correspondence that existed between it and the prevailing spirit of the age. The philosophy, however, as well as the national literature of the Germans, now began a victorious struggle against these tendencies, and though itself often indifferent and even hostile to Christianity, it recognised in Christ a school-master. Pestalozzi performed a similar service to popular education by his attempts to reform effete systems,
1. Deism, Arianism, and Unitarianism in the English Church. — (1) The Deists (§ 164, 3). "With Locke's philosophy (§ 164, 2) deism entered on a new stage of its develoi^ment. It is henceforth vindicated on the ground of its reasonableness. The most notable deists of this age were John Toland, an Irishman, first Catholic, then Arminian, died A. D. 1722, author of ''Christianity not M^'sterious," " Nazarenus, or
§171, EELTGION, ETC., OF "THE ILLUMINATION." 141
Je^vish, Gentilp, and Mohametaii Christianity," etc. The Earl of Shaftesbury, died a.d. 1713, wjote " Characteristics of Men," etc. Anthony Collins, J.P. in Essex, died a.d. 1729, author of "Priestcraft in Perfection," " Discourse of Preethinking," etc. Thomas Woolston, fellow of Cambridge, died in prison in a.d. 1733, author of " Discourse on the Miracles of the Saviour." Mandeville of Dort, physician in London, died a.d. 1733. wrote " Free Thoughts on Religion." Matthew Tindal, professor of law in Oxford, died a.d. 1733, wrote "Christianity as Old as the Creation." Thomas Morgan, nonconformist minister, deposed as an Arian, then a physician, died a.d. 1743, wrote " The 3Ioral Philosopher." Thomas Chubb, glover and tallow-chandler in Salisbury, died a.d. 1747, author of popular compilations, " The True Gospel of Jesus Chi-ist."" Viscount Bolingbroke,' statesman, charged with high treason and pardoned, died a.d. 1751, writings entitled, " Philosophical Works." — Along with the deists as an opponent of positive Christianity may be classed the famous historian and sceptic David Hume, librarian in Edinburgh, died a.d. 1776, author of " Inquiry concerning the Human Understanding," " Natural History of Reli- gion," " Dialogues concerning Natural Religion," etc.^ — Deism never made ^va.y among the people, and no attempt was made to form a sect. Among the numerous opponents of deism these are chief: Samuel Clarke, died a.d. 1729 ; Thomas Sherlock, Bishop of London, died a.d. 1761 ; Chandler, Bishop of Durham, died a.d. 1750 ; Leland, Presby- terian minister in Dublin, died a.d. 1766, wrote " View of Principal Deistic Writers," three vols., 1754 ; Warburton, Bishop of Gloucester, died a.d. 1779; Nath, Lardner, dissenting minister, died a.d. 1768, wrote " Credibility of the Gospel History," seventeen vols., 1727-1757. With these may be ranked the famous pul pit orator of tlie Reformed church of France, Saurin, died a.d. 1730, author of Discoiim hist., crif., tfieoL, siir les Evenements les 2}lus rcmarJcahles du V. et N.T. — (2) The So-called Arians. In the beginning of the century several dis- tinguished theologians of the Anglican chtirch sought to give cux'rency to an Arian doctrine of the Trinity. Most conspicuous was "Wm. Whiston, a distinguished mathematician, physicist, and astronomer of the school of Sir Isaac Newton, and his siiccessor in the mathematical chair at Cambridge. Deprived of this office in a.d. 1708 for spreading his heterodox views, he issued in a.d. 1711 a five-volume work, "Primi- tive Christianity Revived," in which he justified his Arian doctrine of
' Stephen, "History of English Thought in the 18th Century." 2 vols. London, 1876. Cairns, " Unbelief in the 18th Century." Edinburgh, 1881. Piinjer, " History of Christian Philosophy of Religion from Reformation to Kant." § 5, " The English Deists." Edinburgh, 1887.
142 CHUECH PIISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
the Trinity as primitive and as taught by the ante-Nicene Fathers, and insisted upon augmenting the N.T. canon by the addition of twenty- nine books of the apostolic and other Fathers, including the apostolic " Constitutions" and "Recognitions" which he maintained were genuine Avorks of Clement. Subsequently he adopted Baptist views, and lost himself in fantastic chiliastic speculations. He died a.d. 1752. Mora sensible and moderate was Samuel Clarke, also distinguished as a mathematician of NcAvton's school and as a classical ]ohilogist. As an opponent of deism in sermons and treatises he had gained a high reputation as a theologian, when his work, " The Scripture Doctrine of the Trinity," in a.d. 1712, led to his being accused of Arianism by convocation ; but by conciliatory explanations he succeeded in retain- ing his office till his death in a.d. 1729. But the excitement caused by the publication of his Avork continued through several decades, and Avas eA'eryAvhere the cause of division. His ablest apologist Avas Dan. Whitby, and his keenest opponent Dan. Waterland. — (3) The Later Unitarians. The anti-trinitarian movement entered on a neAV stage in A.D. 1770. After Archdeacon Blackburne of London, in a.d. 176G, had started the idea, at first anonymously, in his " Confessional," he joined in a.d. 1772 Avitii other freethinkers, among whom Avas his son-in-laAV Theophilus Lindsey, in presenting to Parliament a petition Avith 250 signatures, asking to have the clergy of the Anglican church freed from the obligation of subscribing the Thirty-nine Articles and the Liturgy, and to have the requirement limited to assent to the Scrip- tures. This prayer Avas rejected in the LoAver House by 217 A'Otes against 71. Lindsey noAV resigned his clerical office, announced his AvithdraAval from the Anglican church, founded and presided over a Unitarian congregation in London from a.d. 1774, and published a large number of controversial Unitarian tracts. He died in a.d. 1808. The celebrated chemist and physicist Joseph Priestley, a.d. 1733-1806, A\'ho had been a dissenting minister in Birmingham from a.d. 1780, joined the Unitarian movement in 1782, giving it a new impetus by his high scientific rep^itation. He Avrote the " History of the Cor- ruptions of Christianity," and the " History of Early Opinions about Jesus Christ," denying that there is any biblical foundation for the orthodox doctrine of tlie Trinity, and seeking to show that it had been forced upon the church against her will from the Platonic philosophy. These and a Avhole series of other controA'ersial writings occasioned great excitement, not only among theologians, but also among the English people of all ranks. At last the mob rose against him in a.d. 1791. His house and all his scientific collections and apparatus Avere burnt. He narroAvly escaped Avith his life, and soon after settled in America, Avhere he Avrote a churcla history in four vols. Of his many English opponents the most eminent Avas Bishop
§171. RELIGION, ETC., OF "THE ILLUMINATIOX." 1-43
Sam. Horslej', a distinguished matliematician and commentator on the works of 8ir Isaac IVewton.
2. Freemasons. The mediaeval institution of freemasons (§ 104, 13j won much favour in England, especially after the Great Fire of London in A.D. 1666. The first step toward the formation of freemason lodges of the modern type was taken about the end of the sixteenth centtuy, when men of distinction in other callings sought admission as hono- rary members. After the rebuilding of London and the completion of St. Paul's in a.d. 1710, most of the lodges became defunct, and the four that continued to exist united in a.d. 1717 into one grand lodge in London, Avhich, renouncing material masonry, assumed the task of rearing the temple of humanity. In a.u. 1721 the Rev. Mr. Anderson prepared a constitution for this reconstruction of a trade society into a luiiversal brotherhood, according to which all " free masons " faith- fully observing the moral law as well as all the claims of humanity and patriotism, came under obligation to profess the religion common to all good men, transcending all confessional differences, without any individual being thereby hindered from holding his own particular views. Although, in imitation of the older institution, all members by reason of their close connexion were boiuid to observe the strictest secrecy in regard to their masonic signs, rites of initiation and pro- motion, and forms of greeting, it is not properly a secret society, since the constitution Avas published in a.d. 1723, and members publicly acknowledge that they are such. — From London the new institute spread over all England and the colonies. Lodges Avere founded in Paris in a.d. 1725, in Hamburg in a.d. 1737, in Berlin in a.d. 1740. This last Avas raised in a.d. 1744 into a grand lodge, A\'ith Frederick II. as grand master. But soon troubles and disputes arose, Avhich broke up the order about the end of the century. Eosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and alchemists, pretending to hold the secrets of occult science, Jesuits (§ 210, 1), with Catholic hierarchical tendencies, and '• lUuminati " (§ 165, 13), Avith rationalistic and infidel tendencies, as Avell as adventurers of every sort, had made the lodges centres of quackery, juggling, and plots.i
3. The German " Illumination." — (1) Its Precursors. One of the first of these, foUoAving in the footsteps of Kuntzen and Dippel, AA-as J. Chr. Edelmann of Weissenfels, Avho died a.d. 1767. He began in a.d. 1735 the publication of an immense series of Avritings in a rough but poAverful style, filled Avith bitter scorn for positive Christianity. He Avent from one sect to another, but ncA'er found Avhat he sought. In A.D. 1741 he accepted Zinzendorf's invitation, and stayed Avith the
1 HalliAvell, " The Early History of English Freemasonry." London, 1840.
144 CHUKCH HISTOEY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
count for a long time. He next joined the Berleberg separatists, becanse they despised the sacraments, and contributed to their Bible commentary, though Haug had to alter much of his work before it could be used. This and his contempt for prayer brought the con- nexion between him and the society to an end. He then led a vagabond life up and down through Germany. Edelmann regarded himself as a helper of providence, and at least a second Luther. Christianity lie pronounced the most irrational of all religions; church history a conglomeration of immorality, lies, hypocrisy, and fanaticism ; prophets and apostles, bedlamites ; and even Christ by no means a perfect pattern and teacher. The world needs only one redemption— redemiJtion from Christianity. Providence, virtue, and immortality are the only elements in religion. No less than 16G separate treatises came from his facile pen. — Laurence Schmidt of Wertheim in Baden, a scholar of Wolff, was author of the notorious " Wertheimer Bible Version,"' which rendered Scripture language into the dialect of the eighteenth century, and eviscerated it of all positive doctrines of revelation. This book was confiscated by the authorities, and its author cast into prison.
4. (2) The Age of Frederick the Great. Hostilitj' to all positive
Christianity spread from England and France into Germany. The
writings of the English deists were translated and refuted, but mostly
in so weak a style that the effect was the opposite of that intended.
Whilst English deism with its air of thoroughness made way among
the learned, the poison of frivolous Fi-ench naturalism committed
its ravages among the higher circles. The great king of Prussia,
Frederick II., a.d. 1740-1786, surrounded by French freethinkers,
Voltaire, D'Argens, La Metrie, etc., wished every man in his kingdom
to be saved after his own fashion. In this he was quite earnest,
although his personal animosity to all ecclesiastical and pietistic
religion made him sometimes act harshly and unjustly. Thus, when
Francke of Halle (son of the famous A. H. Francke) had exhorted his
theological students to avoid the theatre, the king, designating him
'• hjqjocrite " Francke, ordered him to attend the theatre himself and
have his attendance attested by the manager. His bitter hatred of
all " priests '' was directed mainly against their actual or supposed
intolerance, hypocrisy, and priestly arrogance ; and where he met with
undoubted integrity, as in Gellert and Seb, Bach, or simple, earnest
piety, as in General Ziethen, he was not slow in paying to it the
merited tribvite of hearty acknowledgment and respect. His OAvn
i-eligion was a philosophical deism, from which he could thoroughly
refute Holbach's materialistic " Systcme de la Nature."' — Under the
name of the German popular philosophy (Moses Mendelssohn. Garve,
Eberhard, Platner, Steinbart, etc.), which started from the Wolffian
§ 171. RELIGION, ETC., OF " THE ILLUillNATION." 145
pliilosoplij-, emptied of its Christian contents, there arose a weak, vapoury, and self-satisfied philosophizing on the part of the common human reason. Basedow was the reformer of pedagogy in the sense of the " Illumination," after the style of Eousseau, and crying up his wares in the market made a great noise for a while, although Herder declared that he would not trust calves, far less men, to be educated by such a pedagogue. The " Universal German Library " of the Berlin publisher Xicolai, 10(3 vols. a.d. 1765-1792, was a literarj^ Inquisition tribunal against all faith in revelation or the church. The '• Illumination " in the domain of theology took the name of rationalism. Pietistic Halle cast its skin, and along with Berlin took front rank among the pro- moters of the '• Illumination." In the other luiiversities champions of the new views soon appeared, and rationalistic pastors spread over all Germany, to pi-each only of moral improvement, or to teach from the pulpit about the laws of health, agriculture, gardening, natural science, et^. The old liturgies were mutilated, hymn-books revised after the barbarous tastes of the age, and songs of mere moral tendencj^ sub- stituted for those that spoke of Christ's atonement. An ecclesiastical councillor, Lang of Eegensburg, dispensed the communion with the words : '' Eat this bread ! The Spirit of devotion rest on you with His rich blessing ! Drink a little wine ! The virtue lies not in this Avine ; it lies in you, in the divine doctrine, and in God."' The Berlia provost, W. Alb. Teller, declared publicly : '• The Jews ought on account of their faith in God, virtue, and immortality, to be regarded as genuine Christians." C. Fr. Bahrdt, after he had been deposed for immorality from various clerical and academical offices, and was cast off b3^ the theologians, sought to amuse the people Avith his wit as a taphouse-keeper in Halle, and died there of an infamous disease in A.D. 1792.
5. (3) The Wollner Reaction. — In vain did the Prussian government, after the death of Frederick the Great, under Frederick William II., A.u. 1786-1797, endeavour to restore the church to the enjoyment of its old exclusive rights by punishing every departure from its doc- trines, and insisting that preaching should be in accordance with the Confession. At the instigation of the Kosicrucians (§ 160, 1) and of the minister Von Wolluer, a comitry pastor ennobled bj^ the king, the Religious Edict of 1788 was issued, followed by a statement of severe penalties; then by a Schema Examinationis Candidatorum ss. Minideril rite Imtitaendi ; and in a.d. 1791, by a commission for examination under the Berlin chief consistory and all the provincial consistories, with full powers, not only over candidates, but also over all settled pastors. But notwithstanding all the energy with Avhich he sought to carry out his edict, the minister could accomplish nothing ni tlu; face of public opinion, which favoured the vesistauce of tl.e chief
VOL. III. iO
146 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
consistory. Onlj'' one deposition, tliat of Seliulz of Gielsdorf, near Berlin, was effected, in a.d. 1792. Frederick "William III., a.d. 1797- 1840, dismissed Wollner in a.d. 1798, and set aside the edict as only fostering hj^^ocrisy and sham piety.
6. Tlie Transition Theology. — Fovar men, who endeavoured to main- tain their own belief in revelation, did more than all others to prepare the way for rationalism : Ernesti of Leipzig, in the department of N.T. exegesis ; Michaelis of Gottingen, in O.T. exegesis ; Semler of Halle, in biblical and historical criticism ; and Tollner of Frankfort-on-the- Oder, in dogmatics. J. A. Ernesti, a.d. 1707-1781, from a.d. 1734 rector of St. Thomas' School, from a.d. 1742 professor at Leipzig, colleague to Chr. A. Crusius (§ 167, 3), Avas specially eminent as a classical scholar, and maintained his reputation in that department, even after becoming- professor of theology in a.d. 1758. His Instifiitlo Interprefis N.T., of a.d. 1761, made it an axiom of exegesis that the exposition of Scripture shoiild be conducted precisely as that of any other book. But even in the domain of classical literature there must be an understanding of the a\ithor as a whole, and the expositor must have appreciation of the writer's spirit, as well as have acquaintance with his language and the customs of his age. And just from Erncsti's want of this, his treatise on biblical hermenei;tics is rationalistic, and he became th(^ father of rationalistic exegesis, though himself intending to hold firmly by the doctrine of inspiration and the creed of the church. — What Ernesti did for the N.T., J. D. Michaelis, a.d. 1717-1791, son of the pious and orthodox Chr. Bened. Michaelis, did for the O.T. He was from a.d. 1750 professor at Gottingen, a man of varied learning and wide influence. He publicly acknowledged that he had never experienced anything of the testimonium Sp.s. internum, and rested his proofs of the divinity of the Scriptures wholly on external evidences, e.(j. miracles, prophecy, aiTthenticity, etc., a spider's Aveb easily blown to pieces by the enemy. No one has ever excelled him in the art of foisting his own notions on the sacred authors and making them utter his favourite ideas. A conspicuous instance of this is his " LaAvs of Moses," in six a'oIs. — In a far greater measure than either Ernesti or Michaelis did J. Sol. Semler, a.d. 1725-1791, joupil of Baumgarten, and from A.D. 1751 professor at Halle, help on the cause of rationalism. He had groAvn up under the influence of Halle pietism in the profession of a customary Christianitj^, Avhich he called his I'jriA'ate religion, Avhich contributed to his life a basis of genuine personal piety. But Avith a rare subtlety of reasoning as a man of science, endoAved Avitli rich scholarship, and Avithout any Avish to scA'er himself from Chris- tianity, he undermined almost all the supports of the theology of the chxirch. This he did by casting doubt on the genuineness of the biblical Avritings, by setting up a theory of inspiration and accommodatiou
§ 171. RELIGION, ETC., OF "THE ILLUMINATION." 147
"\\hich admitted the presence of error, misunderstanding, and pious fraud in the Scriptures, by a style of exposition which put aside every- thing unattractive in the N.T. as '' remnants of Judaism,"' by a critical treatment of the history of the church and its doctrines, which repre- sented the doctrines of the church as the result of blundering, mis- conception, and violence, etc. He was a voluminous author, leaving behind him no less than 171 A\-ritings. He sowed the wind, and reaped the whirlwind, by which he himself was driven along. He fh-mly A\ithstood the installation of Balu-dt at Halle, opposed Basedow's endeavours, applied himself eagerly to refute the " Wolfenbiittel Frag- ments ■' of Eeimarus, edited by Lessing in 1774-1778, which represented Christianity as founded upon pure deceit and fraud, and defended even the edict of WoUner. But the current was not thus to be stemmed, and Semler died broken-hearted at the sight of the heavy crop from his own sowing.— J. G. Tolhier, a.d. 1724-1774, from a.d. 1756 professor at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, was in point of learning and influence by no means equal to those iioav named ; yet he deserves a place alongside of them, as one Avho opened the door to rationalism in the depart- ment of dogmatics. He himself held fast to the belief in revelation, miracles, and prophecy, but he also regarded it as proved that God saves men by the revelation of nature ; the revelation of Scripture is only a more sure and perfect means. He also examined the divine inspii-ation of Scripture, and found that the language and thoughts were the authors" own, and that God was concerned ui it in a manner that could not be more precisely determined. Finally, in treating of the active obedience of Christ, he gives such a representation of it as sets aside the doctrine of the church.
7. The Rationalistic Theology.— From the school of these men, espe- cially from that of Semler, went forth crowds of rationalists, who for seventy years held ahnost all the professorships and pastorates of Pro- testant Germany. At their head stands Bahrdt, a.d. 1741-1792, w^riter at first of orthodox handbooks, who, sinking deeper and deeper through vanity, want of character, and immorality, and following in the steps of Edelmann, wrote 102 vols., mostly of a scurrilous and blasphemous character. The rationalists, however, were generally of a nobler sort : Griesbach of Jena, a.d. 1745-1812, distinguished as textual critic of the N.T. ; Teller of Berlin, published a lexicon to the N.T., which substituted " leading another life" for regeneration, '• improvement "" for sanctification, etc. 5 Koppe of Gottingen, and Eosenmuller of I^'ipzig Avrote scholia on N.T., and Schulze and Bauer on the O.T. Of far greater value Avere the performances of J. E. Eichhorn of Got- tingen, A.D. 1752-1827, and Bertholdt of Erlangen, a.d. 1774-1822, who wrote introductions to the O.T. and commentaries. In the depart - iuciit of church history, 11. P. C. Eeuke of llchnstiidt and the talented
148 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
statesman, Von Spittler of Wiirttemberg, Avrote from the rationalistic standpoint. Steinbart and Eberhardt wrote more in the style of the popular philosoph3^ The snbtle-minded J. H. Tieftrunk, a.d. 1760-1837, professor of philosophy at Halle, introduced into theology the Kantian philosophy Avith its strict categories. Jerusalem, ZoUikofer, and others did much to spread rationalistic views by their preaching. ^
8. Supernaturalism — Abandoning the old orthodoxy without sur- rendering to rationalism, the supernaturalists sought to maintain their hold of the Scrijoture revelation. Many of them did so in a very uncertain way: their revelation had scarcely anything to reveal which was not already given by reason. Others, however, eagerly sought to preserve all essentially vital truths. Morus of Leipzig, Ernesti"s ablest student, Less of Gottingen, Doderlein of Jena, Seller of Erlangen, and Nosselt of Halle, Avere all representatives of this school. More poAverful opponents of rationalism appeared in Storr of Tubin- gen, A.D. 1746-1805, who could break a lance even with the philosopher of Konigsberg, Knapp of Halle, and Reinhard of Dresden, the most famous preacher of his age. Eeinhard's sennon on the Keformation festival of a.d. 1800 created such enthusiasm in fffvour of tlm Lutheran doctrine of justification, that government issued an edict calling the attention of all pastors to it as a naodel. The most dis- tinguished apologists were the mathematician Euler of St. Petersburg, the physiologist, botanist, geologist, and poet Haller of Ziirieli and the theologians Lilientlial of Konigsberg and Kleuker of Kiel. The most zealous defender of the faith Avas the much abused Goeze of Hamburg, Avho fought for the palladium of Lutheran orthodoxy against his rationalistic colleagues, against the theati-e, against Earth, BasedoAV, and such-like, against the " Wolf enbiittel Fragments," against the " Sorrows of Werther," etc. His polemic may have been over- violent, and he certainly Avas not a match for such an antagonist as Lessing ; he Avas, hoAvever, by no means an obscurantist, ignoramus, fanatic, or hyjiocrite, but a man in solemn earnest in all he did. In th<! field of church history important serAUces Avere rendered by Schrockh of Wittenberg and Walch of Gottingen, laborious investigators and compilers, Staudlin and Planck of Gottingen, and Miinter of Copen- hagen.— Among English theologians of this tendency toward the end of the century, the most famous Avas Paley of Cambridge, a.d. 1743- 1805, AA'hose " Principles of Moral and Political Philosophy " and "Evidences of Christianity " Avere obligatory text-books in the uui-
1 Eitschl, " History of Christian Doctr. of Justification and Recon- ciliation," pp. 347-426. Dorner, " History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 277-292. Hagenbach, "History of Church in 18th and 10th Centuries," vol. i., pp. 251-321. ^
§ 171. RELIGION, ETC., OF "THE ILLUMINATION." 149
versit}-. His " Horce PauUnK " i^rove the credibility of the Acts of the Apostles from the epistles, and his " Xattiral Theology " demon- strates God's being and attributes from nature.
9. Mysticism and Theosophy.— Oetinger of Wllrttemburg, the Magus of the South, a.d. 1702-1782, takes rank by himself. He -vvas a pupil of Bengel (§ 167, 3), well grounded in Scripture, but also an admirer of Bi'ihme and sjnnpathising with the spiritualistic visions of Swedenborg, But amid all, with his biblical realism and his theosophy, which held corporeity to be the end of the ways of God, he was firmly rooted in the doctrines of Lutheran orthodoxy. — The best m3-stic of the Reformed church was J. Ph. Dutoit of Lausanne, a.d. 1721-1793, an enthusiastic admirer of Madame Guyon; he added to her quietist mysticism certain theosophical speculations on the original nature of Adam, the creation of woman, the fall, the necessity of the incarnation apart from the fall, the basing of the sinlessness of Christ upon the imma- culate conception of his mother, etc. He gathered about him during his lifetime a large number of pious adherents, but after his death his theories were soon forgotten.
10. The German Philosophy.— As Locke accomplished the descent from Bacon to deism and materialism, so Wolff effected the transition from Leibnitz to the popular philosoph3-. Kant, a.d. 1724-1804, saved philo- sophy from the baldness and self-sufficiency of Wolffianism, and pointed it to its proper element in the spiritual domain. Kant's o%m philo- sophy stood wholly outside of Christ ianitj^, on the same platform with rationalistic theology. But hy deeper digging in the soil it unearthed many a precious nugget, of whose existence the vulgar rationalism had never dreamed, without any intention of becoming a schoolmaster to lead to Christ. Kant showed the impossibility of a knowledge of the supernatural by means of pure reason, biit admitted the ideas of God freedom, and immortality as postulates of the practical reason and as (■(instituting the principle of all religion, whose only content is the moral law. Christianitj^ and the Bible are to remain the basis of liopular instruction, but are to be expounded only in an ethical sense. While in sympathy with rationalism, he admits its baldness and self- sufficiencj'. His keen criticism of the pure reason, the profound know- ledge of human weakness and corruption shown in his doctrine of radical evil, his categorical imperative of the moral law, were well fitted to awaken in more earnest minds a deep distrust of themselves, a modest estimate of the boasted excellences of their age, and a feeling that Christianity could alone meet their necessities. — F. H. Jacohi, a.d. 1743-1819, " with the heart a Christian, with the understanding a pagan,"' as he characterized himself, took religion out of the region of mere reason into the depths of the universal feelings of the soul, and so awakened a positive aspiration. — J. G. Pichte, a.d. 1762-1314, trans-
150 CHUECH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
formed Kaniianism, tn \vliich he at first adhered, into an idealistic science of knowledge, in ■which only the erjo that posits itself appears as real, and the non-ego, only by its being posited by the ego; and thus the AN'orld and nature are only a reflex of the mind. But Avhen, accused of atheism in a.d. 1798, he was expelled from his jjosition in Jena, he changed his views, rushing from the verge of atheism into a mysticism approaching to Christianity. In his " Guide to a Blessed Life," A.D. 1806, he delivered religion from being a mere servant to morals, and sought the blessedness of life in the loving surrender of one's whole being to' the universal Spirit, the full expression of which he found in John's Gospel. Pauline Christianit}', on the other hand, with its doctrine of sin and redemption, seemed to him a deterioration, and Christ Himself only the most complete re]Dresentative of the incarnation of God relocated in all ages and in every pious man. — In the closing years of the century, Schelling brought forward his theory of identit)/, whi(;h was one of the most powerful instruments in introducing a new ei'a.i
11. The German NationalLiterature.— When the powerful strain of the evangelical church hymn had well-nigh expired in the feeble lispings of Gellert's sacred poetrj'-, Klopstock began to chant the praises of the Messiah in a higher strain. But the pathos of his odes met with no response, and his ''Messiah," of which the first three cantos appeared in a.d. 1748, though received with unexampled enthusiasm, could do nothing to exorcise the spirit of unbelief, and Avas more jaraised than read. The theological standpoint of Lessing, a.d. 1729- 1781, is set forth in one of his letters to his brother. " I despise the orthodox even more than you do, only I despise the clergy of the new style even more. What is the new-fashioned theology of those shallow pates compared with orthodoxy but as dung-water compared with dirty water ? On this point we are at one, that our old religious sA'stem is false ; but I cannot say with you that it is a laatchwork of bunglers and half philosophers. I know nothing in the world upon which hiiman ingenuity has been more subtly exercised than upon it. That religious system which is now offered in place of the old is a patchwork of bunglers and half i)liilosophers." He is offended at men hanging the concerns of eternity on the spider's thread of external evidences, and so he was delighted to hurl the Wolfenbtittel '•Fragments'' at the heads of theologians and the Hamburg pastor Goeze, whom he loaded with contumely and scorn. Thoi-oughly characteristic too is the saying in the " DuiMlc " : That if God hold-
' Chalybeeus, " Historical Development of Speculative Philosophj', from Kant to Hegel." Edin., 1851. Eabiger, " Theological Encyclo- paedia," vol. i., pp. 73- 7G.
§ 171. RELIGION, ETC., OP "THE ILLUMINATION ." 151
iug ill liis right liand all truth, and in his left hand the search after truth, subject to error through all eternity, were to offer him his choice, he -would humbly say, '• Father the left, for pure truth is indeed for thee alone.'' In his " Xalhan "' only Judaism and Moham- medanism are represented by truly noble and ideal characters, while the chief representative of Christianity is a gloomy zealot, and the conclusion of the i^ai-able is that all three rings are counterfeit. In another work he views revelation as one of the stages in " The Educa- tion of the Human Race," which loses its significance as soon as its purpose is served. In familiar conversation with Jacobi he frankl}- declai-ed his acceptance of the doctrine of Spinoza : "E:' Kal irdv.^ Wieland, a.d. 1738-1813, soon tiirned from his youthful zeal for ecclesi- astical orthodoxy to the popular philosophy of the cultured man of the world. Herder, a.d. 1744-1803, ^\-ith his enthusiastic appreciation of the poetical contents of the Bible, especially of the Old Testament, was not slow to point out the insipidity of its ordinary treatment. Goetlie> A.D. 1749-1832, profoundly hated the vandalism of neology, delighted in " The Confessions of a Fair Soul '' (§ 172, 2), had in earlier years sympathy with the Herrnhuters, but in the full intellectual vigour of his manhood thought he had no need of Christianity, which offended him by its demand for renunciation of self and the Avorld. Schiller, a.d. 1759-1805, enthusiasticallj^ admiring everything noble, beautiful and good, misunderstood Christianity, and introduced into the hearts of the German people Kantian rationalism clothed in rich poetic garb. His lament on the downfall of the gods of Greece, even if not so intended by the poet himself, told not so much against orthodox Christianity as against poverty-stricken deism, which banished the God of Christianity from the world and set in his place the dead forces of nature. And if indeed he really thought that for religion's sake he should confess to no religion, he has certainly in many jn-ofoundlj'' Christian utterances given unconscious testimon}^ to Christianity. — The Jacobi philosophy of feeling found poetic inter- preters in Jean Paul Richter, a.d. 1763-1825, and Hebel, died a.d. 1826, in whom v.'e find the same combination of pious sentiment which is drawn toward Christianity and the sceptical imderstanding which allied itself to the revolt against the common orthodoxy. J. H. Voss, a rough, powerful Dutch peasant, who in his " Luise "' sketched the ideal of a brave rationalistic country parson, and, with the inexorable
' Stahr, " Lessing : his Lif(^ and "Works," translated by G. Evans. 2 vols. Boston, 1866. Sime, " Lessing, his Life and AVritings."' 2 vols. London, 1877. Zimmern, '• G. E. Lessing: his Life and Works."' London, 1878. Smith, " Lessing as a Theologian," in the TheolocjkaL Jicvicw. Julv. 1868.
152 CHFrtrTI TTTSTOKY OV EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
rigour of an inquisitor, Imnted iloAvn tlie night birds of ignorancp and oppression. Bnt alongside' of those children of the world stood two genuine sons of Luther, Matthias Claudius, a.d. 1740-1815, and J. G. Hamaim, A.D. 1730-1788, the "Magus of the North" and the Elijah of his age, of whom Jean Paul said that his commas were plane- tary systems and liis periods solar systems, to whom the philosopher Hemsterhuis erected in the garden of Princess Gallitzin a tablet with the inscription : "To the Jews a stumbling-block, to the Greeks fool- ishness." With them may also be named two noble sons of the Reformed church, the physiognomist Lavater, a.d, 1741-1801, and the devout dreamer, Jung-Stilling, a.d. 1740-1817. The famous historian, John von Miiller, a.d. 1752-1809, ^^•ell deserves mention here, who more than any previous historian made Christ the centre and summit of all times ; and also the no less famous statesman C. F. von Moser, the most German of the Germans of this century, who, with noble Christian heroism, in numerous political and patriotic tracts, battled against the prevailing social and political vices of his age.
12. The great Swiss educationist Pestalozzi, a.d. 1746-1827, assumed toward the Bible, the church, and Christianity an attitude similar to that of the philosopher of Konigsberg. The conviction of the necessity' and wholesomeness of a biblical foundation in all popular education Avas rooted in his heart, and he clearly saw the shallowness of the popular philosophy, whether presented under the eccentric naturalism of Rousseau or the bald utilitarianism of Basedow. His whole life issued from the very sanctuary of true Christianity, as seen in his self-sacrificing efforts to save the lost, to strengthen the weak, and to l)reach to the poor by Avord and deed the gospel of the all-merciful God whose will it is that all should be saved. He began his career as an educationist in a.d. 1775 by receiA'ing into his house deserted beggar children, and carried on his exjieriments in his educational institutions at Burgdorf till a.d. 1798, and at Isserten till a.d. 1804. His writings, Avhich circulated far and wide, gained for his methods recognition and liigh approval.'
§ 172. Church Life in the Period of the " Illumination."'
The ancient faith of the church liad even during tins age of prevailing unbelief its seven thousand who refused to bow
' Russell, " A Short Account of the Life and History of Pestalozzi." based on De Guemp's "iv'^Tis^oire de Pestalozzi.^'' London, 1888. To be followed by a complete English translation of De Ouemp's work
§ 172. CHUECH LIFE DUP>TNCt"THE ILLUMINATION." 153
the knee to Baal. The German people were at heart firmly grounded in the Christianity of the Bible and the chnrch, and where the pulpit failed had their spiritual wants supplied by the devout writings of earlier days. Where the modern vandalism of the " Illumination" had mutilated and watered down the books of praise, the old church songs lingered in the memories of fathers and mothers, and were sung with ardour at familj' worship. For many men of culture, who were more exposed to danger, the Society of the Brethren afforded a welcome refuge. But even among the most accomplished of the nation many stood firmly in the old paths. Lavater and Stilling, Haller and Euler, the two Mosers, father and son, John von Milller and his brother J. G. Miiller, are not by any means the only, but merely the best known, of such true sons of the church. In Wiirttemberg and Berg, where religious life was most vigorous, religious sects were formed with new theological views which made a deep impression on the character and habits of the people. Also toward the end of the century an awakened zeal in home and foreign missions was the prelude of the glorious enterprises of our own days.
1. The Hymnbook and Church Music. — Klopstock, followed by Cramer and Solilegel, intvoduced the vandalism of altering the old chiuxdi liymns to suit modern tastes and views. But a few, like Herder and Schnhert, raised their voices against such philistinism. The " Ilhi- minist "' alterations were nnutterably prosaic, and the old pathos and jjoetry of the sixteenth and seventeenth century hymns were ruth- lessly sacrificed. The spiritual songs of the noble and pious Gellei-t, are bj^ far the best productions of this jjeriod. — Church Music too now i-eached its lowest ebb. The old chorales were altered into modern forms. A multitude of new, impo]3ular melodies, difficult of com]n-e- hension, with a bald school tone, were introduced ; the last trace of tlie old rhythm disappeared, and a weary monotony began to prevail, in which all force and freshness were lost. As a substitute, secular preludes, interludes, and concluding pieces were brought in. Tlie people often entered the churches during the playing of operatic overtures, and wei'e dismissed amid the noise of a march or waltz*
154 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
The cluirch cptisod to be the patron and promoter of music ; the theatre and concert room took its place. The opera st^de thoroughly de- jiraved the oratorio. For festival occasions, cantatas in a purely secular, effeminate style were composed. A true ecclesiastical music no longer existed, so that even Winterfeld closed his history of church music with Seb. Bach. It was, if jjossible, still worse with the mass music of the Roman Catholic church. Palestrina's earnest and capable school was comj)letely lost sight of under the siorightly and frivolous opera style, and with the organ still more mischief ^\-as done than in the Protestant church.
2. Religious Characters. — The pastor of Ban de la Roche in Stein- thal of Alsace, '■ the saint of the Protestant church,"" J. Fr. Oberlin, A.D. 1740-1826, deserves a high place of honour. During a sixty years' pastorate " Father Oberlin " raised his poverty-stricken flock to a position of industrial prosperity, and changed the barren Steinthal into a patriarchal paradise. The same may be said of a noble Christian Avoman of that age, Sus. Cath. von Klettenterg, Lavater's "Cordata,"' Goethe's "Fair Soul," whose genuine confessions are wrought into " W'dhelm Meister,'''' the centre of a beautiful Christian circle in Frankfort, where the young Goethe received religious impressions that were never wholly forgotten. — Conam unity of religious yearnings brought together pious Protestants and pious Catholics. The Princess von Gallitzin, her chaplain Overberg, and minister Von Ftirstenberg formed a noble group of earnest Catholics, for whom the ardent Lutheran Hamann entertained the warmest affection.
8. Religious Sects. — In Wiirttemberg there arose out of tlie pietism of Siicner, with a dash of the theosophy of Oetinger, the party of the Michelians, so named from a layman, Michael Hahn, whose writings show profound insight into the truths of the gospel. He taught the doctrine of a double fall, in consequence of which he depreciated though he did not forbid marriage ; of a restitution of all things ; while he subordinated justification to sanctification, the Christ for us to the Christ in us, etc. As a I'eaction against this extreme arose the Pregizerians, who laid exclusive stress upon baptism and justification, declared assurance and heart-breaking penitence unnecessary, and imparted to their services as much brightness and joy as possible. Both sects spread over Wiirttemberg and still exist, but in their com- mon opposition to the destructive tendencies of modern times, they have drawn more closely together. In their chiliasm and restitution- ism they are thoroughly agreed. — The Collenhuschians in Canton Berg ])ropounded a dogmatic system in which Christ empties Himself of His d ivine attributes, and assumes with sinful flesh the tendencies to sin that had to be fought against, the sufferings of Christ are attributed to the wrath of Satan, and His redemption consists in His overcoming
§ 172. CHURCH LIFE DrRING "THE ILLrMINATIOX." 155
Satan's wrath for us and imparting His Spirit to enable us to do works of holiness. The most distinguished adherents of Collenbusch M-ere the two Hasencamps and the talented Bremen pastor Menken.
4. The Rationalistic "Illumination" outside of Germany.— In Amster- dam, in A.D. 1791, a Restored Lutheran Church or Old Li^ht was orga- nized on the occasion of the intrusion of a rationalistic pastor. It now numbers eight Dutch congregations -with 14,000 adherents and 11 pastors. Under the name of Christo Sacrum some members of the French Eeformed church at Delft, in a.d. 1797, founded a denomination which received adherents of all confessions, holding by the divinity of Christ and His atonement, and treating all confessional differences as non-essential and to be held onh' as private opinions. In their public services they adopted mainly the forms of the Anglican episcopal church. Though successful at first, it soon became rent by the in- congruity of its elements. In England the dissenters and ^Methodists l)rovided a healthy protest against the lukewarmness of the State church. In "William Cowper, a.d. 1731-1800, we have a noble and brilliant poet of high lyi'ical genius, whose life was blasted by the terrorism of a predestinarian doctrine of despair and the religious melanchoh^ produced bj^Methodistic agonies of soul.
5. Missionary Societies and Missionary Enterprise. — In order to arouse interest in the idea of a grand union for practical Christian purposes, tlie Augsburg elder, John Urlsperger, travelled through England, Holland, and Geiinany. The Basel Society for Spreading Christian Truth, founded in a.d. 1780, was the firstfruits of his zeal, and branches were soon established throughout Switzerland and Southern German}-. The Basel Bible Society was founded in a.d. 1804, and the Missionary Society in a.d. 181G. — At a meeting of English Baptist preachers at Kettering, in Northamptonshire, in a.d. 1792, William Carey was the means of starting the Baptist Missionary Society. Cai'ey was himself its first missionary. He sailed for India in a.d. 1793, and founded the Serampore Mission in Bengal. The work of the society' has now spread over the East and West Indies, the Malay Archipelago, South Africa, and South America. A popular preacher, Melville Home, who had been himself in India, published "Letters on Missions," in a.d. 1794, in which he earnestlj^ counselled a union of all true Christians for the conversion of the heathen. In response to this appeal a large number of Christians of all denominations, mostly Independents, founded in a.d. 1795, the London Missionary Societj', and in the following year the first missionar}^ ship, Tlw Duff', under Captain Wilson, sailed for the South Seas with twenty-nine missionaries on board. Its operations now extend to both Indies, South Africa, and Xorth America ; but its chief hold is in the South Seas. In the Society Islands the missionaries wrought for sixteen years Avithout any apparent result, till at last
156 CHURCH HISTORY OF EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
King Pomare II. of Taliiti souglit baptism as the first-fruits of their labours. A victory gained over a pagan reactionary party in a.d. 1815 secured complete ascendency to Christianity. The example of the London Society was followed by the founding of two Scottish societies in a.d. 1796 and a Dutch society in a.d. 1797, and the Church Missionary Society in London in a.d. 1799, for the English possessions in Africa, Asia, etc. The Danish Lutheran (§ 167, 9) and the Hermi- hut (§ 168, 11) societies still continued their operations.' — Continuation, §§ 1.S3, 184.
' Marshman, " Life and Times of Marshman, Care}', and Ward.'' 2 vols. London, 1859. Smith, " Life of William Carey." London, 188(j. Wilson, "Missionary Voyage of the Ship l^iiff."' London, 1799. Morison, " Fathers and Founders of the London Missionaiy SocietA'."' London, 1844.
FOURTH SECTION. CHURCH HISTORY OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
I.— General and Introductory.
§ 173. Survey of Religious Movements of Nixeteextii Cextury.
A REACTION had set in against tlie atheistic spirit of the French Revokition, and the victories of a.u. 1813, 1815, encouraged the pious in their Clu'istian confidence. Princes and people Avere full of grati- tude to God. Alexander I., Francis I., and Frederick AViUiani III., representing the thi-ee prmcipal chui'ches, in a.d. 1815, after the political situation had been determined by the Congress of Vienna, formed "the Holy Alliance,'' a league of brotherly love for mutual defence aud maintenance of peace, to which all the European princes adhered with the exception of the pope, the sultan, and the lung of England. Tlu'ough Metternich's arts it ultimately degenerated into an instrument of repression and tyranny .-Incongruous elements were present everywhere. The restoration of the papacy in a.d. 1814 had given a new impulse to ultramontanism, as did also the Reformation centenary of a.d. 1817 to Protestantism ; while super- naturalism and pietism prevailing in the Lutheran and Eeformed chui-ches led to renewed attempts at union. Old sects were strength- ened and new sects arose. Pantheism, materialism, and atheism, as well as socialism and communism, without concealment attacked Chris- tianity ; while pauperism and vagabondage, on the one hand, and the Stock Exchange swindling of capitalists, on the other, spread moral consumption tlu-ough all classes of society. The ultraniontanes, led by the Jesuits, reasserted the most arrogant claims of the papacy. The climax was reached when Pius IX. obtained a decree of council affirming his infallibility, while by the Xemesis of history the royal crown was torn from his head.
107
158 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
§ 174. Nineteenth Century Culture in Relation TO Christianity and the Church.
Down to A.D. 1840, when zeal for it began to abate, philo- sophy exercised an important influence on the religious development of the age, both in the departments of science and of life. While rationalism was not able to transcend the standpoint of Kant, the other theological tendencies were more or less determined formally, and even materially by the philosophical movements of this period. Alongside of philosophjr, literati;re, itself to a great extent coloured by contemporary philosophy, exerted a powerful influence on the religious opinions of the more cultured among the people. The sciences, too, came into closer relations, partly friendly, partly hostile, to Christianity ; and art in some of its masterpieces jDaid a noble tribute to the church.
1. The German Philosophy (§ 170, 10).— Fries, wliose philosophy Avas Kantian rationalism, modified by elements borro"\vcd from Jacobi, influenced such theologians as De Wette. Schelling, in his " Philo- sophy of Identity," had advanced from Fichte"s idealism to a pan- theistic naturalism. From Fichte he had learned that this Avorld is nothing without spirit ; but while Fichte recognised this world, the non-ego, as reality only in so far as man seizes upon it and penetrates it by his spirit, and so raises it into real being, Schelling regards spirit as nothing else than the life of nature itself. In the lower stages of this nature-life spirit is still slumbering and dreaming, but in man it has attained unto consciousness. The nature-life as a whole, or the world-soul, is God ; man is the reflex of God and the Avorld in miniature, a mici'ocosmos. In the world's development God comes into objective being and unfolds his self-consciousness ; Chris- tianity is the turning point in the world's history ; its fundamental dogmas of revelation, trinity, incarnation, and redemption are sug- gestive attempts to solve the world's riddle. Schelling's poetic view of the Avorld penetrated all the sciences, and gave to them a new impulse. Though hateful to the old rationalists, this sj^stem found ardent admirers among the younger theologians. As Schelling to Fichte, so Hegel was attached to Schelling, and wrought his pan- theistic naturalism into a pantheistic spii'itualism. Not so much in the life of nature as in the thinking and doiug of the human spirit,
§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTUEE. 159
the divine revelation is the unfolding of the divine self-consciousness from non -being into being. Judaism and Christianity are progressive stages of this process ; Judaism stands far below classic paganism ; but in Christianity we have the perfect religion, to be developed into the highest form of philosoiDhy. The Protestant church doctrine ■was now again accorded the place of lionom-. Marheincke developed Lutheran orthodoxy into a system of speculative theology based on Hegelian principles; while Goschel infused into it 'a pietist spirit, which made many hail the r.ew departm-e as the long-sought recon- ciliation of theology and philosophy. But after HegeFs death in A.D. 1831 the condition of matters suddenly changed. His school split into an orthodox wing following the master's ecclesiastical tendencies, and a heterodox wing which deified the human spirit. Strauss, Bauer, and Feuerbach led this heterodox party in theology, and Ruge in reference to social, aesthetic, and political questions. Persecuted by the state in a.d. 1S43, the Yotmg Hegelians joined the rationalists, whom they had before sneered at as "antediluvian theologians." Schelling, Avho had been silent for almost thirty years, took HegePs chair in Berlin as his decided opponent in a.d, 1841, and with his dualistic doctrine of potencies, from which he finally'- advanced to a Christian gnosticism, obtained a temporary influence among the younger theologians. He died at the baths of Eagaz in Switzerland in a.d. 1854. He flashed for a moment like a meteor, and as suddenly his light was quenched.
2. The domination of the Hegelian philosoph}^ was overthrown by the split in the school and the radicalism of the adherents of the left wing, and Schelling in the second stage of his philosophical develop- ment had not succeeded in founding any proper school of his own. A group of younger philosophers, with I. H. Fichte at their head, starting from the Hegelian dialectic, have striven to free philosophy from the reproach of pantheism and to develop a speculative theism in touch Avith historical Christianity. Other members of this school are Weisse, Braniss, Chalibseus, Ulrici, Wirth, Eomang, etc.— Herbart renounces all that philosophers from Fichte senior to Fichte junior had done, and declares the metaphysical end of their systems beyond the horizon of philosopli}^, which must limit itself to the province of experience. His realism is in diametrical opposition to Hegel's idealism. Toward Christianity his philosophy occupies a position of indifference. Influenced by Kant's theory of knowledge as well as by the Fichte-Schelling-Hegel idealism and Herbarfs realism, with an infusion of Leibnitz's monad doctrine, Hermann Lotze of Gottingen has, since a.d. 1844, set forth a system of '• teleological idealism." He develops his metaphj'sical principles from what ^ve liave h\ immediate experience internal and external, and the in-
160 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
variabilit3'' of the causal mechanism in everytliiug that happens in tlie inner and outer world he explains as the realizing of moral purposes. — Schopenhauer's philosophy, which only in the later years of his life (died a.d. 1860) began to attract attention, is in spirit utterly opposed to the religion and ethics of Christianit3\ Its taslc is to describe " The World as Will and Idea " ; first at that stage of entering into visibility which is represented in man does will, the thing-in-itself, become joined •with idea, and makes its appearance now with it over against the world as a conscious subject. But since idea is regarded as a pure illusion of the will, this leads to a pessimism which takes absolute despair as the only legitimate moral principle. E. von Hartmann went still further in the same direction in his '•Philosophy of the Unconscious," published in 1869, of which an English translation in three vols, appeared in 1884. He identifies the will with matter and idea with spirit, demands in addition to the absolute despair of the individual here and hereafter, the com- plete surrender of the personality to the world-process in order to the attainment of its end, the annihilation of the world. This dissolution of the world consists in the complete withdrawal of the A\'ill into the absolute as the only luiconscious, so that at last the Avrong and misery of being produced by the irrational Avill are abolished in this withdrawal. From this philosophical standpoint Hartmami attempted iu a.d. 1874 to take Christianity to pieces, showing some favour to Vatican Catholicism, but pouring out the vials of his wrath upon Protestantism. His "religion of the future " consists in a yearning for freedom from all the burden and misery of being and share in the world-process by relapsing into the blessed- ness of non-being. — In France, England, and America much favour has been shown to the atheistic-sensual Positivism of Aug. Comte, Avhich, excluding every form of theology and morals, requires only the so-called exact sciences as the object of philosophy. On his later notions of a "religion of humanity," see § 210, 1. On essentially similar lines proceeds Herbert Spencer, in his "System of Synthetic I'liilosoi)hy,"' to whose school also Darwin belonged. His followers are styled agnostics, because; they regard all knowledge of God and divine things as absolutely impossible, and evolutionists, because their master endeavours to construct all the sciences on the basis of the evolution theory.
8. The Sciences — Schelling's profound theories were of all the more significance from their not being restricted to the philosophical strivings of his time, but inspiring the other sciences with the breath of a new life. To the fullest extent the natural sciences exposed themselves to this influence. There was not wanting indeed a certain shadowy mysticism, to which especially tlie lauci'js of mesmeric
§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTUET CULTURE. 161
iiiagiic'tism largely contributed ; but this fog gradually cleared away, ;md the Christian elements were purified from their pantheistic sur- inuudings. Steifens and Von Schubert taught that the divine book of nature is to be regarded as the reflex and expansion of the divine rovelation in Scripture. The Hegelian pliilosophy, too, seemed at lirst likely to infuse a Christian spirit into the other sciences. In ri<)schel, at least, there was a thinker who imparted to jurisprudence a Christian character, and to Christianity a juristic construction, lu other respects Hegel's philosophy in its application to the other ilf^partments of science gave in many ways a predominance to an abstruse dialectic tendency. Its adherents of the extreme left sought to construct all sciences a priori from the pure idea, and at the same time to root out from them the last vestiges of the Christian s])ii-it.
The greatest names in natural science, Copernicus, Kepler. Xewton, Jlaller, Davy, Cuvier, etc., are household Avords in Christian circles. All these and many more were firmlj' convinced that there was no conflict between their most brilliant discoveries and Christian tinith. In A.D. 1825 the Earl of Bridgwater founded a lectureship, and treatises on the power, wisdom, and goodness of God as manifested in the •.•reation, have been written by Buckland, Chalmers, "Whewell, Bell, etc. It was otherA\-ise in Germany. Even Schleiermacher, in his •• Letters to Liicke," in a.d. 1829, expressed his fears of the prophesied overthrow of all Christian theories of the world by the incontro- A'ertible results of phj-sical research, and Bretschneider in liis " Letters to a Statesman," in A.n. 1830, proclaimed to the Avorld -without regret that already what Schleiermacher only feared had actually come to jiass. Physicists, awakening from the glamour of tlu^ Schelling nature philosoph}-, pronounced all speculation contraband, and df>- ilared pure empiricism, the simple investigation of actual things, the only permissible object of their labour. And although they handed over to theologians and philosophers questions about spirit in and over nature, as not belonging to their province, a younger generation maintained that spirit Avas non-existent, because it could not be discovered b}' the microscope and dissecting knife. Carl Vogt defined thought to be a secretion of the brain, and Moleschott re- garded life as a mere mode of matter and man"s existence after lif<! onlj- as the manuring of the fields. Feuerbach proclaimed that " man is what he eats," and Buclnier iwpularized these views into a gospel for social democi-ats and niiiijists. Oersted, the famous discoverer of electro-magnetism, had sought "the spirit in nature," but the spirit which he found was not that of the Bible and the church. The grandmaster of German scientific research. Alex, von Humboldt, saw in the world a cosmos of noble harmony as a whole and in its VOL. III. II
162 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
parts, but of Christian ideas in God's great book of nature be finds no trace. In a.d. 1859 tbe great English naturalist Darwin, died A.D. 1882, introduced into the arena the theory of "Natural Selection," by means of Avhich the modification and development of the few primary animal forms through the struggle for existence and the survival of the fittest by sexual selection is supposed, in millions, perhaps milliards, of years, to have brought forth the present variety and manifoldness of animal species. Multitudes of naturalists now accept his theory of the descent of men and apes from a common stem. — In Medicine De Valenti on the Protestant side, with pietistic earnestness, maintains that Christian faith is a veliicle of healing power ; while a circle in Munich on the Catholic side make worship of saints and the host a conditio sine qua non of all medicine. A more moderate attitude is assumed by the Roman Catholic Dr. Capellmann of Aachen, in his " Pastoral Medicine."
4. Of Christian Jurists we have, on the Protestant side, Stahl, Savigny, Puchta, Jacobson, Eichter, Meier, Sclieuerl, Hinschius, etc. ; and on the Catholic side, Walther, Philipps, etc. Among Historians, the greatest in modern times is Leopold von Eanke, who, with his disciples, occupies a thoroughly Clu-istian standpoint. There has appeared, however, on the part of many Protestant historians, such as Voigt, Leo, Mentzel, Vorreiter, Hurter, Gfroerer, etc., a tendency in the most conspicuous manner to recognise and admire the bril- liant phenomena of mediseval Catholicism, even going the length of renouncing the vital principles of Protestantism, and glorifying a Boniface, a Gregory VII., and an Innocent III., and characterizing the Reformation as a revolution, Ultramontanes have been only too ready to turn to their own use all such concessions, but show no in- clination to make similar admissions damaging to their side, so that with them history consists rather in the abuse of everj'thing Protest- ant as vile and perfidious, instead of being a record of independent research. Janssen of Frankfort stands out prominently above the billows of the '■'■ KulturTcampf ''"' (§ 197), as the greatest master of this ultramontane style of history making. — Geography, first raised to the rank of a science by Carl Ritter, received from its great founder a Christian impress and oAves much of its development to the researches of Christian missionaries. Finallj^, Philology, in the hands of Creuzer, Gorres, Sepp, etc., luifolds in a Christian spirit tlie religion and myth- ology of classical ]mganism ; and in the hands of Nagelsbach and Liibker expounds the religious life of the ancient world in relation to Christian truth.
5. National Literature (§ 171, 11).— To some extent Goethe, but much more decidedly tlae romantic school of poets, was attached to Schelling's philosophy of nature. The romancists developed a deep
§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE. 163
religiousness of feeling, as shown in Novalis and La Motte Fouque, and violent opposition to rationalistic tlieology as shown in Tieck, which in the case of Fr. Schlegel ran to the other extreme of moral frivolity as seen in his " Lucinde." The romantic school as thus represented by Schlegel was joined hj the party of Young Germany with its gospel of the rehabilitation of the flesh. Its mouthpiece was the gifted poet Heine. The pantheistic deification of nature by Schelling, and the self-deification of the Hegelian school obtained poetic expression in Leop. Schafer's Laicnhrevier unci Weltpriester, as well as in Sallet s Laienevmigclinm; while the sympathies of the young Hegelians with the revolutionai-y movements gained iitterance in the poems of Herwegh, and in a more serious tone in those of Freiligrath. More recently the views of the Protestantcnverein (§ 180) have found their poetical representative in Nic. Eichhorn, whose " Jesus of Nazareth,"" a tragical drama, 1880, deals with the life, works, and sufferings of the " historical Christ," after the style of free Protestant science, Avith rich psychological analysis of the character in a brilliant imagina- tive production. Though composed with a vieAV to theatrical repre- sentation, it has never yet been put on the stage.
6. The Christian element was present in the noble patriotic songs of E. M. Arndt ^ and Max. von Schenkendorf much more distinctly than in the romantic school. Enthusiasm in the struggle for freedom awakened faith in the living God. Uhland"s lovely lyrics, with their enthusiasm for the i^resent interests of the Fatherland, entitle him to rank among patriotic poets, and their brilliant and profound rendering of the old German legends places him in the romantic school, Avhich, however, in clearness and depth he leaves far behind. "Without being a distinctively Christian poet, his Avarm sympathy with the life of the German people gives him a genuine interest in the Christian religion. The same may be said of Kiickert's highly finished poems, which transplanted the fragrant floAvers of oriental sensuousness and contemplatiA'eness into the garden of German i^oetr^-. A more decided Christian consecration of poetic genius is seen in the noble and beautiful lyrics of Emanuel Geibel, died 1884, the greatest and most Christian of the secular poets of the present. Of those ordinarily ranked as sacred poets may be named Knapp, Coring, Spitta, Garve, Vict. Strauss, etc., Avho for the most part contributed their sacred songs to Ivnapp's "■ Cliridoterpe''' (1833-1853). A later publication of eq vial merit, called the " Neite Christoterpe,''' has been edited since 1880 by Kogel, Baur, and Frommel. Bat Avith all the Christian dejjth and spirituality, freshness and Avarmth, Avhich Ave meet with in the productions of these Chi'istian poets, none of them
1 Baur, "Beligious Life in Germany." London, 1872, pp. 177-196.
1G4 CHURCH HISTORY OF NIXETEENTH CENTURY.
1ms been able to rise to the noble simplicity, power, popular force, and fitting them for church use, objectivity "which are jn'esent iu the old evangelical church hymns. In this respect thej' all bear too con- spicuously- the signature of their age, with its subjective tone and tho noise and turmoil of present conflicts. Of all modern poets, Kiickert alone approaches in his advent hymn the measure and spirit of the old church song. — In the department of novels and romance there has been sho-svn an almost invariable hostility toward Christianity, reli- gion being either entirely avoided or held up to contempt by liaving as its representatives, simjiletons, hypocrites, or knaves.
7. In France, Chateaubriand in his "Genie du Christianisme'^ l)ro- nounces an eloquent eulogy on the half-pagan Christianity of the Middle Ages. In another work he makes the representatives of heathenism in the age of Constantine act like Homeric heroes, and those of Clu'istianity speak "like theologians of the age of Bossuet."' Lamartine may be described as a Christian romancist. Victor Hugo, Balzac, George Sand, Sue, Dumas, etc., influenced by the Revolution, developed an antichristian tendency ; while naked natui'alism, photo- graphic realism in depicting thelowest side of Parisian life, especially adultery and prostitution, is represented by Flaubert, Daudet, De Cioncourt, Zola, etc.^In Italy, the amiable Manzoni gave noble ex- pression to Christian feeling in his " Inni SacriP and in his masterty romance ^'- Promentii S2J0si " ; and the famous jxiet Silvio Pellico, in his •'■La viia Prifjioni,"' affords a noble example of the sustaining power of true religion during ten years' rigorous imjjrisonment in an Aus- trian dungeon. The most gifted of modern Italian poets, Giacomo Leopardi, sank into despairing pessimism, which expressed itself in the domain of religion in biting satire and savage iron}'. Among the poets of the present who, with glowdng patriotism, not only yearned for the deliverance and unity of Italy, but also lived to see these accomplished, and have since given exj)ression, though from different political and religious standpoints, to the desire for the reconciliation of the free united kingdom with the irreconcilable church, the most distinguished are Aleardi, Carducci, Imbriani, (iuercini, Cavalotti. — In Spain, Caecilia Bohl von Faber, although the daughter of a German father, and educated in German}-, introduced, under the name Fernan Caballero, the modern romance in a thoroiighly national Spanish style, and in a purely moral and catholic Christian fipirit. In the Flemish Provinces, Hendrik Conscience, the able novelist, has described Flemish village life; in a spirit fully in sympathj- with Christianity. — England had in Lord B3'rou a. poet of the first rank, who more than any other poet had experience iu himself of the con- vulsions and contradictions of his age. In powerful arid impressive tones he s<-'tt> forth the unreconciled disharmonies of nature and of
§ 174. NINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE. IC)
human lit'f. IneiiraVile pain, dfspair. weariupss of lite, ami hativd of mankind, without hope, yea without desire for reconciliation, enthu- siastic admiration of the ancient world, passionate love of libertj- and titanic pride in human might mingle with scenes of grumbling, miser}-, and profligacy. On the other hand, the rich and mostly solid English novel literatvu-e is prevailingly inspired by a Christian spirit. 8. Popular Education.— While the poetic national literature for the most part found entrance only among the cultured and adult circles, this age, almost as fond of writing as of reading, produced an enormous quantity of books for the people and for children. But only a few succeeded in catching the proper tone for the masses and the youth, and still fewer supplied their readers with what was genuinely pious. Pestalozzi's ^'Lienhard unci Gertrud,"' Hebel's "Schatz- kcistlein^^ and Tschokke's " Goldmacherdorf,''' respected at least the Christian feeling of the people, although they did not strengthen or foster it. But, on the other hand, in recent 3-ears a number of writers have appeared, thoroughly popular, and at the same time thoroughly (Christian, who, as popular poets and novelists, have become apostles of Christian views, morals, and customs to the people. The most distinguished of these are Jeremiah Gotthelf (Albert Bitzius, died lHr)4), whose " Kate the Grandmother " was translated in the Sundaij Mayazine for 1865, Von Horn, Carl Stober, Wildenhahn, Nathusius, Froimnel, Weitbi'echt, etc. In the Catholic church Albanus Stoltz, died 1883, developed a wonderful power of popular composition, which, however, he subsequently put at the service of a fanatical nltramontanism, and so sacrificed much of its nobility and worth. From the enormous mass of children's books only extremely few attain their aim. In the front i-ank stands the brilliant patriarch of Chris- tian tale writing, Yon Schubert, died 1860. After him are Barth, the author of " Poor Hemy," Stober, and the Swiss S]jyri, and the Catholic (-hristian Schmid, author of the '• Easter Eggs."— The Public Schools, especially under Dinter (died 1831), member of the consistory and schoolboard of IvOnigsberg, were for a long time nurseries of the tame, flat, and self-satisfied rationalism of tYie aiicien regime; but since 1830, and more particularly in consequence of the violent agitations of the seminary director Diesterweg, who died in 1866, put to silence in 1817, but still for his A\-ork in connexion with education alwa3-s highly respected, many of the teachers took a higher flight in the naturalistic-democratic direction. By word and pen Diesterweg carried on a propaganda in favour of a free and liberal education for the people. His disciples, wanting his earnest Christian spirit, carried out recklessly his radical tendencies, and now the Christian faith has no more persistent foes than the teachers of the public schools. In A.u. 1870. a Teachers' Association in Vienna gave a vote of 6.000 in
16G CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
favour of radicalism. At a Hamburg meeting in a.d. 1872 of 5,100 teachers, progress Avas slicnvu by individuals raising tlieir voices in defence of Christianity, which, however, were generally drowned in shrieks and hisses. A Teachers' Evangelical Association held its ninth assemblj^ at Hamburg in a.d. 1881 with 1,500 members. Christian opinions are now ably represented in schools, educational journals, and literature. A burning question at present is whether the national school should be preferred to the denominational school. Liberals in church and state saj^ it should ; conservatives say it should not ; while both parties think their vicAvs supported by the experience of the past. The Prussian minister of education, Falk, a.d. 1872-1879, firmly in- sisted upon the development of the national system, but his successors Von Puttkamer and Von Ciossler reverted to the denominational S3^stem. The German Evangelical School Congress of Hamburg in October, 1882, demanded that both elementary and secondary schools sliould have a confessional character,
9. Art. — The intellectual quickening called forth Avith the opening of the neAV century imparted new spirit and life to the cu.ltivation of the arts. "VVinckelmann, died a.d. 1768, had ojaened the way to an understanding of pagan classical art, and romanticism awakened appreciation of and enthusiasm for medieeA'al Christian art. The greatest masters of Architecture Avere Schinckel, Ivlenze, and HeidelofF. The foundation stone of the final j)art of the Cologne cathedral was laid by a Protestant king, Frederick William IV., in a.d. 1842, and tlie Avork Avas finished b^' a Protestant builder in a.d. 1880. Statuary- had three great masters, Avho gave expression to profound Christian ideas in bronze and marble, the Italian Canova, the German Dan- necker, and greatest of all, the Dane TliorAvaldsen, Avhose Christ and the Apostles and other Avorks form a main attraction to visitors in Copenhagen. Three younger German masters of the art, Avho haA'e heired their fame, are Eauch, Eietschl, and Drake.— In Painting too a new era noAv began. A groujD of gay German artists in Rome, Avith Overbeck at their head, formed a Society in a.d. 1813, and mostly became perA'erts to Eomanism, Peter Cornelius, the ablest of the school, himself born a Catholic, ansAverod his friends' request to place Luther in a picture of tlie last judgment, in hell : " Yes, but Avith the Bible in his hands and the devils trembling before him " ; and in a subsequent picture of the judgment, he ga\'e the German reformer his place among the saints in heaven. His pupil, Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld is Avell knoAvn by his " Bibel in Blldern.''^ LudAvig Eichter, the Albert Diirer of the nineteenth century and creator of the modern Avoodcut, has filled German houses Avith his artistic and poetic creations, Avhicli breathe of Ciod, nature, and the family fireside. The Frenchman, GustaA'c Dore of Strassburc". lias also illustrated the
§ 174. XINETEENTH CENTURY CULTURE. 167
Bilile in a manner wortli}^ of ranking alongside of S(3luiorr, tliough a eharacteristieally French striving for effect is ever3^vliere disceni- ible.— Painted Glass (§ 104, 14) for chnrcli -windows had during the eigliteenth centui-y passed almost wholly out of use, but again in the nineteenth came into favour, and was made at Dresden, Nuremberg, and Munich. The most eminent artist in this department was Ainmiller of Munich, specimens of whose workmanship are to be seen in all parts of tlio world.
10. Music and the Drama. — In Vienna the three great masters of musical composition, Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, produced in the department of sacred music some of their noblest works, Mendelssolui, in his St. Paul and Elijah and in his Psalms, sought to reproduce the power and truth of the simple word of God. An early death prevented him giving expression to his ideal of Christ in music. The Hungarian virtu.oso Liszt sacrifices sacred calmness and dignity to theatrical effect. His son-in-law, Richard Wagner, inspired b}^ Schopenhauer's philo- sophy, a richly endowed poet and composer, proclaimed hy his followers as the Messiah of the music of the future, going back to mediaeval legend, has i^roduced a f/«««i-Christian musical drama, in which the gospel of pessimism takes the place of the gospel of the grace of God.— Quite different is the Passion Play of the Bavarian village Oberam- mergau, -w^hich is a reproduction of the mediaeval mysteries (§ 115, 12). It originated in a vow made in 1633 on the occasion of a plague which visited the place, and is repeated every ten j'ears on the Sundays fi'om the end of May to the middle of Seiotember. The history of the Saviour's passion is here represented with interludes from Messianic Old Testament passages explained by a chorus like that of the classical tragedy, Avith appropriate scenery, drapery, and musical accompani- ment. In the presence of an immense concourse of strangers for whose accommodation a large amphitheatre was been built, almost all the villagers, men, women, and children, take part in the perform- ance and show rare artistic power. The text of the drama for the most ]3art agrees with the gospel narrative, only occasionally inter- spersed with legend, and quite free from ultramontane hagiology and mariolatry. The performance of a.d. 1850, and still more that of a.d. 1880, attracted crowds of pilgrims and tourists to the quiet and IV mote vallej\ An independent exhibition, falling little behind the original in the artistic character of its composition and production, was given, in 1883, on the Sundays of July and August in the Tyrolese village of Brixlegg, and was visited hy similar crowds.
168 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
§ 175, Intercourse and Negotiations between the Churches.
Protestants coiild recognise, as Catholics could not, ele- ments of truth and beauty in the creed of their opponents. When a peaceful and conciliatory spix'it was shown Ly individual Catholic clergymen, it was the occasion of suspicion and persecution on the part of the old Romish party. Schemes of union were entertained by the Old Catholics (§ 190), and negotiations were entered on by the Greek Orthodox church, on the one hand, and the Roman Catholic and Anglican churches, on the other, but in both cases without any practical result. On the union negotia- tions between the different Protestant sects, see § 178 ; and on the Prusso- Anglican bishopric of .lerusalem, see § 184, 8. Of the numerous conversions from Protestantism to Catholicism and from Catholicism to Protestantism, we cnn here mention only siich as have excited public interest in some special wa}'.
1. Eomanizing Tendencies among Protestants. — Xot only in England, ^^•here an important high-church party embraced a more than half- Catholic Puseyism (§ 202, 2), but' even in Protestairt Germany a Romanizing ciirrent set in on many sides. A taste for the romantic, artistic, historical (§ 174, 5, 9, 4), as well as feudalist-aristocratic ami hyper-Lutheran ecclesiastical tendencies led the way in this direction. Many sought rest in the bosom of the church " where alone salva- tion is found,"' while others, too deejjly rooted in (>vangelical truth, bewailed the loss of "noble and venerable" institutions in the wor- ship, life, and constitution of the church, but were unable to accept the various unevangelical accretions which made void the doctrine of justification hy faith alone. This Avas the jjosition of Lohe of Neuen- dettelsaTi, in point of doctrine a strict Lutheran, who published a selection of Catholic legends as patterns of self-denial for his deacon- esses, wished to restore anointing of the sick, etc. Some Protestant pastors expressed warm sympathy with the pope during his mis- fortunes in A.D. 1860, and approved of the continuance of the papacy and the pope's temporal dominion. A conference of Catholics (Count Stolberg, Dr. Michelis, etc.) and Protestants (Leo, Bindewald, etc.) at Krfurt in a.d. 1800, on tlie basis of a connnon recoii'nition of the moral
§ 175. INTERCOUESE AND NEGOTIATIONS. 169
advantages of the papac}", sought to bring about a iminn of the chui'ches. Still more remarkable is the stor}- told by the Old Catholic, professor Friedrich. Just before the opening of the Vatican Council, certain evangelical pastors of Saxony wrote letters to Bishop Martin of Padex'born, which Friedrich himself read, iirging that at the council l)ermission should bo given to priests to marry and to give the cup in the communion to the lait}% and promising that in that case they themselves and many like-minded pastors would join the Romish church. That the letters were written and received is unquestion- able ; but it is doubtful whether folly and imbecility or a wish to lioax and mystify, directed the pen. The Avriter or writers, as the examination before the consistory of the locality proved, are not to be sought among the pastors whose names are ai^pended. How far the Protestant ultra-conservative reactionary party goes with the \iltramontanes and how far it would aid the overthrow and under- mining of the Protestant state and evangelical church, is shown bj' the conduct of the Privy Councillor and Chief Justice Ludwig von (lerlach (§ 176, 1), who, in 1872, in the Prussian House of Eepre- sputatives, took his place among the ultramontane party of the centre, hostile to the empire and friendh' to the Poles, and in his pamphlet '' Kaifwr mid PajM'''' of 1872 described the new German empire as an incarnate antichrist. Also the Lutheran Guelphs of Hanover arc zealous supporters of all the demands of the centre in the Prussian parliament and in the German Reichstag.
2. The Attitude of Catholicism toward Protestantism.— Everj- Catholic bishop has still on assuming office to take the oath, Hcereticos pro 2Msse 2^ersequar. The Jesuits, restored in a.d. 1814, soon pervaded every section with their intolerant spirit. The huge lie that Pro- testantism is in matters of State as well as of church essentialh' revolutionary, while Catholicism is the bulwark of the State against revolution and democracy', was affii-med with such aiidacity that even Pi'otestant statesmen believed it. The Roman Jesuit Perrone (§ 191, U) taught the Catholic youth in a controversial Italian catechism that " they should feel a creeping horror come over them at the mere mention of the word Protestantism, more even than when a murderous attack was made upon them, for Protestantism and its defenders are in the religious and moral world just the same as the plague and ])lague-stricken are in the physical world, and in all lands Protestants are the scum of all that is vile and immoral," etc. In a pastoral of A.n. IS-'j."), Von Ketteler, Bishop of Mainz, compared the Germans, who b}' the Reformation rent the unity of the clmrch, to th^ Jews Avho crucified the Messiah. Romish prelates have vied with one another in their abuse of Protestants and Protestantism. In a.d. 1881, Leo XIIL speaking of the spread of Russian nihilism, charged Protestant
170 CHrncH history of nineteenth century.
missionaries -with spreading the dominion of tlie prince of darkness. Prof. Hohoff of Paderborn, in his " Hist. Studies on Protestantism and Socialism," Paderb., 1881, reiterated the accusation : '• Y'es, it is so, Protestantism has begotten atheism, materialism, scepticism, nihilism. The Reformation was the murderer of all science, the greatest foe of culture and learning, and the falsifier of all histor3'. . . . Melanchthon's Loci may be styled the most unscientific production in the domain of dogmatics. . . . Y"es, the Reformation has proved a prime source of superstition, a step backward in the history of civilization. . . . The Catholic church has been the champion of conscience, reason, and freedom. . . . No one is thoroughly capable of judging historical facts withoiit pi-ejudice as the believing Catholic Christian." — But while the vast majority of Catholic Avriters thus abuse Protestantism, others like Seltmann of Eberswald seek to win over to the ranks of the Romish church those Avho can be befooled hy fair speeches. The '•Protestant" correspondents in Seltmann's periodical write under the cloak of anonymity. — In Spain the Reformation was long attribi;ted to the Augustinians, who were jealous of the Dominicans as the only dispensers of indulgences, and to Luther's desire to marr}^ ; but the poetNuiiez de Area in his '• Vision de Fray Martin,'^ attributed it to the corruption of the church and papacy of its time, and regarded with sympathy the spiritual struggles of the reformer. Though as a good Catholic he concludes his poem with the ban of the church against Luther, he j-et describes him as a just and well-deserving man.
3. Romish Controversy.— In the beginning of a.u. 1872 the "Wal- densian Professor Sciarelli published as a challenge the thesis that the Apostle Peter never set foot in Rome, and Pius IX. with childlike simplicity gave his consent to a public disputation, which came off at Rome on 9th and 10th February. Three Protestant chamj^ions, with Sciarelli at their head, were confronted by three Catholics, headed by Fabiani, before 125 auditors admitted by ticket. Both sides claimed the victory ; but the shorthand reports were more Avidely read tlirough Italy than could be agreeable to the papal court.
4. Roman Catholic Union Schemes.— While American Protestant missionaries strove zealously for the conversion of the schismatical Eastern Churches, Rome with equal diligence but little success endeavoured to win over these and the orthodox Greeks to her own communion. There was great joy over the conversion of the Bulgarians to Romanism in a.d. 1860. Taking advantage of a national move- ment for the restoration of a jiatriarchate independent of Constanti- nople (§ 207, 3), some French Jesuits succeeded in persuading a small nvunber of malcontents to agree to a union with Rome. In 18(J1 the poiio consecrated an old Bulgarian priest, Jos. Sokolski, archbishop
§ 17.5. TNTEECOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS. 171
of the united Bulgarian cliurcli. Yevy soon, however, he and almost all his followers returned to their allegiance to the Greek Orthodox church. Leo XIII. in his encijdical of a.d. 1880, by giving conspicuous honour to Cyiil and Methodius, and uttering kind sentiments about the Christian church in the East, and conferring high rank on digni- taries of the Eastern church, seeks to smooth the way for a union of the two great churches.
5. Greek Orthodox Union Schemes- — In a.d. 1867 the Archbishop of Canterbury addresi^ed a letter to the Patriarch of Constantinople and the whole Eastern church, to open the way to a common understanding and union of the churches, sending a modern Greek translation of the Book of Common Prayer, and asking their assistance at the consecra- tion of an Anglican church at Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius granted this request, and answered the letter in a friendly manner, passing over the Anglican's warnings against superstitious additions to the doctrine, e.g. mariolatry, but characterizing all the contrary doctrines of the Thirty -nine Articles as " very modern." At the same time vigorous measures were being taken with a similar object by members of the Eussian and of the Anglican churches. In 1870 Professor Overbeck of Halle undertook to act as intermediary in these negotiations. Ho had in 1865 published, in answer to the papal encyclical with syllabus of December 8th, 1864 (§ 185, 2), a tract with the motto Ex oriente lux, in which he placed the claims of the Orthodox eastern church before the Roman Catholic as well as Protestant. On the opening of the Vatican Council in 1869 he advocated in a pamphlet the breaking up of the papal church and the formation of Catholic national churches. In North America Professor Bjerring, of the Catholic seminary for priests at Baltimore, took the same position. In March, 1871, he went to St. Petersburg, was there ordained as an Orthodox priest, and on his return to New York instituted a Sunday service in the English language according to the Greek rite. Of any further advance in this direction of luiion nothing is known.
6. Old Catholic Union Schemes. — Dollinger (§ 191, 5) in a.u. 1871 was hopeful of a union not only with th(> Greek, but also ^\-ith the Anglican church, and similar hopes were entertained in England and Russia, and distinguished representatives of both communions took part in the Old Catholic congresses (§ 190, 1). On the invitation of Dollinger, as president of the committee commissioned by the Freiburg Con- gress of A.D. 1874 to tx-eat about union with the Anglican church, forty friends of union from Germany, England, Denmark, France, Russia, Greece, and America met in conference at Bonn. After a lively debate the cleft between East and West was bridged over by a compromise treating the fdioquc as an unnecessary addition to the Nicene sj-mbol, and asserting that, however desirable a mutual under-
172 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
standing on doctrinal questions might be, existing differences in constitution, discipline, and worship presented no bar to union. The Catholics presented the Anglicans with fourteen theses essential to union, in which the anti-Protestant doctrines were for the most pait toned down, but transubstantiation distinctly asserted. Subsequent conferences never got beyond these preliminaries. It was, however, agreed that, in case of necessity, Anglicans and Old Catholics might dispens? the supper to one another.
7. Conversions — The most famous converts of*the century were Hurter, the biographer of Innocent III., the Countess Ida von Hahn- Hahn, writer of religious romances, fifroerer, the church historian, the I'adical Hegelian Daumer, the historian of ante-tridentine theo- logy Hugo Lammer, and Dr. Ed. Preuss, who had written against the immaculate conception and for criminal conduct had to flee the country. In a.d. 1844 Carl Haas, a Protestant pastor, went over to the Romish church, but the two new dogmas of Pius IX. led him to study the works of Luther. He now returned to the Lutheran church, vindicating his procedure in a treatise entitled, " To Rome, and from Rome back again to Wittenberg, 1881." Also the Mecklenburg- Lutheran pastor. Dr. A. Hager, who, after his conversion, had nndei- taken the editorship of an ultramontane newspaper in Breslau in 1873, was obliged in a few years to resign the appointment. His retui'u to the evangelical church was being talked about, when he suddenly died in 1888, after having received the last sacrament in the Catholic! church. The climax of abuse of Luther and the Luthei'an church was reached by the Hanoverian Evers, who had gone over in 1880 ; in all his scandalous and vituperative writings he describes himself on the title page as "formerly Lutheran pastor." His mvid-throwing, however, was carried so far, that even the ultramontane Kiihu Volkszeitung was constrained to advise him to write more decently.
8. The Mortara affair of a.d. 1858 attracted special attention. The eight-year old son of the Jew Mortara of Bologna was violently taken from his parents to Rome because his Christian nurse said that two years before, during a dangerous illness, she had baptized him. The church answered the entreaties of the parents and tlie xmiversal outcry by saying that the sacrament had an indelible character, ami that the pope could not change the law. Again in a.u. 1864, the ten- year old Jewish boy, Joseph Coen, apprentice weaver in Rome, was decoyed by a priest to his cloister and thei-e persuaded to receive baptism. In vain his mother, the Jewish community', and even the French ambassador, urged his restoration ; and when, in a.d. 1870, the temporal power of the pope was overthrown, the lad, now sixteen years old, had himself become siich a fanatical Catholic that he refused to have anything to do with his mother as an unbeliever.
§ 175. INTEECOURSE AND NEGOTIATIONS. 173
n. Ill the Tyrol in a.d. 1830 there were numerous conversions from Catholicism to Protestantism (§ 198, 1). A Catholic priest in Baden, Ilenhofer of Miihlhausen, influenced bj' the Avritings of Sailer and Boos, went over to the Lutheran church in a.d. 1823, and continued down to his death in a.d. 1862 a vigorous opponent of the prevailing rationalism. Count Leopold von Seldnitzsky, formerly Prince-Bisho}> of Breslau, felt obliged in 1840, in consequence of the conscientious objections he had to perform his official duties toward church and state during the ecclesiastico-political controversies of 1830 (§ 193, 1), to resign his appointments. He was subsequently led in a.d. 1863, through reading the Scriptures and Luther's works, after a sore strug- gle, to join the evangelical Church. He devoted all his means to the founding of Protestant educational institutions at Berlin and Breslau. He died in a.d. 1871, in his eighty-fourth year. The proclamation by the Vatican of the dogma of infallibility drove many pious and ear- nest Catholics out of the Eomish commmiion. Of these Carl von Eicht- hofen. Canon of Breslau, engages our special interest. Son of a pious Lutheran mother, and trained up under Gossner's mild spiritual direc- tion (§ 187, 2), his gentle and deeply religious nature had attached itself to the Eoman Catholic church of his father only under the illusion that the Eomish doctrine of justification was not wholly irrecon- cilable with the evangelical doctrine. He at first submitted to but soon renounced the Vatican decree; -was excommunicated by Archbishop Forster, voluntarily resigned his emoluments •, joined the Old Catholics - in A.D. 1873, and the separated Old Lutherans in a.d. 1875. In the following year he died a painful death from the explosion of a petroleum lamp. — Upon the whole Eome has made most converts in America and England : and she has suHered losses more or less severe in France, Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Bohemia.
10. The Luther Centenary, A.D. 1883.— The celebration of Luther's birth was caii'ied out with great enthusiasm throughout all Germany, more than a thousand tracts on Luther and the Eeformation were published, statues were erected, special services were held in all Lutheran churches, high schools, and universities, and brilliant demonstrations were made at Jena, Worms, Wittenberg, and Eisleben. There were founded at Kiel a Luther-house, at Worms and at the Wartburg Luther libraries, in Leipzig and Berlin Luther churches. At Eisleben a bronze statue of the reformer was solemnly unveiled representing liis tearing the papal bull with his right hand and pressing the Bible to his heart with his left. Another noble monument Avas raised by the munificence of the emperor by the issuing during this year of the first volume of pastor Knaake's critical edition of Luther's works. A "German Luther Institute" aims at assisting children of the poorer clergy and teachers, and a '-Eeforma-
174 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
tion Histoiy Society"' has undertaken the. task of issuing popular tracts on the pei-sons, events and principles of that and the succeeding period based upon original documents. Protestants of all lands, -with the exception of the English high-church party, contributed liberally ; the Americans had a copy of the great Luther statue of the "Worms monument (§ 178, 1) made and erected in Washington. Even in Italj- the liberal press eulogised Luther, while the ultramontanes loaded his memory with unmeasured calumny and reproach. The threatened counter-demonstrations of German ultramontanes fell quite flat and harmless. The Zwingli Centenary of January 1st, a.d. 1884, was cele- brated with enthusiasm throughout the Eeformed church, especialh- in Switzerland. On the other hand, the celebration of the five- hundredth annivei-sary of Wiclif's death on December 31st, 1884, created comparativelj- little interest.
II. — Protestantism in General. ^
§ 176. Rationalism and Pietism.
At the beginning of the century rationalism was generally prevalent, but philosophy and literature soon weakened its foundations, and the war of independence moved the hearts of the people toward the faith of their fathers. Pietism entered the lists against rationalism, and the Halle contro- versy of a.d. 1830 marked the crisis of the struggle. The rationalists were compelled to make appeal to the people by popular agitators. During a.d. 1840 they managed to found several " free churches," which, however, had for the most part but a short and unprosperous existence. They were more successful in a.d. 18G0 with the Frotestantenverein as the instrument of their propaganda (§ 180).
1. The old nationalism was attacked by tin,' disciples of Hogel and Schelling, and in a.d. 1884 Kuhr of "VVeimar found Hasc of Jcma as keen an opponent as any pietist or orthodox controversialist. That recognised leader of the old rationalists had coolly attempted to sub- stitute a new and rational form of doctrine, worship, and constitution for the antiquated formularies of the Reformation, and drew down
* Kahnis, •' Internal Histoiy of German Protr'stantism since the Middle of Last Centurj'.'" Edin., 1S5U.
§ 176. RATIONALISM AND PIETISM. 175
iTpon himself the rebuke even of those who s3-mpathize(l ^\■ith him in his doctrinal views.— In a.d. 1817 Clans Harms of Kiel, on the occasion of the Reformation centenar}', opened an attack npon those Avho had fallen aAvay from the faith of their fathers, by the publication of ninetj'-five new theses, recalling attention to Luther"s almost for- gotten doctrines. In a.d. 1827 Aug. Halm in an academical discussion at Leipzig maintained that the rationalists should be expelled from the church, and Hengstenberg started his Evangelische Kirchen- zeitunrj. The jurist Yon Gerlach in a.d. 1830 charged Gesenius and AVegscheider of Halle with open contempt of Christian truth, and called for State interference. In all parts of Germany, amid the opposition of scientific theologians and the scorn of iDliilosophers, pietism made way against rationalism, so that even men of culture regarded it as a reproach to be reckoned among the rationalists. Unbelief, hoAvever, Avas Avidespread among the masses. When Sintenis, preacher in Magdeburg in a.d. 1840, declared the worship of Christ superstitious, and Avas reprimanded by the consistory, his neighboui-s, the pastors Uhlich and Ivonig, founded the society of the " Friends of Light,'' Avhose assembly at Kothen Avas attended by thousands of clergj-men and laj-men. In one of these assemblies in A.D. 1814, Wislicenus of Halle, by starting the question. Whether the Scriptures or the reason is to be regarded as the standard of faith ? shattered the illusion that rationalism still occupied the platform of the church and Scripture. The left Aving of the school of Schleier- macher took offence at the severe measmes demanded by Hengstenberg and his party, and in 1846 issued in Berlin a manifesto with eighty- eight signati;res against the paper pope of antiquated Reformation confessions and the inqu.isitorial proceedings of the Kuxhenzeilunri party, as inimical to all liberty of faith and conscience, Avishing only to maintain firm hold of the truth that Jesus Clu'ist is yesterdaA-. to-day, and for eA^er the one and only ground of salvation. Tin- Friends of Light, combining Avith the German Catholics and tin- Young Hegelians, fomided Free churches at Halle, Konigsberg, ar.d many other places. Their services and sermons void of religion, in Avhich the Bible, the living Christ, and latterly eA'en the pei-sonal God, had no place, but only the naked Avorship of humanit}', had temporar\- vitality imparted them hy tlie reA-olutionary movements of a.d. isls. This gaA'e the State an excuse, long Avished for, to interfere, and soon scarcely a trace of their churches Avas to be found.
2. Pietism had not been Avholly driven out of the evangelical chi;rch during the period of ecclesiastical impoverishment, but, purified from many eccentric excesses, and seeking refuge and support for the most part by attaching itself to the community of the MoraA'ian Brethren, it had, CA'en in Wiirttcmberg, established itself independently and in
170 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
an ossontially theosophical-chiliastic spirit. Thfrc ton a kind of siiiritnalism -vvas introduced b}- the physician and poet Justin Kerner of Weinsberg, and the philosopher Eschenniaj-er of Tubingen, -with spirit revelations from above and below. Amid the I'eligious inove- mmits of the beginning of the century Pietism gained a decided advantage. It took the form of a protest against the rationalism jirevailing among the clerg}-. The earnest and devout sought si^iritual nourishment at conventicles and so-called Stundcn addressed by laj-men, mostly of the Avorking class, well acquainted with Scripture and works in practical divinity. Persecuted by the irreligious mob, the rationalist clergy, and sometimes by the authorities, they by- and-liy secured representatives among the younger clergy and in the uuivei"sity chaii-s, and carried on vigorous missions at home and abroad. This pietism was distinctly evangelical and Protestant. It did not oppose but endeavoured simply to restore the orthodoxy of the church confession. Yet it had man^^ of the characteristics of the earlier i)ietism: over-estimation of the invisible to the dis- ])aragement of the visible church, of sanctification over justification, a tendency to chiliasm, etc. — Of no less importance in awakening the religious life throughout Germany, and especiall}- in Switzerland, Avas the missionary activity of Madame il(! Kriklener of liiga. This ladj-, after many years of a gay life, forsook the world, and began in A.n. 181-t her travels through Europi>, ])reaching rejientance, proclaiming the gospel message in the prisons, the foolishness of the cross to the A\-ise of this world, and to kings and ])rinces the majesty of Christ as Iving of kings. Wherever she went she made careless sinners trendsle, and drew around her crowds of the anxious and spiritually burdeiKxl of every soi't and station. Honoured by some as a saint, pi'ophetess, and wonder-worker, ridiculed In' others as a fool, persecuted as a dangerous fanatic or deceiver, driven from one country to another, she died in the Crimea in a.d. IS'Jl.i
H. The Konigsberg Religious Movement, A.D. 1835-1843.— The pious theosophist, J. II. Schunherr of Konigsberg, starting from the two ))rimitive substances, fire and water, developed a sj-stem of theosophy in which he solved the riddles of the theogony and cosmogon}-, of sin and redemption, and harmonized revelation with the results of natiu-al science. At first influenced by these vicAvs, but from a.u. 1819 ex- ]>ressly dissenting from them, J. W. Ebel, pastor in the same 0113', gathered roimd him a group of earnest Christian men and women, Counts Kanitz and Finkenstfin and their wives, ^'on Tijipi'lskircli, afterwards jireacher to the embassy at Rome, the theological jjroft'ssor
1 Hagenbach, " History of Chm-ch in Eight^'cnth and Nineteenth Centuries," vol. ii., pp. '113-110.
§ 17G. NATIONALISM AND PIETISM. 177
H. Olshauseu, the pastor Dr. Diostel, and the medical doctor Sachs. After some years Olshausen and Tippelskirch withdrew, and dissen- sions arose wliich gave opjiortunity to the ecclesiastical authorities to order an investigation. Ebel was charged with founding a sect in wliich impure practices were encouraged. He was suspended in a.d. 1835, and at the instigation of the consistory a criminal process was entered upon against him. Dr. Sachs, who had been expelled from the society, was the chief and almost only witness, but vague rumours were rife about mystic rites and midnight orgies. Ebel and Diestel were deposed in a.d. 1839, and pronounced incapable of holding any ])ublic office ; and as a sect founder Ebel was sentenced to imprison- ment in the common jail. On appeal to the court of Berlin, the (.leposition was confirmed, but all the rest of the sentence was quashed, and the parties were pronounced capable of holding any public offices except those of a spiritual kind. Two reasons were alleged for depo- sition : (1) That Ebel, though not from the pulpit or in the public instruction of the young, yet in private religious teaching, had incul- cated his theosophical views. (2) That both of them as married men had given exjiression to opinions injurious to the i^uritj- of married life. In general they were charged with spreading a doctrine which was in conflict with the principles of Christianitj", and making such use of sexual relations as was fitted to awaken evil thoughts in the minds of hearers. Ebel was pronounced guiltless of sectarianism. — Kanitz wrote a book in defence, which represents Ebel and Diestel as martyrs to their pure Christian piety in an age hostile to every pietistic movement ; whereas Von Wegnern, followed by Hepworth Dixon, in a romancing and frivolous style, lightly give currency to evil surmis- ings without offering any solid basis of proof. The whole affair still waits for a patient and unprejudiced investigtation.'
4. The Bender Controversy — At the Luther centenar}' festival of a.d. 1883, Prof. Bender of Bonn declared that in the confessional writings of the Reformation evangelical truth had been obscured by Romish scholasticism, introduced by subtle jurists and sophistical theologians. This called forth vigon^us opposition, in Avhich two of his colleagues, 38 theological students, 59 members of the Rhenish sjaiod, took part. General-Superintendent Baur. also, in a new year's address, inveighed against Bender's statements. On the other hand, 170 students of Bonn, 32 of these theological students, gave a grand ovation to the " brave vindicator of academic freedom." The Rhenish and Westphalian synods bewailed the otfence given by Bender's address, and protested
* Mombert, " Faith Victorious, being an Account of the Life, Labour, and Times of Dr. J. W. Ebel, 1714-1861, compiled from authentic Jources." London, 1882. Dixon, " Spiritual Wives.'' London, 18G8.
VOL. III. 12
178 CHURCH HTSTOTtY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
against its hard and unfounded attacks uj^on the confessional writings. At the Westphalian sjniod, Prof. Mangold said that the faculty was as much ofiendcd at the address as the church had been, hut that its author, ■when he found how his words had created such feeling, sought in every way to repress tlie agitation, and had intended only to pass a scientific judgment on ecclesiastical and theological developments.
§ 177. EVANGELICxVL UnIOX AND LUTHERAN SEPARATION,
From A.D. 1817 Prussia favoured and furthered the scheme for union between the two evangelical churches, and over this question a split arose in the camp of pietism. On the one hand were the confessionalists, determined to maintain what was distinctive in their symbols, and on the other, those who wotild sacrifice almost an^^thing for union. For the most part both churches cordially seconded the efforts of the royal head of the church ; onl}^ in Silesia did a Lutheran minorit}' refuse to give way, which still main- tains a separate existence.
1. The Evangelical Union, — Circumstances favoured this movement. Both in the Lutheran and in the Eeformed church comparatively little stress was laid upon distinctive confessional doctrines, and jjietism and rationalism, for different reasons, had taught the relative imimportance of dogma. And so a general accord was given to the king's proposal, at the Reformation centenary of a.d. 1817, to fortify the Protestant church by means of a Union of Lutherans and Cal- vinists. The new Book of Common Order of a.d. 1822, in the pre- paration of which the pious king, Frederick William III., had hinisi'lf taken part, was indeed condemned by many as too high-churcli, even Catholicizing in its tendency. A revised edition in a.d. 1829, giving a Avider choice of formularies, was legally authorized, and the union became an accomplished fact. There now existed in Prussia an evangelical national church with a common government and liturgy, embracing within it three different sections : a Lutheran, and a Keformed, which held to their distinctive doctrines, though not regarding these as a cause of separation, and a real imion party, whicli completely abandoned the points of difference. But more and more the union became identified Avith doctrinal indifferentism and slight- ing of all church symbols, and those in whom the cliurch feeling still prevailed were driven into opposition to the imiou (§ 193). The example of Prussia in seeking the union of the two churches Avas
§ 177. TNION AND SEPARATION. 179
followed by Xassan, Badon, Ehenish Bavaria. Anlialt. and to some extent in Hpss'- (§!^ 3 91, VM).
2. The Lutheran Separation.— Though the union denied that there was any passing over from one chiux-h to another, it practically declared the distinctive doctrines to be unessential, and so assumed the standpoint of the Eeformed church. Steffens (§ 174, 3), the friend of Scheibel of Breslau, Avho had been deprived of his pro- fessorship in A.D. 1832 for his determined oppo^sition to the union- and died in exile in 1843 (§ 195, 2), headed a reaction in favour of old Lutheranism. Several suspended clergj-nien in Silesia held a synod at Breslau in a.d. 1835, to organize a Lutheran party, but the civil authorities bore so heavily upon them that most of them emigi-ated to America and Australia. Guericke of Halle, secretly ordained pastor, ministered in his own house to a small company of Lutheran separatists, was deprived of his professorship in a.d. 1835, and only restored in a.u. 1840, after he had apologised l\>r his conduct. From a.d. 1838, the laws were modified by Frederick William IV., imprisoned clergymen were liberated in a.d. 1840, and a Lutheran church of Prussia independent of the national church was constituted by a general synod at Breslau in a.d. 1841, which received recognition b}^ roj-al favour in a.d. 1845. The affairs are administered by a supreme council resident in Breslau, presided over by the distin- guished jurist Huschke. Other separations Avere prevented by timely concessions on the i)art of the national church. The separatists claim 50,000 members, with fifty pastors and seven superintendents.
3. The Separation within the Separation. — Differences arose among the separate Lutherans, especially over the question of the visible church. The majority, headed by Huschke, defined the visible rhiu'ch as an organism of various offices and orders embracing even imbelievers, Avhich is to be sifted by the divine judgment. To it belongs the office of church government, which is a jus diciitiivi, and only in respect of outward form a jus htDimnuni. The opposition understood visibility of the preaching of i\w Avoi'd and dispensation of sacraments, and held that unbelievers belonged as little to the visible as to the invisible church. The distribution of orders and offices is a merely human arrangement without divine appointment, individual members are quite independent of one another, the cluu-ch rei-ognises no other government than that of the unfettered preaching of the word, and each pastor rules in his own congregation. Diedrich of Jabel and seven other pastors complained of the papistical assump- tions of the supreme council, and at a general synod in a.d. 1800 refused to recognise the authority of that council, or of a majority of synods, and in a.d. 1801, along with their congregations, they for- mailv seceded and constituted the so called Immanuel Synod.
180 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
§ 178. Evangelical Confederation.
Tlic union liad on]y added a third denomination to tlio two previously existing, and was the means of even further dissension and separation. Thus the interests of Protes- tantism were endangered in presence of the unbelief within her own borders and the machinations of the ultramontane Catholics without. An attempt was therefore made in A.u. 1840 to combine the scattered Protestant forces, b}^ means of confederation, for common work and conflict with common foes.
1. The Gustavus Adolphus Society. — In a.d. 18B2, on tlio two Inindredth anniversary of tlic birtli of the saviour of German Protestantism, on the motion of SnjDerintendent Grossman of Leipzig, a society was formed for the help of needj^ Protestant churches, especially in Catholic districts. At first almost confined to Saxonj^, it soon spread over German3', till only Bavaria down to a.d. 1849, and Austria down to A.D. 1860, were exchided by civil enactment from its operations. The masses w^ere attracted by the simplicity of its basis, which was simply opposition to Catholicism, and tlie demagogical Friends of Light soon found suprejnacy in its councils. Because of oj)position to the expul- sion of Kiap]i, in a.d. 184G, as an apostate from the princij)le of })rotes- tantism, great numbers with chiu'ch leanings seceded, and attem})ted to form a rival union in a.d. 1847. After recovering from the convulsions of a.d. 1848, under the wise guidance of Zimmermann of Darmstadt, the society regained a solid position. In a.d. 188;J it had 1,779 branches, besides 892 women's and 11 students' unions, and a revenue for the year of aljout £ 13,000. — The same feeling led to the erection of th(i Luther Monument at "Worms. This work of genius, designed by Riet- sche], and completed after his death in a.d. 18,")7 by his pupils, and inaugurated on 25111 June, a.d. 18()8, represents all the chief e])isodes in tlie Peformation history. It was erected at a cost of more than £20,000, raised by voluntary contributions, and the scheme proved .so popular that there was a surplus of £2,000, which was devoted to the founding of bursaries for theological students.
2. The Eisenach Conference. — The other German states borrowed the idea of confed'-ration from Prussia and Wurttemberg. It took practical shape in the meetings of deputies at Eisenach, begun in a.d. 1852, and held for a time yearly, and aftcrwanls every second year, to consult together on matters of worship, discipline and constitution. Beyond ventilating such questions the conference yielded no result.
§ 178. EVANGELICAL CONFEDERATIOX. 181
3. The Evangelical Alliance. — An attempt -was made in England, on the motion of Dr. Chalmers (§202, 7), at a yet more comprehensive confederation of all Protestant chnrclies of all lands against the encroachments of jDopery and pnseyism (§ 202, 2). After several ])reliminary meetings the first session of the Evangelical Alliance -was held in London in August, a.d. 1S4G. Its object was the fraternizing of all evangelical Christians on the basis of agreement upon the fundamental truths of salvation, the vindication and spread of this connnon faith, and contention for liberty of conscience and religious toleration. Nine articles were laid down as terms of membership: ]i;'lief in the inspiration of Scripture, in the Trinity, in the divinity of Clu'ist, in original sin, in justification by faith alone, in the obligatoriness of the two sacraments, in the resurrection of the body, iu the last judgment, and in the eternal blessedness of tlie righteous- and the eternal condenniation of the ungodl}'. It could thus include Baptists, but not Quakers. In a.d. 1855 it held its ninth meeting at the great Paris Industrial Exhibition as a sort of church ex- liibition, the representatives of different churches reporting on the condition of their several denominations. The tenth meeting, of a.d. 1857, was held in Berlin. The council of the Alliance, presided over by Sir Culling Eardley, presented an address to King Frederick William IV., in which it was said that they aimed a blow not only against the sadduceanism, but also against the pharisaism of the Cerman evangelical church. The confessional Luthei-ans, who had opposed the Alliance, regarded this latter reference as directed against them. The king, however, received the deputation most graciously, Avhile declaring that he entertained the brightest hopes for the future of the church, and urged cordial brotherly love among Christians. Though many distinguished confessionalists were members of the Alliance none of them put in an appearance. The members of the •■ Protestantenverein " (§ 180) would not take part because the articles were too orthodox. On the other hand, numerous representatives of pietism, luiionism, Melanchthonianism, as Avell as Baptists, Methodists, and Moravians, cro-\vded in from all parts, and were supported by the leading liberals in church and state. While there was endless talk about the oneness and differences of the children of God, about the universal j^riesthood, about the superiority of the present meeting over the oecumenical councils of the ancient church, about the want of spiritual life in the churches, even where the theology of the confessions was professed, etc., with denunciations of half -Catholic Lutheranism and its sacramentarianisni and officialism, and many a true and admirable statement of what the church's needs are. Merle d'Aubigno introduced discord by the hearty welcome which he accorded his friend Bunsen, which was intensified by the passionate maimer in
182 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
wliich Ki'unimacluT reported upon it. The gracious i-oj-al reception of the members of the Alliance, at which Krummacher gave expr'ession to his excited feelings in the words, "Your Majesty, we Avould all fall not at your feet, but on your neck ! " was described by his brother, Dr. F. "W. Krummacher, as a sensible prelude to the solemn scenes of the last judgment. .Sir Culling Eardley declared, " There is no moi'e the North Sea.'' Lord Shaftesbury said in London that Avith the Berlin Assembly a new era had begun in the world's history ; and others who had ri'turneil from it extolled it as a second Pentecost.
4. The Evangelical Church Alliance.— After the revolution of a.d, 1848, the most distinguished theologians, clergymen and laymen well- afFected toward the church, sought to bring alwut a confederation of the Lutheran, Reformed, United, and Moravian churches. "When they held their second assembly at Wittenberg, a.d. 1849, many of the strict Lutherans had already withdrawn, especially those of Silesia. The Lutlieran congress, held shortly befoi-e at Leijizig under the presidency of Harless, had pronounced the confederation unsatisfactory. The political reaction in favour of the clnu'ch had also taken away the occasion for such a confederation. Yet the yearJy delilxn-ations of this coimcil on matters of practical church life did good service. An attempt made at the Berlin meeting of a.d. 1853 to have the Augiistana adopted as the church confession awakened keen opposition. At the Stuttgart meeting of a.d. 1857 thero? were violent debates on foreign missions and evangelical Catholicity betAveen the rejn-esentatives of confessional Lutheranism who had hitherto maintained connection with the confederation and the unionist majority. The Lutlierans now withdrew. The attempt made at the Berlin October assembly of A.D. 1871, amid the excitement produced by the glorious issue of the Franco-Prussian "War and the fovmding of the new German empire with a Protestant prince, to draw into the confederation confessional Lutherans and adherents of the '' Protestantenverein," in order to form a grand German Protestant national church, miscarried, and a meeting of th(^ confederation in the old style met again at Halle in the following A-ear. But it was uoav found that its day was past.
5. The Evangelical League. — At a meeting of tin.' Prussian evangeli- cal middl«! party in autumn, 188fi, certain membei-s, '-constrained by grief at the surrender of arms by the Prussian government in the Kullnrkmnpf,"' gathered together for private conference, and resolved in defence of the threatened interests of the evangelical church to found an " Evangelical League " out of the various theological and ecclesiastical parties. Prominent party leaders on both sides being admitted, a number of moderate rejn-esentatives of all schools were invited to a consultative gathering at Erfurt. On January 15th, 1887, a call to join the memberbhip of the league was issued. It was
§ 179. LUTHERANISM, MELANCHTHOXIANISM, ETC. 183
signed bj' clistinguislied men of the middle part}', such as Be3-schlag, Riehm of Halle, etc., moderate representatives of confessionalism and the positive union, such as Kawerau of Kiel, Fricke of Leipzig, Witte, Warneck, etc., and liberal theologians like Lipsius and Nippold of Jena, etc. ; and it soon received the addition of about 250 names. It recognised Jesus Christ, as the only begotten Son of God, as the only means of salvation, and professed the fimdamental doctrines of the Reformation. It represented the task of the League as twofold : on the one hand the defending at all points the interests of the evangelical chui-ch against the advancing pretensions of Eome, and, on the other hand, the strengthening of the communal consciousness of the Chris- tian evangelical church against the cramping influence of party, as well as in opposition to indifTerentism and materialism. For the accomplishment of this task the league organized itself under the con- trol of a central board Avith subordinate branches over all Germany, each having a committee for representing its interests in the press, and Avith annual general assemblies of all the members for common con- sultation and promulgating of decrees.
§ 179. LUTHERANISM, MeLAXCHTHOXIAXISM, AXD
Calvixism.
Widespread as the favourable reception of the Prussian union had been, there were still a number of Lutheran states in which the Reformed church had scarcely any adherents, e.g. Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, Mecklenburg, and Schleswig- Holstein ; and the same might be said of the Baltic Pro- vinces and of the three Scandinavian kingdoms. Also in Austria, France, and Russia the two denominations kept apart ; and in Poland, the union of a.d. 1828 was dissolved in A.D. 1849 (§ 206, 3). The Lutheran confessional reaction in Prussia afforded stimulus to those who had thus stood apart. In all lands, amid the conflict with rationalism, the confessional spirit both of Lutheran and Reformed became more and more pronounced.
1. Luther anism within the Union. — After the Prussian State church had been undermined by the revolution of a.d. 1848, an unsuccessful attempt was made to have a jniro Lutheran confessional church set up in its place. At the October assembly' in Berlin, in a.d. 1871, an
18-1 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
ineffectual effoi-t \\-as made by the United Lutherans to co-opei-ate with those who were unionists on principle. During the agitation caused by the May Laws (§ 197, 5) and the Sydow proceedings (§ 180, 4 ), the first general evangelical Lutheran conference was held in August, A.D. 1873, in Berlin. It assumed a moderate conciliatory tone toward the union, pronounced the efforts of the " Protestantenverein " (§ 180) an apostasy from the fundamental doctrines of the gospel, bewailed the issuing of the May Laws, protested against their principles, but acknowledged the duty of obedience, and concluded an address to the emperor with a petition on behalf of a democratic church constitution and civil marriage. — The literary organs of the United Lutherans are the '■'^ Evang. KirchenzeUutuj^''' edited by Hengstenberg, and now by Zockler, and the " AUrjem. konaerv. Monafbschri/f fiir die cJiribtl. Deutschl .,^'' by Von Nathusius.
2. Lutheranism outside of the Union. — A genei-al Lutheran conference was held under the presidency of Harless, in July, a.d. 1868, at which the sentiments of Kliefoth, denouncing a union under a common church government without agreement about doctrine and sacraments, met Avith almost universal acceptance. At the Leipzig gathering of A.u, 1870, Luthardt urged the duty of firmly maintaining doctrinal unity in the Lutheran church. The assembly of the following year agreed to recognise the emjieror as head of the church only in so far as he did not interfere with the dispensation of word and sacrament, admitted the legality of a merely civil marriage but maintained that despisers of the ecclesiastical ordinance should be subjected to discipline, that commimion fellowship is to be allowed neither to Reformed nor unionists if fixed residents, but to unionists faithful to the confession if temporarj^ residents, even Avithout expressly joining their party; and also with reference to the October assembly of the previous 3-ear the union of the two Protestant churches of Germany under a mixed system of church government was condemned. The third general conference of Ntiremburg, in a.d. 1879, dealt with the questions : Whether the church should be under State control or free ? "Whether the schools should be denominational or not ? and in both cases decided in favour of the latter alternative. — Its literary organ is Luthardt's " AUr/. Lidh. Kirchcnzeitunrj.''''
3. Melancthonianism and Calvinism. — The Reformed church of Ger- man^'' has maintained a jiosition midway betAVcen Lutheranism and Calvinism A'ery similar to the later Melanchthonianism. Ebrard indeed sought to prove that strict ]">redestinarianism Avas only an excrescence of the Reformed system, Avhereas ScliAveitzer, purely in the interests of science (§ 182, 9, 16), has shoAvn that it is its all-conditioning nerve and centre, to which it owes its wonderful vitality, force, and consis- tency. Heppe of Marburg Avcnt stiJl further than I"]brard in his
§ 179. LUTHEEANISM, MELANCHTHONIANISM, ETC. 185
attempt to combine Luthei'auism and Calvinism in a Melancthonian church (§ 182, 16), by seeking to prove that the original evangelical c'hnrch of Germany was Melanchthonian, that after Luther's death the fanatics, more Lutheran than Luther, founded the so-called Lutheran church and completed it by issuing the Formula of Con- cord ; that the Calvinizing of the Palatinate, Hesse, Brandenburg, Anhalt was only a reaction against hyper- or pseudo-Lutheranism, and that the restoration of the original Melanchthonianism, and the modern union movement w^ere only the completion of that restora- tion. Schenkel's earlier contributions to Reformation history moved in a similar direction. Ebrard also, in a.u. 1851, founded a " Ref. Kirclienzeitunrj.'^ — But even the genuine strict Calvinism had zealous adherents during this centuiy, not only in Scotland (§ 202, 7) and the Xetherlands (§ 200, 2), but also in Germany, especially in the Wupperthal. G. D. Krummacher, from a.u. 181(3 pastor in Elberfekl, and his nephew F. W. Krummacher of Barmen, were long its chief representatives. When Prussia sought in a.d. 1835 to force the imion in the Wupperthal, and threatened the opposing Reformed jiastors with deposition, the I'evolt here j)roved almost as serious as that of the Lutherans in Silesia. The pastors, with the majority of their people agreed at last to the union only in so far as it was in accordance Avith the Reformed mode of worship. But a portion, embracing their most important members, stood apart and refused all conciliation. The royal Toleration Act of a.d. 1847 allowed them to form an independent congregation at Elberfekl with Dr. Kohl- briigge as their minister. This divine, formerly Lutheran pastor at An^sterdam, was driven out owing to a contest with a rationalising colleague, and afterwards, through study of Calvin's writings, be- came an ardent Calvinist. This body, under the name of the Dutch Reformed church, constitv;ted the one anti-unionist, strictly Calvin- istic denoanination in Prussia. — The De Cock movement (§ 200, 2), out of which in a.d. 1830 the separate " Chr. Ref. Church of Holland " sjH-ang, spread over the German frontiers and led to the founding there of the " Old Ref. Church of East Frisia and Bentheim,"' Avhich has now nine congregations and seven pastors. — At the meeting of the Evangelical Alliance in New York in a.d. 1873, the Presbyterians ))resent resolved to convoke an oecumenical Reformed council. A conference in London in a.d. 1875 brought to maturity the idea of a Pan-Presbyterian assembly. The council is to meet every third year ; the members recognise the supreme authority of the Old and New Testament in matters of faith and practice, and accept the consensus of all the Reformed confessions. The first "General Pres- byterian Council " met in Edinburgh from 3rd to 10th Jul}-, a.d. 1877, about 300* delegates being present. The proceedings consisted in
186 CHUrxCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
unmeasured glorification of presbyterianism '• dra-\vn from the wliole Scripture, from the seventy elders of the Pentateuch to the twenty-four elders of the Apocalypse." The second council met at Philadelphia in A.D. 1880, and boasted that it represented forty millions of Presb3'- terians. It appointed a committee to draw up a consensus of the confessions of all Reformed churches. The third council of 305 mem- bers met at Belfast in a.d. 1884, and after a long debate declined, by a great majority, to adopt a strictly formulated consensus of doctrine as uncalled for and undesirable, and by the reception of the Cum- berland Presbyterians they even surrendered the Westminster Con- fession (§ 155, 1) as the only s3axLbol qualifying for membership of the council. The fourth council met in London in a.d. 1887. — An oecumenical Methodist congress "was held in London in a.d. 1881, attended by 400 delegates.
§ 180. The " Protestantenvereix."
Rationalists of all descriptions, adherents of Banr's school, as well as disciples of Hegel and Schleiermacher of the left wing, kept far off from every evangelical union. But the common negation of the tendencies characterizing the evan- gelical confederations and the common endeavour after a free, democratic, non-confessional organization of the Ger- man Protestant church, awakened in them a sense of the need of combination and co-operation. While in North Ger- many this feeling was powerfully expressed from a.d. 1854, in the able literary organ the " Protest. KircJicnzcitung,'^ in South Germany, with Heidelberg as a centre and Dean Zittel as chief agitator, local ^^ Pwtcstantcnvercine'^ were formed, which combined in a united organization in the Assembly of Fi^ankfort, a.d. 1863. After long debates the northern and southern societies were joined in one. In June, A.D. 1865, the first general Protestant assembly was held at Eisenach, and the nature, motive, and end of the associations were defined. To these assemblies convened from year to year members of the society crowded from all parts of Germany in order to encourage one another to persevere in spreading their views by word and pen, and to
§ 180. THE " PROTESTANTENVEBEIN."' 187
take steps towards the founding of branch associations for disseminating among the people a Christianity which re- nounces the miraculous and sets aside the doctrines of the church.
1. The Protestant Assembly.— The fii'st general German Protestant Assembh', composed of 400 clerical and lay notabilities, met at Eisen- ach in A.D. 1865, under the presidencj^ of the jm-ist Bluntschli of Heidelberg and the chief coui't preacher Schwarz of Gotha. A pecu- liar lustre was given to the meeting by the presence of Eothe of Heidelberg. Of special importance Avas Schwarzs address on '• The Limits of Doctrinal Freedom in Protestantism," which he sought not in the confession, not in the authority of the letter of Scripture, not even in certain so called fundamental articles, but in the one religious moral truth of Clu-istianity, the gospel of love and the divine father- hood as Clu-ist taught it, expounded it in his life and sealed it by his death. In Berlin, Osnabriick, and Leipzig, the churches were refused for services according to the Protcslantcnverein. In a.d. 1868 fifteen heads of families in Heidelberg petitioned the ecclesiastical council to grant them the use of one of the city churches where a believing clergyman might conduct service in the old orthodox fashion. This request was refused by fifty votes against four. Baumgarten denounced this intolerance, and declared that unless repudiated by the imion it would be a most serious siain upon its reputation. In a.d. 1877 he publicly withdreAV from the societj-.
2. The " Protestantenverein " Propaganda. — The views of the union were spread l\y po]nilar lectures and articles in newsj^apers and maga- zines. The " Frotcstaiden-Bihel;' edited by Schmidt and Holtzendorlf in A.D. 1872, of which an English translation has been published, giving the results of Xew Testament criticism, " laid the axe at the root of the dogmatics and confessionalism," and proved that " we are still Chris- tians though our conception of Christianity diverges in many jjoints from that of the second centmy, and we j)roclaim a Clu-istianitj- without miracles and in accordance with the modern theory of the universe."' The success of such efforts to spread the broad theology has been greatly over-estimated. Enthusiastic partisans of the union claimed to have the whole evangelical Avorld at their back, while Holtzendorlf boasted that they had all thoughtful Germans A\-ith them.
3. Sufferings Endured. — In many instances members of the society were disciplined, suspended and deposed. In October, a.d. 1880, Beesenmeyer of Mainiheim, on his appointment to Osnabriick, was examined by the consistorj-. He confessed an economic but not an
188 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
essential Trinity, the sinlessness and perfect godliness but not the divinity of Christ, the atoning power of Christ's death but not the doctrine of vicarious satisfaction. He was pronounced unorthodox, and so unfit to hold office. Schroeder, a pastor in the consistory of Wiesbaden in a.d. 1871, on his refusing to use the Apostles' Creed at baptism and confirmation, Avas deposed, but on appealing to the minister of worship. Dr. Falk, he was restored in the beginning of A.I). 1874. The Stettin consistory declined to ordain Dr. Hanne on account of his work " Z)cr idecde ti. d. (jeschichtl. Chrixlus,'^ and an appeal to the superior court and another to the king were vinsuccessful. Several members of the church x^rotested against the call of Dr. Ziegler to Liegnitz in a.d. 1873, on account of his trial discourse and a previous lecture on the authority of the Bible, and the consistory refused to sustain the call. The Supreme Church Council, however, when appealed to, declared itself satisfied with Ziegler's promise to take tmconditionally the ordination vow, which requires acceptance of the fundamental doctrines of the gospel and not the peculiar tlieo-^ logical system of the symbols.
4. The conflicts in Berlin were specially sharp. In a.d. 1872 the aged pastor of the so called New Church, Dr. Sydow, delivered a lec- ture on the miraculous birth of Jesus, in which he declared that he was the legitimate son of Joseph and Mary. His colleague, Dr. Lisco, son of the well-known commentator, spoke of legendary elements in the Apostles' Creed, and denied its authority. Lisco was rejni- manded and cautioned by the consistory. Sydow was deposed. He appealed, together with twenty-six clergymen of the province of Brandenburg, and twelve Berlin pastors, to the Supreme Church Coun- cil. The Jena theologians also presented a largely signed petition to Dr. Falk against the procedure of the consistory; while the AVeimar and Wvirttemberg clergy sent a petition in favour of maintaining strict discipline. The superior court reversed the sentence, on the ground that the lecture was not given in the exercise of his office, and severely reprimanded Sydow for giving serious ofTence by its public delivery. At a Berlin provincial synod in a.d. 1877, an attack was made by pastor Ehode on creed subscription. Hossbach, preaching in a vacant church, declared that he repudiated the confessional doctrine of the divinity of Christ, regarded the life of Jesus in the gospels as a congeries of myths, etc. Some loudly protested and others as eagerly pressed for his settlement. The consistory accepted Rhode's retrac- tation and annulled Hossbach's call. The Supreme Church Council supported the consistory, and issued a strict order to its president to siiftbr no departure from the confession. The congregation next chose Dr. Schramm, a pronounced adherent of the same party, who was also rejected. In a.d. 1870 Werner, biograi)her of Boniface, a more mode-
§ 181. DISPUTES ABOUT FORMS OF WOESHIP. 189
rate disciple of the same school, holding- a sort of Arian position, re- ceived the appointment. When, in a.d. 1880, the Supreme Church Council demanded of Werner a clear statement of his belief regarding Scripture, the divinity and resurrection of Christ, and the Apostles Creed, and on receiving his replj^ summoned him to a conference at Berlin, he resigned his office.
5. The conflicts in Schleswig Holstein also caused considerable excitement. Pastor Kiihl of Oldensworth liad jjublished an article at Easter, a.d, 1880, entitled, " The Lord is Risen indeed," in which the resurrection was made purely spiritual. He was charged with vio- lating his ordination vow, sectaries pointed to his paper as jjroof of their theory that the state church was the apocalyptic Babylon, and petitions from 115 ministers and 2,500 laymen were presented against liim to the consistory of Kiel. The consistory exhorted Kiihl to be more careful and his opponents to be niore patient. In the same year, however, he published a paper in Avhich he denied that the order of nature was set aside by miracles. He Avas now advised to give up writing and confine himself to his pastoral work. A pamphlet by Decker on "The Old Faith and the New," was answered by liihr, and his mode of dealing with the ordination vow was of such a kind as to lead pastor Paulsen to speak of it as a " chloroforming of his conscience."
§ 181. Disputes about Forms of Worship.
During the eighteentli century the services of the evan- gelical clnuTh had become thoroughly corrupted and dis- ordered under the influence of the "Illumination,"' and were quite incapable of answering to the Christian needs and ecclesiastical tastes of the nineteenth century. Whenever there was a revival in favour of the faith of their fathers, a movement was made in the direction of improved forms of worship. The Rationalists and Friends of Light, however, prevented progress except in a few states. Even the official Eisenach Conference did no more than prepare the way and indicate how action might afterwards be taken.
1. The Hymnbook.— Traces of the vandalism of the Illumination were to be seen in all the hymnbooks. The noble poet Ernst Moritz Arndt was the first to enter the lists as a restorer ; and various at- tempts were made by Von Eisner, Von Eaumer, Bunsen, Stier, Knapp,
190 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Daniel, Harms, etc., to make collections of sacred songs answerable to tlie revived Christian sentiment of the peojale. These came to be largely nsed, not in the pnblic services, but in family worship, and prepared the -way for official revisal of the books for church use. The Eisenach Conference of a.d. 1853 resolved to issue 150 classical hymns with the old melodies as an appendix to the old collection and a pattern for further work. Only with difficiilty was the resolution passed to make a.d. 1750 the terminus ad quern in the choice of pieces, Wackernagel insisted on a strict adherence to the original text and retired from the committee when this was not agreed to. Only in a few states has the Eisenach collection been introduced ; e.ij. in Bavaria, ^vhere it has been incorporated in its new hymnbook.
2, Tlie Book of Chorales.— In a.d. 1814, Frederick William III. of Prussia sought to secure greater prominence to the litui'gy in the church service. In a.d. 1817, Natorp of Miinster expressed himself strongly as to the need of restoring the chorale to its former position, and he was followed by the jurist Thibaut, whose work on " The Purity of Tone " has been translated into English. The reform of the chorale was carried out most vigorously in Wiirttemberg, but it was in Bavaria that the old chorale in its primitive simplicity was most Avidely introdviced.
3. The Liturgy. — Under the reign of the Illuminists the liturgy had suffered even more than the hymns. The Lutherans now went back to the old Reformation models, and liturgical services, with musical performances, became popular in Berlin. Conferences held at Dres- den did much for liturgical i-eform, and the able works and collections of Schoberlein supplied abundant materials for the practical carrying out of the movement.
•J. The Holy Scriptures. — The Calw Bible in its fifth edition adopted somewhat advanced views on inspiration, the canon and authenticity, Avhile maintaining generally the standpoint of the most reverent and pious stvidents of scrijDture. Bunsen's commentary assumed a " me- diating " position, and the " Protestant Bible ■' on the Ne^v Testa- ment, translated into English, that of the advanced school. Besser's expositions of the New Testament books, of which we have in English those on John's gospel, had an ixnexampled popularity. The Eisenach Conference undertook a revision of Luther's translation of till' Bible. The revised New Testament was published in a.d. 1870, and accepted by some Bible; societies. The much more difficult task of Old Testament revision was entrusted to a committee of distin- guished university theologians, Avhich concluded its labours in a.d. 1881. A " fjroof " Bible was issued in a.d. 1883, and the final cor- rected rendering in a.d. 188G. A whole legion of pamphlets were now issued from all quarters. Some bitterly opposing any change in the
§ 182. PEOTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 191
Luther-text, others severely criticising the work, so that the whole movement seems now at a standstill.^— In England, in May, 1885, the work of revision of the English version of the Bible, vindertaken by order of convocation, Avas completed after fifteen years' labour, and issued jointly by the two universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The revised Xew Testament, prepared four years previously, had been tele- graphed in short sections to America by the representative of the Xew York Herald, so that the complete work appeared there rather earlier than in England. But in the case of the Old Testament revision such freebooting industry was prevented by the strict and careful reserve of all concerned in the work. The revised New Testa- ment had meanwhile never been introduced into the public services ; whether the completed Bible will ever succeed in overcoming this prejudice remains to be seen."
§ 182. Peotestant Theology in Germany.
The real founder of modern Protestant theology, the Origen of the nineteenth century, is Schleiermacher. His influence was so powerful and manysided that it extended not merely to his own school, but also in almost all dii'ections, even to the Catholic church, embracing destructive and constructive tendencies such as appeared before in Origen and Erigena. Alongside of the vulgar rationalism, which still had notable representatives, De Wette founded the new school of historico-critical rationalism, and Neander that of pietistic supernaturalism, which soon overshadowed the two older schools of rational and supra-rational supernaturalism. On the basis of Schelling's and Hegel's philosophy Daub founded the school of speculative theology with an evan- gelical tendency; but after Hegel's death it split into a right
1 Strack, " The Work of Bible Eevision in Germany," in Exj^ositor, third series, vol. ii., pp. 178-187.
- See papers by Driver, Cheyne, Davidson, Kirkpatrick, in Expositor for 1886-1888, on various books in Eevised Old Testament. Westcott. '' Some Lessons of Eevised Version of New Testament," in Expositor, third series, vol. v., pp. 81, 2-11, 453. Jennings and Lowe, " Eevised Version of Old Testament : a Critical Estimate," in Expositor, third series, vol. ii., ijp. 57, etc.
192 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and left wing. As the former could not maintain its posi- tion, its adherents by-and-by went over to other schools ; and the latter, setting aside speculation and dogmatics, applied itself to the critical investigation of the early history of Christianity, and foiinded the school of Baur at Tubingen. Schleiermacher's school also split into a right and left wing. Each of them took the union as its standard ; but the right, which claimed to be the " German " and the " Modern " theology, wished a union under a consensus of the confessions, and sought to effect an accommodation between the old faith and the modern liberalism ; w^hereas the left wished union without a confession, and unconditioned toleration of " free science." This latter tendency, however, secured greater prominence and importance from a.d. 1854, through combina- tion with the representatives of the historico-critical and the younger generation of the Baurian school, from which originated the " free Protestant " theology. On the other hand, under the influence of pietism, there has arisen since A.D. 1830, especially in the universities of Erlangen, Leipzig, Rostock, and Dorpat, a Lutheran confessional school, which seeks to develop a Lutheran system of theology of the type of Gerhard and Bengel. A similar tendency has also shown itself in the Reformed church. The most recent theological school is that founded by Ritschl, resting on a Lutheran basis but regarded by the confessionalists as rather allied to the " free Protestant " theology, on account of its free treat- ment of ^.certain fundamental doctrines of Lutheranism. — Theological contributions from Scandinavia, England, and Holland are largely indebted to German theology.
1. Schleiermacher, A.D. 1768-1834. — Thoroughly grounded in philo- sophy and deeply imbued with the pious feeling of the Moravians among whom he was trained, Schleiermacher began his career in a.u. 1807 as professor and univei'sity preacher at Halle, but, to escape French domination, went in the same year to Berlin, where by speech and writing he sought to arouse German patriotism. There he was appointed preacher in a.d, 1809, and professor in a,d, 1810. and continued
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 193
to hold these offices till his death in a.d. 1834. In a.d. 1799 he puhlished five " JRedeti ilher d. Beligion.'''' In these it was not biblical and still less ecclesiastical Cliristianity which he sought with glowing eloquence to address to the hearts of the German people, but Spinozist pantheism. The fimdamental idea of his life, that God, "the absolute unity," cannot be reached in thought nor grasped by will, but only embraced m feeling as immediate consciousness, and hence that feeling is the proper seat of religion, appears already in his early productions as the centre of his system. In the following year, a.d. 1800, he set forth his ethical theory in five " Monologues " : every man should in his own way represent humanity in a special blending of its elements. The study and translation of Plato, which occupied him now for several years, exercised a powerful influence upon him. He approached more and more towards positive Christianity. In a Christmas Address in a.d. 1803 on the model of Plato's Symposium, he represents Christ as the divine object of all faith. In a.d. 1811 he published his " Short Outline of Theological Study," which has been translated into English, a masterly sketch of theological encyclopaedia. In a.d. 1821 he produced his great masterpiece, " Der Chr. Glatibe,'''' which makes feeling the seat of all religion as immediate consciousness of absolute dependence, perfectly ex^sressed in Jesus Christ, whose life redeems the world. The task of dogmatics is to give scientific expression to tlie Christian conscious- ness as seen the life of the redeemed ; it has not to prove, but only to work out and exhibit in relation to the whole spiritual life what is already present as a fact of experience. Thus dogmatics and philosophy are quite distinct. He proves the evangelical Protestant character of the doctrines thus developed by quotations from the consensus of both confessions. Notwithstanding his protest, many of his contem- poraries still found remnants of Spinozist pantheism. On certain points too, he failed to satisfy the claims of orthodoxy ; e.g. in his Sabellian doctrine of the Trinity, his theory of election, his doctrine of the canon, and his account of the beginning and close of our Lord's life, the birth and the ascension.^
2. The Older Rationalistic Theology. — The older, so-called vulgar rationalism, was characterized by the self-sufficiency with which it rejected all advances from philosophy and theology, science and national literature. The new school of historico-critical rationalism availed itself of every aid in the direction of scientific investigation. The father of the vulgar rationalism of this age was Rohr of Weimar, who exercised his ingenuity in proving how one holding such views
1 " Schleiermacher's Life in Letters," translated by Rowan. London, 1860. Baur, "Religious Life in Germany," London, 1872, pp. 197 ff. Dorner, " History of Protestant Theology," vol. ii., pp. 374-395.
VOL. III. 13
194 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
might still hold office in the church. To this school also belonged Paulus of Heidelberg, described by Marheineke as one who believes he thinks and thinks he believes bnt was incapable of either ; Wegscheider of Halle, who in his " Inditutiones tlieol. Christ, dogmaticcti " repudiates miracles ; Bretschneider of Gotha, who began as a supernatnralist and afterwards went over to extreme rationalism ; and Ammon of Di'esden, who afterwards passed over to rational supernaturalism.
3. The foiuider of Historico-critical Rationalism was De Wette; a contemporary of Schleiermacher in Berlin University, but deprived of office in a.d. 1819 for sending a letter of condolence to the mother of Sands, which was regarded as an apology for his crime. From a.d, 1822 till his death in a.d. 1849 he continued to work unweariedly in Basel. His theological position had its starting point in the philosophy of his friend Fries, which he faithfully adhered to down to the end of his life. His friendship with Schleiermacher had also a powerful influence upon him. He too placed religion essentially in feeling, which, however, he associated much more closely with know- ledge and will. In the church doctrines he recognised an important symbolical expression of religious truths, and so by the out and out rationalist he was all along sneered at as a mystic. But his chief strength lay in the sharp critical treatment which he gave to the biblical canon and the history of the O.T. and N.T. His commentaries on the whole of the N.T. are of permanent value, and contain his latest thoughts, when he had approached most nearly to positive Christianity. His literary career began in a.d. 1806 with a critical examination of the books of Chronicles. He also wrote on the Psalms on Jewish history, on Jewish archaeology, and made a new translation of the Bible. His Introductions to the O.T. and N.T. have been trans- lated into English. — Winer of Leipzig is best known by his "Grammar of New Testament Greek," first published in a.d. 1822, of which several Eno-lish and American translations have appeared, the latest and best that of Dr. Moulton, made in a.d. 1870, from the sixth German edition. He also edited an admirable " Bihl. Meallexicon" and wrote a work on symbolics which has been translated into English under the title " A Comparative View of the Doctrines and Confessions of the Varioiis Communities of Christendom " (Edin., 1873).— Gesenius of Halle, who died a.d. 1842, has won a high reputation by his grammatical and lexicQo'raphical services and as author of a commentary on Isaiah. — Hupfeld of Marburg and Halle, who died a.d. 1866, best known by his work in four vols, on the Psalms, in his critical attitude toward the O.T., belonged to the same party. — Hitzig of Zurich and Heidelberg, who died a.d. 1875, far outstripped all the rest in genius and subtlety of mind and critical acuteness. He wrote commentaries on most of the prophets and critical investigations into the O.T.
§ 18'2. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 105
history. — Ewald of Gottingen, a.d. 1803-1875, whose hand was against every man and every man's hand against him, held the position of recognised dictator in the domain of He'brew grammar, and nttered oracles as an infallible expounder of the biblical books. In his Journal for Biblical Science, he held an annual auto da fe of all the biblico-theological literature of the preceding year ; and, assumiiag a place alongside of Isaiah and Jeremiah, he pronounced in every preface a prophetic burden against the theological, ecclesiastical, or political ill doers of his time. His exegetical writings on the poetical and i^rophetical books of the O.T., his " History of Israel down to the Post- Apostolic Age," and a condensed reproduction of his "Bible Doctrine of God," iinder the title : " Revelation, its Nature and Record " and " Old and New Testament Theology," have all appeared in English translations, and exhibit everywhere traces of brilliant genius and suggestive originality.^
4. Supernaturalism of the older type (§ 171, 8) was now represented by Storr, Keinhard, Planck, KnajDp, and Staudlin. In Wiirttemberg Storr's school maintained its pre-eminence down to a.d. 1830. Neander, Tholuck, and Hengstenberg may be described as the founders and most powerful enunciators of the more recent Pietistic Supernaturalism. Powerfully influenced by Schleiermacher, his col- league in Berlin, Neander, a.d. 1789-1850, exercised an influence such as no other theological teacher had exerted since Luther and Melanch- thon. Adopting Schleiermacher's standpoint, he regarded religion as a matter of feeling : Pectus est qicod theologum facit. By his subjective pectoral theology he became the father of modern scientific pietism, but it incapacitated him from rmderstanding the longing of the age for the restoration of a firm objective basis for the faith. He was adverse to the Hegelian philosophy no less than to confessionalism. Neander was so completely a pectoralist, that even his criticism was dominated by feeling, as seen in his vacillations on questions of N.T, authenticity and historicity. His " Church History," of which we have admirable English translations, was an epoch-making work, and his historical monographs were the result of careful original research.^ — Tholuck. A.D. 1799-1877, from a.d. 1826 professor at Halle, at first devoted to oriental studies, roused to practical interests by Baron von Kottwitz of Berlin, gave himself with all his Avide culture by preaching,
1 Cheyne, " Life and Works of Heinrich Ewald," in Expositor, third series, vol. iv., pp. 241 ff., 361 fi".
^ There are English translations of his "Life of Christ," "First Planting of Christianity," " Antignostikus," "History of Christian Dogmas," " Christian Life in the Early and Middle Ages," all published by Bohn.
196 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
lecturing and conversing to lead his students to Christ. His scientific theology was latitudinarian, but had the warmth and freshness of immediate contact with the living Saviour. His most important works are apologetical and exegetical. In his " Preludes to the History of Rationalism " he gives curious glimpses into the scandalous lives of students in the seventeenth century ; and he afterwards con- fessed that these studies had helped to draw him into close sympathy with confessionalism. While always lax in his views of authenti- city, he came to adopt a very decided position in regard to revela- tion and inspiration. — Hengstenl)erg, a.d. 1802-1869, from a.d. 1826 professor in Berlin, had quite another sort of development. Rendered determined by innumerable controversies, in none of which he abated a single hair's breadth, he looked askance at science as a gift of the Danaides, and set forth in opposition to rationalism and naturalism a system of theology unmodified by all the theories of modern times. Born in the Reformed chiirch and in his understanding of Scripture always more Calvinist than Lutheran, rationalising only upon miracles that seemed to detract from the dignity of God, and in his later years inclined to the Romish doctrine of justification, he may nevertheless claim to be classed among the confessionalists within the union. He deserves the credit of having given a great impulse to O.T. studies and a powerful defence of O.T. books, though often abandoning the position of an apologist for that of an advocate. His " Christology of the Old Testament," in four vols., " Genuineness of the Pentateuch and Daniel," three vols., " Egypt and the Books of Moses," commentaries on Psalms, Ecclesiastes, Ezekiel, the Gospel of John, Revelation, and his " History of the Kingdom of God in the Old Testament," have all been translated into English.
5. The so called Rational Supernaturalism admits the supernatural revelation in holy scripture, and puts reason alongside of it as an equally legitimate source of religious knowledge, and maintains the rationality of the contents of revelation. Its chief representative was Baumgarten-Crusius of Jena. Of a similar tendency, but more influenced by aesthetic culture and refined feeling, and latterly inclining more and more to the standpoint of " free Protestantism," Carl Hase, after seven years' work in Tubingen, opened his Jena career in A.D. 1830, which he closed by resigning his professorship in a.d. 1883, after sixty years' labour in the theological chair. In his " Life of Jesus," first published a.d. 1829, he represents Christ as the ideal man, sinless but not free from error, endowed with the fulness of love and the power of pure humanity, as having truly risen and become the author of a new life in the kingdom of God, of which the very essence is most purely and profoundly expressed in the gospel of the disciple who lay upon the Master's heart. The latest revision
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GEBMANY. 197
of this work, issued in a.d. 1876 under the title " GescMchte Jesu,'' treats the fourth gospel as non- Johnannine in authorship and mythical in its contents, and explains the resurrection by the theory of a swoon or a vision. In his " Hutterus Eedivivus,'''' a.d. 182S, twelfth edition 1883, he seeks to set forth the Lutheran dogmatic as Hutter might have done had he lived in these days. This led to the publication of con- troversial pamphlets in a.d. 1834-1837, which dealt the deathblow to the RatioiiaUsmus Vulgaris. His "Church History," distinguished by its admirable little sketches of leading personalities, was published in A.D. 1834. and the seventh edition of a.d. 1854 has been translated into English.
6. Speculative Theology,— Its founder was Daub, professor at Heidel- bei-g from a.d. 1794 till his death in a.d, 1836. Occupying and writing from the philosophical standpoints of Kant, Fichte, and Schelling successively, he published in a.d. 1816 " Judas Iscariot," an elaborate discussion of the nature of evil, but passed over in a.d. 1833, with his treatise on dogmatics, to the Hegelian position. He exerted great influence as a professor, but his writings proved to most unintelligible. — Marheineke of Berlin in the first edition of his " Dogmatics " occupied the standpoint of Schelling, but in the second set forth Lutheran orthodoxy in accordance with the formulae of the Hegelian system. — After Hegel's death in a.d. 1831 his older pupils Rosenkrantz and Goschel sought to enlist his philosophy in the service of orthodoxy. Eichter was the first to give offence, by his " Doctrine of the Last Things," in which he denounced the doctrine of immortality in the sense of personal existence after death. Strauss, a.d. 1808-1874, repre- sented the " Life of Jesus," in his work of a.d. 1835, as the product of unintentional romancing, and in his " Glaubenslehre " of a.d. 1840, sought to prove that all Christian doctrines are put an end to by modern science, and openly taught pantheism as the residuum of Christianity. Bruno Bauer, after passing from the right to the left Hegelian wing, described the gospels as the product of conscious fraud, and Ludwig Feuerbach, in his " Essence of Christianity," a.d. 1841, set forth in all its nakedness the new gospel of self-adoration. The breach between the two parties in the scliool was now complete. Whatever Bosen- kranz and Schaller from the centre, and Goschel and G abler from the right, did to vindicate the honour of the system, they could not possibly restore the for ever shattered illusion that it was fundamen- tally Christian. Those of the right fell back into the camps of " the German theology " and the Lutheran confessionalism ; while in the latest times the left has no prominent theological representative but Biedermami of Zurich.
7. The Tubingen School, — Strauss was only the advanced skirmisher of a school which was proceeding under an able leader to subject the
198 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
history of early Christianity to a searching examination, Fred. Chr. Baur of Tubingen, a.d. 1792-1860, ah-nost unequalled among his con- temporaries in acuteness, diligence, and learning, a pupil of Schleier- macher and Hegel, devoted himself mainly to historical research about the beginnings of Christianity. In this department he pro- ceeded to reject almost everything that had previously been believed. He denied the genuineness of all the New Testament writings, Avith the exception of Eevelation and the Epistles to the Eomans, Galatians, and Corinthians ; treating the rest as forgeries of the second century, resulting from a bitter struggle between the Petrine and Pauline parties. This scheme was set forth in a rudimentary form in the treatise on " The So-called Pastoral Epistles of the Apostle Paul," A.D. 1835. His works, " Paul, the Apostle," and the " History of the First Three Centiu-ies," have been translated into English. He had as collaborateurs in this Avork, ScliAvegler, Zeller, Hilgenfeld, Volkmar, etc. Eitschl, Avho was at first an adherent of the school, made im- portant concessions to the right, and in the second edition of his great Avork, '•'■Die Entstelnmcj d. alt-katli. Kirche,''^ of a.d. 1857, an- nounced himself as an opponent. Hilgenfeld of Jena, too, luarked out new lines for himself in New Testament Introduction and in the estimate of early church doctrine, modifying in various Avays the positions of Baur. The labours of this school and its opponents have done signal service in the cause of science.
8. Strauss, who had meanAvhile occupied himself Avith the studies of Von Hutten, Eeimarus, and Lessing's " Nathan," feeling that the researches of the Ttibingen school had antiquated his " Life of Jesus," and stimulated by Eenan's " Life of Jesus," Avritten Avith French elegance and vivacity, in Avhich he described Christ as an amiable hero of a Galilgean village story, luadertook in 1864 a semi-jubilee reproduction of his Avork, addressed to " the German people." This Avas followed by a severe controversial pamphlet, " The Half and the Whole," in Avhich he lashed the halting attempts of Schenkel as Avell as the uncompromising conserA^atism of Hengstenberg. He noAV pointed out cases of intentional romancing in the gospel narratives ; the resurrection rests upon subjective visions of Christ's disciples. His " Lectures on Voltaire " appeared in a.d. 1870, and in a.d. 1872 the most radical of all his books, " The Old and the New Faith," which makes Christianity only a modified Judaism, the history of the resur- rection mere " humbug," and the whole gospel story the result of the " hallucinations " of the early Chi-istians. The question Avhether " Ave " are still Christians h(! ansAvers oi:)enly and honourably in the negative. He has also surmounted the standijoint of pantheism. The religion of the nineteenth century is pancosmism, its gospel the results of natural science Avith DarAvin's discoA'eries as its bible, its deA'otional
§ 18'2. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 199
works the national classics, its places of worship the concert rooms, theatres, museums, etc. The most violent attacks on this book came from the Protest aiitenvereiti. Strauss had said, "If the old faith is absurd, then the modernized edition of the '■ Protestantenverein'' and the school of Jena is doubly, trebly so. The old faith only contradicts reason, not itself ; the new contradicts itself at every point, and how can it then be reconciled with reason '? " ^
f). The Mediating Theology. — This tendency originated from the right wing of the school of Schleiermacher, still influenced more or less by the pectoralism of Neander. It adopted in dogmatics a more positive and in criticism a more consei-vative manner. It earnestly sought to promote the interests of the union not merely as a combination for church government, but as a communion under a confessional con- sensus. Its chief theological organs were the " Stiidien juid K7'itiken,''' started in a.d. 1828, edited bj^ Ullmann and Umbreit in Heidelberg, afterwards by Eiehm and IvOstlin in Halle, and the '■^ Jalirhilcher fUr deutuche T/ieologie " of Dorner and Leibner, a.d. 1856-1878. — Although the mediating theology sought to sink all confessional differences, denominational descent was more or less traceable in most of its adherents. Its leading representatives from the Reformed church were : Alexander Schweizer, who most faithfully preserved the critical ten- dency of Sclileiermacher, and, in a style far abler and subtler than any other modern theologian, expounded the Reformed system of doctrine in its rigid logical consistency. In his own sj^stem he gives a scien- tific exposition of the evangelical faith from tlie unionist standpoint, with many pious reflections on Scripture and the confession as well as results of Christian exxaerience, based upon the threefold manifestation of God set forth without miracle in the physical order of the world, in the moral order of the world, and in the historical economy of the kingdom of God. — Sack, one of the oldest and most positive of Schleier- macher's pupils, professor at Bonn, then superintendent at Magdeburg, wrote on apologetics and polemics. Hagenbach of Basel, a.d. 1801-1874, is well-known by his " Theological Encyclopcedia and Methodology," " History of the Eeformation," and " History of the Church in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries," all of -^vhich are translated into English. — John Peter Lange of Bonn, a.d. 1802-1884, a man of genius imaginative, poetic, and speculative, with strictly positive tendencies, widely known by his " Life of Christ " and the commentary on Old and New Testament, edited and contributed to by him. — Dr. Philip
1 Zeller, " David Frederick Strauss, in his Life and Writings." London, 1874. Translations: "Life of Jesus Critically Treated," 1846; " Life of Jestis for the German People," 1865 ; "The Old Faith and the New," 1874 ; " Ulrich von Hutten," 1874.
200 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Schaff may also be named as the transplanter of German theology of the Neander-Tholuck type to the American soil. Born in Switzerland, he accepted a call as professor to the theological seminary of the German Eeformed church at Mercersbiu-g in 1843. He soon fell under suspicion of heresy, but was acquitted by the Synod of NeAv York in 1845. In 1869 he accepted a call to a professorship in the richly endowed Presbyterian Union Theological Seminary of New York. Writing first in German and afterwards in English, his works treat of almost all the branches of theological science, especially in history and exegesis. He is also president of several societies engaged in active Christian work.
10. Among those belonging originally to the Lutheran church were Schleiermacher's successor in Berlin, Twesten, whose dogmatic treatise did not extend beyond the doctrine of God, a faithful adherent of Schleiermacher's right wing on the Lutheran side ; Nitzsch, professor in Bonn a.d. 1822-1847, and afterwards of Berlin till his death in A.D. 1868, best known by his " System of Christian Doctrine," and his Protestant reply to Mohler's '• Symbolism," a profound thinker with a noble Christian personality, and one of the most influential among the consensus theologians. Julius Miiller of Halle, a.d. 1801-1878, if we except his theory of an ante-temporal fall, occupied the common doctrinal platform of the confessional luiionists. His chief work " The Christian Doctrine of Sin," is a masterpiece of profound think- ing and original research. Ullmann, a.d. 1796-1865, professor in Halle and Heidelberg, a noble and peace-loving character, distinguished himself in the domain of history by his monograph on " Gregory Nazianzen," his " Reformers before the Reformation," and most of all by his beautiful apologetical treatise on the " Sinlessness of Jesus." — Isaac Aug. Dorner, a.d. 1809-1884, born and educated in Wiirttemberg, latterly professor in Berlin, aj^plied himself mainly to the elaborating of Christian doctrine, and gave to the world, in his " Doctrine of the Person of Christ," in a.d. 1839, a work of careful liistorical research and theological speculation. The fundamental ideas of his Christology are the theory favoured by the " German " theology generally of the necessity of the incarnation even apart from sin (which Miiller strongly opposed), and the notion of the archetypal Christ, the God-Man, as the collective sum of humanity, in whom " are gathered the patterns of all several individualities." His " System of Christian Doctrine " formed the coi^estone of an almost fifty years' academical career. Christ's virgin birth is admitted as the condition of the essential union in Him of divinity and humanity ; but the incarnation of the Logos extends through the whole earthly life of the Redeemer ; it is first completed in his exaltation by means of his resurrection ; it was therefore an operation of the Logos, as principle of all divine movement, extra
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 201
carnem. His " System of Christian Ethics " was edited after his death by his son. 1— Richard Eothe, a.d. 1799-1867, appointed in a.d. 1823 chap- lain to the Prussian embassy at Eome, where he became intimately acquainted Avith Bunsen. In a.d. 1828 he Avas made ephorus at the preachers' seminary of Wittenberg, and afterwards professor in Bonn and Heidelberg. Eothe was one of the most profound thinkers of the century, equalled by none of his contemporaries in the grasp, depth, and originality of his speculation. Though influenced by Schleier- macher, Neander, and Hegel, he for a long time withdrew like an anchoret from the strife of theologians and philosophers, and took up a position alongside of Oetinger in the chamber of the theosophists. His mental and spiritual constitution had indeed much in common Avith that great mystic. In his first important work, " J)ie Avfdnfje (lev chr. Kirdie^'' he gave expression to the idea that in its perfected form the church becomes merged into the state. The same thought is elaborated in his " Theological Ethics," a Avork which m depth, originality, and conclusiveness of reasoning is almost unapproached, and is full of the most profound Christian vieAA'S in spite of its many heterodoxies. In his later years he took part in the ecclesiastical conflicts in Baden (§ 196, 3) with the Protestantenverem (§ 180, 1), and entered the arena of public ecclesiastical life.'- — Beyschlag of Halle, in his " Christologie d. iV, T.," a.d. 1866, carried out Schleier- macher's idea of Christ as only man, not God and man but the ideal of man, not of tAvo natm-es but only one, the archetypal human, Avhich, hoAvever, as such is divine, because the comjjlete rejiresentation of the diAdne nature in the human. From this standpoint, too, he vindicates the authenticity of John's Gospel, and from Romans ix.-xi. Avorks out a ''Pauline Theodicy." — Hans Lassen Martensen, a.d. 1808- 1884, professor at Copenhagen, Bishop of Zealand and primate of Denmark, AA'ith high speculatiA'e endoAvments and a considerable tincture of theosophical mysticism, has become through his " Chris- tian Dogmatics," " Christian Ethics," in three vols., etc., of a thoroughly Lutheran type, one of the best knoAvn theologians of the century.
11. Among Old Testament exegetes the most distinguished are : Umbreit, a.d. 1795-1860, of Heidelberg, Avho Avrote from the super- naturalist standpoint, influenced by Schleiermacher and Herder, commentaries on Solomon's Avritings and those of the prophets, and on Job ; Bertheau of Gottingen, of Ewald's school, wrote historico- critical and philological commentaries on the historical books ; and
1 Simon, "Isaac AugustDorner,'''' in Preshyterianlieview for October, 1887, pp. 569-616.
- Hothe, " Still Hours," translated by Miss Stoddard, A\dth Intro- ductory Essay on Eothe by Eev. J. Macpherson. London. 1886.
202 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Dillmann, Hengstenberg"s succt'st;i)r in Berlin, specially Jistinguislied for liis knowledge of the Ethiopic language and literatiu-e, has written critical commentaries on the Pentateuch and Job. — Among New Testa- ment exegetes we may mention : Lucke of Gottingen, known by his commentary on John's writings ; Bleek, the able New Testament critic and commentator on the Epistle to the Hebrews ; Meyer, a.d. 1800-1873, most distinguished of all, whose " Critical and Exegetical Commentai-y on the New Testament," begun in a.d. 1832, in Avhich he was aided by Huther, Lunemann, and Dusterdieck, is well-known in its English edition as the most complete exegetical handbook to the NeAv Testa- ment ; Weiss of Kiel and Berlin, author of treatises on the doctrinal systems of Peter and of John, "The Biblical Theology of the New Testament," "Life of Christ," "Introduction to New Testament," revises and rewrites commentaries on Mark, Luke, John, and Romans, in the last edition of the Meyer series. — A laborious student in the domain of New Testament textual criticism was Constant, von Tisclien- dorff of Leipzig, a.d. 1815-1874, who ransacked all the libraries of Europe and the East in the prosecution of his work. The publication of several ancient codices, e.(j. the Cod. Sinaiticus, a present from the Sinaitic monks to the czar on the thousandth anniversary of the Russian empire in a.d. 1862, the Cod. Vaticamts N.T., a new edition of the LXX., the most complete collection of New Testament apocrypha and piseudepigraphs, and finally a whole series of editions of the New Testament (from a.d. 1841-1873 there appeared twenty- four editions, of Avhich the Editio Odava Major of 1872 is the most com^Dlete in critical apparatus), are the rich and ripe fruits of his researches. A second edition, compared throughout with the recen- sions of Tregelles and Westcott and Hort, was published by Von Gebhardt, and a third volmne of Prolegomena was added by C. E. Gregory. As a theologian he attached himself, especially in later years, to the Lutheranism of his Leipzig colleagues, and on questions of criticism and introduction took up a strictly conservative position as seen in his well knoAvn tract, " When were our Gospels written ? "
12. Among the university teachers of his time John Tob. Beck, a.d. 1804-1878, assumed a position all his own. After a pastorate of ten years he began in a.d. 1836 his academical career in Basel, and went in a.d. 1843 to Tubingen, where he opposed to the teaching of Baur's school a ptu-ely biblical and positive theology, with a success that exceeded all expectations. A Wlirttemberger by birth, nature, and training, he quite ignored the history of the church and its dogmas as well as modern criticism, and set forth a system of theology drawn from a theosophical realistic study of the Bible. He took little interest in the excited movements of his age for home and foreign missions, union, confederation, and alliances, in questions about litur-
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 203
gies, constitution, discipline, and confessions, in all whicli lie saw only the form of godliness without the power. Better times could be hoped for onh^ as the result of the immediate interposition of God. His " Pastoral Theology " and " Biblical Psychology " have been trans- lated into English.
13. The Lutheran Confessional Theology.— Sartorius, a.d. 1797-1859, from A.D. 1822 professor in Dorpat, then from a.d. 1835 general super- intendent at Konigsberg, made fresh and vigorous attacks upon rationalism, and supported the union as preserving " the true mean " of Lutheranism. He is best known by his " Doctrine of Divine Love." Eudelbach,— a Dane by birth and finally settled in Copenhagen, occupying the same ground, became a violent opponent of the union. — Guericke of Halle, beginning as a pietist, passed through the union into a rigorous Lutheran, and joined Eudelbach in editing the journal afterwards conducted by Luthardt of Leipzig.— Alongside of these older representatives of Lutheran orthodoxy there arose a second generation which from a.d. 1840 has fallen into several groups. Their divergencies were mainly on two points : (1) On the place and signi- ficance of the clerical order, some viewing it as based on the general priesthood of believers and resting on the call of the congregation for the orderly administration of the means of grace, others regarding it as a divine institution, yet without adopting the Eomanizing and Anglican theory of apostolic succession ; and (2) On the more im- portant question of biblical prophecy, where one party maintained the spiritualistic, Avidely favoured since the time of Jerome, and another party, attaching itself to Crusius and Bengel, insisted upon a realistic interpretation.— At the head of the first group, which maintained the old Protestant theory of church and office and looked askance at chiliastic theories, supporting the old doctrines by all available materials from modern science, stands Harless, a.d. 1806- 1879, professor in Erlangen and Leipzig, the chief ecclesiastical com- missioner in Dresden, and finally at Munich. His theological repu- tation rests upon his " Commentary on Ephesians," a.d. 1835, his " Cluristian Ethics," a.d. 1842. Alongside of him Thomasius of Er- langen, a.d. 1802-1875, wrought in a similar direction.— Keil, a.d. 1807-1888, from a.d. 1833 professor in Dorpat, since a.d. 1858 living retired in Leipzig, 'of all Hengstenberg's students has most faithfully preserved his master's exegetical and critical conservatism. He began in A.D. 1861 in connexion with Delitzsch his " Old Testament Com- mentary " on strictly conservative lines. We have an English translation of that work, and also of his " Introduction to the Old Testament" and his "Old Testament Archseology."— Philippi, a.d. 1809-1882, son of Jewish parents, during his academic career in Dorpat, A.D. 1841-1852, exercised a powerful influence in securing for
204 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
strict Lutheranism a very widespread ascendency among the clergy of Livonia. From a.d. 1852 till his deatk in a.d, 1882 he resided in Rostock. As exegete and dogmatist, he has, like a John Gerhard and Quenstedt of the nineteenth century, reproduced the Lutheran theology of the seventeenth century, unmodified by the developments of modern thought. He is known to English readers by his " Com- mentary on Romans." His chief work is " Kirclil. Gluuhenslehre,'''' in six vols. — Alongside of him, and scarcely less important, stands Theodosius Harnack, who went from Dorpat in a.d. 1853 to Erlangen, but returned to Dorpat in a.d. 1866, and retired in a.d. 1873. He has written upon the worship of the church of the post-apostolic age, on Luther's theology, and practical theology.
14. At the head of the second group, characterized by a decided biblical realism and inclined to a biblical chiliasm, stands Von Hofmann of Erlangen, a.d. 1810-1877, whose " Weissagung imd Erfullung,'''' 1841, represents the very antipodes of Hengstenberg's view of the Old Testament, placing history and prophecy in vital relation to one another, and stud3dng prophecy in its historical setting. In his " Schriftheioeis " we have an entirely new system of doctrine drawn from Scripture, the doctrine of the atonement being set forth in quite a different form from that generally approved, but vindicated by its author against Philippi as " a new way of teaching old truth." In his commentary on the New Testament, he takes up a conservative position on questions of criticism and introdviction.— Franz Delitzsch, in Rostock, a.d. 1846, Erlangen, a.d. 1850, in Leipzig since a.d. 1867, more intimately acquainted with rabbinical literature than any other Chi'istian theologian, became an enthusiastic adherent of Hofmann's position. His theology, however, has a more decidedly theosophical tendency, while his critical attitude is more liberal. He is well known by his " Biblical Psychology," commentary on Psalms, Isaiah, Solomon's writings. Job, Hebrews, and a new commentary on Genesis in which he accepts many of the positions of the advanced school of biblical criticism. — Luthardt of Leipzig in the domain of New Testament exegesis and dogmatics works from the standpoint of Hofmann. His "Commentary on John's Gospel," "Authorship of Fourth Gospel," and " Apologetical Lectures on the Fundamental, Saving and Moral Truths of Christianity," are well known. — Hofmann's conception of Old Testament doctrine is admirably carried out by Oehler, a.d. 1812- 1872, with learning and speculative power, in his " Theology of the Old Testament," and in various important monographs on Old Testa- ment doctrines. — The most important representatives of the third group, which strongly emphasizes the extreme Lutheran theory of the church and office, are Kliefoth of Schwerin, liturgist and biblical commentator; and Vilmar, who opened his academic career at Marburg,
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 205
in 1856, with a controversial programme entitled " The Theology of Facts against the Theology of Rhetoric." Vilmar's lectures, able, though sketchy and incomplete, were published after his death in A.D. 1868 by some of his disciples. To the same school belonged Von Zezschwitz of Erlangen, a.d. 1825-1886, whose " Catechetics " is a treasury of solid learning.
15. Among Lutheran theologians taking little or nothing to do with these controversial questions, Kahnis, a.d. 1814-1888, from a.d. 1850 pi'ofessor at Leipzig, occupied a strict Lutheran confessional stand- point, diverging only in the adoption of a subordinationist doctrine on the person of Christ, a Sabellian theory of the Trinity, and a theory of the Lord's supper in some points diftering from that of the strict Lutherans. His historical sketches are vigorous and lively.— Zockler of Giessen and Greifswald has made important contributions to church history, exegesis, and dogmatics, and especially to the theory and liistory of natural theology. In 1886 he began the publication of a short biblical commentary contributed to by the most distinguished positive theologians, he himself editing the New Testament and Strack the Old Testament. It is to be in twelve vols., and is being translated into English.— Von Oetingen of Dorpat has devoted himself to social problems and moral statistics.— Frank of Erlangen has proved a powerful apologist for old Lutheranism, and in his "System of Christian Evidence" has introduced a new branch of theology, in which the subjective Christian certitude which the believer has with his faith is made the basis of the scientific exposition of the truth set forth in his "System of Christian Truth," a thoughtful and speculative treatise on doctrine, followed by " The System of Christian Morals" as the conclusion of his theological work.— Lutheran theology had also zealous representatives in several distinguished jurists: Gosckel, president of the consistory of Magdeburg, who wrote against Strauss, sought to derive profound Christian teaching from Goethe and Dante, and wrote on the last things, and on man in respect of body, soul, and spirit ; Stahl, a.d. 1802-1861, professor of law at Erlangen and Berlin, leader since a.d. 1849 of the high-church aris- tocratic reactionary party in the Prussian chamber, supported his views by reference to the Scriptiu-e doctrine of the divine origin of magisterial authority.
16. As zealous representatives of Reformed Confessionalism who set aside the dogma of predestination and so show no antagonism to the union, may be named : Heppe, opponent of Vilmar in Marburg, who devoted much of his career as a historian to the undermining of Lutheranism, then wrought upon the histories of provincial churches, of Catholic mysticism and pietism, etc. ; and Ebrard, a.d, 1818-1887, a brilliant believing theologian who combated rationalism and
•206 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETKENTH CENTURY.
Catholicism, professor from a.d. 1847 of Reformed theology at Erlangen, kno^^^l by his " Gospel History : a Comi^endium of Critical Investiga- tions in Supi^ort of the Historical Church of the Four Gospels," his " Apologetics," in 3 vols., " Commentary on Hebrews," etc.
17. The Free Protestant Theology. — This school originated in the left wing of 8clileiermacher"s following, and has as its literary organs, Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift and the Jahrhilcher fur prot, Theologie. — The distinguished statesman, Von Bunsen, a.d. 1791-1860, ambassador at Eome and afterwards at London, at first stood at the head of the revival of the church interests and life ; but in his " Church of the Future," conceived a constitutional idea on a democratic basis, for which he sought support in historical studies on the Ignatian age, etc., and the historical i-efutation of the orthodox Christology and trinitarianism. His elaborate work on "Egypt's Place in the World's History," full of arbitrary criticism, negative and positive, on the chronological and historical data of the Old Testament, seeks to show that, by restoring the Egyptian chronology, we for the first time make the Bible history fit into general history. " The Signs of the Times" comprise glowing philippics against the hierarchical pre- tensions of Papists and even more dangerous Lutherans, insists on Scripture being translated out of the Semitic into the Japhetic mode of speech, to which end he devoted his last great works, " God in History " and his " Bible Commentary," the latter finished after his death by Kamphausen and Holtzmann. — Schenkel, a.d. 1813-1885, professor at Heidelberg from a.d. 1851 till his resignation in a.d. 1884, from the right wing of the mediating school, through unionism and Melanchthonianism advanced to the standpoint of his " Charakterhild Jesu,''^ which strips Clrrist of all supernatural features, yet proclaims him the redeemer of the world, and strives to save his resurrection as a historical and saving truth, and explains his appearances after the resurrection as " real manifestations of the personality living and glorified after death." In later years he sought to draw yet more closely to positive Christianity. Keim of Zurich and Giessen, a.d. 1825-1878, the ablest of all recent historians of the life of Jesus, and with all his radicalism preserving some conservative tendencies, is best known by his " Jesus of Nazareth," in six vols. — Holtzmann of Heidelberg and Strassburg, j)assed from the mediating school over to that of Tiibingen, from which in important points he has now departed. — To the same rank belongs Hausrath of Heidelberg, whose " History of the New Testament Times " is well known. Under the pseudonym of George Taylor he has composed several highly success- ful historical romances.— The organs of this school are Hilgenfeld's Zeitschrift, and since 1875 the Jena " Jahrhilclier fllr ^n'-otest. T/ieoIogiey
18. In the Old Testament Department a liberal critical school has
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 207
arisen which has reversed the old relation of " the law and the l^rophets," treating the origin of the law as post-exilian, and as in not coming at the beginning, but at the end of the Jewish history. Reuss, whose "History of the New Testament Books" marked an epoch in New Testament introduction, was the first who moved in this direction, in his lectiu'es begun at Strassburg in a.d, 1834, the results of which are given us in his " History of the Tlieo- logy of the Apostolic Age" and in his "History of the Canon." Meanwhile Vatke of Berlin had, in a.d. 1835, undertaken to prove that the patriarchal religion was pure Semitic nature Avorship, and that the prophets were the first to raise it into a monotheistic Jehovism. Little success attended his efforts. Greater results were obtained by Reuss' two pupils, Graf in a.d. 1866, and Kayser in a.d. 1874. The niost brilliant exposition of this theory was given by Julius Well- hausen of Greifswald, transferred in a.d. 1882 to the Philosophical Faculty of Halle, in his " History of Israel." In his " Pi-olegomena to History of Israel," and article " Israel " in " Encijdopcedia Brltannica,''^ lie gives expression with clearness and force to his radical negative criticism, and develop.s a purely naturalist conception of the Old Testament. Professor Kueiien of Leyden transplanted these views to the Netherlands, and Robertson Smith has introduced them into Scotland and England, while in Germany they are taught by a number of the younger teachers, Stade in Giessen, Merx in Heidelberg, Smend in Basel, etc. And now at last in a.d. 1882 the venerable master of the school, Edward Reuss, has himself in his " Geschiclde d. h. Sdir. d. A. Test."' given a brilliant and in many points modified exjjosition of these radical theories. The history of Israel, according to him, divides itself into the four successive periods of the heroes, of the Ijrophets, of the priests, and of the scribes, characterized respectivelv by individualism, idealism, formalism, and traditionalism. Even before the close of prophetism the loriestly influence began to assert itself, but it was only in the post-exilian period under the domina- tion of the priests that the construction and codification of the law began to make impression on the Jewish people. So too in the age of the kings there existed a Levitical tradition about rites and worship which traced back its first outlmes to the time of Moses, though at this period there could have been no written official codex of any kind. In regard to Moses, we are to think not only of his person as historical, but also of his career as that of a man inspired by the divine spirit and recognised as such by his contemporaries and fellow- countrymen. — Also Wellhausen, who has hitherto concerned himself only with the critical introduction to the Old Testament books not with their historical or theological interpretation, su])])li('d this defect to some extent by his " Prolegomena to the History- . Israel." He
208 CHURCII HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
admits that much of the history of Israel related in the Old Testament is credible. He even goes so far as to allow that this history was a pr(>paration and forerunner of Christianity, but without mii'acle and prophecy, and without any immediate interposition of God in the affairs of Israel.
19. Among the most distinguished free-thinking dogmatists of recent times, Biedermann of Zurich, a.d. 1819-1885, has occupied the most advanced position. His principal work, " Cliridliche Dorjmatik,^'' A.D. 1869, defined God and the origin of the world as the self -develop- ment of the Absolute Idea according to the Hegelian scheme, recognises in the person of Christ the first realization of the Christian principle of the divine sonship in a personal life, then proceeds with free exposi- tion of the Scripture and church doctrines, and combats openly the doctrines of the church and through them also those of Scripture, as setting religion purely in the domain of the imagination. — Lipsius of Leipzig, Kiel, and Jena, in his earliest treatise on the Pauline Doc- trine of Justification in a.d. 1853, held the jxjsition of the mediating theology, but luider the influence of Kant, Hegel, and Baur has been led to adopt the standpoint of the " Free Protestant " school. His history of gnosticism and his researches in early apocryphal literature are important contributions to our knowledge of primitive Chris- tianity. His " Lehrbuch d. ev. prot. Dogmatik,'''' 1876, 2nd ed. 1879, on the basis of Kant and Schleiermacher, fixing the limits of science Avith the former, and maintaining with the latter the necessity of reli- gious faith and life, not rejecting metaphysics generally, but only its speculations on God and divine things lying qiiite outside of human experience, seeks from the common faith of the Christian chiirch of all ages, as it is expressed in the Scriptures and in the confessions, by the ajjplication of the freest subjective criticism of the letter of revela- tion, to secure a theory of the world in harmony with modern views. — Pfleiderer, Twesten's successor in Berlin, in his "Paulinism," "Influence of Paul on Development of Christianity " and " History of the Philo- sophy of Religion," occupies more the Hegelian speculative standpoint than that of Kantian criticism.
20. Ritschl and his School.— Ritschl, 1822-1889, from a.d. 1846 in Bonn, from a.d. 18(11 in Gottingen, on his withdrawal from the Tiibingen party, applied himself to dogmatic studies and founded a school, the adherents of which, divided into right and left wings, have secured quite a number of academical appointments. After the completion of his great dogmatic work on "Justification and Eeconciliation," Ritschl resumed his historical studies in a " History of Pietism," which he traces back thi-ough the persecuted anabaptists of the Reformation age to the Tertiaries of the Franciscan order and the mysticism of St. Bei'nard. He earnestly maintains his adherence to the confessions of
§ 182. PROTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GERMANY. 209
the Lutheran church, and regards it as the task of his life to disen- tangle the pure Lutheran doctrine from the accretions of scholastic metaphysics. Even more decidedly than Schleiermacher, he banishes all philosophy from the domain of theology. The grand significance of Kant's doctrine of knowledge, with its assertion of the incomprehen- sibility of all transcendent truth except the ethical postulates of God, freedom and immortality, as set forth in a more profound manner by Lotze, is indeed admitted, but onlj^ as a methodological basis of all religious inquiries, and with determined rejection of every material support from Kant's construction of religion within the limits of the pure reason. B-itschl rather pronounces in favour of the formal principle of Protestantism, and declares distinctly that all religious truth must be drawn directly from Scripture, primarily from the New Testament as the witness of the early church uncorrupted by the Platonic-Aristotelian metaphysic, but also secondarily from the Old Testament as the record of the content of revelation made to the religious community of Israel. The truthfulness of the biblical, especially of the New Testament, system of truth, rests, however, not on any theory of inspiration, but on its being an authentic statement of the early church of the doctrine of Christ, inasmuch as to this witness the necessary degree of fides hummia belongs. Eitschl's Christology rests on the witness of Christ to himself in the synoptists through which he proclaims himself the one prophet who in the divine purpose of grace for mankind has received perfect consecration, sent by God into the world to represent the founding of the kino'dom of God on earth foreshadowed in the Old Testament revelation ; but no attempt is made to explain how Christ became possessed of the secrets of the divine decree. To him, as the first and only begotten Son of God, standing in essential union with the Father, belongs the attribute of deity and the right of worship. But of an eternal pre- existence of Christ we can speak only in so far as this is meant of the eternal gracious purpose of God to redeem the world through him by means of the complete unfolding of the kingdom of God in the fellow- ship of love. Whatever goes beyond this in the fourth gospel its Johannine authenticity not being otherwise contested, as well as in Paul's epistles and in the Epistle to the Hebrews, resulted from the necessity felt by their Avriters for assigning a sufficient reason for the assumption of such incomparable glory on the part of Christ. As the archetype of humanity destined for the kingdom of God Christ is the original object of the divine love, so that the love of God to the members of his kingdom comes to them only through him. And as the earthly fovmding, so also the heavenly completion, of the kingdom of God is assigned to Christ, and hence after his resui'rection all power was given to him, of the transcendent exercise of wliich, however we VOL. III. 14
210 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
can know nothing. The universality of human sin is admitted by Eitschl as a fact of experience, but he despairs of reaching any dogmatic statement as to the origin of sin through the temptation of a superhuman evil power. But that sin is inherited and as original guilt is under the condemnation of God, is not taught or pre-supposed by the teaching either of Christ or of the apostles. Redemption (reconciliation and justification) consists in the forgiveness of sins, by which the guilt that estranges from God is removed and the sinner is restored into the fellowship of the kingdom of God. Forgiveness, however, is not given on condition of the vicarious penal sufierings of Christ, whose sufferings and death are of significance rather becatise his life and works were a complete fulfilment of his calling, and witnessed to as such by God's raising him from the dead. Justifica- tion secures the recejotion of the penitent sinner into the fellowship of the kingdom of God, preached and perfectly developed by Christ, and the sonship enjoyed in its membership, prefigured in Christ himself, which contains in itself the desire as well as the capacity to do good works out of love to God. — The school of Bitschl is represented in Gottingen by its founder and by Schultz and Wendt, in Marburg by Herrmann, in Bonn by Bender, in Giessen by GottscMck and Katten- busch, in Strassburg by Lobstein, in Basel by Kaftan, formerly of Berlin.i
21. Oi^ponents and critics of the school of Ritschl, especially from the confessional Lutheran ranks, have appeared in considerable num- bers. Luthardt of Leipzig in a.d. 1878 opened the campaign against Bitschilianism, followed by Bestmann, charging it with undermining Christianity. The Hanoverian synod of a.d. 1882 decided by a large majority that the scientific results of theological science must be ruled by the confessions of the evangelical church. The chief theme at the following Hanoverian Pentecost Conference was the " Incarnation of the Son of God," the discussion being led by Professor DieckhofF of Rostock, against whom no voice was raised in favour of the views of Ritschl. Not long after, Professor Fricke of Leipzig published a lecture given by him at the Meissen Conference, on the Present Rela- tions of Metaphysics and Theology, followed by utterances of Kiibel of Tubingen, Grau of Konigsberg, Kreibig and H. Schmidt at Berlin, all unfavourable to Ritschl's theology. — The main objections are, according to Bestmann : idolatry of Kant, depreciation of the religious factor in Cln-istianity in favour of the ethical by laying out a moral foreground without providing a dogmatic background, reducing the objective fundamental truths of the confession into subjective ethical ideas, etc. ;•
^ Galloway, " The Theology of Ritschl," in Presbyterian Review for' April, 1889, pp. 192-209.
§ 182. PEOTESTANT THEOLOGY IN GEEMANY. 211
according to Luthardt : Eitsclil's position that it does not niatter so much what the facts of the Chi'istian faith are in themselves, as what they mean for ns, makes his whole dogmatic system hang in the air, if in Christianity we have to do not with what God. Christ, the resui-rection are, but only what signiiicance we attach to them, Christianity is stript of all importance, the significance of a thing must hav(^ its foiindation in the thing itself, etc. ; according to Dieckhoff : Ritschl on his accepting the divinity of Christ laj's down the rule that the special content of what is meant by the term divinity must be transferable to the believer, and so for Ritschl, Christ is a mere man who in his person was the first to represent a relation to God which is destined for all men in like measure, etc. ; according to Fricke : new Kantian scepticism with regard to ideals and transcen- dentals, reducing religious elements to moral, Avith Eitschl's removal of all metaphysical facts the chief verities of our Christian faith are taken away, at least in the scientific form in which we have them, e.rj. the doctrine of the Trinitj", our Christology, our theory of satisfaction, in place of which comes the G&.W\o\\c justitia infusa, etc. ; according to Miinchmayer: "the object of justification with Ritschl is not the individual but the communitj^, it is no act of God upon the individual but an eternal purpose of God for the community, its effect on the individual is not objective divine forgiveness of guilt but a subjective act of incorporation of the individual into the redeemed community ; Clu'ist and his work are not the ground of justification, but only the means of revealing the eternal justifjdng will of God, and therefore finally a continuation of the historical work of Christ by means of his church takes the place of the personal intercession of the exalted Redeemer for the penitent sinner." Kreibig and Schmidt express themselves in a similar maimer. — Ritschl has not himself undertaken any reply, but his disciples have sought to remove what they regard as misunderstandings, and generally to vindicate the system of their master.
22. "Writers on Constitutional Law and History — The most distin- guished Avriters on the constitutional law of the church are Eichhorn and Dove of Gottingen, Jacobsen of Konigsberg, Wasserschleben of Giessen, Richter and Hinschius of Berlin, Friedberg of Leipzig, Avho belong to the unionist party •, while Bickell of Marburg, Mejer of Gottingen and Hanover, Von Scheuerl of Erlangen, and Sohm of Strassbui'g belong to the confessional Lutherans. — Of ecclesiastical historians (§ 5, 4, 5) the number is so great that we cannot even enumerate their names. — The ^^ Theologische Literafurzeitinig" of Schtirer and Harnack is a liberal scientific journal, distinguished for its fair criticisms by writers whose names are given.
212 church history of nineteenth century.
§ 183. Home Missions.
In regard to home mission work, the Protestant church long lagged behind the Catholic, which had wrought vigorously through its monkish orders. England first entered with zeal into the field, especially dissenters and members of the low church party, and subsequently also the high church ritualistic party (§ 202, 1, 3), which now takes an active interest in this work. Germany, in view of the scanty means at the disposal of the pietists and the church party, made noble efforts. In other continental countries, but especially in North America, much was done for home missions. Soon the whole Protestant world began to organize benevolent and evangelistic institutions. The laborious Wichern, in a.d. 1849, went through all Grermany to arouse interest in home missions, and started a yearly congress on the subject in Wittenberg. Till his death in A.D, 1881, Wichern continued to direct this congress and further the interests which it represented.
1. Institutions. — The earliest charity school was that founded at Diisselthal by Count Eecke-Volmarstein, in a.d. 1816, followed by Zeller's at Beuggen in a.d. 1820. One of the most famous of these institutions was the Rauhe Haus of Wichern, at Horn, near Hamburg, A.D. 1833.^ Fliedner's Deaconess Institute at Kaiserswerth is the pride of the evangelical church. It has now 190 branches, with 625 sisters, in the four continents. There are manj^ independent institutions modelled iipon it in Grermany, England, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Russia, and France. In a.d. 1881 there were in Germany 31, and in the cities of other lands 22, principal deaconess institutions of this German order, with 4,751 sisters and 1,491 fields of labour outside of the institution. The original institute of Kaiserswerth comprises a hospital with 600 patients, a refuge for fallen women and liberated prisoners, an orphanage for girls, a seminary for governesses, and a home for female imbeciles.- Lohe founded the deaconess institute of
1 Series of papers in Good Words for 1860, pp. 377 if. ' Fleming Stevenson, " The Blue Flag of Kaiserswerth," in Good Words for 1861, pp. 121 ff., 143 ff.
§ 183. HOME MISSIONS. 213
Neuendettelsan, on strict Lutheran principles, with hospital, girls' school, and asylum for imbecile children. In France a most successful institution was founded by pastor Bost of Laforce, in a.d. 1848, for foundlings, imbeciles, and epileptics. In England, George Miiller, a poor German student of Halle, a pupil of Tholuck, begiiuiing in a.d. 1832, founded at Bristol five richly endowed orphanages after the pat- tern of that of A. H. Francke, in which thousands of destitute street children have been educated, and for this and other purposes has spent nearly £1,000,000 without ever asking any one for a contribution, acting on the belief that " the God of Elijah still lives." The London City Mission employs 600 missionaries. In New York, since a.d. 1855, about 60,000 street children have been placed, by the Society for Poor Children, in Christian families, and 21 Industrial schools are main- tained with 10,000 scholars.— Tract Societies in London, Hamburg, Berlin, etc., send out millions of tracts for Christian instruction and awakening. The Society for North Germany successfully pursues a similar work ; the Calw Publication Society circulates Christian text- books with woodcuts at a remarkably small price. In Berlin the Evangelical Book Society issues reprints of the older tracts on prac- tical divinity. Christian women, like the English Quakeress Elizabeth Fry, the noble Amalie Sieveking of Hamburg, Miss Florence Nightin- gale, the heroine of the Crimean war, and the brave Maria Simon of Dresden, who organized the female nursing corps of the wars of 1866, 1870, 1871, helped on the work of home missions in all lands, espe- cially in the departments of tending the poor and the sick.
2. The Order of St. John, secularized in a.d. 1810, was reorganized by Frederick William IV. in a.d. 1852 into an association for the care of the sick and poor. Under a grand-master it has 350 members and 1,500 associates. Its revenues are formed from entrance fees and amiual contributions. It has thirty hospitals. In a.d. 1861 it founded a hospital for men in Beyrout during the persecution of Christians in Syria, and in a.d. 1868 gave aid during the famine that followed the typhus epidemic in East Prussia, and did noble service in the wars of A.D. 1864, 1866, and 1870.
3. The Itinerant Preacher Gustav Werner in Wiirttemberg. — Abandon- ing his charge in a.d. 1840, Werner began his itinerant labours, and during the year formed more than a hundred groups of adherents over all Wtirttemberg. His preaching was allegorical and eschato- logical, and avoided the doctrines of satisfaction and justification. On his repudiating the Augsburg Confession, the church boards refused to recognise him, and he went hither and thither preaching a Christian communism. In a.d. 1842 he bought a site in Eeutlingen, built a house, and founded a school for eighty children. In order to develop his views of carrying on industrial arts on a Chi'istian basis,
214 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
he bought, in a.d. 1850, the paper factory at Eeutlingen for £4,000, and subsequently transferred it to Dettingen on a larger scale, at an outlay of £20,000. By a.d. 18G2 he liad established no less than twenty-two branches, in which manufacturing was carried on, with institutions of all kinds for education, pastoral work, rescuing the lost and raising the fallen. Each member lives and works for the whole ; none receives wages ; surplus income goes to increase the number and extent of the institutions. Vast multitudes of sunken and destitute families have been by these means restored to respect- able social positions and to a moral religious life.
4. Bible Societies. — The Bible societies constitute an independent branch of the home mission. Modern efforts to circulate Scripture began in England. As a necessary adjunct to missionary societies, the great British and Foreign Bible Society was founded in London in A.D. 1804, embracing all Protestant sects, excepting the Quakers. It circulates Bibles without note or comment. The Apocryphal controversy of a.d. 1825-1827 resulted in the society resolving not to print the Apocrypha in its issues. In consequence of this decision, fifty German societies, including the present society of Berlin, seceded. The New York Association, founded in a.d. 1817, is in thorough accord with the London society. The Baden Missionary Society revived the discussion in a.d. 1852 by making it the subject of essay for a prize, which was won by the learned work of Keerl, who, along with the stricter Lutherans, condemned the Apocrypha. The other side was taken by Stier and Hengstenberg, and most of the consistories advised adherence to the old practice, as all misunderstanding was prevented by Luther's preface and the prohibition against using passages from the Apocrypha as sermon texts. — Bible societies altogether have issued during the century 180,000,000 Bibles and New Testaments in 324 different languages. '
§ 184. Foreign Missions.
Protestant zeal foi' missions to the heathen has gone on advancing since the end of last century (§ 172, 5). Mis- sionary societies increase from year to year. In a.d. 1883 there were seventy independent societies with innumerable branches, which contribute annually about £1,500,000, or five times as much as the Romish church, and maintain
1 Owen, " History of tlie First Ten Years of the Bible Society," 3 vols. London, 1810.
§ 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. 215
2,000 mission stations, 2,940 European and American missionaries, and 1,000 ordained native pastors and 25,000 native teachers and assistants, having under their care 2,214,000 converts from heathenism. In missionary enter- prise England holds the first place, next comes America, and then Crennany, Among Protestant sects the Methodists and Baptists are most zealous in the cause of missions, and the Moravian Brethren have wrought most successfully in this department. The missions also did much to prepare the way for the suppression of the slave trade by the European powers in a.d. 1830, and the emancipation of all slaves in the British possessions in a.d. 1834, at a cost of £20,000,000. The noble English philanthropist, William Wilberforce, imweariedly laboui-ed for these ends. — Also in England, Germany, Russia, and France new associations were formed for missions to the Jews, and the work was carried on with admirable patience, though the visible results were very small.
1. Missionary Societies. — The great American ^Missionary Society- was founded at Boston in a.d. 1810, tlie Englisli Wesleyan in a.d. 1814, the American Metliodist in a.d. 1819, the American Episcopal in a.d. 1820, and the Society of Paris in a.d. 1824. The new German societies were on confessional lines: that of Basel in a.d. 1816, of Berlin in a.d. 1823, the Rhenish with tlie mission seminary at Barmen in a.d. 1829, tlie Noi'th German, on the basis of the Augsburg Confession, in A.D. 1886. Tlie Dresden Society, which resumed the old Lutheran work in the East Indies (§ 167, 9), founded a seminary at Leipzig in A.D. 1849, in order to get the benefit of the university. Lutheran societies, mostly affiliated with that of Leipzig, were started in Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Russia, Bavaria, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Hesse, and America. The Neuendettelsau Institute wrought through the Iowa Synod among the North American Indians, and through the Im- nianuel Sjaiod among the aborigines of Australia. The Hermannsburg institute under Harms prosecuted mission work with great zeal. In A.D. 185B, Harms sent out in his own mission ship eight missionaries and as many Cliristian colonists. It has been objected to this mission, that endeavours after social elevation and industrial training have driven to tlie backgroiuid the main question of individual conversion.
216 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
— The advanced liberal scKool in Switzerland and Germany sought in A.D. 1883 to start a mission on their own particular lines. They tlo not pro2:)ose any opposition to existing agencies, and intend to make their first experiment among the civilized races of India and Japan.
2. Europe and America. — The Swedish mission in Lapland (§ 160, 7) was resumed in a.d. 1825 by Stockfleth. The Moravians carried on their work among the Eskimos in Greenland, which had now become a wholly Christian country, and also in Labrador, which was almost in the same condition. The chaplain of the Hudson Bay Company, J. West, founded a successful mission in that territory in a.d. 1822. Among the natives and negro slaves in the British possessions, the United States, and West Indies, Moravians, Methodists, Baptists, and Anglican Episcopalians patiently and successfully carried on the work. Among the natives and bush negroes, descendants of runaway slaves, in Guiana, the Moravians did a noble work. — Catholic South America remained closed against Protestant missions. But the ardent zeal of Capt. Allen Gardiner led him to choose the inhospitable shores of Patagonia as a field of labour. He landed there in a.d. 1850 with five missionaries, but in the following year their corpses only were found. The work, however, was started anew in a.d. 1856, and prosecuted with success under the direction of an Anglican bisho]).
8. Africa. — The Moravians have laboured among the Hottentots, the Berlin missionaries among the wild Corannas, and the French Evangelical Society among the Bechuanas. Hahn of Livonia is the apostle of the Hereros. On the East Coast the London Missionary Society has wrought among the warlike Kaffirs, and other British societies are labouring in Natal among the Zulus. On the West Coast the English colony of Sierra Leone was founded for the settling and Christianizing of liberated slaves, and farther south is Liberia, a similar American colony ; both in a flourishing condition, under the care of Methodists, Baptists, and Anglican Episcopalians, The Basel missionaries labour on the Gold Coast, Baptists m Old Calabar, and the American and North German Societies on the Gaboon Biver. — The London missionaries won Radama of Madagascar to Christianity in A.D. 1818, but his successor Ranavalona instituted a bloody perse- cution of the Christians in a.d. 1835, during which David Jones, the apostle of the Malagassy, suffered martyrdom in a.d. 1843. In the island of Mauritius, where there is an Anglican bishop, many Mala- gassy Christians found refuge. After the queen's death in a.d. 1861, her Christian son Radama II. recalled the Christian exiles and the missionaries. He soon became the victim of a palace revolution. His wif(i and STiccessor Rosaherina continued a heathen till her death in A.u. 1868, but put no obstacle in the way of the gospel. But her
§ 184. foeetCtN missions. 217
cousin Eanavalona II. overthrew the idol worship, was baptized in A.D. 1869, and in the following year burned the national idols. Protestantism now made rapid strides, till interrupted by French Jesuit intrigues, which have been favoured by the recent French occupation.
4. Livingstone and Stanley have made marvellous contributions to our geographical knowledge of Central Africa and to Christian missions there. The Scottish missionary, David Livingstone, factory boy, afterwards physician and minister, Avrought, a.d. 1840-1849, under the London Missionary Society in South Africa, and then entered on his life work of exploration in Central Africa. During his third exploring journey into the interior in a.d. 1865 as a British consul, he was not heard of for a whole year. H. M. Stanley, of the New York Herald, was sent in a.d. 1871, and found him in Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. Livingstone died of dysentery on the southern bank of this lake in a.d. 1873. Still more important was Stanley's second journey, a.d. 1874-1877, which yielded the most brilliant scientific results, and was epoch-making in the history of African missions. He got the greatest potentate in those regions. King Mtesa of Uganda, who had been converted by the Arabs to Mohammedanism, to adopt Christianity and permit a Christian church to be built in his city. Stanley's letters from Africa roused missionary fervour throughout England. The Church Missionary Society in a.d. 1877 set up a mission station in the capital, and put a steamer on the Victoria Nyanza. The church services were regularly attended, education and the work of civilization zealously prosecuted, Sunday labour and the slave trade prohibited, etc. French Jesuits entered in a.d. 1879, insinuating suspicions of the English missionaries into the ear of the king, and the machinations of the Arab slave-dealers made their position dangerous. Missionaries arrived by way of Egypt with flattering recommendations from the English foreign secretary in the name of the queen. But the traders, by means of an Arabic translation of a letter purporting to be from the English consul at Zanzibar, cast suspicion on the document as a forgery, and repre- sented its bearers as in the pay of the hostile Egy|Dtians. Mtasa's wrath knew no bounds, and only his favout for the missionary physician saved the mission and led him to send an embassy of three chiefs and two missionaries to England in June, a.d. 1879, to discover the actual truth. His anger meanwhile cooled, and the work of the mission was resumed. He was preparing to put an utter end to the national heathenism, when suddenly a report spread that the greatest of all the Lubaris or inferior deities, that of the Nyanza Lake, had become incarnate in an old woman, in order to heal the king and restore the ancient religion. The whole populace was in an uproar ;
218 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Mtesa, under threat of deposition, restored heathenism, with hnman sacrifice, man stealing, and the slave trade. Then the Lubari excite- ment cooled down. Mtesa, moved by a dream, declared himself again a Mohammedan, and converted the Christian church into a mosque. The English missionaries, stripped of all means, starved, and subjected to all sorts of privations, did not flinch. At last, in January, a.d. 1881, the embassy, sent eighteen months before to England, reached home again, and, by the story of their reception, caused a revulsion of feeling in favour of the English mission, which again flourished under the protection of the king. But Mtesa died in 1884. His son and successor, Mwanga, a suspicious, peevish young despot, addicted to all forms of vice, began again the most cruel persectition, of which Bishop Hannington, sent out from England, with fifty companions, were the victims. Only four escaped.
5. Asia. — The most important mission field in Asia is India. The old Lutheran mission there had great difficulties to contend against : the system of caste distinctions, the j^i-oud self-sufficiency of the pantheistic Brahmans, the politico-commercial interests of the East India Comioany, etc. The Leipzig Society has sixteen stations among the Tamuls, and alongside are English, American, and German mis- sionaries of every school. The Gossner Society works among the Kohls of Chota Nagpore, where a rival mission has been started by the puseyite bishop of Calcutta, Dr. Milman, to which, m a.d. 1868, six of the twelve German missionaries and twelve of the thirty-six chapels were transferred. The Basel missionaries labour in Canara and Malabar. The military revolt in Northern India in a.d. 1857 interrupted missionary operations for two years ; but the work was afterwards resumed with great vigour. The Christian benevolence shown during the famine of a.d. 1878, in which three millions perished, made a great impression in favour of the Protestant church. In the preceding years throughout all India only between 5,000 and 10,000 souls were annually added ; but in a.d. 1878 the number of new con- verts rose to 100,000, and in a.d. 1879 there were 44,000.— The island of Ceylon was, under Portuguese and Dutch rule, in great part nominally Christianized; but when compulsion was removed under British rule, this sham profession was at an end. Multitudes fell back into heathenism, and in the first ten years of the British dominion 900 new idol temjjles were erected. From a.d. 1812 Baptist, Methodist, and Anglican missionai'ies have toiled with small appear- ance of fruit. In Farther India the American missionaries have wrought since a.d. 1813. Judson and his heroic wife did noble work among the Karens and the Burmans. Also in Malacca, Singapore, and Siam the Protestant missions have had brilliant success. The work hi Sumatra has been retarded by the opposition of the Malays
§ 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. 219
and deadly malarial fever. The preaching of the gospel was emi- nently successful in Java, where since a.d. 1814 Baptist missionaries and agents of the London Society have wrought heroically. In Celebes the Dutch missionaries found twenty Chi'istian congregations of old standing, greatly deteriorated for want of pastoral care, but still iising the Heidelberg Catechism. At Banjermassin, in a.d. 1835 the Rhenish Society founded their first station in Borneo, and wrought not unsuccessfully among the heathen Dyaks. But in a.d. 1859 a rebellion of the Mohammedan residents led to the expulsion of the Dutch and the murder of all Christians. Only a few of the mission- aries escaped martyrdom, and subsequently settled in Sumatra.
6. The wox'k in China began in a.d. 1807, when the London Mis- sionary Society settled Morrison in Canton, where he began the study of the language and the translation of the Bible. GutzlafF of Pomerania, in a.d. 1826, conceived the plan of evangelizing China through the Chinese converts, but, though he continued his efforts till his death in a.d. 1854, the scheme failed through the unworthiness of many of the professors. The war against the opium traffic, a.d. 1339-1842, opened five ports to the mission, and led to the transference of Hongkong to the English. The Chinese mission now made rapid strides ; but the interior was still untouched. The conflict between the governor of Canton and the English, French, and Americans, and the chastisement administered to the Chinese in a.d. 1857, led the emperor, in a.d. 1858, to make a treaty with the three powers and also Avith Eussia, by which the Avhole land was opened up for trade and missions, and full toleration granted to Christianity. Popular hatred of strangers, and especially of missionaries, however, occasioned fre- quently bloody encounters, and in a.d. 1870 there was a furious outburst directed against the French missionaries. During a terrible famine in North China, in a.d, 1878, when more than five anillions perished, the heroic and self-sacrificing conduct of the missionaries brought them into high favour. Throughout China there are now 320 organized Christian congi-egations with 50,000 adherents under 238 foreign missionaries. — After seclusion for three centuries, Japan, about the same time as China, A\-as opened by treaty to European and American commerce, notwithstanding the opposition of the old feudal nobility, the so-called Daimios. In a.d. 1871 the mikado's govern- ment succeeded in overcoming completely the power of the daimios and setting aside the shiogun or military vizier, who had exercised supreme executive power. European customs were inti'oduced, but the rigorous enactments against native converts to Christianity were still enforced. A cruel persecution of native Christians was carried on in A.D. 1867, but the Protestant missionaries continued to work unwearieilly, preparing dictionaries and reading books. The Buddhist
220 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
priests sought to get up a rival mission to send agents to America and Europe, whereas many of the leading newspapers expressed the opinion that Japan must soon ]5ut Christianity in the place of Bud- dhism as the state religion.
7. Polynesia and Australia. — The flourishing Protestant church of Tahiti, the largest and finest of the Society Islands (§ 172, 5), suffered from the appearance of two French Jesuits in a.d, 1836. When Queen Pomare cornpelled them to withdraw, the French government, resent- ing this as an indignity to their nation, sent a fleet to attack the defenceless people, proclaimed a French protectorate, and introduced not only Catholic missionaries, but European vices. Amid much persecution, however, the Protestants held their own. In December, 1880, Pomare V. resigned, and the Society Islands became a depen- dency of France. — In the south-east groups great opposition was shown, but in the north-west Christianity made rapid progress. The island of Eaiatea was the centre of the South Sea missions. There from a.d. 1819 John Williams, the apostle of the South Seas, wrought till he met a martyr's death in a.d. 1839. He went from place to place in a mission ship built by his own hands. The Harvey Group were Christianized in a.d. 1821, and the Navigator Group in A.D. 1830. The French took the Marquesas Islands in a.d. 1838, and introduced Catholic missionaries. The attempt to evangelize the New Hebrides led to the death of Williams and two of his companions. Missionaries of the London Society, a.d. 1797-1799, had failed in the Friendly Islands through the savage character of the natives, but in A.D. 1822 the Methodists made a successful start. The gospel was carried thence to Fiji, which is now under British rule. Both groups have become almost wholly Christianized. The Sandwich Islands form a third mission centre, wrought by the American board. Kame- hanieha I. gladly adopted the elements of Christian civilization, though rejecting Christianity : while his successor Kamehameha II. in A.D. 1829 abolished tabu and overthrew the idol temples. In a.d. 1851 Christianity was adopted as the national religion. The work was more difficult in New Zealand, where the Church Missionary Society, represented by Samuel Marsden, the apostle of New Zealand, began operations in a.d. 1814. For ten years the position of the mis- sionaries was most hazardous ; yet they held on, and the conversion of the most bloodthirsty of the chiefs did much to advance their cause. In New Guinea the London Society has been making steady progress. Among the stolid natives of the continent of New Holland, the so called Papuans, the labours of the Moravians since a.d. 1849 have not yielded much fruit. Since a.d. 1875 the German- Australian Immanuel Synod, supported by Neuendettelsau, has laboured for the conversion of the heathen in the inland districts.
§ 184. FOREIGN MISSIONS. 221
8. Missions to the Jews. — In a.d. 1809 the London Society for Pro- moting Chi-istianity among the Jews (§ 172, 5) was formed by a union of all denominations, but soon passed into the hands of the Anglicans. By the circulation of the Scriptures and tracts, and by the sending out of missionaries, mostly Jewish converts, the work Avas persevered in amid many discouragements. In a.d. 1818 Poland was opened to its missionaries, and there some 600 Jews were baptized. The society carried on its operations also in Germany, Holland, France, and Turkey. The work in Poland was interrupted by the Crimean war, and was not resumed till a.d. 1875. In Bessarabia Faltin has laboured successfully among the Jews since a.d. 1860. He was joined in the work in a.d. 1867 by the converted Eabbi Gm'land, who had studied theology at Halle and Berlm. In a.d. 1871 Gurland accepted a call to similar work in Courland and Lithuania, and since a.d. 1876 has been Lutheran pastor at Mitau. In a.d. 1841 the evangelical bishopric of St. James was fomided in Jerusalem by the English and Prussian governments conjointly, presentations to be made alternately, but the ordination to be according to the Anglican rite. The first bishop was Alexander, a Jewish convert. He died in a.d. 1845 and was succeeded by the zealous missionary Gobat, elected by the Prussian government. He died in a.d. 1879 and was succeeded by Barclay, who died in a.d. 1881. It was now again Prussia's turn to make an appointment. The English demand to have Lutheran ministers ordained successively deacon, presbyter, and bishop had given oifence, and so no new appointment has been made. In June 1886 the English-Prussian compact was formally cancelled and a pro- posal made to found an independent Prussian Evangelical bishopric.
9. Missions among the Eastern Churches. — In a.d. 1815 the Church Missionary Society founded a missionary emporium in the island of Malta, as a tract depot for the evangelizing the East ; and in a.d. 1846 the Malta Protestant College was erected for training native mission- aries, teachers, physicians, etc., for work in the various oriental countries. In the Ionian islands, in Constantinople, and in Greece, British and American missionaries began operations in a.d. 1819 by erecting schools and circulating the scriptures. At first the orthodox clergy were favourable, but as the work progressed they became actively hostile, and only two mission schools in Syra and Athens were allowed to continue. In Syria the Americans made Beyrout their head quarters in a.d. 1824, but the work was interrupted by the Tui'co-Egyptian conflicts. Subsequently, however, it flourished more and more, and, before the S3T.'ian massacre of a.d. 1860 (§ 207, 2), there were nine prosperous stations in Syria. The founding of the Jerusalem bishopric in a.d. 1841, and the issuing of the Hatti-Humayun in a.d. 1856 (§ 207, 2), induced the Church Missionary Society to make
222 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
more vigorous efforts whicli, however, were afterwards abandoned for want of success. Down to the outbreak of the persecution of Sja'ian Christians in a.d. 1860, this society had five fionrishing stations. From A.n. 1831 the Americans had wrought zealously and successfully among the Armenians in Constantinople and neighbourhood, but in A.D. 1845 the Armenian patriarch excited a violent persecution which threatened the utter overthrow of the work. The British ambassador, Sir Stratford de Eedcliffe, however, insisted upon the Porte recognising the rights of the Pi'otestant Armenians as an independent religious denomination, and since then the missions have prospered. Among the Nestorians in Turkey and Persia the Americans, with Dr. Grant at their head, began operations in a.d. 1834; but through Jesuit intrigues the susj^icions of the Kurds and Turks were excited, and in A.D. 1843 and 1846 a war of extirniination was waged against the mountain Nestorians, which annihilated the Protestant missions among them. Operations, however, have been recommenced with encouraging success. Among the deeply degraded Copts in Egypt, and extending from them into Abyssinia, the Moravians had been working without any apparent result from a.d. 1752 to a.d. 1783. In A.D. 1826 the Church Missionary Society, under German missionaries trained at Basel (Gobat, Irenberg, Krapf, etc.), took up the work, till it was stopped by the govei'nment in a.d. 1837. In a.d. 1855 the Basel missionaries began again to work in Abyssinia with the approval of king Theodore. This state of things soon changed. Theodore's ambition was to conquer Egypt and overthi'ow Islam. But when in a.d. 1863 this scheiueonly called forth threats from London and Paris, he gave loose rein to his natural ferocity and put the English consul and the German missionaries in chains. By means of an armed expe- dition in A.D. 1868, England compelled the liberation of the prisoners, and Theodore put an end to his own life. After the withdrawal of the English the country was desolated by civil wars, and at the close of these troubles in a.d. 1878 the mission resumed its operations.
III.— Catholicism in General. § 185. The Papacy and the States of the Church.
The papacy, humiliated but not destroyed by Napoleon I., was in A.D. 1814 by the aid of princes of all creeds restored to the full possession of its temporal and spiritiial authority, and amid many difficulties it reasserted for the most part successfully its hierarchical claims in the Catholic states and in those whose Protestantism and Catholicism were alike
§ 185. THE PAPACY AND STATES OF THE CHUKCH. 223
tolerated. Many severe blows indeed were dealt to the papacy even in the Roman states by revolutionary move- ments, yet political reaction generally by-and-by put the church in a position as good if not better than it had before. But while on this side the Alps, especially since the out- break of A.D, 1848, ultramontanism gained one victory after another in its own domain, in Italy, it suffered one humilia- tion after another; and while the Vatican Council, which put the crown upon its idolatrous assumptions (§ 189, 3), was still sitting, the whole pride of its temporal sovereignty was shattered : the States of the Church were struck out of the number of the European powers, and Rome became the capital and residence of the prince of Sardiiaia as king of United Italy. But reverence for the pope now reached a height among catholic nations which it had never anywhere attained before.
1. The First Four Popes of the Century. — Napoleon as Fu'st Consul of the French Republic, in a.d. 1801 concluded a concordat with Pius VII., A.D. 1800-1823, who under Austrian protection was elected pope at Venice, whereby the pope was restored to his temporal and spiritual rights, but was obliged to abandon his hierarchical claims over the church of France (§ 203, 1). He crowned the consul emperor of the French at Paris in a.d. 1804, bvit when he persisted in the assertion of his hierarchical principles, Napoleon in a.d. 1808 entered the papal territories, and in May, a.d. 1809, formally repudiated the donation of "his predecessor" Charlemagne. The pope treated the offered pay- ment of two million francs as an insult, threatened the emperor with the ban, and in July, a.d. 1809, was imprisoned at Savona, and in a.u. 1812 was taken to Fontainebleau. He refused for a time to give canonical institution to the bishops nominated by the emperor, and though at last he yielded and agreed to reside in France, he soon withdrew his concession, and the complications of a.d. 1813 con- strained the emperor, on February 14th, to set free the pope and the Papal States. In May the poi)e again entered Eome. One of his first official acts was the restoration of the Jesuits by the bull SoUicitudo ■omniitvi, as by the unanimous request of all Clu-istendom. The Con- .gregation of the Index was again set up, and during the course of the .year 737 charges of heresy were heard before the tribunal of the holy office. All sales of church property were pronounced void, and 1,800
224 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
monasteries and 600 nunneries were reclaimed. In a.d, 1815 the pope formally protested against the decision of the Viemia Congress, especially against the overthrow of the spiritual principalities in the German empire (§ 192, 1). Equally fruitless was his demand for the restoration of Avignon (§ 165, 15). In a.d. 1816 he condemned the Bible societies as a plague to Christendom, and renewed the prohibi- tion of Bible translations. His diplomatic schemes were determined by his able secretary' Cardinal Consalvi, who not only at the Vienna Congress, but also subsequently by several concordats secured the fullest possible expression to the interests and claims of the curia. — His successor was Leo XII., a.d. 1823-1829, who, more strict in his civil administration than his predecessor, condemned Bible societies, renewed the Inquisition prosecutions, for the sake of gain celebrated the jubilee in a.d. 1825, ordered prayers for uprooting of heresy, rebuilt the Ghetto wall of Eome, overturned during the French rule (§ 95, 3), which marked off the Jews' quarter, till Pius IX. again threw it down in a.d. 1846. After the eight months' reign of Pius VIII., A.D. 1829-1830, Gregory XVI., a.d. 1831-1846, ascended the papal throne, and sought amid troubles at home and abroad to exalt to its utmost pitch the hierarchical idea. In a.d. 1832 he issued an encyclical, in which he declared irreconcilable war against modern science as well as against freedom of conscience and the press, and his whole pontificate was a consistent carrying out of this principle. He encountered incessant opposition from liberal and revolutionary movements in his own territory, restrained only by Austrian and French military interference, a.d. 1832-1838, and from the rejection of his hierarchical schemes by Spain, Portugal, Prussia, and Russia.' 2. Pius IX., A.D. 1846-1878.— Count Mastai Feretti in his fifty-fourth year succeeded Gregory on 16th June, and took the name of Pius IX. While in ecclesiastical matters he seemed willing to hold by the old paths and distinctly declared against Bible societies, he favoured reform in civil administration and encouraged the hopes of the liberals who longed for the independence and unity of Italy. But this only awakened the thunder storm which soon burst upon his own head. The far resoimding cry of the jubilee days, '■'■ Evviva Pio Nono!'''' ended in the pope's flight to Gaeta in November, 1848; and in February, 1849, the Roman Republic was proclaimed. The French Republic, however, owing to the threatening attitude of Austria, hastened to take Rome and restore the temporal power of the pope. Amid the convulsions of Italy, Pius could not i-eturn to Rome till
' Wiseman, "Recollections of the Last Four Popes." 8 vols. I/indon, 1853. Mendham, " Index of Prohibited Books by order of Gregory XVI." London, 1810.
§ 185. THE PAPACY AND STATES OF THE CHURCH. 225
April, 1850, Avhere he ^vas maintained by French and Austrian bayonets. Abandoning his liberal views, the pope noAv put himself more and more under the influence of the Jesuits, and his absolutist and reactionary politics were directed by Card. Antonelli. From his exile at Gaeta he had asked the opinion of the bishops of the whole church regarding the immaculate conception of the blessed Virgin, to Avhose protection he believed that he owed his safety. The opinions of 57G v.-ere favourable, resting on Bible proofs : Genesis iii. 15, Song of Sol. iv. 7, 12, and Luke i. 28 ; but some P'rench and German bishops Avere strongl}^ opposed. The question was now submitted for further con- sideration to various congregations, and fnially the consenting bishops were invited to Eome to settle the terms of the doctrinal definition of the new dogma. After four secret sessions it was acknowledged by acclamation, and on 8th December, 1854 (§ 104, 7), the pope read in the Sixtine chapel the bull Inefahilis and placed a brilliant diadem on the head of the image of the queen of heaven. The disciples of St, Thomas listened in silence to this aspersion of their master's orthodoxy •, no heed was paid to two isolated individual voices that protested ; the bishops of all Catholic lands proclaimed the new dogma, the theo- logians vindicated it, and the spectacle-loving people rejoiced in the pompous Mary-festival. The pope's next great performance was the encyclical, Quanta cum, of December 8th, 1864, and the accompanying syllabus cataloguing in eighty-four propositions all the errors of the daj', by which not only the antichristian and anti-ecclesiastical tendencies, but also claims for freedom of belief and worship, liberty of the press and science, the state's independence of the church, the equality of the laity and clergy in civil matters, in short all the prin- ciples of modern political and social life, were condemned as heretical. Tlu-ee years later the centenary of Peter (§ 16, 1) brought fivelumdred bishops to Eome, with other clergy and laymen from all lands. The enthusiasm for the papal chair was such that the pope was encouraged to convoke an oecumenical council. The jubilee of his consecration as priest in a.d. 1869 brought him congratulatory addresses signed by one and a half millions, filled the papal coffers, attracted an immense numbc^r of visitors to Rome, and secured to all the votaries gathered there a complete indulgence. On the Vatican Council which met during tliat same year, sec i? IS').'
3. The Overthrow of the Papal States — In the Peace of Villafranca of 1859, -which put an end to the short Austro-French war in Italy, a confederation was arranged of all the Italian princes imder the
^ Legge, '• Pius IX. to the Restoration of 1850." 2 vols. London, 1872. Trollope, "Life of Pius IX." 2 vols. London, 1877. Shea, " Life and Pontificate of Pius IX." Xew York, 1877.
VOL. III. I ;
226 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
honorary presidency of the pope for drawing up the future constitu- tion of Italy. Dm-ing the war the Austrians Iiad vacated Bologna, but the French remained in Eome to protect the pope. The revolution now broke out in Romagna. Victor Emanuel, king of Sardinia, was proclaimed dictator for the time over that part of the Papal States and a provisional government, was set up. In vain did the pope remind C'hristendom in an encyclical of the necessity of maintaining his temporal power, in vain did lie thunder his excommunicatio major against all who -would contribute to its overthrow. A pamphlet war against the temporal power now began, and About's letters in the Moniteur described with bitter scorn the incapacity of the joapal government. In his pamphlet, " Le Pope et le Congres," Lagueron- ni^re proposed to restrict the pope's sovereignty to Eome and its neighbourhood, levy a tax for the support of the papal court on all Catholic nations, and leave Eome undisturbed by political troubles. On December 81st, 1859, Napoleon III. exhorted the jjope to yield to the logic of facts and to surrender the provinces that refused any longer to be his. The pope then issued a rescript in which he de- clared that he could never give up what belonged not to him but to the church. The j)opular vote in Eomagna went almost unanimously for annexation to Sardinia, and this, in spite of the papal ban, was done. A revolution broke out in Umbria and the March of Ancona, and Victor Emanuel without more ado attached these states also to his dominion in a.u. 1860, so that only Eome and the Campagna were retained by the pope, and even these only by means of French support. At the September convention of a.d. 1864 Italy undertook to maintain the papal domain intact, to permit the organization of an independent papal army, and to contribute to the papal treasury ; while France was to quit Eoman territory within at the latest two years. The pope submitted to what he could not prevent, but still insisted upon his most extreme claims, answered every attempt at conciliation with his stereotyijcd 7ion jMnsuimiti, and in a.d. 186(i proclaimed St. Catherine of Siena (§ 112, 4) patron of the "city."' When the last of the French troops took sliip in a.d. 1866 the radical party thought the time had come for freeing Italy from papal rule, and roused the whole land by public proclamation. Garibaldi again put himself at the head of the movement. The Papal State was soon encircled by bands of volunteers, and insurrections broke out even within Eome itself. Napoleon pro- nounced this a breach of the September convention, and in a.d. 1867 the volunteers wore utterly routed by the French at Mentana. The French guarded Civita Vecchia and fortified Eome. But in August, 1870, their own national exigencies demanded the withdrawal of the French tmojis, and after the battle of Sedan the Italians to a man insisted uii having Eome as their eai)ital, and Victor Emanuel ac-
§ 185. THE PAPACY AND STATES OF THE CHURCH. 227
quiesced. The pope sought help far and near from Catholic and non-Catholic powers, but he received only the echo of his own words, uon possuimts. After a four hours' cannonade a breach was made in the walls of the eternal city, the white flag appeared on St. Angelo, and amid the shouts of the populace the Italian troops entered on September 20th, 1870. A plebiscite in the papal dominions gave 133,681 votes in favour of annexation and 1,507 against; in Rome alone there were 40,785 for and only 46 against. The king now issued the decree of incorporation; Rome became capital of united Italy and the Quirinal the royal residence.
4. The Prisoner of the Vatican, A.D. 18701878.— The dethroned papal king could only protest and utter denunciations. No result followed from the adoption of St. Joseph as guardian and patron of the church, nor from the solenui consecration of the whole world to the most sacred heart of Jesus, at the jubilee of June 16th, A.n. 1875. The measux-es of a.d. 1871, by which Cavour sought to realize his ideal of a "free chui-ch in a free state," Averse pronounced absurd, cunning, deceitful, and an outrage on the apostles Peter and Paul. By these measui-es the rights and privileges of a sovereign for all time had been conferred on the pope: the holiness and inviolability of his person, a body-guard, a post and telegraph bureau, free ambassadorial com- munication with foreign jjowers, the ex-territorialU jj of his palace of the Vatican, embracing fifteen large saloons, 11,500 rooms, 236 stairs, 218 corridors, two chapels, several museums, archives, libraries, large beaiitiful gardens, etc., as also of the Lateran and the summer palace of Castle Gandolpho, with all appurtenances, also an amiual income, free from all burdens and taxes, of thi-ee and a quarter million francs, equal to the former amount of his revenue, together with uru'estricted liberty in the exercise of all ecclesiastical rights of sovereignty and primacy, and tlie renunciation of all state interference in the disposal of bishoprics and benefices. The right of the inferior clergy to exercise the appcUatio ab ahumi to a civil tribunal was set aside, and of all civil rights only that of the royal exequatur in the election of bishops, i.e. the mere right of investing the nominee of the curia in the possession of the revenues of his office, was retained. — To the end of his life Pius every year returned the dotation as an insult and injury, and " the starving holy father in prison, who has not where to lay his head," received three or four times more in Peter's pence con- tributed by all Catholic Christendom. Playing the rOle of a prisoner he never passed beyond the precincts of the Vatican. He reached the semi-jubilee of his papal coronation in a.d. 1871, being the first pope who falsified the old saying, Annos Petri uon videbit. He rejected the offer of a golden throne and the title of " the great," but he accepted a Parisian ladN-'s gift of a golden crown of thorns. In support of tlie
228 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
prison myth, straws from the papal cell were sold in Belgium for half a franc per stalk, and for the same price photographs of the pope behind an iron grating. As once on a time the legend arose about the disciple whom Jesus loved that he would not die, so was it once said about the pope ; and on his eighty-third birthday, in a.d. 1874, a Roman Jesuit paper, eulogising the moral purity of his life, put the words in his mouth, " "Which of you convinceth me of sin ?" But he himself by constantly renewed rescripts, encyclicals, briefs, allocutions to the cardinals and to numerous deputations from far and near, vmweariedly fanned the flame of enthusiasm and fanaticism throughout papal Christendom, and thundered threatening prophecies not only against the Italian, but also against foreign states, for with most of them he lived in open war. A collection of his "Speeches delivered at the Vatican " was published in 1874, commented on by Gladstone in the Contemporary Beview for January, 1875, who gives abundant quotations showing papal assumptions, maledictions, abuse and mis- understanding of the Scriptiires with which they abound. On the fiftieth anniversary of the pope's episcopal consecration, in June, 1877, crowds from all lands assembled to offer their congratulations, with costly presents and Peter's pence amounting to sixteen and a half million francs. He died February 8th, 1878, in the eighty- sixth 5'ear of his age and thirty-second of his pontificate. His heirs claimed the unpaid dotations of twenty million lire, but were refused by the courts of law.'— His secretary Antonelli, descended from an old brigand family, who from the time of his stay at Gaeta was his evil demon, predeceased him in a.d. 1876. Though the son of a poor herdsman and woodcutter, he left more than a hundred million lire. His natural daughter, to the great annoyance of the Vatican, sought, but without success, in the courts of justice to make good her claims against her father's greedy brothers.
5. Leo XIII. — After only two days' conclave the Cardinal-archbishop of Perugia, Joachim Pecci, born in a.d. 1810, was proclaimed on February 20th, 1878, as Leo XHI. In autogi-aph letters he intimated his accession to the German and Russian emperors, but not to the king of Italy, and expressed his Avish for a good mutual xnrderstand- in"-. To the government of the Swiss Cantons he declared his hope that their ancient friendly relations might be restored. At Easter, 1878, he issued an encyclical to all i)atriai'chs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, in Avhich he required of tliem that they should earnestly entreat the mediation of the " immaculate queen of heaven " and the intercessiou of St. Joseph, " the heavenly shield of the church," and
1 GefFcken, " Church and State," vol. ii., pp. 269-293 : " The Italian Question and the Papal States."
§ 185. THE PAPACY AND STATES OF THE CHURCH. 229
also failed not to make prominent the infallibility of the apostolic chair, and to condemn all the eri'ors condemned by his predecessors, emphasizing the necessity of restoring the temjDoral power of the pope, and confirming and renewing all the protests of his predecessor Pius IX., of sacred memory, against the overthrow of the Papal States. On the first anniversary of his elevation he pi'oclaimed a universal jubilee, with the promise of a complete indulgence. He still persisted in the prison myth of his predecessor, and like him sent back the Ijrofferred contribution of his "jailor." In the conflicts with foreign powers inherited from Pius, as well as in his own, he has emploj'ed generally moderate and conciliatory language. — He has not hesitated to take the first step to^'ard a good understanding A\-ith his oi^ponents, for Avhich, Avhile persistently maintaining the ancient principles of the papal chair, he makes certain concessions in regard to sub- ordinate matters, always with the design and expectation of seeing them outweighed on the other side by the conservation of all the other hierarchical pretensions of the curial system. It Avas, however, only in the middle of a.d. 1885 that it became evident that the pope had determined, without allowing any misunderstanding to arise between himself and his cardinals, to break through the trammels of the irreconcilable zealots in the college. And indeed after the conclusion of the German Kulturkampf (% 197, 18, 15), brought about by these means, in an allocution with reference thereto addressed to the cardinals in May, 1887, he gave an unexpected exjDression to his wish and longing in regard to an understanding with the government on the Italian question, which involved an utter renunciation of his predecessor's dogged Xon j^jo.stsw ;««*•, the attitude hitherto unfalteringly maintained. " Would that peaceful counsels," says he, " embracing all our peoples should prevail in Italy also, and that at last once that unhappy difference might be overcome without loss of privilege to the holy see ! " Such harmonj^, indeed, is only possible when the pope " is subjected to no authority and enjoys perfect freedom," which would cavise no loss to Italy, " but would only secure its lasting peace and safetj^" That he counts upon the good offices of the German emperor for the effecting of this longed-for restoration of such a modus vivemli with the Italian government, he has clearly indicated in his \n-e- liminar}^ communications to i\w Prussian centre exhorting to peace (§ 197, 14). The Mointeur de Rome (§ 188, 1), however, interpreted the words of the pope thus: "Italy would lose nothing materialh' or politically, if it gave a small corner of its territory to the pope, where he might enjoy actual sovereignty as a guarantee of his spiritual independence." — On Leo's contributions to theological science see § 191, 12 ; on his attitude to Protestantism and the Eastern Church, see § 175, 2, I. He expressed himself against the freemasons in an
230 CHURCH HISTORY OF KINETEEKTH CENTURY.
encyclical of a.d. 1884 Avith even greater sevei'ity than Pius. Con- sequently the Eoman Inquisition issued an instruction to all bishops thi-oughout the Catholic world requiring thejn to enjoin their clergy in the pul^iit and the confessional to make it known that all free- masons are eo ipso excommunicated, and hy Catholic associations of every sort, especially by the spread of tlae third order of St. Francis (§ 186, 2), the injunction was carried out. At the same time a year's reprieve Avas given to the freemasons, during which the Eoman heresy laws, which required their children, wives, and relatives to denounce them to all clergy and laymen, Avere to be suspended. Should the guilty, hoAvever, alloAV this day of grace to pass, these laAvs Avere to be again fully enforced, and then it Avould be onlj' for the pope to absolve them from their terrible sin.
§ 18G. Various Orders and Associations.
The order of the Jesuits restored in a.d. 1814 by Pius VII. impregnated all other orders with its spirit, gained com- manding influence over Pius IX., made the bishops its agents, and turned the whole Catholic church into a Jesuit institution. An immense number of societies arose aiming at the accomplishment of home mission work, inspired by the Jesuit spirit and carrying out unquestioningly the ultramontane ideas of their leaders. Also zeal for foreign missions on old Jesuit lines revived, and the enthusiasm for martyrdom was due mainly to the same cause.
1. Ihe Society of Jesus and Related Orders.— After the suppression of their order by Clement XIV. the Jesuits found refuge mainly among the Redemptorists (§ 165, 2), Avhose headquarters Avere at Vienna, from Avhich they spread through Austria and BaA'aria, finding entrance also into SAvitzerland, France, Belgium, and Holland, and after 1848 into Catholic Prussia, as Avell as into Hesse and Nassau. The Congre- gation of the Sacred Heart Avas founded by ex-Jesuits in Belgium in A.I). 17!)4, and soon spread in Aiistria and Bavaria. — The restored Jesuit order Avas met Avitli a storm of opposition from the liberals. The July revolution of a.d. 1830 di'ove the Jesuits from France, and when they sought to re-establish themselves, Gregory XVI., under pressure of the government, insisted that their genei'al should abolish the French institutions in a.d. 1845. An important branch of the order had sr^ttled in Catholic SAvitzerland, but the unfaA'ourable issue
§ 18G. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. 231
of the Separated Cantons' War of 1847 drove its members out of that refuge. The revolution of 1848 threatened the order with extinction, hut the papal restoration of a.d. 1850 re-introduced it into most Catholic countries. Since then the sons of Loj^ola have renewed their youth like the eagle. They have forced their waj^ into all lands, even in those on both sides of the ocean that had by legislative enact- ments been closed against them, spreading ultramontane views among Catholics, converting Protestants, and disseminating their principles in schools and colleges. Even Pius IX., under whose ausijices Aug. Theiner had been allowed, in a.d. 1853, in his " Histoiy of the Ponti- ficate of Clement XIV." to bring against them the heavy artillery drawn from " the secret archives of the Vatican,"' again handed over to them the management of public instruction, and surrendered him- self even more and more to their influence, so that at last he saw only by their eyes, heard only with their ears, and resolved only according to their will.^ The founding of the Italian kingdom under the Prince of Sardinia in a.d. 1860 led to their expulsion from all Italy, with the exception of Venice and the remnants of the Papal States. When, in a.d. 1866, Venice also became an Italian province, they migrated thence into the Tyrol and other Austrian provinces, where they enjoyed the blessings of the concordat (§ 198, 2). Spain, too, on the expulsion of Queen Isabella in a.d. 1868, and even Mexico and several of the States of Central and Southern America, drove out the disciples of Loyola. On the other hand, they made brilliant progress in Germany, especially in Rhenish Hesse and the Catholic provinces of Prussia. But under the new German empire the Eeichstag, in a.d. 1872, passed a laAV suppressing the Jesuits and all similar orders throughout the empire (§ 197, 4). They were also foraually expelled from France in a.d. 1880 (§ 203, 6). Still, however, in a.d. 1881 the order numbered 11,000 members in five provinces, and according to Bismarck's calculation in a.d. 1872 their property amounted to 280 million thalers. In a.d. 1853 John Beckx of Belgium was made general. He retii-ed in a.d. 1884 at the age of ninetj^, Anderladj-, a Swiss, having been appointed in a.d. 1883 his colleague and suc- cessor.— The hope which was at first widely entertained that Leo XIII. would emancipate himself from the domination of the order seems more and more to be proved a vain delusion. In July, 1886, he issued, on the occasion of a new edition of the institutions of the order, a letter to Anderlady, in which he, in the most extravagant maimer, speaks of the order as having performed the most signal s?rvices '' to the church and society," and confirms anew everj-thing that his predecessors had said and done in its favour, while expressly
» Geffcken, " Church and State." vol. ii., pp. 236-238.
232 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and formalh- he recalls anew anything that any of them had said and done against it.
2. Other Orders and Congregations.— After the storms of the revo- Ivition religious ordeis rapidly recovered lost ground. France decreed, on Xovember 2nd, 1789, the abolition of all orders, and cloisters and in 1802, under Napoleon's auspices, they were also suppress-^d in the German empire and the friendly princes indemnified Avith their goods. Yet on grounds of utility Napoleon restored the Lazarists, as Avell as the Sisters of Mercy, whose scattered remnants he collected in A.D. 1807 in Paris into a general chapter, under the presidency of the empress-mother. But new cloisters in great numbers Avere erected specially in Belgium and France (in opposition to the laAA- of 1789, Avhich Avas unrepealed), in Austria, BaA'aria, Prussia, Rhenish Hesse, etc., as also in England and America, In 1849 there were in Prussia fifty monastic institutes ; in 1872 there Avere 9(37. In Cologne one in every 215, in Aachen one in every 110, in Miinster one in every sixty-one, in Paderborn one in CA^ery thirty -three, Avas a Catholic priest or member of an order. In BaA'aria, between 1831 and 1873 the number of cloisters rose from 43 to 628, all, Avith the exception of some old Benedictine monasteries, inspired ajid dominated by the Jesuits. Even the Dominicans, originally such deternained opponents, are noAV perA'aded by the Jesuit spirit. The restoration of the Trappist order (§ 156, 8) deserves special mention. On their expulsion from La Trappe in a.d. 1791 the brothers found an asylum in the Canton Freiburg, and Avhen driven thence by the French invasion of A.D. 1798, Paul I. obtained from the czar permission for them to settle in White Russia, Poland, and Lithuania. But expelled from these regions again in A.n. 1800 they Avandered through Europe and America, till after Napoleon's defeat thej' purchased back the monas- tery of La Trai^pe, and made it the centre of a group of ncAV settlements throughout France and be^'ond it. — Besides regular orders there Avere also numerous congregations or religious societies Avith communal life according to a definite but not perpetually binding rule, and Avithout the obligation of seclusion, as Avell as brotherhoods and sisterhoods Avithout any such rule, Avhich after the restoration of a.d. 1814 in France and after a.d. 1848 in Germany, Avere formed for the purposes of prayer, charity, education, and such like. From France many of these spread into the Rhine Provinces and Westphalia. — In Spain and Portugal (§205, 1, 5) all orders Avere repeatedly abolished, subsequently also in Sardinia and CA^en in all Italy (§ 204, 1, 2), and also- in seA'eral Romish American states (§ 209, 1, 2), as also in Prussia and Hesse (§ 197, 8, 15). Finally the third French Republic has enforced existing laAvs against all orders and congregations not authorized by the State (§ 206, G).— On the 700th annivf-rsiry of the birth of St. Francis, in
§ 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. 233
September, 1882, Leo XIII. issued an encyclical declaring the institute of the Franciscan Tertiaries (§ 98, 11) alone capable of saving human society from all the political and social dangers of the present and future, Avhich had some success at least in Italy.
Of Avhat inhuman barbarity the superiors of cloisters are still cap- able is shown inatar omnium in the horrible treatment of the nun Barbara Ubryk, who, avowedly on account of a breach of her vow of chastity, was confined since a.d. 1818 in the cloister of the Carmelite nuns at Cracow in a dark, narrow cell beside the sewer of the convent, Avithout fire, bed, chair, or table. It was only in a.d. 1869, in con- S3quence of an anonymous communication to the law officers, that she was freed from her prison in a semi-animal condition, quite naked, starved, and covered with filth, and consigned to an as3"lum. The populace of Cracow, infuriated at such conduct, covild be restrained fmm demolishing all the cloisters only by the aid of the military.
8. The Pius Verein. — A society under the name of the Pius Verein was started at Mainz in October, 1848, to fvirther Catholic interests, advocating the church's independence of the State, the right of the clergy to direct education, etc. At the annual meetings its leading members boasted in grossly exaggerated terms of what had been accomplished an<l recklessly pro2:)hesied of what would yet be achieved. At the twenty-eighth general assembly at Bonn in a.d. 1881, with an attendance of 1,100, the same confident tone was main- tained. Windhorst reminded the Prussian government of the purchase of the Sibj'lline books, and declared that each case of breaking off" negotiations raised the price of the peace. Not a tittle of the ultramontane claims would be surrendered. The watchword is the complete restoration of the -yfatus quo ante. Baron von Loe, president of the Canisius Verein, conckided his triumphant speech with the summons to raise the membership of the union from 80,000 to 800,000, yea to 8,000,000; then would the time be near when Germany should become again a Catholic land and the church again tlie leader of the people. At the assembly at Dlisseldorf in a.d. 1883, Windhorst declared, amid the enthusiastic applause of all present, that after the absolute abrogation of the May laws the centre would not rest till education was again committed unreservedly to the church. In the assembly at Miinster in a.d. 1885, he extolled the pope (notwithstanding all confiscation and imprisoning for the time being) as the governor and lord of the whole Avorld. The thirtA'- third assembly at Breslau in a.d. 1886, Avith special emphasis, demanded the recall of all orders, including that of the Jesuits.
4. The various German unions graduallj' fell under ultramontane influences. The Borromr-o Society circulated Catholic books incul- cating ultramontane views in politics and religion. The Boniface
234 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Union, founded by Martin, Bishop of Paderborn, aided needy Catholic congregations in Protestant districts. Other unions -were devoted to foreign missions, to work among Germans in foreign lands, etc. In all the universities such societies were formed. In Bavaria patriot peasant associations were set on foot, as a standing army in the con- flict of the ultramontane hierarchy with the new German empire. For the same purpose Bishop Ketteler founded in a.d. 1871 the Mainz Catholic Union, which in a.d. 1814 had 90,000 members. The GiJrres Society of 1876 (§ 188, 1) and the Canisius Society of 1879 (§ 151, 1) were meant to promote education on ultramontane lines. — In Italy such societies have striven for the restoration of the temporal poAver and the supremacy of the church over the State. The unions of France were confederated in a.d. 1870, and this general association holds an annual congress. The several unions were called " cwfres." The Q^avre du Voeic National, e.g., had the task of restoring penitent France to the " sacred heart of Jesus " (§ 188, 12) ; the Q^uvre Ponti- fical made collections of Peter's pence and for persecuted priests ; the (Euvre cle Jems-Ouvrier had to do with the working classes, etc.
5. The knowledge of the omnipotence of capital in these days led to various proposals for turning it to account in the interests of Catholicism. The Catholic Bank schemes of the Belgian Langrand- Dumonceau in 1872 and the Munich bank were pure swindles ; and that of Adele Spitzeder 1869-1872, pronounced " holy ■' by the clergy and iiltramontane press, collapsed Avith a deficit of eight and a quarter million florins. — Archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati invited church members to avoid risk to bank with him. He invested in land, advanced money for building churches, cloisters, schools, etc., and in A.D. 1878 found himself bankrupt Avith liabilities amounting to five million dollars. He then oftered to resign his office, but the pope refused and gave him a coadjutor, whereupon the archbishop retired into a cloister Avhere he died in his eighty-third year. In the Union Generale of Paris, founded in 1876, Avhich came to a crash in 1882, the French aristocracy, the higher clergy and members of orders lost hundreds of millions of francs.
6. The Catholic Missions. — The impulse given to Catholic interests after 1848 Avas seen in the zeal Avith Avhich missions in Catholic lands, like the Protestant Methodist rcAaval and camp-meetings (§ 208, 1), began to be prosecuted. An attempt Avas thus made to gather in the masses, Avho had been estranged froni the church during the storais of the revolution. The Jesuits and Kedemptorists AA^ere prominent in this Avork. In bands of six they visited stations, staying for three Aveeks, hearing confessions, addressing meetings three times a day, and concluding by a general communion.
7. Besides the Propaganda (§ 156, 9), fourteen societies in Rome,
§ 186. VARIOUS ORDERS AND ASSOCIATIONS. 235
three in Paris, thirty in the whole of Cp.tholic Christendom, are devoted to the dissemination of Catholicism among Heretics and Heathens. The Lyons Association for the spread of the faith, insti- tuted in 1822, has a revenue of from four to six million francs. Specially famous is the Picpus Society, so called from the street in Paris where it has its headquarters. Its founder was the deacon Coudrin, a pupil of the seminary for priests at Poictiers broken up in A.D. 1789. Amid the evils done to the church and the priests by the Revolution, in his hiding-place he heard a divine call to found a society for the purpose of training the youth in Catholic principles, educating priests, and bringing the gospel to the heathen "by atoning for excesses, crimes, and sins of all kinds by an unceasing day and night devotion of the most holy sacrament of the altar." Such a society he actually founded in a.d. 1805, and Pius VII. confirmed it in A.D. 1817. The founder died in a.d. 1837, after his society had spread over all the five continents. Its chief aim henceforth was missions to the heathen. While the Picpus society, as Avell as the other seminaries and monkish orders, sent forth croAvds of mission- aries, other societies devoted themselves to collecting monej^ and engaging in prayer. The most important of these is the Lyonese Society for the spread of the faith of a.d. 1822. The anember"s Aveeklj' contribution is 5 cents, the daily prayer-demand a paternoster, an angel greeting, and a "St. Francis Xavier, pray for us." The fanatical journal of the society had a yearly circulation of almost 250,000 copies, in ten European languages. The popes had showered upon its members rich indulgences. — After Protestant missions had received such a powerful impulse in the nineteenth century, the Catholic societies were thereby impelled to force in wherever success had been won and seemed likely to be secured, and wrought with all conceivable Jesuitical arts and devices, for the most part under the political protection of France. The Catholic missions have been most zealously and successfully prosecuted in North America, China, India, Japan, and among the schismatic chiirches of the Levant, Since 1837 they have been advanced by aid of the French navy in the South Seas (§ 184, 7) and in Xorth Africa by the French occupation of Algiers, and most recently in ]\Iadagascar. In South Africa they have made no progress. — In a.d. 1837-1839 a bloody persecution raged in Tonquin and Cochin China ; in a.d. 1866 Christianity was rooted out of Corea, and over 2,000 Christians slain; two years later persecution was renewed in Japan. In China, through the op^sressions of the French, the people rose against the Catholics resident there. This movement reached a climax in the rebelliim of 1870 at Tientsin, when all French officials, missionaries, and sisters of mercy Avere put to death, and the French consulate, Catholic churches and mission liousps Avere levelled
236 CHURCH history of nineteenth century.
to the ground. Also in Further India since the French war of a.d, 1883 -with Tonquin, over -which China claimed rights of suzerainty, the Catholic missions have again suffered, and many missionaries have been martyred.
§ 187. Liberal Catholic Movements.
Alongside of tlie steady growth of iiltramontanism from the time of the restoration of the papacy in a.d. 1814, there arose also a reactionary movement, partly of a mystical- irenical, evangelical-revival and liberal-scientific, and partly of a radical-liberalistic, character. But all the leaders in such movements sooner or later succumbed before the strictly administered discipline of the hieraxxhy. The Old Catholic reaction (§ 190), on the other hand, in spite of various disadvantages, still maintains a vigorous existence.
1. Mystical-Irenical Tendencies.— J. M. Sailer, deprived in a.d. 1794 of his ofiice at Dillingen (§ 16o, 12), Avas appointed in a.d. 1799 professor of moral and pastoral theology at Ingolstadt, and -was transferred to Landshut in a.d. 1800. There for twenty 3'ears his mild and concilia- tory as well as profoundly pious mj'sticism po^^'erfully influenced crowds of students from South Geiinany and iSwitzerland. Though the pope refused to confirm his nomination by Maximilian as Bishop of Augsburg in a.d. 1820, he so far cleared himself of the suspicion of mysticism, separatism, and crypto-calvinism, that in a.d. 1829 no opposition was made to his appointment as Bishop of Regensburg. Sailer continued faithful to the Catholic dogmatic, and none of his numerous writings have been put in the Index. Yet he lay luider suspicion till his death in a.d. 1832, and this seemed to be justified by the intercourse which he and his discii)les had Avith Protestant pietists. His likeminded scholai', friend, and vicar-general, the Suf- fragan-bishop Wittmann, was designated his successor in Regensburg, but he died before receiving pai)al confirmation. Of all his pupils the most distinguished was the AVestphalian Baron von Diepenbrock, over whose wild, inti'actable, youthful nature Sailer exercised a magic influence. In a.d. 1823 he was ordained priest, became Sailer's secre- tai-y, remaining his confidential companion till his death, was made vicar-general to Sailer's successor in a.d. 1842, and in a.d. 1845 was raised to the archiepiscopal chair of Breslau, where he joined the ultramontanes, and entered Avith all his heart into the ecclesiastico- political coutlicts of the "Wurzburg ei)iscopal congress (§ 192, 4).
§ 187. LIBERAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS. 237
His services ■were i-eAvarded bj- a cardinars liat from Pius IX. in a.d. 1850. His pastoral letters, however, as well as his sermons and private correspondence, show that he never altogether forgot the teaching of his spiritual father. He delighted in the study of the mediaeval mystics, and M'as speciall}' drawn to the writings of Suso.
2. Evangelical-Revival Tendencies. — A movement much more evan- gelical than that of Sailer, having the doctrine of justification by faith alone as its centre, was originated by a simple Ba\"arian priest, Martin Boos, and soon embraced sixty priests in the diocese of Augs- burg. The spiritual experiences of Boos were similar to those of Luther. The Avords of a poor old sick woman brought peace to his soul in A.D. 1790, and led him to the studj^ of Scripture. His preach- ing among the people and his conversations with the surrounding clergy produced a widespread revival. Amid manifold persecutions, removed from one parish to another, find flying from Bavaria to Austria and thence into Rhenish Prussia, where he j^ied in a.d. 1825 as priest of Sayn, he lighted wherever he went the torch of truth. Even after his convei-sion Boos believed that he still maintained the Catholic position, but was at last to his own astonishment convinced of the contrary through intercourse Avith Protestant pietists and the study of Luther's works. But so long as the mother church would keep him he wished not to foisake her.' So too felt his like-minded companions Gossner and Lindl, who were expelled from Bavaria in A.D. 1829 and settled in St. Petersburg. Lindl, as Provost of South Kussia, went to i-eside in Odessa, Avhere he exercised a powerful influ- ence over Catholics and Protestants and among the higher classes of the Russians. The machinations of the Roman Catholic and Greek churches caused both Gossner and Lindl to leave Russia in a.d. 1S24. They then joined the evangelical church, Lindl in Barmen and Gossner in Berlin. Lindl drifted more and more into mystico- apocalj'ptic fanaticism ; but Gossner, ivom a.d. 1829 till his death in A.D. 1858 as pastor of the Bohemian church in Berlin, proved a sincere evangelical and a most successful worker. — The Bavarian priest Lutz of Carlshuld, influenced by Boos, devoted himself to the temporal and spiritual well-being of his people, pi-eached Christ as the saviour of sinners, and exhorted to diligent reading of the Bible. In a.d. 1831, with 600 of his congregation, he joined the Protestant church ; but to avoid separation from his beloved people, he retiu'ned again after ten months, and most of his flock Avith him, still retaining his eA'angelical conA'ictions. He Avas not, lioAveA'er, restored to office, and subsequently in A.D. 1857, Avith three Catholic priests of the diocese, he attached himself to the IrA'ingites, and was Avith them excommunicated.
' Bridges, " Life of ^Martin Bocs." London, 1836.
238 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
8. Liberal-Scientific Tendencies. — Von Wessenberg, as vicar-general of the diocess of Constance introduced such drastic administrative reforms as proved most distasteful to the nuncio of Lucerne and the Romish curia. He also endeavoured unsuccessfully to restore a German national Catholic chiu-ch. In the retirement of his later years he wrote a history of the church synods of the fifteenth and sixteenth centui'ies, which gave great offence to the ultrumontanes. — Fr. von Baader of Munich expressed himself so strongly against the absolutism of the papal system that the ultramontane minister, Von Abel, suspended his lectures on the philosophy of religion in A.D. 1838. He gave still greater offence by his woi-k on Eastern and Western Catholicism, in which he preferred the former to the latter. ^ The talented Hirscher of Freiburg more interested in what is Chris- tian than what is Roman Catholic, could not be won over to yield party service. to the ultramontanes. They persecuted unrelentingly leop. Schmid, #hose theosophical speculation had done so much to restore the prestige of theology at Giessen, and had utterly discredited their pretensions. When his enemies successfully opposed his con- secration as Bishop of Mainz in a.d. 1849, he resigned his professorship and joined the philosophical faculty. Goaded on by the venomous attacks of his opponents he advanced to a more extreme position, and finally declared '• that he was compelled to renounce the sijecifically Roman Catholic church so long as she refused to acknowledge the true worth of the gospel.''
4. Eadical-Liberalistic Tendencies. — The brothers Theiner of Breslau wrote in a.d. 1828 against the celibacy of the clergy ; but subsequently John attached himself to the German-Catholics, and in a.d. 1833 Augustine returned to his allegiance to Rome (§ 191, 7). — During the July Revolution in Paris, the ^Driest Lamennais, formerly a zealous supporter of absolutism, became the enthusiastic apostle of liberalism. His journal UAvenir, a.d. 1830-1832, Avas the organ of the party, and his Paroles (Tmi Croyant^ a.d. 1834, denounced by the pope as unutter- ably wicked, made an iniprecedented sensation. The endeavour, however, to unite elements thoroughly incongruous led to the gradual breaking up of the school, and Lamennais himself approximated more and more to the principles of modern socialism. He died in a.d. 1854. One of his most talented associates on the staff of the Atcnir was the celebrated pulpit orator Lacordaire, a.d. 1802-1861. Upon Gregory's denunciation of the journal in a.d. 1832 Lacordaire submitted to Rome, entered the Dominican order in a.d. 1840, and wrote a life of Dominic
1 Hamberger, " Sketch of the Character of the Theosophy of Baader," translated in American Preshyferian and Theological Peview, 18(J9.
§ 187. LIBEEAL CATHOLIC MOVEMENTS. 239
in which he eulogised the Inqiiisition ; but his eloquence still attracted crowds to Notre Daiiie. Ultimately he fell completely under the influence of the Jesuits.
5. Attempts at Eeform in Church Government. — In a.d. 1861 Liverani, pope''s chai^lain and apostolic notary, exposed the scandalous mis- management of Antonelli, the corruption of the sacred college, the demoralization of the Eoman clergy, and the ambitious schemes of the Jesuits, recommended the restoration of the holy Roman empire, not indeed to the Germans, but to the Italians : the pope should confer on the king of Italy by divine authority the title and privileges of Roman emperor, who, on his part, should undertake as papal manda- tory the political administration of the States of the Church. But in A.D. 1878 he sought and obtained papal forgiveness for his errors. The Jesuit Passaglia expressed enthusiastic approval of the move- ments of Victor Emanuel and of Cavour's ideal of a " free church in a free state." He was expelled from his order, his book was put into the Index, but the Italian Government appointed him professor of moral philosophy in Turin. At last he retracted all that he had said and wiitten. In the preface to his jDOi^ular exposition of the gospels of 1874, the Jesuit father Curci tirged the advisability of a reconcilia- tion between the Holy See and the Italian government, and expressed his conviction that the Church States would never be restored. That year he addressed the pope in similar terms, and refusing to retract, Avas expelled his order in a.d. 1877. Leo XIII. by friendly measures sought to move him to recant, but without success. The condem- nation of his books led to their wider circulation. In a.d. 1883 he charged the Holy See with the guilt of the unholy schism between church and state ; but in the following year he retracted whatever in his writings the pope regarded as opposed to the faith, morals, and discipline of the Catholic church.
G. Attempts to Found National Catholic Churches. — After the July Revolution of a.d. 1830 the Abbe Chatel of Paris had himself conse- crated bishop of a new sect by a new-templar dignitary (§ 210, 1) and became primate of the French Catholic Church, whose creed recog- nised only the law of nature and viewed Christ as a mere man. After various congregations had been formed, it was suppressed by the police in A.D. 1842. The Abb6 Helsen of Brussels made a much more earnest endeavour to lead the church of his fatherland from the antichrist to the true Christ. His Apostolic Catholic Church was dissolved in A.I). 1857 and its remnants joined the Protestants. The founding of the German Catholic Church in a.d. 1844 promised to be more endur- ing. In August of that year, Arnoldi, Bishop of Ti-eves, exhibited the holy coat preserved there, and attracted one and a half millions of pilgrims to Treves (§ 188, 2). A suspended priest, Ronje, in a letter
240 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY,
to the bishop denounced the -worship of relics, s(;eking to pose as tlie Luther of the nineteenth centur3'. Czerski of Posen had in August, 18il, seceded from the Catholic church, and in October founded the "Christian Catholic Apostolic Church," whose creed embodied the negations without the positive beliefs of the Protestant confessions, maintaining in other respects the fundamental articles of the Christian faith. E,onge meanwhile formed congregations in all parts of Ger- man}-, excejjting Bavaria and Austria. A General Assembly hf^ld at Leipzig in March, 1845, brought to light the deplorable religioiis nihilism of the leaders of the party. Czerski, who refused to abandon the doctrine of Christ's divinity, withdrew from the conference, but Eonge held a triumphal procession through Germany. His hollow- ness, however, became so apparent that his adherents grew ashamed of their enthusiasm for the new reformer. His congregations began to break up ; many withdrew, several of the leaders threw off the mask of religion and adopted the role of political revolutionists. After the settlement that followed the disturbances of a.d. 1848 the remnants of this party disappeared.'
7. The inferior clergy of Italy, after the political emancipation of Naples from the Bou^rbon domination in a.d. 18(30, longed for deli- verance from clerical tj'ranny, and founded in a.d. 1862 a society' with the object of establishing a national Italian church independent of the Romish curia. Four Neapolitan churches were put at the disposal of the society by the minister Eicasoli, but in 1865, an agree- ment having been come to between the curia and the government, the bishops were recalled and the churches restored. Thousands, to save themselves from starvation, gave in their submission, but a small party still remained faithful. Encouraged by the events of 1870 (§§ 135, 'd\ 189, 8), they were able in 1875 to draw up a "dogmatic statement" for the "Church of Italy independent of the lloman hierarchy," which indeed besides the Holy Scriptures admitted the authority of the universal church as infallible custodian and inter- preter of revealed truth, but accepted only the first seven oecumenical councils as binding. In the same year Bishop Tiu^ano of Girgenti excommunicated five priests of the Silician town Grotta as opponents of the syllabus and the dogma of infallibility. The whole clergy of the town, numbering twenty -five, then renounced their obedience to the bishop, and Avith the approval of the inhabitants declared them- S3lves in favour of the " statement." North of Rome this movement made little pi-ogress; but in 1875 three villages of the Mantuan diocese claimed the ancient privilege of choosing their own priest,
1 Laing, " Notes on the Rise, Progress, etc., of the German Catholic Church of Ronge and Czerski." London, 1845.
§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. 241
and the bishop and other authorities were obliged to yield. The Neapolitan movement, however, as a whole seems to be losing itself in the sand.
8. The Frenchman, Charles Loyson, knoAvn by his Carmelite monkish name of Fere Hijaci»fhr, Avas ])rotected fi'om the Jesuits by Archbishop Darboy when he inveighed against the corruptions of the church, and even Pius IX. on his visit to Rome in 1868 treated him with favour. The general of his order having imposed silence on him, he publicl}- announced his secession from the order and appeared as a " preacher of the gospel," claiming from a future General Council a sweeping reform of the church, protesting against the falsifying of the gospel of the Son of God by the Jesuits and the papal syllabus. He A\-as then excommunicated. In a.d. 1871 he joined the German Old Catholics (§ 190, 1) ; and though he gave offence to them by his marriage, this did not prevent the Old Catholics of Geneva from choosing him as their ]:)astor. But after ten months, because " he sought not the overthrow but the reform of the Catholic church, and reprobated the despotism of the mob as well as that of the clergy, the infallibility of the state as well as that of the pope," he withdrew and returned to Paris, Avhere he endeavoured to establish a French National Church free of Eomo and the Pope. The clerical minister Broglie, however, compelled him to restrict himself to moral-religious lectures. In Februar}-, 1879, he built a chapel in which he preaches on Sundaj's and celo- bi-ates mass in the French language. He sought alliance with the Swiss Christian Catholics, whose bishop, Hei-zog, heartily recipro- cated his wishes, and with the Anglican church, which gave a friendly response. But that this " seed corn " of a " Catholic Gallican Church ' will ever grow into a fully developed plant was from the very outset rendered more than doubtful by the peculiar nature of the sower, as well as of the seed and the soil.
§ 188. Catholic Ultramoxtaxism.
The restoration of the Jesuit order led, during the long pontificate of Pius IX., to the revival and hitherto un- approached prosperity of ultramontanism, especially in France, whose bishops cast the Gallican Liberties over- board (§§ 15B, 3 ; 203, 1), and in Germany, where with strange infatuation even Protestant princes gave it all manner of encouragement. Even the lower clergy were trained from their youth in hierarchical ideas, and under
VOL. III. 1 6
242 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
the despotic nile of tlieir bisliops, and a reign of terror carried on by spies and secret courts, were constrained to continue the profession of the strictest absolutism.
1. The Ultramontane Propaganda. — In Trance iiltramontanism re- vived with tlif restoration. Its first and ablest ]3roi3liet was Count de Maistre, a.d. 175-1-1821, long Sardinian ambassador at St. Petersburg. He wrote against the modern views of the relations of church and state, supporting the infallibilit3% absolutism, and inviolability of the pope. He was supported by Bonald, Chateaiibriand, Lamar tine, Lamennais, Lacordaire, and Montalembert. Only Bonald maintained this attitude. Between him and Chateaubriand a dispute arose over the f i-eedom of the press ; Lamennais and Lacordaire began to blend political radicalism with their ultramontanism ; Lamartine involved himself in the February revolution of 1818 as the apostle of humanity ; and Montalembert took up a half-way position. In 1840 Louis Veuillot started the Uiiivers Eelifjieitx in place of the Avenh', in which, till his death in 1883, he vindicated the extremest ultramontanism. — In Germany ultramontane views were disseminated by romancing his- torians and poets mostly converts from Protestantism. Gorres, pro- fessor of history in Munich, represented the Reformation as a second fall, and set forth the legends of ascetics in his " History of Mysticism "' as sound history. The German bishops set themselves to train the clergy in hierarchical views, and by a rule of ten'or prevented any departure fi'om that theoiy. The ultramontanismg of the masses Avas carried on by missions, and by the establishment of brotherhoods and sisterhoods. In the beginning of a.d. 1860 there were only thirteen ultramontane journals Avith very few subscribers, while in January, 1875, there were three hundred. The most important Avas Germania, founded at Berlin in 1871. — The Civilth Cattolica of Rome was ahvays revised before publication by Piiis IX., and tinder Leo XIII. a similar position is held by the Moniteiir de JRome, while the Oitnervatore JRomano and the Voce della verita have also an official character.
2. Miracles. — Prince Hohenlohe went through many parts of Ger- many, Austria, and Hungary, performing miraculous cures ; biit his day of favour soon passed, and he settled doA\n as a writer of ascetical works. — Pilgrimages to wonder-working shrines were encouraged by reports of cures wrought on the grand-niece of the Bishop of Cologne (§ 198, 1), cured of knee-joint disease before the holy coat of Treves (§ 187, 6). Subjected to examination, the pretended seamless coat was found to be a bit of the gray Avoollen Avrapping of a costly silk Byzantine garment. U feet broad and 1 toot long.
§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. 243
3. Stigmatizations. — In many cases these marks were found to have been fraudulently made, but in other cases it Avas questionable whether we had not here a pathological problem, or whether hysteria created a desire to deceive or pre-disposed the subject to being duped under clerical influence. Anna Cath. Emmerich, a nun of Diilmen in Westphalia, in 1812, professed to have on her body bloody wound- marks of the Saviour. For five years down to her death in 1824, the poet Brentano sat at her feet, venerating her as a saint and listening to her ecstatic revelations on the death and suffei'ings of the Redeemer and his mother. Overberg, Sailer, and Von Stolberg were also satisfied of the genuineness of her revelations and of the miraculous marking of her body. The physician Von Drussel examined the Avound -prints and certified them as miraculous ; but Bodde, professor of chemistry at Miinster, pronounced the blood marks spots produced by dragon's- blood. Competent physicians declared her a hysterical woman in- capable of distinguishing between dream and reality, truth and lies, honesty and deceit. Others famous in the same line were Maria von Worl, Dominica Lazzari, and Crescentia Stinklutsch ; also Dorothea Visser of Holland and Juliana Weiskircher from near Vienna.
4. Of a very doubtful kind were the miraculous marks on Louise Lateau, daughter of a Belgian miner. On 24th April, 1868, it is said she was marked with the print of the Saviour's wounds on hands, feet, side, brow, and shoulders. In July, A.n. 1868, she fell into an ecstasy, from which she could be aA\-akened only by her bishop or one author- ized by him. Ti-ustworthy physicians, after a careful medical exami- nation, reported that she laboured under a disease which they pro- posed to call "stigmatic neuropathy." Chemical analysis proved the presence of food which had been regularly taken, probably in a som- nambulistic trance. In the summer of 1875 her sister for a time put an end to the affair by refusing the clergy entrance into the house, and she was then obliged to eat, drink, and sleep like other Christians, so that the Friday bloody marks disappeared. But now, say ultramon- tane journals, Louise became dangerously ill, and clergy were called in to her help, and the marks were again visible. Her patron Bisho]) Dumont of Tournay being deposed by the pope in 1879, she took part against his successor, and was threatened with excommunication, (S 200, 7). She was now deserted by the ultramontanes and Belgian clergy, and treated as a i)oor, weak-minded invalid. She died neglected and in obsci^rity in a.u. 1888.
5. Of pseudo-stigmatizatious thoro has been no lack even in the most recent times. In 1845 Caroline Beller, a girl of fifteen years, in Westphalia, was examined by a skilful physician. On Thursday he laid a linen cloth over the wound prints, and sure enough on Friday it was marked with blood stains ; but also strips of paper laid under,
244 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
■without her knoAvledge, were pricked -with needles. The delinquent now confessed her deceit, AA'hich she had been tempted to perpetrate from reading the works of Francis of Assisi, Catherine of Siena, and Emmerich. Theresa Stadele in 1849, Rosa Tamisier in 1851, and Angela Hupe in 1863, were convicted of fraudulently pretending to have stigmata. The latter was proved to have feigned deafness and lameness for a Avhole year, to have diligently read the writings of Emmerich in 1861, to have shown the physician fresh bleeding wounds on hands, feet, and side, and to have affirmed that she had neither eaten nor drunk for a year. Four sisters of mercy were sent to attend her, and they soon discovered the fraud. In 1876 the father confessor of Ernestine Hauser was prosecuted for damages, having injured the girl's health by the severe treatment to -vA-hich she was subjected in order to induce ecstasy and obtain an opportunity for impressing the stigmata. Sabina Schafer of Baden, in her eighteenth year, had for tAvo years borne the repiitation of a Avonder-AA-orking saint, Avho every Friday showed the five Avound prints, and in ecstasy told Avho AA-ere in hell and Avho in purgatory. She professed to live without food, though often she betook herself to the kitchen to pray alone, and even carried food Avith her to give to her guardian angel to carry to the distant poor. When tinder surveillance in 1880 she sought to bribe her guardian to bring her meat and drinlv, fragments of food Avere found among her clothes, and also a flask Avith blood and an instru- ment for puncturing the skin. She confessed her guilt, and Avas sentenced by the criminal court of Baden to ten Aveeks' imprisonment. The ultramontane Pfcllzer Bote complained that so-called liberals should ruthlessly encroach on the rights of the church and the family. (). Manifestations of the Mother of God in France. — The most cele- brated of these manifestations occurred in 1858 at Lourdes, Avhere in a grotto the Virgin repeatedly appeared to a peasant girl of fourteen years, almost imbecile, named Bernadette Soubirous, saying " Je suis I'Immaculee Conception," and urging the erection of a chapel on that spot. A miracle-Avorking Avell spra,ng up there. Since 1872 the pilgrimages under sanction of the hierarchy have been on a scale of unexampled magnificence, and the cures in number and significance far excelling anything heard of before. — At the village of La Salette in the departmeiit of Isere, in 1846 tAvo poor children, a boy of fifteen and a girl of eleven years, saAV a fair Avhite-dressed lady sitting on a stone and shedding tears, and, lo, from the spot Avherc her foot rested sprang up a aa-cII, at Avhich innumerable cures have been Avrought. The epidemic of visions of the Virgin reached a climax in Alsace Lorraine in 1872. In a wood near the village of Gereuth croAvds of Avomon and children gathered, professing to see visions of the mother of Cod ; but Avhen the police appeared to protect the forest, the
§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTRAMONTANISM. 245
manifestation craze spread over the whole land, and at thirty-five stations almost daily visions were enjoj-ed. The epidemic reached its crisis in Mary's month, May, 1874, and continued with intervals down to the end of the year. In some cases deceit was proved ; but generally it seemed to be the result of a diseased imagination and self-deception fostered by speculative purveyors and the ultramontane press and clerg}-.
7. Manifestations of the Mother of God in Germany.— In the summer of 187G three girls of eight years old in the village of Marpingen, in the department of Treves, saw by a well a white-robed lady, with the halo over her head and with a child in her arms, who made herself known as the immaculate Virgin, and called for the erection of a chapel. A voice from lieaven said. This is my beloved Son, etc. There were also processions and choirs of angels, etc. The devil, too, appeared and ordered them to fall down and worship him. Thousands crowded from far and near, and the water of the fountain wrought miraculous cures. The surrounding clergj' made a profitable busi- ness of sending the water to America, and the Germania of Berlin unweariedly sounded forth its praises. Before the court of justice the children confessed the fraud, and ivere sentenced to the house of correction ; and though on technical grounds this judgment was set aside, the supreme court of appeal in 1879 pronounced the -whole thing a scandalous and disgraceful swindle, — Weichsel, priest of Dittricliswald in Ermland, Avho gained great reputation as an exorcist, made a pilgrimage to Marpingen in the summer of 1877, and on his return gave such an account of what he had seen to his communicants' class that fii-st one and then another saw the mother of God at a maple tree, which also became a favourite resort for pilgrims,
8. Canonizations.— When in 1825 Leo XII. canonized a Spanish monk Julianus, who among other miracles had made roasted birds fly aA\'ay ufl" the spit, the Eoman wits remarked that they would prefer a saint who would put birds on the spit for them. St. Liguori was canonized by Gregory XVI. in 1839. Pius IX. canonized fifty-two and beatified twenty-six of the martyrs of Japan. The Franciscans had sought from Urban VIII. in IG'27 canonization for six missionaries and seventeen Japanese converts martyred in 159G (§ 150, 2), but were refused because they would not pay 52,000 Eoman thalers for the privilege. Pius IX. granted this, and included three Jesuit mission- aries. At Pentecost, 18(32, the celebration took place, amid acclama- tions, firing of cannons, and ringing of bells. In 18G8 the infamous president of the heretic tribunal Arbues (§ 117, 2) received the dis- tinction. The number of doctores ecdeaim was increased \)y Pius IX. by the addition of Hilary of Poitiers in 1851, Liguori in 1870, and Francis de Sales in 1877. And Leo XIII. canonized foiu- new saints
246 CHUECH HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.
the most distinguished of whom was the French mendicant, Bened. Jos. Labre, who after having been dismissed by Carthusians, Cister- cians, and Trappists as unteachable, made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he stayed fifteen years in abject poverty, and died in 17S3 in his thirty-sixth year.
y. Discoveries of Relics.— The Roman catacombs continued still to supply the demand for relics of the saints for newly erected altars. Toward the end of a.d. 1870 the Archbishoi) of St. lago de Compostella (§ 88, 4) made excavations in the crypt of his cathedral, in con- sequence of an old ti-adition that the bones of the Apostle James the Elder, the supposed founder of the church, had been deposited there, and he succeeded in discovering a stone coifin with remains of a skeleton. The report of this made to Pius IX. gave occasion to the appointment of a commission of seven cardinals, who, after years of minute examination of all confirmatory historical, archaeological, anatomical, and local questions, svibmitted their report to Leo XIII., whereupon, in November, 1884, he issued an " Apostolic Brief," by Avhich he (without publishing the report) declared the unmistakable genuineness of the discovered bones as ex constanti et 'pervulgato apud omnes sermone jam ah Apostoloriim cetate memoricc jJrodita, pronounced the relics generally jJ^rennes foiites, from which the doita ccelcstia flow forth like brooks among the Christian nations, and calls attention to the fact that it is just in this century, in which the power of darkness has risen up in conflict against the Lord and his Christ, these and also many other relics " divinitus " have been discovered, as e.f/. the bones of St. Francis, of St. Clara, of Bishop Ambrose, of the martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, of the Apostles Philip and James the Less, the genuineness of which had been avouched by his predecessors Pius VII. and Pius IX.
10. The blood of St. Januarius, a martyr of the age of Diocletian, liquefies thrice a year for eight days, and on occasion of earthquakes and such-like calamities in Naples, the blood is brought in two vials by a matron near to the head of the saint ; if it liquefies the sign is favourable to the Neapolitans, if it remains thick unfavour- able ; but in either case it foi-ms a jDowerful means of agitation in the hands of the clergy. Unbelievers venture to suggest that this precioso sancjue del taumatiir(/o S. Gennaro is not blood, but a mixture that becomes liquid by the warmth of the hand and the heat of the air in the crowded rooin, some sort of cetaceous product coloured red.
11. About 100 clergy, twenty colour-bearers, 150 musicians, 10,000 leapers, 8,000 beggars, and 2,000 singers take part in the Leaping Procession at Echternach in Luxembiii'g, which is celebrated yearly on Wliit-Tucsday. It was spoken of in the sixteenth century as an ancient custom. After an '-exciting" sermon, the procession is formed
§ 188. CATHOLIC ULTEAMONTANISM. 247
in rows of from four to six persons bound together by pocket-liandker- cliiefs held in their liands ; Wilibrord"s dance is played, and all jump in time to the music, five steps forward and two backward, or two backward and thret3 forward, varied by three or four leaps to the light and then as many to the left. Thus continually leaping the procession goes through the streets of the city to the parish church, up the sixty-two steps of the church stair and along the church aisles to the tomb of Wilibrord (§ 78, 3). The dance is kept up incessantly for two hours. The performers do so generally because of a vow, or as penance for some fault, or to secure the saint's intercession for tlie cure of epilepsy and convulsive fits, common in that region, mainly no doubt owing to such senseless proceedings. The origin of the custom is obscure. Tradition relates that soon after the death of "Wilibrord a disease appeared among the cattle which jumped inces- santly in the stalls, till the people went leaping in procession to Wilibrord 's tomb, and the plague was stayed ! But the custona is probably a Christian adaptation of an old spring festival dance of jjagan times (§ 75, 3 ; comp. 2 Sam. vi. 14).
12. The Devotion of the Sacred Heart. — Even after the suppi-ession of the Jesuit order the devotion of the Sacred Heart (§ 156, 6) was zealously practised by the ex-Jesuits and their friends. On the restoration of the order numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods, especially in France, devoted themselves to this exercise, and the revanche movement of a.d. 1870 used this as one of its most powerful instruments. Crowds of pilgrims flocked to Paray le Monial, and there, kneeling before the cradle of Bethlehem, they besought the sacred heart of Jesus to save France and Eome, and the refrain of all the pilgrim songs, '■'■ Dieu^ de la clemence . . . sauvez Borne et la France an noin du sacre-ca'ur,'^ became the spiritual Marseillaise of France returning to the Catholic fold. From the money collected over the whole land a beautiful church du Hacre-Coiur has been erected on Montmartre in Paris. The gratifying news was then brought from Rome that the holy father liad resolved on July 16th, 1875, the twenty-ninth anniversary of his ascending the papal throne and the two hundredth anniversary of the great occurrences at Paraj'^ le Monial, that the whole world should give adoration to the sacred heart. In France this day Avas fixed upon for the laying of the foundation stone of the church at Montmartre, and the Archbishop of Cologne, Paul Melchers, commanded Catholic Germany to show greater zeal in the adoration of the sacred heart, "ordained b}' divine revelation " two hundred years before.
13. Ultramontane Amiilets.— The Carmelites adopted a brown, the Trinitarians a white, the Theatines a blue, the Servites a black, and the Lazarites a red, scapular, assured by divine visions that the
248 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
wearing- of them was a means of salvation. A tract, entitled " Gnaden mxl Ahldsne dea filnffachen Skapidierti,''' published by episcopal authority at Minister in 1872, declared that any layman who wore the five scapulars would participate in all the graces and indulgences belong- ing to them severally. The most viseful of all was the Carmelite scapular, impenetrable by bullets, impervious to daggers, rendering falls harmless, stilling stormy seas, quenching fires, healing the pos- sessed, the sick, the wounded, etc. — The Benedictines had no scapulars, but they had Benedict-medals, from which they drew a rich revenue. This amulet first made its appearance in the Bavarian Abbey of Metten, The tract, entitled, " St. Benediktinshilcldcin oder die Medaille d. h. BenediJdus,^'' published at Mtinster in 1876, tells how it cures sicknesses, relieves toothache, stops bleeding at the nose, heals burns, overcomes the craving for drink, protects from attacks of evil spirits, restrains skittish horses, cures sick cattle, clears vineyards of blight, secures the conversion of heretics and godless persons, etc. — In a.d. 1878 there appeared at Mainz, with approval of the bishop, a book in its third edition, entitled, ^- Der Seraphisclie Giirtel und dessen ivitnder- hcire Beicldiimer nacli d. Franz, d.pdpstl. Hausiyrcllaten Ahbe v. Segur,'"' according to which Sixtus V. in 1585 founded the Archbrotherhood of the Girdle of St. Francis. It also affirms that whoever wears this girdle day and night and repeats the six enjoined paternosters, participates in all the indulgences of the holy land and of all the basilicas and sanctuaries of Eome and Assisi, and is entitled to liberate 1,000 souls a day from purgatory. — Great miracles of heal- ing and preservation from all injuries to body and soul, pro^ierty and goods, are attributed by the Jesuits to the " Jioli/ water of St. Icjnatius " (§ 149, 11), the sale of which in Belgium, France, and Switzerland has proved to them a lucrative business. But the mother of God has herself favoured them with a still more powerful miracle- Avorking water in the fountains of Lourdes and Marpingeii.
14, We give in conclusion a specimen of Ultramontane pulpit eloquence. A Bavarian priest, Kinzelmann, said in a sermon in 1872 : '■ We priests stand as far above the emperor, kings, and princes as the heaven is above the earth. . . . Angels and archangels stand beneath us, for we can in God's stead forgive sins. We occupy a position sujierior to that of the mother of God, who only once bare Christ, whereas we create and beget him every day. Yea, in a sense, we stand above God, who must always and everywhere serve us, and at the consecration mvist descend from heaven upon the mass," etc. — An apotheosis of the priesthood worthy of the Middle Ages.
§ 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 249
§ 189. The Vatican Council.^
Immediately after Pius IX. had, at the centenary of St. Peter in 18G7, given a hint that a general council might be summoned at an early date, the Civiltd CatfoUca of Rome made distinct statements to the effect that the most prominent questions for discussion would be the confirming of the syllabus (§ 185, 2), the sanctioning of the doctrine of papal absolutism in the spirit of the bull Unam sanctam of Boni- face VIII. (§ 110, 1), and the proclamation of papal infal- libility. The Civiltd had already taught that " when the pope thinks, it is Clod who thinks in him." When the council opened on the da}^ of the immaculate conception, December 8th, 1869, all conceivable devices of skilful diplo- macy were used by the Jesuit Camarilla, and friendly cajoling and violent threatening on the part of the pope, in order to silence or win over, and, in case this could not be done, to stifle and suppress the opposition which even already was not inconsiderable in point of numbers, but far more impor- tant in point of moral, theological, and hierarchical influence. The result aimed at was secured. Of the 150 original opponents nnty fifty dared maintain their opposition to the end, and even they cowardly shrank from a decisive conflict, and wrote from their respective dioceses, as their Catholic
1 Manning, " The True History of the Vatican Conneih" London, 1877. Poniponio Leto, "The Vatican Council, being the impressions of a contemporary (Card. Vitelleschi), translated from the Italian -with the original documents." London, 1876. Quirinus, " Letters from Rome on the Council."' London, 1870. Janus, '-The Pope and the Council."' London, 18(39. Bungener, " Rome and the Council in the Nineteenth Century." Edinburgh, 1870. Arthui-, " The Pope, the Kings, and the People, a History of the Movement to make the Pope Governor of the World, 1S64-1871." 2 vols. London, 1877. Acton, '' History of the Vatican Council."' London, 1871. Friedrich, '■• Documenta ad ilhim. Cone. Vat."' Nordling. 1871. Martin (Bishop of Paderborn), '•Omnium Cone, Vat. qua ad dodr. et disci2}L pertin. docum. Colledio." 1873.
250 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
faith obliged them to do, notifying their most complete acquiescence.
1. Preliminary History of the Council. — When Pius IX. on the cen- tenary of St. Peter made known to the assembled bishops his intention to summon a general coimcil, thty expressed their conviction that by the blessing of the immaculate Virgin it would be a powerful means of securing iinitj^ peace, and holiness. The formal summons was issued on the day of St. Peter and St. Paul of the following year, June 29th, 1868. The end for which the council was convened was stated generally as follows : The saving of the clnu'ch and civil society from all evils tlu-eatening them, the thwarting of the endeavours of all who seek the overthrow of church and state, the uprooting of all modern errors and the downfall of all godless enemies of the apostolical chair. In Germany the Catholic General Assembly which met at Bamberg soon after tiiis declared that from this day a new epoch in the world's history would begin, for "either the salvation of the world would result from this council, or the world is beyond the reach of help." This hopeful- ness prevailed throughout the whole Catholic world. Fostered by the utterances of the Civiltd Cattolica, the excitement grew from day to day. The learned bishop in partihus Maret, dean of the theological faculty of Paris, now came forward as an eloe;iuent exponent of the Galilean liberties : even the hitherto so strict Catholic, the Count Montalembert, to the astonishment of everybody, assumed a bold and independent attitude in regard to the council, and energetically protested in a publication of March 7th, 1870, six days before his death, against the intrigues of the Jesuits and the infallibility dogma which it was proposed to authorize. But the greatest excitement was occasioned by the work "l>er Papst nnd das KonzH,''' published in Leipzig, 1869, under the pseudonym Janus, of which the real authors wei-e Dolling(!r, Friedrich, and Huber of Munich, who brought up the heavy artillery of the most comprehensive historical scholarship against the evident intentions of the curia. The German bishops gathered at the tomb of St. Boniface at Fulda in September, 1869, and issued from thence a general pastoral letter to their disturbed flocks, declaring that it was impossible that the council should decide other- wise than in accordance with holy Scripture and the apostolic traditions and what was already written upon the hearts of all believing Catholics. Also the pa])al secretary, Card. Antonelli, quieted the anxiety of the ambassadors of foreign powers at Bome by the assurance that the Holy See had in view neither the confirming of the syllabus nor the aflirming of the dogma of infallibility. In vain did the Bavarian premier. Prince Hoheulohe, insist that the heads of other governments should combine in taking measures to i)revent any
§ 189. THE VATICAN COUKCIL. 251
encroachment of the council upon the rights of the state. The great powers resolved to maintain simply a watchful attitude, and only too late addressed earnest expostulations and threats.
2. The Org-anization of the Council.— Of 1,044 prelates entitled to take ]3art in the council 7()7 made their appearance, of whom 27G were Italians and 119 bishops in ixirtihub; all pliable satellites of the curia, as were also the greater number of the missionary bishops, who, with their assistants in the pi-opaganda, were supported at the cost of the holy father. The sixty-two bishops of the Papal States were doubly subject to the pope, and of the eighty Spanish and South American bishops it was affirmed in Eome that they would be ready at the bidding of the holy father to define the Trinity as consisting of four persons. Forty Italian cardinals and thirty generals of orders were equally dependable. The Romance races were represented by no less than 600, the German by no more than fourteen. For the first time since general councils were held was the laity entirely excluded from all influence in the proceedings, even the ambassadors of Catholic and tolerant powers. The order of business drawn up by the pope was arranged in all its details so as to cripjile the opposition. The right of all fathers of the council to make proposals was indeed conceded, but a committee chosen \>y the pope decided as to their admissibilit}'. From the special commissions, whose presidents were nominated hy the pope, the drafts of decrees were issued to the general congregation, where the president could at •\\'ill interrupt awy speaker and require him to retract. Instead of the TUianimity required by the canon law in matters of faith, a simple majority of votes was declared sufficient. A formal protest of the minority against these and similar uncon- stitutional proposals was left quite inrheeded. The proceedings Avere indeed taken down by shorthand reporters, but not even members of council were alloA\'ed to see these reports. The conclusions of the general congregation Avere sent back for final revision to the special commissions, and when at last brought up again in the public sessions, they were not discussed, but simply voted on Avith a placet or a non- 2}lavet. The right transept of St. Peter's was the meeting place of the council, the acoustics of which were as bad as possible, but the pope refused every request for more suitable accommodation. Besides, the various members spoke with diverse accents, and many had but a defective knowledge of Latin. Although absolute secresy Avas enjoined on pain of falling into mortal sin, under the excitement of the day so much trickled out and Avas in certain Romish circles so carefully gathered and sifted, that a tolerably complete insight Avas reached into the inner moA'ements of the council. From such sources the author of the '' liiiniisclteu B) iefe," supposed to ha\-e been Lord Acton, a friend and scholar of Dollingcr, drew the material for his account, avIucIi.
252 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
carried b}- trusty messengers beyond the bounds of the Papal State, reached IMiniich, and there, after careful revision by Dollinger and his friends, were published iu the Aurinhurg AU(j. Zeitung. Also Prof. Priedrich of Munich, who had accompanied Card. Hohenlohe to Eome as theological adviser, collected what he could learn in epi- scopal and theological circles in a journal -which was published at a later date.
8. The Proceedings of the Council.— The first public session of December 8lh, 18G9, was occupied with opening ceremonies; the second, of January Gth, Avith the subscription of the confession of faith on the part of each member. The first preliminary was the schema of the faith, the second that on church discipline. Then followed the schema on the church and the primacy of the pope in three articles : the legal position of the church in reference to the state, the absolute supremacy of the pope over the whole church on the principles of the Pseudo- Isidore (§ 87, 2) and the assumptions of Gregory VII., Innocent III. and Boniface VIII., i-eproduced in the principal propositions of the syllabus (§ 184, 2), and the outlines of a catechism to be enforced as a manual for the instruction of youth throughout the church. On March Gth there was added by Avay of supplement to the schema of the church a fourth article in the form of a sketch of the decree of infallibility. Soon after the opening of the couiicil an agitation in this direction had been started. An address to the pope emanating from the Jesuit college petitioning for this Avas speedily signed by 400 subscribers. A counter address with 187 signatures besought the pope not to make any such proposal. At the head of the agitation in favour of infallibility stood archbishops Manning of Westminster, Deschamps of Mechlin, Spalding of Baltimore, and bishops Fessler of St. Polten, secretary of the council, Senestrey of Begensburg, tlie "overthrower of thrones" (§ 197, 1), Martin of Paderborn, and, as bishop in partibus, Mermillod of Geneva. Among the leaders of the opposition the most prominent Avere cardinals Eauscher of Vienna, Prince Schwarzcaiberg of Prag\ie and Matthieu of Besan^on, Prince- bishop Forster of Breslau, archbishops Scherr of Munich, Melchers of Cologne, Darboy of Paris, and Kenrick of St. Louis, the bishops Ketteler of Mainz, Dinkel of Augsburg, Hefele of Eottenburg, Strossmayer of Siniiium, Uupaulou]) of Orleans, etc. — Owing to the discussions on the Schema of the Faith thei'e occurred on March 22nil a stormy scene, Avhich in its wild uproar reminds one of the disgrace- ful Robber Synod of Ephesus (§ 52, 4). "When Bishop Strossmayer objected to the statement made in the preamble, that the indifferentism, pantheism, atheism, and materialism prevailing in these daj's are chargeable upon Protestantism, as contrary to truth, the furious fathers of the majority amid shouts and roars, shaking of their fists,
§ 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 2o3
rushed iijion the platform, and the president was obliged to adjourn the sitting. At the next session the objectionable statement was ■withdrawn and the entire schema of the faith was unanimouslj- adopted at the third public sitting of the council on April 24th. The Schema of the Church came up for a consideration on May 10th. The discussion txirned first and mainly on the foiirth article about the infallibility of the pope. Its biblical foundation was sought in Luke xxif. 32, its traditional basis chiefly in the well-known passage of Irenseus (§ 34, 8) and on its supposed endorsement by the general councils of Lyons and Florence (§ 67, 4, 6), but the main stress was laid on its necessarily following from the position of the pope as the i-epresentative of Christ. The opposition party had from the outset their position Aveakened by the conduct of many of their adherents who, ])artly to avoid giving excessive annoyance to the pope, and partly to leave a door open for their retreat, did not contest the correctness of the doctrine in question, but all the more decidedly urged the inopportune- ness of its formal definition as threatening the church with a schism and provocative of dangerous conflicts Avith the civil power. The longer the decision was deferred by passionate debates, the more determinedly did the pope throw the Avhole weight of his influence into the scales. By bewitching kindliness he won some, by sharp, angry words he terrified others. He denounced opponents as sectarian enemies of the church and the apostolic chair, and styled them ignoramuses, slaves of princes, and cowards. He trusted the aid of the blessed Virgin to ward off threatened division. To the question ■whether he himsplf regarded the formulating of the dogma as opportune, he answered : '■ No, but as necessar3\"' Urged by the Jesuits, he con- fidentlj' declared that it was notorious that the whole church at all times taught the absolute infallibility of the pope ; and on another occasion he silenced a modest doubt as to a sure tradition with the dictatorial words, La Iradizione soiio io, adding the assurance, "As Abbate Mastai I believe in infallibility, as pope I have experienced it." On Julj"" 13th the final vote Avas called for in the general congregation. There Avere 371 Avho voted simply jj?fice<, sixty-one j^^acdjuxta modmn, i.e. Avith certain modifications, and eighty-eight non x>lacct. After a last hopeless attempt by a deputation to obtain the pojje's consent to a milder formulating of the decree. Bishop Ketteler A'ainly entreatin"- on his knees, to saA'e the unity and peace of the church by some small concession, the fiity hitherto steadfast members of the minoritv returned home, after emitting a Avritten declaration that they after as Avell as before must continvie to adhere to their negati\-e A-ote, but from reverence and respect for the person of the pope they declined to give effect to it at a public session. On the folloAving daA*, July ISth, the fourth and last public sitting Avas held : 547 fathers A'oted placet
254 CHURCH HISTOKY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and only two, Eiccio of Cajiwzo and Fitzgerald of Little Rock, )ioii placet. A violent storm had broken out during the session and amid thunder and lightning, Pius IX., like " a second Moses " (Exod. xix. 16), proclaimed in tlie Pador cdernuis the absolute plenipotence and infallibility of himself and all his predecessors and successors. — It was on the evening preceding the proclamation of this new dogma that Naj^oleon III. proclaimed Avar with Prussia, in consequence of -which the pope lost the last remnants of temporal sovei-eignty and every chance of its restoration. Under the infiiience of the fever-fraught July sun, the council now dwindled down to 150 members, and, after the whole glory of the papal kingdom had gone down (§ 185, 3), on October 20th, its sittings were suspended until better times. The schema of discipline and the preliminary sketch of a catechism were not concluded ; a subsequently introduced schema on apostolic mis- sions was left in the same state ; and a petition equally i^ressed by the Jesuits for the defining of the corporeal ascensitm of Mary had not even reached the initial stage.
4. Acceptance of the Decrees of the Council. — All ijrotests which during the council the minority had made against the order of business determined on and against all irregularities resulting from it, because not persisted in, were regarded as invalid. Equally devoid of legal force was their final written protest wliich they left behind, in which they expressly declined to exercise their right of voting. And the assent which they ultimately without exception gave to the objective standpoint of the law and the faith of the Catholic church, was not in the least necessary in order to make it a])])ear that the decisions of the council, drawn up Avith such unanimity as had scarcely ever before been seen, wei-e equally valid Avith any of the decrees of the older councils. Thus the bishops of the minority, if they did not Avish to occasion a split of unexampled dimensions and incalculable complications, q\iarrels, and contentions in the church that boasted of a unity Avhich had hitherto been its strength and stay, could do nothing else than yield at the twelfth hour to the i^ope's demand that " sam'ficio dcW inteUctto " Avhich at the eleventh hour they had refused. The German bishops, Avho had proved most steadfast at the council, Av'ei-e noAv in the greatest haste to make their submission. Even by the end of August, at Fulda, they joined their infallibilist neiglibours in addressing a pastoral letter, in Avhich they most solemnly declared that all true Catholics, as they A-alued their soul's salvation, must \inconditionally accept the conclusions of tlie council unanimously arrived at Avhich are in no way prejudiced by the " diirerences of opinion " elicited during the discus- sion. At the same time they demanded of theological professors, teachers of religion, and clergymen throughout the dioceses a formal acceptance of these decrees as the inviolable standixnut of their
§ 189. THE VATICAN COUNCIL. 2oo
doctrinal teacliing ; they also took moasures against those who refnsed to yield, and excommunicated them. Even Bishop Hefele, Avho did not sign this pastoral and was at first determined not to jdeld nor swerve, at last gave way. In his pastoral proclaiming the new dogma he gave it a quite inadmissible interpretation : As the infallibility of the church, so also that of the pope as a teacher, extends only to the revealed doctrines of faith and morals, and even with reference to them only the definitions proper and not the introductory statements, grounds, and applications, belong to the infallible department. But subsequently he cast himself unreservedly into the arms of his colleagues assembled once again at Fulda in September, 1872, where he also found his like-minded friend. Bishop Haneberg of Spires. Yet he forbore demanding an express assent from his former colleagues, at Tiibingen and his clergy, and thus saved "Wiirttemberg from a threatened schism. Strossma5^er held out longest, but even he at last threw down his weapons. But many of the most cviltured and scholarly of the theological professors, disgusted with the coiirse events were taking, withdrew from the field and continued silently to hold their own opinions. The inferior clergy, for the most part trained by ultramontane bigots, and held in the iron grasjD of strict hierarchical discipline, passed all bounds in their extravagant glorification of the new dogma. And while among the liberal circles of the Catholic laity it was laughed at and ridiculed, the bigoted nobles and the masses who had long been used to the incensed atmosphere of an enthusiastic adoration of the pope, bowed the knee in stupid devotion to the papal god. But the brave heart of one noble German lady broke %\ith sorrow over the indignity done by the Vatican decree and the characterlessness of the German bishops to the church of which to her latest breath she remained in spirit a devoted member. Amalie von Lasaiilx, sister of the Munich scholar Ernst von Lasaulx (§ 174, 4), from 1849 superioress of the Sisters of Mercy in St. John's Hospital at Bonn, lay beyond hope of recovery on a sick-bed to Avhicli she had been brought by her self-sacrificing and faithful discharge of the diities of her calling, when there came to her from the lady superior of the order at Nancj^ the peremptory demand to give in her adhesion to the infallibility dogma. As she persistenth^ and coiirageously A\-ithstood all entreaties and threats, all adjurations and cruelly tormenting importunings, she was deposed from office and driven from the scene of her labours, and Avhen, soon thereafter, in 1872. she died, the habit of her order was stripped from her bodA-. The Old Catholics of Bonn, whose proceedings she had not countenanced, charged themselves with securing for her a Christian burial. — No state as such has recog- nised the council. Austria answered it by abolishing the concordat and forbidding the proclamation of the decrees. Bavaria and Saxonj-
256 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
refused their placet ; Hesse, Baden, and Wiirttemberg declared that the conchisions of the conncil had not binding authority in law. Prussia indeed held to its principle of not interfering in -the internal affairs of the Catholic church, but, partly for itself, partly as the leading power of the new German empire, passed a series of laws in order to resume its too readily abandoned rights of sovereignty over the affairs of the Catholic church, and to insure itself against further encroach- ments of ultramontanism upon the domain of civil life (§ 197). The Romance states, on the other hand, pre-eminently France, were pre- vented by internal troubU's and conflicts from taking anj^ very decisive steps.
§ 190. The Old Catholics.
A most promising reaction, mainly in Germany, led by men liigMy respected and eminent for their learning, set in against the Vatican Council and its decrees, in the so-called Old Catholic movement of the liberal circles of the Catholic people, which went the length, even in 1873, of establishing an independent and well organized episcopal church. Since then, indeed, it has fallen far short of the all too sanguine hopes and expectations at first entertained ; but still within nari"ower limits it continues steadily to spread and to rear for itself a solid structure, while carefull}^, even nervously, shrinking from anything revolutionary. More in touch with the demands of the Zeitgeist in its reformatory concessions, yet holding firmly in every particular to the positive doctrines of orthodoxy, the Old Catholic movement has made progress in Switzerland, while in other Catholic countries its success has been relatively small.
1. Formation and Development of the Old Catholic Church in the German Empire. — In the beginning of August, 1870, the hitherto exemplary Catholic professor Michelis of Braunsberg (§ 191, 6), issued a public charge against Puis IX. as a heretic and devourer of the church, and by the end of August several distinguished theologians (Dollinger and Friedrich of Munich, Reinkens, Weber, and Baltzer of Breslau, Knoodt of Bonn, and the canonist Von Schulte of Prague) joined him at Nuremberg in making a iniblic declaration tliat the Vatican Council could not be regarded as (Pcinnenical, nor its now dogma as a Catholic
§ 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS. 257
doctrine. This statement was subscribed to by forty-four Catholic professors of the university of Munich with the rector at their head, but without the theologians. Similarly, too, several Catholic teachers in Breslau, Freiburg, Wlirzburg, and Bonn protested, and still more energetically a gathering of Catholic laymen at Konigswinter. Besides the Breslau professors already named, the Bonn professors Eeusch, Langen, Hilgers, and Knoodt refused to subscribe the council decrees at the call of their bishop ; Avhereas the Munich professors, with the exception of Diillinger and Friedrich, yielded. A repeated injunction of his archbishop in January, 1S71, drew from Dollinger the statement that he as a Christian, a theologian, a historian, and a citizen, was obliged to reject the infallibility dogma, while at the same time he Avas pi-epared before an assembly of bishops and theologians to prove that it Avas opposed to Scripture, the Fathers, tradition, and history. He Avas noAv literally overAvhelmed Avith com- plimentary addresses from Vienna, Wlirzburg, Mmiich, and almost all other cities of Bavaria; and an address to go\'ernment on the dangers to the state threatened by thfe Vatican decrees that lay at the Munich Museum, Avas quickly filled Avith 12,000 signatures. On April 14th, Dollinger Avas excommvmicated, and Professor Huber sent an exceedingly sharp reply to the archbishop. After several preliminary meetings, the first congress of the Old Catholics Avas held in Munich in September, 1871, attended by uOO deputies from all parts of Germany. A programme Avas unanimously adopted Avliich, Avith protestation of firm adherence to the faith, Avorship, and constitution of the ancient Catholic church, maintained the invalidity of the Vatican decrees and the excommmiication occasioned by them, and, besides recognising the Old Catholic church of Utrecht (§ 1G5, 8), expressed a hope of reunion Avith the Greek church, as Avell as of a gradual progress toAvards an understanding Avith the Protestant church. But Avhen at the second session the president. Dr. von Schulte, proposed the setting up of in- dependent public services Avith regular pastors, and the establishing as soon as possible of an episcopal government of their oavii, Dollinger contested the proposal as a forsaking of the safe path of laAvf ul op- position, taking the baneful course of the Protestant Eeformation, and tending toAvard the formation of a sect. As, hoAvever, the proposal Avas carried by an overAvhelming majoritj^, he declined to take further part in their public assemblies and retired more into the background, Avithout otherAvise opposing the prevailing current or detaching himself from it. The second congress AA-as held at Cologne in the autumn of 1872. From the episcopal chm-ches of England and America, from the orthodox church of Russia, from France, Italy, and Spain, Avere sent depi\ties and hearty friendly greetings. Arcli- bishop Loos of Utrecht, by the part Avhich he took in the congress, VOL. III. 17
^58 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
cemented more closely the union with the Old Catholics of Holland. Even the German " Protestantenverein " was not unrepresented. A committee chosen for the purpose drew up an outline of a synodal and (.'ongregational order, which provides for the election of bishops at an annual meeting at Pentecost of a synod, of which all the clergy are members and to which the congregations send deputies, one for every 200 members. Alongside of the bishop stands a permanent synodal board of five priests and seven la3nnen. The bishop and synodal board have the right of vetoing doubtful decrees of synod. The choice of pastors lies with the congregation ; its confinnation belongs to the bishop. In July, 1873, a bishop was elected in the Pantaleon church of Cologne by an assembly of delegates, embracing twentj^-two priests and fifty-five laymen. The choice fell upon Professor Eeinkens, who, as meauAvhile Bishop Loos of Utrecht had died, Avas consecrated on August 11th, at Rotterdam, by Bishop Heykamp of Deventer, and splected Boma as his episcopal residence.
2. The first s;}Tiod of the German Old Catholics, consisting of thirty clerical and fifty -nine lay members, met at Bonn in May, 1874. It was agreed to continue the practice of auricular confession, but without any jDressure being put upon the conscience or its observance being insisted upon at set times. Similarly the moral value of fasting was recognised, but all compulsory abstinence, and all distinctions of food as allowable and unallowable, were abolished. The second sjaiod, with reference to the marriage law, took the position that civil regular marriages ought also to have the blessing of the church ; only in the case of marriages with non-Christians and divorced parties should this be refused. The third s3Tiod introduced a German ritual in which the exorcism was omitted, -while the Latin mass was provision- ally retained. The fourth synod allowed to such congregations as might wish it the u.se of the vernacular in several parts of the service of the mass. At all these synods the lay members had persistently repeated the proposal to abolish the obligatory celibacy of the clergy. But now the agitation, especially on the part of the Baden repre- sentatives, had become so keen, that at the fifth synod of 1878, in spite of the Avarning read by Bishop Eeinkens from the Dutch Old Catholics, who threatened to Avithdraw from the commrmion, the proposal Avas carried by seventy -five votes against twenty-tAvo. The Bonn professors, Langen and Menzel, foreseeing this result, had absented themselves from the synod, Eeusch immediately Avithdrew and resigned his office as episcopal vicar-general, Friedrich protested in the name of the Bavarian Old Catholics. Eeinkens, too, had vigorously opposed the movement ; AvlK.'reas Ivnoodt, Michelis, and Von Schulte had favoured it. The sjaiod of 1883 resolved to dispense the supper in both kinds to members of the Anglican chTirch residing
§ 190. THE OLD CATHOLICS. 259
in Gennany, but among their own members to follow meanwhile the usual practice of comnmnio suh una. The number of Old Catholic congregations in the German empire is now 107, Avith 38,507 adherents and 56 priests. — Even at their first congress the German Old Catholics, in opposition to the unpatriotic and law-defying attitude of German ultramontanism, had insisted lapon love of country and obedience to the laws of the state as an absolute Christian dutj'. Their newly chosen bishop Eeinkens, too, gave expression to this sentiment in his first pastoral letter, and had the oath of allegiance administered him by the Prussian, Baden, and Hessian governments, But Bavaria felt obliged, on account of the terms of its concordat, to refuse. At first the Old Catholics had advanced the claim to be the only true repre- sentatives of the Catholic chtirch as it had existed before July 18th, 1870. At the Cologne congress they let this assumption drop, and restricted their claims upon the state to equal recognition with " the New Catholics," equal endowments for their bishop, and a fair pro- portion of the churches and their revenues. Prussia responded with a yearly episcopal grant of 16,000 thalers ; Baden added about 6,000. It proved more difficult to enforce their claim to church property. A laAV Avas passed in Baden in 1874, Avhich not only guaranteed to the Old Catholic clergy their present benefices and incomes, freed them from the jurisdiction of the Komish hierarcliA^, and gave them permission to found independent congregations, but also granted them a mutual right of possessing and using churches and church furniture as well as sharing in church jDroperty according to the numerical proportion of the tAVO parties in the district. A similar measure was introduced into the Prussian parliament, and obtained the royal assent in July, 1875. Since then, hoAvever, the interest of the goA'ernment in the Old Catholic moA'ement has visibly cooled. In Baden, in 1886 the endoA\'- ment had risen to 24,000 marks.
3. The Old Catholics in other Lands. — In SAvitzerland the Old, or rather, as it has there been called, the Christian, Catholic moA'emeiit, had its origin in 1871 in the diocese of Basel-Solothurn, Avhence it soon spread through the Avhole countrJ^ The national sjaiod held at Olten in 1876 introduced the vernacular into the church serA'ices, abolished the compulsory celibacy of the clergy and obligatory confession of communicants, and elected Professor Herzog bisho]^, Reinkens giving him episcopal consecration. In 1879 the number of Christian Catholics in German Switzerland amounted to aboi;t 70.000, A\-ith seventy-tAvo pastors. But since then, in consequence of the submission of the Eoman Catholics to the church laAVS condemned by Pius IX. they have lost the majority in no fcAver than thirtj^-nine out of the forty- three congregations of Canton Bern, and thereAvitli the privileges attaclie'l. A pi'oposal made in the grand council of the canton in
260 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1883 for the suppression of the Christian Catholic theological faculty in the University of Bern, which has existed since 1874, -was rejected b3'one hundred and fifty votes against thirteen. — In Austria, too, strong opposition was shown to the infallibilitj^ dogma. At Vienna the first Old Catholic congregation was formed in February, 1872, under the priest Anton ; and soon after others were established in Bohemia and Upper Austria. But it was not till October, 1877, that they obtained civil recognition on the ground that their doctrine is that which the Catholic church professed before 1870. In June, 1880, they held their first legally sanctioned synod. The provisional sjaiodical and congre- gational order Avas now definitely adopted, and the use of the vernacular in the church services, the abolition of compulsory fasting, confession, and celibacy, as well as of surplice fees, and the abandoning of all but the high festivals, were announced on the folloAving Sunday. The bitter hatred shown by the Czechs and the ultramontane clergy to everything German has given to the Old Catholic movement for some years past a new impulse and decided advantage. — In France the Abbe Michaud of Paris lashed the characterlessness of the episcopate and was excomnamiicated, and the Abbes Mouls and Junqua of Bordeaiix were orelered by the police to give up wearing the clerical dress. Junqiia, refusing to obey this order, was accused b}'' Cardinal Doimet, Bishop of Bordeaux, before the civil court, and was sentenced to six months' imprisonment. Not till 1879 did the ex-Carmelite Loyson of Paris lay the foundation of a Catholic Galilean church, affiliated with the Swiss Old Catholics (§ 187, 8).— In Italy since 1862, independently' of the German movement, yet on essentially the same grounds, a national Italian church was started with very ])romising beginnings, •which were not, however, realized (§ 187, 7). Eare excitement was caused throughout Italj- by the procedure of Count Campello, canon of St. Peter"s in Eome, Avho in 1881 publicly proclaimed his creed in the Methodist Episcopal cha,pel, there renouncing the papac}-, and in a published manifesto addressed to the cathedral chapter justified this •step and made severe charges against the papal curia ; but soon after, in a letter to Loyson, he declared that he, remaining faithful to the true Catholic church, did not contemplate joining any Protestant sect sevei-ed from Catholic unity, and in a communication to the Old Catholic Rieks of Heidelberg professed to be in all points at one with the German Old Catholics. Accordingly he sought to form in Eome a Catholic reform party, whose interests he advocated in the journal It Laharo. The pope's domestic chaplain, JVIonsignor Savarese, has adopted a similar attitude. In December, 1883, he was received by the pastor of the American Episcopal chiirch at Eome into the Old Catholic church on subscribing the Nicene Creed, In 1880 they Avere joined by another domestic chaplain of the pope, Monsignor Eenier,
§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 261
foi-merly an intimate friend of Pius IX., Avho publicly seijarated him- self from the ijajjal church, and -with them took his place at the head of a Catholic " Conrjrecjation of St. Paid "' in Home. — Also the Epi- scopal Irjhsia EspaTiola in Spain (§ 205, 4), and the Mexican Itjlesia de Jesus (§ 209, 1), must be regarded as essentially of similar tendencies to the Old Catholics.
§ 191. Catholic Theology, especially ix Germany.
Catholic theology in German}', influenced by the scientific spirit prevailing in Protestantism, received a considerable impulse. From latitudinarian Josephinism it gradually rose toward a strictly ecclesiastical attitude. Most important were its contributions in the department of dogmatic and speculative theology. Besides and after the schools of Hermes, Baader, and Giinther, condemned by the papal chair, appeared a whole series of speculative dogmatists who kept their speculations within the limits of the church confession. Also in the domain of church history, Catholic^ theology, after the epoch-making productions of Mohler and Dollinger, has aided in reaching important results, which, however, owing to the " tendency " character of their re- searches, demand careful sifting. Least important are their contributions to biblical criticism and exegesis. In general, however, the theological dorenfs at the German universities give a scientific character to their researches and lectures in respect of form and also of matter, so far as the Triden- tine limits will allow. Biit the more the Jesuits obtained influence in German}', the more was that scholasticism, which repudiated the German university theology and opposed it with perfidious suspicions and denunciations, naturalized, especially in the episcopal seminaries, while it was recom- mended by Rome as the official theology. The attempt, however, at the Munich Congress of Scholars in 1863 to come to an undei'standing between the two tendencies failed, owing to the contrariety of their principles and the opposition
262 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of tlie Jesuits. — Outside of Germany, French theology, especial!}'- in the department of histor^^, manifested a praise- worthy activity. In Spain theology has never outgrown the period of the Middle Ages. In Italy, on the other hand, the study of Christian antiquities flourished, stimulated by recent discoveries of treasures in catacombs, museums, archives, and libraries.
1. Hermes and his School. — The Bonn professor, George Hermes, in- fluenced in youth by the critical philosophy, passed the Catholic dogma of Trent, assured it would stand the test, through the lire of doubt and the scrutiny of i-eason, because only what survives such examination could be scientifically vindicated. He died in a.d. 1831, and left a school named after him, mainly in Treves, Bonn, and Breslau. Gregory XVI. in 1835 condemned his Avritings, and the new Archbishop of Cologne, Droste-Vischering, forbad students at Bonn attending the lectures of Hermesians. These made every effort to secure the recall of the papal censure. Braun and Elvenich went to Rome, but their declaration that Hermes had not taught what the pope condemned profited them as little as a similar statement had the Jansenists. There now arose on both sides a bitter controversy, which received new fuel from the Prusso-Cologne ecclesiastical strife (§ 193, 1). rinally in 1844 professors Braun and Achterfeld of Bonn were deprived of office by the coadjutor- Archbishop Geissel, and the Prussian government acquiesced. The professors of the Treves seminary and Baltzer of Breslau, the latter influenced by Giinther's theology, retracted. — A year before Hermes' condemnation the same pope had condemned the opposite theory of Abbe Bautain of Strass- burg, that the Christian dogmas cannot be proved but only believed, and that therefore all iise of reason in the appropriation of the truths of salvation is excluded. Bautain, as an obedient son of the church, immediately retracted, " Jaiidahiliter ne sithjccif."'
2. Baader and his School. — Catholic theology for a long time paid no regard to the devflo])ment of (xerman philosophy. Only after Schel- ling, whose philosophy had many jioints of contact with the Catholic doctrine, a general interest in such studies was awakened as forming a speculative basis for Catholicism. To the theosophy of Schelling based on that of the Gorlitz shoemaker (§ 160, 2), Irancis von Baader, professor of speculative dogmatics at Munich, though not a pro- fessional theologian, but a physician and a mineralogist, attached himself. In his later years he went over completely to iiltramontanism. His scholar Franz Hoffmann of Wiiizbiir^- lias given an exposition of
§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 263
Baader's speculative system. At G lessen this S3-stem was represented by Leop. Schmid (§ 187, 3). All the Catholic adherents of this school are distinguished by their friendly attitude toward Protestantism.
3. Giinther and Ms School. — A theology of at least equal speculative poAver and of more decidedly Catholic contents than that of Baader, Avas set forth hy the secular priest Anton Giinther of Vienna, a profound and original thinker of combative humour, sprightly wit, and a roughness of expression sometimes verging uiDon the burlesque. He recognised the necessity of going vi]> in philosophical and theo- logical speculation to Descartes, who held by the scholastic dualism of C4od and the creatui-e, the Absolute and the finite, spirit and natiu'e, Avhile all philosophy, according to him, had been ever plunging deeper into pantheistic monism. Thence he sought to solve the two problems of Christian speculation, creation and incarnation, and undertook a war of extermination against " all monism and semimonism, idealistic and realistic pantheism, disguised and avowed semipantlieism,"* among Catholics and Protestants. His first great Avork, '■ Vorschule ziir Spekul. Thcologie,'^ published in 1828, treating of the theoiy of creation and the theory of incarnation, Avas folloAved by a long series of similar A\-orks. His most eminent scholars Avere Patst, doctor of medicine in Vienna, Avho gave clear expositions of his master's dark and aphoristic sayings, and Veith, aa'Iio popularized his teachings in sermons and l^ractical treatises. Some of the Hermesians, such as Baltzer of Breslau, entered the rank of his scholars. The historico-political jjapers, hoAVCA-er, charged him Avith den3'ing the mysteries of Christi- anity, rejecting the traditional theology, etc., and Clemens, a ])rivat~ (locent of philosophy in Bonn, became the mouthpiece of this part}'. Thus arose a passionate controversj^, Avhich called forth the attention of Eome. We might have expected Giinther to meet the fate of Hermes twenty years before; but the matter was kept long under consideration, for strong influence from Vienna was brought to bear on his behalf. At last in January, 1857, the formal reprobation of the Giintherian philosophy AA-as announced, and all his AA'orks put in the Index. Giinther humbly submitted to the sentence of the church. So too did Baltzer. But being suspected at Eome, he AA'as asked voluntarily to resign. This Baltzer refused to do. Then Prince- Bishop FOrster called upon the goA'ernment to depriA'e him ; and Avhen this failed, he AvithdrcAV from him the missio canonica and a third of his canonical revenues, and in 1870, on his opposing the infallibilitA'- dogma, he withheld the other tAvo-thirds. His salarj'^ from the State continued to be paid in full till his death in a.d. 1871.
4. John Adam Mohler. — None of all the Catholic theologians of recent times attained the nniiortance and influence of Mohler in his shore life of fortA'-tAVO j-ears. Stimidated to seek higher scientific cultitre
264 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
by the study mainly of Schlciermaclier's Avorks ami those of other Protestants, and putting all his rich endowments at the service of the church, he -s^'on for himself among Catholics a position like that of Schleiermacher among Protestants. His first treatise of 1825, on the unity of the church, was followed by his "Athanasius the Great," and the work of his life, the "Sj'mbolics" of 1832, in its ninth edition in 1884, which with the apparatus of Protestant science combats the Protestant church doctrine and pivsented the Catholic doctrine in such an ennobled and sublimated foi-m, that Rome at first seriously thought of i^lacing it in the Index. Hitherto Protestants had utterly ignored the productions of Catholic theology, but to overlook a scientific masterpiece like this would be a confession of their own weakness. And in fact, during the whole course of the controversy between the two churches, no writing from the Catholic camp ever caiised such commotion among the Protestants as this. The ablest Protestant replies are those of Nitsch and Baur. In 1835 Mohler left Tubingen for Munich ; but sickness hindered his scientific labours, and, in 1838, in the full bloom of manhood, the Catholic church and Catholic science had to mourn his death. He can scarcely be said to have formed a school ; but by writings, addresses, and conversation he produced a scientific ferment in the Catholic theology of Germany, which continued to work until at last completely displaced by the scholasticism reintroduced into favour by the Jesuits.
5. John Jos. Ignat. von Bollinger. — Of all Catholic theologians in Germany, alongside of and after Mohler, by far the most famous on either side of the Alps was the chui'ch historian Dollinger, professor at Munich since 1826. His first important work issued in that same year was on the " Doctrine of the Eucharist in the First Three Centuries." His comprehensive work, " The Historj' of the Christian Church," of 1833 (4 vols., London, 1840), was not carried beyond the second volume ; and his " Text-boolc of Church Histoiy " of 1836, was only carried down to the Reformation. The tone of his -H-i-itings was strictly ecclesiastical, yet without condoning the moral faults of the popes and hierarchy. Great excitement Avas produced by his treatise on " The Reformation," in whicli he gathered everything that could be found unfavourable to the Reformers and their woik, and thus gained the summit of renown as a miracle of erudition and a master of Catholic orthodoxy. Meanwhile in 1838 he had taken part in controversies about mixed marriages (§ 193, 1), and in 1843 over the genuflection question (§ 195, 2), with severely hierarchical pamphlets. As delegate of the university since 1845 he defended with brilliant eloquence in the Bavarian chamber the measures of the ultramontane government and the hierarchy, became in 1847 Provost of St. Cajetan, but Avas also in the same year iuA'oh'ed in the overthroAV
§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 265
of the Abel ministry, and was deprived of his professorship. In the following year he was one of the most distinguished of the Catholic section in the Frankfort parliament, where he fought successfully in the hierarchical interest for the iinconditional freedom and indepen- dence of the chiirch. King [Maximilian II. restored him to his professorship in 1849. From this time his views of confessional matters became milder and more moderate. He first caused great offence to his ultramontane admirers at Easter, 1861, when he in a series of public lectui-es delivered one on the Papal States then threatened, in which he declared that the temporal power of the pope, the abuses of which he had witnessed during a journey to Rome in 1857, was by no means necessary for the Catliolic church, but was rather hurtful. The papal nuncio, who was present, ostentatiously left the meeting, and the ultramontanes were beside themselves with astonishment, horror, and wrath. Dollinger gave some modifying explanations at the autumn assembly of the Catholic Union at Munich in 1861. But soon tliereafter appeared his work, '• The Church and the Churches" (London, 1862), which gave the lecture slightly modi- fied as an appendix. The " Fables respecting the Popes of the Middle Ages " (London, 1871), was as little to the taste of the ultramontanes. Indeed in these writings, especially in the fii-st named, the polemic against the Protestant Chvirch had all its old bitterness ; but he is at least more just toward Luther, whom he characterizes as " the most powerful man of the people, the most popular character, which Germany ever possessed." And while he delivers a glowing panegj-rie on the person of the poj^e, he lashes unrelentingly the misgoverinnent of the Papal States. At the Congress of Scholars at Munich he contended for the freedom of science. Dollinger as president of the congress sent the pope a telegram which satisfied his holiness. But the Jesuits looked deeper, and immediately " il povero DoUintjer " was loaded by the C'iviltd Cattolica with every conceivable reproach. In a.d. 1868 nominated to the life office of imperial councillor, he voted with the bishops against the liberal education scheme of the government. But his battle against the council and infallibility made the rent incurable, and his angry archbishop hui'led against him the great excommunication. Then Vienna made him doctor of philosophy, Marburg, Oxford, and Edinburgh gave him LL.D., and the senate of his university unanimousl}^ elected him rector in 1871. But his tabooed lecture room became more and more deserted. He took no prominent part in the organizing of the Old Catholic church (§ 190, 1), but all the more eagerly did he seek to promote its union negotia- tions (§ 17."), 6).
6. The Chief Representatives of Systematic Theology.— Klee, a.d. 1800- 1840, of Bonn and Munich, was a positivist of the old school, and
2GQ CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
during the Hermesian controversy a supporter of the theology of the curia. Hirscher, 178S-1S65, of Freiburg, numbered by the liberals as one of their ornaments and by the fanatical ultramontanes as a heretic, did much to promote a conciliatory and moderate Catholicism, equally free from ultramontane and rationalistic tendencies, abandoning nothing essential in the Catholic doctrine. Hilgers, the Hermesian, afterwards joined the Old Catholics of Bonn. Staudenmaier and Seng- ler of Freiburg and Berlage of Miinster held a distinguished rank as speculative tlieologians. In the same department, Kuhn and Drey of Tubingen, Ehrlich of Prague, Deutinger of Dillingen, a disciple of Schelling and Baader, and as such persecuted, though a pious believ- ing Catholic, Oiscliinger of Munich, who in despair at the proclamation of the Vatican decree suddenly stopped his fruitful literary activitj', Dieringer of Bonn, who for the same reason not only ceased to write but also in 1871 resigned his professorship and retired to a small country pastorate, and finally, Hettinger of Wtirzburg, best known by his -^ Apolofjie d. Chridenthums.''' — While the above-named, though suspected and opposed by the scholastic party, strove 'to preserve intact their ecclesiastical Catholic character, other representatives of this tendency by their struggles against scholasticism and then against the Vatican Council, were driven away from their orthodox position. Thus Frohschammer of Munich, when his treatise on "The Origin of the Soul," in which he sxipported the theory of Generationism in opposition to the Catholic doctrine of creationism, and other works were placed in the Index, asked for a revision on the ground that he taught nothing contrary to Catholic doctrine. He was stripped of all his clerical functions, and students were prohibited attending his lectures. He protested, and his rooms were more crowded than ever. Subsequently, however, repudiated even by the Old Catholics, he drifted more and more, not only from the cluirch, but even from belief in revelation. Against Strauss' last work he wrote a tract in which he sought to prove that " the old faith is indeed ruitenable," but that also " the new science " cannot take its place, that a " new faith " must be introduced by going back to the Christianity of Christ. Michelis, a man of wide culture in the department of natural science and philology, as well as theology and philosophy, had in his earlier position as pro- fessor in Paderborn, Minister, and Braunsberg, supjaorted by word and pen a strictly ecclesiastical tendency ; but the Vatican Council made him one of the first and most zealous leaders of the Old Catholic move- ment. His most important Avork is his "Catholic Dogmatics," of 1881, in which the Old Catholic conception of Christianity is repre- sented as the purified higher unity of the Protestant and Vatican systems of doctrine. 7. The Chief Representatives of Historical Theology. — The first place
§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 207
after IMohler and Dollinger belongs to Mohler's scholar Hefele, from 1840 professor at Tubingen and from 18G9 Bishop of Kottenbnrg, dis- tinguished by the liberal spirit of his researches. His treatises on the Honorius controversy made him one of the most dangerous oppo- nents of the infallibility dogma, to which, however, he at last sub- mitted (§ 189, 4). His most important Avork is the " History of the Covmcils." Hase criticised the second edition of the work, severely bvit not without sufficient groiinds, by saying that in it " the bishop chokes the scholar."' Werner of Vienna is a prolific Avriter in the de- partment of the histoi'y of theological literature ; while Bach of Munich and the Dominican Denifle have written on the mediaeval mystics, the latter also on the universities of the Middle Ages. Hergenrother of "Wilrzburg, by his monograph on " Photius and the Greek Schism," written in the interests of his party, -and by his polemic against the anti- Vatican movement, and specially by his " Handbook of Church History," rendered such service to the papacy and the papal church, that Leo XIII. in 1879 made him a cardinal and librarian of the Vatican, with the task of reorganizing the library. — Among the Old Catholics, Friedrich of Munich, besides his historical account of the Vatican Council, had written on AVessel, Huss, and the church history of Germany. Huber of Munich, whose " Philosophy of the Church Fathers" of 1859 was put in the Index, while his much more liberal work on Erigena of 1861 passed without censure, in later years Avrote an exhaustive account of the Jesuit order and a critical reply to Strauss' " Old and Ncav Faith."' Pichler of Munich, by his conscientious research and criticism, drew down upon him the papal censure, and his book on the " History of the Division of the Eastern and Western Churches "had the honour of being placed in the Index. His later studies and writings estranged him more and more from Romanism, inspired him with the idea of a national German church, and fostered in him a love for the Protcs- tantenverein movement ; but his unbridled bibliomania while assistant in the Royal Library of St. Petersburg in 1871, broiight his public career to a sad and shameful end. The Old Catholic Professor Langen of Bonn, wrote a four-vohime work against the Vatican dogma, dis- cussed the " Trinitarian Doctrinal Differences between the Eastern and Western Churches," in the interests of a union with the Greek church, and published an able monograph on'"Jolm of Damascus," as Avell as a thorough and imi)artial " History of the Roman Church down to Nicholas I.," two vols., 1881, 1885. — In Rome the Oratorian Aug. Theiner atoned for the literary errors of his youth (§ 187, 4) by his zealous vindication of papal privileges. His chief works were the continuation of the '■'■ Annalex Ecdenasfici^'' of Baronius, and the edit- ing of the historical documents of the various Christian nations. The
268 CHURCH HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Jesuits chargvtl him with giving tho anti-Yaticanists aid from the library and sought to influence the pope against him so as to deprive him of his office of prefect of the Vatican archives. He was sus- pended from his duties, and though he still retained his title and occupied his official residence in the Vatican, the doors from it into the library were built up. His edition of the "Acts of the Council of Trent," Avhich was commenced, was also prohibited. But he succeeded in making a transcript at Agram in Croatia, where in 1874 a portion of it, the official protocol of the secretary of the Coun- cil, Massarelli, was printed by the help of Bishop Strossmayer in an elegant style but abbreviated, and therefore imsatisfactory. Cardinal Angelo Mai, as principal Vatican librarian, distinguished himself by his palimpsest studies in old classical as well as patristic literature. And quite worthy of ranking with either in carefulness, diligence, and patience was De Rossi, who has laboured in the department of Christian archaeology, and is well known by his great work, " Boma sotteranea cristiana,''^ published in 1864 if. — Xavier Kraus, when his "Handbook" had been adversely criticised, hastened to Rome, submitted all his utterances to the judgment of the pope, and proclaimed on his return that in the next edition he would explain Avhat had been misunder- stood and Avithdraw what was objected to. The question now rises, whether the more recent work of Xav. Funk can escape a similar censure.
Among Catholic writers on canon Irav the most notable are Walters of Bonn, Phillips of Vienna, Von Schulte of Prague and Bonn, who till the Vatican Council was one of the most zealous advocates of the strict Catholic tendency, since then openly on the side of the opposi- tion, a keen supporter, and by Avord and pen a vigorous promoter, of the Old Catholic movement, and Vering of Prague, Avho occupies the iiltramontane Vatican standpoint.
8. The Chief Representatives of Exegetical Theology. — Hug of Frei- burg, in his " Introduction," occupies the biblical biit ecclesiastically latitudinarian attitude of Jahn. Leaving dogma unattached and so himself unattached. Movers of Breslau, best known by his work on the Phoenicians, a Richard Simon of his age, developed a subtlety of de- structive criticism of the canon and history of the Old Testament which astonished even the father of Protestant criticism, De Wette. Kaulen of Bonn wrote an " Introduction to the Old and New Testa- ment," in a fairly scientific spirit from the Vatican standpoint; while Maier of Freiburg, Avrote an introduction to the Ncav Testament and commentaries on some New Testament books. — The Old Catholic Reusch of Bonn wrote " Introduction to the Old Testament," and " Nature and the Bible " (2 vols., Edin., 1886). Sepp of Munich, silent since 1867, began his literary career with a " Life of Christ," a " History of
§ 191. CATHOLIC THEOLOGY. 269
the Apostles," etc., in the spirit of the romantic mj'stical school of Gorres. His " Sketch of Church Eeform, beginning ^vith a Eevision of the Bible Canon," caused considerable excitement. With humble submission to the judgment of his church, he demanded a correction of the Tridentine decrees on Scripture in accordance with the results of modern science, but the only response Avas the inclusion of his book in the Index.
9. The Chief Representatives of the New Scholasticism.— The official and most masterh- representative of this school for tlie whole Catholic Avorkl was the Jesuit Perrone, 1794-1876, professor of dogmatics of the Collerjium Boinaiium, the most widely read of the Catholic polemical Avri1;ers, but not worthy to tie the shoes of Bellarmin, Bossuet, and Mohler. In his " FrceJect tones Theoloyicm,''' nine vols., which has run through thirty-six editions, Avithout knowing a word of German, he displayed the grossest ignorance along with luiparalleled arrogance in his treatment of Protestant doctrine, history, and personalities (§ 175, 2). The German Jesuit Kleutgen who, imder Pius IX., was the oracle of the Vatican in reference to German aifairs, introduced tiie new Roman scholasticism by his work " Die Theolofjie der Vorzeit,"' into the German episcopal seminaries, whose teachers were mostly trained in the CoUe/jium Germanirum at Rome. Alongside of Perrone and Kleutgen, in the domain of morals, the Jesuit Gary holds the first place, reproducing in his works the whole abomination of proba- bilism, reservatio onentalia, and the old Jesuit casuistry (§ 149, 10), with the iisual lasciviousness in questions affecting the sexes. Among theologians of this tendency in German universities we mention next Denzinger of "Wiirzburg, who seeks in his works '"to lead dogmatics back from the aberrations of modern ]d"iilosophic speculations into the ])atlis of the old schools."' His zealous o])]josition to Giintherism did much to secure its emphatic condenmation.
10. The Munich Congress of Catholic Scholars, 1863.— In order if possible to heal the daily widening cleft between the scientific univer- sity theologians and the scholastic theologians of the seminaries, and bring about a mutiial understanding and friendh* co-operation be- tween all the theological faculties, Dollinger and his colleague Hane- berg summoned a congress at Munich, which was attended by about a hundred Catholic scholars, mostly theologians. After high mass, accompanied with the recitation of the Tridentine creed, the four daA-s' conference began with a brilliant presidential address by Dollinger " On the Past and Present of Catholic Theology.*' The liberal views therein enunciated occasioned violent and animated debates, to which, however, it was readily admitted as a religious duty that all scientific disciissions and investigations should yield to the dogmatic claims of the infallible authority of the church, as thert^by the true freedom
270 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of science can in no ^\•ay be prejudiceJ. A telegraphic report to the pope drawn up in this spirit by Dollinger was responded to in a similar manner on the same day with the apostolic blessing. But after the proceedings in extenao had become known, a papal brief was issued which burdened the permission to hold further yearly assem- blies with such conditions as must have made them utterly fruitless. They were indeed acquiesced in with a bad grace at the second and last congress at Wiirzburg in 18G4, but the whole scheme was tiius brought to an end.
11. Theological Journals. — The most severely scientific journal of this century is the Tiibingen Tlieol. Quartalschriff, which, however, since the Vatican Council has been struggling to maintain a neutral posi- tion between the extremes of the Old and the New Catholicism. In order if possible to displace it the Jesuits Wieser and Stenstnip of Innsbruck started in 1877 their Zeilschrift fur Kath. Theohi/ir. The ably conducted Theol. Liftfiratiirhlaff, started in 18G6 by Prof. Eeusch of Bonn, had to be abandoned in 1878, after raising the stan- dard of Old Catholicism.
12. The Popes and Theological Science. — What kind of theology Pius IX, wished to have taught is shown by his proclaiming St. Liguori (§ 165, ' 2) and St. Francis de Sales (§ 157, 1) dodores ecdenke. Leo XIII., on the other hand, in 1879 recommended in the encyclical jEterni patris, in the most urgent Avay, all Catholic schools to make the philosophy of the angelical Aquinas (§ 108, 6) their foundation , founded in 1880 an " Academy of St. Thomas Aquinas," three out of its thirty members being Germans, Kleutgen, Stockl, and Morgott, and gave 300,000 lire out of Peter's pence for an edition of Aquinas' works with the commentaries of " the most eminent expositors," setting aside " all those books which, while professing to be derived from St. Thomas are really drawn from foreign and unholy sources " ; i.e., in accor- dance with the desires of the Jesuits, omitting the strictly Thomist expositors (§ 149, 13), and giving currency only to Jesuit interjn'eta- tions. No wonder that the Jesuit General Beckx in such circum- stances submitted himself " humbly," being praised for this by the pope as a saint. But a much greater, indeed a really great, service to the documentary examination of the history of the Clu-istian church and state has been rendered by th6 same pope, undoubtedly at the instigation of Cardinal Hei-genrother, by the access granted not only to Catholic but also to Protestant investigators to the exceedingly rich treasures of the Vatican archives. Though still hedged round with considerable limitations, the concession seems liberality itself as compared with the stubborn refusal of Pius IX. to facilitate the studies of any inquirer. With honest pride the pope could inscribe on his bust ))lacfd in tin- library: '■ Lro XIII. Pont. Max. /lislorice
§ 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATIOX. 271
sfudiis conmJens tahidar'ii arcana rechi.sif a ISSO."'— But Avliat the ends Avere Avhich he had in view and Avhat the hopes that he cherished, is seen from the rescript of August, 1883, in which he calls upon the cardinals De Luca, Pitra, and Hergenrother, as prefects of the committee of studies, of the library and archives, while proclaiming the great benefits Avhich the i^apacy has secured to Italy, to do their utmost to overtlarow " the lies uttered by the sects "' on the history of the church, especially in reference to the papacy, for, he adds, " Ave desire that at last once more the tru.th should prevail."' Therefore archives and library are to be opened to pious and learned students '• for the service of religion and science in order that the historical untruths of the enemies of the church which have found entrance even into the schoolbooks should be displaced by the composition of good writings. The fii'stfruits of the zeal thus stimulated were the " Monnmenta ref. Lutherauce ex tabulariis S. Sedis,'''' B-atisbon, 1883, published by the assistant keeper of the archives P. Balan as an ex- tinguisher to the Luther Jubilee of that j^ear. But this performance came so far short of the wishes and expectations of the Roman zealots that by their influence the editor was removed from his official position. The next attempt of this sort was the edition by Hergen- rother of the papal JRegesta down to Leo X.
IV. — Relation of Church to the Empire and to the States.
§ 192. The German Confederatiox.
The Peace of Luneville of 1801 gave the deathblow to the old German empire, by the formal cession of the left bank of the Rhine to France, indemnifying the secAilar princes who were losers by this arrangement with estates and possessions on the right of the Rhine, taken from the neutral free cities of the empire and the secularized eccle- siastical principalities, institutions, monasteries, and orders. An imperial commission sitting at Regensburg arranged the details of these indemnifications. They were given ex- pression to by means of the imperial commission's decree or recess of 1803. The dissolution of the coustitution of the German empire thus effected was still further carried out by the Peace of Presburg of 1805, which conferred upon the
272 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
princes of Bavaria, Wiirttemberg, and Baden, in league with Xapoleon, full sovereignty, and to the two first named the rank of kings, and was completed by the founding of the Confederation of the Rhine of 1806, in which sixteen German princes formal!}- severed themselves from the emperor and empire and ranked themselves as vassals of France under the protectorate of Napoleon. Francis IL, who already in 1804 had assumed the title of Emperor of Austria as Francis I., now that the German empire had actually ceased to exist, renounced also the name of German emperor. The tmhappy proceedings of the Vienna Congress of the German Confede- ration and its permanent representation in the Frankfort parliament during 1814 and 1815, after Napoleon's twice repeated defeat, led finally to the Austro-Prussian war of 1866.
1. The Imperial Commission's Decree, 1803. — The significance of this for church history consists not merely iu the secularization of the ecclesiastical principalities and corporations, but even still more in the alteration caused thereby in the ecclesiastical polity of the terri- torial governments. With the ecclesiastical principalities the most poAverful props of the Catholic church in Germany Avere lost, and Protestantism obtained a decided ascendency in the council of the German princes. The Catholic prelates were now sim])l3^ paid ser- vants of the state, and thus their double connexion Avith the curia and the state brought Avith it in later times endless entanglements and complications. On the other hand, in states hitherto almost ex- clusively Protestant, e.g. Wiirttemberg, Baden, Hesse, there was a great increase of Catholic subjects, Avhich attracted but little serious attention when the confessional particularism in the consciousness of the age was more unassuming and tolerant tlian ever it has been before or since.
2. The Prince-Primate of the Confederation of the Rhine. — Baron Carl Theod. von Dalberg, distinguished for his literary culture and his liberal patronage of art and science, was made in 1802 Elector of Mainz and Lord High Chancellor of the German empire. When by the recess of 1803 the territories of the electorate on the left of the Rhine were given over to France and those on the right secularized, the electoral rank was abolished. The same happened with respect to the lord high chancellorship through the creation of the Ehenish
§ 192. THE GERMAN CONFEDERATION. 273
ConfeJeration. Dalberg Avas indemnified for the former b3^the favour of Napoleon by the pift of a small territory on the right of the Ehine, and for the latter by the renewal of the prince-primacy of the Con- federation of the Rhine with a seat in the Federal council. He still retained his episcopal office and fixed its seat at Eegensburg. The founding of a metropolitan chapter at Eegensburg embracing the ■whole domain of the E-henish Confederation he did not succeed in carr3'ing out, and in 1813 he felt compelled to surrender also his teri'itorial possessions. His spiritual functions, however, as Archbishop of Regensburg, he continued to discharge until his death in 1817.
8. The Vienna Congress and the Concordat — The Vienna Congress of 1814, 1815, had assigned it the difficult task of righting the sorely disturbed political affairs of Eui'ope and giving a new shape to the territorial and dynastic relations. But never had an indispensably necessary redistribution of territory been made more difficult or more complicated by diplomatic intrigues than in Germany. Instead of the earlier federation of states, the restoration of which proved im- possible, the fedei-al constitution of June 8th, 1815, created under the name of the German Confederation a union of states in which all members of the confederation as such exercised equal sovereign rights. Their number then amounted to thirty-eight, but in the coursa of time by death or Avithdrawal were reduced to thirty-four. The new distribution of territory, just as little as the Luneville Peace, took into account confessional homogeneity of princes and territories, so that the combination of Catholic and Protestant districts with the above referred to consequences, occurred in a yet lai'ger measure. But the federal constitiition secured in Article XVI. full toleration for all Christian confessions in the countries of the confederation. The claims of the Romish curia, which advanced from the demand for the restoration of all ecclesiastical principalities and the return of all impropriated churches and monasteries to their original purposes, to the demand for the restoration of the holy Roman-German empire in the mediaeval and hierarchical sense, as well as the solemn protest against its conclusions laid upon the table of the congress by the pa])al legate Consalvi, were left quite unheeded. But also a proposal urgentl}- pressed by the vicar-general of the diocese of Constance, Baron von "Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), to found a German Catholic national church under a German primate found no favour -with the congress ; and an article recommended by Austria and Prussia to be incorporated in the acts of the coirfederation b}^ A\'hich the Catholic church in Ger- many endeavoured to secure a common constitution under guarantee of the confederation, was rejected through the opposition of Bavaria. And since in the Frankfort parliament neither Wessenburg with his primacy and national church idea nor Consalvi with a comprehensive VOL. III. 1 8
274 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
concordat answering to the wishes of tlie curia, was able to carry throuirh a measure, it was left to the separate states interested to make separate concordats with the pope. Bavaria concluded a concordat in 1817 (§ 195, 1); Prussia in 1821 (§ 198, 1). Xegotiations with the other German states fell through owing to the excessiveness of the demands of the hierarchy, or led to very unsatisfactory results, as in Hanover in 1824 (§ 194, 1) and the states belonging to the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Ehine in 1837 (§ 196, 1). In the time of re- action against the revolutionary excesses of 1848 the curia lii'st secured any real advance. Hesse-Darmstadt opened the list in 1854 with a secret convention (§ 196, 4) ; then Austria followed in 1855 with a model concordat (§ 198, 2) \\'hich served as the pattern for the con- cordats with Wlirttemberg in 1857 (§ 196, 6), and Avith Baden in 1859 (§ 196, 2), as w^ell as for the episcopal convention with Nassau in 1861 (§ 196, 4). But the revived liberal current of 1860 swept away the South German concordats; the Vatican Council by its infallibility dogma gave the deathblow to that of Austria, and the German '■• Kiiltiirkampf" sent the Prussian concordat to the winds, and only that of Bavaria remained in full force.
4. The Frankfort Parliament and the Wiirzhurg Bishops' Congress of 1848. — As in the March diets of 1848 the magic word '-freedom" roused throughout Germany a feverish excitement, it found a ready response among the Catholics, whose church was favoured in the highest degree by the movement. In the Frankfort parliament the ablest leaders of Catholic Germany had seats. Among the Catholic population there were numerous religio-political societies formed (§ 186, 3), and the German bishops, avowedly for the celebration of the 600th anniversary of the building of Cologne cathedral, set alongside of the Frankfort people's parliament a German bishops' council. After they had at Frankfort declared themselves in favour of imconditional liberty of faith, conscience, and worship, the complete independence of all religious societies in the ordering and administering of their affairs, but also of freeing the schools from all ecclesiastical control and oversight, as well as of the introduction of obligatory civil mar- riage, the bishops' council met in October at Wiirzburg under the presidency of Archbishop Geissel of Cologne with nineteen episcopal assistants and several able theological advisers. In thirty -six sessions they reached the conclusion that complete seijaration between church and state is not to be desired so long as the state does not refuse to the church the place of authority belonging to it. On the other hand, by all means in their power they are to seek the abrogation of the jVacei of the sovereign, the full independence of ecclesiastical legislation, administration and jurisdiction, with the abolition of the a2ipellatio tanqiiam ah ahufiu. the direction and oversight of the public schools as
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 275
Avell as the control of religious instruction in higher schools to be given only by teachers licensed for the purpose by the bishops, and finally to demand ]:)ermission to erect educational institutions of their own of every kind, etc., and to forward a copj' of these decisions to all German governments. The main object of the Wiirzhurg assembly to secure cm-rency for their resolutions in the new Germany sketched out at the Frankfort parliament, was indeed frustrated by that parliament's speedy overthrow. Nevertheless in the several states (■oncerned it proved of great and lasting importance in determining the subsequent unanimous proceedings of the bishops.
§ 193. Prussia.
To the pious king Frederick William III. (1797-1840) it was a matter of heart and conscience to turn to account the religious consciousness of his people, re-awakened by God's gracious help during the war of independence, for the heal- ing of the three hundred years' rent in the evangelical church by a union of the two evangelical confessions. The jubilee festival of the Reformation in 1817 seemed to him to offer the most favourable occasion. The king also desired to see the Catholic church in his dominions restored to an orderly and thriving condition, and for this end concluded a concordat with Rome in 1821. But it was broken up in 183G over a strife between canon and civil law in reference to mixed marriages. Frederick William IV, was dominated by romantic ideas, and his reign (1840-1858), notwithstand- ing all his evangelical Christian decidedness, was wanting in the necessary firmness and energetic consistenc}'. In the Catholic church the Jesuits were allowed unhindered to foster ultramontane hierarchical principles, and in the evan- gelical church the troubles about constitution, union, and confession could not be surmounted either by its own proper guardian, the episcopate, or by the superior church councils created in 1850. And although the notifications of William I. on bis entrance upon the sole government in 1858 were hailed b}' the liberals as giving assurance that a new era
27G CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
had daAvned in the development of tlie cvano-elical national church, this hope proved to be premature. With the exalta- tion of the victory-crowned royal house of Prussia to the throne of the newly erected German Empire on Januar}' 18th, 1871, a new era was actual!}' opened for ecclesiastical developments and modifications throughout the land.
1. The Catholic Church to the Close of the Cologne Conflict.— The government of Frederick William III. entered into negotiations with the iDa])al curia, not so much for the old provinces in which every- thing was going well, but rather in the interests of the Rhine pro- vinces annexed in 1814, Avhose bishops' sees were vacant or in need of circumscription. The first Prussian ambassador to the Homan curia (181()-1828) was the famous historian Niebuhr. Although a true Protestant and keen critic and restoi'er of the history of old pagan Home he was no match for the subtle and skilful diplomacy of Con- salvi. In presence of the claims of the curia he manifested to an almost incredible extent trustful sympathy and acquiescence, even taking to do with matters that lay outside of Prussian affairs, eagerly silencing and opposing any considerations suggested from the other side. A complete concordat, however, defining in detail all the rela- tions between church and state Avas not secured, but in 1821 an agree- ment was come to, with thankful ackn(jwledgment of the "great magnanimity and goodness " shown by the king, by the bull De salute o«/«(or«?/i, sanctioned by the king through a cabinet order ("in the exercise of his royal prerogative and Avithout detriment to these rights"), according to which two archbishoprics, Cologne and Posen, and six bishoprics, Treves, Miinster, Paderborn, Breslau, Ivulm, and Enneland, with a clerical seminary, were erected in Prussia and fur- nished with rich endowments. The cathedral chapter was to have the free choice of the bishoj) ; but by an annexed note it was recommended to make sure in every such election that the one so chosen Avouhl be a (jrata peraona to the king. The miion thus effected between church and state was of but short duration. The dc^cree of Trent foi'bade (Jatholics to enter into mixed marriages Avith non-Catholics. A later papal bull of 1741, hoAvever, permitted it on condition of an only passive assistance of the clergy at the wedding and an engagement by the parents to train up the children as Catholics, The laAv of Prussia, on the other hand, in contested cases made all the childi'en folloAV the religion of their fathers. As this Avas held in 1825 to apply to the Rhine provinces, and as the bishops there had, in 1828, apjjealed to the pope, Pius YIII. avIhh negotiations Avith the l^russian ambas-
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 277
sador Bunsen (1824-1838) proved fruitless, issued in 1830 a brief -which permitted Catholic priests to give the ecclesiastical sanction to mixed marriages only when a promise was given that the children should be educated as Catholics, but otherwise to give only passive assistance. "When all remonstrances failed to overcome the obstinacy of the curia, the government turned to the Archbishop of Cologne, Count Spiegel, a zealous friend and promoter of the Hermesian theology (§ 191. 1), and arranged in 1834 a secret convention with him, which by his influence all his suffragans jomed. In it they promised to give such an inter- pretation to the brief that its observance would be limited to teaching and exhortation, but would by no means extend to the obligation of submitting the children to Catholic baptism, and that the mere assis~ tentia xxissiva would be resorted to as rareh- as possible, and onl}^ in cases where absolutely required. Spiegel died in November, 1835. In
1836 the Westphalian Baron Clement Droste von Vischering' M-as chosen as his successor. Although before his elevation he had unhesitatingly agreed to the convention, soon after his enthronization he strictly forbad all the clergy celebrating any marriage except in accordance Avith the brief, and blamed himself for having believed the agreement between convention and brief affirmed by the government, and having only subsequently on closer examination discovered the disagreement betAveen the tAvo. At the same time, in order to gi^-e effect to the condemnation that had been meanwhile passed on the Hermesian theologA^, he ga^-e orders that at the confessional the Bonn students should be forbidden to attend the lectures of Hermesians. "When the archbishop could not be prevailed on to yield, he Avas condemned in
1837 as having broken his Avord and having incited to rebellion, and sent to the fortress of Minden. Gregory XIV. addressed to the con- sistory a fulminating allocution, and a flood of controA-ersial tracts on either side SAvept over Germany. Gorres designated the archbishop " the Athanasius of the nineteenth century." The government issued a state paper justifying its procedure, and the courts of law sentenced certain refractory priests to several years' confinement in fortresses or prisons. The moderate peaceful tone of the cathedral chapter did much to qiiell the disturbance, si;i)porting as it did the state rather than the archbishop. The example of Cologne encouraged also Dunin, Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen, to issue in 1838 a pastoral in Avhich he threatened Avith suspension auA- priest in his diocese Avho Avould not yield unconditional obedience to the i)apal brief. For this he Avas deposed by the civil courts and sentenced to half a year's imprison- ment in a fortress, but the king prcA'ented the execution of the sen- tence. But Dunin fled from Berlin, Avhither he had been ordered by the king, to Posen, and Avas then brought in 1839 to the fortress of Kolbcj^. "While matters Avere in this state Frederick AVilliani lY.
278 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
caine to the throne in 1840. Duniu Avas immediately restored, after promising to maintain tlie peace. Droste also -was released from his confinement Avith public marks of respect, but received in 1841, with his own and the pope's ai^proval, in the former Bishop of Spires, Geissel, a coadjutor, who in his name and with the right of succession administered the diocese. The government gave no aid to the Her- mesians. The law in regard to mixed marriages continued indeed in force, but was exercised so as to put no constraint of conscience Tipon the Catholic clergy. Of his own accord the king declinetl further exercise of the royal prerogative, allowing the bishops direct inter- course with the ixipal see, whereas previously all correspondence had to pass through royal comuiittees, with this i^roviso by the minister Eichhorn, '-that this display of generous confidence be not abused,'' and with the expectation that the bishops would not only conmaunicate to the government the contents of their correspondence with the pope, but also the papal replies which did not deal exclusively with doctrine, and would not speak and act against the wish and will of the govern- ment. But Geissel, recommended by Louis of Ba-\-aria to his son-in-law Frederick 'William IV. instead of Baron von Diepenbrock (§ 187, 1) ■who was first thought of, by his skilful and energetic nlanoe^^^■ring, going on from victory to victory, raised ultramontanism in Prussia to the very srunmit of its influence and glor\-.
2. The Golden Age of Prussian Ultramontanism, 1841-1871.— In the Cologne-Posen conflict Eome had ^-on an almost complete victor3-, and with all its satellites now thought only of how it might in the best possible manner turn this victory to account, in which the all too trustful government sought to aid it to th(^ utmost. This moA^ement received a further impulse in the revolution of 1848 (§ 192, 4). In Prussia as well as in other German lands, and there in a special degree, the Catholic churcli managed to derive from the revolutionary movements of those times, and from the subsequent reaction, sub- stantial advantage. The constitution of 1850 declared in Article xv. : " The evangelical and the Roman Catholic Church as well as every other religious society regulates and administers its afiairs indepen- dently ■' ; in Article xvi. : " The correspondence of religious societies with their superiors is unrestricted, the publication of ecclesiastical ordinances is subject only to those limitations which apply to all other documents"; in Article xviii. : "The right of nomination, proposal, election, and institution to spiritual ofHce, so far as it belongs to the state, is abolished " ; and in Article xxiv. : " The respective religious societies direct religious instruction in the public schools." Under the screen of these fundamental privileges the Catholic episcopate now claimed one civil prerogative after another, emancipated itself wholl3' fi-om the laws of the state, and, n]i lli<' plea that God must be obe\'ed
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 279
rather than man, made tlie canon la-\v, not onh* in purely ecclesiastical but also in mixed matters, the onh' standard, and the decision of the pope the final appeal. At last nothing -was left to the state but the obligation of conferring splendid endo■^^'nlents upon the bishops, cathedral chapters, and seminaries for priests, and the honoxu' of being at home the executioner of episcopal tyranny, and abroad the avenger of every utterance unfavourable to the doctrine and worshiiD, customs and enactments of the Catholic church. "With almost incredible in- fatuation the Catholic hierarchy was now regarded as a main support of the throne against the revolutionary tendencies of the age and as the siu'est guarantee for the loyalty of subjects in provinces jjre- dominantlj' Catholic. Under protection of the law allowing tlie formation of societies and the right of assembling, the order of Jesuits set up one establishment after another, and made up for defects or insufficient energy of ultramontane pastoral work, agitation and endeavour at convei'sion on the part of other peaceably disposed parish priests, by numerous missions conducted in the most ostentatious manner (§ 186, 6). Although according to Article xiii. of the con- stitution i-eligious societies could obtain corporative rights only by special enactments, the bishops, on their own authority", without re- garding this provision, established religious orders and congregations Avherever they chose. As these were generally placed under foreign superiors male or female, to whom in Jesuit fashion unconditional obedience was rendered, each member being " like a corpse," without any individual will, they spread without hindrance, so that con- tinually new cloisters and houses of the orders sprang up like mush- rooms over the Protestant metropolis (§ 186, 2). Education in Catholic districts fell more and more into the hands of religious corporations, and even the higher state educational institutions, so far as the3- dealt Avith the training of the Catholic youth (theological faculties, gymnasia, and Training schools), were wholly under the control of the bishops. From the boys' convents and priests' seminaries, erected at all episcopal residences, went forth a new generation of clergy reared in the severest school of intolerance, who, fii-st of all acting as chaplains, bj- espionage, the arousing of suspicion and talebearing, were the dread of the old parish priests, and, as •■ chaplains at large," stirred up fanaticism among the people, and secured the Catholic press to themselves as a monopol3\ For the purposes of Catholic worship and education the government had placed state aid most liberally at their disposal, Avithout requiring any account from the bishops as to their disposal of the money. Although the number of Catholics in the whole country Avas only about half that of the Protestants, the endoAv- ment of the Catholic Avas almost double that of the evangelical cliurch. The civil authorit}- readily helped the bisliops to enforce auA- spiritual
2S0 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
penalties, and thus the inferior clergy -were brought into absolute dependence upon their spiritual superiors. In the government depart- ment of Public Worship, from 1840 to 1848 under the direction of Eichhorn, there was since 1841 a subsection for dealing Avith the affairs of the Catholic church which, although restricted to the guarding of the rights of the king over against the curia and that of the state over against the hierarchy, came to be in an entirely opposite sense " the civil department of the pope in Prussia." Under Von Miihler's ministry. 1862-1872, it obtained absolute authority which it seems to have exercised in removing unfavourable acts and documents from the imperial archives. And thus the Catholic church, or rather the ultramontane party dominant in it since 1848, grew up into a power that threatened the whole commonwealth in its very foundations. — By the annexation of Hanover, Hesse, and Nassau in 1866, four new bishoprics, those of Hildesheim, Osnabrilck, Fulda and Limburg were added to the previous eight. — Continuation § 197.
8. The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia down to 1848. — On the accomplishment of the union by Frederick "William III. and the confusions arising therefrom, see § 177. Frederick William IV. on his accession declared his wish in reference to the national evangelical church, that the supreme control of the church should be exercised only in order to secure for it in an orderly and legal way the inde- pendent administration of its own affairs. The realization of this idea, after a church conference of the ordinary clergy from almost all German states had been held in Berlin withoiit result, was attempted at Berlin by a general synod, oiiened on Whitsunday, 1846. The synod at its eighteenth session entered u])on the consideration of the difficult question of doctrine and the confession. The result of this was th(^ approval of an ordination formula drawn up by Dr. Nitzsch (§ 182, 10), according to whieli the candidate for ordination Avas to make profession of the great finitlamental and saving truths instead of the church confession hitherto enforced. And since among these fundamental truths the doctrines of cxc^atioUj original sin, the super- natural conception, the descent into liell and the ascension of Christ, the resurrection of the body, the last judgment, everlasting life and everlasting punishment Avere not included, and therefore Avere not to enforced, since further by this ordination formula the special confes- sions of Lutheran and Reformed Avere really set aside, and thercAvith the existence of a Lutheran as Avell as a Keformed church Avithin the union seemed to be abolished, a small number of decided Lutherans in the synod protested ; still more decided and A'igorous pjrotests arose from outside the synod, to Avhich the Evang. Kinlicnzeitiivff opened its columns. The government gave no further countenance to the decisions of the synod, and ojiponents exercised their Avit ujion
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 281
the unfortunate Xicceiinm of the nineteenth century, -which eis a Xitzachenum had fallen into the water. In March, 18-17, the king issued a patent of toleration, by which protection was assured anew to existing churches, but the foniiation of new religiovis societies was allowed to all who found not in these the expression of their belief.
4. The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1848-1872 — When the storms of revolution broke out in 1848, the new minister of Avorship, Count Schwerin, willingly aided in reorganizing the church according to the mind of the masses of the people by a constitutional synod. But before it had met the reaction had already set in. The transition ministry of Ladenberg was assured by consistories and faculties of the danger of convoking such a s3'nod of represputatives of the people. Instead of the sjmod therefore a Supreme Church Council was assembled at Berlin in" 1850, which, independent of the ministry, and only under the king as jjracipuum membrum ecdesicv, should rejjresent the free- dom of the church frona the state as something already realized. On March 6th, 1852, the king issued a cabinet order, in consequence of which the Supreme Chiu'ch Council administered not only the affairs of the evangelical national church as a whole, but also was charged with the interests of the Lutheran as well as the Eeformed chxirch in particular, and was to be composed of members from both of those confessions, who should alone have to decide on questions referring to their own confession. On the Itio in partes thus required in this board, only Dr. Nitzsch remained over, as he declared that he could find expression for his religious convictions in neither of the two con- fessions, but only in a consensus of both. The difficulty was over- come by reckoning him a representative equally of both denomina- tion. Encouraged by such connivance in high places to entertain still bolder hopes, the Lutheran societies in 1853 presented to the king a petition signed by one hundred and sixty one clergj-men, for restoring Lutheran faculties and the Luthtn-an church property. But this called foith a rather unfavourable cabinet order, in which the king exi)ressed his disapproval of such a misconception of the ordi- nances of the former year, and made the express declaration that it never Avas his intention to break uj) or weaken the vmion effected hy his father, that he only wished to give the confession within the union the protection to which it was undoubtedly entitled. After this the separate Lutheran interest so long highh' favoured fell into manifest and growing disfavour. Still the ministerial department of worship under Von Eaumer, 1850-1858, continued to conduct the affairs of schools and universities in the spirit of the ecclesiastical orthodox reaction, and issued the endless school regulations conceived in this spirit of the privy councillor Stiehl. The Supreme Church Council also exhibited a rare activity' and passed many Avholesome ordinances.
282 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
The evangelical chiirch won great credit by the care it took of its members scattered over distant lands, in supplying them with clerg}' and teachers. The evident favour with which Frederick William lY. furthered the efforts of the Evangelical Alliance of 1857 (§ 178, 3) was the last proof of decided aversion from the confessional movement Avhich he Avas to be allowed to give. A long and hopeless illness, of which he died in 1861, obliged him to resign the government to his brother "William I. When this monarch in October, 1855, began to rule in Iiis own name, he declared to his ncAvly appointed ministers that it was his firm resolve that the evangelical union, whose bene- ficent development had been obstructive to an orthodoxy incom- patible with the character of the evangelical church, and which had thus ahnost caused its ruin, should be maintained and fui'ther ad- vanced. But in order that the task might be accomplished, the organs for its administration must be carefully chosen and to some extent changed. All hypocris}^ and formalism, which that orthodoxy had fostei-ed, is wherever possible to be removed. The " new era,"' however, marked by the appearance of liberal journals, by no means ansAvered to the expectations Avhich those words excited. The minis- try of Von Bethmann-Hollweg, 1858-1862, filled some theological and spiritual offices in this liberal spirit ; Stalil withdrcAV from the Supreme Church Council ; the proceedings against the free churches, as well as the severe measures against the re-marriage of divorced parties, wei'e relaxed. But the marriage laAV laid doAvn by the ministry with permission of civil marriage Avas rejected by the House of Peers, and the hated school regulations had to be undertaken by the minister himself. The ecclesiastically conservative ministry of Von Miihler, 1862- 1872, Avhich, however, Avanted a fixed principle as well as self-deter- mined energy of A\dll, and Avas therefore often A'acillating and losing the respect of all parties, Avas utterly unfit to realize these expecta- tions. The Supreme Church Council published in 1867 the outlines of a provincial synodal constitution for the six East Provinces Avhich were still Avithout this institution, Avhich the Ehine Provinces and West^jhalia had enjoA^ed since 1835. For this purpose he couA'ened in autumn, 1869, an extraordinary proA'incial synod, Avhich essen- tially approA'ed the sketch submitted, Avhereupon it Avas proA'isionally enacted.
5. The Evangelical Church in Old Prussia, 1872-1880 — After the re- moval of Von Miihler, the minister of Avorship, in Januaiy, 1872, his place Avas taken by Dr. Falk, 1872-1879. The hated school regiilations Avere noAV at last set aside and replaced by ncAV moderate prescriptions, conceived in an almost \inex]iectedly temperate spirit. On September 10th, 1873, the king issued a congregational and synodal constitution for the eastern i)ro\'inces, Avith tlie express statement that tlie position
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 283
of the confession and the union should therebj^ be in no -way affected. It prescribed that in every congregation presided over by a pastor, elected by the ecclesiastically qualified church members, i.e. those of honourable life who had taken part in public worship and received the sacraments, there should be a church council of from fom- to twelve persons, and for more important matters, e.r/. the election of a pastor, a congregational committee of three times the size, half of which should be reappointed every third year. To the district sjniod, presided over by the superintendent, each congregation sends as dele- gates besides the pastor a lay representative chosen by the church council from among its members or from the congregational com- mittee. According to the same principle the District Synods choose from their members a clerical and a lay representative to the pro- vincial sjmod, to which also the evangelical theological faculty of the university within the boimds sends a deputy, and the territorial lord nominates a nmnber of members not exceeding a sixth part of the whole. The general synod, in which also the two western provinces, the Ehenish and Westphalian, take part, consists of one hundred and fifty delegates from the provincial sjmods, and thirty nominated by the territorial lords, to which the facilities of theology and law of the six universities within the bounds send each one of their members. Although this royal decree had proclaimed itself final, and only remitted to an Extraordinary General Synod to be called forthwith the task of arranging for future ordinary general s\aiods, yet at the meeting of this extraordinary syiiod in Berlin, on Novem- ber 24th, 1875, a draft was submitted of a constitution modified in various important points. Of the three demands of the liberal party noAvviolently insisted upon— (1) Substitution of the '-filter" sj-stem in the election of provincial and general sj-nod mehibers for that of the coamnunity electorate. (2) Strengthening of the lay element in all sj-nods ; and (3) Abolition of the equality of small village communities with large town connnunities — the first was by far the most imi^ort- aut and serious in its consequences, but the other tAvo bore fruit through the decree that two-thirds of the members of the district and provincial synods should be la3anen, and the other one-third should be freely elected to the district synod from the populous town com- munities, for the provincial sjaiods from the larger district sj-nods. Also in reference to the rights belonging to the several grades of synods, considerable modifications were made, whereby the privileges of communities were variously increased (e.ff. to them was given the right of refusing to introduce the catechisms and hymn-books sanc- tioned by the provincial synods), Avhile those of the district and provincial synods were lessened in favour of the general synod, and those of the latter again in favour of th^ liigh church council and
2S4 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
the minister of public worship. After nearl}- four weeks' discus- sion the bill without any serious amendments was passed by the assembly, and on January 20th, 1876, received the royal assent and became an ecclesiastical law. But in order to give it also the rank of a law of the state, a decision of the States' Parliament on the relation of church and state was necessary. The parliament had already in 1874, when the original congregational and synodal constitution was submitted to it, in order to advance the movement, approved only the congregational constitution with provisional refusal of everything going beyond that. In May, 1876, the bill already raised by the king into an ecclesiastical law, passed both houses of jjarliament, and had here also some amendments introduced Avith the effect of increasing and strengthening the prerogative of the state. The main points in the law as then passed are these : The general synod, whose members undertake to fulfil their duties agreeably to the word of God and the ordinances of the evangelical national church, has the task of main- taining and advancing the state church on the basis of the evangelical confession. The laws of the state chiirch must receive its assent, but any measure agreed upon by it cannot be laid before the king for his sanction without the approval of the minister of public w^orship. It meets ever}' sixth year ; in the interval it, as well as the provincial synods, is represented by a synodal committee chosen from its mem- bers. The head of the church government is the Supreme Church Council, whose president countersigns the ecclesiastical laws approved by the king. The right of appointing to this office lies with the minister of public worship ; in the nomination of other members the president makes proposals with consent of the minister. Taxation of the general synod for parliamentary purposes needs the assent of the minister of state, and must, if it exceeds four per cent, of the class and income tax, be agi'eed to by the Lower House, which also annually has to determine the ex])enditui'e on ecclesiastical ailministration.
6. When preparations were being made for the extraordinary general synod, the king had repeatedly given vigorous expression to his i^ositive religious standpoint, and from the proposed lists of mem- bers for that synod submitted by the minister of public worship all names belonging to the Protcstantenverein w^ere struck out. Still more decidedly in 1877 did he show his disapjiroval in the Rhode- Hossbach troubles (§ ISO, 4), by declaring his firm belief in the divinity of Christ, and when the then president of the Brandenburg consistory, Hegel, tendered his resignation, owing to differences with the liberal president of the Supreme Chin-ch Council, Hermann, the king refused to accept it, because h«! could not then spare any such men as held by the apostolic faith. In May, 1878, Hermann was at last, after rei)eated solicitations, allowed to retire, Dr. Hermes, member
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 285
of the Supreme Church Council, was nominated his successor, and the positive tendency of the Supreme Church Council was strengthened by the admission of the court preachers, Kogel and Baiu'. His pro- posals again disagreeing with the royal nominations for the provincial sjniod and for the First Ordinary General Synod of autumn, 1879, led the minister of public worship, Dr. Falk, at last, after repeated solici- tation, to accept his resignation. It was granted him in JuU', 1879, and the chief president of the province of Silesia, Von Puttkamer, a more decided adherent of the positive nnion party, was named as his successor; but in June, 1881, he Avas made minister of the interior, and the undersecretary of the department of public worship. Von Gossler, was made minister. The general synod, October 10th till November 3rd, consisted of fifty-two confessionalists, seventy-six positive-unionists, fifty-six of the middle party or evangelical unionist, and nine from the ranks of the left, the Protestantenverein ; three confessionalists, twelve positive-vmionists, and fifteen of the middle party were nominated by the king. The measures proposed by the Supreme Church Council : (1) A marriage service without reference to the preceding civil marriage, with two marriage formulte, the first a joint promise, the second a benediction ; (2) A disciplinarj^ law against despisers of baptism and marriage, which threatened such with the loss of all ecclesiastical electoral rights, and eventually with exclusion from the Lord's supper and sponsor rights; and (3) A law dealing with Emeriti, were adopted by the synod and then approved by the king. On the other hand a series of independent proposals conceived in the interests of the high-church jjarty re- mained in suspense. The last effected elections for the general sj'nod committee resulted in the appoiiitment of three positive-unionist members, including the president, two confessionalists, and two of the middle part}.'
7. The Evangelical Church in the Annexed Provinces — In 1866 the provinces of Hanover, Hesse and Schleswig-Holstein were incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia. In these political particularism, com- bined with confessional Lutheranism, suspicion of every organized system of church government as intended to introduce Prussian unionism, [even to the extreme of open rebellion, led to violent con- flicts. The king, indeed, personally gave assurance in Cassel, Han- over and Kiel that the position of the church confession should in no way be endangered. " He will indeed support the union where it already existed as a sacred legacy to him from his forefathers ; he
1 Geffcken, '• Church and State," vol. ii. pp. 501-531. Smith, '• The Falk Legislation from the Political Point of View,"' in the Theological Review for October, 1875.
286 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
also hopes that it may ahvaj's make f ui'ther progress as a witness to the grand unity of the evangelical church ; but compulsion is to be applied to no man." The consistories of these provinces were still to continue independent of the Supreme Church Council. But the ministerial order for the restoration of representative synotlal consti- tution increasingly i:)revailed, although the wide-spread suspicion and individual protests against the system of church govermnent, such as the temporary prohibition of the Marburg consistory of the mission festival, as avowedly used for agitation against the intended synodal constitution, helped to intensify the bitterness of feeling. But on the other hand many preachers by their unbecoming pulpit harangues, and their refusal to take the oath of allegiance or service, to pray in church for their new sovereign, and to observe the general holiday appointed to be held in 1869 on November 10th (Luther's birthday), etc., compelled the ecclesiastical avithorities to impose fines, suspen- sion, penal transportation, and deposition. In the Lutheran Schleswig- Holstein a new congregational constitution was introduced in 1869 by the minister Von Miihler, as the basis of a future sjaiodal constitution, which was adopted by the Vorsynode of Eendsburg in 1871, jn-eserving the confessional status laid down, without discussion. In 1878 an advance was made by the institution of district or ])rovostship synods, and in February, 1880, the first Geiieral Synod was held at Eendsburg. As in Old Prussia so also here the conservative movement proved vic- torious. The laity obtained majorities in all sjniods, and the supre- macy of the state was secured by the subordination of the church government under the minister of public worship.
8. In Hanover, Avhere especially Lichtenberg, president of the upper consistory, and Uhlhorn, member of the upper consistory (since 1878 abbot of Loccum), although many Lutheran extremists long remained dissatisfied, temperately and worthily maintained the in- dependence and privileges of the Lutheran cliurch, the first national synod could be convened and could bring to a generally peaceful con- clusion the question of the constitution only in the end of 1869, after the preliminary labour of the national synod committee. In 1882 the Reformed communities of 120,000 souls, hitherto subject to Lutheran consistories, obtained an independent congregational and synodal con- stitution. Against the new marriage ordinance enacted in consequence of the civil marriage law (§ 197, 5), Theod. Harms (brother, and from 1865 successor of L. Harms, § 184, 1), pastor and director of H(n-manns- burg missionary seminary, rebelled from the conviction that civil marriage did not deserve to be recognised as marriage. He was first suspended, then in 1877 deposed from office, and with the most of his congregation I'etired and founded a separate Lutheran community, to which subsequently fifteen other small congregations of 4,000 souls
§ 193. PRUSSIA. 287
were attached. As teacher and pupils of the seminary made it a zealous propaganda for the secession, the missionary journals and missionary festivals were misused for the same pui'pose, and as Harms answered the questions of the consistory in reference thereto, partly by denj'ing, partly by excusing, that court, in December, 187S, forbad the missionary collections hitherto made throughout the churches at Epiphany for Hermannsburg, and so completely broke off the connec- tion between the state church and the institution which had hither- been regarded as "its pride and its i^reserving salt." A reaction has since set in in favour of the seminary and its friends on the assvu'ance that the interests of the separation would not be fiu'thered by the seminary, and that several other objectionable features, e.g. the fre- quent emploj-ment in the mission service of artisans without theolo- gical training, the sending of them out in too great numbers without sufficient endowment and salar3r, so that missionaries were obliged to engage in trade speculations, should be removed as far as possible ; but since the seminary life was always still carried on upon the basis of ecclesiastical secession, it could lead to no permanent reconciliation with the state chui'ch. Harms died in 1885. His son Egmont Avas chosen his successor, and as the consistoiy refused ordination, he accepted consecration at the hands of five members of the Immanuel S_ATiod at Magdebui'g.
9. In Hesse the ministry of Yon Miihler sought to bring about a combination of the three consistories of Hanau, Cassel, and Marbui-g. as a necessary vehicle for the introduction of a new sjniodal constitu- tion. In the pi'ovince itself an agitation was persistently carried on for and against the constitutional scheme submitted by the ministers, Avhich Avholly ignored the old church order (§ 127, 2), which, though in the beginning of the seventeenth centui'y through the ecclesiasti- cal disturbances of the time (§ 154, 1), it had passed out of use, had never been abrogated and so was still legally valid. A Vorsynode convened in 1870 appi'oved of it in all essential points, but conventions of superintendents, pastoral conferences and lay addresses protested, and the Prussian parliament, lor Avhich it was not yet liberal enough, refused the necessary supplies. As these after Yon Miihler's over- throw were granted, his successor. Dr. Talk, immediately proceeded in 1873 to set up in Cassel the cotu't that had been objected to so long. It was constituted after the pattern of the Supreme Chxu'ch Council, of Lutheran, Reformed, and United members Avith Itio in partes on specifically confessional questions. The clergy of Upper Hesse com- forted themselves with sa3-ing that the new courts in which the con- fessions were combined, if not better, were at least no A\'orse than the earlier consistories in which the confessions were confounded ; and they felt obliged to yield obedience to them, so long as they did not
2S8 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
(L'lnand an3iliing contradictoi-y the Lutheran confession. On the other hand, many of theclergj'of Lower Hesse saw in the advance from a merely eventual to an actual blending of the confessional status in church government an intolerable deterioration. And so forty-five clergyman of Lower and one of Upper Hesse laid before the king a protest against the innovation as destructive of the confessional rights of the Hessian church contrary to the will of the supreme majesty of Jesus Christ, They were dismissed with sharp rebuke, and, with the exception of four who submitted, were deposed from ohice for obstinate refusal to obey. There were about sixteen con- gregations which to a greater or less extent kept aloof from the new pastors appointed by the consistories, and without breaking away from the state church wished to remain true to the old pastor " ap- pointed by Jesus Christ himself." — In autumn, 1884, the movement on behalf of the restoration of a presbyterial and synodal constitution of the Hessian evangelical church, which had been delaj^ed for four- teen years, was resumed. A sketch of a constitution, Avhich placed it under three general superintendents (Lutheran, Reformed, United) and thirteen superintendents, and, for the fair co-operation of the lay element in the administration of church affairs (the confession status, however, being beyond discussion), provided suitable oi'gans in the shape of presbyteries and synods, with a piredominance of the lay element, was submitted to a Vorsynode that met on Novem- ber 12th, consisting of two divisions, like a Lower and Upper House, sitting together. The first division, as representative of the then existing church order, embraced, in accordance with the practice of the old Hessian s^-nods, all the members of the consistory, i.e. the nine superintendents and thirteen pastors elected by the clergy ; the second, consisting at least of as many lay as cleiical members, was chosen by the free election of the congregation. The royal assent was given to the decrees of the Vorsynode in the end of December, 1885, and the confessional status was thei'eby expressly guaranteed.
§ 104. The North German smaller States.
In most of the smaller North German states, owing to tlio very slight representation of the Reformed church, which was considerable only in Bremen, Lippe-Detmold, and a part of Hesse and East Friesland, the union met with little favour. Yet only in a few of those provinces did a sharply marked confessional Lutheranism gain wide and general acceptance. This was so especially and most
§ 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 289
decidedly in Mecklenburg, but also in Hanover, Hesse, and Saxony. On the other hand, since the close of 18G0, in almost all those smaller states a determined demand was made for a representative synodal constitution, securing the due co-operation of the lay element, — The Catholic church was strongest in Hanover, and next come some parts of Hesse, which had been added to the ecclesiastical province of the Upper Rhine (>5 196, 1), but in the other North German smaller states it was only represented here and there.
1. The Kingdom of Saxony. — The present kingdom of Saxony, formerly an eli'ctoral principality, has had Catholic princes since 1679 (§ 153, 1), but the Catholic church could strike its roots again only in the im- mediate neighbourhood of the court. Indeed those belonging to it did not enjoy civil and religious equality until 1807, when this distinction was set aside. The erection of cloisters and the introduction of monkish orders, however, continued even then forbidden, and all official publications of the Catholic clergy required the j^lacet of the government. The administration of the evangelical church, so long as the king is Catholic, lies, according to agreement, in the hands of the ministers commissioned iw evangelicis, Althoiigh several of these have proved defenders of ecclesiastical orthodoxy, the rationalistic inumination became almost universally prevalent not only among the clergy but also among the general populace. Meanwhile a pietistic reaction set in, especially powerful in Muldenthal, where Rudel- bach's laboiu's impressed on it a Lutheran ecclesiastical character. The religious movement, on the other hand, directed by Martin Stephan, pastor of the Bohemian church in Dresden, came to a sad and shameful end. As representative and restorer of strict Lutheran A'iews he had Avrought successfully in Dresden from 1810, but, tlirough the adulation of his followers, ajiproaching even to wor- ship, he fell more and more deeply into hierarchical assumption and neglect of self-vigilance. When the police in 1837 restricted his nightly assemblies, without, however, having discovered anything immoral, and suspended him from his official duties, he called upon his followers to emigrate to America. Many of them, lay and clerical, blindly obeyed, and founded in 1835,' in Missouri, a Lutheran church communion (§ 208, 2). Stephan's despotic hierarchical assumptions here reached their fullest height; he also gave his lusts free scope. Women ojipressed or actuall}'^ abused by him at length openly pro- VOL. III. 19
290 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
claimed his shame in 1839, and the community excommunicated him. He died in a.d. 1846. Taught by such experiences, and purged of the Donatist-separatist element, a church reaction against advancing rationalism made considerable progress under a form of church that favoured it, and seciu-ed also influential representatives in members of the theological faculty of the university of Leipzig distinguished for their scientific attainments. After repeated debates in the chamber over a scheme of a new ecclesiastical and synodal order submitted by the ministr}', the first evangelical Lutheran state sjmod met in Dresden, in May, 1871. On the motion of the government, the law of patronage was here modified so that the patron had to submit three candidates to the choice of the ecclesiastical board. It was also decided to form an upi^er or state consistory, to which all ecclesiastical matters hither- to administered by the minister of public worship should be given over ; the control of education was to remain with the ministry, and the state consistory was to charge itself with the oversight only of religious instruction and ethico-religious training. The most lively debates were those excited by the proposal to abolish the obligation resting upon all church teachers to seem to adhere to the confes- sion of the Lutheran church, led by Dr. Zarncke, the rector of the state university. The commission of inquiry sent down, trnder the presidency of Professor Luthardt, demanded the absolute withdrawal of this proposal, Avhich aimed at perfect doctrinal freedom. On the other hand. Professor G. Baur made the mediate proposal to substitute for the declaration on oath, the promise to teach simply and purely to the best of his knowledge and according to conscience the gospel of Christ as it is contained in Scripture, and witnessed in the con- fessions of the Lutheran church. And as even now Luthardt, inspired by the wish not to rend the first State Synod at its final sitting by an incurable schism, agreed to this suggestion, it was carried by a large majority. In consequence of this decision, a number of " Lutherans faithful to the confession," withdrew from the State church, and on the anniversary of the Beformation in 1871, constituted themselves into an Evangelical Lutlicran Free Church, associatexl with the Missouri synod (§ 208, 2), from which, on the suggestion of some of the mem- bers of the conmiunity who had returnc.^d from America, they chose for themselves a pastor called Euhland. There were five such congre- gations in Saxony : at Dresden, Planitz, Chemnitz, Frankenberg, and Krimmitschau, to which some South German dissenters at Stenden, Wiesbaden, Frankfort, and Anspach attached themselves.
2. The Saxon Duchies.— The Stephan emigration had also decoyed a number of inhabitants from Saxe-Altenburg. In a rescript to the Ephorus Eonneburg, in 1838, the consistory traced back this separatist movement to the fuct that the religious needs of the consregations
§ 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 291
found no satisfaction in the rationalistic preaching, and urged a more earnest presentation from the pulpit of the fundamental and central doctrines of evajigelical Christianity. This rescript was the subject of violent denunciation. The government took the opinion of foru' theological faculties on the procedure of the consistory and its op- ponents, who published it simply with the praise and blame contained therein, and thus prevented any investigation. Also in Weimar and Gotha the rationalism of Rohr and Bretschneider, which had dominated almost all pulpits down to the middle of the century, began gradually to disappear, and the more recent parties of Confessional, Mediation, and Free Protestant theology to take its place. The last named party found vigorous support in the university of Jena. A petition addressed to it in 1882 from the Thuringian Church Conference of Eisenach, to call to Jena also a representative of the positive Lutheran theology, was decidedly refused, and, in a controversial pamphlet by Superin- tendent Braasch, condemned as " the Eisenach outrage " (Attentat). In Meiningen the Vorsynode convened there in 1870 sanctioned the sketch of a moderately liberal synodal constitution submitted to it, which placed the confession indeed beyond the reach of legislative interference, but also secured its rights to free inquiry. The first State Synod, however, did not meet before 1878. In Weimar the first sj-nod Avas held in 187B, the second in 1S79.
8. The Kiugdom of Hanover. — Although the union found no accept- ance in Hanover, after the overthrow of the rationalism of the ancien rer/ime, the union theology became dominant in the luiiversity. The clergy, however, were in great part carried along by the confessional Lutheran current of the age. The Preachers' Conference at Stade in 1854 took occasion to call the attention of the government to the " mani- fest divergence " between the union theology of the university and the legal and actual Lutheran confession of the state church, and urged the appointment of Lutheran teachers. The faculty, on the other hand, issued a memorial in favour of libert}' of public teaching, and the cura- tors filled the vacancies again with unioii theologians. When in April, 1862, it was proposed to displace the state catechism introduced in 1790, which neither theologically nor catechetically satisfied the needs of the church, by a carefully sifted revision of the Walther catechism in use before 1790, approved of by the Gottingen faculty, the agitation of the liberal party called forth an opposition, especially in city populations, which expressed itself in insults to members of consistories and pastors, and in ahnost dail^" rei)eated bloody street fights A\-ith the military, and obliged the govermnent at last to give ^vay. — The negotiations about a concordat with Rome reached no fiu'ther in 1821 than obtaining the circumscription bull Inijiensa Honiaiionini, bj'- which the Catholic church obtained two bishopries, those of Hildesheun
292 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and Osuabrik'k. — In 1886, Hanover was incorporated with the kingdom of Prussia (§ 193, 8).
4. Hesse. — Landgrave Maurice, 1592-1627, had forced upon his territories a modified Melanchthonian Calvinism (§ 154, 1), but a Lutheran basis with Lutheran modes of vie^-ing things and Lutheran institutions still remained, and the Lutheran reaction had never been completely overcome, not even in Lower Hesse, although there the name of tlie Reformed Church with Reformed modes of worship had been gradixally introduced in most of the congregations. The com- miuiities of Uioper Hesse and Schmalcald, however, by continuous opposition saved for the most part their Lutheranism. which in 1648 was guaranteed to them anew by the Darmstadt Recess, and secured an independent form of church government in the Definitorium at Marburg. The union movement, which issued from Prussia in 1817, met with favour also in Hesse, but only in the province of Hanau in 1818 got the length of a formal constituting of a church on the basis of the union. Li 1821, however, the elector issued the so-called Re- organization edict, by which the entire evangelical church of the electorate, without any reference to the confession status, but simply in accordance with the political divisions of the state, was put under the newly instituted consistories of Cassel, Marburg, and Hanau, in the formation of which the confession of the inhabitants had not been considered. The Marburg Definitorium indeed protested, but in vain, against this despotic act, which was felt a grievance, less on accomit of the wiping out of the confession than on account of the loss of in- dependent chui'ch government which it occasioned. The government appointed pastors, teachers and professors without enquiring much about their confession. In 1838 the hitherto required sTibscription of the clergy to the confessional writings, the Avigsburg Confession and its Apology, was modified into a formula declaring conscientious regard for them. But in this Bickell, professor of law at Marburg, saw a loss to the church in legal status, an endangering of the evangelical church; the theological professor, Hupfeld, also in the further course of the controv(>rsy took his side, while the advocate, Henkel, in Cassel, as a popular agitator opposed him and demanded a State Synod for the formal abolishing of all symbolical books. The government ignored both demands, and the vehement conflict was quieted by degrees. With 1850 a new era began in the keen con- troversy over the qu(!Stion, which confession, whether Lutheran or Reformed, was legally and actually that of the state. The ministiy of Hassenpflug from 1850, which suppressed the revolution, considered it as legally the Lutheran, and determined the ecclesiastical arrange- ments in this sens(?, and in this coursii Dr. Vilmar, member of the Consistory, was the ministf.'r's right hand. But the elector was from
§ 194. THE NORTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 293
the beginning personally opposed to this procedure, and on the over- throw of the ministry in 1855, Vilmar (died 1868) was also transferred to a theological professorship at Marbvirg. This, however, only gave a new imi^ulse to the confessional Lutheran movement in the state, for the spirit and tendency of the highly revered theological teacher powerfully influenced the younger generation of the Hessian clergy. In consequence of the German war, Hesse was annexed to Prussia in 1866 (§ 193, 9).— On the Catholic church in this state, compare § 196, 1.
5. Brunswick, Oldenburg, Anhalt, and Lippe-Detmold. — Much ado was made also in Brunswick over the introduction of a neAv constitution for the Lutheran state church in 1869, and at last in 1871 a synodal ordinance was passed by which the State Synod, consisting of foiirteen clerical and eighteen lay members, was to meet every four years, so as not to be a too offensive factor in the ecclesiastical administration and legislation, which therefore has left untouched the content of the confession. The first synod of 1872 began by rejecting the injunc- tion to open the sessions with prayer and reading of scripture. Oldenburg, which in 1849, by a synod whose membership had been chosen by the original electorate, had been favoured with a democratic church constitution wholly separate from the state, accepted in 1854 without opposition a new constitution which restored the headship of the church to the territorial lords, the administration of the church to a Supreme Church Council and ecclesiastical legislation to a State Synod consisting of clerical and lay members. — The prince in the exercise of his sovereign rights gave a charter in 1878 to the evan- gelical church of the Duchy of Anhalt to a synodal ordinance which, though approved by the Vorsijnode of 1876, had been rejected by parliament, and afterwards it gained tlie assent of the national repre- sentatives.— In the Reformed Lippe-Detmold there were in 1814 still five preachers who, wearied of the ilhiminationist catechism of the state church, had gone back to the Heidelberg catechism and protested against tlie abolition of acceptance on oath of the symbols, as destruc- tive of the peace of the church. The democratic church constitution of 1851, however, was abrogated in 1854, and instead of it, the old Reformed church order of 1684 was again made law. At the same time, religious pardon and eqiiality were guaranteed to Catholics and Lutherans. Tlie first Reformed State Synod Avas constituted in 1878.
6. Mecklenburg. — Mecklenbui'g-Schwerin from 1848 was in possession of a strictly Lutheran church government under the direction of Kliefoth, and its vmiversity at Rostock had decidedly Lutheran theo- logians. When the chamberlain Von Kettenburg, on going over to the Catholic church, appointed a Catholic priest on his estate, the govern- ment in 1852, on the ground that the laws of the state did not allow Catholic services which extended beyond simple family Avorship, held
•294 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
tliat be had overstepptHl the limits. A complaint, in reforcnco thereto, presented to the parliament and then to the German Bund, was in both cases throAvn out. Even in 18()3 the Rostock magisl^i'ates refused to allow tower and bells in the building of a Catholic church. — An extraordinary excitement was caused by the removal from office in January, 1858, of Professor M. Baumgarten of Eostock. An examina- tion paj)er set by him on 2 Kings xi. by which the endeavour was made to win scripture sanction for a violent revolution, obliged the government even in 1856 to remove him from the theological examina- tion board. At the same time his polemic addressed to a pastoral conference at Parchim, against the doctrine of the Mecklenburg state catechism on the ceremonial law, especially in reference to the sanctifi- cation of the Sabbath, increased the distrust which the clergy of the state, on account of his writings, had entertained against his theological position as one which, from a fanatical basis, diverged on all sides into fundamental antagonism to the confession and the ordinances of the Lutheran state church. The government finally deposed him in 1858 (leaving him, however, in possession of his whole salary, also of the right of public teaching), on the ground and after the publication of a judgment of the consistory which found him guilty of heretical alteration of all the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith and the Lutheran confession, and sought to prove this verdict from his writings. As might have been foreseen, this step was folloAved by a loud outcry by all journals ; but even Lutherans, like Von Hofmann Von Scheurl, and Luthardt, objected to the proceedings of the govern- ment as exceeding the law laid down by the ecclesiastical ordinance and the opinion of the consistory as nesting upon misunderstanding, arbitrary supposition and inconsequent conclusion.
§ 195. Bavaria. Catholic Bavaria, originally an electorate, but raised in 180G, by Napoleon's favour, into a royal sovereignty, to which had been adjudged by the Vienna Congress consider- able territories in Franconia and the Palatine of the E-hine with a mainly Protestant population, attempted under Maximilian Joseph (IV.) I., after the manner of Napoleon, despotically to pass a liberal system of church polity, but found itself obliged again to yield, and under Louis I. became again the chief retreat of Roman Catholic ecclesiasti- cism of the most pronounced ultramontane pattern. It was under the noble and upright king, Maximilian II., that the
§ 195. BAVARIA. 295
evangelical cliurcli of the two divisions of the kingdom, numbering two-thirds of the population, first succeeded in securing the unrestricted use of their rights. Nevertheless, Catholic Bavaria remained, or became, the unhappy scene of the wildest demagogic agitation of the Catholic clergy and of the Bavarian " Patriots " who pla5'ed their game, whose patriotism consisted only in mad hatred of Prussia and fanatical ultramontanism. Yet King Louis II., after the brilliant successes of the Pranco-Grerman war, could not object to the proposal of November 30th, 1870, to found a new German empire under a Prussian and therefore a Protestant head.
1. The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian I., 1799-1825 — Bavaria boasted with the most unfeigned delight after the uprooting of Protestantism in its borders as then defined (§ 151, 1), that it was the most Catholic, i.e. the most ultramontane and most bigoted, of German-speaking lands, and, after a short break in this tradition by Maximilian Joseph III. (§ IGo, 10), went forth again with full sail, under Charles Theodoi-e, 1777-1779, on the old course. But the thoroughly new aspect which this state assumed on the overthrow of the old German empire, demanded an adapting territorially of the civil and ecclesiastical life in accordance with the relations which it owed to its present political position. The new elector Maximilian Joseph IV., who as king styled himself Maximilian I., transferred the execution of this task to his liberal, energetic, and thoroughly fear- less minister, Count Montgelas, 1799-1S17. In Januarj^, 1802, ic was enacted that all cloisters should be suppressed, and that all cathedral foundations should be secularized ; and these enactments were imme- diately carried out in an uncompromising manner. Even in 1801 the qualification of Protestants to exercise the rights of Bavarian citizens was admitted, and a religious edict of 1803 guaranteed to all Christian confessions full equality of civil and political privileges. To the clergy was given the control of education, and to the gj^mnasia and universities a considerable number of foreigners and Protestants received appointments. In all respects the sovereignty of the state over the church and the clergy was very decidedly expressed, the episcopate at all points restricted in its jurisdiction, the training of the clergj^ regulated and su])ervised on behalf of the state, the patronage of all pastorates and benefices usurpeil by the governnn'nt, even public worsliip subjected to state control by the prohibition
296 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of superstitious practicos, etc. But amid many othor infclicitifs of this autocratic procedure was specially the gradual dying out of the old race of bishops, which obligc^d the' government to seek again an iniderstanding with Rome ; and so it actually happened in June, 1817, after Montgelas' dismissal, that a concordat was di-awn up. By this the Roman Catholic apostolic religion secured throughout the M-hole kingdom those rights and prerogatives which were due to it according to divine appointment and canonical ordinances, which, strictly taken, meant supremacy throughout the land. In addition, two archbishoprics and seven bishoprics were instituted, the restoration of several cloisters was agreed to, and the unlimited administration of theological seminaries, the censorship of books, the superintendance of public schools and free correspondence Avith the holy see were allowed to the bishops. On the other hand, the king was given the choice of bishops (to be confirmed by the pope), the nomination of a great part of the priests and canons, and the placet for all hierarchical ijxiblications. After many vain endeavoxirs to obtain amendments, the king at last, on October 17th, ratified this concordat ; but, to mollify his highly incensed Protestant subjects, he delayed the publication of it till the proclamation of the now civil constitution on May 18th following. The concordat was then adopted, as an ajipendage to an edict setting forth the ecclesiastical supremacy of the state, securing perfect freedom of conscience to all subjects, as well as equal civil rights to members of the three Christian con- fessions, and demanding from them equal mutual respect. The irre- concilabloness of this edict with the concordat was evident, and the newly appointed bishops as well as the clerical parliamentary deputies, declared by papal instruction that they could not take the oath to the constitution without reservation, until the royal statement of Tegernsee, September 21st, that the oath taken by Catholic subjects simply referred to civil relations, and that the concordat had also the validity of a law of the state, induced the curia to agree to it. But the government nevertheless continued to insist as before upon the supremacy of the state over the church, enlarged the claims of the royal placet, put the free intercourse with Eome again under state control, arbitrarily disposed of church property and supervised the theological examinations of the seminarists, made the appointment of all clergy dependent on its approbation, and refuscid to be misled in anytliing by tlic complaints and objections of the bishops.
2. The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Louis I., 1825-1848. — Zealous Catholic as the new king was, he still held with unabated tenacity to the sovereign rights of the crown, and th(^ extreme ultra- montane ministry of Von Abel from 1837 was the first to wring from him any relaxations, e.ff. the reintroductionof free intercourse between
§ 195. BAVARIA. 297
till' bishops and the holy see without any state control. But it could not obtain the abolition of the placet^ and just as little the eage^l^' sought permission of the return of the Jesuits. On the other hand the allied order of Redemptorists was allowed, whose missions among the Bavarian people, however, the king soon made dependent on a permission to be from time to time renewed. His tolerant disposition toward the Protestants was shown in 1830, by his refusing the demand of the Catholic clergy for a Reverse in mixed marriages, and recog- nising Protestant sponsors at Catholic baptisms. But yet his honour- able desire to be just even to the Protestants of his realm was often paralj'sed, partly by his own ultramontane sympathies, partly and mainly by the immense influence of the Abel ministry, and the religious freedom guaranteed them by law in 1818 was reduced and restricted. Among other things the Protestant press was on all sides gagged by the minister, while the Catholic press and preaching enjoyed unbridled liberty. Great as the need was in southern Bavaria the government had strictly forbidden the taking of any aid from the Gustavus Adolphus Verein. Louis saw even in the name of this society a slight thrown on the German name, and was specially offended at its vague, nearly negative attitude towards the confession. Yet he had no hesitation in affording an asylum in Catholic Bavaria to the Lutheran confessor Scheibel (§ 177, 2) whom Prussian diplomacy had driven out of Lutheran Saxony, and did not prevent the university of Erlangen. after its dead orthodoxy had been reawakened by the able Reformed preacher Krafft (died 1845), becoming the centre of a strict Lutheran church consciousness in life as well as science for all Germany. The adoration order of 1838, which required even the Protestant soldiers to kneel before the host as a military salute, occasioned great discontent among the Protestant population, and many controversial panniDhlets appeared on both sides. AVhen finally the parliament in 1845 took u]) the complaint of the Protestants, a royal proclamation followed by which the usually purely military salute formerly in use was restored. In 1847 the ultramontane party, with Abel at its head, fell into dis- favour with the king, on account of its honourable attitude in the scandal which the notorious Lola Montez caused in the circle of the Bavarian nobility ; but in 1848 Louis was obliged, through the revolu- tionary storm that burst over Bavai'ia, to resign the crown.
3. The Bavarian Ecclesiastical Polity under Maximilian II., 1848-1864, and Louis II. (died 18SG). — Much more thoroughly than his father did Maximilian II. strive to act justly toward the Protestant as well as the Catholic church, without however abating any of the claims of constitutional supremacy on the part of the state. In conseq\ience of the Wiirzburg negotiations (§ 192, 4), the Bavarian bishops asseml)led at Frej'sing, in November, 1850, pnsented a memorial, in which they
298 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
demandetl tho withdrawal of the religions (nlict included in the consti- tution of 181S, as in all respects prejudicial to the rights of the church granted by the concordat, and set forth in ]jarticular those points which were most restrictive to the free and prop(>r development of the catholic church. The result was the publication in April, 1852, of a rescript which, while maintaining all the principles of state adminis- tration hitherto followed, introduced in detail various modifications, which, on the renewal of the complaints in 1854, were somewhat further increased as the fullest ajod final measure of surrender. — The change brought about in 1866 in the relation of Bavaria to North Germany led the government under Louis II. to introduce liberal reforms, and the offensive and defensive alliance which the govern- ment concluded with the heretical Prussia, the failure of all attempts on the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war to force it in violation of treaty to maintain neutrality, and then to prevent Bavaria becoming part of the new German empire founded in 1871 at the suggestion of her own king, roused to the utmost the wrath of the Bavarian clerical patriots. In the conflicts of the German government, in 1872, against the intolerable assumptions, claims and popular tumults of the ultra- montane clergy, the department of public worship, led by L\itz, inclined to take an energetic part. But this was practically limited to the passing of the so-called KanzeJparayraphen (§ 197, 4) in the Heich^tog. Comp. § 107, 14.
4. Attempts at Reorganization of the Lutheran Church. — Since 1852, Dr. von Harless (§ 182, 13), as president of the upper consistory at Munich, stood at the head of the Lutheran church of Bavaria. Under his presidency the general synod at Baireuth in 1853 showed a vigorous activity in the reorganization of the church. On the basis of its proceedings tlie upper consistory ordered the introduction of an admirable new hymnbook. This occasioned considerable disagreenwnit. Biit when, in 1856, the upper consistory issued a series of enactments on worship and discipline, a storm, originating in Nuremberg, burst forth in the autumn of that same year, which raged over the whole kingdom and attacked even the state church itself. The king was assailed with petitions, and tlie spiritual courts went so far in faint- heartedness as to put the acceptance and non-acceptance of its ordinances to the vote of the congregations. Meanwhile the time had come for calling another general synod (1857). An order of the king as head of the church abolished the union of the two state synods in a general synod which had existed since 1849, and foi'bad all discus- sion of mattf'rs of discipline. Hence instead of one, tivo synods assembled, the one in October at Anspach, the other in November at Baireuth. Both, C(jnsisting of equal nvimbers of lay and clerical mi-nibers, maintained a modei-ate attitude, relinquishing none of tlie
§ 195. BAVARIA. 299
privileges of the church or the prerogatives of the upper consistory, and 3^et contributed greatly to the assuaging of the prevalent excite- ment. Also the lay and clerical members of the subsequent reunited general synods held every fourth year for the most part co-operated succ^-ssfully on moderate church lines. The s>Tiod held at Baireuth in 1873 unanimously rejected an address sent from Augsburg inspired by " Protestant Union " sj'mpathies, as to their mind " for the most part indistinct and where distinct unevangelical."
.5. The Church of the Union in the Palatine of the Rhine — In the Bavarian Palatine of the Rhine the union had been carried out in 1818 on the understanding that the symbolical books of both confessions should be treated with due respect, but no other standard recognised than holy scripture. When therefore the Erlangen i^rofessor, Dr. Rust, in 1832 apjDcared in the consistory at Si^ires and the court for that time had endeavoured to fill up the Palatine union with positive Christian contents, 204 clerical and lay members of the Diocesan SjTiod presented to the assembly of the states of the realm, opportunely meeting in 1837, a comi)laint against the majority of the consistory. As this memorial yielded practically no result, the opposition wrought all the more determinedly for the severance of the Palatine church from the Munich Upper Consistory, This was first accomplished in the revolutionary year 1848. An extraordinary general sj-nod brought about the separation, and gave to the country a new demo- cratic church constitution. But the reaction of the blow did not stop there. The now independent consistory at Sjiires, from 1853 under the leadership of Ebrard, convened in the autumn of that year a general synod, which made the Augustana Variata of 1540 as repre- senting the consensus between the Augustana of 1530 and the Heidel- berg as well as the Lutheran catechism, the confessional standard of the Palatine church, and set aside the democratic election law of 1848. When now the consistory, purely at the instance of the general synod of 1853, submitted to the diocesan sjniod in 1856 the proofs of a new hymnbook, the liberal party poured out its bitter indignation u^jon the system of doctrine which it was supposed to favour. But the diocesan synods admitted the necessity of introtlucing a new hymnbook and the suitability of the sketch submitted, recommending, however, its further revision so that the recension of the text might be broiight up to date and that an appendix of 150 new hymns might bo added. The hymnbook thus modified was published in 1859, and its introduction into church use left to the judgment of presbyteries, while its iise in scliools and in confirmation instruction was insisted upon forthwith. This called forth protest after protest. The government wished from the first to support the synodal decree, but in presence of growing disturbance, changed its attitude, recommended the consistory
300 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
ti) observe ilcciilcd nioiU'ration so as to restore peace, ami in February, 18(51, called a general s^'nod which, however, in consequence of the Ijrevailingh'- strict ecclesiastical tendencies of its membei's, again expressed itself in favour of the new hymnbook. Its conchisions were meanwhile very unfavourably received by the government, Ebrard sought and obtained liberty to resign, and even at the next sjTiod, in 1869, the consistory went hand in hand with the liberal majority.
§ 19(). The South German Smaller States and Rhenish Alsace and Lorraine.
The Protestant princel}'- houses of South Germany had by the Liineville Peace obtained such an important increase of Catholic subjects, that they had to make it their first care to arrange their delicate relations by concluding a concordat with the papal curia in a manner satisfactory to state and church. But all negotiations broke down before the exorbi- tant claims of Rome, until the political restoration move- ments of 1850 led to modifications of them hitherto un- dreamed of. The concordats concluded during this period were not able to secure enforcement over against the liberal current that had set in with redoubled power in 1860, and so one thing after another was thrown overboard. Even in the Protestant state churches tliis current made itself felt in the persistent efforts, which also proved succes- ful, to secure the restoration of a representative synodal constitution which would give to the lay clement in the congregations a decided influence.
1. The Upper Rhenish Church Province. — Tlie governments of the South Gernian States gathered in 1818 at Frankfort, to draw up a common concordat with Rome. But owing to the utterly extravagant pret<!nsions nothing further was reached than a new delimitation in the bull " /VofiVZff. W/er.yr/Mc," 1821, of the bishojiries in the so-called Up[)('r lihenish Church Province : the archbishopric of Freiburg for Baden and the twoHoheiiznlliTu piincipalities, the bishoprics of Mainz for HesSe-Darmstadt, Fulda for Hesse-Cass(0, Rottenburg for Wiirt- temberg, Limburg for Nassau and Frankfort ; and even this was given effect to only in 1827, after long discussions, with the provision
§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 301
(biill Ad dominicce gregis custodiam) that the choice of the bishops should issue indeed from the chapter, but that the territorial lord might strike out objectionable names in the list of candidates pre- viously submitted to him. The actual equality of Protestants and Catholics which the pope had not been able to allow in the concordat, was now in 1830 proclaimed by the princes as the law of the land. Papal and episcopal indulgences had to receive approval before their publication ; provincial and diocesan synods could be held only with approval of the government and in presence of the commissioners of the prince ; taxes could not be imposed b}^ any ecclesiastical coui't ; ap- peal could be made to the civil court against abuse of spiritual power ; those preparing for the priesthood should receive scientific training at the universities, practical training in the seminaries for priests, etc. The pope issued a brief in which he characterized these conditions as scandalous novelties, and reminded the bishops of Acts v. 29. But only the Bishop of Fulda followed this advice, Avith the result that the Catholic theological faculty at Marburg was after a short career closed again, and the education of the priests given over to the semi- nary at Fulda. Hesse-Darmstadt founded a theological faculty at Giessen in 1830 ; Baden had one already in Freiburg, and Wurtem- berg had in 1817 affiliated the faculty at Ellwanger with the uni- versity of Tubingen, and endowed it with the revenues of a rich convent. In all these faculties alongside of rigorous scientific exact- ness there prevailed a noble liberalism without the surrender of the fundamental Catholic faith. The revolutionary year, 1848, fii'st gave the bishops the hope of a successful struggle for the unconditional freedom of the church. In order to enforce the Wiirzburg decrees (§ 192, 4), the five bishops issued in 1851 a joint memorial. As the govermnents delayed their answer, they declared in 1852 that they A\-ould immediately act as if all had been granted them ; and when at last the answer came, on most points unfavourable, they said in 1853, that, obeying God rather than man, they would proceed whollj' in accordance A\-ith canon la'w.
2. The Catholic Troubles in Baden down to 1873.— The Grand Duchy of Baden, with two-thirds of its population Catliolic, where in 1848 the revolution had shattered all the foundations of the state, and where besides a young ruler had taken the reins of govermnent in his hands only in 1852, seemed in spite of the widely prevalent liberality of its clergy, the place best fitted for such an attemjit. The Arch- bishop of Freiburg, Herm. von Vicari, in 1852, now in his eighty-fii-st year, began hy arbitrarily stopping, on the evening of May 9th, the obsequies of the deceased grand-duke appointed by the Catholic Supreme Church Council for Maj' 10th, prohibiting at the same time the saying of mass for the dead {pro omnihun dc/undis) usual at
302 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Catholic burials, but in Baden and Bavaria hitherto not refused even to Protestant princes. More than one hundred priests, who disobej'ed the injunction, were sentenced to perform penances. In the following year he openly declared that he would forthwith carry out the de- mands of the episcopal memorial, and did so immediately by appoint- ing priests in the exercise of absolute authority, and by holding entrance examinations to the seminary without the presence of royal commissioners as required by law. As a warning remained unheeded, the government issued the order that all episcopal indulgences must before publication be subscribed by a grand-ducal special commissioner appointed for the pur]30se. Against him, as well as against all the members of the Supreme Church Comicil, the archbishop i)roclaimed the ban, issued a fulminating pastoral letter, which was to have been read with the excommunication in all churches, and ordered preach- ing for four weeks for the instruction of the people on these matters. At the same time he solemnly protested against all supremacy of the state over the church. The government drove the Jesuits out of the country, forbad the reading of the pastoral, and punished dis- obedient priests with fines and imprisonment. But the archbishop, spurred on by Ketteler, Bishop of Mainz, advanced more boldly and recklessly than ever. In May, 1854, the government introduced a criminal process against him, during the course of which he was kept prisoner in his own house. The attempts of his party to arouse the Catholic poi)ulation by demonstrations had no serious result. At the close of the investigation the archbishop was released from his con- finement and continued the work as before. The government, how- ever, still remained firm, and punished every offence. In June, 1855, however, a provisional agreement was published, and finally in June, 1859, a formal concordat, the bull JEtcrni patris^ was concluded with Rome, its concessions to the archbishop almost exceeeding even those of Austria (§ 198, 2). In spite of ministerial opposition the second chamber in March, 1860, brought up the matter before its tribunal, repudiated the right of the government to conclude a conv(>ntion with Rome without the approbation of the states of the realm, and for- bad the grand-duke to enforce it. !He complied with this demand, dismissed the ministry, insisted, in answer to the papal protest, on his obligation to respect the rights of the constitution, and on October 9th, 1860, sanctioned jointly with the chambers a law on the legal position of the Catholic and Protestant churches in the state. The archbishop indeed declared that the concordat could not be abolished on one side, and still retain the force of law, but in presence of the firm attitude of the government he desisted, and satisfied himself Avith giving in 1861 a grudging acquiescinice, by which Ik; secured to himself greater independence than Ijefore in ri'gard to imposing of
§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 303
dues and administration of the church property. Conflicts with the archbishop, however, and with the clerical minority in the chamber, still continued. The archbishop died in 1868. His see remained vacant, as the chapter and the government could not agree about the list of candidates ; the interim administration was carried on by the vicar-general, Von Kiibel (died 1881), as administrator of the archdiocese, quite in the spirit of his predecessor. The law of October 9th, 1860, had prescribed evidence of general scientific culture as a condition of appointment to an ecclesiastical office in the Protestant as well as the Catholic church. Later ordinances required in addition : Possession of Baden citizenship, having passed a favourable examina- tion on leaving the university, a university course of at least two and half years, attendance vipon at least three courses of lectures in the philosophical faculty, and finally also an examination before a state examining board, within one and half years of the close of the university curricukmi, in tlie Latin and Greek languages, history of philosophy, general history, and the history of German literature (later also the so called KuUurexamen). The Freiburg curia, hoAV- ever, protested, and in 1867 forbad clergy and candidates to submit to this examination or to seek a dispensation from it. The result was, that forthwith no clerg3-men could be definitely appointed, but up to 1874 no legal objection was made to interim appointments of paro- chial administrators. The educational law of 1868 abolished the con- fessional character of the public schools. In 1869 state recognition was withdrawn from the festivals of Corpus Christi, the holy af)ostles, and Mary, as also, on the other hand, from the festivals of Maundy Thu]-sday and Good Friday. In 1870 obligatory civil marriage was introduced, while all compulsion to observe the baptismal, con- firmational, and funeral rites of the chui'ch was abolished, and a law on the legal position of benevolent institutions was passed to withdraw these as much as possible from the administration of the ecclesiastical authorities. On the subsequent course of events in Baden, see § 197, 11.
3. The Protestant Troubles in Baden.— The union of the Lutheran and Reformed churches was carried out in the Grand Duchy of Baden in 1821. It recognised the normative significance of the Augustana, as well as the Lutheran and Heidelberg catchisms, in so far as by it the free examination of scriptux'e as the only source of Christian faith, is again expressly demanded and applied. A sjniod of 1834 provided this state church with union-rationalistic agenda, hymnbook, and catechism. When there also a confessional Lutheran sentiment began again in the beginning of 1850 to prevail, the church of the union opposed this movement by gensdarmes, imprisonment and fines. The pastor Eichhorn, and later also the pastor Ludwig, with
304 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
a i)ortion of their congregations left the state church and attached themselves to the Breslau Ujiper Church Conference, but amid police int^.'rference could minister to their flocks only under cloud of night. After long refusal the grand-duke at last in 1854 permitted the separatists the choice of a Lutheran pastor, but pei-sistently refused to recognise Eichhorn as such. Pastor Haag, Avho would not give up the Lutheran distribution formula at the Lord's sui)per, Avas after solemn warning deposed in 1855. On the other hand the positive churchly feeling became more and more pronounced in the state church itself. In 1854 the old rationalist members of the Supreme Chvirch Council were silenced, and Ullmami of Heidelberg was made president. Under his auspices a general synod of 1855 presented a sketch of new church and school books on the lines of the union con- sensus, with an endeavour also to be just to the Lutheran views. The grand-duke confirmed the decision and the country was silent. But when in 1858 the Supreme Church Coun(;il, on the ground of the Synodal decision of 1855, promulgated the general introduction of a new church book, a violent storm broke out through the country against the liturgical novelties contained therein (extension of the liturgy by confession of sin and faith, collects, responses, Scripture reading, kneeling at the supper, the making a confession of their faith by sponsors), the Heidelberg faculty, with Dr. Schenkel at its lic;iil, l(uiding the opposition in the Supreme Church Council. Yet Hundeshagen, who in the s3niod had opposed th(! introduction of anew agenda, (entered the lists against Schenkel and others as the apologist of tlie abused church book. The grand-duke then decided that no' con- gregation should be obliged to adopt tlw new agenda, while the intro- duction of the shorter and simpler form of it was recommended. The agitations those awakened caused its rejection by most of the congregations. Meanwhile in consequence of the concordat revolution in 18G0, a new liberal ministry had come into power, and the govern- ment now presented to the chambers a series of thoroughly liberal schemes for regulating the affairs of the evang(^lical church, which were passcid by large majorities. Toward the end of the year the government, by deposing tin; Sujirem*! Church Councillor Heintz, began to assume the patronage of thr? supreme ecclesiastical court. Ullmaim and Bahr tenden'd their resignations, which Avere accepted. The n(!W liberal Supreme Cliurch Council, including Holtzmann,Rothe, etc., now published a sketch of a church constitution on the lines of ecclesiastical constitutionalism, which with slight modifications the synod of July, 1861, adopted and the grand-duke confirmed. It pro- vided for amiual diocfjsan synods of lay and clerical members, and a general synod every five years. The latter consists of twenty-four clericiil and twent3^-four lay members, and six chosen by the grand-
§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 305
duke, besides the prelate, and is represented in the interval by a standing committee of four members, who have also a seat and vote in the Supreme Church Council.— Dr. Schenkel's '^LebenJesu " of 1864 led the still considerable party among the evangelical clergy who adhered to the doctrine of the church to agitate for his removal from his position as director of the Evangelical Pastors' Seminary at Heidelberg ; but it resulted only in this, that no one was obliged to attend his lectures. The second synod, held ahnost a year behind time in 1867, passed a liberal ordination formula. At the next synod in 1871, the orthodox pietistic party had evidently become stronger, but was still overborne by the liberal party, whose strength was in the lay element. Meanwhile a praiseworthy moderation prevailed on both sides, and an effort was made to work together as peaceably as possible. — In Heidelberg a considerable number attached to the old faith, dissatisfied with the preaching of the four " Free Protestant " city pastors, after having been in 1868 refused their request for the joint use of a city church for private services in accordance with their religious convictions (§ 180, 1), had built for this purpose a chapel of their own, in which numerously attended services were held under the direction of Professor Frommel of the gymnasium. When a vacancy occurred in one of the pastorates in 1880, this believing minority, anxious for the restoration of unity and peace, as well as the avoidance of the separation, asked to have Professor Frommel appointed to the charge. At a preliminary assembly of twenty-one liberal church members this proposal was warmly supported by the president, Professor Bluntschli, by all the theological professors, Avith the exception of Schenkel and eighteen other liberal voters, and agreed to by the majority of the two hundred liberals constituting the assembly. But when the formal election came round the pro- posal was lost by twenty -seven to fifty-one votes.
4. Hesse-Darmstadt and Nassau. — In 1819 the government of the Grand Duchy of Hesse recommended the union of all Protestant com- munities under one confession. Rhenish Hesse readily agreed to this, and there in 1822 the union was accomplished. In the other provinces, however, it did not take effect, although by the rationalism fostered at Giessen among the clergy and by the popular ciu'rent of thought in the conununities, the Lutlieran as well as the Reformed confession had been robbed of all significance. But since 1850 even there a powerful Lutheran reaction among the yomiger clerg}', zealously furthered by a section of the aristocracy of the state, set in, especially in the district on the right bank of the Rliine, which has eagerly opposed the equally eager struggles of the liberal party to introduce a liberal synodal representative constitution for the evangelical chui'ch of the whole state. These endeavours, however,
VOL. III. 20
306 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
were frustrated, and at an extraordinary state synod of 1873, on all controverted questions, the middle party gave their vote in favour of the absorptive union. The state church -was declared to be the united cliurch. The claiise that had been added to the government proposal : '• "Without prejudice to the status of the confessions of the several com- munities," -was dropped ; the place of residence and not the confession ■was that which determined qualifications in the community; the ordination now expressed obligation to tlie Befonnation confessions gtnierally, etc. The members of the minority broke oft' their connec- tion with the sjaiod, and seventy-seven pastors presented to the sj-nod a protest against its decisions. The grand-duke then, on the basis of these deliberations, gave forthwith a charter to the church con- stitution, in which indeed the Lutheran, Eefoi-med, and United churches were embraced in one evangelical state church with a common church government ; but still also, by restoring the phrase struck out by the sjaiod from § 1, the then existing confessional status of the several communities was preserved and the confession itself declared beyond the range of legislation. Yet fifteen Lutheran pastors represented that they could not conscientiously accept this, and the upper consistory hastened to remove them from office shortly before the shutting of the gates, i.e., before July 1st, 1875, when by the new law (§ 197, 15) depositions of clergy would belong only to the supreme civil court. The opposing congregations now declared, in 1877 their withdrawal from the state chui'ch, and constituted them- selves as a " free Lutheran church in Hesse." — The Catholic churcli in the Grand Duchy of Hesse, had under the peaceful bishops of Mainz, Bur"- (died 1833) and Kaiser (died 18-19), caused the government no trouble. But it was otherwise after Kaiser's death. Rome rejected Professor Leopold Sclimid of G lessen, favoured at Dannstadt and re"-ularly elected by the chapter (§ 187, 3), and the government yielded to the appointment of the violent ultramontane Westphalian, Baron von Ketteler. His first aim was the extinction of the Catholic faculty at G lessen (§ 191, 2) ; he rested not until the last student had been transferred from it to the newly erected seminary at Mainz (1851), No less energetic and successful were his endeavours to free tlie Catholic church from the supremacy of the state; in accordance with the Upper Rhenish episcopal memorial. The Dalwigk ministry, in 1854, con- cluded a " provisional agreement " with th<! bishop, whicli secured to him unlimited autonomy and sovereignty in all ecclesiastical matters, and to satisfy the pope with his desiderata, these privileges were still further extended in 1856. To this convention, first made publicly known in 1860, the ministry, in spite of all addresses and protests, adhered with unfaltering tenacit}', although long convinced of its consequences. The political events of 1886, however, led the grand-
§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 307
duke in September of that year to abrogate the hateful convention. But the minister as well as the bishop considered this merely to refer to tlie episcopal convention of 1850, and treated the agreement with the pope of 1856 as always still valid. So everything went on in the old way, even after Ketteler's supreme influence in the state had been broken by the overthrow of Dalwigk in 1871. Comp. § 197, 15.— The Protestant church in the Duchy of Naosau attached itself to the union in 1817. The conflict in the Upper Ehenish church overflowed even into this little province. The Bishop of Limburg, in opposition to law and custom, appointed Catholic clergy on his own authoritj', and excommunicated the Catholic officers who supported the govern- ment, wliile the government arrested the temporalities and instituted criminal proceedings against bishop and chapter. After the conclusion of the Wiirttemberg and Baden concordats, the government showed itself disposed to adopt a similar way out of the conflict, and in spite of all opposition from the State's concluded in 1861 a convention with the bishop, by which almost all his hierarchical claims were admitted. Thus it remained until the incorporation of Nassau in the Prussian kingdom in 1866.
5. In Protestant Wiirttemberg a religious movement among the people reached a height such as it attained nowhere else. Pietism, chiliasm, separatism, the holding of conventicles, etc., assumed formid- able dimensions ; solid science, philosophical culture, and then also philosophical and destructive critical tendencies issuing from Tubingen affected the clergy of this state. Dissatisfaction with various novelties in the liturgy, the hymnbook, etc., led many formally to separate from the state church. Aft(!r attempts at compulsion had proved fruitless, the government allowed the malcontents under the organiz- ing leadership of the burgomaster, G. W. Hoffman (died 1846), to form in 1818 the community of Kornthal, Avith an ecclesiastical and civil constitution of its own after the apostolic tj-pe. Others emigrated to South Russia and to North America (§ 211, 6, 7). Out of the pastoral work of pastor Blumhardt at Mottlingen, who earnestly preached repentance, there was developed, in connection with the healing of a demoniac, which had been accompanied with a great awakening in the commvniity, the "gift" of healing the sick by absolution and laying on of hands with contrite believing prayer. Blumhardt, in order to afford this gift undisturbed exercise, bought the Bad Boll near Goppingen, ai.d officiated there as pastor and miraculous healer in the way described. He died in 1880. — After the way to a synodal representation of the whole evangelical state church had been opened up in 1851 by the introduction, according to a royal ordinance, of parochial councils and diocesan sjTiods, the consistory having also in 1858 published a scheme referring thereto, the whole
308 CHFRCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
business was brought to a standstill, until at last in 1867, by means of a royal edict, the calling of a State Synod consisting of twenty-five clerical and as many lay members was ordered, and consequently in February', 1869, such a sjmod met for the fii-st time. Co-operation in ecclesiastical legislation was assigned to it as its main task, while it had also the right to advise in regard to proposals about chvu'ch govermnent, also to make suggestions and complaints on such mattei-s, but the confession of the evangelical church was not to be touched, and lay entirely outside of its province. A liberal enactment with regard to dissentei-s was sanctioned by the? chamber in 1870.
6. The Catholic Church in Wiirttemherg. — Even after the founding of the bishopric of Eottenberg the government maintained strictly the previously exercised rights of sovereignty over the Catholic chui'ch, to which almost one-third of the population belonged, and the almost universally prevalent liberalism of the Catholic clergy found in this scarcely any offence. A new order of divine service in 1837, which, with the approval of the episcopal council, recommended the intro- duction of German hymns in the services, dispensing the sacraments in the German language, restriction of the festivals, masses, and private masses, processions, etc., did indeed cause riots in several places, in which, however, the clergy took no part. But when in 1837, in consequence of the excitement caused throughout Catholic Germany by the Cologne conflict (§ 193, 1), the hitherto only isolated cases of lawless refusal to consecrate mixed marriages had increased, the government proceeded severely to punish offending clerg3^men, and transported to a village curacy a Tubingen professor. Mack, who had declared the compulsory celebration unlawful. Called to account by the nuncio of Munich for his indolence in all these affaii-s and severely threatened, old Bishop Keller at last resolved, in 1841, to lay before the chamber a formal complaint against the injury done to the Catholic church, and to demand the freeing of the church from the sovereignty of the state. In the second chamber this motion was simj^ly laid ad acta, but in the first it was recommended that the king should consider it. The bishop, however, and the liberal chajjter could not agree as to the terms of the demand, contradictory opinions were expressed, and things remained as they were. But Bishop Keller fell into melancholy and died in 1815. His successor took his stand upon th(i memorial and declaration of the Upper Rhtniish bishops, and immediately in 1853 began the conflict by forbidding his clergy, under threats of severe censirre, to submit as law required to civil examinations. The government that had hitherto so firmly maintained its sovereign rights, inider pressure of the influence which a lady very nearly related to the king exercised over him, gave in without more ado, quitted tlie bishop first of all by
§ 196. THE SOUTH GERMAN SMALLER STATES. 309
a convention in 1854, and then entered into negotiations with the Roman curia, out of which came in 1857 a concordat proclaimed by the bull C'mwi in mhlimi, Avhich, in surrender of a sovereign right of the state over the affairs of the church, far exceeds that of Austria (§ 198, 2). The government left unheeded all protests and petitions from the chambers for its abolition. But the example of Baden and the more and more decided tone of the opposition obliged the govern- ment at last to yield. The second chamber in 1861 decreed the abrogation of the concordat, and a royal rescript declared it abolished. In the beginning of 1862 a bill was submitted by the new ministry and passed into law by both chambers for determining the relations of the Catholic chm-ch to the state. The royal placet or right of per- mitting or refusing, is required for all clerical enactments which are not i)urely inter-ecclesiastical but refer to mixed mattei-s ; the theo- logical endowments are subject to state control and joint administra- tion ; boys' seminaries are not allowed ; clergymen appointed to office must submit to state examination; according to consuetudinary rights, about two-thirds of the benefices are filled by the king, one- third by the bishops on reporting to the civil com-t, which has the right of protest ; clergy who break the law are removable by the civil court, etc. The cui-ia indeed lodged a protest, but the for the most part peace-loving clergy reared, not in the narrowing atmosphere of the seminaries but amid the scientific cultui-e of the university, in the halls of Tubingen, submitted all the more easily as they foimd that in all inter-ecclesiastical matters they had greater freedom and iiulcix'ndi'ncf^ under the concordat than before.
7. The Imperial Territory of Alsace and Lorraine since 1871. — After Alsace with German Lorraine had again, in consequence of the Franco- Prussian war, been united to Germany and as an imperial territory had been placed under the rule of the new German emperor, the secretary of the Papal States, Cardinal Antonelli, in the confident hope of being able to secure in retiu-n the far more favourable con- ditions, rights and claims of the Catholic church in Prussia with the autocracy of the bishops unrestricted by the state, declared in a letter to the Bishop of Strassbiirg, that the concordat of 1801 (§ 208, 1) was annulled. But when the imperial government showed itself ready to accept the renunciation, and to make profit out of it in the opposite way from that intended, tlie cardinal hasted in another letter to ex- I'lain how by the incorporation with Germany a new arrangement had become necessary, but that clearly the old must remain in force until the new one has been promulgated. Also a petition of the Catholic clergy brought to Berlin by the bishop himself, which laid claim to this luilimited dominion over all Catholic educational and benevolent institutions, failed of its purpose. The clergy therefore wrought for
310 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
this all the more zealously by fanaticizing the Catholic people in favour of Fi-ench and against German interests. On the epidemic about the appearance of the mother of God called forth in this way, see § 188, 7. In 1874 the government found itself obliged to close the so-called " little seminaries," or boj's' colleges, on account of their fostering sentiments hostile to the empire. Yet in 1880 the newly ap- pointed imperial governor, Field-marshal von Manteuflfel (died 188")), at the request of the States-Committee, allowed Bishop Riiss of Strassburg to reopen the seminary atZillisheim, with the proviso that his teachers should be approved by the government, and that instruction in the German language should be introduced. Manteuifel has endeavoured since, by yielding favours to the France-loving Alsatians and Lorrainers, and to their ultramontane clergy, to win them over to the idea of the German empire, even to the evident sacrifice of the inte- rests of resident Germans and of the Protestant church. But such fondling has Avrought the very opposite result to that intended.
§ 197. The so-called Kulturkaimpf in the German Empire. 1
Ultramontanism had for the time being granted to the Prus- sian state, which had not only allowed it absolutely free scope but readily aided its growth throughout the realm (§ 193, 2), an indulgence for that offence which is in itself unatone- able, having a Protestant dynasty. Pius IX. had himself repeatedly expressed his satisfaction at the conduct of the government. But the league which Prussia made in 18GG with the " church-robbing Sub-al])ine," i.e. Italian, govern- ment, was not at all to the taste of the curia. The day of Sadowa, 3rd July, 18GG, called from Antonelli the mournful cry, II rnondo ccssa^ " The world has gone to ruin," and the still more glorious day of Sedan, 2nd September, 1870, completely put the bottom out of the Danaid's vessel of ultramontane forbearance and endurance. This daj'', 18th January, 1871, had as its result the overthrow of the tem- poral power of the ])apacy as well the establishment of a
* Geffcken, " Church and State." 2 vols. London, 1877. Vol. ii., pp. -188-531.
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 311
new and hereditary German empire under the Protestant dynasty of the Prussian Hohenzollerns. German ultramon- tanism felt itself all the more under obligation to demand from the new emperor as the first expiation for such un- canonical usurpation, the reinstatement of the pope in his lost temporal power. But when he did not respond to this demand, the ultramontane party, by means of the press favourable to its claims, formally declared war against the German empire and its governments, and applied itself systematically to the mobilization of its entire forces. But the empire and its governments, with Prussia in the van, with unceasing determination, supported b}'' the majority of the States' representatives, during the years 1871-1875 proceeded against the ultramontanes by legislative measures. The execution of these by the police and the courts of law, owing to the stubborn refusal to obey on the part of the higher and lower clergy, led to the formation of an opposi- tion, commonly designated after a phrase of the Prussian deputy. Professor Virchow, " Kulturkampf^''^ which was in some degree modified first in 1887. The imperial chancellor. Prince Bismarck, uttered at the outset the confident, self- assertive statement, " We go not to Canossa," — and even in 1880, when it seemed as if a certain measure of submission was coming from the side of the papacy, and the Prussian government also showed itself prepared to make important concessions, he declared, " We shall not buy peace with Canossa medals ; such are not minted in Germany." Since 1880, however, the Prussian government with increasing compliance from year to year set aside and modified the most oppressive enactments of the May laws, so as actually to redress distresses and inconveniences occasioned by cleri- cal opposition to these laws, without being able thereby to obtain any important concession on the part of the papal curia, until at last in 1887, after the government had carried
312 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
concession to the utmost limit, the pope put his seal to definitive terms of peace by admitting the right of giving information on the part of the bishops regarding appoint- ments to vacant pastorates, as well as the right of protest on the part of the government against those thus nominated.
1. The Aggression of Ultramontanism. — Even in the revolution j^ear, ISiS, German ultramontanism, in order to obtain what it called the freedom of the church, had zealously seconded many of the efforts of democratic radicalism. Nevertheless, in the years of reaction that followed, it succeeded in catching most of the influential statesnuni on the limed twig of the assurance that the episcopal hierarchy, with its unlimited sway over the clergy and through them over the feelings of the people, constituted the only certain and dependable bulwark against the revolutionai-y movements of the age, and this idea pre- vailed down to 1860, and in Prussia down to 1871. But the overthrow of the concordat in Baden, Wiirttemberg and Darmstadt by the states of the realm after a hard conflict, the humiliation of Austria in 1866, and the groAvth in so threatening a manner since of the still heretical Prussia, jjroduced in the whole German episcoijate a terrible ajDpre- hension that its hitherto untouched supremacy in the state would be at an end, and in order to ward off this danger it was driven into agitations and demonstrations partly secret and partly open. On 8th October, 1868, the papal nuncio in Munich, Monsignor Meglia, uttered his inmost conviction regarding the Wiirttemberg resident thus : " Only in America, England, and Belgium does the Catholic church receive its rights ; elsewhere nothing can help us but the revolution." And on 22nd April, 1869, Bishop Senestray of Eegensburg declared plainly in a si^eech delivered at Schwandorff : " If kings will no longer be of God's grace, I shall be the first to overthrow the throne. . . . Only a war or revolution can help us in the end." And war at last came, but it helped only their opponents. Although at its outbreak in 1870 the ultramontane party in South Germany, especially in Bavaria, for the most part with iinexamjiled insolence expressed their sympathy with France, and after the brilliant and victorious close of the war did everything to prevent the attachment of Bavaria to the new German empire, their North German brcithren, accustomed to the boundless compliance of the Prussiaii government, indulged the hope of prosecuting their own ends all the more successfully under the new regime. Even in November, 1870, Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen visited the victorious king of Prussia at Versailles, in order to interest him personally in the restoration of the Papal States. In February, 1871, in the same place, fifty -six Catholic deputies of the
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 313
Prussian parliament presented to the king, who had meanwhile been proclaimed Emperor of Germany, a formal petition for the restoration of the temporal power of the pope, and soon afterwards a deputation of distinguished laymen waited upon him " in name of all the Catho- lics of Germany," with an address directed to the same end. The Bavarian Fatherland (Dr. Sigl) indeed treated it with scorn as a " belly-crawling-deputation, which crawled before the magnanimous hero-emperor, beseeching him graciously to use said deputation as his spittoon." And the Steckenherger Bote, inspired by Dr. Ivetteler, declared : " We Catholics do not entreat it as a favour, but demand it as our right. . . . Either you must restore the Catholic church to all its i^rivileges or not one of all your existing governments will endure." At the same time as the insinuation was spread that the new German empire threatened the existence of the Catholic church in Germany, a powerful ultramontane election agitation in view of the next Reich- stag Avas set on foot, out of which grew the party of the " Centre," so called from sitting in the centre of the hall, with Von Ketteler, Windthorst, Mallinkrodt (died 1874), and the two Keichenspergers, as its most eloquent leaders. Even in the debate on the address in answer to the speech from the throne this party demanded interven- tion, at first indeed only diplomatic, in favour of the Papal States. In the discussion on the new imperial constitution A. Eeichensperger sought to borrow from the abortive German landoAvners' bill of 1848, condemned indeed as godless by the S3dlabus (§ 185, 2), principles that might serve the turn of ultramontanism regarding the unrestricted liberty of the press, societies, meetings, and religion, with the most perfect independence of all religious communities of the State. Mallinkrodt insisted upon the need of enlarged privileges for the Catholic church owing to the great growth of the empire in Catholic territory and population. All these motions were rejected bj^ the Beichstag, and the Prussian government answered them by abolish- ing in July, 1871, the Catholic department of the Ministry of Public Worship, which had existed since 1841 (§ 193, 2). The Genfcr Korrespondenz, shortly before highly praised by the pope, declared : If kings do not help the papacy to regain its rights, the papacy must also withdraw from them and appeal directly to the hearts of the people. " Understand ye the terrible range of this change ? Your hours, O ye princes, are numbered ! " The Berlin Germania pointed threateningly to the approaching revanche war in France, on the outbreak of which the German empire would no longer be able to reckon on the sympathy of its Catholic subjects ; and the Ell- wanger hath. Wochenhlatt proclaimed openly that only France is able to guard and save the Catholic church from the annihilating pro- jects of Prussia. And in this way the Catholic people throughout all
314 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Germany were roused and incited bj' the Catliolic press, as well as from the pulpit and confessional, in homo and school, in Catholic monasteries and nunneries, in mechanics' clubs and peasants' unions, in casinoes and assemblies of nobles. Bishop Ketteler founded ex- pressly for purposes of such agitations the Mainz Catholic Union, in September, 1871, which by its itinerant meetings spread far and wide the flame of religious fanaticism; and a Bavarian priest, Lechner, preached from the pulpit that one does not know whether the German princes tire by God's or by the devil's grace.
2. Conflicts Occasioned by Protection of the Old Catholics, 1871-1872. — That the Prussian government refused to assist the bishops in perse- cuting the Old Catholics, and even retained these in their positions after excommunication had been hurled against them, was regarded by those bishops as itself an act of persecution of the Catholic church. To this opinion they gave official expression, under solemn protest against all encroachments of the state upon the domain of Catholic faith and law, in a memorial addressed to the German emperor from Fulda, on September 7th, 1871, but were told firmly and decidedly to keep within their own boundaries. Even before this Bishop Krementz of Ermeland had refused the missio canonica to Dr. Wolhnann, teacher of religion at the Gymnasium of Braunsberg, on account of his refus- ing to acknowledge the dogma of infallibility, and had forbidden Catholic scholars to attend his instructions. The minister of public worship, Von Miihler, decided, because religious instruction was obliga- tory in the Prussian gymnasia, that all Catholic scholars must attend or be expelled from the institution. The Bavarian government fol- loAved a more correct coui'se in a similar case that arose about the same time ; for it recognised and protected the religious instructions of the anti-infallibilist priest, Eenftle in Mering, as legitimate, but still allowed parents who objected to Avithhold their childi-en from it. And in this way the new Prussian minister, Talk, corrected his pre- decessor's mistake. But all the more decidedly did the government proceed against Bishop Krementz, when he publicly proclaimed the excommunication uttered against Dr. Wollmann and Professor Michelis, which had been forbidden by Prussian civil law on account of the infringement of civil rights connected therewith according to canon law. As the bishop could not be brought to an explicit acknowledgment of his obligation to obey the laws of the land, the minister of public worship on October 1st, 1872, stripped him of his temporalities. But meanwhile a second conflict had broken out. The Catholic field-provost of the Prussian army and bishop in xx^rtihus, Namszanowski, had under papal direction commanded the Catholic divisional cha])lain, Liinnemann of Cologne, on pain of excommuni- cation, to discontinue the military worsliii) in the garrison chapel.
§ 197. KULTURKA.MPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 315
which, by leave of the militar}'' court, was jointly used by the Old Catholics, and so was desecrated. He was therefore brought before a court of discipline, suspended from his office in May, 1872, and finally, by roj-al ordinance in 1873, the office of field-provost was wholly abolished.
3. Struggles over Educational Questions, 1872-1873. — In the formerly Polish i^rovinces of the Prussian kingdom the Polonizeition of resident Catholic Germans had recently assumed threatening proportions. The archbishop of Posen and Gnesen, Count Ledochowski, whom the pope during the Vatican Council appointed primate of Poland, was the main centre of this agitation. In the Posen priest seminary he formed for himself, in a fanatically Polish clergy, the tools for carrying it out, and in the neighbouring Schrimm he founded a Jesuit establishment that managed the whole movement. Where j^reviously Polish and German had been preached alternately, German was now banished, and in the public schools, the oversight of which, as throughout all Prussia, lay officially in the hands of the clerg}', all means were used to discoui'age the study of the German language, and to stamp out the German national sentiment. But even in the two western provinces the Catholic public schools Avere made by the clerical school inspectors wholly subservient to the designs of ultramontanism. In order to stem such disorder the government, in February, 1872, sanctioned the School Inspection Law passed by the parliament, by which the right and duty of school inspection was transferred from the chiu'ch to the state, so that for the sake of the state the clerical inspectors hostile to the government were set aside, and where necessary might be replaced by lajanen. A pastoral letter of the Prussian bishops assembled at Fulda in Aj^ril of that year complained bitterly of persecution of the church and unchristianizing of the schools, but advised the Catholic clergy under no circumstances voluntarily to resign school inspection where it was not taken from them. By a rescript of the minister of public woi-ship in June, the exclusion of all members of spiritual orders and congregations from teaching in public schools was soon folloAved by the sixppression of the Marian congregations in all schools, and it was enjoined in March, 1873, that in Polish districts, where other subjects had been taught in the higher educational institutions in the German language, this also would be obligatory in religious instruction. Ledochowski indeed dii-ected all religious teachers in his diocese to use the Polish language after as they had done before, but the government suspended all teachers who followed his direction, and gave over the religious instruction to lay teachers. The archbishop now erected private schools for the religious instruction of gjannasial teachei-s, and the govermnent forbad attendance at them.
316 CHrRCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTUEY.
4. The Kanzelparagraph and the Jesuit Law, 1871-1872. — "While thus the Prussian govfrnmcnt took more and more decided measures against the ultramontanism that had become so rampant in its domains, on the other hand, its mobile band of warriors in cassock, dress coat, and blouse did not cease to labour, and the imperial govern- ment passed some drastic measures of defence applicable to the whole empii-e. At the instance of the Bavarian government, which could not defend itself from the violence of its " patriots," the Federal Council asked the Reichstag to add a new article to the penal code of the emjnre, threatening any misuse of the pulpit for political agitation with imprisonment for two years. The Bavarian minister of piiblic worship, Lutz, imdertook himself to support this bill before the Reichstag. "For several decades," he said, "the clergy in Ger- many have assumed a new character; they are become the simple reflection of Jesuitism." The Reichstag sanctioned the bill in Decem- ber, 1871. Far more deeply than this so-called Kanzelparagraph, the operation of which the agitation of the clergy by a little circum- spection could easily elude, did the Jesuit Law, published on July 4th, 1872, cut into the flesh of Geniian ultramontanism. Already in April of that year had a petition from Cologne demanding the expulsion of the Jesuits been presented to the Reichstag. Similar addresses flowed in from other places. The Centre party, on the other hand, organized a regular flood of jjetitions in favour of the Jesuits. The Reichstag referred both to the imperial chancellor, with the request to introduce a law against the movements of the Jesuits as dangerous to the State. The Federal Council complied with this request, and so the law was liassed which ordained the removal of the Jesuits and related orders and congregations, the closing of their institutions within six months, and prohibited the fonnation of any other orders by their individual members, and the government authorised the banishment of foreign members and the interning of natives at appointed places. A later ordinance of the Federal Council declared the Redemptorists, Lazarists, Priests of the Holy Ghost, and the Society of the H('art of Jesus to be orders related to the Soci(ity of Jesus. Those afTected by this law anticipated tlie threatened interning by voluntarily removiiig to Belgium, Holland, France, Turkey, and Am(>rica.
5. The Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1873-1875. — In order to be able to check ultramontanism, even in its pyedagogical breeding places, the episcopal colleges and seminaries, and at the same time to restrict by law the despotic absolutism of the bishops in disciplinary and beneficiary matters, the Prussian government brought in other four ecclesiastical bills, which in spite of violent opposition on the part of the Centre and tin; Old Conservatives, were successively passed by Ijoth houses of parliament, and api)roved by the king on May 11th,
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GEBMAN EMPIEE. 317
12th, 13th, and 14th, 1873. Their most important provisions are: As a condition for admission to a spiritual office the state requires citizenshijD of the German empire, three years' study at a German university, and, besides an exit gymnasial examination preceding the university course, a state examination in general knowledge (m philosojDhy, history, and German literature), in addition to the theo- logical examination. The episcopal boys' seminaries and colleges are abolished. The priest seminaries, if the minister of worship regards them as fit for the purpose, may take the place of the university course, but must be under regular state inspection. The candidates for spiritual offices, which must never be left vacant more than a year, are to be named to the chief president of the province, and he can for cogent reasons lodge a protest against them. Secession from the church is freely allowed, and releases from all personal obli- gations to pay ecclesiastical dues and perform ecclesiastical duties. Excommunication is permissible, but can be proclaimed only in the congregation concerned, and not publicly. The power of church discipline over the clergy can be exercised only by Gei-man superiors and in accordance with fixed processional procedure. Corporal punishment is not permissible, fines are allowed to a limited extent, and restraint by interning in so-called Demeriti houses, but only at furthest of three months, and when the party concerned willingly consents. Church servants, whose remaining in office is incompatible with the public order, can be deposed by civil sentence. And as final court of appeal in all cases of complaint between ecclesiastical and civil authorities as well as within the ecclesiastical domain, a royal court of justice for ecclesiastical affairs is constituted, whose proceedings are open and its decision final, — But even the May Laws soon proved inadequate for checking the insolence of the bishops and the disorders among the Catholic population occasioned thereby. In December, 1873, therefore, by sovereign authority there was prescribed a new formula of the episcopal Oath of Allegiance, recognising more distinctly' and decisively the duty of obedience to the laws of the state. Then next a bill was presented to the parliament, which had been kept in view in the original constitution, demanding obli- gatory civil marriage and abolition of compulsory baptism, as well as the conducting of civil i-egistration by state officials. In February, 1874, it was passed into law. On the 20th and 21st May, 1874, two other bills brought in for extending the May Laws of the previous year, in consequence of which a bishop's see vacated by death, a judicial sentence, or any other cause, must be filled within the space of a year, and the chapter must elect within ten days an episcopal administrator, who has to be presented to the chief president,* and to undertake an oath to obey the laws of the state. If the chapter docs
318 CHURCH HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.
not fulfil those roquiivnuonts, a lay commissioner will be ajipointod to administer tlie aifaii-s of the diocese. During the episcopal vacancy, all vacant pastorates, as well as all not legally filled, can be at once validly supplied by the act of the patron, and, where no such right exists, by congregational election. Parochial property, on the illegal appointment of a pastor, is given over to be administered by a lay commissioner. — The empire also came to the help of the May Laws bj^ an imperial enactment of May 4th, 1874, sanctioned by the emperor, which empowers the competent state government to intern all church officers discharged from their office and not yielding sub- mission thereto, as well as all punished on account of incompetence in their official duties, and, if this does not help, to condemn them to loss of their civil rights and to expulsion from the German federal territory. — Also in its next session the imperial house of repre- sentatives again gave legislative sanction to the KuHurkampf; for in January, 1875, it passed a bill presented by the Federal Council on the deposition on oath as to personal rank, and on divorce with obligatory civil marriage, which, going far beyond the Prussian civil law of the previous year, and especially ridding Bavaria of its strait-jacket canon marriage law enforced by the concordat, abolished the spiritual jurisdiction in favour of that of the civil courts, and gave it to the state to determine the qualifications for, as well as the hindrances to, divorce, without, however, touching the domain of conscience, or entrenching in any way upon the canon law and the demands of the church.
(). Opposition in the States to the Prussian May Laws.— Bishop Martin of Piulcrlnirn had even beforehand refused obedience to the May Laws of 1878. After their promulgation, all the Prussian bishops collectively declared to the ministry that " they were not in a position to carry out these laws," with the further statement that they could not comply even with those demands in them which in other states, by agreement with the pope, are acknowledged by the church, because they are administered in a one-sided way by the state in Prussia. On these lines also they proceeded to take action. First of all, the refractoriness of several of the seminaries drew down upon them the loss of endowment and of the right of representation ; and in the next place, the refusal of the bishops to notify their appoint- ment of clergjaiien led to their being frequently fined, while the church books and s(!als were taken away from clergymen so ap- pointed, all the official acts performed by them were pronounced invalid in civil law, and those who performed them were subjected to fines. But here, too, again Bishop Martin, well skilled in church history (he had been previously professor of theology in Bonn), had beforehand in a pastoral instructed his clergy that " since the daj's
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 319
of Diocletian there had not been seen so violent a persecution of the name of Jesus Christ." Soon after this Archbishop Ledochowski, in an official document addressed to the Chief President of Poland, com- pared the demand to give notification of clerical appointments with the demand of ancient Rome upon Christian soldiere to sacrifice to the heathen gods. And by order of the pope pra}'ers were offered in all churches for the church so harshly and cruelly persecuted. And yet the Avhole " persecution " then consisted in nothing more than this, that a newlj' issued law of the state, under threat of fine in case of disobedience, demanded again of the bishops paid by the state what had been accepted for centuries as unobjectionable in the originally Catholic Bavaria, and also for a long while in France, Portugal, and other Romish comitries, what all Prussian bishops down to 1850 (§ 193, 2) had done without scruple, what the bishops of Paderborn and Miinster even had never refused to do in the extra-Prussian portion of these dioceses (Oldenburg and Waldeck), as also the Prince-Bishop of Breslau, since the issuing of the similar Austrian May Laws (§ 198, 4) in the Austro-Silesian part of his diocese, what the episcopal courts of Wiirtttmiberg and Baden had yielded to, although in almost all these states the demand referred to broke up the union with the papal curia. Yet before a year had passed the cases of punishment for these offences had so increased that the only very inadeqiiate fines that could be exacted by the seizui-e of property had to be changed into equivalent sentences of imprison- ment. The first prelate who suffered this fate was Archbishop Ledochowski, in February, 1874. Then followed in succession : Eber- hard of Treves, Melchers of Cologne, Martin of Paderborn, and Brinkmann of Miinster. The ecclesiastical court of justice expressly pronounced deposition against Ledochowski in April, 1874 ; against Martin in January, 1875, and against the Prince-Bishop Forster of Breslau in October, 1875, who alone had dared to proclaim in his diocese the encyclical Quod nunquam (Par. 7). But the latter had even beforehand withdrawn the diocesan property to the value of 900,000 marks to his episcopal castle, Johannisberg, in Austro-Silesia, where with a truly princely income from Austrian funds he could easily get over the loss of tlie Prussian part of his revenues. Martin, who had been interned at Wesel, fled in August, 1875, under cloud of night, to Holland, from whence he transferred his agitations into Belgium, and finally to London (died 1879). Ledochowski found a residence in the Vatican. Brinkmann Avas deposed in Marcli, and Melchers in June, 1876, after both had beforehand proved their enjoyment of martyrdom by escaping to Holland. Eberhard of Treves anticipated his deposition from office by his death in May, 1876. Blum of Limburg was deposed in June, 1877, and Beckmann
320 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of Osuabriiok dioil in 1878. — lu tlio Prussian parliament and German Reichstap; the Centre party, 'supporti'd by Guelphs, Poles, and the Social Democrats, had meanwhile with anger, scorn, and vitupera- tion, with and without wit, fought not only against all ecclesiastical, but also against all other legislative proposals, whose acceptance was specially desired by the government. And all the representatives of the ultramontane press within and without Europe vied with one another in violent denunciation of the ecclesiastical laws, and in unmeasured abuse of the emperor and the empire. But almost with- out exception the Roman Catholic officials in Prussia, as well as the Protestants and Old Catholics, carried out " the Diocletian persecution of Christians " in the judicial and police measures introduced by the church laws. A number of Catholic notables of the eastern provinces of their own accord, in a dutiful address to the emperor, expressly accepted the condemned laws, and won thereby the nickname of "State Catholics." The great mass of the Catholic people, high and low, remained unflinchingly faithful to the resisting clergy in, for the most part, only a passive opposition, although even, as the Berlin Germania expressed it, " the Catholic rage at the Bismarckian ecclesiastical polity could condense itself into one Catholic head " in a murderous attempt on the chancellor in quest of health at Kissingen, on July 18th, 1871. It was the cooper, Kullmann, who, fanaticised by exciting speeches and writings in the Catholic society of Salzwedel, sought to take vengeance, as he himself said, upon the chancellor for the May Laws and " the insult offered to his party of the Centre." — In the further course of the Prussian KuIturJcampf, however, fostered by the aid of the confessional, the insinuating assiduity of the clerical press, and the all-prevailing influence of the thoroughly disciplined^ Catholic clergy over the popish masses, the Centre grew in number and importance at the elections from session to session, so that from the beginning of 1880, by the unha2)py division of the other parties in the Reichstag as well as Chamber, it united sometimes with the Conservatives, sometimes and most frequently with the Progressionists and Democrats renouncing the KuUurkampf, and was supported on all questions by Poles, Danes, Guelphs, and Alsatian-Lorrainers, as clerical interest and ultramon- tane tactics required, in accordance with the plan of campaign of the commander-in-chief, especially of t\w quondam Hanoverian minister Windthorst, dominated far more by Guelphic than by ultramontane tendencies. The Centre was thus able to turn the scale, until, at least in the Reichstag, after the dissolution and new election of 1887, its dominatory power was broken by the closer combination of the conservative and national liberal parties.
7. Share in the Conflict taken by the Pope. — Pius IX. had congratu-
^ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 321
lated the now emjieror in 1871, trusting, as he wrote, that his efforts tlirected to the common weal "might bring blessing not only to Gei-many, but also to all Europe, and might contribute not a little to the protection of the liberty and rights of the Catholic religion." And when first of all the Centre party, called forth by the election agitation of German ultramontanism, opened its politico-clerical campaign in the Reichstag, he expressed his disapproval of its l)roceeding3 upon Bismarck's complaining to the papal secretary Antonelli. Yet a deputation of the Centre sent to Rome succeeded in winning over both. In order to build a bridge for the securing an understanding with the curia, now that the conflict had grown in extent and bitterness, the imperial government in May, 1872, appointed the Bavarian Cardinal Prince Hohenlohe to the vacant post of ambassador to the Vatican. But the pope, with offensive reck- lessness, rejected the well-meant proposal, and forbade the cardinal to accept the imperial appointment. From that time he gave free and public expression on every occasion to his senseless bitterness against the German empire and its government. In an address to the German Reading Society at Rome in July, 1872, he allowed himself to use the most violent expressions against the German chancellor, and closed with the i^rophetic threatening : " Who knows but the little stone shall soon loose itself from the mountain (Dan. ii, 34), which shall break in pieces the foot of the colossus ? " But even this diatribe Avas cast in the shade by the Christmas allocution of that year, in which he was not ashamed to characterize the pro- cedure of the German statesmen and their imperial sovereign as " impudentia." And after the publication of the first May Laws he addressed a letter to the emperor, in which, founding upon the fact that even the emperor like all baptized pei-sons belonged to him, the pope, he cast in his teeth that " all the measures of his govern- ment for some time aimed more and more at the annihilation of Catholicism," and added the threatening announcement that " these measures against the religion of Jesus Christ can have no other result than the overthrow of his own throne." The emperor in his answer made expressly prominent his divinely appointed call as well as his own evangelical standpoint, and with becoming dignity and earnest- ness decidedly repvidiated the uiuneasured assumptions of the papacy, and published both letters. In the same styh; of immoderate pre- tension the pope again, in November, 1875, in one encyclical after another, gave vent to his anger against emperor and empire, especially its military institutions. In place of the deposed and at that time imprisoned archbishop, Ledochowski, he appointed in 1874 a native apostolic legate, who was at last ascertained to be the Canon Kurowski, when lie was in October, 1875, condemned to two years' VOL. III. 21
3'22 cnrnrH rtstory of nineteenth century.
imjirisonment. But thi> jk^jio took tho most docidoil and successful stop 1)3' the Encyclical Quod nunquam, of 5th February, 1875, addres.-«!d to the Prussian episcopate, in which he characterized th(! Prussian May Laws as " not given to fr<^ citizens to demand a reasonable obedience, but as laid upon slaves, in order to force obedience by fears of violence," and, " in order to fulfil the duties of his office," declared quite openly to all whom it concerns and to the Catholics tlurougliout the world : " Leijes Ulan irt-itas esse, utpote qucc divincc Ecdeakc constitutioiii jjro>'.s«s adversavttir " ; but upon those " godless " men who make themselves guilty of the sin of assuming spiritual office witliout a divine call, falls eo ipso the great excommunication. On the other hand he rewarded, in March, 1875, Archbishop Ledo- chowski, then still in prison, but afterwards, in February, 1876, settled in liome, for his sturdy resistance of those laws, with a cardinal's hat, and to the not less persistent Prince-Bishop FOrster of Breslau he presented on his jubilee as priest the arcluej)iscopal pall. In the next Christmas allocution he romanced about a second Nero, who, while in on(! place with a l^-re in his hand he enchanted the world by lying words, in other places appeared Avith iron in his hand, and, if he did not make th(* streets run with blood, he fills the prisons, sends multitudes into exile, seizes upon and with violence assumes all authority to himself. Also to the German pilgrims who went in May, 1877, to his episcopal jubilee at Rome, he had still much that was terrible to tell about this " modern Attila," leaving it uncertain Avhether he intended Priuct; Bismarck or the mild, jiious German emjM'ror himself.
8. The Conflict about the Encyclical Quod nunquam of 1875. — By this encyclical the pope had completely broken up the union between the Prussian state and the ciu-ia, resting upon the bull Dc salute ani- maruvi (§ 193, 1); for he, bluntly repudiating the sovereign rights of the civil authority therein expressly allowiHl, by j^ronouncing the laws of the Prussian state invalid, authorized and promoted the rebel- lion of all Catholic subjects against tliem. The Prussian government now issued tliree new laws (juickly after one anotlier, cutting more deejjly than all that w<'nt Ix'fore, which without difficulty received the sanction of all tlie legislativf^ bodies. I. The so called Arrestment Act (S])err(jesetz) oi April 22nd, 1875, wliich ordered the inunediate suspension of all statt; payments to the Roman Catholic bishoprics and pastorates until those who were entitled to them had in writing or by statement "declartid themselvis ready to yield willing obedience to the existing laws of the state. II, A law of May 31st, 1875, order- ing th<; Expulsion of all Orders and such like Congregations within eight months, the minist<T of jmblic worship, liowevcr, bi-ing authorized to extend this truce to four years in the; case of institutions devoted to
§ 197. KFLTURKAMPF IN THE OET^MAX EMPIRE. 823
the education of the young, while those -which were exclusively hos- pital and nursing societies were allowed to remain, but were subject to state inspection and might at any time be suppressed by roj-al order. III. A law cf Junn 12th, ISTo, declaring the formal Abrogation of the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Eighteenth Articles of the Constitution (§ 193, 2). And finally in addition there came the enforcement during this session of the Chamber of laws previously introduced on the rights of the Old Catholics (§ 190, 2), and, on June 20th, 1875, on the administration of church property in Catholic parishes. The latter measures aimed at withdrawing the administration i-eferred to from the autocratic absolutism of the clergy, and transferring it to a lay commission elected by the community itself, of which the parish jjriest was to be a member, but not the president. Although the Archbishop of Cologne in name of all the bishops before its issue had sohimnly protested against this law, because by it " essential and inalienable rights of the Catholic church were lost," and although the recognition of it actually involved recognition of the May Laws and the ecclesiastical court of justice, yet all the bishops declared themselves ready to co-opei-ate in carrying out the arrangements for surrendering the church property to the administration of a civil commission. They thus indeed secured thoroughly ultramontane elections, but at the same time put themselves into a position of self- contradiction, and admitted that the one ground of their opposition to the May Laws, that they were one-sidedly wrouglit by the state was null and void.
9. Papal Overtures for Peace. — Leo XIII., since 1878, intimated his accession to tlui Emperor William, and exj^ressed his regret at finding that the good relations did not continvie which formerly existed between Prussia and the holy see. The Emperor's answer expressed the hope that by the aid of his Holiness the Prussian bishops might be induced to obey the laws of the land, as the people under their pastoral care actually did ; and afterwards while in consequence of the attempt on his life of Jun(! 2nd, 187;-}, he lay upon a sickbed, the crown prince on June 10th answ(>red other papal communications by saying, that no Prussian monarch could entertain the wish to change the constitution and laws of his country in accordance with the ideas of the Romish church ; but that, even though a thorough under- standing upon the radical controversy of a thousand years could not be reached, yet the endeavour to preserve a conciliatory disposition on both sides would also for Prussia open a way to peace which had never been closed in other states. Three weeks later the Munich nuntio Masella was at Kissingen and conferred with the chancellor, Prince Bismarck, who was residing there, about the possibility of a basis of reconciliation. Subsequently negotiations were continued at
324 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Gastein, and then in Vienna with the there resident nuntio Jacobini, but were suspended owing to demands by the curia to whicli the state could not submit. Still the jjope attempted indirectly to open the ^viiy for renewed consultation, for he issued a brief dated Feb- ruary 24th, 1880, to " Ai'chbishop Melchers of Cologne " (deposed by the royal court of justice), in which he declared his readiness to allow to the respective government boards notification of new el<>cted i)riests before their canonical institution. Tliereupon a conununication was sent to Cardinal Jacobini that the state ministry had resolved, so soon as the pope had actually implemented this declaration of his readiness, to make every effort to obtain f i-om the state representatives authority to set aside or modify those enactments of the May Laws which were regarded by the Romish church as harsh. But the pope rec<'ived this compromise of the government very ungraciously and showed his dissatisfaction by withdrawing his conci>ssion, which besides referred only to the unremovable priests, therefore not to Hctzkaplane and succursal or assistant i)riests, and presupposed the obtaining the "«7rf^?)ie?;/," i.e. the willingly accorded consent, of the state, without by any means allowing tlit.' setting aside of th(! party elected.
10. Proof of the Prussian Government's willingness to be Reconciled, 1880-1881. — Notwithstanding this brusque refusal on the part of the jiupal curia, the government, at the instance of the minister of public worship. Von Puttkamer (§ 193, (5), resolved in May, 1880, to introduce a bill which gave a wide discretionary power for moderating tin; un- happy state of matters that had prevailed since the passing of the May Laws, throughout Catholic districts, Avhere GOl pastorates stood wholly vacant and 584 partly so, and nine bishoprics, some by death and others by deposition. Although the need of peace was readily admitted on both sides, the Liberals opposed these " Canossa proposals " as far too great ; the Centre, Poles, and G uelphs as far too small. Yet it obtained at last in a form considerably modified, through a com- promise of the conservatives with a great part of the national libe- rals the consent of both chambers. This law, sanctioned on July 14th, 1880, embraced these provisions : 1. TIk; royal court shall no longer depose from office any church officers, but simply pronounce incajiable of administering the office ; 2-4. The ministry of the state is author- ized to give the episcopal administrator charged by the church with the interim administration of a vacant bishopric a dispensation from tlie taking of the prescribed oath; further, an administration by commission of ecclesiastical property may be revoked as well as ap- jiriinted ; also state endowments tliat had been withdrawn are to be ri-stored for the benefit of the -wliolcexti'ut of i\n\ diocese ; 5. Spiritual official act« of a duly apitointtxl clergyman by way merely of assis-
§ 197. KULTUBKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 325
tance in another vacant parish are to be allowed ; 6. The minister of the interior and of public worship are empowered to approve of the erection of new institutions of religious societies which are devoted Avholly to the care of the sick, as to allow revocably to them the care and nurture of children not yet of school age ; and more recentU' added were 7, the particular, according to which Articles 2, 3, and 4 cease to operate after January 1st, 1882. The government was particularly careful to carry out the provisions temi)orarily recognised in Article 3, for the restoration of orderly episcopal administration by regularl}- elected episcopal administrators in bishoprics made vacant by death. Fulda, which was longest vacant, from October, 1873, had to be left out of account, since in that case there was only one member of the chapter left and so a canonical election was impossible. But without difficulty in March, 1881, the Vicar-General Dr. Hoting for Osnabriick and Canon Drobe for Paderborn, without taking the oath of allegiance, succeeded in obtaining independent administration of the property as well as the restoration of state pay for the entire dioceses, though they did not give the notification required by the May Laws for the interim administration. In October, 1881, the deposed Prince Bishop Forster of Breslau died, and the suffragan bishop, Gleich, elected by the chapter, undertook with consent of the government the office of episcopal administrator. — Meanwhile the pope, by a hearty letter of congratulation to the emperor on his birthday, March 22nd, had given new life to the suspended peace negotiations. And now also, when the respective chaptei-s transferred their right of election to the pope, the orderly appointments of the Canon Dr. Ivorum of Metz, a pupil of the Jesuit faculty of Innspruck, very warmlj^ recommended by Von ManteufTel, governor of Alsace and Lorraine, to the episcopal see of Treves, in August, 1881, of Vicar-General Koppof Hildesheimto Fulda in December, 1881, of the episcopal administrators Hoting and Drobe, in March and May, 1882, i-espectively to Osnabriick and Paderborn, were duly carried into effect. For Breslau the chapter drew up a list of seven candidates, but the government pointed out the Berlin provost, Rob. Herzog, as a mild and conciliatory person. The chapter now laid its riglit of election in the hands of the pope, and in Ma}', 1882, Herzog was raised to the dignity of prince-bishop. There now remained vacant only the sees of Cologne, Posen, Limburg and Miin- ster, which had been emjitied by the dopositions of the civil courts. — Meanwhile, too, the negotiations carried on at the instance of the government by privy councillor Von Schlozer, with the curia at Rome for the restoration of the embassy to the Vatican had been brought to a close. The chamber voted for this purpose an annual sum of i 10,000 marks, and Schlozer himself was appointed to the post in March, 1882.
326 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
11. Conciliatory Negotiations 1882-1884.— With January 1st, 1882, the three enactments of the July law of 1880, which might he en- forced at the discretion of the government, ceased to operate. Von Gossler, minister of public Avorship since June, 1881, on behalf of government, introduced a new bill into the Chamber on January IGth, 1882, for their re-enactment and extension, which by a compromise between the Conservatives and the Centre, after various modifications secured a majority in both houses. This second revised law embraced the following points : 1. Renewal of the thi'ee above-named enact- ments till April 1st, 1884 ; 2. Restoration of the " Bishop's Para- graph," lost in 1880, in this new form : If the king has pardoned a bishop set aside by the ecclesiastical court, he becomes again the bishop of his diocese recognised by the state ; 3. The setting aside of the examination in general knowledge (Kidtiirexavien) for those who bring a certificate of having passed the Gymnasium exit examination, or have attended with diligence lectures on philosophy, history and German literature during a three years' course at a German univer- sity, or at a Prussian seminary of equal rank, and have given proof of this by pi-esenting evidence to the chief president ; 4. The setting aside of the rights of the patron and congregation of themselves filling the vacant pastorates during a vacancy in the episcopal see. The new law obtained royal sanction on May 31st, 1882. But its two most im- portant articles, 2 and 3, remained for a long time a dead letter, and even Article 1 was only carried out by the resumjition of the state emoluments for the Hohenzollerns and the five newly instituted bislioi^- rics (Par. 10), but not for the other seven. But the ill hiimour of the ultramontane Hotspurs was raised to the boiling point by the fate of the bill introduced by the Centre into the Reichstag to set aside the Expatriation Law of May 4th, 1874, which seemed to the government indispensable on account of its applicability to the agitations against thf! empire of the Polish clergy. This bill, after violent debates, was carried on January 18tli, 1882, by a two-thirds majority ; but it was cast out by the Federal Council on June (itli, almost imanimously, only Bavaria and Reuss jttw^erc Liiiie voting in its favour. This Avas the result mainly of the failure of all the attempts of Von Schlozer to render the government's concessions acceptable to the papal curia. — On the other hand, the government of its own accord brought in a third revision scheme in June, 1883, by which it sought to relieve as far as possible the troubles of the Catholic cliurch. By adopting this law : (1) Till! obligation of notification on tlie part of the bishops and the right ol the state to protest on the change of temi)orary assistants and substitut(!3 into regular spiritual ofTicers, were abolished ; as also (2) the competence of the court for ecclesiastical affairs in appeals against the protest of the chief president, which now therefore, according to
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 327
the generally prevailing rule, are referred to the minister of worship, the -whole ministry, the parliament, the king ; (3) the immunity from jjunishment in the execiition of their office guaranteed in Article 5 of the July law of 1880 (Par. 10) Avas extended to all spiritual offices whether vacant or not ; (4) the ordaining of individual candidates in vacant dioceses by bishops recognised by the state was declared to be legal. In spite of repeated declarations of the curia that it could and would agree to the notification only after a previous sufficient guarantee of perfectly fi-ee training of the clergy and free adminis- tration of the spiritual office, the king while residing at the Castle of Mainau on Lake Constance, on July 11th, 1883, sanctioned the so-called Mainau Law that had passed both houses, and on the 14th, the minister of public worship demanded that the Prussian bishops, without making notification, should fill up vacancies in pastorates by appointing assistants, and should name those candidates who were eligible for such appointment under the conditions of the May Law of the previous year (Par. 3). The pope at last, in September, 1883, allowed the dispensation required, but for that time only and without prejudice for the future. By the end of May, 1,884 applications had been made to the senior of the Prussian episcopate appointed to receive such, Marnitz of Kulm, by 1,443 clergjanen, of whom the government i-ejected only 178 who had studied at the Jesuit institu- tions of Eome, Louvain, and Innsbriick. — In December, 1883, Bishop Blimi of Limburg, and in January, 1884, Brinkmann of Miinster were restored by royal gi-ace, and for both dioceses, as well as for Ermeland, Kulm and Hildesheim, and at last also on March 31st, shortly before the closing of the door, even for Cologne, in this case, however, revo- cably, the arrest of salaries ceased, so that only the two archiepiscopal s(!(« of Cologne and Posen remained vacant, and only Posen continued bereft of its endowments. On the other hand the government allowed the three discretionary enactments that were in operation till April 1st, 1884, to lapse without providing for their renewal. Also the i^ro- posal for abolishing the Expatriation Law of November, 1884, intro- duced anew by the Centre and again adopted by the Reiclistag by a great majority, was thrown out by the Federal Council ; but in the beginning of December, on the oi)ening of the new Reichstag, it was again brought in by the Centre and passed, but was left quite un- noticed by the Federal Council. The repeated motions of the Centre for payment of the bishops' salaries from the state exchequer, as well as for immunity to thost; who read mass and dispensed the sacraments, were again thrown out by tlu^ Houses of Deputies in April, 1885.
12. Resumption on both sides of Conciliatory Measures, 1885-1886. — The next subject of negotiation with the curia, was the re-institution of the archiepiscopal see of Posen-Gnesen. In March, 188-1, the pope
328 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
liad nominated Cardinal Ledochowski secretary of the committee on petitions* in which capacity he had to remain in Rome. He now declared himself willing to accept Ledochowski's resignation of the archbishopric if the Prussian govermnent would allow a successor who would possess the confidence of the holy see as well as of the Polish inhabitants of the diocese. But of the tlu'ee noble Polish chauvinists submitted by the Vatican the government could accept none. Since further no agreement could be reached on the question of the bishop's obligation to make notification and the state's right to protest, the negotiations were for a long time at a standstill, and were repeatedly on the point of being broken off. But from tlie middle of 1885, a con- ciliatory movement gained power, through the counsels of the more moderate party among the cardinals. Archbishop Melchers, who lived as an exile in Maestricht, was called to Rome, and as a reward for his assistance was made cardinal, and the pope consecrated as his successor in the archbishopric of Cologne, Bishop Krementz of Erme- land (Par. 2), who also was acknowledged by the Prussian govern- ment and introduced to Cologne on December 15th, 1885, with great pomp, with 20,000 torches and twenty bands of music. After a long list of candidates had been set aside by one side and the other, some here, some tliere, the pope at last fell from his demand for one of Polish nationality, and in March, 1886, appointed to the vacant see Julius Binder, dean of Konigsberg, a German by nation but speaking the Polish language. — Meanwhile at other points advance was made in the i^eaceful, yea, even friendly, relations between the pope and the Prussian government. The diplomatist Leo showed his admiring regard for the diplomatist Bismarck by sending him a valuable oil- painting of himself by a Munich master, and the latter astonished the world by making the pope umpire in a threatening conflict with Spain on the possession of the Caroline islands. His decision on the main question was indeed in favour of Spain, but not unimportant concessions were also made to Germany. The pope sent the prince two Latin poems as ])retium offeciio7iis, and conferred upon him, the first Protestant that had ever been so honoured, at the close of 1885 or beginning of 1886, the highest papal order, the insignia of the Order of Christ, with brilliants, after the cardinal secretary of state Jacobini as president of the i)apal court of arbitration had been re- warded with the Prussian order of the Black Eagle, and the other members of the court with other high Prussian orders ; and at the end of April, 188(), the German emperor sent the pope himself tlianks for his mediation, with an artistic and costly Pectoral (§ 59, 7) worth 10,000 marks. — Tlie government had, meanwhile, on February 15th, 1886, brought in a msw ])rop()salof revision of cluircli jjolity, the fourth, and in order to secure the advice of a distinguished representative of the
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 329
Prussian episcopate, called Bishop Ivopp of Fulrla to the House of Peers. But as his demands for concessions, suggested to Mm, not by the pope, but by the Centre, went far beyond what was proposed, they were for the most part decidedly opposed by the minister of worship and rejected by the house. The law confirmed by the king on May 24th, 1886, made the following changes : Complete abolition of the examination in general culture ; freeing of the seminaries recognised by the minister as suitable for clerical training, as well as faculties established in universities, seminaries and gjmmasia from any special state inspection (as laid down in the May Laws), and subjecting such to the common laws affecting all similar educational institutions Eemoval of restrictions requiring ecclesiastical disciplinary proce- dure to be only before German ecclesiastical courts ; Abolition of the Court for Ecclesiastical Affairs and transference of its functions partly to the ministry of worship, which now as court of appeal in matters of church discipline dealt only with those cases which entailed a loss or reduction of official income, partly to the Berlin supreme court, which has jurisdiction in case of a breach of the law of the state by a church officer as well as in case of a refusal to fulfil the oath of obedi- ence ; The discretionary enactments of the government of 1880 (Par. 10) are again enforced and the modifications of these in Article 6 of that law are extended to all other institutions engaged on the home propaganda ; All reading of private masses and dispensing of sacra- ments are no longer subjected to the infliction of penalties. — Some weeks before royal sanction was given to this law, Cardinal Jacobini had, at the instance of the pope, expressed his profound satisfaction with the success of the advice in the House of Peers, as also par- ticularly at the prospect of other concessions promised by the govern- ment. In an official communication to the president of the House of Deputies, he proposed the addition that the notification of new appoint- ments to vacant pastorates should begin from that date. In August there followed, on the part of the government, the hitherto refused dispensation for those trained by the Jesuits in Eome and Innsbruck, and in November, with consent of the minister of public worship, the re-opening of the episcopal seminaries at Fulda and Treves.
13. Definitive Conclusion of Peace, 1887. — In February, 1887, the state journal published a new form of oath for the bishops, sanctioned by royal ordinance, in which the obligation hitherto enforced " to con- scientiously observe the laws of the state," was omitted, and the as- severation added, " that I have not, by the oath, taken to his Holiness the pope and the chiu'ch, undertaken any obligation which can be in conflict with the oath of fidelity as a subject of his Eoyal Majesty." — The promised fifth revision, meanwhile accepted by the pope in its saveral particulars and acknowledged by him as sufficient basis for a
330 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
definitive peace, was on February 13th, 1887, contrary to precedent, first laid before the House of Peers. Bishop Kopp proposed a great number of changes and additions, of which several of a very important natui-e were accepted. The most important provisions of this law, whicli was passed on April 29th, 1887, are the following : The obligation on bishops to make notification applies only to the conferring of a spiritual office for life, and the right of protest by the state must rely upon a basis named and belonging to the civil domain; Allstate compulsion to lifelong reinstatement in a vacant office is unlawful ; The previously insured immunity for reading mass and dispensing the sacraments is now applied to members of all spiritual orders again allowed in the kingdom; The duty of ecclesiastical superiors to communicate dis- ciplinary decisions to the Chief President is given up. Those orders and congregations which devote themselves to aiding in pastoral Avork, the administering of Christian benevolence, and, on Bishop Ivopp's motion, those which engage in educational AVork in girl's high schools and similar institutions, as well as those which lead a private life, ai'e to be allowed and are to be also restored to the enjoyment of their original possessions ; The training of missionaries for foreign Avork and the erection of institutions for this purpose are to be permitted to the privileged orders and congregations. — Bishop Kopp, and also the pope, with lively gratitude, accepted these ordinances as making the reconciliation an accomplished fact ; but they also expressed the hope that the success of this peaceful arrangement Avill be such as shall lead to further important concessions to the rightful claims of the Catholic church. After this conclusive revision, besides the extremely contracted obligation of notification by the bishops and the almost completely insignificant right of civil protest, there remain of the KuUurJcampf laws only: the KanzeJparafjrapli, the Jesuit and the exile enactments (all of them imperial and not Prussian laws), and the abrogation of the three articles of the Prussian constitution (Par. 8). Insignificant as the concessions of the papal curia may seem in com- parison to the almost comijlete surrender of the Prussian govermnent, it can hardly be said that Bismarck has been untrue to his promise not to go to Canossa. With him the main thing ever was to restore within the German empire the peace that was threatened by thunder- clouds gathering from day to day in the political horizon in east and west, and thus, as also by nurturing and developing the military forces, to set aside the danger of war from without. But for this end, the sovereignty of tlie Centre, which hampered him on every side, allying itself with all elements in the Chamber and Reichstag hostile to the government and the empire, must be broken. But this was possible only if he sucwunled in breaking U]) th(! nuliallowed artificial amalgamation of Catholic church interests for which the; Centre con-
§ 197. KULTURKAMPF IN THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 331
tended with the political tendencies of the party hostile to the empire, by recognising those interests in a manner satisfactory to the pope and to all right-minded loyal German Catholics, and so estranging them from tlie political schemes of the leader of the Centre. This indeed Avould have scai'cely been possible with Pius IX., but with the much clearer and sharper Leo XIII. there was hope of success. And the statesmanlike insight and self-denial of the prince succeeded, though at first only in a limited measui'e, and this was a much more important gain for the state than the pajial concessions of episcopal notification and the state's right of protest. — When in the beginning of 1887, at the same time that the fear was gi-eatest of a war with France and Russia, the renewal and enlargement of the military budget, hitherto for seven years, was necessary, and its I'efusal by the Centre and its adherents Avas regarded as certain, Bismarck prevailed on the pope to intervene in his favour. The pope did it in a confiden- tial conununication to the president of the Centre, in which he urged acceptance of the septennial act in the Reichstag for the security of the Fatherland and the conserving of peace on the continent, expressly referring to the friendly and promising attitude of the imperial government to the papacy and the Catholic church. But the pi'esident kept the communication secret from the members of his party, and they continued streniiously and unanimously opposed to the Septennate. The Reichstag was consequently dissolved. The pope now published his correspondence with the leaders of the Centre, thirty -seven Rhenish nobles separated from the party, and the new elections to the Reichstag were mainly favourable to the government. Although the Deputy Windthorst as chief leader of the Prussian Ecclenia militans had on every occasion protested his and his party's ijrofoundest reverence for and conditional submission to every expression of the papal will, and shortly before (§ 186, 3) had styled the pope "Lord of the whole world," he opposed himself, as he had done on the Septennate question, on the fifth revision of the ecclesiastical laws, to the will of the infalli- ble pojje by publishing a memorial proving the absolute impossibility of accepting this proposed law, Avhich, however, this time also he failed to cany out.
14. Independent Procedure of the other German Governments. — (1) Bavaria's energy in the struggle against ultramontanism (Par. 4) soon cooled. Yet in 1873 the Redemptorists were instructed to discontinue their missionary work (§ 18G, 6), and all theological students were forbidden to attend the Jesuit German College at Rome (§ 151, 1). Also in 1875, the jubilee i)rocessions organized by the episcopate without obtaining the roj^al Placet were inhibited.— (2) Wurttemberg, which since lS(i2 possessed more civil jurisdiction over Catholic church aifairs and exercised it more freely (§ l!Hi, G) than Prussia laid claim
332 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
to in 1873, could all tho more easily maintain ecclesiastical jx'ace, since its peaceful Bishop Hefelo (§ IH!), 8, 4; lf»l, 7) avoided all occasion of conflict and strife. — (3) In Baden the Knlturlcampf that had here previonslj' broken out (§ 196, 2) was continued all the more keenl}'. In 1873 public teaching, holding of missions and assisting in pastoral work, had been refused to all i-eligious orders and fra- ternities. But the main blow, followed by the comprehensive chiu'ch legislation of February 19th, 1874, which closed all boj'^s' seminaries and episcopal institutions, allowed none to hold a clerical office or discharge any ecclesiastical function without a three j'ears' course at a German university and a state examination in general culture (§ 196, 2), strictly forbad all influencing of public elections by the clergy, and made dcjiosition follow the second conviction of a church officer. The expedient hitherto resorted to of appointing mere deputy priests so as to avoid the examination, was consequently frustrated. The rapid increase of vacant pastorates, after five years' opposition, at last moved the episcopal curia to sue for peace at the hands of the govermnent, and when the latter showed an exceedingly conciliatory spirit, the curia with consent of the pope in February, 1880, withdrew its i^rohibition of the request for dispensation from the state examina- tion, and the government now on its part with the Chambers passed a law, by which the obligation to undergo this examination was abolished, and the certificate of the exit examination, three years' attendance at a German university, and diligent attention to at least three coui-ses of the philosophical faculty, was held as sufficient evidence of general culture. The Baden Knlturlcampf seems to have been definitely concluded by the election and recognition of Dr. Oi'bin to the see of Freiburg, vacant for fourteen years, when he. without scruple took tlie oath of allegiance. This, however, did not check, far less put an end to the tumults of the fanatical ultramontane Irredenta. 15. — (4) Hesse-Darmstadt in 1874 followed the example of Prussia and Baden in excluding all spiritual orders from teaching in public schools, and on April 23rd, 1875, issued five ecclesiastical laws which were directed to restoring under penal sanctions the state of the law, which before 1850 (§ 196, 4) had been unquestioned. Essentially in harmony with the Prussian May Laws of 1873 and 1874, they go beyond these in sevei'al particulars. Allcl<!rg3anen receiving ajjpoint- ments, e.rj., must have gone through a full university course ; all religious orders and congi'egations wen; to be allowed to die out; jmblic roads and si[uares could be used for ecclesiastical festivals only by pf;i-mission of the; govennncjnt to be renewed on each occasion. The " contentious " Bishop Ketteler of Mainz, who stirred up the fire to the utmost with the Prussian brand, and had kindled also a similar flame in Hesse over the proposal of this law, held still that to view
§ 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 333
martyrdom at a distance was the better part, and carefulh^ avoided any overt act of disobedience. But he immediately refused to co- operate in restoring the Catholic theological faculty at Giessen, and the government consequently abandoned the idea. The Mainz see after Ketteler's death in 1877 remained long vacant, as the goveriunent felt obliged to reject the electoral list submitted by the chapter, A candi- date satisfactory to the "Vatican and the goveriunent was onl3'- found in Maj'', 1886, in the j^erson of Dr. HafFner, a member of the chapter. After Prussia had concluded its defhiitive peace with E.ome, the Hessian government, in May, 1887, laid before the house of representatives a revision of ecclesiastical legislation of 1875, like that of Prussia, onlj"- not going so far, for which meanwhile the approval of the papal ciu'ia had been obtained. It agrees to the erection of a Catholic clerical seminary, and Catholic students' residences in this seminary and in the state-gymnasia ; erection of independent boys' institutions prepara- tory to the seminary for priests is, howeve-r, still refused ; the existing duty of bishops to make notification, and the right of the state to ])rotest in regai'd to appointments to vacant pastorates are also retained. There is no word of rehabilitating religious orders and congregations, nor of any limitation of the law about the exercise of ecclesiastical punishment and means of discipline. — (5) Last of all among the German states affected by the Kultitrkamj}/, the kingdom of Saxony, with only 73,000 Catholic inhabitants, at the instance of the second Chamber in 1876, came forward with a Catholic church law modelled upon the Prussian May Laws, with its several provisions modified, in spite of the contention of the talented heir to the throne, Prince George, that the power of the state in relation to the Catholic church could only be determined by a concordat with the Roman curia.
§ 198. Austria-Hungary.
To tlio emperor of Austria there was left, after tlie re- organization of affairs by the Vienna Congress, of the Roman empire, only the name of defender of the papal see, and the Catholic church, and the presidency of the German Federal Council. The remnants of the Josephine ecclesiastical con- stitution were gradually set aside and Catholicism firmly established as the state religion; yet the government asserted its independence against all hierarchical claims, and granted, though onl)' in a very limited degree, tolera- tion to Protestantism. The revolution year 1818 removed
834 onuRcn history of nineteenth century.
indeed some of these limits, but the period of reaction that followed gave, by means of a concordat concluded with the curia in 1855, to the ultramontane hierarchy of the country an unprecedented power in almost all departments of civil life, and prejudicial also to the interests of the Protestant church. After the disastrous issue of the Italian war in 1859, and still more that of the German war in 186G, the government was obliged to make an honest effort to in- troduce and develop liberal institutions. And after an imperial patent of 1861 had secured religious liberty, self- administration, and equal rights to the Protestant church, the constitutional legislation of 18G8 freed Catholic as well as Protestant civil, educational, and ecclesiastical matters from the provisions of the concordat that most seriously threatened them, and by the declaration of papal infallibility in 1870 the government felt justified in regarding the entire concordat as antiquated and declaring it abolished. In its place a Catholic church act was passed by the state in 1874. But the Kultiirkamj)/ strugglQ which was thus made immi- nent also for Austria was avoided by pliancy on both sides.
1, The Zillerthal Emigration.— In the Tyrolese Zillerthal the know- ledge of evangelical tnith had spread among several families by means of Protestant books and Bibles. When the Catholic clergy from 1826 had pushed to its utmost the clerical guardianship by means of auricular confession, an opposition arose which soon from the refusal to confess passed on to the rejection of saint worship, masses for the dead, purgatory, indulgences, etc., and ended in the formal secession of many to the evangelical church in 1H30, with a reference to the Josephine edict of toleration. The emperor Francis I., to whom on the occasion of his visit to Innsbruck in 1832 they presented their petition, promised them toleration. But the Tyrolese nobles protested, and the official decision, given at last in 1834, ordered ri^moval to Transylvania or return to the Catholic church. The petitioners now applied, as those of Salzburg had previously done (§ 165, 4), by a deputation to the king of Prussia, who, aft<3r by diplomatic communi- cations securing the emperor's consent to emigration, assigned them liis estate of Erdmannsdorf in Silesia for colonization. There now the
§ 198. AUSTRIA-HrNGAEY. 3R5
exiles, 399 in number, settipcl in 1837, and, largely aided by the royal rannififence, founded a new Zillerthal.
2, The Concordat After the revolution year 1848, the government
were far more yielding toward the claims of the hierarchy than under the old Metternich regime. In Ajoril, 1850, an imperial patent relieved the papal and episcopal decrees of the necessity of imperial approval, and on August 18th, 1855, a concordat with the pope was agreed to, by Avhich unprecedented power and independence was granted to the hierarchy in Austria for all time to come. The first article secured to the Roman Catholic religion throughout the empire all rights and privileges which they claimed by divine institution and the canon law. The others gave to the bishops the right of unrestricted corres- pondence with Rome, declared that no papal ordinance required any longer the royal placet, that prelates are unfettered in the discharge of their hierarchical obligations, that religious instx'uction in all schools is under their supervision, that no one can teach religion or theology without their approval, that in catholic schools there can bo only catholic teachers, that they have the right of foi'bidding all books which may be injurious to the faithful, that all cases of ecclesi- astical law, especially marriage matters, belong to their jurisdiction, yet the apostolic see grants that purely secular law matters of the clergy are to be decided before a civil tribunal, and the empex'or's right of nomination to vacant episcopal sees is to continue, etc. The inferior clergy, who were now without legal protection against the prelates, only reluctantly bowed their necks to this hard yoke ; the liberal Catholic laity miu'mured, sneeretl, and raged, and the native press incessantly urged a revision of the concordat, the necessity of which became ever more apparent from concessions made meanwhile willingly or grudgingly to the " Non-Catholics." But only after Austria, by the issue of the German war of 1866, was restricted to her own domain, and finally fi-eed from the drag of its ultramontane Italian interests, found herself obliged to make every effort to re- concile the opposing parties within her own territories, could these views prove successful. But since the government nevertheless held firmly by the principle that the concordat, as a state contract regularly concluded between two sovereigns, could be changed only by mutual consent, the liberal majority of the house of deputies resolved to make it as harmless as possible by means of domestic legislation, and on June 11th, 1867, the deputy Herbst moved the appointment of a committee for drawing up three bills for restoring civil marriage, emancipation of schools from the church, and equality of all con- fessions in the eye of the law. The motion was carried by a hundred and thirty-four votes against twenty-two. The Cisleithan (i.e. Austrian excluding Hungary) episcopate, with Cardinal Rauscher of
836 CHUECH HISTOEY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Vienna at their Jiead, presented an address to his apostolic majestj' demanding the most rigid preservation of the concordat, denouncing civil marriage as concubinage, and the emancipation of schools as their dechristianizing. An imperial autograph letter to Eauscher rebuked with earnest words the inflammatory proceedings of the bishops, and at the same time the ultramontane ambassador to E-ome, Baron Hiibner, was recalled. After the arrangement with Hungary was completed, the first Cisleithan, the so-called Burger, ministiy Avas constituted luider the presidency of Prince Auersperg, composed of the most distinguished leaders of the jDarliamentary majority. All the thi'ee bills were passed by a large majority, and obtained imperial sanction on May 25tli, 1868. The papal nuncio of Vienna protested, the pope in an allocution denounced the new Austrian constitution as nefanda sane and the three confessional laws as ahominahihs lecjes, "We repudiate and condemn these laws," he says, "by apostolic authority, as well as everything done by the Austrian government in matters of church policy, and determine in the exercise of the same authority that these decrees with all their consequences are and shall be null and void." But all Vienna, all Austria held jubilee, and the Chancellor von Beust rejected with energy the assumptions of the curia over the civil domain. The bishops indeed issued protests and inflammatory pastorals, and forbad the publication of the marriage act, but submitted to the threats of compulsion by the supreme court, and Bishop Eudigier of Linz, who went furthest in inciting to opposi- tion, was in 1869 taken into court by the police, and sentenced to twelve days' imprisonment, but pardoned by the emperor. Toward the Vatican Covaicil Austria assumed at first a waiting policy, then in vain remonstrated, warned, threatened, and finally, on July 30th, 1870, after the proclajnation of infallibility, declared that the con- cordat was antiquated and abolished, because by this dogma the jjosition of one of the contracting parties had undergone a complete change.
3. The Protestant Church in Cisleithan Austria. — Down to 1848 Pro- testantism of Ix^th (ionfcssions in Austria enjoyed only a very limited toleration. The storms of this year first set aside the hated official name of " Non-Catholics," and won permission for Protestant places of worship to have bells and towers. But the repeated petitions for permission to found branches of the Gustavus Adoljjhus Unioti, the persistently maintained law that Catholic clergymen, even after they had formally become Protestants, could not marry, because the character indelibilin of priestly consecration attached itself even to apostates, and many such facts, prove that the govermnent was far from intending to grant to the Protestants civil equality with the Catholics, But the unfortunate result of the Sardinian-Fiench war
§ 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 337
of 1859, and the fear thereby increased of the falling asunder of the whole Austrian federation, induced the government to address itself earnestly to the introduction of liberal institutions, and also to do justice to the Protestant church. The presidency of the two Pro- testant consistories in Vienna, hitherto given to a Catholic, was now assigned to a Protestant ; meetings of the Gustavus Adolphus Union were now allowed, and a share was given to the Protestant party in the ministry of public worship by the appointment of three evan- gelical councillors. After the entrance on office of the liberal minister Von Schmerling, an imperial patent was issued on April 8th, 1864, by which unrestricted liberty of faith, independent administration of all ecclesiastical, educational, and charitable matters, free election of pastors, even from abroad, full exercise of civil and political rights, and complete equality with Catholics was given to the Protestants of the German and Slavonian crown territories. Also in 1868, under the reactionary ministry of Belcredi, on the expiry of the legal term of the Evangelical Supreme Chtu'cli Council, it was reorganized, two evangelical school councillorships were created, and the pecuniary position of the evangelical clergy considerably improved. But in spite of all privilpges legally' granted to the evangelical church, it continued in many cases, in presence of the concordat, which down to 1870 still remained in force, exposed to the whims and caprice, sometimes of the imperial courts, sometimes of the Catholic clergy.
4. The Clerical Landtag Opposition in the Tyrol. — In the Tyrol, after the publication of the imperial patent of April, 1861, a violent move- ment was set on foot by clerical agitation. The Landtag, by a "reat majority, pronounced the issuing of it the most serious calamity which the countrj^, hitherto honest, true, and happy in its undivided attach- ment to the Catholic faith, could have suffered, and concluded that Non-Catholics in the T^'rol should only by way of dispensation be allowed, but that publicity of Protestant worship and formation of Protestant congregations should be still forbidden. The Schmerlino- ministry, indeed, refused to confii-m these resolutions. The agitation of the clergy, however, which fanned in all possible ways the fanaticism of the people, grew from year to year, until at last the Belcredi ministry of 1866 came to an agreement with the Landtag, sanctioned by the emperor, according to -which the creation of an evan<^elical landed proprietary in the Tj-rol was not indeed formally forbidden but permission for an evangelical to possess land had in each case to be obtained from the Landtag. The ecclesiastical laws of 1868 next called forth new conflicts. Twice was the Landtag closed because of the opposition thus awakimcd, until finally in September, 1870 the estates took the oath to the new constitution with reservation of conscience. But now, ^\'hen in December, 1875, the ministry of
VOL. III. 2 2
338 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
worship gave approval to the formal coiistitiitiiig of two evangelical congregations in the Tyrol, at Innsbri'u;k and Meran, the clerical press -was filled with burning denunciations, and the majority of th(; Landtag meeting in the following March thought to give emphasis to their protest by leaving the chamber, and so bringing the assembly to a sudden close. In June, 1880, the three bishops of the Tyrol uttered in the Landtag a fanatical protest against the continuance of the meanwhile established congi'egations, which the Landtag majority renewed in July, 1883.
5. The Austrian Universities. — Stremayr, minister of ptiblic worshi]?, introduced in 1872 a scheme of university reorganization, by Avhich the exclusively Catholic character which had hitherto belonged to the Austrian universities, especially those of Vienna and Prague, should be removed. Up to this time a Non-Catholic could there obtain no sort of academical degree, but this was now to be obtain- able apart from any question of confession. The office of chancellor, held by the archbishops of Prague and Vienna, was restricted to the theological faculty, to the state was assigned the right of nominating all professors, even in the theological faculty, and the German lan- guage was recommended as the medium of instruction. Candidates of theology have to pass through a full and comprehensive course of theological science in a three years' university curriculum, before they can be admitted into an episcopal seminary for practical train- ing. In spite of the opposition of the superior clergy, the bill passed even in the House of Peers, and became law in 1873.— In Innsbruck, where according to ancient custom the rector was chosen from the four faculties in succession, the other faculties protested against the election when, in 1872, the turn came to the theological (Jesuit) faculty, and they carried their point. The new organization la-vV gav(! the choice of rector to the whole jirofcssoriate, and a subsequent imperial order withdrew from the general of the Jesuits the riglit of nominating all theological professors. — Much was done, too, for thi' elevation of the evangelical theological faculty in Vienna by bringing able scholars from Germany, by giving a right to the promotion to the degree of doctor of theology, etc. But its incorporation in the university, though often moved for, was hindered by the continued Oi)position of the Catholic theologians as well as philosophers, and in 1873 it did not meet with sufficient supjjort in the House of P(!ersi Even the use of certain halls in the university buildings, promised by the minister, could not yet be obtained.
6. The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, 1874 1876. — At last the govern- ment in January, 1874, introduced the long -promised Catholic church len-islation into the Reichstag, intended to supply blanks occasioned by the setting aside of the concordati Its main contents are these :
§ 198. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 339
I. The concordat, hitherto only diplomatically dealt with, is now legislatively annulled; the bishops have to present all their mani- festoes not before but uixjn publication to the state government for its cognisance ; every vacancy of an ecclesiastical office, as well as every neAv appointment to such, is to be notified to the civil court, which can raise objections against such appointment within thirty days ; the minister of worship then decides on the admissibility or inadmissibility of the candidate ; legal deposition of a church officer involves withdrawal of the emoluments ; the performance of unusual practices in public worship of a demonstrative character can be prohibited by the civil court ; any misuse of ecclesiastical authority in restraining any one from obeying the laws of the land or from exercising his civil rights is strictly interdicti^d. II. The ecclesiastical revenues and the income of the cloisters are subjected to a progressive taxation on behalf of a religious fund, mainly for improving the condition of the lower clergy, for which tlie episcopate hitherto, in spite of all entreaties, had done practically nothing. III. Newly formed religious societies received state recognition if their denomina- tion and principles contain nothing contrary to law and morality or offensive to those of another faith. IV. The state grants or refuses its approval of the establishment of spiritual orders, congregations, and ecclesiastical societies ; institutions and legacies for them amounting to over three thousand gulden require state sanction ; any member is free to quit any order ; all orders must report annually on the personal changes and disciplinary punishments that have taken place; at any time when occasion calls for it they may be subjected to a visitation by the civil court. •— In vain did the pope by an encyclical seek to rouse the episcopate to violent opposition, in vain did he adjure the emperor in a letter in his own hand not to suffer the church to be put into such disgraceful bondage ; the House of Deputies approved the four bills, and the emperor in May, 1874, confirmed at least the first three, while the fourth was being debated in the House of Peers. The bishops now issued a joint declaration that they could obey these laws only in so far as they " were in harmony with the demands of justice as stated in the concordat." But it did not go to the length
1 The Austrian May Laws were in some respects more sweeping than the Prussian (§ 197, 5) ; but the former were framed with refer- ence to the police, the latter with reference to the law. In Prussia the decision, judgment, and sentence in all cases of contravention and collision were assigned to the court of law ; in Austria they were assigned to the court of administration, in the last instance to the minister. The Austrian laws could thus be urged and ignored at pleasure.
340 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of actual conflict. Neither to the pope and episcopate, nor to the government was such a thing convenient at the time. Hence the attitude of reserve on both sides, which kept everything as it had been. And when notwithstanding Bishop Kudigier of Linz, threat- ened with fines on account of liis refusal to notify the newly appointed priests, appealed to the pope, he obtained through the Vienna nuncio permission to yield on this point, " non dissentit tolerari posset But all the more urgently did the nnncio strive to prevent the passing of the sweeping cloister law. In January, 1876, it was passed in the House of Peers with modifications, to which, however, the emperor refused his assent. Also the I'evised marriage law of the same date, which removed the hindrances to marriage incorporated even in the book of civil law, and no longer recognised differences of religion. Christians and non-Christians, the remarriage of separated parties of whom at the time of the first marriage only one party belonged to the Catholic church, higher consecration and the vows of orders, did not pass the House of Peers.
7. The Protestant Church in the Transleithan Provinces. — In Hungary since 1833 the Eeiclistag had by bold action won for the Protestants full equality with the Catliolics, but in consequence of the revolution, the military lordship of the Protestant Hajaian in 1850 again put in fetters all independent life in both Protestant churches. TheHaynaii decree was, indeed, again abrogated in 1854, but full return to the earlier aiitonomy of the church, in spite of all petitions and deputa- tions, could never be regained, all the less as Hungary in all too decided a manner i-ejected the constitutional proposals submitted by the Govermnent in 1856. The liberal imperial patent of September 1st, 1859, which secvired independent administration and development to the Protestant church in the crown possessions of Hungary, got no better reception. In the German-Slavonian districts of North Hungary, as well as in Croatia, Slavonia, and Austrian Servia, it was greeted with jubilation and gratitude, but the Magyar Hungarians declined on many, for the most part frivolous, grounds, mainly because it emanated from the emperor, and did not originate in an autono- mous synod. When the government showed its intention of going forward with it, the opposition was carried to the utmost extreme, so that the emperor was obliged temporarily to suspend proceedings in May, 1860. Still the ecch^siastical joined with the political movement continued to increase until in 1867 the imperial chancellor. Von Beust, succeeded in quieting both for a time by the Hungarian Agreement. On June 8th of that year, the emperor, Francis Joseph, on ratifying the agreement, was solemnly crowned King of Hungai-y. The hated patent had been shortly before revoked by an imperial edict, with the direction to order church matters in a constitutional way. After a
§ 199. SWITZERLAND. 341
complete reconciliation, at a General Protestant Convention in Decem- ber, 1867, Avitli the Patent congregations, hitherto denounced as unijatriotic, it was concluded that to the state belonged only a right of protection and oversight of the church, which is autonomous in all its internal affairs, but to all confessions perfect freedom in law, and that there should be not a separate religious legislation for each, but a common one for all confessions. A committee first appointed in 1873 for this purpose, Avith the motto, "A Free Church in a Free State," constituted, and then adjourned ad kalendas Grcecas.
§ 190. Switzerland.
The Catholic church of Switzerland, after long continued troiibles, obtained again a regular hierarchical organization in 1828. Since that time the Jesuits settled there in crowds, and assumed to themselves in most of the Catholic cantons the whole direction of church and schools. The unfortu- nate issue of the cantonal war of 1847 led indeed to their banishment by la-\v, but, favoured by the bishops, they knew how still to re-enter by back doors and secretly to regain their earlier influence. The city of Calvin was the centre of their plots, not onl}^ for Switzerland, but also for all Cisalpine Europe, until at last the overstrained bow broke, and the Swiss governments became the most decided and uncompromising opponents of the ultramontane claims. In 1873 the papal nuncio, in consequence of a papal encyclical insulting the government, was banished. — In Protestant Switzerland, besides the destructive influence of the Illu- mination, antagonistic to the church, and radical liberalism, there appeared a soil receptive of pietism, separatism, and fanaticism, whose first cultivation has been ascribed to Madame Kriidener (§ 176, 2). In the Protestant church of German Switzerland the religious and theological develop- ments stood regularly in lively connexion with similar movements in Germany, while those in the French cantons received their impulse and support from Prance and Eng- land. From France, to which they were allied b}^ a common
342 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
language, they learned the unbelief of the encyclopsBdists (§ 165, 14), while travelling Englishmen and those residing in the country for a longer period introduced the fervour and superstition of Methodism and other sects.
1. The Catholic Church in Switzerland till 1870.— The ecclesiastical sxiperintendence of Catholic Switzerland Avas previously subject to the neighbouring foreign bishoprics. But for immediate preservation of its interests the curia had appointed a nunciature at Lucerne in 1588. When now, in 1814, the liberal Wessenberg (§ 187, 3), already long suspected of heresy, was called as coadjutor to Constance, the nuncio manoeuvred with the Catholic confederates till these petitioned the pope for the establishment of an independent and national bishopric. But when each of the cantons interested claimed to be made the episcojial residence negotiations were at last suspended, and in 1828 six small bishoprics were erected under immediate control of Rome. At the end of 1833 the diocesan representatives of Basel and St, Gall assembled in Baden to consult about the restoration of a national Swiss Metropolitan Union and a common state church constitution for securing church and state against the encroachments of the Romish hierarchy. But Gregory XIV. condemned the articles of conference here agreed upon, which would have given to Switzerland only what other states had long possessed, as false, audacious, and erroneous, destructive of the church, heretical, and schismatic, and among the Catholic people a revolt was stirred up by ultramontane fanaticism, under the influence of which the whole action was soon frustrated. On the occasion of a revision of the constitution of the canton of Aargau, a revolt, led by the cloisters, broke out in 1841. B\it the rebels were defeated, and the grand council resolved xipon the closing of all cloisters, eight in number. Complaint made against this at the diet was regarded as satisfied by the Aargau Agreement of 1843 restoring three nunneries. An opposition was organized against the revision of the constitution of Canton Lucerne in 1841. The liberal government was overthrown, and the new constitution, in which the state insisted on its placet in ecclesiastical matters and the granting of cantonal civil rights to those only who professed attachment to the Roman Catholic church, was submitted to the pope for ajiproval. At last, in 1844, the academy of Liu'crne was given over to tlie .Jesuits, for which Joseph Leu, the jxijiular agitator, as member of the grand council, had wrouglit unweariedly since 18<}9. In Canton Vaud the parties of old or clerical and young Switzc>rland contended with one another for the mastery. The latter suffered an utter defeat in 1844, ^nd the constitution which was then carried allowed the right of
§ 199. SWITZERLAND. 343
public worship only to tlie Catholic chvirch. In consequence of this victory of the clerical party Catholic Switzerland with Lucerne at its head became a main centre of ultramontanism and Jesuitism. At the diet of 1844, indeed, Aargau, supported by numerous petitions fi'om the people, moved for the banishment of all Jesuits from all Switzerland, but the majority did not consent. The Jesuit opponents expelled from Lucerne now organized twice over a free volunteer corps to overthrow the ultramontane government and force the expulsion of the Jesuits, but on both occasions, in 1844 and 1845, it suffered a sore defeat. In face of the threateningly growing increase of the excitement, which made them fear a decisive intervention of the diet, the Catholic cantons formed in 1845 a separate league (Soiiderbuvd) for the preservation of their faith and their sovereign rights. This proceeding, irreconcilable with the Act of Federation, led to a civil war. The members of the Sonderbuncl were defeated, the ultramontane governments had to resign, and the Jesuits departed in 1847. The new Federal constitution which Switzerland adopted in 1848, secured unconditional liberty of conscience and equality of all confessions, and the expulsion of the Jesuits in terms of the law. But since that time ultramontanism has gained the supremacy in Catholic Switzer- land, and in spite of the existing law against the Jesuits all the threads of the ultramontane clerical movements in Switzerland were in the Jesuits' hands. These were never more successful than in Canton Geneva, where the radical democratic agitator Fazy leagued himself closely with viltramontanism to compass the destruction of the old Calvinistic aristocracy, and by bringing in large numbers the lower class Catholics from the neighbouring France and Savoy he obtained a considerable Catholic majority in the canton, and in the capital itself made Catholics and Protestants nearly equal.
2. The Geneva Conflict, 1870-1883.— The Catholic chui-ch of Canton Geneva, on the founding of the six Swiss bishoprics by a papal bull, had been incorporated " for all time to come," after the style of the concordat, with the bishopric of Freiburg-Lausanne. But the govern- ment made no objection when the newly elected priest of Geneva, Mermillod, a Jesuit of the purest water, assumed the title and rank of an episcopal vicar-general for the whole canton. But when in 1864 the pope nominated him bishop of Hebron iw partihus and auxiliary bishop of Geneva, it made a protest. Nevertheless, when, in the follow- ing year. Bishop Marilley of Freiburg by papal orders transferred to him absolute power for the canton -with jjersonal responsibility, and in 1870 formally renounced all episcopal rights over it, so that the pope now appointed the auxiliary bishop independent bishop of Geneva, it was evident a step had been taken that could not be recalled. The government renewed its protest and made it more vehement, in conse-
344 CHI^RCn HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.
quonoo of ^\ilicll, in January, 1.S73, by a papal brii'f whicli was first oflfic'ially commnnicatecl to th(! govcnnnent after it hail already been proclaimed from all Catholic pulpits, Mermillod Avas appointed apostolic vicar-general -with unlimited authority for Canton Geneva, and the district was thus practically made a Catliolic mission field. A demand made of him by the state to resign this office and title and divest himself of every episcopal function, was answered by the declaration that he would obey God rather than man. The Btmd then expelled him from Federal territory until he would yield to that demand. From Ferney, where he settled, he unceasingly stirred up the fire of opposition among the Genevan clergy and people, but the government decidedly rejected all protests, and by a popular vote ob- tained sanction for a Catholic church law which restricted the rights of tlie diocesan bishop who might reside in Switzerland, but not in Canton Geneva, and witljout consent of the government could not ap- point there any episcopal vicar, and transferred the election of priests and priests' vicars to the congregations. The next elections returned Old Catholics, since the Roman Catholic population did not acknow- ledge the law condemned by the pope and took no part in the voting. By decision of the grand council of 1875 the abolition of all religious corporations was next enacted, and all religious ceremonies and pro- cessions in public streets and squares forbidden. Leo XIII. made an attfimpt to still the conflict, for in 1879 he gave Bishop Marilley the asked for discharge, and confirmed his elected successor, Cosandry, as bishop of Freiburg, Lausanne, and Geneva, without however re- moving Mennillod from his office of vicar apostolic of Geneva. But this actually took place after the death of Cosandry in 1882 by the ajipointment of Mermillod as his successor in 1883. As he now ceased to style himself a vicar apostolic, the Federal council removed the decree of banishment as the occasion of it had ceased, but left each canton free as to whether or not it should accept him as bishop. Freiburg, Neuenburg, and Vaud accepted him, and Mermillod had a brilliant entry into Freiburg, which he made his episcopal residence. But Geneva refused to recognise him, because it had already officially attached itself to the Old Catholic Bishop Herzog of Berne, and Memnillod went so far in his ostentatious love of peace as to declare that he would not in future enter Genevan territory.
3. Conflict in the Diocese of Basel-Soleure, 1870 1880.— Bishop Lachat of Soleure, wliosc diocese comjiriscd tlic Cantons Bern, Soleure, Aar- gau, Basel, Thurgau, Lucerne, and Zug, had been previously in conflict with the diocesan conferenc(^, i.e. tlie delegates of the seven cantons entrusted with the oversight of the ecclesiastical administra- tion, on account of introducing the prohibited handbook on morals of the Jesuit Gury (§191, 9), which ended in the closing of the
§ 199. SWITZERLAND. 345
seminary aided by the government, and the erection of a new semi- nary at his own cost. Although the diocesan conference next forbad the proclamation of the new Vatican dogma, the bishop tlu-eatened excommunicated Egli in Lucerne in 1871, and Geschwind in Starr- kirch in 1872, who refused. The conference ordered the withdrawal of this unlawful act; and on the bishop's refusal, deposed liim in January, 1873. The dissenting cantons, Lucerne and Zug, indeed declared that after as Avell as before they would only recognise Lachat as lawful bishop, the chapter refused to make the required election of administrator of the diocese, the clerg3'' in Soleure and in Bernese Jura without exception took the side of the bishoj), as also by means of a jjopular vote the great majority of Catholics in Thurgau. But amid all this the conference did not yield in the least. Lachat was compelled by the police to quit his episcopal residence, and with- drew to a village in Canton Lucerne. The council of the Bernese government resolved to recall the refractory clergy of the Jura, took their names off the civil register and forbad them to exercise anj' clerical functions. The outbreaks incited by rebel clergy in the Jura were put down by the military, sixty-nine clergjaiien were exiled, and, so far as the means allowed, replaced by liberal successors introduced by the Old Catholic priest Herzog (§ 190, 3) in Olten. In November, 1875, permission to return home was granted to the exiles in conse- ({uence of the revised Federal constitution of 1874, according to which the banishment of Swiss burghers was no longer allowed. The Bernese government felt all the more disposed to carry out this enactment of tile National Council, as it believed that it had obtained the legal means for checking further rebellion and obstinacy among those who should return. On January, 1874, by pojjular vote a law was sanctioned reorganizing the whole ecclesiastical affairs of the Canton Bern. By it all clergy. Catholic as well as Protestant, are ranked as civil officers, the choice of whom rests with the congregations, the tenure of office lasting for six years. All purely ecclesiastical affairs for the canton rest in the last instance with a sjTiod of the particular denomination, for the several congregations with a church committee, both composed of freely elected lay and clerical members. But if a dispute in a ])articular congregation should arise about a synodal decree, the con- gregational assembly decides on its validity or non-validity for the l)articular congregation. All decrees of higher church courts and pastorals must have state approval, which must never be refused on tlogmatic grounds. If a congregation splits over any question, the majority claims the church property and pastor's emoluments, etc. And this law was next extended in October 31st, 1875, in the matter of penal law by the so-called Police Worship Law. It imposes heavy fines up to 1000 francs or a year's imprisonment for any clerical agi-
M46 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
tation against the law, institutions or enactments of the civil courts, as well as for every outbreak of hostilities against members of other religious bodies, refuses to allow any interfei-ence of foreign spiritual superiors without leave granted by government in each i)articular case, forbids all processions and religious ceremonies outsidii of the fixed ehurch locality, etc. In th(! sanu! year the first Catholic Can- tonal S3'nod declared its attachment to the Christian or Old Catholic church of Switzerland. But it was otherwise after the newly elected Grand Council of the canton of its own accord, on September 12th, 1878, granted the returned Jura clergy complete amnesty for all the past, and on the assumption of future submission to existing laws of state, recognised them again eligibh; for election to spiritual offices wliicli had previously been denied them. Not only did the Eomau Catholic people regularly take part in elections of priests, church councils, and sjniods, undoubtedly with the approval of the new pope Leo XIII., who had in February addressed a conciliatory letter to the members of the Federal Council, but also the extremest of the Jura now submitted without scruple to the new election required by the law, and won therein for the most part the majority of votes. In the Catholic Cantonal Synod convened in Bern, in January, 1880, were found seventy-five Roman Catholics and only twenty-five Old Catholic deputies. The latter were naturally defeated in all controversies, Tlie synod declared that the connexion with the Christian Catholic national bishopric was annulled, that auricvilar confession was obli-» gatory, that marriages of priests were forbidden, etc. Since now th© law assigns the state pay of the priest as well as all the church pro« Ijerty in the case of a split to the majority for the time beiitg, the inevitable consequence was that Old Catholics of the Jura district were deprived of all share in these i:)rivileges, and had to make pro- vision for their own support. Also in Canton Soleure, the law that all pastors must be re-elected after the expiry of six years, came in force in 1872, and then the thii-ty-two Roman Catholic ck-rgymen concerned were with only two exceptions re-elected, while, on the other hand, the Old Catholic priest Geschwind of Starrkirch was re- jected.— But all efforts to restore the bishopric of Basel-Soleure came to grief over the person of Bishop Lachat, whom the curia would not give up and the Federal Council would not again allow, until at last a way out of the difficulty was found. The canton Tessin, which previously in cluirch matU'rs belonged toth<i Italian dioceses of Milan and Como, was, in 1850, liy decree, of tlie Federal Council, detached from these. But Tessin insisted on the; founding of a bishopric of its own, while tlie Federal Coun(;il wislK'd to join it to th(! bisho|)rie of f!hur. Tims th(( matter remained undecided, till in Se)iteniber, 1881, the })apal curia came to an uuilt'i'standiiig with the Federal Coiuicil
§ 109. SWITZEELAND. ^^47
that Lachat should be appointed vicar-apostolic for the newly founded bishopric of Tessin, and that to the vacated bishopric of Basel-Soleure the " learned as well as mild " Provost Fiala of Soleure should be called. In this way all the cantons referred to, with the exception of Bern, were won.'
4. The Protestant Church in German Switzerland.— Among all the German cantons, Basel (§ 172, 5), which unwcariedly i^rosecuted the work of home and foreign missions, fell most completely under the influence of rationalism and then of the liberal Protestant theology. While pietism obtained powerful support and encourage- ment in its missionary institutions and movements, and there, though developing itself on Eeformed soil, assumed, in consequence of its manifold connection with Germany, a colour almost more Lutheran than Reformed, the university by eminent theological teachers of scientific ability represented the Mediation school in theology of a predominently Eeformed type. In the Canton Ziirich, on the other hand, the advanced theology, theoretical and practical, obtained an increasing and finally an almost exclusive mastery in the university and church. But yet, when in 1839 the Grand Council called Dr. David Strauss to a theological professorship, the Zurich people rose to a man against the proposal, the appointment was not enforced, the Grand Council was overthrown, and Strauss pensioned. The victory and ascendency of this reaction, however, was not of long contin- uance. Theological and ecclesiastical radicalism again won the upper hand and maintained it unchecked. In the other German cantons the most diverse theological schools were represented alongside of one another, yet with steadily increasing advantage to liberal and radical tendencies. The theological faculty at Bern favoured mainly a liberal mediation theology, and an attempt of the orthodox party in 1847, to set aside the appointment of Professor E. Zeller by means of a popular tumult, miscarried. From 1860 ecclesiastical liberalism ]irevailed in German Protestant Switzerland, frequently going the length of the extremest radicalism and showing its influence even in the cantonal and synodal legislation. The starting of the " Zeifstim- meti fib' d. ref. Si-hweiz" in 1859, by Henry Lang, who had fled in 1848 from Wiirttemberg to Switzerland, and died in 187G as pastor in Zurich, marked an epoch in the history of the radical liberal move- ment in Swiss theology. In Fred. Langhans, since 187(5 professor at Bern, he had a zealous comrade in the fight. During 18()4-18()G, Langhans published a series of violent controversial tracts against the pietistic orthodox partj^ in Switzerland, which zealously prose- cuted foreign missions, and in 18GG he founded the Su'iss Beform
» Geffcken, "Church and State," voh ii., pp. 4G9-488,
348 CHURCH HTSTOrtY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Union, Avliilo Alb. Bitziui?, son of tlio ^\•ritc'l• known as Jor. Gotthelf (§ 174, 8) started as its organ tlie " BcformhUitter aun d. hernischen Kircfie,^^ Avhich was subsequently amalgamated with the ZcUsthnmem — After more or less violent conflicts Avith pietistic orthodoxy, still alwaj-s pretty strongly represented, especially in the aristocracy, the emancipation of the schools from the church and the introduction of obligatory civil marriage w^ere accomplished in most cantons, even before the revised Federal constitution of 1874 and the marriage law of 1875 gave to these principles legal sanction throughout the whole of Switzerland. In almost all Protestant cantons the re-election or new election io all spiritual ofllces eveiy six years was ordained by law. in many the fre>eing of the clergy from any creed subscrijition with the setting aside of confessional writings as well as of the orthodox liturgy, hymnbooks and catechisms was also carried, and the withdrawing of the Apostles' Creed from public worship and from the baptismal formula was enjoined. The Basel sjTiod in 1883, by thirt3''-six to twenty -seven votes, carried the motion to make baptism no longer a condition of confirmation ; and although the Zurich SA'uod in 1882 still held baptism obligator3^ for membership in the national church, the Cantonal Council in 1883, on consulting the law of the church, overturned this decision by 140 against 19 votes.
5. The Protestant Church in French Switzerland. — The French philo- sophy of the eighteenth century had given to the Eeformed church of Geneva a prevailingly rationalistic tendency. Notwithstanding, or just because of this, Madame Kriidener, in 1814, with her conventicle pietism, found an entrance there, and won in the young theologian Empaytaz a zealous supporter and an apostle of conversion preaching. In the next year a wealthy Englishman, Haldane, appeared there as th(! apostle of methodistic piety, and insjiired the young i)astor Malan with enthusiasm for the revival mission. Empaytaz and Malan now by speech and writing charged the national church with defection from the Christian faith, and won many zealous believers, as adherents, especially among students of theology. The Vdndrable Cnvijxifjnie of the Geneva clergy, hitherto resting on its lees in rationalistic quiet, now in 1817 thought it might still the rising storm by demanding of theological candidates at ordination the vow not to preach on the two natures in Christ, original sin, predestina- tion, etc., but thereby they only poured oil on the fire. Th(> adhe- rents of the daily increasing evangelical movement withdrew from the national church, founded free independent communities and Jleunions under the banner of the restoration of Calvinistic ortho- doxy, and were by their enemies nicknamed Momiers, i.e. mummery traders or hyjiocrites. The government im])risoned and banished theii- leaders, while the mob, unchecked, heaped upon them all manner
§ 199. SWITZERLAND. 349
(if abuso. Th« persecution came to an end in 1830. Thereaftei' set- tling down in quiet modei-ation, it founded in 1831 the Societe evan- (/elique, which, in 1832, established an Erole de The'oloffie, and became the centi-e of the Free church evangelical movement. From that time the Ef/li-ie Hire of Geneva has existed unmolested alongside of the Efjlise Xatioiiale, and the opposition at first so violent has been moderated on both sides by the growth of conciliatory and mediating tendencies. Since 1850, two divergent parties have arisen within the bosom of the free church itself, which without any serious conflict continued alongside of one another, until in May, 1888, the majority of the presbytery resolved to make a peaceful separation, the stricter forming the congregation of the Pelisserie, and the more liberal that of the Oratoire. At the same time a committee was appointed to draw up a confession upon which both could unite in lasting fellowship. But when this failed, a formal and complete separation was agreed upon at the new year. — From Geneva the Methodist revival spread to Vaud. The religious movement got a footing, especially in Lausamie. The Grand Council, however, did not allow the contemplated forma- tion of an independent congregation, and in 1824 forbad all " sec- tarian " assemblies, while the mob raged even more wildly than at Geneva against the " Momiers."' The excitement increased when, in 1839, by decision of the Grand Council, the Helvetic Confession was abrogated. When in 1845 a revolutionary radical government came into office at Lausanne, the refusal of many clergj-men to read from the pulpit a political proclamation, caused a thorough division in the church, for the preachers referred to were iu a body driven out of the national church. A Free chui'ch of Vaud now developed itself along- side of the national church, sorely oppressed and persecuted by the radical government, and spread into other Swiss cantons. It owed its freedom from sectarian narrowness mainly to the influence of the talented and thoioughly independent Alex. Vinet, who devoted his whole energies and brilliant eloquence to the interests of religious freedom and liberty of conscience and to the struggle for the separa- tion of church and state. Vinet was from 1817 teacher of the Frencli language and literature in Basel, then from 1887 to 1845 professor of practical theology at Lausanne, but on the reconstruction of the university he was not re-elected. He died in 1847.* — In the canton Neuchatel the State Council in 1873 introduced a law, which granted imconditional libert}"- of conscience, freedom in teaching and worship without any sort of restriction on clergy, teachers and congregations.
* E. J. Sandeman, " Alexander Vinet " in " Evangelical Succession Lectures,"' Third Series, Edinburgh, 1881. Dorner, " History of Protes- tant Theology,"' ii., 470, 478.
350 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
The Grand Council by forty-seven votes to forty-six gave it its sanc- tion, notwithstanding the ahnost unanimous i)rotest of the evangelical s3-nod, and refused to appeal to a popular vote. When an appeal to the Federal Council proved fruitless, somewhere about one half of the jiastors, including the theological professors and all the students, left the state church, and formed an EijJiae lihre / while the other half regarded it as their duty to remain in the national church so long as they were not hindered from preaching God's word in purity and simplicity. Both parties had a common meeting point in the Union evangelique, and a law originally joassed in favour of the Old Catholics, which secured to all seceders a right to the joint use of their respec- tive churches, proved also of advantage to the Free church. — The canton Geneva issued, in 1874, a Protestant law of worship, which with dogma and liturgy also threw overboard ordination, and maintained that the clergy are answerable only to their conscience and their electors. Yet at the new election of the consistory in 1879, at the close of the legal term of four years, the evangelical and moderate party again obtained the supremacy, and a law introduced by the radical party in the Grand Council, demanding the withdrawal of the budget of worship and the separation of church and state, Avas, on July 4th, 1880, thrown out by universal popular vote, by a majority of 9,000 to 4,000.
§ 200. Holland and Belgium.
Among the most serious mistakes iu the new partition ot states at the Vienna Congress was the combining in one kingdom of the United Netherlands the provinces of Holland and Belgium, diverse in race, language, character, and religion. The contagion of French Revolution of July, 1830, however, caused an outbreak in Brussels, which ended in the separation of Catholic Belgium from the predominantly Protestant Holland. Belgium has since then been the scene of unceasing and changeful conflicts between the liberal and ultramontane parties, whose previous combination was now completely shattered. And while, on the other hand, in the Reformed state church of Holland, theological studies, leaning upon German science, have taken a liberal and even radical destructive course, the not inconsiderable Roman
I 200. Holland and Belgium. 351
Catholic population has fallen, under Jesuit leading, more and more into bigoted obscurantism.
1. The United Netherlands. — The constitution of the new kingdom created in 1814 guaranteed unlimited freedom to all forms of wor- ship and complete equality of all citizens without distinction of religious confession. Against this the Belgian episcopate protested with bishop Maurice von Broglie, of Ghent, at their head, who re- fused, in 1817, the prayers of the church for the heretical crown prin- cess and the Te Deum for the newborn heir to the throne. As he went so far as to excite the Catholic people on all occasions against the Protestant government, the angry king, William I., summoned him to answer for his conduct before the co\irt of justice. But ho eluded inquiry by flight to France, and as guilty of high treason was sentenced to death, which did not prevent him from his exile un- weariedly fanning the flames of rebellion. The number of cloisters grew from daj- to day and also the multitude of clerical schools and seminaries, in which the Catholic youth was trained up in the prin- ciples of the most violent fanaticism. The government in 1825 closed the seminaries, expelled Jesiiit teachers, forbad attendance at Jesuit schools abroad, and founded a college at Louvain, in which all study- ing for the church were obliged to pass through a philosophical curri- culum. The common struggle for maintaining the liberty of instruc- tion promised by the constitution made political radicalism and nltramontanism confederates, and the government, intimidatetl by this combination, agi'eed, in a concordat with the pope in 1827, to modify the obligatory into a facultative attendance at Louvain College. The inevitable consequence of this was the speedy and com- plete decay of the college. But the confederacy of the radicals and ultramontanes continued, directing itself against other misdeeds of the government, and was not broken up until in 1830 it attained its object by the disjunction of Belgium and Holland.
2. The Kingdom of HoUand.—ln the prevailinglj' Reformed national church rationalism and latitudinarian supernaturalism had to such an extent blotted out the ecclesiastical distinctions between Eeformed, Remonstrants, Mennonites, and Lutherans, that the clergy of one party would unhesitatingly preach in the churches- of the others. Then rose the poet Bilderdijk, driven from political into religious patriotism, to denounce with glowing fury the general declen.sion from the orthodox^^ of Dorti Two Jewish converts of his, the poet and apologist Isaac da Costa, and the physician Cappadose, gave him powerful support. A zealous yomig clergyman, Henrj' de Cock, was theological mouthpiece of the party. Becaupe he oftended church
352 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
order, especially by ministering in other congregations, he was sus- pended and fuially deposed in 1834. The greater part of his congre- gation ami four other pastors with him formally declared their secession from the unfaithful church, as a return to the orthodox Reformed church. As separatists and disturbers of public worship, they were fined and imprisoned, and were at last satisfied with the recognition granted them of royal grace in 1839, as a separate or Christian Reformed Clmrch. It consists now of 364 congregations, embracing about 140,000 souls, Avith a flourishing seminary at Kampen. The Reformed State Church, with three-fourths of all the Protestant population, persevered in and developed its liberalistic tendencies. The State S;>mod of 1883 expressly declared that the Netherland Reformed Church demands from its teachers not agi-ee- inent with all the statements of the confessional writings, but only with their spirit, gist, and essence ; and the synod of 1877, by the vote of a majority, stated that no sort of formulated confession should be reqiiired even of candidates for confirmation. Yet even amid such proceedings from various sides, a churchly and evangelical reaction of considerable importance set in. Three great parties within the state church carried on a life and death struggle with one another : (1) The Strict Calvinists, whose leader is Dr. Kuyper, formerly pastor in Amsterdam ; (2) The so-called Middle Party, which falls into two divisions : the, just about expiring, Ethical Irenical Party, with the Utrecht prof essor Van Oosterzee (died 1882), and the Evangelical Party with the Groningen professor Hofstede de Groot, since 1872 Emeritus, as leaders, of which the former, subordinating the confession, regards the Christian life as the main thing in Christianity, and the latter declares itself prepared to take th(! gospel alone; for its creed and con- fession ; and (3) The so-called Modern Party, which, with Professors Scholten and Kuenen as leaders, has its centre at Leyden, and in theology carries out with reckless energy the destructive critical principles of the school of Baur and Wellhausen (§ 182, 7, 18). The " Modernn " are also the founders and leaders of the " Protestant Fede- ration'''' after the German model (§ 180), with its annual assemblies since 1873, in opposition to which a " Confessional Union " holds its annual meetings at Utrecht, and operates by means of evangelists and lay preachers in places where there are only "Modern" pastors. The highe-r and cultured classes in the congregations mostly favour the Groningen and some also the Leyden school, but the great majority' of the middle and lower classes are adherents of Kuyper, and have frequently secured majorities in the Congregational Church Council. — Th(! Dutch school law of 1856 banished every sort of confessional religious education from public schools supported by the state, and so called forth the erection of numerous denominational schools
§ 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 353
independent of the state, and the founding of a •• Union for L'liridicai Popular Education,'''' which has spread through the whole country. The university law sanctioned, after violent debates in the chamber, in 1876, establishes in place of the old theological faculties, professor- shijxs for the science of religion generally, wath the exception of dogmatics and practical theology, and left it with the Keformed State Sjaiod to care for these two subjects, either in a theological seminary or by fovmding for itself the two theological professorships in the iniivei-sities and supporting them fi'om the sums voted for the state church. The sjniod decided on the latter course, and appomted to the new chairs men of moderate liberal views. The adherents of the strict Calvinistic party, however, founded a Free Reformed Uni- versity at Amsterdam, which was opened in autumn, 1880. Its first rector was Ku3-per. — The Lutheran Church of fifty congregations and sixty-two pastors, with about 60,000 souls, has also had since 1816 a theological seminar}^. In it neological tendencies prevail.
3. The founding of the Free University at Amsterdam, referred to above, led to a series of violent conflicts which threatened to break up the whole Reformed church of the Netherlands by a Avild schism. The Eefonned State Synod, consisting mainly of Groningen theo- logians, but also numbering many members belonging to the ]\Iodern or Lej'den school, and constituting the supreme ecclesiastical court, had, in spite of its eleventh rule, which makbs '• the maintenance of the doctrine "' a main task of all church government, for a long time admitted the principle of unfettered freedom of teaching, and ordained that even evidence of orthodoxy on the part of candidates for con- firmation would no longer be regarded as a condition of their accept- ance, their examination referring only to their knowledge, the examining clergy and not the assisting elders being judges in this matter. When now the Free University had been founded in direct opposition to the S3niod, the latter resolved to reject all its pupils at th<» examination of candidates, and when, in the sunnner of 1885, its first student presented himself, actually carried out this resolution. Thereupon the university transferred the examination to a committee, elected by itself, consisting of orthodox Reformed pastors and elders, and a small village congregation agreed to elect the candidate for its l)oorly endowed, and so for seventeen yeai^s vacant, pastorate. But the s^niod refused him ordination. Therefore the director of a strict Calvinistic Gymnasium, formerly' a pastor, perfonned the ceremon}', and the congi-egation announced its secession from the sjmodal iniion. At the same time in Amsterdam a second conflict arose over tlie question of candidates for confirmation. Three pastors of the " modern" school demanded the elders subject to them, among them Dr. Kuj-))er, to take i)art as r('(piir( d in the cxiuuiniiig of th^ir VOL. III. 23
354 CHUECH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
candidates; but these rofusi'd to give their assistance, because the previous training had not been according to Scripture and the con- fession, and also the majority of the church council approved of this refusal, as the parents had complained, and declared that the certificate of morality demanded by other pastors could be made out onlj^ if candidates for confirmation had previously formally and solemnly confessed their genuine and hearty faith in Jesus Christ as the only and all-sufficient Saviour, which these, hoAvever, in accordance with the Dutch practice of the eighteenth century, declined to do. The controversy was carried by appeal through all the church courts, and finally the State Syiiod oi'dered the church council to make delivery of the certificates within six weeks on pain of suspension. But this was brought about before the expiry of that period by the outbreak of a far more serious conflict over matters of administration. In Amsterdam the administration of church liroperty lay with a special commission, responsible to the church council, consisting of members, one half from the church council and the other half from the congregations. If in the beginning of Januarj', 1886, the threatened suspension and deposition of the church coiincil should be carried out, in accordance with proper order until the appointment of a new council all the rights of the same, therefore also that of supervising that commission, would fall to the " classical board " (§ 143, 1) as the next highest court. In order to avoid tliis, the fateful resolution Avas passed on December 14th, 1885, to alter § 41 of the regulations, so that, if the church council in the discharge of its duty to govern the community in accordance with God's word and the legalized church confession, it would be so hindered therein that it might feel in conscience obliged to obey God rather than man and accejit suspension and deposition, and a church council should be appointed, the administrative commission would be obliged to remain subject, not to this, but to the original commission. The " classical Iward " annulled this resolution, suspended on January 4th, 188H, for continued obstinacy the previous church council, and constituted itself, pending decision on the part of discipline, interim adminis- trator of ail its rights and duties. Tlit^ suspended majority, however, called a meeting for the same day, and Avhen it found the dot)rs of its meeting place closed, sent for a locksmith to break them open. They were prev(;nted by the police, who then, by ])utting on a safety lock, strengthening the boards of the door by mailed i)lates, and setting a watch, greatly reilueed the chances of an entrance. But the. ojiposition H 'ut to the watchers a letter by a policeman demantling that the representatives of the church council should be allowed to i)ass ; upon which these, regarding it as an ordei' of th(i polices, Avithdrew. They ihen had tlm mailfd idates sawn through, took i)ossession of the hall
§ 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 355
and the archives and treasure box lying there, and refused admission to the classical board. While then the question of law and possession was referred to the courts of law, and there the final decision would not be given before the lapse of a year, the disciplinary procedure took its course through all the ecclesiastical courts and ended in the deposition of all resisting elders and pastors. The latter preached now to great crowds in hired halls. From the capital the excitement increased by means of violent publications on both sides, spread over the whole land and produced discord in many other communities. Wild and uproarious tumults fii'st broke out in Leidendorf, a subui'b of Le3-den. The pastor and the majority of the church council refused to enter on their congregational list two girls who had been confirmed by liberal churchmen elsewhere, and with by far the greater part of the congregation seceded from the synodal union. The classical board now, in July, 1886, declared the pastorate vacant, and ordered that a regular interim service should be conducted on Sunday's by the pastoi-s of the circuit. The uproar among the people, however, was thereby only greatly increased, so that the civil authorities were obliged to protect the deputed preachers, by a large military escort, from rude maltreatment, and to secure quiet during public worship by a comi^any of police in church. And similar conflicts soon broke out on like occasions and Avith similar consequences in many other places throughout all parts of the land. In December, 1886, the Amsterdam church council also declared its secession from the state church, and a numerously attended " Reformed Church Congress " at Amsterdam, in January, 1887, summoned by Kuyper in the interests of the crowd of seceders, resolved to accept the decision of the law in regard to church proi^erty.'
4. Even after the separation of Belgium there was still left a con- siderable number of Catholics, about three-eighths of the population, most numerous in Brabant, Limburg, and Luxembui'g, and these were, as of old, inclined to the most bigoted ultramontanism. This ten- dency was greatly enhanced Avhen the new constitutional law of 1818 announced the principle of absolute liberty of belief, in consequence of which the Jesuits crowded in vast numbers, and the impe in 1853 organized a ncAV Catholic hierarchy in the land, with four bishops and an archbishop at Utrecht, under the control of the propaganda. The Prot(^staut population went into great excitement over this. The liberal ministry of Thoi-becke Avas obliged to resign, but the chambers at length sanctioned the papal ordinance, only securing
* Cairns, " The Present Struggle in the National Church of Holland," in Presbyterian Review for January, 1888, pp. 87-108. Wicksteed, '• The Ecclesiastical Institutions of Holland." London.
356 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
tho Protestant population against its misapplication and almsp. — On the withdra\val of the French in 1814 there were only eight cloisters remaining ; but in 1861 there were thirtj'-nine for monks and 137 for nuns, and since then the number has considerably increased. — The Dutch Old Catholics (§ 165, 8), on account of their protest against the dogma of the Immaculate Conception (§ 185, 2), enjoined upon the Catholic church by the pope, were anew excommunicated, and joined the German Old Catholics in rejecting the decrees of the Vatican Council (§ lf)0, 1).
5. The Kingdom of Belgiiim.— Catholic Belgium obtained after its separation from Holland a constitution by which unlimited freedom of religious worshii^ and education, and the right of confessing opinion and of associating, were guaranteed, and to the state was allowed no interference with the affairs of the church beyond the duty of paying the clergy. Also in Leopold I., 1830-1865, of the house of Saxe-Coburg, it had a king who though himself a Protestant ■was faithful to the constitu.tion, and, according to agreement, had his children trained up in the Eoman Catholic church. The con- federacy of radicalism and ultramontanism, however, Avas broken by the irreconciliable enmity and violent conflict in daily life and in the chambers among clerical and liberal ministers. The ultra- montanes founded at Louvain in 1834 a strictly Catholic university, which was under the oversight of the bishojDS and the patronage of the Virgin ; while the liberals promoted the erection of an opposition university for free science at Brussels. That the Jesuits used to the utmost for their own ends the liberty granted them by the constitu- tion by means of missions and the confessional, schools, cloisters, and brotherhoods of every kind, is what might have been expected. But liberalism also knew how to conduct a propaganda and to bring the clergy into discredit with the educated classes by unveiling their intrigues, legacy -hunting, etc., while these exercised a gi-eat influence chiefly upon bigoted females. The number of cloisters, which on the separation from Holland amounted only to 280, had risen in 1880 in that small territory to 1,550, with 24,672 iiunates, of whom 20,645 wei'e ninis.
6. After the ultramontane party had enjoyed eight years of almost unchallenged sujjremacy, the Malou ministry favourable to it was ovei'thrown in June, 1878, and a liberal government, under the presidency of Frere-Orban, took its place. Then began the Kultur- kampf in Belgium. The charge of public education was taken from the ministry of the interior, and a special minister appointed in the person of Van Humbeeck. He began by changing all girls' schoola under the management of sisters of spiritual orders into connnunal schools, and in January, 1870, brought iu a bill for reorganizing
5 200. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 857
elementary education, ■which completely secularized the schools deprived the clergy of all official influence over them, and relegated religious instruction to the care of the family and the church, the latter, however, having the necessary accommodation allowed in the school buildings. The chambers approved the bill, and the king confirmed it, in spite of all protests and agitation by the clergj'. The clerical journals pvit a black border on their issue which published it ; the provincial councils under clerical influence nullified as far as possible all money bequests for the public schools, and the bishops assembled in August at Mechlin resolved to found free schools in all communities, and to refuse absolution to all parents who entrusted their children to state schools and all teachers in them, in order thus to cause a complete decay of the public schools, which indeed happened to this extent that within a few months 1,167 communal schools had not a single Catliolic scholar. On complaint being made by the government to Leo XIII., he expressed through the Brussels nuncio his regret and disapproval of the proceedings of the bishops ; but, on the other hand, he not only privately praised them on account of their former zeal in opposing the school law, biit also incited them to continued opposition. When this double dealing of the curia was discovered, the government in June, 1880, broke off" all diplomatic I'elations with the Vatican by recalling their ambassador and giving the nuncio his passports. The ministerial president publicly in the chamber of deputies characterized the action of the Holy See as "foitr- hp.rie.'''' Whereupon the pope at the next consistory called princes and peoples as witnesses of this insult. In May, 1882, the results of the inquiry into clerical incitements against the public was read in the chamber, where such startling revelations were made as these : Priests taught the children that they should no longer praj^ for the king when he had committed the mortal sin of confirming the school law ; the ministers are worse than murderers and true Herods ; a priest even taught children to pray that God might cause their " liberal " imrents to die, etc. Amid sach conflicts the Catliolic party in parliament split into tlie jjarties of the Politici, who were willing to submit to the constitution, and that of the Intransigenti. who, under the direction of the bishops and the university of Louvain, held high above everything the standard of the syllabus. The latter fought with such passionateness, that the pope felt obliged in 1881 to enjoin upon the episcopate "that prudent attitude" which the church in such cases ahvays maintains in " enduring many evils " which for the time cannot be overcome. But undeterred, the govern- mi'ut continued to restrict the claims of the clergy, so far as these were not expressly guaranteed by the constitution. — In June, 18S4, as the result of the elections for the chamber of deputies, the clerical
358 CniT-RCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
party again were in poA\'er. Malou was once more at the head of a ministry in favour of the clericals, caused the king to dissolve the senate, and in the new elections won there also a majority for his party. No sooner were they in power than the clerical ministry, in conjunction with the majority in the chainbers, j^roceeded with inconsiderate haste, amid the most violent, almost daily rep(>ated explosions from the now intensely embittered liberal and radical section of the population, which only seemed to increase their zeal, to employ their absolute power to the utmost in the interest of clericalism. The restoration of diplomatic relations with the papal curia in the spirit of absolute acquiescence in its schemes was the grand aim of the reaction, as well as a new school law by which the schools were completely given over again to the clergy and the orders. But when at the next commitnal elections a liberal majority was returned, and protests of the new communal councils poured in against the school law on behalf of the vast number of state certificated teachers reduced by it to hunger and destitution, the Malou ministry found itself obliged to resign in October, 1884. Its place was taken by the moderate ultramontane Beernaert ministry, which sought indeed to quiet the excitement by mild measures, but held firmly in all essential points to the principles of its predecessor. 7. An exciting episode in the Belgium KuUiirkamj}/ is presented by the appearance of Bishop Dumont of Tournay, who, previously an enthusiastic admirer of Pius IX. and a vigorous defender of the infallibility dogma, also a zealous patron of stigmatization miracles at Bois d'Haine (§ 188, 4), now suddenly turned round on the school question and refused to obey the papal injunction. For this he was first suspended, and then in 1880 formally deposed by the pope. He afterwards wrote letters in the most advanced liberal journals with violent 'denunciations of the pope, whom he would not recognise as ))oi)e, but only as Bishop of Rome, and so styled liim not Leo, but onlj' Pecci. In these letters Dumont makes the interesting communication that the virgin Louise Lateau, favoured of God, has threatened with (ixcommunication the " intruder " Durousseaux, nominated by the pope as his successor, because she continues to reverence Dumont as the only legitimate Bishop of Tournay. The Vatican pronounced him insane, and the chapter appealed to the civil authorities to have him declared incapable in the sight of the law, which, however, they refused, because tht^y could not regard Dumont's insanity as proved. On the other hand, Dumont refused to renouiice his episcopal office, and ac- cused Durousseaux of having by night, with the help of a locksmith, obtained entrance to his e})iscopal palace, and having taken forcible possession of a casket lying there, wliicli, besides the diocesan pro- perty to the value of five millions, contained also about one and a
§ 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 859
lialf millions of liis own ]ivivate means. Pending the issue of the conflict, as to which of the two should be regarded as the true bishop, the jmlace was now officially sealed up. The attemjit to arrest the robbed casket had to be abandoned, because meanwhile the canon Bernard, as keeper of the treasures of the dioces?, had fled with its contents to America. He was, however, on legal waiTant imprisoned in Havanua and brought back to Belgium in 1882. In April, 1884, the dispute of the bishops was definitively closed by the judgment of the supreme tribunal, according to which Dumont, having been legitimately deposed, has no more claim to the title and revenues of his earlier office ; and in 1886 the supreme court of appeal at Brussels condemned Bernard " on account of serious breach of trust " to tlu'ee yeai's' imprisonmt^nt.
8. The Protestant Church was represented m Belgium onh^ by small congregations in the chief cities and some Reformed Walloon village congregations. But for several decades, by the zealous exertions of the Evangelical Society at Brussels with thirty-four pastors and evangelists, the work of evangelization not only among Catholic Walloons, but also among the Flemish population, has made con- siderable progress, notwithstanding all agitation and incitement of the peojile by the Catholic clergy, so that several new evangelical congregations, consisting mostly of converts, have been formed. In t^\'o small places indeed the whole communities, roused by episcopal arbitrariness, have gone over. — The pastor Byse employed by the Evangelical Society at Brussels has taken up the idea that all men by the fall have lost their immortality, and that it could be restored again by faith in Christ, while all the unreconciled are given over to annihilation, the second death of Revelation ii. 11, xx. 15. So long as he maintained this theory merely as a private opinion the society took no offence at it, but when he began to proclaim it in his preaching and in his instruction of the young, and declined to vield to all advice on the matter, the spaod of 1882 resolved upon his dis- missal. But a great part of his congregation still remain faithful to him.
§ 201. The Scandinavian Countries.
Notwithstanding the common Scandinavian-national and Lutheran-ecclesiastical basis on which the civil and religious life is developed, it assumed in the three Scandinavian countries a completely diversified course. While in Den- mark the civil life bore manifold traces of democratic tendencies and ther^bv the relations between cliureli and
3G0 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
state were loosened, Sweden, with a tenacity almost un- ))aralloled in Protestant countries, has for a long period held fast in exclusive attachment to the idea of a state church. On the other hand Denmark was far more open to influences from without hostile to the church, on the one side those of rationalism, on the other, those of the anti-ecclesiastical sects, especially of the Baptists and Mormons, than Sweden, which in its certainly barren, if not altogether dead ortho- doxy till after the middle of the century was almost her- meticall}' sealed against all heterogeneous influences, but yet could not altogether over-master the pietistically or methodistically coloured movements of religious yearning that arose among her own people. Norway, again, although politically united with Sweden, has, both in national char- acter and in religious development, shown its more intimate relationship with Denmark.
1. Denmark. — From the close of last century rationalism lias had a home in Denmark. In 1825 Professor Clausen, a moderate adherent of the neological school, published a learned work on the opposition of "Catholicism and Protestantism," identifying the latter with rationalism. Pirst of all in that same year Pastor Grundtvig (died 1872), " a man of poetic geniiis, and skilled in the ancient history of th(! land," inspired with equal enthusiasm for the old Lutheranism of his fathers and for patriotic Danism, entered the lists and replied ■with i)>nverful eloquence, lamenting the decay of Christianity and the chuicli. He was condemned by the court of justice as iujurioiis, after he had during the process resigned his pastoral oflfice. Alike fate befell the orientalist Lindberg, who charged Clausen with the breach of his ordination vow. The adherents of Grtmdtvig met for mutual edification in conventicles, until at last in 1882 he obtained permission again to hold ptiblic services. Not less influential was the work of .SiJren Kierkegaard (died 1855), who, largely in sym])athy with Grundtvig, without ecclesiastical office, in his writings earnestly pled for a living subjective piety and unweariedly maintained an uncom- inouiising stiMiggle against the official Christianity of the secularized elergy. The wild, unmeasured Danomania of 1848-1849, during the military conflict with Germany, drew opponents together and made them friends. Grtmdtvig declaimed against everything German, and i>f the two factors, which he had formerly regarded as the pivots
§ 201. THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 361
on which universal history turned, Danism and Lutheranism, he now let go Lutheranism as of German origin. He therefore proposed the abrogation of the distinctive German-Lutheran confessions, placed the Apostles' Ci'eed before and above the Bible and, pressing in a one- sided manner the doctrine of baptismal grace, demanded a "joyous Christianity," denied the necessity of continued preaching and exer- cise of repentance, and wished especially to introduce into the schools the jVorse mythologj^ as introductorj^ to the study of Christianit}-. His adherents wrought with the anti-church party for the abolition of the union of church and state. The Danish constitutional law of 1849 abolished the confessional churches of the state church, and Catholics, Reformed, Moravians, and Jews were granted equal civil rights with the Lutherans. Since then the Catholic church has luade slow biit steady progress in the country, and the increasing Baptist movement was also favoured by a law of the Volkthing of 1857, which abolished compulsory baptism, and only required the enrol- ment of all children in the church books of their respective districts within the period of one year. Civil marriage had also been granted, to dissenters in 1851, and in 18G8 the peculiar institution of "elect- ing communities " was founded, by means of -which twenty faiuilies from one or more parishes which declare themselves dissatisfied with the pastors appointed them, may, without leaving the national church, form an independent congregation under pastors chosen by themselves and maintained at their own cost. The Schleswig-Holstein revolution in 1848, occasioned enormous confusion and disturbance in the ecclesiastical conditions of the district. Over a hundred Ger- man pastors were expelled and forty-six Schleswig parishes deprived of the use of the German language in church and school. In 1864 both provinces were at last by the Austrian and Prussian alliance rent from the Danish government, and in consequence of the German war of 1866 were incorporated with Prussia.
2. Sweden. — In Sweden there was formed in 1803, in opposition to the barren orthodoxy of the state church, a religious association which, if not altog(>ther free of pietistic nari'owness, was j-et without any heretical doctrinal tendency, and exercised a quiet and whole- some influence. From the diligent readiiiy of ScriptiU'e and the works of Luther that prevailed among its members it obtained the name of Ldmre. The state proceeded against its members with fines and imprisonment, according to the old conventicle law of 1726, and the mob treated tliem with insults and violence. But in 1842 a fana- tical tendency began to show itself under the leadership of a peasant, Erich Jansen, Avho induced many " Readers " to quit the church and to cast into the fire even Luther's Postils and Catechism as quite su])t'rfluous alongsiile of Holy Scripture. They mostly emigrated to
362 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
America in 184(). The law of the land since 168G threatened every Swede who seceded from the Lutheran state church with imprison- ment and exile, loss of civil privileges and the right of inheritance. As might therefore be supposed the French Marshal Bernadotte, who in 1818, under the name of Charles XIV., ascended the throne of Sweden, had been previously in 1810 obliged to repudiate the Catholic confession. Even in 1857 the Reichstag rejected a royal proposal to set aside the Secession as well as the Conventicle Act. But in the very next year, the holding of conventicles under clerical supervision, and in 1860, the secession to other ecclesiastical denomi- nations, were allowed by law. The constitution of 1865 still indeed made adherence to the Lutheran confession a condition of qualifica- tion for a seat in either of the chambers. The Reichstag of 1870 at last sanctioned the admission of all Christian dissenters and also of Jews to all offices of state as well as to the membership of the Reichstag. On behalf of dissenters, esjjecially of the numerous Baptists and Methodists, the right of civil marriage was granted in 1879. In 1877, Waldenstrom, head-master of the Latin school at Gefle, without ecclesiastical ordination, began zealously and success- fully by speech and writings (to secure the widest possible circulation of which a joint stock company with large capital was formed) to work for the revival of the Christian life in the Lutheran national church. He vigorously contended against the church doctrine of atonement and justification, repudiating the idea of vicariovis penal suffering, and broke through all church order by allowing the sacra- ment of the Lord's supper to be dispensed by laymen. He thus put himself, with his numerous following, directed by lay preachers in their own prayer meetings and mission halls, into direct opposition to the church, but by the wise forbearance of the ecclesiastical authorities he has not yet been formally ejected.'
3. Norway. — In Norway, toward tlu; end of last century, rationalism was dominant in almost all the pulpits, and only a few remnants of Moravian revivalism I'aiseil a vtjice against it. But in 1796, a simple unlearned ijcasant Hans Nielsen Hauge, then in his twenty-fifth year, made his aj)pearance as a revival preacher, creating a mighty spiritual movement that spread among the masses throughout the whole land. He had obtained his own religious knowledge from the study of old Lutheran practical theology, and arising at a period of extraordinary spiritual excitement, " his call," as Hase says, " to be a prophet was like that of the herdsman of Tekoa." From 1799 he continued itine- rating for five years, persecuted, reproached, and calumniated by the
* Lumsden, "Sweden, its Religious State aiid Prospects," Lon- don, 1855,
§ 202. GKEAT BRITAIN AND IHELAND. 363
rationalistic clergy, ten times cast into prison, under a law of 1741, •which forbad laymen to preach, and then set free, until he had gone over all Norway even to its farthest and remotest corners, preaching unwearied ly everywhere in houses and in the open air often three or four times a day, and nourishing besides the flame which he had kindled by voluminous writings and an extensive correspondence. He directed his preaching not only against the rationalism of the state clergy, but also against the antinomian religion of feeling, of " Blood and Wounds " theology introduced in earlier days by the Moravians, with a one-sided emphasis and exaggeration indeed, but still in all essentials maintaining the basis and keeping within the lines of Lutheran orthodoxy. In 1804 he was charged with tendencies dangerous to church and state, obtaining money from peasants on false pretences, inciting the people against the clergy, etc., and again cast into prison. The trial this time was carried on for ten years, until at last in 1814 the supreme court sentenced him on accovint of his invectives against the clergy to pay a fine, but pronounced him not guilty on the other charges. Broken down in spirit and body by his long imprisonment, he could not think of engaging'again in his foi-mer work. He died in 1824. Numerous peasant preachers, how- ever, issuing fi-om his school were ready to go forth in his footsteps, and till this day the salutary effects of his and their activity are seen in wide circles. The law of 1741 which had been made to tell against them was at last abrogated by the Storthing in 1842. In 1845 the right of forming Christian sects was recognised, and in 1851 even the Jews were allowed the right of settlement previously refused them, and the security of all civil privileges. Since that time even in Norway the Catholic church has made considerable progress : in June, 1878, it had eleven churches and fourteen priests.
§ 202. Great Britain and Ireland.
During the course of tlie century a breach from ■without was made upon the stronghold of the Anglican established chui'ch and its legal standing throughout the United King- dom. The strong coherence of the Anglican episcopal . church had already been weakened internally by the rise within its own bosom of High, Low, and Broad tendencies. The advance of the first-named party to tractarianism and ritualism opened the door to Romish sympathies, while in the last-named school German rationalism and criticism
364 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
found favour, and the low church party was not ashamed to go liand-in-hand with the evangelical pietistic and methodistic tendencies of the dissenters. There followed numerous conversions to Rome, especially from the aristo- cratic ranks of the upper ten thousand. The Emancipation Act of 1829 opened the door to both Houses of Parliament to the Catholics, and in 1858 the same privileges were ex- tended to the Jews. Also the bidwarks which the state church had in the old universities of Oxford and Cambridge were undei'mined, and in 1871 were completely overthrown by the legal abolition of all confessional tests. Down to 18G9 ihe hierarchy of the episcopal state church, though clearly alien to the country, maintained its legal position in Catholic Ireland, till at last the Irish Church Bill brought it there to an end. Repeatedly have bills been introduced in the House of Commons, though hitherto without success, by members of the incessantly agitating Liberation Society, to disestablish the churches of England, Scotland, and Wales.i
1. The Episcopal State Church. — The two opposing parties of the state church correspoiitlcd to tlie two ])olitical parties of Tories and Whigs. The IiigJi churdt i^arlij, whicli 1ms its most powerful repre- sentatives in the aristocracy, holds aloof from the dissenters, seeks to maintain the closest connexion between church and state, and eagerlj'' contends for the retention of all old ecclesiastical forms and ordinances in constitution, worship, and doctrine. On the other hand the evau- gelit-al or loio church jxirtij, which is more or less method isticall}' inclined, holds free intercourse witli dissenters, associating Avith them in home and foreign mission work, etc., and with vaiiovis shades of difTerences advocates the claims of progress against those of immo- bility, the independenc(i of the church against its identification with , the state, the evangelical freedom and general j^riesthood of belicivers against orthodoxy and hicrarehisni. Fi-om their midst aros(> a move-
' Stoughton, "Religion in Elngland during the First Half of tin Present Century, with a Postscript on Subsequent Events." 2 vols., London 187(J. Molfsworth, "History of England from 1830 to 187i; y vols., London.
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 365
ment in 1871, occasioned by the Oxford " Essays and Heviews " and the %\orks of Bishop Colenso, which resulted in the publication, under the authority of the bishops, of the " Speaker's Commentarj'," so-called because suggested by Denison, who had long been speaker of the House of Commons. It is a learned, thoroughly conservative com- mentary on the whole Bible by the ablest theologians of England. On the revision of the English translation of the Bible see § 181, 4. Besides thes(! two parties, however, there has arisen a third, the broad church part}'. It originated with the distinguished poet and philo- sopher, Coleridge (died 1831), and includes many of the most excellent and scholarly of the clergy, especially those most eminent for their acquaintance with German theology and philosophy. They do not fonn an organized ecclesiastical party like the evangelicals and high church men, but endeavour not only to overcome the narrowness and severity of the former, but also to secvu'e a broader basis and a Avider horizon for theology as well as for the chui-ch.^ — The struggle for the legalizing of marriage with a deceased wife's sister has been ener- getically pressed since 1850, but though the House of Commons has repeatedly passed the bill, it has been hitherto by small majorities, under the influence of the bishops, rejected by the House of Lords. — A non-official Pan-Anglicau Council of English bishops from all parts of the world, excluding the laity and inferior clergy, with pre- eminently anti-Eomish and anti-ritualistic tendencies, was held in London in 18()7 (cf. § 175, 5). When it met the second time in 1878, it was attended by nearly one hundred bishops, one of them a negi'o. Of the three weeks' debates and their results, however, no detailed account has been published.
2. The Tractarians and Ritualists. — The activitj^ of the dissenters and the e]3iscopal evangelical party's attachment to them stirred up the adherents of the high chiirch party to vigorous guarding of their interests, and di-ove them into a one-sided exaggerated accentuation of the Catholic element. The centre of this movement since 1833 Avas the university of Oxford. Its leadei-s were Professoi'S Pusey and Newman, its literary organ the Tracts for the Times, from which the party received the name of Tractarians. This was a series of ninety treatises, published 1833-lHll,onthe basis of Anglo-Catholicism, which sought, while holding by the Tliirty-nine Ai'ticles, to affirm with fcjual decidedness the genuine Protestantism over against the Roman pai)acy, and, in the importance which it attached to the apostolical succession of the episcopate and priesthood and the apostolical tradi-
' LittU'dale, "Church Parties," art. in the Contemporory lievicw for July, 1871, i)p. 287-32(J. Mozley, •' Keminiscences of Oriel College." London, 1S.S2.
366 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
tion for the interpretation of Scripture, the genuine Catholicism over against every form of ultra-Protestantism. In this way, too, their dogmatics in all the several doctrines, as far as the Tliirty-nine Articles Avould by any means allow, was approximated to the Boman Catholic doctrine, and indeed by-and-by passed over entirely to that tyjie of doctrine. Newman's Tract 90 caused most offence, in which, with thoroughly Jesuitical sophistry, it was argued that the Thirt3^-nine Articles were capable of an explanation on the basis of which they might be subscribed even by one who occupied in regard to the church doctrine and practice an essentially Roman Catholic standpoint. The university authorities now felt obliged to declare publicly that the tracts were by no means sanctioned by them, and that especially the application of the principles of Tract 90 to the conduct of students in the matter of subscription of the Thirty-nine Artices is not allowable. Bishop Bagot of Oxford, hitherto favourable to the tractarians, refused to permit the continued issue of the tracts. The other bishops also for the most part spoke against them in their pastorals, and a flood of controversial pam^^hlets roused the wrath of the non-Catholic populace. But on the other hand ti-actarianism still found favour among the higher clergy and the aristocracy. In 1845 Newman went over to the Catholic church, and has since led a retired life devoted to theological study. Pius IX. paid him no atten- tion, but in 1879 Leo XIII. acknowledged and rewarded his services to the Catholic church by elevating him to the rank of cardinal. The majority of the tractarians disapproved of Newman's step and re- mained in the Anglican church. Thus acted Pussy (died 1882), the recognised leader of the part}!-, after whom they were now called Puseyites. Many, however, followed Newman's example, so that by the end of 18-lG no less than one hundred and fifty clergymen and jjrominent laymen were received into the widely opened door of the Catholic church.i — The following twelve years, 1846-1858, were occu- pied by two dogmatico-ecclesiastical conflicts vitally affecting the interests of the tractarians. (1) The Gorham Case. The Thirty-nine Articles took essentially Lutheran ground in treating of baptism, recognising it as a vehicle of regeneration and divine sonship, and the tractarians laid uncommonly great sti'ess upon this article. 8o also the Bishop of Exeter, Dr. Philpotts, refused to institute tlu; Eev. Cornelius Gorham because of his views on this subject. Gorham accused him before the Archbishop of Canterbury, but the Court of Arches decided in favour of the bishop. The Court of Appeal, how- ever, the judicial committee of the Privy Council, annulled the
* Newman, ^^Apolof/ia pro Vita Stia.'''' London, 1804. Weaver, "Puseyism, a liefutation and Exp(«ure," London, J81iJ.
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 367
f piscopal judgmont, and ordered that Gorliam should be installed in his office. In vain did Philpotts, by a protest before the Court of Queen's Bench, and then before the Court of Common Pleas, against the jurisdiction of the Privy Council in this case, in vain, too, did Blomfield, Bishop of London, insist upon the revival of Convocation, which for one and a half centuries had been inoperative as a spiritual parliament with upper and lower houses, and in vain did a tractarian assembly of more than 1,500 distinguished clergymen and laymen lodge a solemn pi'otest. The judgment of the Privy Council stood, and Gorham was inducted to his office in 1850. Many of the protesters now went over to the Catholic church, and about 600 others, like tlie Puritan Pilgrim Fathers 230 years before (§ 143, 4), tnider ecclesiasti- cal oppression, emigrated to New Zealand.— (2) The Denison Eucharist Case. — The Puseyite Archdeacon Denison of Taunton, in the diocese of Bath and Wells, had in 1851 in open defiance of the Thirty-nine Ai-ticles, which represent Calvin's views of the Lord's Supper, affirmed in preaching and writing that unbelievers as well as believers eat and drink the body and blood of the Lord. Over this he was involved in a sharp discussion with a neighbouring clergjniian called Ditcher. In 1854 Ditcher accused Denison before his bishop, who, after vain f-tforts to reconcile the parties, referred the matter to the Court of Arches, which sought, but in vain, to end the strife by compromise. Ditcher now in 1856 brought his complaint before the Qneen^s Bench, which obliged the archbishop to take up the matter again. A com- mission appointed by him declared that the complaint was quite justifiable, and threatened Denison, Avhen he refused any sort of re- tractation, with deposition. But the Court of Appeal in 1858 staj'-ed the judgment on the ground of a technical error in procedure, and Denison remained in office.
3. From the middle of 1850 the tractarian s, who had hitherto con- fined themselves to the development of the Romanizing system of doctrine, began to apply its consequences to the church ritual and the Christian life, and so won for themselves the name of Eitualists, wliich has driven out their earlier designation. Wherever possible they showed their Catholic zeal by introducing images, crucifixes, candles, holy water, mass dresses, mass bells, and boy choristers, urged the restoration of the seven sacraments, especially of extreme unction, auricular confession, the sacrificial theory and Corpus (jhristi day, of prayers for the dead and masses for souls, invocation of saints and the blessed Virgin; they also praised celibacy and monasticism, etc. Ritualism has from the first shown singular skill in part3' organization. The English Church Union, founded in 1860, has now nearly 2W,000 members, of these about 3,000 clergymen and 50 bishops, and it embraces 300 branches over the whoh^ domain of
368 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
the Anglican church. Numerous brotherhoods and sisterhoods, g'uilds and orders, organized after the style of Roman Catholic monasticism, promote the interests of ritualism, and zealously prosecute home and foreign mission work. The Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament originated in 1862, was able in 1882 to celebrate Corpus Christi day in 250 chiu'ches along with the Romish church, dispensing only with the procession. The Societij of the Hohi Ci'oss, foimded in 1873 consists only of priests, and forms a kind of directory for all branches of the ritualistic propaganda. The Enrjiish Order of St. Aucjnstine has a threefold division, into spiritual brothers who are preparing for priests' orders, lay brothers who are being qualified as lay preachers, both under the strictest vows, and a sort of tertiaries, who are free from vows. Among the sisterhoods which already supply nurses to all the great hospitals of the capital, the most important is that called " by the name of Jesus." They take, like the Beguines of the middle ages, the three vows, but not as binding for life. By the viltra high chtirch party the geiuiine apostolic succession of the ordi- nation of the first Protestant archbishop, Matthew Parker, and so the genuineness of all subsequent ordinations going back to him, were doubted ; three Anglican bishops are said to have had episcopal consacration anew conferred on them by a Greek Catholic bishop. The reckless and wilful procedure of the ritualists in imitating the Roman Catholic ritual in public worship called forth frequent violent disturbances at their services, and noisy croAvds flocked to their churches. Most frequent and violent were the riots in 1859 and 1860 in the parish of St. George's, London, where scarcely any service was held without disgraceful scenes of hissing, whistling, stam]jing, and cries of " No poper}'." The offscouring of all London flocked to the Sun- day services as to a public entertainment. Instead of hjnnns, street songs were sung, instead of responses blasphemous cries were shouted forth, while cushions and prayer-books were hiu'led at the altar decora- tions, etc. These unseemly proceedings were caused by the ritualistic rector, Bryan King, Avho had introduced th(* objectionable ceremonial, and obstinately continued it in spite of the decided opposition and ])rot('sts of his colleague, Mr. Allen. King's removal in 1860 first ]nit an end to these disturbances, which ])olice intei'ference proved utterly unable to check. The ritualistic Church Union, called into existence by these proceedings, was opposed by an anti-ritualistic Church As- sociation, and from both multitudes of complaints and appeals were brought before the ecclesiastical and civil tribunals. The first case they brought up was that of Rev. A. H. MacConochie, of Holborn, who, having been admonished by the ecclesiastical courts on account of his ritualistic practices in 1867, ajjpealed to the Privy Council. Anil althniii;-!! this court decided in 1860 that all ceroiioiiii's not
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 369
authorized by the prayer-book are to be regarded as forbidden, he and his followers continued to act on the principle that -u-hatever is not there expressly prohibited ought to be permitted. The Puhlic Worship Regulation Bill, introduced by Archbishop Tait, and passed by Parliament, -which legislatively determined the procediu'e in ritual- istic cases, did not prevent the constant advance of this movement. The Court of Arches now issued a suspension against the accused, and condeimied them to prison when they continued to officiate, until they declared themselves ready to obey or to demit their office. Tooth of Hatcham, Dale of London, Enraght of Bordesdale, and Green of Miles Platting were actually sent to prison in 1880. But the first three were soon liberated by the C!ourt of Appeal fuiding some technical liaw in the proceedings against them, while Green, in Avhose case no such flaw appeared, lay in confinement for twenty months. The ritualists still jiersistently continued their practice, and theii" op- ponents renewed their prosecutions ; these were followed by appeals to the higher courts, presenting of petitions to both the Houses of Parliament, addresses with vast numbers of signatures for and against to the Archbishop of Canterbury, to Convocation Avhich had meanwhile been restored, to the Cabinet, to the Queen, etc. The result was that many cases were abandoned, some obnoxious parties transferred elsewhere, and a very few deposed.
4. Liberalism in the Episcopal Church. — The more liberal tendency of the broad church party had also many supporters who scrupled not to pass beyond the traditional bounds of English orthodoxy. In opposition to the orthodoxy zealousy inculcated at Oxford, rationalism found favour at the rival university of Cambridge, and vigorous support was given to the views of the Tiibingen school of Baur in the London Westminster Review. And even in high church Oxford, there were not wanting teachers in sympathy with the critical and speculative rationalism of Germany. Great excitement was caused in 1860 by the " Essays and Revieics,"' which in seven treatises by so man3' Oxford professors contested the traditional apologetics and hermen- eutics of English theology, and set a sublimated rationalism in its place. In Germany these not very important treatises would prob- ably have excited little remark, but in the English church they roused an unparalleled disturbance ; more than nine thousand clergj-men of the episcopal church protested against the book, and all the bishops unanimously condemned it. The excitement had not yet subsided when from South Africa oil was poured upon the flames. Bishop Colenso of Natal (died 1883), Avho had zealously carried on the mission there, but had openly expressed the conviction that it is unwise, uu- scriptural, and unchristian to make repudiation by CafFres living in polygamy, of all their wives biit one, a condition of baptism, had VOL. III. 24
370 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
occasioned still greater offence Ly piiblisliing in 18C3 in seven vols, a prolix critical disquisition on the Pentateuch and the Book of Joshua, in wliich he contested the authenticity and unconditional credibility of these books by arguments familiar long ago but now quite anti- quated and overthrown in Germany. During a journey to England undertaken for his defence he was excommunicated and deposetl by a synod of the South African bishops in Capetown. The Privy Council, as supreme ecclesiastical court in England, cleared him, as well as the authors of the Essays, from the charge of heresy. An important aid for the dissemination of liberal religious views is affoi'ded by the Hibbert Lectureship. Robert Hibbert (died 1849), a wealthy private gentleman in London, assigned the yearly interest of a coirsiderable siun for "the spreading of Christianity in its simplest form as well as the furthering of the unfettered exercise of the individual judg- ment m matters of religion." The Hibbert trustees are eighteen lay- men who dispense the revenues in supplementing the salaries of jtoorly paid clerg3anen of liberal views, in providing bursaries for theological students at home and abroad, and in other such like ways, but since 1878 especially, by advice of distinguished scholars, in the endowment of annual courses of lectures, afterwards published, on subjects in tliH domain of philosophy, biblical criticism, the comparative science of religion and the history of religion. The first Hibbert Lecturer was the celebrated Oxford professor. Max Miiller, in 1878. Among other lecturers may be named Eenan of Paris in 1880 ; Kuenen of Le3-den in 1882 ; Pfleiderer of Berlin, in 1885. The battle waged with great passionateness on both sides since 1869 for and against the removal of the Athanasian Creed, or at least its anathemas, from the liturgy has not yet been brought to any decided result.
5. Protestant Dissenters in England. — Down nearly to the end of the eighteenth century all the enactments and restrictions of the Tolera- tion Act of 1689 (§ 155, 3) continued in full force. But in 1779 the obli- gation of Protestant dissenters to subscribe the Thirty-nine Articles was abolished, and the acknowledgment of the Bible as God's revealed word substituted. The right of founding schools of their own, hither- to denied them, was granted in 1798. In 1813 the Socinians were also included among the dissenters who should enjoy these privileges. After a severe struggle the Corporation and Ted Acts were set aside in 1826, affording all dissenters entrance to Parliament and to all civil offices. The necessity of being married and having their chil- dren bajjtized in an episcopal church was removed by th(> Marriag<' and Registration Act of 1836 and 1837, and divorce suits wei'e removed from the ecclesiastical to a civil tribimal in 1857. In 1868 compulsory church rates for the episcopal pai'ish church were abolished. Lord Russell's University Bill of 1854, by i-estricting sub-
5 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 371
scription of the Thirty-nine Articles to the theological students, opened the imiversities of Oxford and Cambridge to dissenters, while the University Tests Bill of 1871 made the adherents of all religious confessions eligible for all tmiversity honours and emoluments at both seminaries. Thus one restriction after another was removed, so that at last the episcopal chiu-ch has nothing of her exclusive privileges left beyond the rank and title of a state church, and the undiminished possession of all her ancient property, from A\hich hei- prelates draw ijrincel}^ revenues.
G. Scotch Marriages in England. — The saints of the English Revolu- tion had indeed resolved in 1653 to introduce civil marriage (§ 162. 1). But the reaction vmder Cromwell set this unpopular law aside. and the Restoration made marriage by an Anglican clerg^anan. even for dissenters, an indispensable condition of legal recognition. But in no country, especially among the higher orders, Avere private marriages, M'ithout the knowledge and consent of the family, so frequent as here, and clergymen were always to l)e found unscru- pulous enough to celebrate such weddings in taverns or other con- venient places. When an end had been put to such irregularities on English soil by an Act of Parliament of 1753, lovers seeking secret marriage betook themselves to Scotland. In that country there pre- vailed, and still prevails, the theory that a declaration of willingness on both sides constitutes a pei'fectly valid marriage. The Scottish ecclesiastical law indeed requires church proclamation and ceremom', biit failure to observe this requirement is followed onl}'^ by a small pecuniary fine. Fugitive English couples generally made the neces-i sary declaration before a blacksmith at Gretna-Green, who was also justice of the peace in this small border village, and wei-e then legitimately married people according to Scottish law. Only in 1856 were all marriages performed in this manner without previous residence in Scotland pronounced by Act of Parliament invalid.
7. The Scottish State Church. — The Presbyterian Church of Scotland, from the beginning strictly Calvinistic in constitution, doctrine and practice, has, generally speaking, preserved this character. Onh' in recent times has the endeavour of the so-called Moderates to introduce a milder type of doctrine won favour. The Established Church, as a national church properly so-called and recognised by law, dates from the political union of England and Scotland in the kingdom of Great Britain in 1707, and the Anglican Episcopal Church there was then reduced to a feebly represented dissenting denomination. Patronage, set aside indeed in the Reformation age, but restored under Queen Anne in 1712, and since then, in spite of all opposition from the stricter pai'ty, continued, because often misiised to secure the intru- sion of inacceptable ministers upon ccngrecatidns, gave Gcca!?icn to
372 CHURCH HISTOEY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
rejjeated secessions. Tims the Secesyion Church "broke off in 1732, and tlie Helief Church in 1752, the latter going beyond the former's pro- test against patronage by unconditional repudiation of Erastianism, i.e. the theory of the necessary connection of Church and State (§ 144, 1), and the assertion of the spiritual independence of the church, and expressed firmly the principles of Voluntaryism, i.e. the payment of all ecclesiastical officers, etc., by voluntary contributions. Both parties united in 1847 in the United Preahyterian Church, which noAv embraces one-fifth of the population. — Twice that number joined the secession of the Free Church in 1843. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland granted to congregations in 1834 the right of vetoing presentations to vacancies. The civil courts, however, upheld the absolute right of patrons, and at the Assembly of 1843 about two hundred of the most distinguished ministers, with the great Dr. Chalmers (died 1847) at their head, left the state church, and, as Non-Intrusionisfs^ founded the Free Church of Scotland^ which at its own cost formed new parishes and distinguished itself by Christian zeal in every direction. It diiFers from the United Preali/- terian Church in restricting its opposition to the abuse of patronage, without repiidiating right off ever}^ sort of state aid and endowment as imevangelical. Exit even to it the law passed in 1846, granting to all congregations the right of veto, seemed now no longer a sufficient motive to return to the state church. Even when in 1874, parlia- ment, at the call of the government, formally abolished the rights of patronage throtigh all Scotland and gave to the congregations the i-ight of choosing their own ministers, the General Assembly of the Fi'ee Church by a great majority refused to reunite Avith the state church brought so near it, because it conceded to the civil courts unwarrantable interference with its internal affairs, esjoecially the right of suspending its clergy.'
8. Scottish Heresy Cases. — The Glasgow presbytery lodged before the United Presbyterian Synod in Edinburgh of 1878 a charge against the Eev. Fergus Ferguson of heresy, because his teaching was in conflict with the church doctrine of the atonement in sajdng that sinners, apart from Christ's intervention, Avould not suffer eternal
' The very confused, wholly inadequate, and in some points posi- tively incoiTect statements in the above paragraj)!! may be su])ple- mented and amended by reference to the following literature: Buchanan, " Ten Years' (Conflict," 2 vols. Edin., 1852. Moncrieff, " Vindication of the Claim of Eight." Edin., 1877. Moncrieff, " The Free Church Principle : its Character and History." Edin., 1883. Maclcerrow. " History ^of the Secession Clnirch," Glasgow, 1841.
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 373
punishment but extinction, and that the same fate still lay before unbelievers and the impenitent. After five days' violent discussion, the majority of the synod, M'hile strongly dissenting from his views and urging him to avoid it in his preaching and catechising, resolved to retain him in office as having proved his adherence to the orthodox doctrine of the atonement. But when, at next year's synod, the Rev. D. Macrae of Gourock asserted that, in spite of the Westminster Confession, it was allowable for ministers to deny the eternity of punishment, and would not promise to preach otherwise, he was unanimously deposed. — Far more exciting and long continued were the proceedings begun in the Free Church in 1876, against Professor Robertson Smith of Aberdeen, who was charged before his presbj'- tery Avith offensive statements about angels, but especially with contradicting the inspiration of Scripture by contesting the Mosaic authorship of Deuteronomy. After various proposals of deposition, susjaension, rebuke, acquittal, had been made, the General Assembly of 1880, after much deliberation and discussion, by a majority found the charge of heterodoxy not proven, but earnestly exhorted the ac- cused to greater circumspection and moderation, and the decision was greeted with thundering applause from the students and waving of handkerchiefs from the ladies present. But A\-hen, very soon after this acquittal, several other contributions by him appeared in the Enci/cIojKiidia Britatmica, on the Hebrew Language and Literature, and Haggai, in the spirit of the Wellhausen criticism (§ 182, 18), as also an article on Animal Worship among the Arabians and in the Old Testament, in the Journal of Philology, the Commission sitting in Edinburgh reinstituted proceedings against him. In October, 1880, Smith vindicated before that court his scientific attitude toward the Old Testament, maintaining that a moderate criticism of the biblical books Avas reconcilable with the maintenance of their inspired authority. The majority of the Commission, hoAvever, A'oted for his expulsion from his chair. Smith i^rotested both against the com- petence and against the judgment of the Commission, but declared himself ready to submit to the judgment of the General Assemblj'. MeauAA'hile he accepted an invitation from GlasgoAV to deliver public lectures there on the Old Testament, Avhich Avere received Avith ex- traordinary f aA'our. This course Avas published under the title : " The Old Testament in the Jewish Church^ The General Assembly of May, 1881, noAv decided by a large majority to remoA'e him from his academical chair, Avitli retention of his license and his professor's salary, Avhich latter, hoAveA'er, Smith declined. But his numerous sympathizers presented him AA'ith a scientific library Avorth £3,000, and promised an annual stipend equal to his former salarA*. In 1883 he received the appointment as Professor oi Arabic in Cambridge,
374 CHURCH HlSTOHY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and the large revenues of that office allowed him to decline the offer of his friends.*
9. The Catholic Church in Ireland. — The Catholic inhahitants of Ireland under Protestant projirietors, and forced to pay tithes for the sujjport of the Protestant clergy, were always dejjrived of civil rights. In 1809 O'Connell (died 1847), an agitator of great popular eloquence, placed himself at the head of the oppressed people, in order in a constitutional way to secure religious and political freedom and eqiiality. At last, in 1829, the Emancipation Bill, sui3ported by Peel and Wellington, was passed, which on the basis of the formal declaration of the whole Catholic episcopate that jiapal infallibility and papal sovereignty in civil matters was not part of the Catholic faith nor could be joined therewith either in Ireland or anywhere else in the Catholic world, gave to Catholics admission to parliament and to all civil and military appointments. But the hated tithes remained, and were enforced, when refused, by military force. After long debates in both houses of parliament, the Tithes Bill was adopted in 1838, which transferred the tithe as a land-tax from tenants to proprietors, which, however, was only a postponing of the question. It was thus regarded by O'Connell. He declared that justice for Ireland could only be got by abolishing the legislative union with Great Britain existing since 1800, and restoring her independent parliament. For this purpose he organized the Repeal Association. In 1840 another no less powerful popular agitator arose in the person of the Irish CajDUchin, Father Mathew, the apostle of temperance, who with unparalleled success persuaded thousands of those degraded by drink to take vows of abstinence from spirituous liquors. He kept apart from all political agitation, but the fruits of his exertions were all in its favour. O'Connell in 1843 organized monster meetings, attended by hundreds of thovisands. The govern- ment had him tried, the jiiry found him guilty, but the House of Lords quashed the conviction and liberated him from prison in 1844, The Peel ministiy now sought to soothe the excitement by passing in 1845 the Legacy Act, which allowed Catholics to hold property in their own names, and the Maynooth Bill, by which the theological seminary at Maynooth received & rich endowment from the State. Continued famine, and consequent emigration of several hundreds of thousands to America and Australia, relieved Ireland of a con- siderable portion of its Catholic population, while Protestant missions
' Smith's ajipointment Avas to the Lord Almoner's Professorship, with a merely nominal salary ; but he was aftei'wards elected to the more remunerative office of University librarian, and more recently has succeeded Prof. Wright in the Chair of Arabic in the University.
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 375
by Bible and tract circulatiou and by schools had some success in evangelizing those who remained. On November 5th, 1855, the anniversary of the Gunpowder Plot, the Redemptorists at Kingstown , near Dublin, erected and burnt a great bonfire in the public streets of Bibles which they had seized, and the primate archbishop of Ireland justified it by reference to the example of the believers at Ephesus (Acts xix. 19).
10. The Fenian movement, originating among the American Irish, which since 1863 created such terror among the English, was the result of political rather than religious agitation. Although this movement failed in its proper end, namely the complete separation of Ireland from England, it yet forced upon the government the conviction of the absolute necessity of meeting the just demands of the Irish by thorough-going reforms and putting an end to the oppressions which the native farmers suffered at the hands of foreign landowners, and the grievances endured by the Catholic church by the maintenance of the Anglican church established in Ireland. The carrying out of these reforms was the service rendered by the Gladstone ministry. By the Irish Land Bill of 1870 the land question Avas solved according to the demands of justice, and by the Irish Chiirch Bill of 1869, which deprived the Anglican church in Ireland of the character of a state church and put it on the same footing as other denominations, the church question was similarly settled. The dignitaries of the Anglican church thus lost their position as state officials and their seats in the House of Lords. The rich pro- perty of the hitherto established church Avas calculated and applied partly to compensating for losses caused by this reform, partly to creating benevolent institutions for the general good. But neither the Church Bill, nor the Land Bill, nor the Universities Bill, which in 1880 founded by state aid a Catholic university in Dublin, secured the reconciliation of the Irish. '-EternUl hatred of England" was and is the battle cry ; " Ireland for the Irish, and only for them," is their watchword. In order to carry out this scheme an Irish " National League " was formed, and inimmerable secret " JMoon- lighters," under the supposed leadei'ship of "Captain Moonshine," committed atrocities by burning farm steadings and mutilating cattle, murdering and massacring by dagger and revolver, petroleum and dynamite, and directed their operations against the representa- tives of the governnient, against proprietors who sought rent, against tenants who paid rent, against officials who endeavoured to enforce it, and against everything that was, or was called, English. In order to cut at the root of this lawlessness, which by proclamation of a state of siege was only restricted, not overthrown, the government of 1881 passed further agrarian reforms : All tenant rights were to be pur •
376 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
chased by the surplus of the fund formed by the disestablishment of the Irish church, and where this did not suffice, by state grants, and the right to conclude contracts for rent and to determine its amount was transferred from the proprietors to a newly-constituted land court, without whose permission, after the lapse of the fifteen years' term, no rent contract could be made. But even this did not stop almost daily repeated murders and acts of destruction. The govern- ment now sought the aid of the pope through the mediation of a Catholic member of parliament on a visit to E,ome ; but these merely confidential negotiations led to no considerable result. In May, 1883, the curia, on the occasion of a collection promoted by the National League as a magnificent national present to the great (Protestant) leader of the agitation, Mr. Parnell, in a circular letter, forbad ^^ propria motu,''^ the bishops in the strictest manner taking any part in the movement, and urged them to dissuade their members from doing so. But only Archbishop McCabe of Dublin (died 1885), fi-om the first an opponent of the League, issued a pastoral against it to be read in all the pulpits of his diocese. The other bishops ignored the papal command, and among the Catholic people the opinion obtained that they owed to the pope obedience in spiritual but not in political matters. The collections for the Parnell fund were continued with redoubled zeal. The attempts of dynamitards, supplied with materials by their American compatriots, and other agrarian oftences have not yet been finally stopped.
11. The Catholic Church in England and Scotland. — The Emancipation Act, passed mainly for the relief of the Irish, naturally also benefited English Catholics, who in 1791 had been allowed to hold Catholic services. Led by the numerous accessions of Puseyites to entertain the most extravagant hopes, Pius IX. in 1850 issued a bull, by which the Boman Catholic hierarchy in England was reinstituted with twelve suffragan bishoprics under one archbishojD of Westminster. The bull occasioned great excitement in the Protestant poiJulation (Anti-Papal Arjfjrension). and the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill forbade the use of ecclesiastical titles not sanctioned by the laiv of the land. After the first excitement had passed, the Catholic bishops, at their head the learned and brilliant and zealous ultramontane Cardinal Archbishop Wiseman (died 1865), and his successor, surpassing him, if not in genius and learning, at least in viltramontane zeal, the Puseyite convert Manning, made a cardinal in 1875, used with impunity their condemned titles, until in 1871 the Ecclesiastical Titles Bill was formally revoked by act of parliament. Conversions in noble families were particularly numerous in the later decades. Since 1850 the number of Catholics in England and Scotland has (luadrnphnl. This has been caused in great part by Irisli emigration,
§ 202. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 377
for the middle and lower ranks of the English have scarcely been afiected by the conversion fever, which as the latest form of the fitful humour of the English had so rich a harvest in the families of the nobility. In 1780 all London had only one Catholic place of worship, the chapel of the Sardinian embassy, which on June '2nd of that year was wrecked and burnt by a raging mob. Now the English capital has two episcopal dioceses, ninety- four Catholic churches and chapels (besides about 900 Anglican churches) with 313 clergymen, and forty-four cloisters. In the House of Lords sit twenty-eight Roman Catholic peers, and in both countries there are forty-seven Catholic baronets. Since 1847 England has a specifically Catholic university at Kensington, under the episcopate, and with the pope as its supreme head, which, however, with its i^oor staff of teachers and its expensive course attracts but a few of the Catholic youth of England. Since the Anti-Papal Aggi'ession of 1850 failed, the Protestant people have shown themselves comparatively in- different to such assumptions of the papacy. — In the Act of Union of 1707 (§ 155, 3), Scotland was guaranteed the absolute exclusion of every sort of Roman Catholic hierarchy for all time to come. But in recent times the number of its Catholic inhabitants so greatly increased, that Pius IX. in his last years, not unaided by the English government, eagerly urged the re-establishment of the hierarchy, and Leo XIII. was able at his first consistory of the college of cardinals in March, 1878, to make appointments to the two newly-erected archdioceses and their bishoprics. On the following Easter Sunday the allocution relating thereto was read in all Catholic churches in Scotland. The restoration was thus carried out in spite of all protests and demonstrations of Scottish Protestants.
12. German Lutheran Congregations in Australia. — Besides the domi- nant Anglican church, emigration has led to the fox'mation of a considerable number of German Lutheran congregations, Avhicli are distributed in three synods. 1. The Victoria S^-nod was founded in 1852 by pastor Gothe. It adopted at first the union platform, but subsequently attached itself more decidedly to the Lutheran con- fession. 2. Pastor Karch, who in 1830 emigrated with a number of Prussian Lutherans, in order to avoid the union, laid the foundation of the Immanuel Synod. Since 1875 it has been supplied with preachers fi-om the missionary institute of Neuendettelsau. It is distinguished by its missionary zeal for the conversion of the natives, pursues with special interest the study of the proi^hetic word, and makes chiliasm an open question which need not rend the church. 3. The South Australian Synod, on the other hand, is the decided opponent of any sort of chiliasm, and has ^assumed an attitude of violent antagonism to tli!' Immanuel Svii )il.
378 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
§ 203. France.
lu France, lauded as the eldest daughter of the church after the overthrow of the first Empire, iiltramontauism, under the secret aud open co-operation of the Jesuits, has ever arisen with revived youth and vigour out of all the political convulsions which have since passed over the land. And though indeed Gallicanism seemed again to obtain strength under the second Empire and, down to the close of that period, found many able champions among learned theologians like Bishop Maret (§ 189, 1), and even among exalted prelates like the noble Archbishop Darbo}^ of Paris, a martyr of his office under the Commune (§ 212, 4\ its in- fluence faded graduallj^, and in the latest phase of France's political development, the third republic, seems utterly to have disap]3eared, so that even the '• Kulturkampf^ which broke out in 1879 could not give it life again. — The number of Protestant churches and church members, in spite of bloody persecutions during the Bourbon restora- tion, and man}'- arbitrary restrictions by Catholic prefects under the citizen king and the second Empire, by numerous accessions of whole congregations and groups of congrega- tions through zealous evangelization efforts, by means of school instruction, itinerant preaching, and Bible colportage, has increased during the century fourfold. In the Reformed church the opposition of methodistically tinctured ortho- dox}^, reinforced from England and French Switzerland, and rationalistic freethinking, led to sharp conflicts. Also in the Lutheran church, more strongly influenced by Germany, similar discussions arose, but a more conciliatory spirit prevailed and violent struggles were avoided.
1. The Freucli Church under Napoleon I. — In 1801 Napoleon as Consul concluded with Pius VII. a Concordat \\ hicli, adopting the concordat of Francis I. (§ 111, 14), abandoning the pragmatic sanction of Boui'ges, and only haggling about the limits to be fixed for the two
§ 203. FKANCE. 379
powers, gave iio consideration to the idea of a wliolesonie internal reform of the French Church: Catholicism is the acknowledged religion of the majority of the French people ; the church property- belongs to the state, with the obligation to maintain the clergy and ordinances ; the clergy who had taken the oath and those who were expatriated were all to resign, but were eligible for election ; new boundaries were to be marked out for the episcopal dioceses with reference to the political divisions of the country : the government elects and the Tpope confirms the bishops, and these, with approval of the government, aj^point the priest^-. The one-sided Organic Articles of the first Consul of 1802, which were annexed to the publication of the Concordat as a code of explanatory regulations, made any proclam- ation of papal orders and decrees of all foreign councils dependent on previous permission of the government, as also the calling of synods and consultative assemblies of the clergy. They further ordained that all official services of the clergy should be gratuitous, and transferred to the civil council the right and duty of strict inquiry into any clerical breach of civil laws and any misuse or excessive exercise of clerical authority. The thirty-first article, however, created that unhappj^ order of Deaservants or curates, the result of which was that interim appointments were made to most of the benefices in order to squeeze state pay in supplement to the inadequate ecclesiastical endowments, and so their holders were at the absolute mercy of the bishops who could transport or dispense with them at any moment. For further particulars about the friendly and hostile relations of Napoleon and the pope, see § 185, 1. By an imperial decree of 1810, the fo;ir articles of the Galilean Church (§ 156, 3) were made laws of the Empire; and a French National Council of 1811 sought to complete the reconstruction of the church according to Napoleon's ideas, but pi'oved utterly incap- able for such a task, and was therefore dissolved by the emperor himself. — To pacify the Protestants, dissatisfied with the Concordat, amid flattering acknowledgment of their services to the state, to science and to the arts, an appendix was attached to the Organic Articles, securing to, them liberty of religious worship and political and municipal equality with Catholics. For training ministers for the Reformed Church a theological seminary was founded at Montauban, and for Lutherans an academy with a seminary at Strassburg. Napoleon also afterwards proved himself on every occasion ready to help th(; Protestants. He was equally forward in recognising public opinion in France. The National Institute of France in 1804 offered a prize for an essay on the influence of Luther's Reformation on the formation and advance of European national life, and awarded it to the treatise of the Catholic phj-sician
380 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Villei's (Essai sur Vinfluence de la ref. de Luther, etc.), whicli in all respects glorified Protestantism. Even the Catholic clergy during the first EmiDire exhibited an easy temper and tolerance such as was never shown before or since. The obligatory civil marriage law introduced by the Revolution in 1792, obtained place in the Code Napoleon in 1804, and was with it introduced in Belgium and the provinces of the Ehine.'
2. The Kestoration and the Citizen Kingdom.— The Charter of the Bourbon Restoration under Louis XVIII. (1814-1824) and Charles X, (1824-1830) made Catholicism the state religion and granted tole- ration and state protection to the other confessions. A new con- cordat concluded Avith Pius VII. in 1817, by Avhich that of Napoleon of 1801, with the Organic Articles of the following year, were abro- gated, and the state of matters previous to 1789 restored, was so vigorously opposed by the nation, that the ministry were obliged to withdraw the measure introduced in both chambers for giving it legislative sanction. Ultramontanism, however, in its baldest form, steadily favoured by the government, soon prevailed among the clergy to such an extent that any inclination to Gallicanism was de- nounced as heresy and intolerance of Protestantism laiided as piety. In southern France the rekindled hatred of the Catholic mob against the Reformed broke out m 1815 in brutal and bloody persecution. The govei'ument kept silence till the indignation of Europe obliged it to put down the atrocities, but the offenders were left unpunished. Comiivance in such lawlessness on the part of the government con- tributed largely to its overthrow in the July revolution of 1830. The Catholic Church then lost again the privilege of a state religion, and the hitherto persecuted and oppressed Protestants obtained equal rights with the Catholics. But even under the new constitutional government of Orleans, ultramontanism soon reasserted itself. The Protestants had to complain of much injury and injustice from Catholic prefects, and the Protestant minister Guizot claimed for France the protectorate of the whole Catholic world. The Reformed Chvircli meanwhile flourished, though vacillating between methodistic narrowness and rationalistic shallowness, growing both inwardly and outwardly, and also the Lutheran communities, which outside of Alsace were only thinly scattered, enjoyed great prosperity. In the February revolution of 1848 the Catholic clergy readily yielded obe- dience to the citizen king Louis Philippe, and, on the ground that the Catholic church is suited to any form of government which only
» Jarvis, " The Oallican Church and the Revolution," pp. 324-395. London, 1882.
§ 203. FRANCE. 381
grants liberty to the church, did not refuse their benediction to the tree of freedom with the sovereign people at the barricades.
3. The Catholic Church under NapoleDU III. — Louis Napoleon, as pre- sident of the new republic (1848-1852), and still more decidedly as emperor (1852-1870), inclined to follow the traditions of his uncle, regarded the concordat of 1801 as still legally in force and seemed specially anxious to arouse zeal for the Galilean liberties. Although his bayonets secured the pope's return to Rome (§ 185, 2) and even afterwards supported his authority there, he did not fulfil the heart's wish of the emperor by the people's grace to place the imperial crown upon his head in his own person. Severely strained relations be- tween the imperial court and the episcopate resulted in 1860 from a pamphlet against the papacy inspired by the government (§ 185, 3). Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans, was one of the oldest and most deter- mined defenders of the interests of the papal see, and from Poitiers the emperor was pretty openly characterized as a second Pilate. The goveriunent did not venture directly to interfere between the two, but reminded the bishops that the emperor's differences Avith the pope referred only to temporal affairs. It also forbade the forming of separate societies for the collecting of Peter's pence, and dissolved the societies of St. Vincent, instituted for benevolent purposes, but misused for ultramontane agitations. When Archbishop Desprez of Toulouse, like his predecessors in 1662 and 1762, on May 16th, 1862, with pompous phrases of piety appointed the jubilee festival of the '■•fait glorieux,''^ by which at Toulouse three hundred years before, by means of shame- ful treachery and base breach of pledges 4,000 Protestants w^ere mvir- dered (§ 139, 15), a shout of indignation rose from almost all French journals and the government forbade the ceremonial. It also refused permission to proclaim the papal encyclical with the syllabus (§ 185, 2) and condemned several bishops who disobeyed for misuse of their office. Under the influence of the ultramontane empress Eugenie, however, the relation of the government to the curia and the higher clergy of the empire, since the one could not do without the other, became more friendly and intimate, till the day of Sedan, September 2nd, 1870, put an end to the Napoleonic empire and the temporal power of the papacy which it had maintained.
4. The Protestant Churches under Napoleon III. — After the revolution of 1848, the Lutherans at an assembly in Strassburg and the Reformed in Paris consulted about a new organization of their churches. But as the latter resolved in order to maintain constitutional union amid doctrinal diversity, entirely to set aside symbol and dogma, pastor Fr. Monod and Count Gasparin, the noble defenders of Fi-ench Pro- testantism, lodged a protest, and with thirty congregations of the strict party constituted a new council at Paris in 1849, independent of
382 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
the state, as the Union des e'ljlises e'vanijelujiips tie France with biennial S3niocls. Louis Napoleon gave to the Reformed Church a central council in Paris with consistories and presbyteries ; to the Lutlieran, an annual general consistory as a legislative court and a standing directory as an administrative court. The Lutheran theological faculty at Strassbiu-g with its vigorous unconfessional science repre- sents the westernmost school of Schleiermacher's theolog3^ The academy at Montauban, with Adolph Monod at its head, represents Reformed orthodox^-, not stricth' confessional but coloured by method- istic piety, and Coquerel in Paris, was the head of the rationalistic party of the Reformed national church. The lead in the reaction against rationalism since 1830 has been taken by the Societe dcangilique at Paris, which, aiming at the Protestantising of France, and using for this end Bible colportage, tract distribution, the sending out of evangelists, school instruction, etc., has developed an extraordinarily restless and successful activity. It has been powerfully supported by the evangelical society of Geneva. The number of Protestant clergymen in France has steadily risen, and almost every year m and out of the Catholic population new evangelical congregations have been formed, in spite of endless difficulties put in the way by Catholic courts. In Strass- burg, in 1854, the Jesuits persuaded the Catholic prefects to recall and arrest the revenues of the former St. Thomas institute, which since the Reformation had been applied to the maintenance of a Protestant gymnasium. The prefect of Paris, however, was instructed to desist from his claims. In the speech from the throne in 1858, the emperor declared that the government secured for Protestants full liberty of worship, without forgetting, however, that Catholicism is the religion of the majority, and the Monitcur commented on this imperial speech so evidently in the spirit of the Univers, that the prefects C(5uld not be in doubt how to understand it. By General Espinasse, wlio, after the Orsiiii attempt on the emperor's life in 1858, officiated for a long time as Minister of the Interior, the prefects were expressly instructed, to extend their espionage of the ill-aiiected press to the proceedings of the evangelical societies, and to prohibit the colportage of Protestant Bibles. On a change of minister, however, the latter enactment was withdrawn, and only agents of foreign Bible societies were interfered with. By an imperial decree of 1859, the right of permitting of the opening of new Protestant churches and chapels was taken from the local courts and transferred to the impei'ial council of state. For every Protestant congregation, so soon as it numlx'red 400 souls, the legal state salary for the clergymen would be paid.
5. The Catholic Church in the Third French Republic— The Gambetta government, the national vindication of the 4th September, 1870, re- signed its powiT in Kcbi-uary, 1871. into the hands of tlie National
§ 203. FEANCE. 383
Assembly elected by the "wliole nation, -which, although through cler- ical influence upon the electors predominantly monarchical and cler- ical, appointed the old Voltairean Thiei-s (died, 1877), formerly minis- terial president under Louis Philippe, as alone qualified for the diffi- cult post of president of the republic. In the necessary second vote, indeed, there was a considerable increase of the republican and as such thoroughly anti-clerical party ; but even in its ranks it was admitted that the establishment of France as leader of all Europe in the fight against ultramontanism and the co-operation therein of the clei-gy were the absolutely indispensable means for the political Revanche^ after which the hearts of all Frenchmen longed as the hart for the Avater streams. A petition from five bishops and other dignitaiies to the National Assembly for the restoration of the temporal power of the pope was set aside as inopportune. But Archbishop Guibert of Paris, without asking the government, proclaimed the infallibility dogma, and the minister of instruction, Jules Simon, contented himself with warning the episcopate in a friendly way against any further illegal steps of that kind. The clerical party was also successful in its protest to the National As- sembly against the education law, which by raising the standard of instruction, placing it under the supervision of the state and making inspection of schools obligatory, proposed to put an end to the terrible ignorance of the French people as the chief cause of their deep deca3\ Bishop Dupanloup of Orleans was appointed president of the com- mission for examining it, and so its fate was sealed. Meanwhile the people, by frequent manifestations of the Virgin, were roused to a high pitch of religious excitement. Crowds of pilgrims encouraged by miraculous healings flocked to our Lad}^ of La Salette, at Lourdts, etc. (§ 188, 6), and the consecration of Xotre Dame de la Deliverance at Bayeux was celebrated as a brilliant national festival. When in May, 1873, Thiers gave way before the machinations of his opponents and, under the new president, Mai-shal Macmahon, the thoroughh' clerical ministry of the Due de Broglie got the helm of aftaii-s, the pilgrimage craze, mariolatry and ultramontane piety, aided by the prefects and mayors, increased to an un|)aralleled extent among all ranks. Under the Buffet ministry of 1875 the influence of clericalism was unabated. To him it owed its most important acqixisition, the right of creating free Catholic univei-sities wholl}^ independent of the State, with the privilege of conf(>rring degrees. But when in 187(3 the new elections for the National Assemblj- gave an anti-clerical majority, Buffet was obliged to resign. The new Dufaure ministrj^, with the Protestant Waddington as minister of instruction, declared indeed that it continued the libertj'- of instruction, but decidedly refused the right of conferring degrees. The proposal to this effect met with the
884 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
hearty support of the new chamber of deputies. But all the greater was the jubilation of the clericals when the senate by a small majority refused its consent, and all the more eagerly was the founding of new free Catholic universities carried on, at Paris, Angers, Lyons, Lille and Toulouse, but notwithstanding every effort they only attracted a very small number of scholars, — in 1879, when they flourished most, at all the five there were only 742 students.
6. The French " Kulturkampf," 1880. — The Dufaure ministry was succeeded in December, 1876, by the si.»mi-liberal ministry of Jules Simon, which again was driven out in a summary fashion by presi- dent Macmahon on May 16th, 1877, and replaced, on the dissolution of the chamber, by a clerical ministry under Due de Broglie. But in the newly elected chamber the republican anti-clerical majority was so overwhelming that Macmahon, on January 30th, 1879, abandoning his motto of government, J'?/ suis et fy rede, was at last obliged, between the alternatives offered him by Gambetta, Se soumettre ou se de- metfre, to choose the latter. His successor was G-revy, president of the Chamber, who entrusted the protestant Waddington with the forming of a new ministry in which Jules Ferry was minister of instruction. Ferry brought in a bill in March to abolish the representation of the clergy in the High Cotmcil of Education by four archiepiscopal depu- ties, continuing indeed the free Catholic vmiversities, but requiring their students to enroll in a state university which alone could hold examinations and give degrees, and finally enacting by Article 7 that the right of teaching in all educational institutions should be refused to members of all religious orders and congregations not recognised by the state. The chamber deputies accejited this bill without amendment on July 9th, but the senate on March 7th, 1880, after passing six articles refused to adopt the seventh. On March 29th, the president of the republic issued on his own authority two decrees based indeed upon earlier enactments (1789-1852), gone into desuetude indeed, but never abrogated (§ 186, 2), demanded the dissolution of the Society of Jesus, containing 1,480 members in 56 institutions, within three months, and insisted that the orders and congregations not recognised by the State, embracing 14,033 sisters in 602 institutions and 7,444 brothei's in 384 institutions, in the same time should by pro- duction of their statutes and rules seek formal recognition or else be broken up. A storm of protests on the part of the bishops greeted these " March Decrees,'''' and riotous demonstrations made before the Minister of Instruction at his residence at Lille expressed the protests of the students of the Catholic university there. The pope now broke his reserve and by a nuncio sent the president of the republic a holograph letter in which he declared that he must interfere on behalf of the Jesuits and the threatened orders, because they were indispensably
§ 203. FRANCE. 385
necessary to the wellbeing of the church. He did not wish that they should have recourse to unlawful means, but it must be under- stood that they would appeal to the courts for protection of their threatened civil liberties. "When therefore on the morning of June 30th the police began their work of exiDelling the Jesuits from their houses, these lodged a complaint before the courts of invasion of their domestic peace and infringement of their personal liberty. Their schools were closed on August 31st, the end of the school year ; mean- while they had taken the precaution to transfer most of them to such as would be ready afterwards to restore them. The enforcement of the second of the March Decrees against the other orders was delayed for a while. A compromise proposed by the episcopate, favoured by the pope and not absolutely rejected even by the minister Freycinet, Waddington's successor, according to which instead of the required application for recognition all these orders should sign a declaration of loj^alty, undertaking to avoid all participation in political affairs and to do nothing opposed to existing order, brought about the over- throw of this ministry in September, 1880, by the machinations from other motives of the jDresident of the chamber and latent dictator, Leon Gambetta. At the head of the new ministry was Ferry, who lield the portfolio of instrviction, and under him the carrying out of the second March Decree began on October 16th, 1880. Up to the meeting of the chamber in November 261 monasteries had l)een vacated : the rest, as from the first all female congregations, were spared, so that France with its colonies and mission stations still number 4,288 male and 14.990 female settlements of spiritual orders, the former with about 32,000, the latter with about 166,200 inmates. — The exjjulsion of the Jesuits, as well as the more recent of the other orders, was, however, stoutly opposed. The police told off for this duty found doors shut and barricaded against them or defended by fanatical peasants and mobs of shrielcing women, so that they had often to be stormed and broken up by the military. Still more threat- ening than this opposition was the reaction ■which began to assert itself at tlie instance of the almost thoroughly ultramontane jurists of the country, a survival of the times of Napoleon III. and ]\racmahon , An advocate Eousse, who publicly stated the opinion that the March Decrees were illegal and therefore not binding, was supported by 2,000 attorneys and over 200 corporations of attorneys and by many distin- guished university jurists. More than 200 state officials and many judiciary and police officers, together with several officers of the arm3'-, tendered their resignations so as to avoid taking part in the execution of the decrees. When it became clear that unfavourable verdicts wou.ld be given by the courts invoked by the Jesuits against the executors of the decree, as indeed was soon actually done by several VOL. III. 25
38G cnuRcn history of nineteenth century.
courts, th(^ gowrnment knlged an appeal against their compi-tcriCP before tlie tribunal of conflicts Avhicli also actually in regard to all such cases pronounced them incompetent and their decisions therefore null and void ; but the complainers insisted that their complaints should be taken to a Council of State as the only court suitable to deal with charges against officials, which, as might be expected, was not done.
7. In the future course of the French " Kulturkampf " the most ini |)ortant ]3roceedings of the government were the f uUowing : The abolition of th(> institute of military chaplains, highly serviceable in ultramontanizing the officers, was carried out in 1880, as well as the requirement that the clergy and teachers should give military service for one year, and subsequently also military escorts to the Corpus Christi procession were forbidden. In 1880 the Municipal Council of Paris, with the concurrence of the prefect of the Seine, forbad the continuance of the beautiful building of the church of the Heart of Jesus begun in 1875 on Montmartre (§ 188, 12), confiscating the site that had been granted for it. In 1881 the churchyards were relieved of their denominational character, and the folloAving year the right of managing them, with permission of merely civil interment without the aid of a clergyman, was transferred from the ecclesiastical to the civil authorities. By introducing in 1880 high schools for girls with boarding establishments an end was put to the education of girls of the upper ranks in nunneries, which had hitherto been the almost exclusive practice. Far more sweeping was the School Act brought i n by the radical minister of worship, Paul Bert, and first enforced in October, 188(j, which made attendance compulsory, relegated religious instruction wholly to the cluirch and home, and absolutely excluded all the clergy from the right of giving any sort of instruction in the public schools, and demanded the removal of all crucifixes and otlier religious symbols from the school buildings. In Decembei-, 1884, a tax was imposed on the property of all religious orders, also the state allowance for the five Catholic seminaries with only thirty-seven students was withdrawn, and many other important deductions made upon the budget for Catholic worshij), which at first the senate op- posed, but at last agreed to. The Divorce Bill frequently introduced since 1881, which permitted parties to marry again, and gave dis- posal of the matter to the civil court, got the assent of the stmate only in the end of July, 1884. The clericals were also greatly offended by the decree passed in May, 1885, which closed the church of St. Geno- veva, the former Pantheon, as a place of worship and made it again a burial place for distinguished Frenchmen. This resolution was first carried out by placing there the remains of Victor Hugo. Amid these nud many other injuries to its interests the Boman curia, concentrat-
§ 203. FRANCE. 387
iug all its energies uijon the German " Kulturkampf," endeavoured to keep things back in a moderate way. Yet in Julj', 18SB, the pope addressed to president Grevy a friendly but earnest remonstrance. which lie treated simply as a private letter and, without communi- cating it officially to his cabinet, answered that apart from parlia- ment he could not act, but that so far as he and his ministry were able they Avould seek to avoid conflict with the holj- see. And in fact the government, esiDecially after the overthrow of the Gambetta min- istry in 1882, often successfully opjjosed the proposal of the radical chamber, e.(j. the separation of church and state, the abrogation of the concordat, the recall of the embassy to the Vatican, the abolition of religious oaths in the proceedings of the courts, the stoi^jiing of the state subvention of a million francs for pa^-ment of salaries in semi- naries for priests, etc.
8. The Protestant Churches under the Third EepubUc. — Since the French Reformed began to emulate their Catholic countrymen in wild Chauvinism, fanatical hatred of Germany and unreasoning enthusiasm for the Revandie, they were left by the advancing clerical party un- molested in resjject of life, confession and worship during the time of war. The Lutherans on the other hand, consisting, although on French territory, mainly of German emigrants and settlei-s, even their French members not so disposed to Chauvinistic extravagance, were I )bliged to atone for this double offence by expulsion from house and home and by vai-ious injuries to their ecclesiastical interests. After the conclusion of peace, especially under Thiers' moderate govern- ment, this fanaticism gradually cooled down, so that the expelled Germans returned and the churches and institutions that had been destroyed were restored, so far as means would allow. By the decree of Waddington, the minister of instruction, of date March '27th, 1877. instead of the theological faculty of Strassburg, no'w lost for the French Lutheran church, one for both Protestant churches A\-as founded in Paris. — The Lutheran Church, in consequence of the cession of Alsace-Lorraine, had only sixty-four out of 278 pastorates and six out of forty-four consistories remaining. At the general S3Tiod convened at Paris, in July, 1872, by the government for reorgan- izing the Lutheran church it was resolved : To form two inspectorates independent of each other — Paris, predominantly orthodox, Mom- pelgard, predominantly liberal ; the general assembly, which meets every third year alternately at Mompelgard and Paris, to consist of delegates from both. The two inspectorates are to correspond in aduiinistrative matters directly with the minister of public instruc- tion, but in everj'thing referring to confession, doctrine, worship and discipline, the general assembly is the supreme authority. In regard to the confessional question they agreed to the statement,
388 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
that the holy Scripture is the supreme authority in matters of faith, and the Augsburg Confession the basis of the legal constitu- tion of the church. An express undertaking on the part of the clergy to this effect is not, however, insisted uiran. Only in 1879 could this constitution obtain legal sanction by the State, and that only after considerable modification in the direction of liberalism, especially in reference to electoral qualification. In consequence of this the first ordinary general assembly held in Paris in May, 1881, found both parties in a conciliatory mood. — The Reformed Church, with about 500 pastorates and 105 consistories, summoned by order of government a newly constituted General Assemby at Paris, in June, 1872. Prominent among the leaders of the orthodox party was the aged ex-minister Guizot; the leaders of the liberals were Coquerel and Colani. The former supported the proposal of Professor Bois of Montauban, who insisted on the frank and full confession of holy Scripture as the sovereign aiithority in matters of faith, of Clii'ist as the only Son of God, and of justification by faith as the legal basis of instruction, worship and discipline ; while the latter protested against every attempt to lay down an obligatory and exclusive confession. The orthodox party prevailed and the dissenters who woTild not yield were struck off the voting lists. When now in consequence of the complaint of the liberal party the summoning of an ordinary general assembly was refused by the government, the orthodox part}^ repeatedly met in " official " provincial and general assemblies without state sanc- tion. The council of state then declared all decisions regarding voting qualifications passed by the synod of 1872 to be null and void, the minister of worship. Ferry, ordered the readmission of electors struck from the lists, and his successor Bert legalized, by a decree of March 25th, 1882, the division of the Parisian consistorial circuit into two independent consistories of Paris and Versailles, moved for by the liberal party but opposed by the orthodox. But upon the elections for the new consistory of Paris, ordered in spite of all protests, and for the presbyteries of the eight parishes assigned to it, contrai-y to all expectation, in seven of these the elections with great majorities were in favour of the orthodox, and the first official document issued by the new consistory was a solemn protest against the decree to which it owed its existence. Under such circumstances the government as well as the liberal party had no desire for the calling of an official "•eneral assembly, and the latter resolved at a general assembly at Nimes, in October, 1882, to institute official synods of their own for consultation and protection of their own interests.
§ 204. ITALY. 389
§ 204. Italy.
In Italy matters returned to their old position after the restoration of 1814. But liberalism, aiming at the liberty and unity of Italy, gained the mastery, and where for the time it prevailed, the Jesuits were expelled, and the power of the clergy restricted; where it failed, both came back with greatly increased importance. The arms of Austria and subsequently also of France stamped out on all sides the revolutionary movements. Pius IX., who at first was not indisposed, contrary to all traditions of the papacy, to put himself at the head of the national part}^, was obliged bitterly to regi'et his dealings with the liberals (§ 185, 2). Sardinia, Modena and Naples put the severest strain upon the bow of the restoration, while Parma and Tuscany dis- tinguished themselves by adopting liberal measures in a moderate degree. Sardinia, however, in 1840 came to a better mind. Charles Albert first broke ground with a more liberal constitution, and in 1848 proclaimed himself the deliverer of Italy, but yielded to the arms of Austria. His son Victor Emanuel II. succeeded amid singularly favour- able circumstances in uniting the whole peninsula under his sceptre as a united kingdom of Italy governed by liberal institutions.
1. The Kingdom of Sardinia. — Victor Emanuel I. after the restora- tion had nothing els9 to do but to recall the Jesuits, to hand over to them the whole management of the schools, and, guided and led by them in everything, to restore the church and state to the condition prevaiUng before 1789. Charles Felix (1821-1S31) carried still fui'ther the absolutist-reactionary endeavours of his predecessor, and even Charles Albert (1831-1849) refused for a long time to realize the hopes which the liberal party had previously placed in him. Onl}' in the second decade of his reign did he begin gradually to display a more liberal tendency, and at last in 1848 when, in consequence of the French Revolution, Lombardy rose against the Austrian rule, he placed himself at the head of the national movement for freeing Itah'
390 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
from the 3''oke of strangers. But the king gloried in as " the sword of Italy " was defeated and obliged to abdicate. Victor Emanuel II. (1849-1878) allowed meanwhile the liberal constitution of his father to remain and indeed carried it out to the utmost. The minister of justice, Siccardi, projjosed a new legislative code which abolished all clerical jurisdiction in civil and criminal proceedings, as also the right of asylum and of exacting tithes, the latter with moderate compensa- tion. It was passed by parliament and subscribed by the king in 1850. The clergy, with archbishop Fransoni of Turin at their head, protested with all their might against these sacrilegious encroach- ments on the rights of the church. Fransoni was on this account committed for a month to prison and, when he refused the last sacra- ment to a minister, was regularly sentenced to deposition and banish- ment from the country. Pius IX. thwarted all attempts to obtain a new concordat. But the government went recklessly forward. As Fransoni from his exile in France continued his agitation, all the property of the archiepiscopal chair was in 1854 sequestered and a number of cloisters were closed. Soon all penalties in the penal code for spreading non-Catholic doctrines were struck out and non-Catholic soldiers freed from compulsory attendance at mass on Sundays and festivals. The chief blow now fell on March 2nd, 1855, in the Cloister Act, which abolished all orders and cloisters not devoted to preaching, teaching, and nursing the sick. In consequence 331 out of 605 cloisters Avere shut up. The pope ceased not to condemn all these sacrilegious and church robbing acts, and when his threats were without result, thundered the great excommunication in July, 1855, against all originators, aiders, and abettors of such deeds. Among the masses this indeed caused some excitement, but it never came to an explosion 2. The Kingdom of Italy. — Amid such vigorous progress the year 1859 came round with its fateful Franco-Italian war. The French alliance had not indeed, as it promised, made Italy free to the Adriatic, but by the peace of Villafranca the Avhole of Lombardy was given to the kingdom of Sardinia as a present from the emperor of the French. In the same year by popular vote Tuscany, including Modena and Parma, and in the following year the kingdom of the two Sicilies, as well as the three provinces of the States of the Church, revolted and were annexed, so that the new kingdom of Italy embraced the whole of the peninsula, with the exception of Venice, Home and the Campagna. Prussia's remarkable successes in the seven days' German war of 186G shook Venice like ripe fruit into the lap of her Italian ally, and the day of Sedan, 1870, prepared the way for the addition of Rome and the Campagna (§ 185, 3). — In Lombardy and then also in Venice, imme- diately after they had been taken possession of, the concordat with Austria was abrogated and the Jesuits ex2)elled. Ecclesiastical tithes
§ 204. ITALY. 391
on the produce of the soil were 'abolished throughout the whole king- dom, begging was forbidden the mendicant friars as unworthj' of a spiritual order, ecclesiastical property was put under state control and the support of the clergy provided for by state grants. In 1867 the government began the appropriation and conversion of the church property ; in 1870 all religious orders Avere dissolved, Avith exception for the time being of those in Rome, wherever they did not engage in edxicational and other useful works. In May, 1873, this law was extended to the Eoman province, only it was not to be applied to the generals of orders in Rome. Nuns and some monks were also allowed to remain in their cloisters situated in unpeopled districts. The amount of state pensions paid to monks and nuns reached in 1882 the sum of eleven million lire, at the rate of 330 Lire for each person. The abolition of the theological faculties in ten Italian universities in 1873, because these altogether had only six students of theologjr, was re- garded by the curia rather as a victory than a defeat. The newly appointed bishops were forbidden by the pope to produce their credentials for inspection in order to obtain their salaries from the government. The loss of temporalities thus occasioned was made up by Pius IX. out of Peter's pence flowing in so abundantly from abroad ; each bishop receiving 500 and each archbishop 700 lire in the month. Leo XIII., however, felt obliged in 1879, owing to the great decrease in the Peter's pence contributions, to cancel this enactment and to permit the bishops to accept the state allowance. In conse- quence of the civil marriage law passed in 1866 having been altogether ignored by the clergy, nearly 400,000 marriages had down to the close of 1878 received only ecclesiastical sanction, and the ofispring of such parties would be regarded in the eye of the law as illegitimate. To obviate this difficulty a law Avas passed in May, 1879, which insisted that in all cases civil marriage must precede the ecclesiastical ceremony, and clergymen, witnesses and parties engaging in an illegal marriage should suffer three or six months' imprisonment ; but all marriages contracted in accordance merely with church forms before the passing of this law might be legitimized by being entered on the civil register. — Finally in January, 1884, the controversy pending since 1873 as to whether the rich property of the Roman propaganda (§ 156, 9) amount- ing to twenty million lire should be converted into state consols was decided by the supreme court in favour of the curia, which had pro- nounced these funds international because consisting of presents and contributions from all lands. But not only was the revenue of the propaganda subjected to a heavy tax, but also all increase of its pro- perty forbidden. In vain did the pope by his nuncios call for the intervention of foreign nations. None of these were inclined to meddle in the internal affairs of Italy. The curia now devised the
W-2 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
plan of affiliating a number of societies outside of Italy to tlie propa- ganda for receiving and administering donations and presents.
3. The Evangelization of Italy. — Emigrant Protestants of various nationalities had at an early date, by the silent sufferance of the re- spective governments, formed small evangelical congregations in some of the Italian cities ; in Venice and Leghorn during the seventeenth century, at Bergamo in 1807, at Florence in 1826, at Milan in 1847. Also by aid of the diplomatic intervention of Prussia and England, the erection of Protestant chapels for the embassy was allowed at Eome in 1819, at Naples in 1825, and at Florence in 1826. When in 1848 Italy's hopes from the liberal tendencies of Pivis IX. were so bitterly disappointed, Protestant sympathies began to spread far and wide through the land, even among native Catholics, fostered by English missionaries, Bibles and tracts, which the governments sought in vain to check by prisons, penitentiaries and exile. Persecution began in 1851 in Tuscan^', where, in spite of the liberty of faith and worship gaaranteed by the constitution of 1848, Tuscan subjects taking part in the Italian services in the chapel of the Prussian embassy at Florence were punished with six months' hard labour, and in the following year the pious pair Francesco and Eosa Madiai were sen- tenced to four years' rigorous punishment in a penitentiary for the ci'ime of having edified themselves and their household by reading the Bible. In vain did the Evangelical Alliance I'emonstrate (§ 178, 3), in vain did even the king of Prussia intercede. But when, stirred up by public opinion in England, the English premier Lord Pal- merston offered to secure the requirement of Christian humanity by means of British ships of war, the grand -duke got rid of both martyrs by banishing them from the country in 1853. In proportion as the union of Italy under Victor Emanuel II. advanced, the field for evangelistic effort and the powers devoted thereto increased. So it was too since 1860 in Southern Italy. But when in 1866 a Protestant con- gregation began to be formed at Barletta in Naples, a fanatical priest roused a popular mob in Avhich seventeen persons were killed and torn in pieces. The government put down the uproar and punished the miscreants, and the nobler portion of the nation throughout the whole land collected for the families of those murdered. The work of evan- gelization supported by liberal contributions chiefly from England, but also from Holland, Switzerland, and the German Gudav- Adolf - Verein (§ 178, 1), advanced steadily in spite of occasional brutal inter- ferences of the clergy and the mob, so that soon in all the large cities and in many of the smaller towns of Italy and Sicily there were thriving and flourishing little evangelical congregations of converted native Catholics, numbering as many as 182 in 1882.
4. The chief factor in the evangelization of Italy as far as the
§ 204. ITALY. 893
southern coast of Sicily was tlie old Waldensian Church, wliicli for three hundred years had occupied the Protestant platform in the spirit of Calvinism (§ 139, 25). Remnants consisting of some 200,000 souls still survived in the valleys of Piedmont, almost without protection of laAv amid constant persecution and oppressions (§ 153, 5), moderated only by Prussian and English intervention. But when Sardinia headed Italian liberalism in 1848 religious liberty and all civil rights were secured to them. A "Waldensian congregation was then formed in the capital, Turin, which was strengthened by numerous Pi'otestant refugees from other parts of Italy. But in 1854 a split occurred between the two elements in it. The new Italian converts objected, not altogether without ground, against the old Waldensians that by maintaining their church government with its centre in the valleys, the so-called " Tables " and their old forms of constitution, doctrine and Avorship, much too contracted and narrow for the enlarged boundaries of the present, they thought more of Waldensianizing than of evan- gelizing Italy. Besides, their language since 1630, when a plague caused their preachers and teachers to withdraw from Geneva, had been French, and the national Italian pride was disposed on this domain also to unfurl her favourite banner '■'• Italia fara da .se." The division spread from Turin to the other congregations. At the head of the separatists, afterwards designated the " Free Italian Church " (Chicsa libera), stood Dr. Luigi Desanctis, a man of rich theological cvilture and glowing eloquence, who, when Catholic priest and theologian of the inquisition at Rome, became convinced of the truth of the evan- gelical confession, joined the evangelical church at Malta in 1847 and wrought from 1852 ^vitli great success in the congregation at Turin. After ten years' faithful service in the newly formed free church he felt obliged, owing to the Darbyite views (§ 211, 11) that began to prevail in it, to attach himself again in 1864 to the Waldensians, who meanwhile had been greatly liberalised. He now officiated for them till his death in 1869 as professor of theology at Florence, and edited their journal Eco della ceritd. Tliis journal was succeeded in 1873 by the able monthly Rivisfa Cridiana, edited at Florence by Prof. Emilio Comba. — After Desanctis left the Chieaa libera its chief representative was the ex-Barnabite father Alessandro Gavazzi of Naples. Endowed with glowing eloquence and remarkable poj^ularitA" as a lecturer, he appeared at Rome in 1848 as a politico-religious orator, attached him- self to the (evangelical church in London in 1850, and undertook the charge of the evangelical Italian congregation there. He returned to Italy in 1860 and accompanied the hero of Italian liberty. Garibaldi, as his military chaplain, preaching to the people everywhere Avith his leonine voice with equal enthusiasm of Victor Emanviel as the only saviour of Italy and of Jesus Christ as the only Saviour of sinners.
394 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
He then joined the Chiena libera, and, as he himself obtained gradually fuller acquaintance with evangelical truth, Avrought zealously in organizing the congregations hitherto almost entirely isolated from one another. At a general assembly at Milan in 1870, deputies from thirty-two congregations drew up a simple biblical confession of faith, and in the following year at Florence a constitutional code was adopted which recognised the necessity of the pastoral office, of aimual assemblies, and a standing evangelization committee. They now took the name "Unione della Chiesa libere in Italia." The predominantly Darbyist congregations, A^'hich had not taken part in these consti- tutional assemblies, have since formed a community of their own as Chiesa Cristiana, depending only on the immediate leading of the Holy Spirit, rejecting every sort of ecclesiastical and official organization, and denouncing infant baptism as unevangelical. — Besides these thi'ee national Italian churches, English and American Methodists and Baptists carry on active naissions. On May 1st, 1884, the evangelical denominations at a general assembly in Florence, with the exception only of the Darbyist Chiesa Cridiana, joined in a confederation to meet annually in an " Italian Evangelical Congress " as a preparation for ecclesiastical union. When, however, the various Methodist and Baptist denominations began to check the progress of the work of union, the two leading bodies, the Waldensians and the Free Church party, separated from them. A committee chosen from these two sketched at Florence in 1885 a basis of union, according to which the Free Church adopted the confession and church oi-der of the Walden- sians, subject to revision by the joint synods, their theological school at Home was to be amalgamated with the Waldensian school at Florence, and the united church was to take the name of the "Evan- gelical Church of Italy." But a Waldensian s3aiod in September, 188G, resolved to hold by the ancient name of the "Waldensian Church." Whether the "Free Church" will agree to this demand is not yet known.
§ 205. Spain and Portugal.
No European country lias during the nineteenth century been the scene of so many revolutions, outbreaks and civil wars, of changes of government, ministries and constitu- tions, sometimes of a clerical absolutist, sometimes of a democratic radical tendency, and in none lias revolution gone so unsparingly for the time against hierarchy, clergy and monasticism, as in unfortunate Spain. Portugal too passed through similai- struggles, which, however, did not
§ 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 395
prove so dreadfully disordering to the commonwealth as those of Spain.
1. Spain under Ferdinand VII. and Maria Christina. — Joseph Bonaparte (1808-1813) had given to the Spaniards a constitution of the French pattern, abolishing inquisition and cloisters. The constitution which the Cortes proclaimed in 1812 carried out still further the demands of political liberalism, but still declared the apostolic Roman Catholic re- ligion as alone true to be the religion of the Spanish nation and forbad the exercise of any other. Ferdinand VII., -whom Napoleon restored in December, 1813, hastened to restore the inquisition, the cloisters and despotism, especially from 1815 under the direction of the Jesuits highly esteenred bj^ him. The revolution of 1820 indeed obliged him to reintroduce the constitution of 1812 and to banish the Jesuits ; but scarcely had the feudal clerical party of the apostolic Junta with their army of faith in the field and Bourbon French intervention under the Duke of Angouleme again made his Avay clear, than he began to crush as before by means of his Jesuit Camarilla every liberal movement in church and state. But all the more successful was the reaction of liberalism in the civil war which broke out after Ferdinand's death under the regency of his fourth wife, the intriguing Maria Christina (1833-1837). The revolution now erected an in- quisition, but it was one directed against the clergy and monks, and celebrated its autos de fe, but these Avere in the form of si)oliation of cloisters and massacres of monks. Ecclesiastical tithes were abolished, all monkish orders suspended, the cloisters closed, ecclesiastical goods declared national property, and the papal nuncio sent over the frontier. A threatening papal allocution of 1841 only increased the violence of the Cortes, and when Gregory XVI. in 1842 pronomiced all decrees of the government null and void, it branded all intercourse with Rome as an offence against the state.
2. Spain under Isabella II., 1843-1865. — Ferdinand VII., overlooking the right of his brother Don Carlos, had, by abolishing the Salic law, aecui'ed the throne to Isabella, his own and Maria Christina''s daughter. After the Cortes of 1843 had declared Isabella of age in her thirteenth year, the Spanish government became more and more favourable to the restoration. After long negotiations and vacillations under con- stantly changing ministries a concordat was at last drawn up in 1851. which returned the cliurches and cloisters that had not been sold, allowed compensation for what had been sold, reduced the number of bishoprics by six, put education and the censorship of the press under the oversight of the bishops, and declared the Catholic religion the only one to be tolerated. But although in 1854 the Holy Virgin was named generalissima of the brave armj^ and her image at Atocha had
396 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
been decorated by the queen with a band of the Golden Fleece, a revolution soon broke out in the army which threatened to deal the finishing stroke to ultraniontanism. Meanwhile it had not fully per- meated the republican party. The proposal of unrestricted liberty to all forms of worship was sujjported by a small minority, and the new constitution of 1855 called upon the Spanish nation to maintain and j^uard the Catholic religion which "the Sj^aniards profess"; yet no Spaniard was to be persecuted on account of his faith, so long as he did not coiTfimit irreligious acts. A new law determined the sale of all church and cloister property, and compensation therefore by annual rents according to the existing concordat. Several bishops had to be banished owing to their continued opposition ; the pope l^rotested and recalled his legates. Clerical influence meanwhile re- gained power over the queen. The sale of church and cloister property was stopped, and previous possessors were indemnified for what had been already sold. Owing to frequent change of ministry, each of which manifested a tendency different from its predecessor, it was only in 1859 that matters were settled by a new concordat. In it the government admitted the inalienability of church property, admitted the unrestricted right of the church to obtain new property of any kind, and declared itself ready to exchange state paper money for projierty that had fallen into decay according to the estimation of the bishops. The queen proved her Catholic zeal at the instigation of the nun Patrocinio by fanatical persecution of Protestants, and hearty but vain sj-mpathies for the sufferings of the pope and the expatriated Italian princes. Pius IX. rewarded Isabella, who seemed to him adorned with all the virtues, by sending her in 1868 the consecrated rose at a time when she was causing public scandal mor-e than ever by her private life, and by her proceedings with her paramour Marforio had lost the last remnant of the respect and confidence of the Spanish nation. Eight months later her reign was at an end. The provisional government now ordered the suppression of the Society of Jesus, as Avell as of all cloister and spiritual associations, and in 18(i9 the Cortes sanctioned the draught of a new civil constitution, which required the Spanish nation to maintain the Catholic worshiji, but allowed the exercise of other forms of worship to strangers and as cases might arise even to natives, and generally made all political and civil rights independent of religious profession.
3. Spain under Alphonso XII., 1875-1885.— When Isabella's son re- turned to Spain in .Januar}', 1875, in his seventeenth year, he obtained tlif! blessing of his sponsor the pope on his ascending the throne, promised to the Catholic church powerful support, but also to non- Catholics the maintenance of liberty of worship. How he meant to perform both is shown by a decree of 10th February, 1875, which,
§ 205. SPAIN AND PORTUGAL. 397
abolishing the civil marriage law passed by the Cortes in 1870, gave back to the Catholic chvuxh the administration of marriage and matters connected therewith ; for all persons living in Spain, howevei-, " who professed another than the true faith," as well as for " the bad Catholics," to whom ecclesiastical marriage on account of church censures is refused, liberty was given to contract a civil marriage ; but this did not apply to apostate priests, monks, and nuns, to whom any sort of marriage is for ever refused, and whose previouslj' contracted marriages are invalid, without, however, affecting the legitimacy of children already born of such connections. — Against the draught of the new constitution, whose eleventh article indeed affords toleration to all dissenting fonns of worship, but prohibits an}' public nianifestation thereof outside of their place of worship and burial grounds, Pius IX. protested as infringing upon the still existing concordat in its " noblest " part, and aiming a serious blow at the Catholic church. The Cortes, however, sanctioned it in 1876.
4. The Evangelization of Spain. — A number of Bibles and tracts, as well as a religious paper in Spanish called el Alio, found entrance into Spain from the English settlement at Gibraltar, without Spain beiiig able even in the most flourishing days of the restoration to prevent it, and evangelical sjonpathies began more or less openly to be expressed. Franc. Ruat, formerly a lascivious Spanish poet, who was awakened at Turin by the preaching of the Waldensian Desanctis, and by reading the Bible had obtained knowledge of evangelical truths, appeared publicly after the publication of the new constitution of 1855 as a preacher of the gospel in Spain. The reaction that soon set in. however, secured for him repeated imprison- ments, and finalh" in 1856 sentence of banislunent for life. He then ■wrought for several j'ears successfully in Gibraltar, next in London, afterwards in Algiers among Spanish residents, till the new civil constitution of 1868 allowed him to return to Spain, where, in the service of the German mission at Madrid, he gathered around him an evangelical congregation, to which he ministered till his death in 1878. While labouring in Gibraltar he won to the evangelical faith among others the yovmg officer Manuel Matamoros, living there as a ])olitical refugee. This noble man, whose whole career, till his death in exile in 1866, was a sore martyrdom for the truth, became the soul of the whole movement, against which the government in 1861 and 1S62 took the severest measures. By intercepted correspondence the leaders and many of the members of the secret evangelical propa- ganda were discovered and tlu'own into prison. The final judgment condemned the leaders of the movement to severe punishment in peni- tentiaries and the galleys. Infliction of these sentences had already begun when the queen found herself obliged, by a visit to Madrid in
398 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1868 of a deputation of the Evangelical Alliance (§ 178, 3), consisting of the most distinguished and respected Protestants of all lands, to commute them to banishment. — After Isabella's overthrow in 1868, jjermission was given for the building of the first Protestant church in Madrid, where a congregation soon gathered of more than 2,000 souls. In Seville an almost equally strong congregation obtained for its services what had been a church of the Jesuits. Also at Cordova a considerable congi-egation was collected, and in almost all the other large cities there were largely attended places of worship. Several of those banished under Isabella, who had returned after her overthrow, Carrasco, Trigo, Alhama, and others, increased by new converts who had received their theological training at Geneva, Lausanne, etc., and supported by American, English and German fellow-labourers, such as the brothers F. and H. Fliedner, wrought with unwearied zeal as preachers and pastors, for the spreading and deeper grounding of the gospel among their countrymen. "With the restoration of tlie monarchy in 1875, the opj^ression of the Protestants was renewed with increasing severity. The widest possible inter- pretation was given to the prohibition of every public manifestation of dissenting worship in Article XI. of the constitution. The excesses and insults of the mob, whose fanaticism was stirred up by the clergy, were left unpunished and uncensured. Even the most sorely abused and injured Protestants were themselves subjected to im- prisonment as disturbers of the peace. No essential improvement in their condition resulted from the liberal ministry of Sagasta in 1881. Nevertheless the number of evangelical congregations con- tinued steadily though slowly to increase, so that now they numbei- more than sixty, with somewhere about 15,000 native Protestant members. — Besides these an Igleala EspaTiola arose in 1881, consisting of eight congregations, which may be regarded to some extent as a national Spanish counterpart to the Old Catholicism of Germany. Its founder and first bishop) is Cabrera, formerly a Catholic priest, who, after having wrought from 1868 in the service of the Edinburgh (Presbyterian) Evangelization Society as preacher in Seville, and then in Madrid, received in 1880 episco^jal consecration from the Anglican bisliop Eiley of Mexico (§ 209, 1), then visiting Madrid. Althougli tlius of Anglican origin, the church directed by him wishes not to be Anglican, but Spanish episcopal. It attaches itself therefore, while accepting the thirty-nine Articles of the Anglican Church, in the sketch of its order of service in the Spanish language, more to the old Mozarabic ritual (§ 88, 1) than to the Anglican liturgy. 1
1 Borrow, " The Bible in Spain." 2 vols. London, 1843.
§ 205. SPAIN AND POETUGAL. 399
5. The Church in Portugal. — Portugal after some months followed the example of the Spanish revolution of 1820. John VI. (181G-1826) confirmed the new constitution, drawn up after the pattern of the democratic Spanish constitution of 1812, enacting the seizure of church property and the suppression of the monasteries. But a counter revolution, led by the younger son of the king, Dom Miguel, obliged him in 1823 to repudiate it and to return to the older con- stitution. But he persistently resisted the reintroduction of the Jesuits. After his death in 1826, the legitimate heir, Pedro I. of Brazil, abandoned his claims to the Portuguese throne in favour of his daughter Donna Maria II. da Gloria, then under a year old, whom he betrothed to his brother Dom Miguel. Appointed regent, Dom Miguel took the oath to the constitution, but immediately broke his oath, had himself proclaimed king, recalled the Jesuits, and, till his overthrow in 1834, carried on a clerical monarchical reign of terror. Dom Pedro, who had meanwhile vacated the Brazilian throne, as regent again suppressed all monkish orders, seized the ]pioperty of the chui-ch, and abolished ecclesiastical tithes, but died in the same year. His daughter Donna Maria, now pronounced of age and proclaimed queen (1834-1853), amid continual revolutions and changes of the constitution, manifested an ever-groAving inclin- ation to reconciliation Avith Rome. In 1841 she negotiated about a concordat, and showed herself so submissive that the pope rewarded her in 1842 Avith the consecrated golden rose. But the liberal Cortes resisted the introduction of the concordat, and maintained the right of veto by the civil government as Avell as the rest of the restrictions upon the hierarchy, and the Codigo penal of 1882 threatened the Catholic clergy Avith heavy fines and imprisonment for CA'ery abuse of their spiritual perogatives and e\'ery breach of the laAvs of the State. In 1857 a concordat was at last agreed to, Avhich, hoAveA'er, Avas adopted by the representatives of the people not before 1859, and then only by a small majority. Its chief jjrovisions consist in the regulating of the patronage rights of the crown in regard to existing and neAvly created bishoprics. The relation of government to the curia, however, still continued strained. The constitution declares generally that the Catholic Apostolic Eomish Church is the state religion. A Portuguese Avho passes over from it to another loses tliereby his civil rights as a citizen. Yet no one is to be persecuted on account of his religion. The erection of Protestant places of worship, but not in church form, and also of burial grounds, Avhere necessary, is permitted. — Evangelization has made but little progress in Portugal. The first evangelical congregation, with Anglican episcopal constitution, Avas founded at Lisbon by a Spanish convert, Don Angelo Herrero de Mora, Avho in the service of the Bible Society
400 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
liad oditecl a revision of the old Spanish Bible in New Y'orlc, iind had there been naturalized as an American citizen. Consisting: originally of American and English Protestants, about a hundred Spanish and Portuguese converts have since 1868 gradually attached themselves to it, the latter after they had been made Spanish instead of Portii- guese subjects. After the pattern of this mother congregation, two others have been formed in the neighbourhood of Lisbon and one at Oporto.
§ 20G. Russia.
The Russian government since the time of Alexander I. has sought amid man}^ difficulties to advance the education and enlightenment of the people, and to elevate the orthodox- church Ly securing a more highly cultured clergy, and to increase its influence upon the life of the people ; a task which proved peculiarly difficult in consequence of the wide-spread anti-ecclesiastical spirit (§ 210, 3) and the in- comparably more dangerous antichristian Nihilism (§ 212, G). — The Catholic church, mainly represented in what had before been the kingdom of Poland, had, in consequence of the repeated revolutionary agitation of the Poles, in which the clergy had zealously taken part by stirring up fanaticism among the people and converting their religion and worship into a vehicle of rebellion, so compromised itself that the government, besides taking away the national political privileges, reduced more and more the rights and liberties granted to the church as such. — The prosjierous develop- ment of the evangelical church in Russia, which, through the absolutely faultless loyalty of its membei-s, had hitherto enjoyed the hearty protection of the government, in 1845 and 184G, and afterwards in 1883, in consequence of numerous conversions among Esthonian and Tjivonian i)ea- sants, was checked by incessant persecutions.
1. The Ortliodox National Church.— The evangelical influences intro- duced from tlic AVi'st (hiring the jirevious century, es]jecially among the higher clergy, found further encouragement under Alexander I.,
§ 206. RUSSIA. 401
A.D. 1801-1825. Himself aft'ected by the ^evdiigelical pietism of Madame Kriidener (§ 176, 2), he aimed at the elevation of the orthodox church in this direction, founded clerical seminaries and public schools, and took a lively interest in Bible circulation among the Russian jDeople. But under Nicholas I., a.u. 1825-1855, a reaction proceeding from the hol\' synod set in ^\■hich unweariedly sought to seal the orthodox church hermetically against all evangelical influ- ences. Also during the reign of Alexander II., a.d. 1855-1881, a reign singularly fruitful in civil reforms, this tendency was even more rigidly illustrated, while with the consent and aid of the holy synod ever}^ effort was put forth to improve the church according to its own principles. Specially active in this work was Count Tolstoi, minister of instruction and also procurator of the holj^ synod. A committee presided over by him i:)roduced a whole series of useful reforms in 1868, which were approved by the sj-nod and confirmed by the emperor. While the inferior clergy had liitherto formed an order by themselves, all higher ranks of preferment were now opened to them, but, on the other hand, the obligation of priests' sons to remain in the order of their fathers was abolished. The clamant abuse of putting mere clerks and sextons to do the work of priests was also now jDut a stop to, and training in clerical seminaries or academies was made compulsory'. Previoush* only married mon could hold the offices of deacon and priest ; now widowers and bachelors were admitted, so soon as they reached the age of forty years. In order to increase the poor incomes many churches had not their regular equipment of clerg}', and instead of the full set of priest, deacon, sub-deacon, reader, sexton, and doorkeeper, in the poorer churches there were only priest and reader. Order was restored to monastic life, now generally grown dissolute, by a fixed rule of a common table and uniform dress, etc. In 1860 an Orthodox Church Society for Missions among the jjeoples of the Caucasus, and in 1866 a second for Pagans and Mohammedans throughout the piiipire, were founded, both under the patronage of the empress. The Russian church also cleverly took advantage of political events to carry on missionary work in Japan (§ 18-1, 6). A society of the " Friends of Intellectual Enlightenment," founded in St. Petersburg in 1872, aimed chiefly at the religious improvement of the cultured classes in the spirit of the orthodox church by means of tracts and addresses, while agreeing with foi'eign confessions as to the nature and characteristics of the true church. Under Alexander III., since A.D. 1881, the emperor's former tutor Pobedownoszew, A\-ith the con- viction of the incomparable superiority of his church, and believing that by it and only by it could the dangerous commotions of the present be overcome (§ 212, (i) and Russia regenerated, as procurator VOL. 111. 26
402 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
of the liolj- synod has zealously ^vrought in this cliri»etion. — But meanwhile a new impulse was given to the evangelical movement iu aristocratic circles by Lord Radstock, who appeared in St. Petersburg in 1870. The addresses delivered bj'' him in French in the salons of the fashionable Avorld won a success scarcely to be looked for. The most famous gain was the conversion of a hitherto proud, worldly, rich and popular Colonel of the Guards, called Paschcow, who now turned the beautiful ball-room of his palatial residence into a prayer- meeting room, and Avith all the enthusiasm of a neophyte proclaimed successfully among high and low the newly won saving truth in a Biblical evangelical spirit, though not without a methodistic flavour. The excitement thus created led to jjolice interference, and finally, Avhen he refused to abstain from spreading his religious views among the members of the orthodox church by the circulation of evangelical tracts in the Russian language, he was, at the insti- gation of the holy synod and its all powerful procurator, banished first from St. Petersburg and then in 1884 from the empire, where- upon he Avithdrew to London.
2. The Catholic Church. — After the Greeks in the old West Eussian provinces (§ 151, 8), who had been forcibly united to Rome in 159(j, had again in 1772, in consequence of the first partition of Poland, come iinder Russian rule, the government sought to restore them also to the orthodox national church. This was first accomi^lished under Nicholas I., when at the synod of Polosk in 1839 they them- selves spontaneously expressed a wish to be thus reunited with the mother church. Rome thus lost two million members. But the allocution directed against this robbery by Gregory XVI. A\'as with- out effect, and the public oi^inion of Europe saw a case of historical justice in this reunion, though effected not without severe measures against those who proved obstinate and rebellious. Yet there always remained a considerable remnant, about one-third of a million, under the bishop of Chelun, in the Romish communion. But even these in 1875, after many disturbances with the prelate Pojiiel at their head almost wholly severed their connection with the pope, and were again received into the bosom of the orthodox national church. In a memorial addressed to the emperor for this puri)ose, they declared they were led to this on the one hand by the continual endeavour of tlie curia and its partisans, by Latinizing their old Greek liturgy and I'olandi/.ing the people, to overthrow their old Russian nationality, and on the othcir hand, by their aversion to the new papal dogmas of the immaculate conception of Mary and the infallibility of the pojDe. —The insurrection of the Poles against Russian rule in 1830, which even Pope Gregory XVL condemned, bore bitter fruits for the Catholic church of that country. The organic statute of 1832 indeed secured
§ 206. RUSSIA. 403
anew to the Polt's religions liberty, but the bishops -w'ere prohibited holding any direct comniunieation with Rome, the clergy deprived of all control over the schools, and the Russian law regarding mixed marriages made applicable to that province. By an undei'standing -with the curia in 1847 the choice of the bishops was given to the emperor, their canonical investiture to the pope. The mildness with A\hich Alexander II. treated the Poles and the political tx'oubles in the rest of Europe fostered the hoije of restoring the old kingdom of Poland. Reckless demonstrations were made in the beginning of 18B1, pilgrimages to the graves of the martyrs of freedom Avere organized, political memorial festivals were celebrated in chiu'ches, a general national mourning Avas enjoined, mourning services Avere held, revolutionary songs Avere sung in churches, etc. Tlie Catholic clergy headed the movement and canonized it as a religious duty. In vain the gOA'emment sought to put it doAATi by making liberal concessions, in vain they applied to Pius IX. to discountenance it. "When in October the countrj- lay in a state of siege, and the military forced their Avay into the churches to apprehend the ringleaders of rebellion, the episcopal administrator, Bialobezeski, denounced that as church profanation, had all the Catholic churches in Warsaw closed, and ansAvered the goA'ernment''s request to reopen them by making cxtraA'agant demands and uttering proud Avords of defiance. The military tribunal sentenced him to death, but the emperor commuted this to one year's detention in a fortress, Avitli loss of all his dignities and orders. MeauAvhile the eyes of the pope had at length been opened. He uoav confirmed the government's appointment of Arch- bishop Felinsk}', Avho entered WarsaAV in February, 1862, and reopened the churches. After the suppression of the rcA'olt in 1864, almost all cloisters, as nurseries of reA'olution. Avere abolished ; in the foUoAving year the Avhole pi'operty of the church Avas taken in charge by the State, and the clergy supported by state pay. The pope, enraged at this, gave violent expression to his feelings to the Russian ambassador at Rome during the NeAV Year festivities of 1866, Avhereupon the government completely broke off all i-elations Avith the curia. Con- S'ljuentlj' in 1867 all the affairs of the Catholic church were com- mitted to the clerical college at St. Petersburg, and intercourse be- tween the clergy and the pope prohibited. Hence arose many conflicts with Catholic bishops, Avhose obstinacy Avas punished by their being Juterned in their dioceses. In 1869 the Russian calendar Avas intro- duced, and Russian made the compulsory language of instruction. But in 1870 greater opposition Avas offered to the introduction of Russian in the public services by means of translations of the common Polish praj^er and i^salm-books, Pietrowitsch, dean of Wilna, read fl'om the pulpit the ukase referring to this matt -r. but then cas" it
404 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
togetlipi- with the fiiissiivu transhvtions iutu the flames, with violent denunciations of the government, and gave information against him- self to the governor -general. He Avas agreeably to his o-wn desire imprisoned, and then transported to Archangel. The same sentence •was pronounced against several other obstinate pi-elates and clergy, among them Archbishop Felinsky, and thus further opposition was stami)ed out. — Leo XIII. soon after entering on his pontificate in 1878 took the first step toward reconciliation. His efforts reached a successful issue first in February, 1883. The dejiosed prelates w(>ro restored from their places of banishment, Avith promise of a liberal pension, and were allowed to choose their residences as they pleased, only not within their former dioceses. In their stead the pope con- secrated ten new bishops nominated by the emperor, who amid the .jubilation of the people entei-ed their episcopal residences. With i-eference to the Roman Catholic seminaries and clerical academies at Warsaw, the curia granted to the government the right of control over instruction in the Russian language, literature and history, but committed instruction in canonical matters solely to the bishops, \vho, after obtaining the approval of the government, appointed the rector and inspector and canonical teachers. Vacant pastorates were tilled by the bishops, and only in the case of the more important was the approval of the government required. As to the language to be used, it was resolved that only where the people speak Russian were the clergy obliged to employ that language in preaching and in their pastoral work.
3. The Evangelical Church.— The Lutheran church in Russia, com- Ijrising two and a half millions of Germans, Letts, Esthonians and Finns, is strongest in Livonia, Esthonia and Courland, is the national church in Finland, and is also largely represented in Poland, iii the chief cities of Russia, and in the numerous German colonies in South Russia. In 1832 it obtained, for the Baltic provinces and the scattered f:ongregations in central Russia, a church constitution and service lx)ok, the latter on the basis of the old Swedish service book, the former requiring all religious teachers in chun-h and school to accept the Formula of Concord. Annual provincial synods have the initia- tive in calling in, when nccessaiy for legislative purposes, the aid of the general synod. — In I\)land the Reformt'd and Lutheran churches were in 1828 united imder one combined consistory. By an imi)erial ukase of IS-i'J, however, the independent existence of both churches was restored. Protestants enjoyed all civil rights and had absolute liVjerty in the exercise of their religion; but in central Russia down to recent times, when a more liberal s):)irit began to prevail, they were prohibited patting bells in their churches. The old prohibition of evangelical preaching aiid the teaching of religion in the Russian
§ 206. RUSSIA. 405
tongue also continued ; but the attemi^t made for some decades in St. Petersburg and the surrounding district to preach the gospel to Germans who had lost their mother tongue, in the JElussian language, lias been hitherto ungrudgingly allowed by the government. Quit- ting the national church or returning from it to a church that had been left before, is visited by severe penalties, and children of mixed mari'iages, Avhere one parent belongs to the national orthodox chiirch, are claimed by law for that chui'ch, Onl}'^ Finland counts among her privileges the right of assigning children of mixed mai'riages to the church of the father. The Lutheran chui-ch in Livonia, with the island of Oesel, suffered considerable, and according to the law of the land ii'reijarable, loss by the secessi'on of sixty or seventy thousand Lt^tts and Esthonians to the orthodox church mider the widespread delusion that thereby their economic position would be improved. Disillusions and regret came too late, and the ever increasing desire for restoration to the church forsaken in a moment of excitement could only obtam arbitrary and insufiicient satisfaction in Lutheran baptism of infants seemingly near death, and in permLssion at irregular intei-vals and Avithout previous announcement to sit at the LoI'd's Table according to the Lutheran rite. In 1865, not indeed legisla- tively but administratively, the contracting of mixed marriages in the Baltic provinces was permitted without the enforcement of the legal enactment reiiuiring that the children should be trained in the Greek church. In Esthonia, however, in 1888 there was a new outbreak of conversions in Leal, where five hundred peasants went over to the orthodox chvirch, declaring tlieir A\isli to be of the same" faith as the emperor ayd the whole of the Russian people. By imperial decree in 1885 the suspension of the law against >vithdrawing again from the national church, which had existed for twenty years, was abolished. At the instigation of Pobedownoszew the Imperial Council granted an annual subsidy of 100,000 roubles for furthering orthodoxy in the Baltic provinces. No evangelical church could be built in these pro- vinces without the approval of the orthodox bishop of the diocese, and any evangelical pastor who should dissuade a member of his church from his p\irpose of joining the orthodox church, was liable to punish- ishment. — In order to supply the want of churches and sclux)ls, ])reachers and teachers in the Lutheran congregations of Russia, a society was formed in 1858 similar to the Gitxtav-Adolfs-Verein, luider the supervision of the General Consistory of St. Petersburg, -which has laboriously and zealously endeavoured to improve the condition of the ojjpressed church.*
' Lendrum, " Ecdesia Fressa : or, the Lutheran Church in the Baltic Provinces," in T/ie TlieoloijUal lie ciew and Free Churdi CoUei/e Quar-
400 church history of nineteenth century.
§ 207. Greece and Turkey.
In the spirited struggle for liberty Cireece freed herself from the tyranny of the Turkish Mohammedan rule and obtained complete civil independence. But the same princes representing all the three principal Christian confessions, who in 1830 gave their sanction to this emancipation within lamentably narrow limits, in 1840 conquered again the Holy Land for the Turks out of the hands of a revolting vassal. And so inextricable were, and still are, the political interests of the Christian States of Europe with reference to the East, that in the London parliament of 1854 it could be afiirmed that the existence of Turkey in a condition of utter impo- tence was so necessary, that if it did not exist, it would require to be created. On two occasions has Russia called out her whole militaiy force to emancipate from the Turkish yoke her Slavic brethren of a common race and common faith, without being able to give the finishing blow to the " sick man " who had the protection of European diplomacy.
1. The Orthodox Church of Greece. — Deceived in their expectations from the Yienna Con<;ress, the t! reeks tried to deliver themselves fi'om Turkish tyranny. In 1814 a Hctairia was formed, branches of which spi-ead over the whole land and fostered amon^ the people ideas of freedom. The war of independence broke out in 1821. Its first result was a fearful massacre, especially in Constantinople. The patriarch Gregorius with his whole synod and aboiit 80,000 Christians were in three months with horrid cruelty murdered by the Turks. The London Conference of 1830 at last declared Greece an independent state, and an assembly of Greek bishops at Nauplia in 1833 freed the national church of Greece from the authority of the pati-iarch of Constantinople, who was under the control of Turkey. Its supreme diroiction was committed to a permanent Holy Synod at Athens, in- stituted by the king but in all internal matters absolutely independent. The king mitst belong to tlio national church, but othei-Avise all
terhi, vol. ii. 31O-.S.S0. C. H. H. Wright, "The Persecution of the Lutheran Church in the Baltic Provinces of Russia," in the Britinh <(/«/ Forfitjn EcdiKjelical Ilcv'icic, Januaiy, IHST.
§ 207. GREECE AND TURKEY. 407
religions are on the same footing. Meanwhile the orthodox church is fully represented, the Roman Catholic being strongest, especially in the islands. The University of Athens, opened in 1856 with professors mostly trained in G-ermany, has not been unsuccessful in its task even in the domain of theology.
2. Massacre of Syrian Christians, I860.— The Eusso-Turkish war ending in the beginning of 1856, in which France and England, and latterly also Sardinia took the part of the sick man, left the condition of the Christians practically unchanged. For though the Hatti Humayun of 1856 granted them equal civil rights with the jNIoslems, this, however well meant on the part of the Sultan of that time, jjractically made no improvement upon the equally well meant Hatti Sherif of Giilhane of 1839. The outbreak of 1860 also proved how little effect it had in teaching the Moslems tolerance towards the Christians. Roused by Jesuit emissaries and trusting to French support, the Maronites of Lebanon indulged in several provoking attacks upon their old hereditary foes the Druses. These, however, aided by the Turkish soldiery were always victorious, and throughout all Syria a terrible persecution against Christians of all confessions broke out, characterized by inhimian cruelties. In Damascus alone 8,000, in all Syria 16,000 Christians were murdered, 3,000 women taken to the harems, and 100 Christian villages destroyed. After the massacre had been stopped, 120,000 Christians wandered about without food, clothing, or shelter, and fled hither and thither in fear of death. Fuad Pasha was sent from Constantinople to punish the guilty, and seemed at first to proceed to business energetically ; but his zeal soon cooled, and French troops, sent to Syria to protect the Clu-istians, were obliged, yielding to pressure from England, where their presence was regarded with suspicion, to withdraw from the country in June, 1861.
3. The Bulgarian Ecclesiastical Struggle.— The Bulgarian church, with somewhere about two and a half million souls, was from early times subject to the patriarch of Constantinople (§ 73, 3), who acted toward it like a pasha. He sold the Bulgarian bishoprics and archbishoprics to the highest bidders among the Greek clergy, who were quite ignorant of the language of the countr3^, and had only one end in vie\\' namelj- to recoup themselves by extorting the largest possible revenue. No thought Avas given to the spiritual needs of the Bulgarians, preach- ing was wholly abandoned, the liturgy was read in a language un- known to the people. It was therefore not to be wondered at that the Bulgarian church was for j-ears longing for its emancipation and ecclesiastical independence, and made eveiy effort to obtain this from the Porte. Turkey, however, sympathized with the patriarch till the revolt in Crete in 1866-1869 and threatening political movements in
408 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Bulgaria broke out. Then at last in 1870 the sultan grautcnl the establishment of an independent Slavic ecclesiastical province under the designation of the Bulgarian Exarchate, with liberty to attach itself to the other Slavic provinces upon a two-thirds majority of votes. The patriarch Gregorius protested, but the Sublime Porte would not thereby be deterred, and in May, 1872, Anthimos the Exarch elect was installed. The i^atriarch and his synod now stigmatized Ph/jletlsm, the struggle for a national church establishment, as accursed heresy, and excommunicated the exarch and the -whole Bulgarian chui'ch. Onlj'^ the patriarch C^a^il of Jerusalem dissented, but he Avas on that ac- count on his return home treated with indignity and abuse and was deposed by a synod at Jerusalem.
4. The Armenian Church. — To the Gregorian-Armenian patriarch at Constantinople (§ 64, 3), equally with his orthodox colleague (§ 67, 7), had been assigned by the Sublime Porte civil jurisdiction as well as the primacy over all members of his church in the Turkish empire. When now in 1830, at the instigation of France, an independent ])atriarchate with equal rights was granted to the United Armenians (§ 72, 2), the twofold dei^endence on the Porte and on the E.i)man curia created difhculties, which in the meantime were overcome b}- giving the patriarch, who as a Turkish official exercised civil juris- diction, a primacy with the title of archbishop as representative of the pope. The United Armenians, like the other united churches of the East, had from early times enjoyed the liberty of using their ancient liturgy, their old ecclesiastical calendar, and their own churcli constitution -with free election of their bishops and patriarchs, and these privileges were left untouched down to 18(36. But when in that year the Armenian Catholic patriarch died, the archbishop Hassun was elected patriarch, and then a fusion of the two ecclesiastical powers Avas brought about, which was expected to lead to absolute and complete subjection under papal jurisdiction and perfect assimi- lation with the B/Omish constitution and liturgy, at the same time Hassun with a view to securing a red hat showed himself eager and zealous in this business. By the bull Beversiivns of 1867 Pius IX. claimed the right of nominating the ])atriarchs of all united churches of the East, of confirming bishops chosen by these patriarchs, in cases of necessity even choosing these himself, and deciding all appeals i-egarding church property. But the Mechitarists of St. Lazzaro (§ 164, 2) had already discovered the intriguing designs of France and made these known among their country-men in Turkey. These now, while Monsignore Hassun was engaged combating the infallibility dogma at tin; Vatican Council of 1870, drove out his creatures and constituted tliemselves into a clun-ch independent of Rome, without liowever, joining the Ciregorian-Armenians, The influence of France
§ 207. GREECE AND TURKEY. 409
being meanwhile crippled by tlie Prussian victory, the Porte ac- quiesced in the accomplished fact, confii-med the appointment of the newly chosen patriarch Kiipelian, and refiosed to yield to the pope's remonstrances and allocutions. In 1874, however, it also recognised the Hassun party as an independent ecclesiastical commmiity, but assigned the church property to the party of Kupelian, and banished Hassun as a fomenter of disturbance, from the capital. The hearty sympathies which on the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish war the Koman curia expressed so loudly and openly for the victory of the crescent over the schismatic Russian cross, made the Sublime Porte again regard the Hassunites with favour, so that Hassiui in Septem- ber, 1877, returned to Constantinople, where the churches were given over to his party and a great number of the Kupelianists were won over to his side. He was eagerly aided not only by the French but also by the Austrian ambassador, and the patriarch Kupelian, now soi-ely persecuted from every side, at last resigned his position and Avent in March, 1879, to Rome to kneel as a penitent before the pope. B}' an irade of the sultan, Hassun was now formally restored, and in 1880 he was adorned with a red hat by Leo XIII. Shortly before this the last of the bishops of the opposing partj^, with about 30,(JK) souls, had given in his submission.
"). The Berlin Treaty, 1878. — Frequent and severe oppression, refusal to administer justice, and brutal violence on the part of the Turkish government and people toward the defenceless vassals drove the Clu'istian states and tribes of the Balkan peninsula in 1875 into a rebellion of desperation, which A\'as avenged, especially in Bulgaria in 1876, by scandalous atrocities upon the Christians. When the half- hearted interference of European diplomacy called forth instead of actual reforms only the mocking sham of a pretended free representa- tive constitution, Russia held herself under obligation in 1877 to avi'uge by arms the wrongs of her brethren by race and creed, but owing to the thi'eats of England and Austria could not fully reap the fruits of her dearly bought victory as had been agreed upon in the Treaty of San Stefano, By the Berlin Conference, however, of 1878 the l»rincipalities of Roumania, Servia, and Montenegro, hitherto under the suzerainty of Turkey, were declared indejjendent, and to them, as well as to Greece, at the cost of Turkey, a considerable increas(! of territory was granted, the portion between the Balkans and the Danube was formed into tlu; Christian principality of Bulgaria under Turkish suzerainty-, but East Rcnimelia, south of the Balkans, now separated from Bulgaria, obtained the rank of an autonomo\;s pro- vince with a Christian governor-general. To Thessaly, Epirus, and Crete were granted administrative reforms and throughout the Euro- pean territory left to the Porte it was stipulated that full religious
410 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
and ix)litical rights be granted to members of all confessions. The adniinistnition of Bosnia and Herzegovina was given over to Austria, and that of Cyprus, by means of a separate treaty, to England. Tln' greater part of Armenia, Ij'ing in Asia, belongs to Russia.
§ 208. The United States of America.^
The Republic of the United States of America, existing since the Declaration of Independence in 177G, and recog- nised by England as independent since the conclusion of Peace in 1783, requires of her citizens no other religious test than belief in one God. Since the settlers had often left their early homes on account of religioiis matters, the greatest variety of religious parties were gathered together here, and owing to their defective theological training and their practical turn of mind, they afforded a fruitful field for religious movements of all sorts, among which the revivals systematically cultivated by many denominations play a conspicuous part. The government does not trouble itself with religious questions, and lets every denomination take care of itself. Preachers ai-e therefore wholly depend- ent on their congregations, and are frequently liable to dismissal at the year's end. Yet they form a highl}^ respected class, and nowhere in the Protestant world is the tone of ecclesiastical feeling and piety so prevailingly high. In the public schools, which are supported by the State, religious instruction is on principle omitted. The Lutheran and Catholic churches have therefore founded parochial schools; the other denominations seek to supply the want by Sunday schools. The candidates for the ministry are trained in colleges and in ninuerons theological seminaries.
» Baird, " Eeligion in the United States." Glasgow, 1844. " Pro- gress and Prosijects of Christianity in the United States." London, 1851. Gorrie, " Churches and ISccts in the United States," New Turk. IHaO.
§ 208. THE UNITED STATES OF xYMERlCA. 411
1. English Protestant Denominations. — The numerous Protestant de- nominations belong to two great groups, English and German. Of the first named the following are by far the most important: (1) The Congregationalists are the descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers Avho emigrated in 1G'20 (§ 143, 4). They profess the doctrines of the West- minster Confession (§ 155, 1).— (2) The Preshyterians, of Scotch origin, liave the same confession as the Congregationalists, but differ from tliem by having a common chru'ch govenunent with strict Synodal and Presbyterial constitution. By rejecting the doctrine of predes- tination the Cumberland Presbyterians in 1810 formed a separate body and have since grown so as to embrace in the south-western states 120,000 communicants.— (3) The Anglican Episcopal Church is equally distinguished hy moderate and solid churchliness. Even here, however, Puseyism has entered in and the Romish church has made many proselytes. But when at the general conference of the Evangelical Alliance at New York in 1873, bishop Cummins of Kentucky took part in the administration of the Lord's Supper in the Presbyterian church and was violently attacked for this by his Puseyite brethren, he laid the foundation of a " Reformed Episcopal Church," in which secession other twenty-five Episcojaal ministers joined. They regard the ei^iscopal constitution as an old and whole- some ordinance but not a divine institution, also the Anglican liturgy' and Book of Common Prayer, though capiable of improvement, while they recognise the ordinations of other evangelical churches as valid, and reject as Puseyite the doctrine of a special priesthood of the clergy, of a sacrifice in the eucharist, the presence of the body and blood of Christ in the elements, and of the essential and invariable connection between regeneration and baptism. — (4) The Episcopal Methodists in America formed since 1784 an independent body (§ 109, 1). Their influence on the religious life in the United States has been extraordinarily great. They have had by far the most to do with the revivals which from the first they have carried to a wonderful l)itch with their protracted meetuigs, inquiry meetings, camp meet- ings, etc. They reached their climax in the camp meetings which, under the preaching mostly of itinerant Methodist preachers fre- quently in the forest \inder the canopy of heaven, produced religious awakening among tlie multitudes gathered from all aromid. Day and night Avithout interruption they continued praying, singing, preaching, exlioi-ting ; all the horrors of hell are depicted, the excite- ment increases every moment, penitent ■\\-restlings with siglis, sobs, groans, convulsions and writhings, occur on everj^ side ; grace comes at last to view ; loud hallelujahs, thanksgivings and ascription of praise by the converted mix with the moanings of those on " the anxious bench " pleading for grace, etc. In San Francisco in 1874
412 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
there were ^^ Babi/-Iievivals^-^ nt -which chililn'u from four to twelve yeai-s of age, Avho trembled Avith the fear of hell, sang ^Jt'iiitential hymns, made confession of sin, and wrote their names on a sheet in order to engage themselves for ever for Jesus. Since 1847 the Methodist church had been divided into two liostile camps, a southern and a northern. The first named tolerated slavery, while the members of the latter were decided abolitionists and excommunicated all slave- owners as unworthy of the name of Chi'istian. Another party, the Protestant Methodists, has blended the episcopal and congregational constitution. — (5) The Baptists are split up into many sects. The most numerous are the Calvinistic Bai^tists. Their activity in proselytising is equally great with their zeal for missions to the heathen. In opposition to them the Free-Will Baptists ai'e Arminiau and the Christian Baptists have adopted Unitarian views.'
2. The German Lutheran Denominations. — ^The German emigration to America began in Penn's time. In the organization of church affaii"s, besides Zinzendorf and the Heri-nhut missionaries, a prominent part was taken by the pastor Dr. Melchior Muhlenberg (died 1787), a pupil of A. H. Francke, and the E-eformed pastor Schlatter from St. Gall ; the former sent by the Halle Orphanage, the latter by the Dutch church. The Orphanage sent many earnest preachers till rationalism broke in ujjon the society. As at the same time the stream of German emigration was checked almost completely for several decades, and so all intercourse with the mother country ceased, crowds of Germans, impressed by the revivals, went over to the Anglo-American denom- inations, and in the German denominations themselves along witli the English language entered also English Puritanism and Methodism. In 1815 German emigration began again and grew from year to year. At the s;yaiod of 1857 the Lutheran church with 3,000 pastors divided into three main divisions: (1) The American Lutheran church had become in language, customs, and doctrine thoroughly Anglicised and Americanized ; Zwinglian in its doctrine of the sacraments, it was Lutheran in scarcely anything but the name, until in its chief stmiinary at Gettysburg in Pennsylvania in 1850 a reaction set in in favour of genuine Lutheran and German tendencies. (2) A greatly attenuated Lutheranism with unionistic sympathies and frequent abandonment of the German language also found expression in the congregations of the Old Pennsylvanian Sjaiod. (3) On the other hand, the strict Lutheran (diurch held tenaciously to the exclusive use of the German language and the genuine Lutheran confession.
' Stevens, "History of the Episcopal Methodist Church in North America." Philadelphia, 18G8. Gorrie, "History of the Episcopal Methodist Church in the United States." NeAv York, IHSI.
§ '20S. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 418
The Prussian pinigratiou with Grabau and the Saxon Lutheran settlers -with Stephau constituted its backbone (§ 194, 1). To them a number of Bavarian Lutherans attached themselves who had emigrated under the leadei'ship of Lohe, whose missionary institute at Neviendettelsau supplied them with pastors. The Saxon Lutherans were meanwhile grouped together in the Missouri Syiiod, which Loire's missionaries also joined, so that it soon acquired much larger proportions than the Buffalo Spiod formed previously by the Prussian Lutherans under Grabau. But very soon the two synods had a violent quarrel over the idea of office and church which, owing to the reception by the Missouri Sjniod of several parties excommunicated by the Buffalo Synod, led to the formal breach of church fellowship between the two parties. The Missouri S3aiod, with Dr. Walther at its head, attached all importance to sound doctrine ; the clerical office was regarded as a transference of the right of the congregation and excommunication as a congregational not a clerical act. The Buffalo Sjaiod, on the other hand, in consequence of Serious conflict with pietistic elements, had been driven into an overestimation of external order, of forms of constitution and worship, and of the clerical office as of immediately divine authority, and carried this to such a length as led to the dis- solution of the s3'nod in 1877. Lohe's friends, who had not been able to agree with either party, formed themselves into the Synod of lo-wa, with their seminary at Wartburg under Fritschel. On all questions debated between the synods they took a mediating position. The Missourians, however, would have nothing to do with them, while those of Buffalo long maintained tolerably friendl}^ relations with them. But the historical view of the s\-mbols taken bj^ the lo^vans, their inclination toward the new development of Lutheran theology, and above all their attitude toward biblical chiliasm, which they wished to treat as an open question, seemed to those of Buffalo, as well as to the Missourians, a falling aAvay from the church confession, and led to their- excommunication by that party also. — In opposition to all this splitting up into sections a Genei'al Council of the Lutheran Church in America was held in 1866, which sought to combine all Lutheran district synods, of which twelve, out of fifty-six, with 814 clei-gymen, joined it, Iowa assuming a friendly and Missouri a dis- tinctly hostile attitude. The ninth assembly at Galesburg in Illinois in 1875 laid down as its fundamental jninciple, "Lutheran pulpits only for Lutheran preachers, and Lutheran altars only for Lutheran communicants." The native Americans, however, insisted upon ex- ceptions being alloAVcd, e.g. in peril of death, etc. On the question of the limits of these exceptions, however, subsequent assemblies have not been able to agi'ee.
3. But also in the Synodal Conferenct' founded and led by the
414 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
Missouri Sjaiod, embracing five synods, doctrinal controversies sprang lip in 1860. A large nmnber -w-ith Dr. Waltlier at their head held a strict doctrine of predestination which they regarded as the mark of gejiuine Lutheranism. God has, they taught, chosen a definite number of men from eternity to salvation ; these shall and must be saved. Salvation in Christ is indeed offered to all, but God secui-es it only for His elect, so that they are sure of it and cannot lose it again, not indeed intuitu Jidei but only according to His sovereign grace. Even one of the elect may seem temporarily to fall from grace, but he cannot die without returning into fu.ll possession of it. Prof. Fritschel protested against this in 1872 as essentially Calvinistic, and opposition also arose in the Missouri Pastoral Conference. Prof. Asperheim, of the seminary of the Norwegian Synod at Madison in Wisconsin, who first pronounced against it in 1876, was deprived of his office and obliged to withdraw from the synod. The conti'oversy broke out in a violent form at the conferences of about 500 pastors held at Chicago in 1880 and at Milwaukee three months later in 1881, at the former of which Prof. S.tellhorn of I'ort Wayne, at the latter Prof. Schmidt of Madison, offered a vigorous opposition. Walther closed the conference with the words: "You ask for war, war you shall have." The I'esult was that the whole of the Ohio Synod and a large portion of the Nor\\'egian Wisconsin Synod, broke away from communion with the Missouri Sj'nod. — Walther and his adherents went so far in tlieir fanaticism as to pronounce not only their American opponents but all the most distingtiished Lutheran theologians of Germany, Philippi as well as Hofmann, Luthardt as well as Kahnis, Vilmar as well as Thomasius, Harms as well as Zockler, etc., bastard theologians, semipelagians, synergists and rationalists, and to refuse church fellowship not only -with all Lutheran national churches in Euroi)e, but also with German Lutheran Free Churches, which did not un- conditionally attach themselves to them. These Missouri separatist communities, though everywhere qviite unimportant, are in Europe strongest in the kingdom of Saxony ; they have also a few representa- tives in Nassau, Baden, Wtirttemberg, Bavaria and Hesse.
4. German-Reformed and other German-Protestant Denominations. — The German-Heformed church has its seminary at Mercersburg in Penn- sylvania. Its confession of faith is the Heidelberg Catechism, its theology an offshoot of German evangelical union theology, but with a distinctly positive tendency. Although the union theology there jjrevailed among the Reformed as well as the Lutherans, a German Evangelical Church Union was formed at St. Louis in 1841 which Avished to set aside the names Eeformed and Lutheran. It established a seminary at Marthasville in Missouri. The Herrnliuters are also represented in America. Several German Methodist sects hn\'e re-
§ 209. CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 415
cent!}' sprung up : 1. The " United Brethren in Christ," Avith 500 ))reachers, founded by a Eeformed preacher Otternbein (died 1813).
2. The "Evangelical Communion," commonly called Alhrerhfsleutc, founded by Jac. Albrecht, originally a Lutheran layman, whom his own followers ordained in 1803, with 500 or 600 preachers working zealously and carrying on mission work also in Germany (§ 211, 1).
3. The Weinbrennians or Church of God, founded bj^ an excommuni- cated Reformed pastor of that name in 1839. They carry the ilethodist revivalism to the most exti'avagant excess and are also fanatical opponents of infant baptism.
5. The Catholic Church. — A number of English Catholics under Lord Baltimore settled in Maryland in 1634. The little community grew and soon filled the land. There alone in the whole world did the Homan Catholic church though dominant proclaim the principle of toleration and religious equality. Consequently Protestants of various denominations crowded thithei', outnumbered the original settlers, and rewarded those who had hospitably received them a\ ith abuse and opjjression. The Catholics were also treated in other states as idolaters and excluded from public offices and posts of honour. Only after the Declaration of Independence in 1783 Avas this changed bj^ the sunder- ing of the connection of church and state and the proclamation of absolute religious libert}-. The number of Catholics was greatly in- creased by numerous emigrations, specially from Ireland and Catholic Germany. They now claim seven million members, with a cardinal at New York, 13 archbishops, 64 bishops, about 7,000 churches and chapels. A beautiful cathedral was erected in New York in 1879, the immense cost of which, exceeding all expectation, Avas at last defrayed by very unspiritual and unecclesiastical methods, c.fj. lot- teries, fairs, dramatic exhibitions, concerts, and even dearly sold ]<isses, etc. The Roman Catholics have also a university at (St. Louis, 80 colleges, and 300 cloisters.
§ 209. The Roman Catholic States of South America.
To the pi^edominantl}^ Protestant North America the position of the Roman Catholic states of South America forms a very striking contrast. Nowhere else was the influ- ence and power of the clerg}^ so wide-spread and deeply- rooted, nowhere else has the depravation of Catholicism reached such a depth of superstition, obscurantism, and fanaticism. During the second and third decades of our
416 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
ceiituiy the S})aiU!5li states, favoured by the revolutionary movement in the mother country, one after another asserted their independence, and the Portuguese Brazil established herself as an indejieudeut empire under the legitimate royal prince of Portugal, Pedro I, in 1822. Although the other new states adopted a republican constitution, they could not throw aside the influence of the Catholic clergy and carry out the principles of religious freedom proclaimed in their constitutions. The Catholicism of the Creoles, half- castes, and mulattoes was of too bigoted a kind and the power of the clergy too great to allow any such thing. Mexico went furthest in the attempt, and Brazil, under Dom Pedro II. from 1831, astonished the world by the vigorous measures of its government in 1874 against the assumptions of the higher clergy. — In spite of all hin- drances a not inconsiderable number of small evangelical congregations have been formed in Romish America, partly through emigration and partly by evangelization.
1. Mexico. — Of all tlie American states, Mexico, since its independ- ence in 1823, has been most disturbed by revolutions and civil wars. The rich and influential clergy, possessing nearly a half of all landed l)roperty, was the factor with which all pretenders, presidents and rulers had to reckon. After most of the earlier governments had supported the clergy and been supported by them, the ultimately victoi'ious liberal party under pi'csident Juarez shook off the yoke in 1859. He proclaimed absolute religious freedom, introduced civil marriage, abolished cloisters, pronounced church possessions national pi'operty and exiled the obstinate bishops. The clei'ical party now scjught and obtained foreign aid. Spain, France and England joined in a common military convention in 18G1 in supporting certain claims of citizens r('[)udiat(>d by Juarez. Spain and England soon withdrew their troops, and Napoleon III. openly' declared the purpose of his interference! to be the strengthening of the Latin race and the monarchical princi])le in Amei'ica. At his instigation the Aiistrian ( J rand-Duke Maximilian was electcnl emperor, and that prince, after receiving the pope's blessing in Rome, began his reign in 18() I. Dis- trusted by all parties as a stranger, in difficulties with the curia and clergy becausj he opposed their claims to have their most extravagant
§ 209. CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 417
privileges restortxJ, shamefully left in the lurch by Napoleon from fear of the threatening attitude of the North American Union, and then sold and betrayed by his own general Bazaine, this noble but unfortunate prince was at last sentenced by Juarez at a court-martial to be shot in 1867. Juarez now maintained his position till the end of his life in 1872, and strictly carried out his anticlerical reforms. After his death clericalism again raised her head, and the Jesuits ex- pelled from Guatemala swarmed over the land. Yet constitutional sanction was given to the Juarez legislation at the congress of 1873. The Jesuits were driven across the frontiers, obstinate priests as well as a great number of nuns, who had gathered again in cloisters and received novices, were put in prison. — Also Evangelization advanced slowly luider sanction of law, though regarded with disfavour by the people and interfered with often by the mob. It began in 1865 with the awakening of a Catholic priest Francisco Aguilar and a Dominican monk Manuel Aguas, throvigh the reading of the Scriptures. They laid the foundation of the ^^IgJesia cle Jesus " of converted Mexicans, with evangelical doctrine and apostolic-episcopal constitution, which has now 71 congregations throughout the whole country with about 10,000 souls. This movement received a new impulse in 1869, when a Chilian-bom Anglican episcopal minister of a Spanish-speaking con- gregation in New York, called Riley, took the control of it and was in 1879 consecrated its bishop. Besides this independent " Church of Jesus " North American missionaries of various denominations have MTought there since 1872 with slow but steady success.
2. In the Republics of Central and Southern America, when the liberal party obtained the helm of government through almost incessant civil wars, religious freedom was generally proclaimed, civil mar- riage introduced, the Jesuits expelled, cloisters shut up, etc. But in Ecuador, president Moreno, aided by the clergy, concluded in 1862 a concordat with the curia by which throughout the country only iUie Catholic worship was tolerated, the bishops could condenm and con- fiscate any book, education was under the Jesuits, and the government undertook to employ the police in suppressing all errors and compel- ling all citizens to fulfil all their religious duties. And further the public rpsolved in 1873, although unable to pay the interest of the national debt, to hand over a tenth of all state revenues to the pope. But Moreno was murdered in 1875. The Jesuits, who were out of favour, left Quito. The tithe hitherto paid to the pope was imme- diately withheld, and in 1877 the concordat was abrogated. As Ecuador in Moreno, so Peru at the same time in Pierola had a dic- tator after the pope's own heart. The republic had his misgovem- ment to thank for one defeat after another in the war with Chili. — Bolivia in 1872 declared that the Eoman Catholic religion alone VOL. III. 27
418 CHLTRCH HISTOKY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
would be tolerated in the country, and stiffered, in common with Pern, annihilating defeats at the hand of Chili. — When at St, lago in Chili, during the festival of the Immaculate Conception in 1863, the Jesuit church La Compania was burnt and in it more than 2,000 women and children consumed, the clergy pronounced this disaster an act of grace of the blessed Virgin, who wished to give the country a vast number of saints and martyrs. But here, too, the conflicts between church and state continued. In 1874 the Chilian episcopate pronounced the ban against the president and the members of the national council and of the Lower House who had favoured the introduction of a new penal code which secured liberty of worship, but it remained quite unheeded. When then the archiepiscopal chair of St. lago became vacant in 1878, the pope refused on any condition to confirm the candidate appointed by the government. After the decisive victory over Peru and Bolivia, the government again in December, 1881, urgently insisted upon their presentation. The curia now sent to Chili, avowedly to obtain more accurate information, an apostolic delegate who took advantage of his position to stir up strife, so that the government was obliged to insist upon his recall. As the curia declined to do so, his passports were sent to the legate in January, 1883, and a presidential message was addressed to the next congress which demanded the separation of the church and state, >vith the introduction of civil marriage and register of civil station, as the only remaining means for putting down the confusion caused by papal tergiversation. The result of the long and heated debates that fol- lowed was the promulgation of a law by which Catholicism was de- prived of the character of the state religion and the perfect equality of all forms of worship was proclaimed. — Guatemala in 1872 expelled the Jesuits whose power and wealth had become very great. In 1874 the president Borrias opened a new campaign against the clergy by forbidding them to wear the clerical dress except when discharging the duties of their office, and closing all the nunneries.— In Venezuela, in 1872, Archbishop Guevara of Caracas, who had previously come into collision with the government by favouring the rebels, forbade his clergy taking part in the national festival, and put the cathedral in which it was to be celebrated under the interdict. Deposed and banished on this account, he continued from the British island of Trinidad his endeavours to stir ujj a new rebellion. The president, Guzman Blanco, after long fruitless negotiations with the papal nuncio, submitted in May, 1876, to the congress at St. Domingo the draft of a bill, which declared the national church wholly independent of Rome. The congress not only homologated his proposals, but carried them fur- ther, by abolishing the episcopal hi(>rarchy and assigning its revenues to the national exchequer, for education, Now at last the Roman curia
§ 209. CATHOLIC STATES OF SOUTH AMERICA. 419
agreed to the deposition of Guevara and confirmed tlie nomination of his previously appointed successor. But president Blanco now asked congress to abolish the laAv, and this was agreed to. — In the United States of Colombia since 1853, and in the Argentine Republic since'^1865, l^erfect liberty of faith and worship have been constitutionally se- cured. From the latter state the Jesuits had been banished for a long time but had managed to smuggle themselves in again. When in the beginning of 1875 Archbishop Aneiros of Buenos Ayres addressed to the government which favoured the clerical party rather than to the congress which was the only competent court, a request to reinvest the Jesuits with the churches, cloisters, and properties held by them before their expulsion, a terrible outbreak took place, which the arch- bishop intensified to the utmost by issuing a violent pastoral. A mob of 30,000 men, convened by the students of the university, wrecked the ]>alace of the archbishop, then attacked the Jesuit college, burnt all its f ufniture and ornaments on the streets and by means of petroleum soon reduced the building itself to flames. Only with difficulty did the military succeed in preventing further mischief. In October, 188-i, the papal nuncio was expelled, because, when the government decidedly refused his request to prevent the spread of Protestant teaching and to place Sunday schools under the oversight of the bishops, he replied in a most violent a:id passionate manner. About the same time the republic of Costa-rica issued a law forbidding all religious orders, pronouncing all vows invalid, and threatening ban- ishment against all who should contravene these enactments, and also an education act which forbade all public instruction apart from that provided by the State.
3. Brazil. — In Brazil down to 18S1, the " Catholic Apostolic Eoman Religion '' was, according to the constitution, the religion of the empire. But from 1828 there was a Protestant congregation in Rio de Janeiro, and through the inland districts, in consequence of immi- gration, there were 100 small evangelical congregations, with twentj-- five ordained pastors, whose forms of worship were of various kinds. In earlier times Protestant marriage w^as regarded as concvibinage, but in 1851 a law was passed which gave it civil recognition. But the bishops held to their previous views and demanded of married con- verts a repetition of the ceremony. Since 1870, however, the govern- ment has energetically opposed the claims of the clergy who wished only to acknowledge the authority of Rome. Protestant marriages were pronounced equally legitimate with Catholic marriages, no civil penalties are incurred by excommunication, all papal bulls are sub- j(>ct to the approval of the government, and it was insisted that an- nouncement should be made of all clergy nominated. The clergy considered freemasonry the chief source gf all this liberal current,
420 CHURCH HIRTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
ami against it therefore tlie3' dir(>ctecl all their forces. The pope assisted by his brief of May, 1873, condemning freemasonry. At the head of the rebel prelates stood Don Vitalis Gonsalvez de Oliveira, bishop of Olinda aiid Pernambuco. He published the papal brief -without asking the impc^rial permission, pronounced the ban upon all freemasons and suspended the interdict over all associations which refused to expel masonic brothers from their membership. In vain the government demanded its withdrawal. It then accused him of an attack upon the constitution. The supreme court ordered his detention, and he was placed in the state prison at Rio de Janeiro in Januar3', 1874. The trial ended hy his being sentenced to four years' imprisonment, -^\-hich the empei'or as an act of grace commuted to de- tention in a fortress, and set him free in a year and a" half. In conse- quence of this occurrence the Jesuits were, in 1874, expelled the countr3^ The increasing advent of monks and nuns from Europe led the government, in 1884, to appoint a commission to carry out the law alx'eady passed in 1870, for the secularization of all monastic property' after providing pensions for those entitled to su2)port. In the same year all naturalized non-Catholics were pronounced eligible for election to the imperial parliament and to the provincial assem- blies. The members belonging to the evangelical churches now num- ber about 50,000, of whom 30,000 are Germans. •
Y. — Opponents of Church and of Christianity.
§ 210. Sectarians and Enthusiasts in the Eoman Catholic and Orthodox Russian Domains.
It cannot be denied that since the Tridentinc attempt to define the church doctrine far fewer sects condemning the church as such have sprung from Eoman Catholicism than from Protestantism. Yet such phenomena are not wanting in the nineteenth centviry. Their scarcity is ahundantlj' made up for by the numberless degenerations and errors (§ 191) which the Catholic church or its representatives in
1 A full aecouut of tln' ivceut development of Protestantism in Brazil is givi'u in an article in the Prenhuteriav lievieio for January, 1889 pp. 101-1 0(i, " The Organization of the S3'nod of Brazil," by Dr. J Aspinwall Hodge. — On 15th November, 1889, the emperor Avas expelled and a republic proclaimed.
§ 2L0. SECTARIES IN ROMISH AND GREEK DOMAINS. 421
the higher and lower grades of the clergy not only fell into, but actually provoked and furthered, and thus encouraged an unhealthy love for religious peculiarities. Were the absence of new heretical, sectarian and fanatical develop- ments something to be gloried in for itself alone, the Eastern church, with its absolute stability, would obtain this distinction in a far higher degree. In the Russian church, however, the multitude of sects which amid manifold op- pressions and persecutions continue to exist to the present day, in spite of many persistent and even condemnable errors, witnesses to a deep religious need in the Russian people.
1. Sects and Fanatics in the Roman Catholic Domain (§ 187, G-S, § 190). —On the Catholic Irvnigitfs see § 211, 10.— (1) The Order of New Temp- lars sprang from the Freemasons (§ 172, 2). Soon after their estab- lishment in France the Jesuits sought to carry out their own hier- archical ideas. The fable of an uninterrupted connection between freemasonry as a " temple of humanity " and the Templars of the 31iddlo Ages, and the introduction therewith in their secret ceremonies of exercises, borrowed from the chivah-y of romance, afforded a means toward this end. The idea was started in the Jesuit college at Clare- mont and was approved and accepted by the local lodge. In a.d. 1754 a gr(»at number of their noble members, who were disgusted with tlie Jesuit templar farce, withdrew in order as " New Templars " to con- tinue the old order in tlie spirit of modern times. In consequence however, of the revolution that broke out in a.d. 1789 they could no longer hold their ground as a band of nobles. Napoleon favoured the reorganization of the order freed from those limits. The day of Molay's death (§ 112, 7) was publicly celebrated with great pomp in Paris, A.D. 1808 and the order spread among all French populations. On the Bourbon restoration the grand-master was, at the instigation of the Jesuits, cast into prison and the order suppressed. After the July revolution he was liberated and a new temple was opened in Paris iu a.d. 183i3. The show-loving Parisians for a long time took pleasure in the peculiar rites and costume of the templars. Wlieu this interest declined the order passed out of view. Its religion, which professed to bf; a primitive revelation carried down in the Greek and Egyptian mysteries, from which Moses borrowed, then further de- veloped by Christ and transmitted in esoteric tradition by John and his successors the grand-masters of the templars, taught a divine
422 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
trinity of being, act and consciousness, the eternity of the world along- side of God and an indwelling of God in man. It declared the Roman Catholic chiu'ch to be the only true Christianity (e'glise cliritienne primitive). Its sacred book consisted of an apocryi)hal gospel of John in accordance with its own notions. — (2) On the communistic society of St. Simonians, which also sprang up in France, see §212, 2. — (3) St. Simon's secretary was Aug. Comte, the founder of the Positivist philo- sophical school (§ 174, 2) and he maintained intimate relations with his master all through life. In his later years he undertook by car- rying his philosophical doctrine into the practical domain to sketch out a "religion of humanity," and thus became the founder of a Positivist religious sect. The men of science indeed who had adopted his philosophical principles (Littre, Renan, Taine, Lewes, Leslie Stephens, Tyndall, Huxlej^, Draper, etc.), repudiate it ; but in the middle and lower ranks sonae Avere found longing for an object of worship, who endeavoured on the basis of his Calendrier jwsitiviste and f'afechiime posifiviste to form a religiovis society for the worship of humanity. His festival calendar divides the year into thirteen months of four weeks each, named after the thirteen great benefactors of man- kind (among whom Christ does not appear), while the weeks are named after lesser heroes. By the profoimd veneration of woman, which savours greatly of Mariolatry, as well as by the fantastic worship of heroes, geniuses and scholars, which is a mimicry of the popish saint worship, and by the adoption of a sacerdotalism like that of Catholi- cism, this religion of humanity shows itself to be an antichristian growth on Roman Catholic soil.
2. — (4) Thomas Poschl, in the second decade of the century, presents an instance of a degeneration of originally pietistic tendencies into mischievous fanaticism. A Catholic priest at Ampfclwang near Linz, he sought under the influence of Sailer's mysticism to awaken in his congregation a more lively Christianity by means of prayer meetings and the circulation of tracts, in which he proclaimed the approaching end of the world. When tlie district in which he lived was, in 1814, attached to Austria, he was committed to prison, and his followers accepted as their leader the peasant Jos. Haas, who led them further still into fanatical excesses. His fanaticism at length went so far that on Good Fridaj' of 1817 a young maiden belonging to their party suffered a voluntary death after the example of Christ for her brothers and sisters. Poschl professed the deepest horror at this cruel deed for whicli he was blamed. He died in clost; monastic confinement in 1837.^(5) Th<! Antinomian sect of the Antonians, most numerous in the Canton Bern, had its beginning among tlie Roman Catholics. Its founder was Antoni Unterniilirer, born and reared at Shupfheim,near Lucerne, in the Catholic faith. From 1802 he resided at Amfoldingen,
§ 210. SECTARIES IN ROMISH AND GREEK DOMAINS. 423
near Thun, where he stood in high repute among the peasants as a quack doctor, gave himself out as the son of God a second time he- come man, and proclaimed by word and writing the perfect redemption from the curse of the law by the introduction of the true freedom of the sons of God, which was to show itself first of all in the absolutely unrestricted intercourse of the sexes. After two years' confinement in a house of correction ho was banished from the Canton Bern and transported to his native place, where, abandoning all pastoral duties, lie died in a police cell in 1814. The sect, which had meanwhile spread widely, and at Gsteig near Interlaken had obtained a new leader in the person of Benedict Schori, a third incarnation of Christ, could not be finally suppressed, notwithstanding the liberal use of the prison, till the beginning of 1840. Even at this day scattered rem- nants of Antonians are to be found in Canton Bern. — (6) AVhen the Austrian constitution of 1849 gave unconditional religious toleration, the Bohemian Adamites (§ 115, 5), of whom renmants under the mask of Catholicism had continued down to the nineteenth century, ventured again publicly to engage in proselytising efforts. An official enquiry instituted on this occasion declared that the sect, consisting of Bohe- mian peasants and artisans, had its headquarters among the mystics of the Kriidener school, that its religious doctrine was a mixture of communism, freethinking and quietism, and that its members were in their ordinary public life blameless, but that in their seci'et nightly assemblies, where they dispensed with clothes, tliey celebrated orgie3 regardless of marriage or relationship. — (7) David Lazzaretti, formerly a carrier in Tuscany, appeared in his native place after an absence of several years, in 1872, declaring that he was descended from a natural son of Charlemagne and had been entrusted by the Apostle Peter with a message to the pope, pointing to a cross that had been burnt upon his brow by the apostle himself. He startled those of the Vatican, where he was quite unknown, by declaring that the bones of his an- cestors lay under the ruins of an old Franciscan cloister in Sabina, of Avhose existence nobody was aware, the discovery of which seemed to vouch for his claims. These were all the more readily admitted when it was found that he made the restoration of the Pope's temporal power his main task. The number of his adherents, mostly peasants, soon increased immensely, reaching, it is said, 40,000. On Monte Labro they built a church with a strong " David's Tower," over which " St. David" appointed two priests who, when they had made certain changes in worship at the call of the prophet, were excommunicated by the bishop. David now began to spread his Socialistic and com- munistic ideas. He insisted that his adherents should surrender their goods to Iiim as representative of the societj', and promised down to December 31st, 1890, the introduction of community of goods tlxrough-
424 CHURCH HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.
out Italy and afterwards in other countries. In Arcidosso, the pro- phet's birthplace, a beginning was to be made, but in its overthrow on August 18th, 1878, he met his death, and his befooled followers waited in vain for the fulfilnieut of his dying promise that he would rise again on the third day.
3. Russian Sects and Fanatics. — After the attemj^t under Nicholas T. at the foi\'ible conversion of the Raskolniks, especially the purely schismatic Starowerzians or Old Believers (§ 1(33, 10), had proved fruit- less, the government of Alexander II. by patience and concession took a surer way to reconciliation and restoration. In October, 1874, their marriages, births and deaths, which had hitherto been without legal recognition, were put on the regular register and so their lawful rights of inheritance were secured. Under Alexander III. in 1883 an im- perial decree was issued, which gave them permission to celebrate divine service after their own methods in their chapels, which had not before the legal standing of churches, and declared them also eligible for public appointments. — To the Duclioborzians (§106, 2), sorely oppressed under Catherine II. and Pavil I., Alexander I., after they had laid before him the confession which they had adopted, granted toleration, but assigned them a separate residence in the Taurus district. Under Nicholas I. they were to the number of 3,000 transported to the Transcaucasian mountains in 1841, where they were called Duchoborje. — The Wiirttemberg Pietist colonists of South Russia originated among the peasants the widespread sect of the Stundists soon after the abolition of serfdom in 1863. The originator of those separatist meetings for the study of Scripture, which led first of all to the condemnation of image worship and making the sign of the cross as unbiblical, and subsequently to a complete withdrawal from the worship of the orthodox church and the forming of conventicles, was the peasant and congr(\gational elder Eatusny of Osnowa near Odessa, to whom, at a later period, with equal propagandist zeal, the peasant Balabok attached himself. The latter was, in 1871, sentenced to one year's imprisonment at Kiev and the loss of civil rights, and in 1873, at Odessa, a great criminal prosecution was instituted against Katusny and all the other leaders of the sect, which, however, after proceeding for five years ended in a verdict of acqviittal. A process started in 1878 against the so-called Sclialoputs had a similar issue. This sect, spread most widely among the Cossacks of Cuban, rejects the Old Testament, the sacra mcnits and the doctrine of the resurrection, but believes in a continued effusion of the Holy Spirit upon the propliets of the church who have prepared tlnjuiselves for their vocation by complete abstinence from flesh and spirituous liquor as well as by in- cessant prayer and fi-equent fasting.
4. About thi' )iiiddle of the eighteenth century among the " iV/e« of
§ 210. SECTARIES IN ROMISH AND GREEK DOMAINS. 425
God,'''' the strict interpretation of the prescriptions of their fovmder Danila Filipow (§ 1G3, 10) had led many to abstain wholly from sexual relations ; Avheu a peasant Andrew Selivanov appeared as a reformer and founded the sect of the Skopzen or mutilators, who, building on misinterpreted i^assages of Scripture (Matt, v. 28-30, xix. 12 ; Rev. xiv. 4) insisted upon the destruction of sexual desire by castration and excision of the female breasts, generally performed under anaesthetics, as a necessary condition of entrance into the kingdom of heaven. The first Skopzic congregation was gathered round him in the village of Sosnowka. The " men of God " enraged at his success denounced him to the government. He was punished with the knout and condemned in 1774 to hard labour at Irkutzk. The idea that Peter III., who died in 1762, was still alive, then widely prevailed. The " men of God" had also adopted this opinion, and proclaimed him their last-appearing Christ, who would soon return from his hiding-place to call to account all unbelievers. Selivanov, who knew of this, now gave himself out for the exiled monarch, and was accepted as such by his adherents in liis native place. When Paul I., Peter's son, assumed the reins of government in 1796, a Skopzic merchant of Moscow told him secretly that his father was living at Irkutzk under the name of Selivanov The emperor therefore brought him to Petersburg and shut him up as an imbecile in an asylum. After Paul's death, however, his adherents obtained his release. He now lived for eighteen years in honour at Petersburg, till in 1820 the court again interfered and had him con- fined in a cloister at Suzdal, Avhere after some years he died. Sorely persecuted by Nicholas I. many of his followers migrated to Moldavia and Walachia where they, dAvelling in separate quarters at Jassy, Bucharest and Galatz, lived as owners of coach-hiring establishments, and by rich presents obtained proselytes. Still more vigorously was the propaganda carried on in the Moscow colonies on the Sea of Azov. There in Morschansk lived the spiritual head of all Russian Skopzen, the rich merchant Plotizyn. After the government got on the track of this society, Plotizyn's house was searched and a correspondence revealing the wide extension of the sect was found, together with a treasure of several, some say as much as thirty, millions of roubles, which, however, in great part again disappeared in a mysterious maimer. Plotizyn and his companions were banished to Siberia and sentenced to hard labour, the less seriously implicated to correction in a cloister. — The secret doctrine of the Skopzen so fUir as is known is as follows : God had intended man to propagate not by sexual inter- course but by a holy kiss. They broke this command and this con- stituted the fall. In the fulness of time God sent his Son into the world. The central point of his preaching transmitted to us in a greatly distorted form was the introduction of the baptism of fire
42(5 CIIURCn HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
(Matt. iii. 11), i.e. mutilation by hot irons for which, in consideration of human weakness, a baptism of castration may be substituted (Matt. xix. 12). Origen is regarded by them as the greatest saint of the ancient church ; to his example all saints conformed who are re- presented as beardless or with only a slight beard. The promised return of the Christ (in this alone diverging from the doctrine of the " men of God "), took place in the person of the emperor Peter III. whom an unstained virgin bore, who was called the empress Elizabeth Petrovna. The latter after some years transferred the government to a lady of the court resembling her and retired into jirivate life under the name of Akulina Ivanovna, where she still remains invisible behind golden walls, waiting for the things that are to come. Her son Peter III., who had also himself undergone the baptism of fire, escaped the snares of his wife, reappeared under the name of Selivanov, performed many miracles and converted multitudes, obtained as a reward the knout, and was at last sent to Siberia. Emperor Paul recalled him and was converted by him. Under Alexander I. he Avas again arrested and imprisoned in the cloister of Suzdal. Bnt he was conveyed thence by a divine miracle to Irkutzk, where he now lives in secret, whence at his own time he shall return to judge the living and the dead. — They kept up an outward connection with the state church although they regarded it as the apocalyptic whore of Babylon. In their own secret services inspired psalms were sung, and after exciting dances prophecies were uttered.'
§ 211. Sectaries and Enthusiasts in the Protestant
Domain.
The United States of America with their peculiar consti- tution formed the favourite ground for the gathering and moulding of sects during this age. There, besides the older colonies of Quakers, Baptists and Methodists from England, we meet with Swedenborgianism and Unitarianism, while Baptists and Methodists began to send missionaries into Europe, and from England the Salvation Army undertook a campaign for the conquest of the world. But also on the European continent independent fanatical developments made their appearance. — A new combination of communism
1 Hepwortli Dixon, " Free Kupsia." 2 vols. London, 1870. Heard, " The Russian Church and liussian Dissent." 2 vols. London, 1887.
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 427
with religious entliusiasm is rei^resented by the Harmonists and by the Perfectionists in North America. The Grusiiiian Separatists and tlie Bavarian Chiliasts are millenarians of Gei'man extraction, of whom tlie former sought deliverance from the prevailing antichristian spirit in removal from, and the latter in removal to, South Russia. The Amen churches sought to gather God's people of the Jewish Christian com- munities together in Palestine, while the so-called German Temple sought to gather the Gentile Christians. As Latter Day Saints, besides the Adventists, the Darbyites established themselves on an independent basis ; the Irvingites, with revival of the apostolic offices and charisms, and their American caricature, the Mormons, with the addition of socialistic and fantastic gnostic tendencies. The religion of the Taiping rebellion in China presented the rare phenomenon of a national Chinese Christianity of native growth, and a still rarer manifestation is met with in American-European spiritiialism with pretended spirit revelations from the other world.
1. The Methodist Propaganda. — From 1850 the Amorioan ]M(!thoclists, both the Albreehtsleiite (§ '208, 4) and the Episcopal Methodists, have sent out numerous missionaries, mostly Germans into Germany, Avhose zeal has won considerable success among the country people. In North- West Germany Bremcm is their chief station, whence they have spread to Sweden, Central and Southern Germany, and Switzer- land, and have stations in Frankfort, Carlsruhe, Heilbronn, and Zurich. — Of a more evanescent character was the attempt made on Germany by the so-called Oxford Holiness Movement. In 186G the North American IMethodists cclelirated tlieir centenary in New York l)y the appointment of a great revival and holiness committee, in which were also members of many other denominations. Among them the manufacturer, Pearsall Smith, of Philadelphia, converted in 1871, exhibited exti'aordinary zeal. In September, 1874, he held at Oxford great revival meetings, from which the desigiiation of the Oxford movement had its origin. By some Germans there present his opinions were carried to Germany. In spring, 1875, he began his second European missionary tour. While his two companions, the revivalists Moody and Sankej-, travelled through England for the
428 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
conversion of the masses, Smith ^\■<■ut to Germany, and proceeding from Berlin on to Switzerland, gave addresses in English, that were interpreted, in ten of the large cities. The most pious among clergy and laity flocked from far and near to hear him. The new apostle's joui'ney became more and more a triumphal march. Ho was lauded as a reformer called to complete the work of Luther ; as a prophet, who was to fructify the barren wastes of Germany Avith the water of life. The core of his doctrine was : Perfect holiness and the attain- ment of absolute perfection, not hereafter, but now ! now ! now ! with the constant refrain: "Jes«s saoes me now''''] not remission of sins through justification by faith in the atoning efficacy of Christ's blood, which only avails for outwaixl sinful actions, but immediate extinc- tion of sins by Christ in us, proved in living, luifaltering, inner, personal experience, etc. By a great international and intcrconfes- sional meeting at Brighton, lasting for ten days, in June, 1875, at which many German pastors, induced by the payment of travelling expenses, were present, the crown was put upon the work. But at the height of his triumph, under the daily increasing tension and excitement the apostle of holiness showed himself to bo a poor sinful son of man, for he strayed into errors, " if not practically, at least theoreticall3'," which his admirers at first referred to mental aberra- tion, but which they hid from the eyes of the world under a veil of mystery. Toward the end of the Brighton conference he declared to his hearers : " Thus plunge into a life of divine miconcem ! " and, " All Europe lies at my feet." And in subsequent private conversa- tions he developed a system of ethics that " would suit Utah rather than England," to which he then so conformed his own conduct that his admirers, "although satisfied of the purity of his own intentions," were obliged energetically to repudiate and with all speed stnid away across th<! sea the man whom their o^vii unmeasured adulation had deceived.
2. The Salvation Army. — An extremely fantastic caricature of Eng- lish Methodism is the Salvation Army. The M(!thodist evangelist, William Booth, who in 18(J5 founded in one of the lowest quarters of London a new mission station, fell upon the idea in 1878, in order to make an impression on the rude masses, to give his male and female helpers a military organisation, discipline and uniform, and with military banners and music to undertake a campaign against the kingdom of the devil. The General of th(! Salvationists is Booth himself, his wife is his adjutunt, his clilrst, diinghter field-marshal; his fellow-workers male and female are his soldiers, cadets and officers of various ranks •, chief of the staff is Booth's eldest son. Their services are conducted according to military forms ; their orchestra of trombone, drum and trumpet is called the Hallelujah Brass Band.
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 429
Their journal, with an issue of "100,000, is the War Cry ; another for
children, is The Little Soldier, in which Jane, four years old, dilates
on the experiences of her inner life ; and Tommy, eleven years old, is
sure that, having served the devil for eleven years, he will now fight
for King Jesus ; and Lucy, nine years old, rejoices in being washed
in the blood of the Lamb. The army attained its greatest success in
England. Its numerous " prisoners of war " from the devil's army
(prostitutes, drunkards, thieves, etc.) are led at the parade as trophies
of war, and tell of their conversion, whereupon the command of the
general, " Fire a Volley," calls forth thousands of hallelujahs. Liberal
collections and unsought contribtitions, embracing several donations
of a £1,000 and more, are given to the General, not only to pay his
soldiers, but also to rent or to purchase and fit up theatres, concert
halls, circuses, etc., for their meetings, and to build large new
" barracks." Its wonderful success has secured for the army many
admirers and patrons, even in the highest ranks of society. Queen
Victoria herself testified to Mrs. Booth her high satisfaction with her
noble work. At the Convocation, too, in the Upper as well as the
Lm\-er House, distinguished prelates spoke favourably of its methods
and results, and so encouraged the formation of a Church Armj',
which, under the direction of the mission preacher Aitken, pursues
similar waj^s to those of the Salvation Army, without, however, its
spectacular displays, and has lately extended its exertions to India.
The temperance party after the same model has formed a Blue Ribbon
Army, the members of which, distinguished by wearing a piece of
blue ribbon in the buttonhole, confine themselves to fighting against
alcohol. In opposition to it public-house keepers and their associates
formed a Yellow Eibbon Army, which has as its ensign the yellow
silk bands of cigar bundles. Soon after the first great success of the
Salvation Army, a Skeleton Army was formed out of the lowest dregs
of the London mob, which, with a banner bearing the device of a
skeleton, making a noise with all conceivable instruments, and singing
obscene street songs to sacred melodies, interrupted the marches of
the Salvation, and afterwards of the Church, Army : throwing stones,
filthy rotten apples and eggs, and even storming and demolishing
their " barracks." — In 1880 a detachment of the Salvation Army, with
Railton at its head, assisted by seven Hallelujah Lasses, made a first
campaign in America, with Kew York as its head-quarters. In the
following year, under Miss Booth, it invaded France, where it issues
a daily bulletin, "^h Avant.^'' In 1882 it appeared in Australia, then
in India, where Chunder Sen, the founder of the Brama-Somaj, showed
himself favourable. In Switzerland it broke ground in 1882, in
Sweden in ISSl, and in Germany, at Stuttgart, in November, 1886.
Africa, Spain, Italy, etc., followed in succession. Thesc^foreign corps
430 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEP^NTH CENTURY.
outside of England also found considerable success. Almost every- where they met with opposition, the magistrates often forbidding their meetings, and inflicting fines and imprisonment, and the mob resorting to all sorts of violent interference. Nowher(! were both sorts of opponents so persistent as in Switzerland in 1883 and 188-1, especially in Lausanne, Geneva, Neuenburg, Berrt, Bail, etc. Although General Booth himself at the annual meeting in April, 1884, boasted that £393,000 had been collected during the past year for the purposes of the army, and over 846 barracks in eighteen countries of the world had been opened, and now even spoke of strengthening the army by establishing a Salvation Navy, the increasing extravagances caused by the army itself, as well as the far greater improprieties of those more or less associated with it, has drawn awaj' many of its former support<»rs.
3. Baptists aud Quakers, — Baptist sympathies and tendencies often appeared in Germany apart from an anti-ecclesiastical pietism or mysticism. But tjiis aberration first assumed considerable proportions when a Hamburg merchant, Oncken, who had been convinced by liis private Bible reading of the untenableness of infant baptism, was baptized by an American baptist in 1834, and now not only founded the first German baptist congregation in Hamburg, but also proved unwearied in his efforts to extend the sect over all Germany and Scandinavia by missions and tract distribution. Oncken died in 18&4. Thus gradually there were formed about a hundred new Baptist German congregations in Mecklenburg, Brandenburg (Berlin), Pomerania, Silesia, East Prussia (Memel, Tilsit, etc.), "Westphalia, Wupperthal, Hesse, Wiirttemberg and Switzerland. In Sweden (250 congregations with 18,000 souls) they were mainly recruited from the " Readers," who after 1850 went over in crowds (§ 201, 2). They also found entrance into Denmark and Courland, but in all cases almost exclusively among the uncultunnl classes of labourers and pciasants. After long but vain atti^mpts at suppression by the governments during the reactionary period of 1850, they obtained under the liberal policy of the next two decades more or less religious toleration in most states. They called themselves the society of " baptized Christians," and maintained that they were " the visible church of the saints," the chosen jjcople of God, in contrast to the " h(!reditary church and the churcli of all and sundry," in which they saw the apocalyptic Babylon. Even tlu; Mimnonites who " sprinkle," instead of immersing, " all," i.e. without proper sifting, the3' regard as a " lusretlitary " church. With the Anglo-American Baptists they do indeed hold fellowship, but take exception to them in several jjoints, especially about open communion. — A peculiar order of Baptists has arisen in Hungary in the Nazarenes or Nazirites, or as they call them-
§ 211. SECTAETES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 431
selves : " Followers of Christ." Founded in 1840 by Louis Hencfey, originally a Catholic smith, who had returned home from Switzerland, the sect obtained numerous adherents from all three churches, most largely from the Reformed church, favoured perhaps by the not yet altogether extinguished reminiscences of the Baptist persecutions of the eighteenth centmy (§ 163, 2). They practised strict asceticism, refused to take oaths or engage in military service, and kept the bare Puritan forms of worship, in which any one was allowed to preach whom the Holy Spirit enlightened. Their congregations embraced weak and strong friends, and also weak and strong brethren. The strong friends after receiving baptism joined the ranks of weak brethren, and then again became strong brethren on their admission to the Lord's Supper. The church officers were singers, teachers, evangelists, elders, and bishops. — In North America Quakerism, under the influence of increasing material prosperity, had lost much of its primitive strictness in life and manners. The more lax were styled Wet-, and their more rigorous opponents Dry-Quakers. Enthusiasm over the American War of Independence of 1776-1783, spreading in their ranks, led to further departures from the rigid standard of early times. Those who took weapons in their hands were designated Fighting Quakers. The General Assembly disapproved but tolerated these departures ; neither the Wet nor the Fighting Quakers were excommunicated, but they were not allowed any part in the govern- ment of the community. In 1822 a party appeared among them, led by Elias Hicks, which carried the original tendency of Quakerism to separate itself from liistorical Christianity so far as to deny the divinity of Christ, and to allow no controlling authority to Scripture in favour of the unrestricted sway of reason and conscience. This departure from the traditions of Quakerism, however, met with vigorous opposition, and the protesting party, known as Evangelical Friends, pronounced more decidedly than ever for the authority of Scripture. In England, notwithstanding the wealth and position of its adherents, Quakerism, since the second half of the eighteenth cen- tury, has suffered a slow but steady decrease, while even in America, to say the least, no advance can be claimed. In Holland, Friesland, and Holstein, Quaker missionaries had found some success among the Mimnonites, without, however, forming any separate communities. Ill 1786 some English Quakers succeeded in winning a small number of proselytes in Hesse, who in 1792, undiT the protection of the prince of Waldeck, formed a little congregation at Friedersthal, near Pyr- niont, which still maintains its existence. — On the sects of Jumpers and Shakers, variously related to primitive, fanatical Quakerism, see § 170, 7.1
1 llowntreo, " Quakerism Past and Present." Loudon, 1851).
4:^2 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
4. Swedenborgians and Unitarians.— In thi^ ninptcfntli contury Swed- euborgianism has found many adherents. In England, Scotland and North America ^he sect has founded many missionary and tract societies. In Wiirttemberg the procurator Hofacker and the libra- rian Tafel, partly by editions and translations of the writings of Swedenborg, partly by their own writings, were sjDecially zealous in vindicating and spreading their views. A general conference of all the congregations in Great Britain and Ireland in 1828 published a confession of faith and catechism, and thirteen journals (three English, seven American, Tafel's in German, one Italian and one Swedish) represent the interests of the party. The liberal spirit of modern times has in various directions introduced modifications in its doc- trine. Its Sabellian opposition to the church doctrine of the Trinity and its Pelagian opposition to the doctrine of justification, have been retained, and its spiritualising of eschatological ideas has been in- tensified, but the theosophiciil magical elements have been wholly set aside and scarcely any reference is ever made to revelations from the other world. — From early times the Unitarians had a well ordered and highly favoured ecclesiastical institution in Transylvania (§163, 1). But in England the law still threatened them with a death sentence. This law had not indeed for a long time been carried into effect, and in 1813 it was formally abrogated. There are now in England about 400 small Unitarian congregations with some 300,000 souls. The famous chemist Jos. Priestly may be regarded as the founder of North American Unitarianism (§ 171, 1), although only aftt>r his death in 1804 did the movement which he represented spread widely through the country. Then in a short time hundreds of Unitarian congrega- tions were formed. Their most celebrated leaders were W. Eller}' Channing, who died in 1842, and Theodore Pai'ker, who died in 1860, both of Boston.
5. Extravagantly Fanatical Manifestations. — The English woman Johanna Southcote declared tliat she was the " woman in the sun " of Eevelation xii. or the Lamb's wife. In 1801 she came forth with her prophecies. Her followers, the New Israelites or Sabbatarians, so called because they observed tlie Old Testament law of the Sabbath, founded a chapel in London for tlnnr worship. A bea\itif ul cradle long stood ready to receive the promised Messiah, but Johanna died in 1814 without giving birth to him. — A horrible occurrence, similar to that I'.jcorded in § 210, 2, took place some years lat(;r, in 1828, in the vil- higr? of Wildenspuch in Canton Zurich. Margaret Peter, a peasant's daughter, excited by morbid visions in early youth, was on this account expelled from Canton Aargau, and was carried still farther in the direction of extreme mysticism by the vicar John Ganz, by whom she was introduced to Madame de Kriidener (§ 176, 2). Amid con-
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 433
tinual heavenly visions and revelations, as well as violent conflicts Avitli the devil and his evil spirits, she gathered a group of faithful followers, by whom she was revered as a highly gifted saint, among them a melancholy shoemaker, Morf, whom Ganz introduced to her. The spiritual love relationship between the two in an unguarded hour took a sensual form and led to the birth of a child, which Morf 's forbearing ■\\dfe after successfully simulating pregnancy adopted as her own. This deep fall, for which she wliolly blamed the devil, drove her fanaticism to madness. The ridiculous proceedings in her own house, where for a wliole day she and her adherents beat with fists and hammers what they supposed to be the devil, led the police to interfere. But before ordei-s arrived from Zurich, she foimd refuge in an asylum, and there the end soon came. Margaret assured her followers that in order that Christ might fully triumph and Satan be overthrown, blood must be shed for the salvation of man}'- thousand souls. Her younger sister Elizabeth vokmtarily allowed herself to be slain, and she herself Avith almost incredible courage allowed her hands and feet to be nailed to the wood and then with a stroke of the knife was killed, under the promise that she as well as her sister should rise again on the third day. The tragedy ended by the apprehension and long confinement of those concerned in it. — The sect of Springers in Ingermannland had its origin in 1813. Arising out of a i-eligious excitement not coun- tenanced by the church authorities, they held tliat each individual needed immediate illumination of the Holy Spirit for Ids soul's salva- tion. So soon as they believed that this was obtained, the presence of the Spirit was witnessed to by ecstatic prayer, singing and shouting ioined with handshaking and springing in their assemblies. The special illumination required as its correlate a special sanctification, and this they sought not only in repudiation of marriage, but also in abstinence from flesh, beer, spirits and tobacco. The " holy love," prized instead of marriage, however, here also led to sensual errors, and the result was that many after the example of the Skopzen (§ 210, 4) resorted to the surer means of castration. — Among the Swedish peasants in 1842 appeared the singular phenomenon of the Crying Voices [Rudar). Uneducated laymen, and more particularly A\'omen and even children, after convulsive fits broke out into deep mutter- ings of repentance and pi'ophesyings of approaching judgment. The substance of their ])roclamations, however, Avas not opposed to the church doctrine, and the criers were themselves the most diligent frequenters of church and sacrament. — In the begimiing of 1870 the wife of a settler at Leonerhofe, near San Leopoldo in Brazil, Jacobiua Maurer, became famous among the careless colonists of that region as a pious miracle-working prophetess. In religious assemblies which she originated, she gave forth her fantastic revelations based upon VOL. III. 28
43-4 CHURCH HISTORY OP NINETEENTH CENTURY.-
allegorical interpretations of Scripture, and founded a congregation of the " elect " with a coninivuiistic constitution, in which she assumed to herself all church offices as the Christ come again. Rude abuse and maltreatment of these " Muckers " on the part of the " unbe- lieving," and the interfei'ence of the police, who arrested some of the more zealous partisans of the female Christ, brought the fanaticism to its utmost pitch. Jacohina now declared it the duty of believers to prepare for the bliss of the millennium by rooting out all the god- less. Isolated nuirders Avere the prelude of the night of horror, June 25th-26th, 1874, on which well organized Mucker-bands, abmidantly furnished with powder and shot, went forth murdering and biu-ning through the district for miles around. The military sent out against them did not succeed in putting down the revolt before August 2nd, after the prophetess Avith many of her adherents had fallen in a fana- tically brave resistance.
6. Christian Communistic Sects. — The only soil upon which these could iiourish was that of the Free States of North America. Besides the small Shaker communities (§ 170, 7) still surviving in 1858, the following new fraternities are the most important : 1. The Harmonites, The dissatisfaction caused among the "VVtlrttemberg Pietists by the introduction of liturgical imaovations led to several migrations in the beginning of the century. Geo. Eapji, a simple peasant from the villa"e of Iptingen, Avent to America in 1803 or 180i with about six- hundred adlierents, and settled in the valley of Connoquenessing, near Pittsburg in Pemisylvania. As a fundamental principle of this "Harmony Association," Avhich honoured father Eapp as autocratic YJatriarch, ijrophet and high priest, and with him believed in the near approach of the second advent, the community of goods holds a pi-om- inent place. By diligence and industry in agriculture, labour and manufactures, they reached great prosperity under the able leadership of their patriarch. In 1807 the community, by a resolution of its own to which Rapp agreed, resolved to abstain from marriage, so that henceforth no children were born nor marriages performed. A falling off in numbers was made up in 1817 by iieAv arrivals from Wiirtteni- ber"- and afterwards by the adoi)tion of children. Industrial reasons- led the comnumity in 1814 to colonize "VVabashthal in Indiana, where they built the town of Harmony, Avlnch, however, in 1823, on account of its unhealthy situation, thej' sold to the Scotchman Robert Owen (§ 212, 8), and then founded for themselves the town of Economj', not far from Pittsburg, where they still reside. In 1831 an adventurer,^ Bernard Muller, appeared among them, who, at Ofienbach, had, for a Ion"- time, under the name of Proli, played a brilliant part as a prophet called to establish universal spiritual monarchy, and then, when in danger from the courts of law, had lied to America, In Economy,.
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 435
Avhere he passed himself off as Count ^Maximilian von Leon, persecuted on account of his belief in the second coming, he found as such a hearty welcome, and within a year, by his agitation for the reintro- duction of marriage and worldh* enjoyments, drew aAvay a third part of the community, embracing 250 souls. The dissentients with 105,000 dollars from the common pui'se withdrew and settled under the leadership of the pseudo-couiit as a New Jerusalem society in the neighbouring village of iPhilippsburg. But the new patriarch con' ducted himself so riotously that he was obliged in 1833 to flee to Louisiana, where in the same year he died of cholera. His people now in deep distress turned to Dr. Keil, a mystic come from Prussia, who reorganised them after the pattern of Eapp's communistic society, but with liberty to marrj', and brought them to a pro- sperous condition in tAvo colonies mainly founded by him at Bethel in Missoiiri and Aiu'ora in Oregon. Economy, too, flourished in spite of the heavy losses it sustained, so that now the common jiroperty of the populace, Avhich through celibacy had been reduced to about eighty persons, amounts to eight million dollars. Father Rapp died in 1847, in his ninetieth year, confident to the end that he would guide his church rmto the hourly expected advent of Christ. — 2. When in 1831 a wave of revival passed over North America, J. H. Noyes, an advocate's assistant, applied himself to the study of the Bible and became the founder of a new sect, the Bible Communists or Perfectionists of the Oneida Society. He taught that the promised advent of Clrrist took place spiritually soon after the destruction of Jerusalem ; by it the kingdom of Adam Avas ended and the kingdom of God in the heart of those Avho kneAV and received him Avas estab- lished. The ofiicial churches Avere only state churches, but the true chiu-ch Avas scattered in the hearts of individual saints, until Noyea collected and organized it into a Bible familj% For them there is no more laAv, for laAvs are for sinners and the saints no longer sin. Each saint can do and suffer Avhatever the Spirit of God moves him to. All the members of the congregation constitute one family, live, eat, and A\-ork together. Goods, wives and children are in conunon. It lies A\dth the wife to accept or refuse the approaches of a man. But soon this proclaimed freedom from laAv sent everything into confusion and dis- union ; schism— apostasy prevailed. But Father Noyes now saved his church from destruction by introducing a correction to this freedom from laAV in Siimpathy^ i.e. in the agreement of all members of the familj'. The odium Avliich fell upon the community from Avithout on account of its " complex marriages," indviced him at last in August, 1879, although he still ahvays maintair.ed the soundness of his principle of free love and its final victory OA-er prejudice, to ordain the introduc- tion of mouogainic nuirriages, and the community acquiesced. With
436 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
regard to community of goods, meals and children, however, they kept to the old lines. The parent community has its seat at Lenox in Oneidabacli in New York State. Alongside of it are three daughter communities. They have their prophets and prophetesses, but no ritual service and no Sunday. Their employment (they number about 300 souls) is mainly fruit culture and the manufacture of snares of every kind for Avild and other animals. i
7. Millenarian Exodus Commnnities. — 1. The Greorgian Separatists. The stream of Wlirttemberg emigrants above referred to turned also toward Southern Eussia. The settlers in Transcaucasian Georgia in the long absence of regular pastors fell into fanatical separation, which the clergy who followed in 1820 could not overcome. Under the direction of three elders (one of them an old woman) as representing the Holy Trinity, they lived quietly, refused to baptize their childi-en, to give their dead burial according to the rites of the church, to call in physicians in sickness, and at last rejected the marriage relation. In 1842 their female elder, Barbara Spohn, wife of a cart- Avright, appeared in the role of a prophet, proclaiming the near ap- proach of the end of the world and calling upon her followers to pass tln-ough the wilderness to the promised land, there to enter into the millenial kingdom. They were to take with them no m.oney, no bread, etc., but only a staff ; their clothes and shoes would not wear old in the desert, they could eat manna and quails, and in the holy land Christ would dress them in the bridal robe. The government sought in vain to bring them to reason and to obstruct their way, Avhen about three hundred of them wished at Pentecost, 1843, to start on their journey. They were allowed to send three men to Constantinople and Palestine to seek permission from the Turkish goverimient to settle in a spot near Jerusalem. But these returned before the close of the year with the news, that Palestine is not the land that would suit them. This brought the majority to their senses and they rejoined the church. — 2. Equally unfortunate was the attempt at coloniza- tion made in 1878 by some Bavarian Chiliasts. The pastor Cloter in Ulenschwang had for a long time in the " Brildcrbote,^^ edited by him, urged the (anigration of believers to South Russia, where, according to his exposition of the ai)oca]yptic prophecy, a secure place of refuge liad been provided by God for believers of the last times during the iK'ar apiH-oaching persecutions of antichrist. In June, 1878, the tailor Minderlein with his family and nineteen other persons started to go
^ Dixon, "New America." 2 vols,, 8th edition. London, 1869. NordhofF, " The Coinmunistio Societies of the United States." Lon- don iS7J.
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 437
tliitlier. Mindprlein died by the way, and his companions after en- during great hardships were obliged to return, and reached Nurem- berg again in October, absolutely destitute. ClSter, however, was not discouraged by this misfortune. In December he called his ad- herents from Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and Switzerland, together to a conference at Stuttgart, where they formed themselves into the " Ger- man Exodus Church." In the summer, 1880, Cloter liimself travelled to South Russia and thought that he found in the Crimea the fittest place of refuge. On his return he Avas banished, but after some daj^s liberated, though deprived of his clerical office. A final stop was then put to the exod\is movement.
8, — 3. The Amen Community owed its feeble existence to a Christian Jew, Israel Pick of Bohemia. Believing that he was not required in baptism to renounce his Judaism, but that rather thereby he first became a true Jew, through a onesided interpretation of Old Testament promises to his nation, he wished to found a colony of the people of God in the Holy Land on Jewish-Christian principles. The whole Mosaic law, excluding the observance of the Sabbath and circumcision, was to be the basis, together with baptism and the Lord's Supper, of ecclesiastical and civil organization. He succeeded in winning a few converts here and there, to whom he gave the name of the Amen Community, because in Christ (the jON VH^N Isa. Ixv. 16) all the prophecies of the old covenant are Yea and Amen. Its chief seat was at Munich-Gladbach. In 1859 Pick travelled to Palestine in order to choose a spot for the settlement of his followers and there all trace of him was lost. — 4. The founder of the German Temple Communities in Palestine was Chr. Hoffmann, brother of General Superintendent Hoffmann of Berlin, and son of the founder of the Kornthal Com- munit}^ (§ 196, 5), in connection with Chr. Paulus, nephew of the well known Heidelberg professor Paulus (§ 182, 2). In 1854 they issued an invitation to a conference at Ludwigsburg, for consultation about the means for gathering the people of God in Palestine. A great crowd of believers from all jjarts, numbering some 10,000 families, was to embark for the holy land to form there a new people of God which, on the foundation of prophets and apostles, should strictly practise the public law of the old covenant in all points of civil administration, including the laws of the sabbath and the jubilee. The conference besought of the German League that it would use its influence with the Sultan to secure permission for colonization with self-government and religious freedom. As the German League simply declined the request, the committee bought the estate of Kirschenhardthof near Marbach, in order there temporarily and in a small way to form a social commonwealth observing the Mosaic law. In 1858 Hoffmann -n-ent with two of his followers to Jerusalem in,
438 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
order to look out a place there suitable for tlieir purpose. The result ■s\'as unsatisfactory. Therefore he issued in 1861 a summons to take part in a German Temple. Consequently a numlDer of men from Wilrttemberg, Bavaria, and Baden, Protestants and Catholics, forsook their churches, ordained priests and elders, and appointed Hoff- mann their bishop and held regular synods. The final aim of this procedure, hoAvever, was always still to find a settlement in Palestine and erect a temple in Jerusalem which, according to prophecy, is to form the central sanctuary for the whole Avorld. Colonization in the East was tried as a means to this end. Since 1869 there have been five organized colonies, with a Temple Chief and a congregational school, embracing about 1,000 souls, established in Palestine, viz. at Jaffa, Haifa, Sarona, Beyrout, and in 1878 even in Jerusalem, whither the original colony at Jaffa was transferred. The German ImiDerial Government refused indeed in 1879 to give the recognition sought for to the civil and political organization of the Palestinian colonies, as in a foreign country beyond its jurisdiction, but granted to its Lyceum at Jerusalem a yearly contribution of 1,500 marks and to the schools of .Jaffa, Haifa and Sarona from 650 to 1,000. In 1875 Hoffmann pub- lished at Stuttgart a large apologetical and polemical work, " Occident iind Orient,'''' which contained many thoughtful remarks. But since then, in the central organ of all the Temple Communities inspired by him, the " Siiddeidnche irffrie," he has openly and distinctly attached himself to Ebionitic rationalism, by denying and opposing the funda- mental evangelical doctrine of the trinity, redemption, and the sacraments. These theological views, however, were by no means shared in by all the Templars, and caused a sjDlit in the community, one section at Haifa with the chief templar there, Hardegg, at its head, separating from the central body as an independent " Imperial Brotherhood." The seceders, joined by many German and American templar friends, again drew nearer to the Evangelical church and ultimately became reconciled M-ith it. But Hoffmann has, in his last work, Bihelforschiingcn i. ii. : Bum.- u. Kol. hr., Jerus. 1882, 1884, carried his polemic against the church doctrine to the utmost extreme of C3rnical abuse. He died in December, 1885. At the head of the denomination now stands his fellow-worker Paulus. From year to year several drop back into the Evangelical church so that the com- munity is evidently approaching extinction.
9. The Community of "the New Israel."^ — The Jewish advocate Jos. Rabinowitsch at Ivishenev in Bessarabia, who had long occupied himself with plans for the improvement of the spiritual and material circumstances of his fellow-countrymen, at the outbreak of the per- secution of the Jews in 1882 in South Russia eagerly urged their j-eturn to the holy land of their fathers and himself undertook a
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 4-^9
journey of inspection. There definite shape seems to have been given to the long cherished thought of seeking the salvation of his people iu an independent national attachment to their old sacred historical development, broken off 1850 3'ears before, by acknowledging the Messiahship of Jesus. At least after liis return he gave expression to the sentiment, based on Romans xi. : " The keys of the holy land are in the hands of our brother Jesus," which, in conseciuence of the high esteem in which he was held by his countrymen, was soon re- echoed by some 200 Jewish families. His main endeavour now was the formation of independent national Jewish-Christian communities, after the pattern of the primitive church of Jerusalem, as "iVert' Jsraelites,''' observing all the old Jewish rites and ordinances com- patible with New Testament apostolic preaching and reconcilable Avith modern civil anrl social conditions. The Torah, the prophets of the Old Testament and the New Testament writings, are held as abso- lutely binding, whereas the Talmud and the post-apostolic Gentile Christian additions to doctrine, Avorship, and constitution are not so regarded. Jesus, Eabinowitsch teaches, is the true Messiah who, as Moses and prophets foretold, was born as Son of David by the Spirit of God and in the power of that Spirit lived and taught in Israel, then for our salvation suffered, was crucified and died, rose from the dead, and ascended to the right hand of the Father in heaven. The trinity of persons in God as well as the two natures in Christ he rejects, as not taught in the New Testament and originating in Gentile Christian speculation. Baptism and the Lord's Supper (and that "according to the example of Christians of the pure Evangelical confession in England and Germany") are recognised as necessarj' means of grace ; but the Lord's Supper is to be, according to its insti- tution, a real meal with the old Jewish prayers. As to the doctrine of the Supper, Eabinowitsch agrees with the views of the Lutheran church. Circumcision and the observance of the Sabbath and the feasts (especially the Passover), are retained, not indeed as necessary to salvation, therefore not binding on Gentile Christians, but pa- triotically observed by Jewish-Christians as signs of their election from and before all nations as the people of God. In January, 1885, ■i\'ith consent of the Russian Government, the newly-erected si^iiagogue of "the holy Messiah Jesus Christ" for the small congregation of Rabinowitsch's followers at Kishenev was solemnly opened, the Russian church authorities, the Lutheran pastor Fultin and manj- young Jews taking jjart in the service. Soon afterwards Rabino- witsch received Christian baptism in the chapel of the Bohemian church at Berlin at the hands of Prof. Mead of Andover, probably in recognition of the aid sent from America. — A Jewish-Christian re- ligious communion with similar tendencies has been formed in the
440 CHUECH histohy of nineteenth century.
South Russian town of Jellisawotgracl under tho designation of a ^'Biblical Spiritual Brotherhood.'''
10. The Catholic Apostolic Church of the Ir?ingites. — Edward Irving. 1792-1834, a powerful and popvilar preacher of tlie Scotch-Presbj'terian church in London, maintained the doctrine that the human nature of Christ Hive our ou-n was affected by original sin, which was over- come and atoned for by the power of the divine nature. At the same time he became convinced that the spiritual gifts of the apostolic church could and should still be obtained by prayer and faith. A party of his followers soon began to exercise the gift of tongues by tittering unintelligible sounds, loud cries, and prophecies. His presby- tery suspended him in 1832 and the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland excomminiicated him. Rich and distinguished friends from the Episcopal church, among them the Avealthy banker, Drum- mond, afterwards prominent as an apostle (died 1859), rallied round the man thus expelled from his church, and gave him the means to found a new church, but, in spite of Irving's protests, brought with them high church puseyite tendencies, which soon drove out the here- tical as well as the puritanic tendencies, and modified the fanatical element into a hierarchical and liturgical formalism. The restoration of the office of apostle Avas the characteristic feature of the movement. After many unsuccessful attempts they succeeded by the divine illumination of the prophets in calling twelve apostles, first and chief of Avhom was the lawyer Cardale (died 1877). By the apostles, as chief rulers and stewards of the church, evangelists and pastors (or angels, Rev. ii. 1, 8, etc.) were ordained in accordance with Eph. iv. 11 ; and subordinate to the pastors, there wei^e appointed six elders and as many deacons, so that the office bearers of each congregation embraced thirteen persons, after the example of Christ and His twelve disciples. In London seven congregations were formed after the pattern of the seven apocalyjatic churches (Rev. i. 20). Prominent among their new revelations was the promise of the immediately approaching advent of the Lord. The Lord, who Avas to have come in the lifetime of the first disciples and so was looked for confidently by them, delayed indefinitely His return on account of abounding iniquity and pre- vented the full development of the second apostolate designed for the Gentiles and meanwhile represented only by Paul, because the church was no longer Avorthy of it. Noav at last, after eighteen centuries of degradation, in Avhich the church came to be the apocalyptic Babylon and rij-iened for judgment, the time has come Avhen the suspendiiJ ftpostolate has been restored to prepare the Avay for the last things. Very confidently Avas it at first maintained that none of their members should die, but should live to see the final consummation. But after death had removed so many from among them, and even the apostles
§ 211. SECTAEIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 441
one after another, it was merely said that thoge are already born who should see the last day. It may come any day, any hour. It begins with the first resurrection (Eev. xx. 5) and the " changing " of tlie saints that are alive (the wise virgins, i.e. the Irvingites), who will be caught up to the Lord in the clouds and in a higher sphere be joined with the Lord in the marriage supper of the Lamb. They are safely hidden Avhile antichrist persecutes the other Christians, the foolish virgins, who only can be saved by means of painful suffering, and executes judgment on Babylon. This marks the end of the Gentile church ; but then begins the conversion of the Jews, who, driven by necessity and the persecution of sinful men, have sought and found a refuge in Palestine. After a short victory of antichrist the Lord visibly appears among the risen and removed. The kingdom of anti- christ is destroyed, Satan is bound, the saints live and reign with Christ a thousand years on the earth freed from the curse. There- after Satan is again let loose for a short time and works great havoc. Tlien comes Satan's final overthrow, the second resurrection and last .judgment. Their liturgy, composed by the apostles, is a compilation f i-om the Anglican and Catholic sources. Sacerdotalism and sacrifice are prominent and showy priestly garments are regarded as requisite. Yet they repudiate the Romish doctrine of the bloodless repetition of the bleeding sacrifice, as well as the doctrine of transubstantiation. But they strictly maintain the contribution of the tenth as a duty laid upon Christians bj^ Heb. vii. 4. Their typical view of the Old Testament history and legislation, especially of the tabernacle, is most arbitrary and baseless. Their first published statement appeared in 1881) in an apostolic " Letter to the Patriarchs, Bishops.^ and Prenidents of the Churcli of Christ in all Lands, and to emperors, kings, and j^rinces of all baptized nations,^'' which was sent to the most prominent among those addressed, even to the pope, but produced no result. After this they began to prosecute their missionary work o])enly. But they gave their attention mainly to those already believers, and took no jjart in missions to the heathen, as they were sent neither to the heathen nor to unbelievers, but only to gather and save believers. In their native land of England, Avliere at first they had great success, their day seems already past. In North America they succeeded in founding only two congregations. They prospered better in Germany and Switzerland, where they secured several able theologians, chief of all Thiersch, the professor of Theology in Marburg, the Tertullian of this modern Montanism (died 1885), and founded about eighty small congregations with some 5,000 members, chief of A\'hich are those of Berlin, Stettin, Konigsberg, Leipzig, Marburg, Cassel, Basel, Augs- l)urg, etc. Even among the Catholic clergy of Bavaria this movement found resx^onse ; but that was checked by a series of depositions and
442 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
excommunications during 1857. — In 1882 the Lutlieran pastor Alpers of Gehrclen in Hanover was summoned to appear before the consistory to answer for his Irvingite views. He denied the charge and referred to his good Lutlieran preaching. As, however, he had taken the sacramental " sealing " from Irvingite ajjostles, the court regarded this as proof of his having joined the party and so deposed him.'
11. The Darbyites and Adventists. — Related on the one hand to Irvingism by their expectation of the immediately approaching advent and by their regarding themselves as the saints of the last time who would alone be saved, the Darbyites, on the other hand, by their absolute independentism form a complete contrast to the Irvingite hierarchism. John Darby, 1800-1882, first an advocate, then a clergyman of the Anglican church, breaking away from Angli- canism, founded between 1820 and 1830 a sectarian, apocalyptic, independent commtuiity at Plymouth (whence the name Plymouth Brethren), but in 18;'58 settled in Geneva, and in 1840 went to Canton Vaud, where Lausanne and Vevey have become the headquarters of the sect. All clerical offices, all ecclesiastical forms are of the evil one, and are evidence of the corruption of the church. There is only one office, the spiritual priesthood of all believers, and every believer has the right to preach and dispense the sacraments. Not only the Catholic, but also the Protestant church is a "Balaam Church," and since the departure of the apostles no true church has existed. In doctrine they are strictly Calvinistic,^ — The Adventists. Regarding the 2,B00 days of Dan, viii. 14 as so many years, W. JMiller of New York and Boston proclaimed in 1833 that the second advent would take place on the night of October 23rd, 1817, and convinced many thousands of the correctness of his calculations. When at last the night referred to arrived the believers continueil assembled in their tabernacles Avaiting, but in vain, for tlu' jiromise (Matt. xxiv. 80, 31 ; 1 Cor. xv. 52 ; 1 Thess. iv. IG, 17), at " the voice of the archangel and the trump of God to be caiight up in the clouds to ineet the Lord in the air." Tliis miscalculation, however, did not shake the Adventists' belief in the near ajiproach of the Lord, but their number rather increased fi'om year to year. Most zealous in propagating their views by joui'nals and tracts, evangelists and missionaries, is a branch of the sect foumlcil by .lames White of
' Oliphaut, "Life of Ed. Irving." 3rd edition. London, 18G5. Carlyle, in " Miscellaneous Essays." Brown, "Personal Reminiscences of Ed. Irving," in Exponfor. 3 ser., vol. vi., ])|). 216, 2r)7. Miller, "History and Doctrine of Irvingism," 2 vols. London, 1878,
* Darby, " Personal Recollections." London, 1881,
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 443
Michigan, whose adherents, because they keep the Sabbath in place of the Lord's Daj^, are called Seventh Day Adventists.
12. The Mormons or Latter Day Saints. — Jos. Smith, a broken down farmer of Vermont, who took to knavish digging for hid treasures, affirmed in 1825, that under direction of divine revelations and visions, he had excavated on Comora hill in New York State, golden tablets in a stone kist on which sacred writings were engraved. A prophet's spectacles, i.e., two pierced stones which as a IMormon Urim and Thummim lay beside them, enabled him to understand and translate them. He published the translation in "the Book of Mormon." According to this book, the Israelites of the ten tribes had migrated under their leader, Lehi, to America. There they divided into two peoples ; the ungodly Lamauites, answering to the modern Redskins, and the pious Nephites. The latter preserved among them the old Israelitish histories and prophecies, and through niiraculous signs in heaven and earth obtained knowledge of the birth of Christ that had meanwhile taken place. Toward the end of the fourth centur3' after Christ, however, the Lamanites began a terrible war of extermination against the Nephites, in consequence of which the latter were rooted out with the exception of the prophet Mormon and liis son Moroni. Mormon recorded his revelations on the golden tablets referred to, and concealed them as the future witness for the saints of the last days on the earth. Smith proclaimed himself now called on of God, on the basis of these documents and the revelations made to him, to found the church of The Latter Day Saints. The widow of a preacher in Now York proved indeed that the Book of Mormon was almost literally a plagiarism from a historico-didactic romance written by her deceased husband, Sal. Spaulding. The IMS. had passed into the hands of Sidney Eigdon, formerly a Baptist minister and then a bookseller's assistant, subsequently Smith's right- hand man. But even this did not disturb the believers. In IK-^l Smith with ;his followers settled at Ivirtland in Ohio. To avoid the daily increasing popular odium, he removed to Missouri, and thence to Illinois, and founded there, in 18-10, the important town of Nauvoo with a beautiful temple. By diligence, industry and good discipline, the wealth, power and influence of their commonwealth increased, but in the same proportion the envj^, hatred and prejudices of the people, which charged them with the most atrocious crimes. In 1841, to save bloodshed the governor ordered the two chiefs, Jos. and Hiram Smith, to surrender to voluntary imprisonment awaiting a regular trial. But furious armed mobs attacked the prison and shot down both. The rouglis of the whole district then gathered in one great troop, desti'oyed the town of Nauvoo, burned the temple and di-ove out tlie inhabitants. These, now numbering 15,000 men, in several sue-
444 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
cpssive expeditions amid indescribable hardships pressed on " through the -n-ilderness " over the Rockj^ Mountains, in order to erect for them- selves a Zion on the other side. Smith's successor was the carpenter, Brigham Young. The journey occupied two full years, 1815-1847. In the great Salt Lake basin of Utah they founded Salt Lake City, or the New Jerusalem, as the capital of their wilderness state Deaeret, The gold digging of the neighbouring state of California did not allure them, for their prophet told them that to pave streets, build houses and sow fields was better employment than seeking for gold. So here again they soon became a flourishing commonwealth.
13. In common Avith the Irvingites, Avho recognised in them their o^v^l diabolic caricature, the Mormons restored the apostolic and pro- phetic office, insisted upon the continuance of the gift of tongues and miracles, expected the speedy advent of the Lord, reintroduced the payment of tithes, etc. But what distinguished them from all Christian sects was the jDroclamation of polygamy as a religious duty, on the plea that only those women who had been " sealed " to a Latter-day Saint would share in the blessedness of life eternal. This was probably first introduced by Y^'oung in consequence of a new " divine revelation," but douTi to 1852 kept secret and denied before " the Gentiles." The ambiguous book of Mormon was set meanwhile more and more in the background, and the teachings and pro]ihecies of their jjrophet brought more and more to the front. " The Voice of Warning to all Nations " of the zealous proselyte Parly Pratt, foraierly a Campbellite preacher, exercised a great influence in spreading the sect. But the most gifted of them all was Orson Pratt, Rigdon's successor in the apostolate. To him mainly is ascribcnl the construction of its later, highly fantastic religious sj-stem which, consisting of elements gathered from Neo- ])latonism, gnosticism, and other forms of theosophical mysticism, embraces all the mysteries of time and eteniity. Its fundamental ideas are these : There are gods without number ; all are polygamists and their wives are sharers of their glory and bliss. They are the fathers of human souls who here on earth ripen for their heavenly destiny. Jesus is the first born son of the highest god by liis first wife ; lie was married on earth to Mary Magdalene, the sistc^rs Martha and Mary and other women. Those saints who here fulfil their destiny become after death gods, Avhile they are arranginl according to their merit in vario\is ranks and with i:)rospect of promotion to liiglier jjlaces. At tlie end of this world's course, Jesus will com(^ again, and, enthroned in the t(;mple of Salt Lake City, exercise judgment against all " Gentiles " and apostates, etc. — The constitution of the Mormon State is essentially theocratic. At the head stood the president, Brigham Young, as prophet, patriarch, and priest-king, in whose
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOilAIN. 445
hands are all the threads of the spiritual as well as secular adminis- tration. A high council alongside of him, consisting of seventy members, as also the prophets and ai^ostles, bishoj)s and elders, and generally the whole richly organized hierarch3^, are only the pliable instruments of his all-commanding will. Every one on entering the society surrenders his whole property, and after that contributes a tenth of his year 13^ income and personal labour to the common puise of the coixununity. Soon numerous missionaries were sent forth who crossed the Atlantic, and attained great success, especially in Scotland, England and Scandinavia, but also in North-West Germany and in Switzerland. On removing the misunderstanding that prevailed about their social and political condition, and supplying the penni- less out of the rich immigration fund with the means to make the journey, they persuaded great crowds of their new converts to accompany them to Utah.
14. In 1849 the Mormons had asked Congress for the apportioning of the district colonized by them as an independent and autonomous " State " in the union, but were granted, in 1850, only the constitution of a " territory " under the central government at Washington, and the appointnaent of their patriarch. Young, as its governor. Ac- customed to absolute rule, in two years he drove out all the other officers aijpointed by th(i union. He was then deprived of office, but the new governor. Col. Sefton, appointed in 1854, with the small armament supplied him could not maintain his position and voluntarily retired. When afterwards in 1858 Governor Cununing, appointed by president Buchanan, entei'ed Utah A\ith a strong military force, Young armed for a decisive struggle. A compromise, liowever, was effected. A complete amnesty was granted to the saints, the soldiers of the union entered peacefully into the Salt-Lake City, and Young assumed tolerably friendly relations with the governor, who, nevertheless, by the erection of a fort commanding the city made the position safe for himself and his troops. On the out- break of the war of Secession in 1861 the troops of the union were for the most part withdrawn. But all the more energetically did the central government at the close of the war in 1865 resolve upon the complete subjugation of the rebel saints, having learnt that since 1852 numerous murders had taken place in the territory, and that the disappearance of whole caravans of colonists was not due to attacks of Indians, who would have scalped their victims, but to a secret Mormon fraternity called Danites (Judges xviii.), brothers of Gideon (Judges vi. ff.) or Angels of Destruction, which, obedient to the slightest hint from the prophet, had undertaken to avenge by bloody terrorism any sign of resistance to his authority', to arrest any tendency to apostasy, and to guard against the introduction of any
446 CHUKCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
foreign element. The Union Pacific Kailway opened m 1869 depriveil the " Kingdom of God " of its most powerful protection, its geo- graphical isolation, while the rich silver mines discovered at the same time in Utah, peopled city and country with immense flocks of " Gentiles." The nemesis, which brought the Mormon bishop Lee, twenty years after the deed, under the lash of the high court of justiciary as involved in the horrible massacre of a large party of emigrants at IMountain Meadows in 1857, "would probably have also befallen the prophet himself as the main instigator of this and many other crimes had he not by a sudden death two months later, in his seventy-fifth year, escajjed the jurisdiction of any earthly tribunal (died 1877). A successor was not chosen, but supreme authority is in the hands of the college of twelve apostles with the elder John Taylor at their head. — Repeated attempts made since 1874 by the United States authorities by penal enactments to root out polygamy among the Mormons have always failed, because its actual existence could never be legally proved. The witness called could or would say nothing, since the '• sealing " was always secretly performed, and the women concerned denied that a marriage had been entered into with the accused, or if one confessed herself his married wife she refused to give any evidence about his domestic relations. — Recently a split has occurred among the Mormons. By far the larger party is that of the " Salt Lake Mormons," Avhich holds firmly by polygamy and all the other institutions introduced by Young and since his time. Th(3 other party is that of the Kirtland, or Old Mormons, headed by the son of their founder, Jos. Smith, who had been passed over on account of his youth, which repudiates all these as unsupported novelties and restores the true Mormonism of the founder. The Old Mormons not only oppose polygamy, but also all more recently introduced doctrines. They are called Kirtland Mormons f I'om the first temple built by their founder at Kirtland m 1814, which having fallen into ruins, was restored by Geo. Smitli, JTUi., and became the centre of the Old Mormon denomination. In April 1885 they held there their first synod, attended b}^ 200 deputies.'
15. The Taepings in China. — llung-sen-tsenen, born in 1813 in the province of Shan-Tung, was destined for the learned profession but failed in his examination at Canton. There h(! first, in 1833, came into contact with Protestant missionaries, whose misunderstood words awakened in him the belief that he was called to perform great things.
1 Stenhouse, "An Englishwoman in Utah, the story of a Life's Experience in Mormonism." 2nd ed. London, 1880. Gunnison, " The Mormons." New York, 1884. Burton, " The City of the Saints." London, 1861.
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. -447
At the same time lie tliere got posriessiou of some Christian Chinese tracts. Failing in his examination a second time in 1837, he fell into a clangerons illness and had a series of visions in which an old man ■with a golden beard api?eared, handing to him the insignia of imperial rank, and comiVianding him to root out the demons. After his i'ecovei"y he became an elementary teacher. A relative called Li visited him in 1843. The Christian tracts were again sought out and carefully studied. Sen now recognised in the old man of his visions the God of the Christians and in himself the younger brother of Jesus. The two baptized one another and won over two young relatives to their views. Expelled from their offices, they went in 1844 to the province of Iviang Se as pencil and ink sellers, preached diligently the new doctrine and founded numerous small congregations of their sect. The American missionaries at Canton heard of the success of their preaching, and Sen accepted an invitation to join them in 1847. The missionary Roberts had a great esteem for him and intended to baptize him, when in consequence of stories spread about him their relations became strained. Sen now returned in 1848 to his com- panions in Kiang Se, Avho had diligently and successfully continued their preaching. In 1850 they began to attract attention by the violent destruction of idols. AVhen now all the remnants of a pirate band joined them as converts, they were in common ■v\ith these per- secuted by the government and proclaimed rebels. The expulsion of the hated Mantshu dynasty, which tAvo hundred years before had dis- placed the Ming dynastj^ and the overthrow of idolatry were now their main endeavour, and in 1857 they organized under Sen a regular rebellion for the setting up of a Taeping dynastj^, i.e., of universal peace. The Taeping army advanced unhindered, all Mantschu soldiers who fell into its liands were n:iassacred, and of the inhabitants of the provinces conquered, only tliose wex'e spared who joined their ranks. In March, 1853, they stormed the second capital of the empire. Nankin, the old residence of the Ming dynastj-. There Sen fixed his residence and styled himself Tien- Wang, the Divine Prince. He assigned to ten subordinate princes the govei'nment of the conquered provinces, almost the half of the immense empire. Thousands of bibles were circulated ; the ten commandments proclaimed as the fovuidation of law, many writings, prayers and poems composed for the instruction of the people, and these with the bible made subjects of examination for entrance to the learned order. An Arian theory of the trinity Avas set forth ; the Father is the one pei-sonal God, Avhose likeness in bodily human form Sen strictly forbade, destroj-ing the Catholic images as Avell as the Chinese idols. Jesus is the first- born son of God, yet not himself God, sent by the Father into the Avorld in order to enlighten it by his Lloclriue aiul to redeem it by his
448 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
atoning sufferings. Sen, the younger brotHer of Jesus, was sent into the Avorld to spread the doctrine of Jesus and to expel the demons, the Mantschu dynasty, Reception takes place through baptism. The Lord's Supper was unknown to them. Bloody and bloodless offerings were still tolerated. The use of wine and tobacco was forbidden •, the use of opium and trafficking in it were punished with death. But polygamy was sanctioned. Saturday, according to the Old Testament, was their holy day. Their service consisted only of prayer, singing and I'eligious instruction ; but also written jirayers Avere presented to God by burning.
16. Sen himself had no more visions after 1837. But other ecstatic prophets arose, the eastern prince Yang and the western prince Siao. The revelations of the latter were comparatively sober, but those of tlae former Avere in the highest degree blasphemously fanatical. He declared himself the Paraclete promised by Jesus, and taught that God himself, as well as Jesus, had a Avife Avith sons and^daughters He Avas at the same time a brave and successful general, and the mass of the Taepings Avere enthusiastically attached to him. Sen humbly yielded to the extravagances of this fanatic, even Avhen Yang sentenced him to receive forty lashes. Sen's overthroAV was already resolved upon in Yang's secret council, when Sen took courage and gave the northern prince secret orders to murder Yang and his f olloAvers in one night. This was done, and Sen Avas Aveak enougli to alloAV the execu- tioner of his secret order to be publicly put to death so as to appease the excited populace. But he thus again in 1856 became master of the situation. — One of the oldest ajjostles of Sen, his near relative Hung Yin, had been turned off at Hong Kong. He there attached himself to the Basel missionary, Hamberg, avIio in 1852 baptized him and made him his native helper. In hope of winning his cousin to the true Christian faith, he travelled in 1854 to Nankin, Avhich hoA\'- ever he did not reach till Januar}^, 1859. Sen received him gladly and made him his Avar minister. But his efforts to introduce a purer Cln'istianity among the Taepings Avere unsuccessful, for he tried the slippeiy Avay of accommodation, and under pressure from Sen set up for himself a harem. In October, 1860, on Sen's repeated invitation, his former teacher, the missionary Roberts of Nankin, arrived and was immediately made minister for foreign affairs. The Shanghai missionaries, several of Avhom visited Nankin, had interesting inter- views Avith Yin in 1860, but not Avith the emperor, as they refused to go on their knees before him. They Avere encouraged by Yin to hope for a future much needed purifying of Taeping Christianity. Yang's revelations, hoAvever, held their ground after as Avell as before, and Avere increased by further absurdities. To such crass fanaticism Avas now added the inhuman cruelty AAdth Avhich they massacreil the
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PROTESTANT DOMAIN. 449
vauqiushtHl and wasted the conquered cities and districts. Had the European powers ranged themselves in a friendly and peaceful attitude alongside of the Taepings, China might now have been a Christian empire. Instead of this the English, on account of the extreme opposition of the Taepings to the opium traffic, took up a hostile position toward them, Avhile they were also in disfavour with the French, Avho had been denounced by them as idolaters on account of tlieir Romish image woi-ship. Down to the beginning of 1862, how- ever, Yin's influence had prevented any hostile proceedings against the Euroi^eans in spite of many provocations given. But after that the Taepings refused them any quarter. Roberts fled by night to save his life. Against discip)lined European troops the rebels could not hold their ground. One city after another was taken from them, and at last, in July 18(54, their capital Nankin. Sen was found poisoned in his burning palace.^
17. The Spiritualists. — The shoemaker's apprentice, AndreAV Jackson Davis of Poughkeepsie on the Hudson, in his nineteenth year fell into a magnetic sleep and composed his iii'st work, " The Principles of Kature, Her Divine Revelations and a Voice to Mankind," in 1845. He declared its utterances to be sj)iritual revelations from the other world. But liis later writings composed in working hours made the same claim, especiall}^ the five volume work, " Great Harmonia, being a Philosophical Revelation of the Natural, Spiritual, and Celestial Universe," 1850 ff. Both went tlirougli numerous editions and were translated into German. The great spiritual manifestation promised in the first work was not long delayed. In a house bought by the family of Fox in Hj'desville in New York State a spectral knocking Mas often heard. Through the intercourse which the two youngest daughters, aged nine and twelve years, had with the ghosts, the skeleton of a murdered five years' old child of a pedlar was discovered buried in the cellar, and when the family soon thereafter left the house, the ghosts went Avith theni and continued their communications hj table turning, table rapping, table -writing, etc. The thing now became epidemic. Hundreds and thousands of male and female medmms arose and held an extremely lively and varied intercourse with innumer- able departed ones of earlier and later times. The believers soon numbered millions, including highly educated persons of all ranks, even such exact chemists as Mapes and Hare. An abundant litera- tui-e in books and journals, as well as Sunday services, frequent camp- meetings and annual congresses formed a propaganda for the alleged
1 Wilson, " The ' Ever-Victorious Army ' : a History of the Chinese Campaign rmder Lieut.-CoL C. G. Gordon, and of the Suppression of the Taeping Rebellion." Edinburglu
VOL. III. 29
450 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
spiritualism, which soon found its way across the ocean and won enthusiastic adherents for all confessions in all European countries, especially in London, Paris, Brussels, St. Petersburg, Vienna, Dresden, Leipzig, etc. They now broke up into two parties called respectively Spiritualists and Spiritists. The former put in the foreground phy- sical experiments with astonishing results and miraculous effects ; the latter, with the Frenchman Allan Kardec (Bivail) as their leader, give prominence to the teaching of spirits by direct communication. The former in reference to the origin of the human soul held by the theory of traducianism ; the latter to that of pre-existence in con- nection with a doctrine of re-incarnation of spirits by reason of growing pui'ity and perfection. The latter see in Chidst the incar- nation of a spirit of the highest order ; the former merely the purest and most perfect type of human nature. But neither admit the real central truth of Christianity, the reconciliation of sinful hu- manity with God in Christ. Both evaporate the resurrection into a mere spectral spirit manifestation ; and the disclosures and vitter- ances of the spirits with both are equally trivial, silly, and vain. — In England the famous palseontologist and collaborateur of Darwin, Alf r. Eussel Wallace, and the no less celebrated physicist Wm. Crookes, are apologists of spiritualism. The latter declared in 1879 that to the three well-known conditions of matter", solid, fluid and gaseous, should be added a fourth, " radiant," and that there is the borderland where force and matter meet. And in Germany the acute Leipzig astro- phj'sicist Fr. Zollner, after a whole series of spiritvialistic seances conducted by the American medium Slade in 1877 and 1878 had been carefully scrutinized and tested by himself and several of his most accomplished scientific colleagues, was convinced of the existence and reality of higher " four dimension " space in the spirit world, to which by reason of its fourth dimension the power belonged of passing through earthly bodily matter. The philosophers I. H. Fichte of Stuttgart and Ulrici of Halle have adixdtted the reality of spiritualistic communications and allege them as proofs of immor- tality. Among Germaai theologians Luthardt of Leipzig regards it all as the work of demons Avho take advantage for their own ends of the moral-religious dissolution of the modern world and its consequent nerve shaking that prevails, just as in the ancient world in the begin- nings of Christianity. Zockler of Greifswald finds an analogy between it and the demoniacal possession of New Testament times ; so too Martensen in his "Jacob Boehme," and on the Catholic side W. Schneider ; while Splittgerber refers most of the manifestations in question to a merely subjective origin in " the right side of the human soul life," but jjuts the materialization of spirits in the cate- gory of delusive jugglery. Spiritualisiu has scarcely rallied from the
§ 211. SECTARIES IN THE PEOTESTANT DOMAIN. 451
obloquy cast upon it by the unmasking of the tricks of the famous medium Miss Florence Cook in London in 1880 and of the dis- tinguished spirit materialiser Bastian by the Grand-duke John of Austria in 1884.1
18, To the domain of untxuestionable illusion belongs also the spiritualistic movement of Indian Theosophism or Occultism. The American Col. Olcott of New York had already moved for twenty- two years in spiritualist circles when in 1874 he met with Madame Blavatsky, widow of a Eiissian general who had been governor of Erivan in Armenia. She professed to have been from her eighth year in communication with spirits, then to have had secret intercourse Avith the Mahatmas, i.e. spirits of old Indian penitents, during a seven years' residence on the Himalayas. She now promised to intro- duce the colonel to them. Olcott and Blavatsky foiuided at New York in 1875 a society for research in the department of the mystic sciences, travelled in 1878 to Further India and Ceylon, and settled fuially in Madras, whence by word and writing they proclaimed through the whole land theosophism or occultism as the religion of the futiire, which, consisting in a medley of Hinduism and Bud- dhism, enriched by spii-itualistic revelations of Mahatmas, vouched for by spiritualistic signs and miracles, and conformed to the most recent philosophical and scientific researches in America and Europe, aimed at lieaping contempt upon Christianity and finally driving it from the field. As fanatical opponents of Christian missions in India they were strongly supported by the Brahman and Buddhist hierarchy, and soon obtained for the theosophical society founded by them not only numerous adherents from among the natives, but also many Englishmen befooled by their spiritualistic swindle. As apostle and literary pioneer of the new religion appeared an Anglo-Indian called Simiett. In spring, 1884, Madame Blavatsky and Col. Olcott went on a propagandist tour to Europe, where, in England, France, Austria, and Hungai-y, they won many converts, Avhile Col. Olcott at Elberfeld and Madame Blavatsky at Odessa founded branches of their theosophical society.— But meanwhile in
1 Edmonds, " American Spiritualism."' 2 vols. New Yoi-k, 1858. Cos, "Spiritualism answered by Science." London, 1872. Crookes, " Spiritualism and Science." London, 1874. "Wallace, " A Defence of Spiritualism." London, 1874. Owen, " The Debatable Land." New York, 1872. Carpenter, " Mesmerism, Spiritualism, etc.. Histori- cally and Scientifically Considered." London, 1877. Mahan, " The Phenomena of Spiritualism Scientifically Explained and Exposed." London, 1875. Home, "Incidents in His Life." London, 1863. " Lights and Shadows of Spiritualism." London, 1877.
452 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
India affairs assumed a threatening aspect. Blavatsky on her de- parture had entrusted the keys of her dwelling and her mysterious cabinet with its various panels, falling doors, etc., to Mr. and Mrs. Coulomb, who had been hitherto her assistants in all her juggleries. Madame Coulomb, hoAvever, quarrelled with the board of theosophists at Madras, and revenged herself by placing in the hands of the Scottish mission letters addressed by Blavatsky to herself and her husband which sujiplied evidence that all her spiritualistic mani- festations were only common tricks. In addition she gave public exhibitions in which she demonstrated to the spectators ad oculos the spiritiial manifestations of the Mahatmas, and subsequently pub- lished an " Account of My Acquaintanceship with Madame Blavatsky, 1872-1884," with discoveries of her earlier rogueries. Meanwhile the swindler had herself in December, 1884, returned to Madras in com- pany with several believers gathered up in England, among others a young English clergyman, Leadbeater, who some days previously in Ce^'lon had formally adopted Buddhism. The theosophists now de- manded that the reputed cheat and deceiver should be brought before a civil court. The president, however, declared that the investigations and judgment of a profane court of law could not be accepted to the mysteries of occultism, but promised a careful examination by a com- mission appointed by himself, and Blavatsky thought it advisable " for the restoration of her health in a cooler climate " to make off from the scene of conflict. *
§ 212. Antichristian Socialism and Communism.
While the antichristian spirit of the age bi'saks out in various theoretical forms in our literature, there also abound social and communistic movements of a practical kind. Socialism and communism both aim at a thorough-going reform of the rights of property and possession in strict proportion to the labour spent thereon. They are, however, distinguished in this, that while communism declares war against all private property and demands absolute community of goods, socialism, at least in its older and nobler forms, proceeding from the idea of precise correspondence between capital and labour, seeks to have expression given to this in fact. Erom the older socialism, which endeavoured to reach
' Sinnett, "Esoteric Buddhism." London, 1883.
§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM, 453
its end in a peaceful way within the existing lines of civil order, a later social democracy is to be distinguished by its decidedl}'^ politico-re vohitionary character and tendency to attach itself more to communism. This modern socialism thinks to open the way to the realization of its hare-brained ideas by the confusion and overthrow of existing law and order.
1, The Beginnings of Modein Communism. — As early as 1796 Babeuf published in Paris a communistic manifesto ■vvhicli maintained the thesis that natural law gives all men an equal right to the enjoyment of all goods. His ideas were subsequently systematized and developed by Fourier, Proudhon, Cabet, and Louis Blanc in France, and by Weibling and Stirner in Germany. In a treatise of 1840 Proudhon answered the question, Qii'est-ce que Ja proprUte? in words which afterwards became proverbial, and formed the motto of communism : La propyrie'te c'est le vol. But the mere negation of pi-operty affords no permanent standing gi'ound. All altars must be thrown down ; all religion rooted out as the plague of humanity ; the family and marriage, as the fountain of all selfisliness, must be abolished ; all existing governments must be overthrown ; all Europe must bo turned into one great social democracy. A secret communistic pi'opaganda spread over all western Europe, had its head centres in Belgium and Switzerland, crossed the Alps and the Pyrenees, as well as the Channel, and found a congenial soil even in Russia.
2, St. Simonism. — The Count St. Simon of Paris, reduced to poverty by speculation, proposed by means of a thorough organization of industry to found a new and happy state of things in which there would be pure enjoyment without poverty and care. An att(»mpted suicide, which led however to his death in 1825, made him in tlie eyes of his disciples a saviour of the Avorld. The Jul3'' revolution of 1830 gave to the new universal religion, which reinstated the flesh in its long lost rights and sought to assign to each individual the place in the commonwealth for which he was fitted, some advantage. " Father " Enfantin, whom his followers honoured as the highest ivvelation of deity, contended with pompous phrases and in fantastic style for the emancipation of woman and against the unnatural insti- tution of marriage. But St. Simonism soon excited public ridicule, was pronounced immoral by the courts of justice, and the remnants of its votaries fled fi-om tlie scorn of the people and the vengeance of the law to Egypt, where they soon disappeared,
3, Owenists and Icarians. — The Scotch mill-owner Rob. Owen went
454 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
in 1829 to America, in order there, nnliiudered by religious prejudices, clerical opposition, and police interference, to work out on a large scale his socialistic schemes for improving the world, which in a small way he believed he liad proved already among his Scotch mill- operatives. He bought for this purpose from the Wiirttemberger Eapp the colony of Harmony (§ 211, 6) ; but wanting the necessary capital for the socialistic commonwealth thei-e established, and failing to realize his expectations, discontent, disorder, and opposition got the upperhand, and in 1S26 Owen was obliged to abandon all his property. He now returned to England, and addressed himself in treatises, tracts, and lectures to the working classes of the whole land, in order to win them over to his ideas. A vast brotherhood for mutual benefit and for the enjoyment of their joint earnings was to put an end to earth's misery, which the positive religions had not lessened but only in- creased. In 1836, in the great industrial cities socialist unions with nearly half a million members were formed, with their head centre and annual congress at Birmingham. The practical schemes of Owen, however, had no success in England, and his societies no permanency. He died in 1858. — Still more disastrous was the fate of the Icarian Colony, founded in Texas in 1848 by the Frenchman Stephen Cabet, author of " Voijacje en Icarie, Roman jyliilos. et social,''' 1840, as an attempt to realize his communistic-philanthropic ideas on the other side the Atlantic. The colonists soon found their sanguine hopes bitterly disappointed, and hurled against their leader I'eproaches and threats. Some ex-Icarians accused him in 1849 before the Paris ])olice-court as a swindler, and he was condemned to two years' im- ]jrisonment and five years' loss of civil privileges. Cabet now hastened to France, and on appeal obtained reversion of his sentence in 1851. Returning to America, he founded a new Icarian colony at Nauvoo in Illinois. But there, too, everything went wrong, and a revolt of the colonists obliged him to flee, fie died in 1856.^
4. The International Working-Men's Association. — Local and national working-men's unions with a socialistic organization had for a long time existed in England, France, and Germany. The idea of a union embracing the whole world was first broached at the great London Exliibition in 1862, and at a conference in London on September 28th, 1804, at wliich all industrial countries of Europe were represented, it assumed a practical shape by tlio founding of a universal international working-men's association. Its constitution was strictly centralistic. A directing committee in London, Carl Marx of Treves, formerly
* Sargent, " Bob. Owen and his Social Philosophy." London, 1860. Nordlioff, •• Communistic Societies in the United States." Lt)ndon,
lb7D.
§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM. 455
Prlvatdocent of philosophy at Bonn, standing at its head as dictator, represented the supreme legislative and governing authority, while alongside of it a general standing council held the administrative and executive power. The latter was divided into eight sections, English, American, French, German, Belgian, Dutch, Italian, and Spanish, and annual international congresses at Geneva, Lausamie, Brussels, Basel, and the Hague gave opportunity for general consultation on matters of common interest. Reception as members was granted by the giving of a diploma after six months' trial, and involved unconditional obedience to the statutes and ordinances of the central authorities and the payment of an annual fee. The number of members, not, how- ever, exclusively drawn from the working classes, is said to have reached two and a half millions. The society adopted the current socialistic and communistic ideas and tendencies. The religious principle of the association was therefore : atheism and materialism ; the political : absolute democracy ; the social : equal rights of labour and profit, with abolition of private property, hereditary rights, marriage, and family; and as means for realizing this programme, nnaccomplishablfi by peaceable methods, revolution and rebellion, fire and sword, poison, petroleum and dynamite. Such means have been used already in various ways by the international throughout the Romance countries ; but specially in the brief Reign of Terror of the Paris Commune, March and April, 1871, in the relatively no less violent attempted revolt at Alcoy in Southern Spain in July, 1873. But meanwhile differences appeared within the society, which were formulated at the Hague Congress in 1872, and led to splits, which greatly lessened its unity, influence, and power to do mischief, so that this congress may iJerhajDS be regarded as the first begimiing of its end.i
.5. German Social Democracy. — Ferd. Lassalle, son of a rich Jewish merchant of Breslau, after a full course of study in philosophy and law, began in 1848 to take a lively part in the advanced movements of the age, and when he found among the liberal citizens no favour for his socialistic ideas turned exclusively to the working classes. In answer to the question as to what was to be done, by the central com- mittee of a working-men's congress at Leipzig, he wrought out in lS(i3 with great subtlety in an open letter the fundamental idea of his universal redemption. All plans of self-help to relieve the distress of working men hitherto proposed (specially that of Schulze-Delitzsch) break down over the " iron economic law of wages," in consequence of
' Onslow-Yorke, " The Secret History of the International Working- Men's Association." London, 1872. Lissagaray, "History of the Commune of 187 1." Translated by Aveling. London, 1886.
456 CHURCH HISTORY OF NINETEENTH CENTURY.
which under the dominion of capital and the large employers of
labour wages are always with fatalistic necessity reduced to the point indispensable for supplying a working man's family with the absolute necessaries of life. The working classes, however, have the right ac- cording to the law of nature to a full equivalent for their labour, but in order to reach this tliey must be their own undertakers, and where self-help is only a vain illusion, state help must afford the means. By insisting on the right to universal suffrage the working classes have obtained a decided majority in the legislative assemblies, and there seciu'ed a government of the future in accordance with their needs. On these principles the Universal German Society of Working Men was constituted, with Lassalle as its president, which position he held till his death in a duel in 1864. Long internal disputes and personal recriminatiohs led to a split at the Eisenach Congress in 18(39. Tlie malcontents founded an independent " Social Democratic Working- Men's Unicm," under the leadership of Bebel and Liebknecht, which, particularly successful in Saxony, Bnniswick, and South German}', represents itself as the German branch of the " International Work- ing-Men's Association." It adhered indeed generally to Lassalle's programme, but objected to the extravagant adulation claimed for Lassalle by their oi^ponents, the proper disciples of Lassalle, who had Hasenclaver as their leader and Berlin as their headquartei's, substituted a federal for a centiulistic organization, and instead of a great centralised government in the future desired rather a federal republic embracing all Europe. But both declared equally in favour of revolution ; they vied with one another in bitter hatred of every- thing bearing the name of religion ; and wrought out with equal enthusiasm their communistic schemes for the future. At the Gotha Congress of 1875 a reconciliation of parties was effected. The social- democratic agitation thus received a new impulse and assumed threatening projjortions. Yet it required such extraordinary occur- rences as the twice attempted assassination of the agnd emperor, by Hodel on May 11th, and Nobiling on June 2nd, 1878, to rouse the government to legislative action. On the basis of a laAV passed in October, 1878, for two and a half years (but in May, 1880, continued for other three and a half years, and in May, 1884, and again in April, 1886, on each occasion extended to other two years), 200 socialist societies throughout the German empire were suppressed, sixty-four revolutionary journals, circulated in hundreds of thousands and with millions of readers, and about 800 other seditious writings, were for- bidden. But tliat the social-democratic organization and agitatiim was not thereby destroyed is proved by the fact that in August, 1880, in an uninhabited Swiss castle lent for the purpose, in Canton Zurich, a congress was held, attended by fifty-six German socialists, with
§ 212. ANTICHRISTIAN SOCIALISM AND COMMUNISM. 457
greetings by letter from sympathisers in all European countries, which among other things passed the resolution unanimously, no longer as liad been agreed upon at Gotha, to seek their ends by lawful methods, as by the law of the socialists impossible, but by the way of revo- lution.— On the other hand, the German Imperial Chancellor Prince Bismarck in the iieichstag, 18S4, fully admitted the "right of the ■\s-orker to work," as well as the duty of the state to ameliorate the condition of working men as far as possible, and in three propositions : " Work for fhe healthy workman, hospital attendance to the sick, and maintenance to the invalided," granted all that is asked for by a healthj' social policy.
6. Russian Nihilism.— In Russia, too, notwithstanding a strictly exercised censorship, the philosophico-scientific gospel of materialism and atheism found entrance through the writings of Molescliott, Feuerbach, Biichner, Darwiii, etc. (§ 174, 3), especially among the students. In 1H60, Nihilism, springing from this seed, first assumed the character of a philosophical and literary movement. It sought the overthrow of all religious institutions. Then came the women's ([uestion, claiming emancipation for the wife. The example of the Pai'is Commxine of 1871 contributed largely to the development of Nihilistic idealism, its political revolutionary socialism. The Nihilist pi'opaganda, like an epidemic, now seized upon the academic youth, male and female, was spread in aristocratic families by tutors and governesses, won secret disciples among civil servants as well as officers of the army and navy, and was enthusiastically supported by ladies in the most cultured and exalted ranks. In order to spread its views among the jwople, young men and women disguised in peasant's di'ess went out among tlie peasants and artisa:is, lived and wrought like them, and preached their gospel to them in their liours of rest. But their efforts failed through the antii)athy and apathy of the lower orders, and the energetic interference of the government by imprisonment and banishment thinned the ranks of the propagan- dists. But all the more closely did those left bind themselves together under their centi'al leaders as the "Society for Gouiatry and Freedom," and strove with redoubled eagerness to spread revolutionary principles by secretly printing their proclamations and other incendiary pro- ductions, and scattering them in the streets and houses. On January 24th, 187S, the female Nihilist J'^era Sasxiilltsch from personal reveugn dangerously wounded with a revolver General Trepoff, the dreaded head of the St. Petersburg police. Although she openly avowed the deed before the covu't and gloried in it, she Avas amid tlie acclamations of the public acquitted. This was the hour when Nihilism exercised its fellest terrorism. The fair, peaceful i)hrase, " To work, fight, suffer, and die for the people," was silenced ; it was now, sword and
458 CHnncH history of nineteenth century.
firo, dagger and revolver, dynamite and mines for all oppressors of the people, but above all for the agents of the police, for their spii;s, for all informers and apostates. An " executive committee," unknown to most of the conspirators themselves, issued the death sentence ; the lot determined the executioner, who himself suffered death if he failed to accomplish it. What was now aimed at was the assassination of higher state officials ; then the sacred person of the emperor. Three bold attempts at assassination miscarried ; the revolver shot of SoloA^-jews on April 14th, 1879 ; the mine on the railway near Mosco\v that exploded too late on November 30th, 1879 ; the horrible attempt to blow up the Winter Palace with the emperor and his family on February 17th, 1880; but the fourth, a dynamite bomb thrown between the feet of the emperor on March 13th, 1881, destroyed the life of this noble and humane monarch, who in 1861-1863 had freed his people from the yoke of serfdom. As for years nothing more had been heard of Nihilist attempts, it was hoped that the government had succeeded in putting down this diabolical rebellion, but in 1887 the news spread that an equallj^ horrible attempt had been ]ilanned for the sixth anniversary of the assassination of Alexander II., but fortunatr'l)' tiiuch^ precautions were taken against it.
CHRONOLOaiCAL TABLES.
A.n. FIRST CEXrrRY.
lA-?u. The Emperor Tiberius, § 22, 1. 41-54. The Emperor Claudius, § 22, 1.
44. Execution of James the Elder, § IG.
51. The Council at Jerusalem, § 18, 1. 54-GS. The Emperor Nc-ro, § 23, 1.
()1. PauFs Arrival at Rome, § 15.
63. Stoning of James the Just, § IG, 3.
64. Persecution of Christians in Rome, § 22. 1 . GG-70. Jewish War, § IG.
81-96. The Emperor Domitian, § 22, 1.
SECOND CENTURY.
98-117. The Emperor Trajan, § 22, 2.
115. (?) Ignatius of Antioch, Martja-, § 22, 2. 117-138. The Emperor Hadrian, § 22, 2. Basilides, Valentinus, § 22,
2,4. 132-135. Revolt of Barcochba, § 25. Abt.150. Celsus, § 23, 3. Marcion, § 27, 11. 138-161. The Emperor Antoninus Pius, § 22, 2.
155. Paschal Controversy between Polycarp and Amieetus, § 37, 2. lGl-180. The Emperor Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3.
I(i5. Justin Mart3T, § 30, 9.
IGG. (155 ?) Martyrdom of Polycarp, § 22, 3.
172. (156 ?) Montanus appears as a Prophet, ^ 40. 1.
177. Persecution of Christians at Lyons and Vienne, § 22. 3.
178. Irenseus made Hishop of Lyons, § 31, 2. 180-192. The Emperor Coramodus, § 22, 3.
196. Paschal Controversy between Victor and Polj-crates, § 37, 2. 459
400 CnKONOLOGICAL TABLES.
THIRD CEXTURY. A.n.
202. 'rt'rtiilliau. bwonios Montanist, § 40, 2. Pautnonus (li(S
§ Bl, 4.
220. Clement of Alexandria dies, § 31, 4.
2B5. Settlement of the Schism of Hippolytns, § 41, 1.
28.^-238. The Emperor Maximinus Thrax, § 22, 4.
243. Ammonias Saccus dies, § 25, 2.
244. Arabian Synod against Beryllus, § 33, 7. 249-2.51. The Emperor Decius, § 22, 5.
2.50. The Schism of Felicissimus, § 41, 2.
251. The Novatian Schism, § 41, 3. 253-260. The Emperor Valerian, i? 22, 5.
2.54. Origen dies, § 31, 5. 255-256. Controversy about Heretics' Baptism, § 35, 5.
258. Cyprian dies, § 81, 11. 2(J0-268. The Emperor Gallienus. The Toleration Edict, § 22, 5.
262. Synod at Kome against Sabellius and Dionysius of Alex- andria, § 83, 7.
269. Third Synod of Antioch against Paul of Samosata, § 33, 8.
276. Mani dies, § 29, 1. 281-305. The Emperor Diocletian, § 22, (i.
FOURTH CENTURY.
303. Beginning of Diocletian Persecution, § 22, 6. 306. Synod of Elvira, § 38, 3 ; 45, 2. Meletian Schism in Egypt, § 41, 4. Constantius Chlorus dies, § 22, 7.
311. Galerius dies, § 22, 6.
312. Constantincrs Exited it ion against Maxentius, § 22, 7. Dona-
tist Schism in Africa, § 63, 1.
318. Edict of Milan, § 22, 7.
318. Arius is Accused, § 50, 1. 328-337. Constantine the Great, Sole Ruler, i? 42, 2.
325. First (Ecumenical Council at Niccoa, ij 50, 1. 330-115. Meletian Schism at Antioch, t? 50, 8.
835. Synod at Tyre, § 50, 2.
336. Athanasius Exiled. Arias dies, t? 50, 2.
;-{-ll. Council at Antioch, § 50, 2.
813. Persecution of Christians undei- Shapui- II., § 64, 2.
B-M. Synod at Sardica, § 46, 3 ; 50, 2.
346, Council at Milan against Photinus, § 50, 2.
3-18. Umias, Bishop of the Goth.s, § 76, 1. 350-361. Constantius, Sole Ruler, § 42, 2.
851. First Council at Sirmium against Marcellus, § 50, 2.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 461
A.D.
Hbl. Second Council at Sirmium, Homoians, § 50, 3.
358. Third Council at Sirmium, § 50, 8.
Hof). Synods at Seleucia and Eimini, § 50, '6. 8{Jl-3(-)8. Emperor Julian the Apostate, § 42, 3.
3G-2. Synod at Alexandria against Athanasius, § 50, 1. 3G()-38J. Damasus I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 4.
368. Hilary of Poitiers dies, § 47, 14.
373. Athanasius dies, § 47, 3.
379. Basil the Great dies, § 47, 4. 379-395. Theodosius the Great, Emperor, § 42, 4.
380. S3aiod at Saragossa, § 54, 2.
381. Second (Ecumenical Council at Constantinople, § .50, 4.
Ulfilas dies, § 76, 1. 384- 398. Siricius, Bishop of Eome, § 46, 4.
385. Priscillian beheaded at Treves, § 54, 2.
390. Gregory Nazianzen dies, § 47, 4.
391. Destraction of the Serapeion at Alexandria, § 42, 6. 393. Coiuicil at Hippo Rhegius, § 59, 1.
397. Ambrose dies, § 47, 15.
399. Rufinus Condemned at Rome as an Origenist, § 51, 2.
400. Martin of Tours dies, § 47. 15.
FIFTH VEXTUIiY. 402-417. Innocent I. of Rome, tj 46, 5.
403. Synodus ad Quercum, § 51, 3. Epiphanius dies, § 47, 10.
407. Chiysostom dies, § 47, 8. 408-450. Theodosius II. in the East, § 52, 3.
411. CoUatio rum Donatistis, § 63, 1.
412. Sjmod at Carthage against Cddestius, § 53, 4.
415. Synods at Jerusalem and Diospolis against Pela"-ius, § 53 4.
416. S;yniods at Mileve and Carthage against Pelagius, § .53. 4. 418. General Assembly at Carthage, § 53, 4. Roman Schism of
Eulalius and Bonifacius, § 46, 6. 420. Jerome dies, § 47, 10. Persecution of Christians under Beln-am V., § 64, 2. 422-432. Coelcstine I., Bishop of Rome, § 46, 6.
428. Nestorius is made Patriarch of Constantinople, § 52, 3.
429. Theodore of Mopsuestia dies, § 47, 9. The Vandals in North
Africa, § 76, 3.
430. Cyril's Anathemas, § 52, 3. Augustine dies, § 47, 18.
431. Third Ecumenical Council at Ephosus, § 52, 3.
432. St. Patrick in Ireland, § 77, 1. J,>lni Cassiauus dies. § 47, 21.
402 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
440-461. Leo I., the Great, § 4G, 7 ; 47, 22.
444. Cyril of Alexandria dies, § 47, 6. Dioscurus succeeds Cyril,
§ 52, 4. 415. Eescript of Valeutiniau III., § 4(i, 7.
448. Eutjyclies excommunicated at Constantinople, § 52, 4.
449. Eobber Synod at Ephesus, § 52, 4. Attack of Angles and
Saxons upon Britain, § 77, 4. 451. Fourth (Ecumenical Synod at Chalcedon, § 52, 4. 457. Theodoret dies, § 47, !).
475. Semipelagian Synods at Aries and Lyons, § 53, 5.
476. Overthrow of the West Eoman Empire, § 46, 8 ; 76, 6.
Monopliysite Encyclical of Basiliscns, § 52, 5. 482. Henoticon of the Emperor Zeno, § 52, 5. Severiuus dies, § 76, 6. 484-519. The Thirty-five Years' Schism between the East and West,
§ 52, 5. 492-196. Gelasius I., Bishop of Eome, § 46, 8 ; 47, 22. 496. Battle of Ztilpich. Clovis baptized, § 76, 9.
SIXTH CENTURY.
101. Synod us Tahnaris, § 46, 8. 517. Council at Epaon, § 76, 5. 527-565. Justinian I., Emperor, § 4(5, iJ ; 52, (i.
529. Synods at Oranges and Valence, § 58, 5. Monastic Rule of
Benedict of Nursia, § 85. Sui)pressiou of the University
of Athens, § 42, 1. 533. The Theopaschite Controversy, § 52, 6. Overthrow of the
Vandal Emjiire, § 76, 3. 544. Condemnation of the " Tln-ee Chapters," § 52, 6.
553. Fifth Ecumenical Council at Constantinople, § 52, 6.
554. Overthrow of the Ostrogoth Empin; in Italy, § 76, 7.
563. Council at Braga, § 54, 2. St. Columba among the Picts and Scots, § 77, 2.
567. Founding of the Exarchate; of Ravenna, § 46, 9,
568. The Longobards under Alboin in Italy, § 76, 8.
589. Council at Toledo inider Reccared, § 76, 2. Columbanua and Gallus in the Vosgcs Country, § 77, 7. 590-604. Gregory I., the Great, § 46, 10 ; 47, 22,
595. Gregory of Tours dies, § 90, 2.
596. Augustine goes as Missionary t(j the Anglo-Saxons, § 77, 4.
597. St. Columba dies, § 77, 2. Ethelbert baptized, § 77, 4.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 463
A.D. SEVENTH CENTURY.
606. Emperor Phocas recognises the Eoinau Primacy, § iG, 10. bll-bJl. Heraclius, Emperor. § 52, 8.
615. Columbauus dies, § 77, 7.
622. Hejira, § 65. 625- ()38. Honorius L, Pope, § J(i, 11.
636. Isidore of Seville dies, § f)0, 2.
637. Omar conquers Jerusalem, § (35.
638. Monothelite Ecthesis of Heraclius, § 52, 8. 640. Omar conquers Egj-pt, § 65.
642-668. Constans II., Emperor, § 52, 8. 646. St. Gallus dies, § 78, 1.
648. The Typus of Constans II., § 52. 8, 6-Jf)-653. Martin I., Pope, § 46, 11.
649. First Lateran Council under ]\Iartin I., § 52, 8. 652. Emmeran at Regensbnrg, § 78, 2.
657, Constantine of Mananalis, § 71, 1.
662. Maximus Confessor, dies, § 47, 13.
664. Synod at Streoneshalch {Sun. Pharcm.), § 77, 6. b()y-68o. Constantinus Pogonnatus, § 52, 8 • 71 1.
677. Wilfrid among the Frisians, § 78, 's. 678-682. Agatho, Pope, § 46, 11.
680. Sixth (Ecumenical Council at Constantinopl.i(Trullanum I.l § 52, 8. '
690. Wilibrord among the Frisians, § 78, 3. 692. Concilium Quinisextum (TruUanum II.), § G3, 3, 696. Eupert in Bavaria (Sakburg), tj 78, 2.
EIGETE CENTURY.
711, The Saracens conquer Spain, § 81. 715-731, Pope Gregory II., § 6(5, 1 ; 78, 4.
716. Winifrid goes to the Frisians, § 78, 4. 717-741, Leo III., the Isaurian, Emperor, § 66, 1.
718. Winifrid in liome, § 78, 4.
722, Winifrid in Thuringia aud Hesse, § 78, 4.
723, Winifrid a second time at Rome, consecrated Bishop etc
§ 78, 4, ' ''
724, Destruction of the Wonder-working Oak at Geismar, § 78, 4. ^26. Leo s First Edict against Image Worship, § 66 1
*_30, Leo's Second Edict against Image Worship, g k i. ^31. Gregory III., Pope, § 66, 1 ; 78, 4 ; 82, 1.
464 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
732. Boniface, Arclibishop and Apostolic Yicar, § 78, 4. Battle at Poitiers, § 81. Separation of Illyria from the Roman See by Leo the Isaurian, § 66, 1. 735. The Venerable Becle dies, § 90, 2. 739. "Wilibrord dies, § 78, 3.
7-11. Charles Martel dies, § 78, 5. Gregory III. dies. Leo the Isaurian dies. 741-752. Pope Zacharias, § 78, 5, 7 ; 82, 1. 741-775. Constantinns Copronymns, Emperor, § 66, 2.
742. Concilium Germanicum, § 78, 5.
743. Synod at Liptina, § 78, 5 ; 86, 2.
744. Synod at Soissons, § 78, 5.
745. Boniface, Archbishop of Mainz, § 78, 5.
752. Childeric III. deposed, Pepin the Short, King, § 78, 5 ; 82, 1.
754. Iconoclastic Council at Constantinople, § 66, 2. Pepin's
donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 1.
755. Boniface dies, § 78, 7.
Abt.760. Rule of St. Chrodegang of Metz, § 84, 4.
767. Synod at Gentilliacum, § 91, 2 ; 92, 1. 768-814. Charlemagne, § 82, 2, 4 ; 90, 1, etc. 772-795. Pope Hadrian I., § 82, 2.
772. Destruction of Eresburg, § 78, f».
774. Charlemagne's donation to the Chair of St. Peter, § 82, 2.
785. Wittekind and Allx)in are baptized, § 78, 9.
787. Seventh G^^cumenical Council at Nicsea, § 66, 3. Founding of Cloister and Cathedral Schools, 5? f)0, 1.
790. Libri Carolini, ^92, 1.
792. Synod at Regensburg, t? 91, 1.
794. General Synod at Frankfort, S "1, 1 ; "-, 1- 795-816. Leo III., Pope, § 82, 3.
799. Alcuin's disi)utation with Felix at Aachen, § 91, 1.
800. Leo III. crowns Charlemagne, § 82, 3.
xixTii ci:xTri?Y.
801. End of the Saxon War, § 78, 9. Alcuin ilies, § 90, 3.
809. Council at Aachen, on the Filioqnc, § 91, 2. 813-820. Leo th(^ Armenian, Emperor, § 66, 4. 814-8^10. Louis the Pious, § 82, 4.
817. Reformation of Monasticism by Benedict of Aniane, § 85, 2. S20-829. Michael Balbus, Emperor, § 66, 4.
825. Synod at Paris against Image Worship, § 92, 1.
826. Theodorus Studita dies, g 66, 4. Ansgar in'Denniark, § 80, 1.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 465
A.D.
827. Establishment of Saracen Sovereignty in Sicily, § 81. 829-842. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4.
83B. Founding of the Archbishopric of Hamburg, § 80, 1.
835. Synod at Didenhofen, § 82, 4.
839. Claudius of Turin dies, Agobard of Lyons dies, § 90, 4. 840-877. Charles the Bald, § 90, 1.
842. Feast of Orthodoxy, § 6ii, 4. Theodora recommends the out-
rooting of the Paulicians, § 71, 1.
843. Compact of Verdun, § 82, 5.
844. Eucharist Controvei-sy of Paschasius Eadbertus, § 91, 3. 845-882, Hincmar of Rheims, § 83, 2 ; 90, 5.
847. Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen, § 80, 1.
848. Synod of Mainz against Gottschalk, § 91, 5. 850-859. Persecution of Christians in Spain, § 81, 1. 851-852. The Decretals of the Pseudo-Isidore, § 87, 2, 3.
853. Synod of Quiersy. Capitula C'arisiaca, § 91, 5.
855. Synod at Valence in favour of Gottschalk, § 91, 5.
856, Rabanus Maurus dies, § 90, 4. 858-867. Pope Nicholas I., § 82, 7.
858. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, § (J7, 1.
859. Synod of Savonnieres, § 91, 5,
861. Methodius goes to the Bulgarians, § 73, 3.
863. Cyril and Methodius go to Moravia, § 79, 2.
865. Ansgar dies, § 80, 1.
86(i, Encyclical of Photius, i; 67, 1. 867-8S6. Basil the Macedonian, Emperor, § 67, 1. 867-872. Hadrian II., Pope, § 82, 7.
869. Eighth (Ecumenical Comicil of the Latins at Constantinople
§ 67, 1.
870. Treaty of Mersen, § 82, 5.
871. Basil the Macedonian puts down the Paulicians, § 71, 1 .
Borziwoi and Ludmilla baptized, § 79, 3, 871-901, Alfred the Great, § 90, 9,
875. John VIII. crowns Charles the Bald Emperor, § 82, 8. 879. Eighth Oecumenical Council of the Greeks at Constantinople § 07, 1. 886-911. Leo the Philosopher, Emperor, § 67, 2. 891, Photius dies, § (J7, 1,
TENTH CENTURY.
910, Abbot Berno founds Clugny, § 98, 1.
911, The German Carolingians die out, § 82, 8, 911-918, Conrad I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1.
VOL. lU. 30
4G6 CHROI^OLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
914-928. Pope John X., § 96, 1.
919-936, Henry I., King of the Germans, § 96, 1
934. Henry I. enforced toleration of Cluistianity in Denmark, § 93, 2. 936-973. Otto I., Emperor, § 96, 1,
942. Odo of Clugny founds the Chigniac Congregation, § 98, 1.
950. Gylas of Hungary baptized, § 93, 8.
955. Olga baptized in Constantinople, § 73, 4,
960. Atto of Vercelli dies, § 100, 3.
962. Founding of the Holy Roman Empire; of the German
Nation, § 96, 1.
963. Synod at Eome deposes John XII., § 96, 1. 906. Miecislaw of Poland baptized, § 93, 7.
968. Poimding of Archbishopric of Magdeburg, § 93, 9. 970. Migration of Paulicians to Thrace, § 71, 1. 973-983. Otto II., Emperor, § 96, 2.
974. Eatherius of Verona dies, § 100, 3. 983-1002. Otto III., Emperor, § 96, 2, 3.
983. Mistewoi destroys all Christian establishments among the Wends, § 93, 9.
987. Hugh Capet is made King of France, § 96, 2.
988. Wladimir Christianizes Russia, § 73, 4. 992-1025. Boleslaw Chrobry of Poland, § 93, 7.
996-999. Pope Gregory V., § 96, 2. 997-1038. Stephen the Saint, § 93, 8.
997. Adalbert of Prague, Apostle of Prussia, dies, § 93, 13. 999-1003. Pope Sylvester II., § 96, 3. 1000. Olaf Tryggvason dies, § 93, 4.
Christianity introduced into Iceland and Greenland,
§ 93, 5. Stephi'u of Hungary secures the throne, § 93, 8.
ELEVENTH CENTURY.
1(K)2-1024. Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4.
1008. Olaf Skautkoning of Sweden baptized, § 93, 3.
J 009. IJruno martynsd, 5? 93, 13. 1012 J 024. Popf; Benedict VIII., § 9(i, 4. 1014-1036. Canute the Great, § 93, 2.
1018. Eomuald founds the; Camaldulensian Congregatiou, § 98, 1. 1024-1039. Conrad II., Emperor, § 96, 4.
1030. Olaf the Thick of Norway dies, § 93, 4.
1031. Overthi'ow of the Ommaides in Spain, § 95, 2.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 467
A.D.
1039-1056, Henry II., Emperor, § 96, 4, 5.
1(M1. Treuga Dei, § 105, 1.
1046, Synod at Sutri, § 96, 4.
1019-1054. Pope Leo IX., § 96, 5.
1050. Synods at Eome and Vercelli against Berengar, § 101, 2,
1053. Epistle of Michael Casrularius, § 67, 3.
1054, Excommunication of Greek Church by Papal Legates,
§ 67, 3. 1056-1106. Hemy IV,, Emperor, § 96, 6-11,
1059. Pope Nicholas II, assigns the choice of Pope to the College
of Cardinals, § 96, 6,
1060, Eobert Guiscard founds the Norman Sovereignty in Italy,
§ 95, 1.
1066. Murder of Gottschalk, King of the Wends, § 93, 9. 1073-iaS5. Pope Gregory VII., § 96, 7-9.
1075. Gregory's third Investiture Enactment, § 96, 7,
1077, Henry IV, as a Penitent at Canossa, § 96, 8,
1079. Berengar subscribes at Eome the doctrine of Transubstan- tiation, § 101, 2,
1086. Bruno of Cologne founds the Carthusian Order, § 98, 2. 1088-1099, Pope Urban II., § 96, 10.
1095. Synod at Clermont, § 91.
10!)6. First Crusade. Godfrey of Boulogne, § 94, 1.
1098. Sjmod at Bari. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4. Robert of Citeaux founds the Cistercian Order, § 98, 1.
1099. Conquest of Jerusalem, § 94, 1. 1099-1118. Pope Paschalis II., § 96, 11,
TWELFTH CENTURY.
1106-1125, Henry V., Emperor, § 06, 11. 1106. Michael Psellus dies, § 68, 5. 1109, Anselm of Canterbury dies, § 101, 1, 3. 1113. Bernard, Abbot of Clairvaux, § 98, 1 ; 102, 3. 1118, Founding of the Order of Knights Templar, Knights of St. John, § 98, 7. Basil, head of Bogomili, sent to the stake, § 71, 4, 1119-1124. Calixtus II., Pope, § 96, 11,
1121, Norbert founds the Prsemonstratensian Order, § 98, 2.
1122. Concordat of Worms, § 96, 11.
1123. Ninth CEcumenical Co\mcil (First Lateran), § 96, 11,
1124, First Missionary Jotu-ney of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10. 1126, Peter of Bruys burnt, § 108, 7.
468 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
1128. Second Missionary Journey of Otto of Bamberg, § 93, 10. 1130-1143. Pope Innocent II., § 96, 13. 1135. Rupert of Deutz dies, § 102, 8. 1139. Tenth Ecumenical Council (Second Latei-an), § 96, 13.
1141. Synod at Sens condemns Abtelard's writings, § 102, 2.
Hugo St. Victor dies, § 102, 4.
1142. Abfelard dies, § 102, 2.
1143. Founding of the Eoman Commune, § 96, 13. 1145-1153. Pope Eugenius III., § 96, 13.
1146. Fall of Edessa, § 94, 2.
1147. Second Crusade. Conrad III. Louis VII., § 94, 2.
1149. Henry of Lausanne dies, § 108, 7.
1150. Decretum Gratiani, § 99, 5. 1152-1190. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14.
1153. Bernard of Clairvaux dies, § 102, 8.
1154. Vicelin dies, § 93, 9. 1154-1159. Hadrian IV., Pope, § 96, 14.
1155. Arnold of Brescia put to death, § 96, 14.
1156. Peter the Venex'able dies, § 98, 1. Founding of Carmelite
Order, § 98, 3.
1157. Introduction of Christianity into Finland, § 93, 11. 1159-1181. Pope Alexander III., § 96, 15, 16.
1164. Peter the Lombard dies, § 102, 5. Council of Clarendon, § 96, 16.
1167. Council at Toulouse (Cathari), § 108, 2.
1168. Christianity of the Island of Eiigen, § 93, 10.
1169. Gerhoch of Reichersbex'g dies, § 102, 6, 7.
1170. Thomas Becket murdered, § 96, 16. Founding of the
Waldensian sect, § 108, 10. 1176. Battle of Legnano, § 6, 15.
1179. Eleventh (Ecumenical Council (Third Lateran), § 96, 15.
1180. John of Salisbury dies, § 102, 9.
1182. Maronites are attached to Home, § 73, 3. 1184. Meinhart in Livonia, § 93, 12. 1187. Saladin conquers Jerusalem, § 94, 3.
1189. Third Crusade. Frederick Barbarossa, § 94, 3. 1190-1197. Henry VL, Emperor, § 96, 16.
1190. Founding of Order of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8. 1194. Eustathius of Thessalonica dies, § 68, 5.
1198-1216. Pojje Innocent III., § 96, 17, 18.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 469
THIRTEENTH CENTURY.
A.D.
1202. Joachim of Ploris dies, § 108, 5. Founding of Order^ of the Brothers of the Sword, § 93, 12. Genghis Khan destroys Kingdom of Prester John, § 72, 1. 1204-1261. Latin Emigre in Constantinople, § 94, 4.
1207. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, § 96, 18.
1208. Peter of Castelnau sLain, § 109, 1. 1209-1229. Albigensian Crusade, § 109, 1.
1209. Covmcil of Paris against Sect of Amalrich of Bena,
§ 108, 4.
1212. Battle at Tolosa, § 95, 2.
1213. John Lackland receives England as a Papal Fief, § 96, 18. 121.O-1250. Frederick II., Emperor, § 96, 17, 19, 20.
1215. TAvelfth (Ecumenical Council (Foui-th Lateran), § 96, 18.
1216. Confirmation of the Dominican Order, § 98, 5. 1216-1227. Pope Honorius III., § 96, 19.
1217. Fourth Crusade. Andrew II. of Hungarj^, | 94, 4. 1228. Confirmation of Franciscan Order, § 98, 3.
1226. Francis of Assisi dies, § 98, 3. 1226-1270. Louis IX., the Saint, § 94, 6 ; 93, 15. 1227-1241. Pope Gregory IX., § 96, 19.
1228. Fifth Crusade. Frederick II., § 94, 5. Settlement of the
Teutonic Knights in Prussia, § 93, 13.
1229. Synod at Toulouse, § 109, 2.
1231. St. Elizabeth dies, § 105, 3.
1232. Inquisition Tribunal set up, § 109, 2.
1233. Conrad of Marburg slain, § 109, 3.
1234. Crusade against Stediugers, § 109, 3.
1237. Union of the Order of Sword with that of Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8. 1243-1254. Pope Innocent IV., § 96, 20.
1245. Thirteenth (Ecumenical Council (first of Lyons), § 96, 20.
Alexander of Hales died, § 103, 4. 1248. Foundation stone of Cathedral of Cologne laid, § 104, 11. Sixth Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6.
1253. Robert Grosseteste dies, § 103, 1.
1254. Condemnation of the " Introdudor'ms in evanyelium ater-
num,'" % 108, 5.
1260. First Flagellant Campaign in Perugia, § 107, 1. 1260-1282. Michael Palaologus, Emperor, § 67, 4. 1261-1264. Urban IV., Pope, § 96, 20.
1262. Arsenian Schism, § 70, 1.
1268. Conradiu on the Scaftbld. § 96, 20.
470 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
12G9. Pragmatic Sanction of Louis IX., § DG, 21. 1270. Seventh Crusade, Louis IX., § 94, 6. 1271-1276. Pope Gregory X., § 9G, 21.
1272. Italian Mission to the Mongols. Marco Polo, § 93, 15. David of Augsburg dies, § 103, 10. Bertholdt of Eegens- biu-g dies, § 104, 1. 1278-1291. Rudolph of Hapsburg, Emperor, § 96, 21, 22.
1274. Fourteenth (Ecumenical Council (second of Lj'ons), §96,21.
Thomas Aquinas dies, § 103, 6. Bonaventura dies, § 103, 4.
1275. Strassburg Minster, § 104, 13. 1280. Albert the Great dies, § 103, 5.
1282. Sicilian Vespers, § 96, 22.
1283. Prussia subdued, § 93, 13, 1286. Barhabraeus dies, § 72, 2.
1291. Fall of Acre. § 94, 6. John of Montecorvino among the
Mongols, § 93, 16, 1294. Eeger Bacon dies, § 103, 8. 1294-1303. Boniface VIII., Pope, § 110, 1, 1296, Bull Clericis laicos; § 110, 1, 1300, First Eomau Jubilee, § 117, Lollards at Antwerp, § 116,
2. Gerhard Segarelli burnt, § 108, 8.
FOURTEENTH CENTURY.
1302. Bull Unam Sam-lam, § 110, 1. 1305-1314. Pope Clement V., § 110, 2.
1307. Dolcino burnt, § 108, 4.
1308. Duns Scotus dies, § 113, 1,
1309-1377, Residence of Popes at Avignon, § 110, 2- 1. 1311-1312. Fifteenth CEcumonical Council at Viunne, § 110, 2. Sup- pression of l^emplar Order, § 112, 7. 1314-1347. Louis the Bavarian, Emperor, § 110, 3, 4.
1315. Raimund Lullus dies, § 93, 17 ; 103, 5. 1316-J334. Pope John XXII., § 110, 3 ; 112, 2.
1321. Dante dies, § 116, 6.
1322. Split in the Franciscan Order, tj 112, 2. 1327. Meister Eckhart dies, § 114, 1.
1334-1342. Poi)e Benedict XII., § 110, 4.
1335. Bishop Hemming in Lapland, § 93, 11.
1338. Electoral Union at Rhense, § 110, 5.
1339. Union negotiations at Avignon. Barlaam, g 67, 5.
1340. Nicliolas of Lyra dies, § 113, 7.
1311 1351. H''S3'chast Controversy in Constauthiuplc, t< (i!), 1.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 471
A.D.
1342-1352. Pope Clement VI., § 110, 4. 1346-1378. Charles IV., Emperor, § 110, 4.
1347. Eienzi, § 110, 4. Emperor Louis dies, § 110, 4.
1348. Founding of University of Prague, § 119, 3. 1348-1350. Black Death. Flagellant Campaign, § 116, 3.
1349. Thomas Bradwardine dies, § 113, 2. 1352-1362. Pope Innocent VI., § 110, 4.
1356. Charles IV. issues the Golden Bull, § 110, 4.
1360. Wiclif , against the Begging Friars, § 119, 1.
1361. John Tanler dies, § 114, 2. 1362-1370. Pope Urban V., § 110, 4.
1366. Henry Suso dies, § 114, 5. 1367-1370. Urban V. in Rome, § 110, 4.
1369. John Paliiologus passes over to the Latin Church, § 67, 5. 1370-1378. Pop(! Gregory XI., § 110, 4.
1374. Dancers, § 116, 3.
1377. Return of the Cui-ia to Rome, § 110, 4. 1378-1417. Papal Schism, § 110, 6.
1380. Catharine of Siena dies, § 112, 4.
1384. Wiclif dies, § 119, 1. Gerhard Groot dies, § 112, 9.
1386. Introduction of Christianity into Lithuania, § 93, 14.
1400. Florentius Radewin dies, § 112, 9.
FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
1402. Hus becomes Preacher in the Bethlehem Chapel, § 119, 3. 1409. (Ecumenical Council at Pisa, § 110, 6.i Withdrawal of the Germans from Prague, § 119, 3.
* From the fifteenth century the numbering of the General Councils is so variable and vmcertain that even Catholic historians are not agreed upon this point. They are at one only aboiit this, that the anti-papal councils claiming to be oecumenical, of Pisa a.d. 1409, Basel A.D. 1438, and Pisa a.d. 1511, should be designated schismatical " Co«fz7iaZ»«/rt." Ilefele, in his "History of the Councils," counts eighteen down to the Reformation. He makes the Constance Council in its first and last sessions the sixteenth, but does not count the middle session held without the pope. He makes that of Basel the seventeenth down to a.d. 1438 with its papal continuation at Ferrara and Florence. Finally, as eighteenth ho gives the fifth Lateran ("ouncil of a.d. 1512-1517. But others strike Basel and Constance out of the list altogether; and many, especially the Galileans, reject also the fifth Lateran Council, because occupied w'ith matters of slight or merely local interest.
472 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.n. 1410-1415. John XXIII., Pope, § 110, 7. 1410-1437. Sigismund, Emperor, § 110, 7, 8.
1412. Traffic in Indulgences in Bohemia, § 119, 4.
1413. Papal Ban against Hus, § 119, 4.
1414-1418. Sixteenth CEcumenical Coimcil at Constance, § 110, G ; 119, 5.
1415. Tins obtains the crown of martyrdom, § 119, 5.
141G. Jerome of Prague mart^^red, § 119, 5. 1417-1431. Pope Martin V., § 110, 7.
1420. Calixtines and Taborites, § 119, 7.
1423. General Councils at Pavia and Siena, § 110, 7.
1424. Ziska dies, § 119, 7.
1425. Peter D'Ailly dies, § 118, 3. 1429. Gerson dies, § 118, 3.
1431-1447. Pope Eugenius IV., § 110, 7.
1431-1449. Seventeenth (Ecumenical Council at Basel, § 110, 8 : 119 5-7.
1433. Basel Comi^acts, § 119, 7.
1434. Overthrow of Hussites at Bohmisclibrod, § 119, 7.
1438. Papal Counter-Council at Ferrara, § 110, 8. Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges, § 110, 9.
1489. Council at Florence, § 67, 6.
1448. Concordat of Vienna, § 110, 9.
1453. Fall of Constantinople, § 67, (>.
1457. Laurentius Valla dies, § 120, 1. 1458-14()4. Pope Pius II., § 110, 11.
1459. Congress of Princes at Mantua, 5? 110, 10. 1464-1471. Pope Paul II., § 110, 11.
1467. Convention of Bohemian Brethren at Lhota, t? 119, 8.
1471. Thomas a Kempis dies, § 114, 5. 1471-1484. Sixtus IV., Pope, § 110, 11.
1483. Luther torn on JNovember 10th, ij 122, 1. Spanish Inquisi- tion, § 117, 1. Close of Corpici jurin canonici^ § 99, 5. 1484-1492. Innocent VIII., Pope, § 110, 11.
14.S1. Zwingli bom January 1st, tj 130, 1. Bull tSiinuuix ilcsidc- rarites, § 1 17, 4.
1485. Rudolph Agricola dies, J^ 120, 3.
1489. John Wessel dies, § 119, 10. 1492-1.503. Alexander VI., Pope, § 110, 12.
1492. Fall of Granada, § 95, 2. 1493-1519. Maximilian I., Emperor, § 110, 13.
1497. Melanchthon born, § 122, 5.
1498. Savonarola sent to the staki", § 119, 11.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 473
SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
A.D.
1502. Founding of University of Wittenborji;, § 122, 1. 1503-151H. Pope Julius II., § 110, 13.
1506. Eebuilding of St. Peter's at Rome, § 115, IB.
1508. Luther becomes Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 1.
1509. Calvin born on July lOtli, § 188, 2. 1.509-1547. Henry VIII. of England, § 139, 4.
1511. Lutlier's joui-ney to Eome, § 122, 1. Council at Pisa, § 110,
13.
1512. Luther made Doctor of the Holy Scriptures and Preacher,
§ 112, 1. 1512-1517. Fifth Lateran Council, § 110, 13, 14. 1518-1521. Pope Leo X., § 110, 14.
1514. Re\ichlin's contest with the Dominicans, § 120, 4.
1516. Epistolm Ohscur. vironim, % 120, 5. Erasmus edits the New
Testament, § 120, (j. Zwingli preaches at Mariii Einsie- deln, § 130, 1.
1517. Luther's Theses, October 81st, § 122, 2.
1518. Luther at Heidelberg and before Cajetan at Augsburg,
^ 122, 3. Melanchthon Professor at Wittenberg, § 122, 5.
1519. Miltitz, tj 122, 8. Disputation at Leipzig, t; 122, 4.
Zwingli in Ziirich, i? 130, 1. Olaf and Laurence Peter- son in Sweden, i^ 189, 1. 1519-15.56. Emperor Charles V., § 128, 5.
1.520. Bull of Excommunication against Luther, t? 128, 2.
Christian II. in Denmark, § 139, 2.
1.521. Luther at Worms, § 128, 7. Melanchthon's Loci, § 124, 1,
Beginning of Reformation in Riga, i? 189, 8. 1521-1522. The Wartburg Exile, J^ 128, 8.
1.522. The Prophets of Zwick;ui m Wittenberg, § 121, 1. Reuch-
lin dies, t^ 120. 1. 1522-1.528. Pope Hadrian VI., § 126, 1.
1523. Thomas Munzer in Allstiidt, t? 121, 1. LutherV contest with Henry VIII., § 125, 8, First Martyrs, Voes and Esch, § 128, 1. Sickingen's defeat, § 124, 2. 1528-1.534. Pope Clement VII., § 149, 1.
1.524. Stiiui)itz dies, § 112, 2. Carlstadt in Orlamiinde, § 124, 3. Erasmus against Luther, t? 125, 2. Diet of Nuremberg, § 126, 2, Regensbiu'g League, ij 126, 8. Hans Tausen in Denmark, § 189, 2. Founding of Theatine Order, § 149, 7.
1525. Eucharist Controversy, § 131, 1. Luther's Marriage, § 129. Albert of Prussia, Hereditary Duke, § 126, 4. Founding of the Capucliin Order, tj 149. 7.
474 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
1525-1532. John the Constant, Elector of Saxony, § 124, 5.
152G. Synod at Hamburg, i^ 127, 2. Torgau League, § 126, 5, Diet at Spires, § 12(3, 6. Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6.
1527. Diet at Odense, § 139, 2 ; and at Westeras, § 139, 1.
1528. The Pack incident, § 132, 1. Disputation at Bern, § 130, 7.
1529. Church Visitation of Saxony, § 127, 1. Diet at Spires,
§ 132, 3. Marburg Conference, § 132, 4. First Peace of Cappel, § 130, 9.
1530. Diet at Augsburg. Conf. Augn.slana, June 25th, § 132. G, 7.
1531. Schmalcald League, § 133, 1. Zwingli dies. Second Peac<?
of Cappel, § 130, 10. 1532-15tl7, John Frederick the Magnanimous, Elector of Saxony, § 133, 2.
1532. Religious Peace of Nuremberg, § 133, 2. Farel at Geneva,
§ 138, 1. Henry VIII. renounces authority of the Pope, §139,4.
1534. Luther's complete Bible Translation, § 129, 1. Reformation
in Wiirttemberg, § 133, 3. 1534-1535. Anabaptist Troubles in Miinster, § 133, 6. 1534-1549. Pope Paul III., S 149, 2.
1535. Vergerius in Wittenberg, tj 134, 1. Calvin's Indilutio rcl.
ChrinL, % 138, 5.
1536. Erasmus dies, § 120, 6. Wittenberg Concord, § 133, 8.
Calvin in Geneva, § 138, 2. Diet at Copenhagen, § 139, 2. Menno Simons baptized, § 147, 1.
1537. Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1. Antinomian Controversy,
§ 141, 1.
1538. Nuremberg League, § 134, 2. Calvin Expelled from
Geneva, § 138, 3.
1539. Outbreak at Frankfort, § 134, 3. Reformation in Albcrtine
Saxony, § 134, 4. Joachim II. reforms Biandeuburg, § 134, 5. Diet at Odense, § 139, 2.
1510. The Society of Jesus, § 149, 8. Double Marriage of the
Landgrave, § 135, 1. Religious Conferences at Spires, Hagenau, and Worms, § 135, 2.
1511. Cai'lstadt dies, § 12 J, 3. Intei'im of Regensburg, § 135, 3.
Naumburg Episcopate, § 135, 5. ("alvin returns to
Geneva, § 138, 3, 4. 1542. Reformation in Brunswick, § 135, 6. National Assembly
at Bonn, § 135, 7. Francis Xavier in tlu^ East Indies,
§ 150, 1. Roman Inquisition, § 139, 23. 1544. Diet at Spires, Peace of Crespy, Wittenberg Reformation,
§ 135, 9. Diet at Westeras, § 139, 1.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 475
1545. Synod at Erdod, § 139, 20.
1545-1547. Nineteenth (Ecumenical Council at Trent, § 13G, 4; 149, 2.
1546. Eegensburg Conference : Murder of John Diaz, § 135, 10.
Luther dies, February 18th, § 135, 11. Reformation in
the Palatinate, § 135, 6. 1546-1547. Schmalcald War, § 136. 1547-1553. Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5.
1547. Hermann of Cologne resigns, § 136, 2. 1548-1572. Sigismund Augustus, of Poland, § 139, 18.
1548. Interim of Augsburg, § 136, 5. Adiaphorist Controversy,
§ 141, 5. Priests of the Oratory, § 149, 7.
1549. Comensu8 Tif/uriiius, § 138, 7. Andrew Osiander at Kouigs-
burg, § 141, 2. Jesuit Mission in Brazil. § 150, 3. The fii-st Jesuits in Germanj'^ (Ingolstadt). § 151, 2. 1550-1555. Pope Julius III., § 136, 8.
1550. Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7.
1551. Resumption of Tridentine Council, § 136, 8 ; 149, 2.
1552. Compact of Passau, § 137, 3. Outbreak of Crj^pto-Calvinist
Controversy, § 141, 9. Francis Xavier dies, § 150, 1. 1553-1558. Mary the Catholic of England, § 139, 5.
1.553. Elector Maurice dies, § 137, 4. Servetus burnt, § 148, 2.
1554. Consensus Pastorum Genecensium, § 138, 7. John Frederick
the Magnanimous dies, § 137, 3.
1555. Religious Peace of Augsburg, § 137, 5. Outbreak of
Synergist Controversies, § 141, 7. 1555-1.598. Philip II. of Spain, § 139, 21. 1556-1564. Ferdinand I., Emperor, § 137, 8.
1556. Loyola dies, § 149, 8.
1557. National Assembly at Clausenburg and Confess to Htin-
(jarica, % 139, 20. 15.58. Frankfort Recess, § 141, 11. 1558-1603. Elizabeth of England, § 139, 6.
1559. Gustavus Vasa's Mission to the Lapps, § 142, 7. Confessio
Gal/icana, § 139, 14. The English Act of Uniformity. § 139, 6. 1560-1565. Pope Pius IV., § 149, 2.
1560. Confessio Scotica, § 139, 9. John a Lasco dies, § 139, 18.
Calvinizing of the Palatinate, § 144, 1. Melanchthon dies, § 141, 10.
1561. Gotthard Kettler, Duke of Courhuul, § 139, 3. Religious
Conference at Poissy, § 139, 14. Mary Stuart in Scot- land, § 139, 10. Princes' Diet at Nauniburg, § 1 11, 11. 1562-1563. Resumption and Close of Tridentine Council, § 149, 2.
476 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
1562. Confessio Bchjka, § 130, 12. The XXXIX. Articles of the English Church, § 139, 6. Calvinizing of Bremen, § 144, 2. Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1. Laelius Socimis dies, § 148, 4.
15G4. Calvin dies, i^ 188, 4. Frofessio fidei Tridpiitiiia;, § 149, 14. Cassander's Union Proposals, § 137, 8. Maulbroim Con- vention, § 144, 1. 15(51-1576. Emperor Maximilian II., § 137, 8.
1566, Caterhasimo liomauns, § 149, 10. Covfcftsio Helvetica pos-
terior, § 138, 7. The League of " the Beggars," § 139, 12.
1567. The writings of Michael Baius condemned, § 149, 13. 1570. General Synod at Sendomir, § 139, 13. Peace of St. Grer-
mains, § 139, 15. 1572-1585. Pope Gregory XIII., § 149, 3.
1572. John Knox dies, § 139, 11. Bloody Marriage of Paris,
August 24th, § 139, 16.
1573. Pax dissident imn in Poland, § 139, 18.
1574. Maulbronn Convention, § 141, 12. Kestoration of Catho-
licism in Eichsfelde, § 151, 1.
1575. Confessio Bohemicn, § 139, 19.
1576. Book of Torgau, § 141, 12. Pacification of Ghent, § 139, 12. 1576-1612. Rudolph II., Emperor, § 137, 8.
1577. The Formula of Concord, 5? 141, 12. Restoi'ation of
Catholicism in Fulda, i? 151, 1.
1578. The Jesuit Possevin in Sweden, § 151, 3.
1579. The Union of Utrecht, t? 139, 12. 1.580. Book of Concord, § 141, 12.
1.582. Second Attempt at Reformation in Cologne, § 137, 6. Matthew Ricci in China, § 150, 1. Reform of Calendar, § 149, 3. 1585-1590. Pope Sixtus V., S 149, 3.
1,587. Mary Stuart on the Scaffold, § 139, 10,
1588, Louis Molina, tj 149, 13, 1.589-1610, Henry IV, of France, § 139, 17.
1589. Patriarchate at Moscow, § 73, 4.
1592. Saxon Articles of Visitation, § 141, 13.
1593. Assembly of Representatives at Upsala, § 139, 1.
1595. Synod at Thorn, § 139, 18.
1596. Synod at Brest, § 151, 3.
1597. Calvinizing the Principality of Anhalt, § 144, 3. Con-
rjrcfjntio de curiliis, § 149, 13.
1598. Edict of Nantes, § 139, 17.
1600. fiiordano Bruno at the Stake. § 146, 3.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 477
HEVENTEEXTH CENTURY.
A.D,
1604. Faustus Socinus dies, § 148, 4.
1G05. Landgrave Maurice calvinizes Hesse Cassel, § 154, 1.
Gunpowder Plot, § 1.53, 6. 1606. The Treaty of Vienna, § 139, 10. Interdict on the Ee-
public of Venice, § 156, 2.
1608. Founding the Jesuit State of Paraguay, § 156, 10.
1609. The Royal Letter, § 193, 19. 1610-1643. Louis XIII. of France, § 153, 3,
1610. Eenaonstrants and Counter-Remonstrants, § 160, 2.
1611. Peres de I'Oratoii-e, (^ 156, 7. 1612-1619. Matthias, Emperor, J? 153, 1.
1613. Elector John Sigisniund of Brandenburg goes over to
Reformed Church, § 154, 3. George Calixtus in Hehn- stadt, § 159, 2.
1614. Confessio Mardiica, % 154, 3. 1616. Leonard Hutter dies, § 159, 4.
1618. Monks of St. Maur in France, § 156, 7. 1618-1648. The Thirty Years' War, ij 153, 2. 1618-1619. Sjmod of Dort, § 161, 2. 1619-1637. Ferdinand II., Emperor, § 153, 2.
1620. The Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. The Pilgrim Fathers,
§ 143, 2.
1621. John Arndt dies, § 160, 1,
1622. Francis de Sales dies, § 157, 1. Conurerjatio de propaganda
fide, % 156, 9. 1624. End of Controversy over K^vwais and Kpv\j/is, § 159, 1. Jac. Bohme dies, § 160, 2.
1628. Adam Schall in China, § 156, 12.
1629. Edict of Restitution, § 153, 2.
1631. Religious Conference at Leipzig, § 155, 4,
1632. Gustavus Adolphus falls at Liitzen, § 1.53, 2.
1637. John Gerhard dies, 55 159, 4. Rooting out of Christianity
in Jai^an, § 156, 11.
1638. Overthrow of Racovian Seminary, § 148, 4. C3Til Lucar
strangled, § 152, 2. Scottish Covenant, § 155, 1. 1G41. Irish Massacre, § 153, 5.
1642, Condemnation of the " Augustinus '' of Jansen, § 157, 5. 1643-1715. Louis XIV. of Franco, § 153, 2 ; 157, 2, 3, 5.
1643. Orthodox Confession of Peter Mogihxs, § 152, 3. Opening
of Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. 1645. Hugo Grotius dies, § 1.53, 7. Religious Conference at Thorn, § 153, 7. Peace of Linz, § 153, 3.
47M chronoloCtTcal tables.
A.D.
1645-1742. Accommodation Controversy, § 156, 12.
1647, George Fox appears as Leader of the Quakers, § 163, 4. 1048, Peace of Westphalia, § 153, 2. Close of "Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1.
1649. Execution of Charles I. of England, § 155, 1.
1650. Descartes dies, § 164, 1.
1652. Liturgical Reform of the Patriarch Nikon, § 163, 10.
1653. Innocent X. condemns the Five Pi-opositions of Jansen,
§ 157, 5, Barebones' Parliament, § 155, 2,
1654. Christina of Sweden becomes a Catholic, § 153, 1, John
Val, Andrea dies, § 160, 1.
1655. The Bloody Easter in Piedmont, § 153, 5. Consensus
repetitus fidei vere Lntherance, § 159, 2.
1656. George Calixtus dies, § 159, 2. Pascal's Lettres Provinciahs,
§ 157, 5. 1658. Outbreak of Cocceian Controversies, § 161, 5.
1660, Vincent de Paul dies, § |156, 8, Eestoration of Royalty
and Episcopacy in England, § 155, 3,
1661. Religious Conference at Cassel, § 154, 4. 1664, Founding of Order of Trappists, § 156, 8,
1669, Cocceius dies, § 161, 3,
1670. The Labadists in Herford, § 163, 7. 1673. The Test Act, § 153, 6.
1675. Formula consensus Helvetici, § 161, 2. Spener's Pio Desi-
deria, § 159, 3.
1676. Paul G«rhardt dies, § 154, 4. Voetius dies, § 161, 3.
1677. Spinoza dies, § 164, 1.
1682. Quatuor ^rropositiones Cleri Gallicani, § 156, 1. Founding of Pcnmsylvania, § 163, 4.
1685, Revocation of Edict of Nantes and Expulsion of Walden-
sians from Piedmont, § 153, 4, 5,
1686, Spener at Dresden and Collegia 2}^^ilohiUica in Leipzig,
§ 159, 3, Abraham Calov dies, § 159, 4.
1687, Michael Molinos forced to Abjure, § 157, 2.
1689, English Act of Toleration, § 155, 3, Return of banished
Waldensians, § 153, 5,
1690, The Pietists Expelled from Leipzig, § 159, 3,
1691, Spener in Berlin, § 159, 3,
1694. Founding of University of Halle, § 159, 3.
1697. Frederick Augustus the Strong of Saxony becomes
Catholic, § 153, 1. 1699, Propositions of Fenelon Condemned, § 157, 3.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 479
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
A.D.
1701. Thomas of Tournon in the East Indies, § 15G, 12.
1702. Loscher's " UnscJuddige NacJiricJden," § 1H7, 1. Bnttla.
Fanatical Excesses, § 170, 4.
1703. Collegium caritativum at Berlin, § 169, 1. Peter CoJde
deposed, § 165, 8.
1704. Bossuet dies, § 153, 7 ; 157, 3.
1705. S^Dener dies, § 159, 3.
1706. Founding of Lutheran Mission at Tranqnebar, § 167, 9.
1707. The Praying Children at Silesia, § 167, 8. 1709. Port Eoyal suppressed, § 157, 5.
1712. Richard Simon dies, § 158, 1. Mechitarist Congregation,
§ 165, 2.
1713. The Coustitution Unigenitus, § 165, 7. 1717-1774. Louis XV. of France, § 165, 5.
1715. Fenelon dies, § 157, 3.
1716. Leibnitz dies, § 164, 2.
1717. French Appellants, § 165, 7. Madame Guyon dies, § 157,
3. Gottfried Arnold dies, § 160, 2. Inspired Commu- nities in the Cevennes, § 170, 2.
1721. Holy Synod of St. Petersburg, § 166. Hans Egede goes as
Missionary to Greenland, § 167, 9.
1722. Founding of Herrnhut, § 168, 2.
1727. A. H. Francke dies, § 167, 8. Thomas of Westen dies,
§ 160, 7. Founding of the Society of United Brethren, § 168, 2.
1728. Callenberg's Institute for Convei'sion of Jews, § 167, 9.
1729. Buddeus dies, § 168, 2. Methodist Society formed, § 169, 4. 1731. Emigration of Evangelicals of Salzburg, § 165, 4.
1740-1786. Frederick II. of Prussia, § 171, 4.
1741. Moravian Special Covenant Avith the Lord Jesus, § 168, 4.
1750. Sebastian Bach dies, § 167, 7. End of Jesuit State of Para-
guay, § 165, 3.
1751. Semler, Professor in Halle, § 171, 6.
1752. Bengel dies, § 167, 4.
1754. Christ, v. Wolff dies, § 167, 3. Winckelmann becomes a
Roman Catholic, § 165, 6.
1755. Mosheim dies, § 167, 3. 1758-1769. Pope Clement XIII., § 165, 9.
1759. Banishment of Jesuits from Portugal, § 165, 9,
1760. Zinzendorf dies, § 168, 3.
1762. Judicial Murder of Jean Galas, § 165, 5. 1765. Universal German Library, § 171, 4.
480 chronologicaIj tables.
A.D.
1769-1774. Pope Clement XIV., i? 1G5, 9. 1772. Swedenborg dies, § 170, 5. 1778. Supijression of Jesuit Order, § 165, 9.
1774. Wolfenbiittel Fragments, § 171, 6. 1775-1799. Pius VI., Pope, § 165, 9, 10.
1775. C. A. Crusius dies, § 167, 8.
1776. Founding of the Order of the liluminati, § 165, 18. 1778. Voltaire and Rousseau die, § 165, 14.
1780-1790. Joseph II., sole ruler, § 165, 10.
1781. Joseph's Edict of Toleration, § 165, 10.
1782. Pope Pius VI. in Vienna, § 165, 10.
1786. Congress at Ems and S3rnod at Pistoja, § 1(55, 10.
1787. Edict of Versailles, § 165, 4.
1788. The Eeligious Edict of Wollner, § 171, 5,
1789. French Kevolution, § 165, 15.
1791. Wesley dies, § 169, 5. Semler dies, t, 171, 6.
1798. Execution of Louis XVI. and his Queen. Abolition of
Christian reckoning of time and of tlie Christian reli- gion in France. Temple de la liaison, § 165, 15.
1794. LepeuplefratiQainreconnait VEtre supreme et riinmortalile
de Pcune, § 165, 15.
1795. Founding of London Missionary Society, § 172, 5.
1799. Schleiermacher's '■'■ Hedcn iiher die Hcliyion,^^ § 182, 1.
1800. Stolberg becomes a Roman Catholic, § 165, 6.
NINETEENTH CENTURY.
1800-1828. Pope Pius VII., § 185, 1.
1801. French Concordat, § 208, 1.
1808. Recess of Imperial Deputies, § 192, 1.
1804. Founding of British and Foreign Bible Societ}', § 188, 4.
Kant dies, § 171, 10. 1806. End of Catholic German Empire, § 192.
1809. Napoleon under Ban ; the Pope Imprisoned, § 185, 1.
1810. Founding of American Missionaiy Society at Boston,
§ 184, 1. Schleiermacher professor at Berlin, § 182, 1.
1811. French National Council, § 185, 1.
1814. Vienna Congress. Restoration of the Pope, § 185, 1.
Restoration of the Jesuits, § 18(), 1.
1815. The Holy Alliance, § 178.
1816. Mission Seminary at Basel, § 184, 1.
1817. The Thes(;s of Harms, § 17(), 1. Union Int(.>rpellation of
Frederick William III., § 177, 1.
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 4^1
A.D.
1822. Introduction of the Prussian Service Book, § 176, 1. Lyons Association for Spreading the Faith, § 186, 7. 1823-1829. Pope Leo XII., § 185, 1.
1825. Book of Mormon, § 211, 12.
1827. Hengstenberg's Evangel. KirclienzeUung^ § 176, 1. 1829. English Catholic Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9. Founding of Barmen Missionary Institute, § 184, 1. 1829-1830. Pope Pius VIII., § 185, 1.
1830.' July Eevolution, § 203, 2. Halle Controversy, § 176, 1. Abbe Chatel in Paris, § 187, 6. 1831-1846. Gregory XVI., Pope, § 185, 1. 1831. Hegel dies, § 174, 1.
1833. Beginning of Puseyite Agitation, § 203, 2.
1834. Conflict at HOnigern, § 177, 2. Schleiermacher dies,
§ 182, 1.
1835. Strauss' first Life of Jesus, § 182, 6. Condemnation of
Hermosianism, § 193, 1. Edward Irving dies, § 211, 10. Persecution of Christians in Madagascar, § 184, 3.
1836. Founding of Dresden Missionary Institute, § 184, 1.
1837. Emigrants of ZiUerthal, § 198, 1. Beginning of Troubles
at Cologne, § 193, 1.
1838. Archbishop Dunin of Posen, § 193, 1. Eescript of Alten-
burg, § 194, 2. J. A. Mohler dies, § 191, 4. English Tithes' Bill, § 202, 9.
1839. Call of Dr. Strauss to Zurich, § 199, 4. Bavarian order to
give Adoration, § 195, 2. Synod at Polozk, § 206, 2. 1840-1861. Frederick William IV. of Prussia, § 193.
1841. Schelling at Berlin, § 174, 1. Constitution of Lutherans separated from National Church of Prussia, § 177, 2, Founding of Evangelical Bishopric of Jerusalem, § 184, 8. Founding of Gustavus Adolphus Association, § 178, 1.
1843. Disruption and Founding of the Free Church of Scotland,
§ 202, 7.
1844. German-Catholic Church, § 187, 1. Wislicenus' "Ob
Schrift, ob Geist ? " § 176, 1.
1845. Founding Free Chui-ch of Vaud, § 199, 2. 1845-1846. Conversions in Livonia, § 206, 3. 1846-1878. Pope Pius IX., § 185, 2-4.
1846. Founding of Evangelical Alliance in London, § 178, 8.
Fruitless Prussian General Synod in Bi»rlin, § 193, 3.
1847. Prussian Patent of Toleration, § 193, 3. "War of Swiss
Sonderbund, § 199, 1, VOL. III. 31
482 CHEONOLOGICAL TABLES.
A.D.
1848. Eevolution of February and March, § 192, 4, Founding
of Evangel. Kirclientag, § 178, 4. Founding of Catholic " Pius Association," § 186, 3. Bishops' Congress of Wiirzburg, § 192, 4.
1849. Eoman Bepublic, § 185, 2. First Congress for Home
Missions, § 183,
1850. Institution of Berlin " Oberkirchenrat," § 193, 4. Return
of Pope to Rome, § 185, 2. English Ecclesiastical Titles BiU, § 202, 11.
1851. Memorial of Upj^er Rhine Bishops, § 196, 1. Taeping Rebel-
lion in China, § 211, 15,
1852. Conference at Eisenach, § 178, 2,
1852-1870, Napoleon III,, Emperor of the French, § 203, 3, 5.
1853. The Kirchentag at Berlin acknowledges the Augustana,
§ 178, 4. Missionary Institute at Hermannsburg, § 185, 1. New Organization of the Catholic Hierarchy in Holland, § 200, 4, 1855. Sardinian Law about Monasteries, § 204, 1, Austrian Concordat, § 198, 2.
1857. The Evangelical Alliance in Berlin, § 178, 3,
1858. Disturbances in Baden about Service Book, § 196, 3, The
Mother of God at Lourdes, § 188, 7.
1859. Franco- Austrian War in Italy, 204, 2.
1860. Persecution of S3T:ian Christians, § 207, 2. Abrogation of
Baden Concordat, § 196, 2.
1861. The Austrian Patent, § 198, 3, Introduction of a Consti-
tutional Church Order into Baden, § 196, 3, Radama II. in Madagascar, § 184, 3. Schism among Separatist Lutherans in Prussia, § 177, 3,
1862. Hanoverian Catechism Scandal, § 194, 3, Renan's Life
of Jesus, 182, 8, Wiirttemberg Ecclesiastical Law. § 196, 6,
1863. Congress of Catholic Scholars at Munich, § 190, 10.
1864. Encyclical and Syllabus, § 185, 2. Strauss' and Schenkel's
Life of Jesus, 182, 8, 17.
1865. The first Protestantentag at Eisenach, § 180, 1.
1866. Founding of the North German League.
1867. St. Peter's Centenary Festival at Rome, § 185, 2,
1869, Irish Church Bill, 202, 10, Opening of Vatican Council.
§ 189, 2.
1870. Proclamation of Doctrine of Infallibility, July 18th, § 189,
3, Revocation of the Austrian Concordat, § 198, 2, Overthrow of the Church States, § 185, 3,
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLES. 483
A.D.
1871. Founding of the new German Empire, January 18th,
§ 197. The first Old Catholic Congress at Munich, § 190, 1. "The Kanzelparagraph," § 197, 4. First Lutheran National Synod in the kingdom of Saxony § 19'i, 1.
1872. Dr. Falk, Prussian Minister of Worship, § 193, 5. The
Prussian School Inspection Law, § 199, 3. The Roman Disputation, § 175, 3. The German Jesuit Law, § 197, 4. Epidemic of Manifestations of the Mother of God in Alsace-Lorraine, § 188, 6.
1873. The four Prussian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 197, 5. Mer-
millod and Lachat Deposed from office, § 199, 2, 3. Con- stitution of Old Catholic Church in German Empire § 190, 1.
1874. The Austrian Ecclesiastical Laws, § 198, 6. Union Con-
ference at Bonn, § 175, G.
1875. The Encyclical Quod nitmquam and the Embargo Act
§ 197, 8. Berlin Extraordinary General Synod, § 193, b. Pearsall Smith, § 211, 1.
1876. Marpinger Mother-of-God trick, § 188, 7. The Dutch
University Law, § 202, 2.
1878. Leo XIII. ascends the Papal chair, § 185, 5. Organization
of a Catholic Hierarchy in Scotland, § 202, 11. Con- gress of Berlin, § 207, 5. Amnesty to the recalcitrant Clergy of the Jura, § 199, 3. First appearance of the Salvation Army, § 205, 2.
1879. The Belgian Liberal Education Act, § 200, 6.
1880. Abolition of the '' KuHurexavien" in Baden, § 197 14.
French Decree of March, § 203, G.
1881. Eobertson Smith's Heresy Case, § 202 8.
1882. The Confessional Lutheran Conflict 'with the Eitschlian
School, § 182, 21.
1883. The Luther jubilee, § 175, 10.
1884. The Belgian Clerical Education Act, § 200, 6. Conclusion
of the " Kulturkampf " in Switzerland, § 199, 2, 3. 1887. Prussian and Hessian Governments conclude Peace with Papal Curia, § 197, 13, 15. Fomiding of Evan-elical Build, § 178, 5. ^
INDEX
Aachen, Council of, § 91, 1, 2. Aargau, § 199, 1, AbiBlard, § 102, 1, 2 ; 104, 10. Abbacomites, § 85, 5. Abbadie, § 161, 7. Abbate, Abbe, § 111, 2. Abbo of Pleury, § 100, 2. Abbot, § 44, 3. Abbuna, § 52, 7. Abdas of Susa, § 64, 2. Abdelmoumen, § 95, 2. Abderrhamann, § 81 ; 95, 2. Abdias, § 32, 5. Abel, von, § 195, 2. Abelites, § 44, 7. Abgar Bar Maanu, § 21. „ of Edessa, § 13, 2. About, E., § 185, 3. Abraham a St. Clara, § 15S, 2. Abrahamites, § 165, 16. Abrasax, § 27, 3.
Abrenunciatio diaboli, § 35 ; 58, 1. Absolution, Formula of, § 89, 5. Abstinence, Days of, § 56, 2. Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. Ab3^ssinian Church, § 64, 1 ; 72, 2 ;
150, 4 ; 152, 1 ; 160, 7 ; 166, 3 ;
187, 19. Acaciiis of Amida, § 64, 2.
„ of Constantinople, § 52, 5. Acceptants, § 165, 7. Accommodation Controversy',
§ 155, 12.
d'Achery, § 158, 2.
Achterfeld, § 191, 1.
Acindynos, § 69, 2.
Acoimetse, § 44, 3 ; 52, 5, 6.
Acolytes, § 34, 3.
Acominatus, § 68, 5.
Acosta, Uriel, § 155, 14.
Acta facientes, § 22, 5.
Acta Pilati, § 22, 7 ; 32, 4.
Acta Sanctorum, § 158, 2.
Acton, Lord, § 189, 2.
Acts of Apostles, Apocryphal,
§ 32, 5, 6. Acts of Martyrs, § 32, 8. Adalbert of Bremen, § 96, 6 ; 97, 2.
„ the Heretic, § 78, 6.
„ of Prague, § 93, 13.
„ of Tuscany, § 96, 1. Adam, Book of, § 32, 3. Adam, St. Victor, § 104, 10. Adamantius (Origen), § 31, 5. Adamites, § 27, 8.
,, Bohemian, § 116, 5 ;
210, 2. Adamnan, § 77, 8. Addai, § 32, 6. Adeodatus, § 47, 18. Adiaphorist Controversj^, § 141, 5. Adoptionists, § 91, 1 ; 102, 6. Adrianus, § 48, 1. Adrumetum, § 53, 5. Advent, § 56, 5. Adventists, § 211, 11.
•i85
486
INDEX.
Aclvocatus diaboli, § 104, 8.
„ ecclesise, § 86.
Aedesius, § 64, 1. Aelfric, § 100, 1. Aeneas of Gaza, § 47, 7.
„ Sylvius, see Pius II. Aeons, § 26, 2. Aepinus, § 141, 3. Aerius, § 62, 2. Aeter7ius ille, § 149, 4. Aetius, § 50, 3. Africa, § 76, 3. Africanus, § 31, 8. Agape, §17, 7; 36,1. Agapetae, § 39, 3. Agapetus, § 46, 9 ; 52, 6. Agathangelos, § 64, 3. Agatho, § 46, 11 ; 52, 8. Agenda Controversy in Prussia.
§ 177, 1. Agenum, Synod 'of, § 50, 3. Agilulf, § 76, 8. Agnostics, § 174, 2. Agobard, § 90, 4, 9 ; 91, 1 ; 92, 2. Agreda, § 156, 5. Agricola, John, g 141, 1.
,, Eudolph, § 120, 3. Agrippa of Nettesheim, § 146, 2. Aguas, § 209, 1. Aguilar, § 209, 1. Aguirre, § 158, 2. Ahle, Eud., § 160, 5. Aidan, § 77, 5.
d'Ailly, § 110, 7; 118, 4 ; 119, 5. Aistulf, § 82, 1. Aizanas, § 01, 1. AKi(pa\oi, § 52, 5. Ajcpdacrts, § 39, 2. 'AKpod>/j.€voij § 35, 1. Alacoque, § 15(), 6. Alanus ab Insulis, § 102, 5. Alaric, § 76, 2. Alaviv, § 76, 1. Alba, § 59, 7.
Alba, Duke of, § 136, 3 ; 139, 12. Alhati, § 116, 3. Alberich, § 96, 1. Albert the Great, § 103, 5. „ of Apeldern, § 93, 12. „ the Bear, § 93, 9. „ of Buxhowden, § 93, 12. „ of Franconia-Branden- burg, § 137, 2, 4. Albert of Mainz, § 122, 2 ; 123, 8 ;
134, 5. Albert of Prussia, § 126, 4 ; 127,
3; 141,2. Albert of Suerbeer, § 73, 6 ; 92, 12. Alberti, § 160, 3. Albigensians, § 109, 1. Albinus, § 160, 4. Alboin, § 76, 8.
Albrechtsleute, § 208, 4; 211, 1. Alcantara, Peter of, § 149, 16. Alcantarnies, § 98, 8 ; 149, 6. Alcibiades, § 40, 1. Alcuin, § 90, 3 ; 91, 1, 2 ; 92, 1. Aldgild, § 78, 3. Aleander, § 123, 6, 7. d'Aleman, Cardinal, § 110, 8 ;
118, 4. Alemanui, § 78, 1. d'Alembert, § 165, 14. Alexander II., § 96, 6.
III., § 96, 15, 16. IV., § 96, 20. V.,§110, 6; 119,4. VI., § 110, 12. VII., §156, 1, 2, 4, 5; 157, 5. Alexander VIII., § 156, 1, 3. Alexander I., Czars I., II., III.,
§ 203, 1 ; 207, 3. Alexander of Alexandria, § 50, 1. „ ,, Antioch, § 50, 8.
„ Hales, § 103, 4. „ Newsky, § 73, 6. „ Parma, § 139, 12.
INDE^.
487
Alexander Severus, § 22, 3. Alexandrian School, § 31, 4 ; 47,
2,3. Alexis, § 73, 5.
Alexius Comnenus, § 71, 1, 4. Alfarabi, § 103, 1. Alfred the Great, § 90, 10. Algazel, § 103, 1, 2. Alger of Liege, § 102, 7. Alkindi, § 103, 1. Allatius, Leo, § 158, 2. Allegri, § 158, 3. Allen, W., § 139, 6. AUendorf, § 167, 6. Alliance, The Holy, § 173.
„ The Evangelical, § 178, 2. All Saints' Day, § 57, 1 ; 88, 5. All Souls' Day, § 104, 7. Almansor, § 95, 2. Almohaden, § 95, 2. Almoravides, § 95, 2. Alms, Dipensers of, § 17, 2. Alogians, § 33, 2. Alpers, § 208, 10. Alphonso the Catholic, § 81, 1. „ the Chaste, § 81, 1. „ of Aragon, Castile, and
Portugal, § 95, 2. Alphonso XII., § 205, 3. Alsace-Lorraine, § 196, 7. Altar, § 88 ; 60, 5 ; 88, 5. Altenburg, § 194, 2. Alting, § 160, 7. Alumbrados, § 149, 16. Alvarus, § 81, 1 ; 90, 6.
„ Pelagius, § 118, 2. Alzog, § 5, 6.
Amadeus of Savoy, § 110, 8. Amalarius, § 90, 4 ; 91, 5. Amalrich of Bena, § 108, 4. Amandus, § 78, 3. Ambo, § 60, 5. Ambrose, § 47, 15 ; 50, 4 ; 57, 2,
3 ; 59, 5.
Ambrosian Chant, § 59, 5. Ambrosiaster, § 47, 15. Amen Sect, § 211, 8. America, § 150, 3 ; 208; 209. Amesius, § 161, 7 ; 162, 4. Amling, § 144, 3. Ammon, § 182, 2. Ammonius, § 44, 3.
„ Saccas, § 24, 2. Amort, § 164, 15. Amsdorf, § 127, 4 ; 135, 5 ; 141, 4,
6,7. Amulets, § 188, 13. Amyrald, § 161, 3, 7. Anabaptists, § 124, 1 ; 130, 5 ; 133,
6 ; 147 ; 148, 1 ; 168, 1, 2. Anacletus I., § 17, 1.
IL, § 96, 13. ' AvadoxO'i-i § 35, 3. 'AvayPihaTai, % 34, 3. Auastasius Biblioth., § 90, 6. I., §46, 4; 51,2. IL,§46,8. IV., § 96, 10. „ Sinaita, § 47, 12 ; 60, 6.
Anathema, § 52, 3, Anatolius, § 46, 7. Anchorets, § 44. Ancyra, Council of, § 50, 3. Anderledy, § 182, 1. Anderson, § 139, 1. Andrea, Jac, § 141, 12. „ Val., § 160, 1. Andrew II. of Hungary, § 94, 4. „ of Grain, § 110, 11. „ Crete, § 70, 2. Andronicus Palixologus, § 67, 5. Angela of Brescia, § 149, 7. ■ Angelicals, § 149, 7. Angels, Wox'ship of, § 57, 3. Angelo, Michael, § 115, 13; 149,
15. Angelus Silesius, § 157, 4 ; 160, 3. Angilram, § 87, 1.
488
INDEX.
Anglican Church, § 139, 6 ; 155 ;
202. Anglo-Saxon Church, § 77, 4, 5, 6. Anhalt, Reformation in, § 133, 4 ;
144, 3. Anicetus, § 37, 2. Anjou, § 96, 21, 22. Ann, Veneration of St., § 57, 2 ;
115, 1, Anna of Russia, § 73, 4.
„ „ Prussia, § 154, 3. Annats, § 110, 15. Anno of Cologne, § 96, 6 ; 97, 2. Annunciation, Order of the,
§ 112, 8. Anomeeans, § 50, 3. Ansbert of Milan, § 83, 3. Ansegis, § 87, 1. Anselm of Canterbury, § 67, 4 ;
96, 12 ; 101, 1, 3. Anselm of Havelberg, § 67, 4. „ Laon, § 101, 1.
,, Lucca, § 96. 6.
Ansgar, § 80, 1. Anthimus of Constantinople, § 52,
6. Anthimus, Exarch, § 207, 3. Anthony, St., § 44, 1.
„ of Padua, § 98, 4. „ Order of St., § 98, 2. Anthusa, § 47, 1. Antidicomarianites, § 62, 2. ' AvTiSupa^ § 58, 4. Antilegomena, § 36, 8. 'AvTi/j.rjPcriov, § 60, 5. Antinomianism, § 27, 8. Antinomian Controversy, § 141, 1. Antioch, Council of, § 50, 2. Antiochean School, § 31, 1 ; 47, 1 ;
52, 2. Antiphonal Music, § 59, 5. Antipho7iarium, § 59, 5. Antitrinitarians, § 148. Anton of Bourbon, § 139, 14.
Anton Paul, § 159, 3. Antonelli, § 185, 2, 4 ; 189, 1 ; 196
7; 197. Antonians, § 207, 2. Antoninus Pius, § 22, 3.
„ of Florence, § 113, 7. Apelles, § 27, 12. Aphraates, § 47, 13. Apiarius, § 46, 5, 6. Apocrisarians, § 46, 1. Apocrypha, Non-Canonical, § 32. „ Deutero-Canonical, §
59, 1 ; 136, 4. Apocryphal Controversy, § 101,
8; 183,4. Apollinaris, § 47, 5 ; 52, 1.
„ Claudius, § 30, 8.
Apollonius of Tyana, § 24, 1. Apollos, § 18, 3. Apologists, Early Christian, § 30,
8. Apology of Augsburg Confession,
§ 132, 7. Apostles of the Lord, §§ 14-16. Apostles, New Testament Office
of, §17, 5; 37,1. Apostles, Teaching of XII., § 30,
7. Apostles, Doctrine of the, § 18, 2. Apostles' Creed, § 35, 2 ; 59, 2. Apostolic Age, Beginning and
Close of, § 14. Apostolic Church, Constitution
of, § 17. Apostolic Epistles, § 32, 7. „ Fathers, § 30, 3-6. „ Constitutions and
Canons, § 43, 4. Apostolics, § 62, 1. Appellants, § 165, 7. ApjyeUatio ah ahum, § 185, 4 ; 192,
4 ; 197, 9. Appenfeller, § 170, 4. Apse, § 60, 1.
INDEX.
489
Aquarii, § 27, 10.
Aquaviva, § 149, 8, 10, 12 ; 15(1 13.
Arabia, § 21.
Arbues, § 117, 2.
Arcadius, Emperor, § 42, 4 ; 51, 3.
Archbishop, § 46, 1.
Archchaplain, § 84, 1.
Archdeacon, § 45, 3 ; 84, 2 ; 97, 3.
Archelaus of Cascar, § 29, 1.
Archimandrite, § 44, 3.
Architecture, § 60, 1 ; 88, 6 ; 104,
12 ; 115, 13 ; 149, 15 ; 158, 3 ;
174, 9. Archpresbyter, § 45, 3. Areopagite, Dionj-sius the, § 47, 11. Arialdus, § 97, 5. Arians, § 50 ; 76. Aribert, § 76, 8, Aristides, § 30, 8. Aristobulus, § 10, 1. Ariston of Pella, § 30, 8. Aristotle, § 7, 4 ; 68, 2 ; 103, 1. Arius, § 50, 1, 2. Aries, Synod at, § 50, 2. Armenian Church, § 64, 3 ; 72, 2 ;
82, 8 ; 207, 4. Arminians, § 161, 2. Arnaud, § 153, 4. Arnauld, § 157, 5. Arndt, E. M., § 174, 6; 181, 1.
„ John, § 160, 1. Arno of Salzburg, § 79, 1.
„ „ Eeichei-sberg, § 102, 6, 7. Arnobius, § 31, 12,
,, the Younger, § 53, 5.
Arnold of Brescia, § 96, 13.
„ „ Citeaux, § 109, 1.
„ the Dominican, § 108, (i.
„ Gottfried, § 5, 3 ; 159, 4 ;
160, 2, 4. Arnoldi, Bishop, § 187, 6. Arnoldists, § 108, 7. Arnulf of Carinthia, § 82, 8.
„ „ Rheims, § 96, 2.
Arran, Earl of, § 139, 8. Ars Magna, § 103, 7.
„ Moriendi, § 115, 5. Arsacius, § 51. Arsenius, § 70, 1. Art, Early Christian and Medi-
EBval, § 38, 3 ; 60. Artemon, § 33, 3. Articles of English Church, The
XXXIX., § 139, 6. Articles, Organic, § 203, 1. Artotyrites, § 40, 4. Ascension, Festival of, § 56, 4.
ofMary, §32,4;^57,2. Asceticism, § 89, 3 ; 44, 6 ; 70, 3 ;
107. Aschaffenberg Concord, § 110, 8. Ash Wednesday, § 56, 4. Asia Minor, Theological School
of, § 31, 1. Asinarii, § 23, 4. Asseburg, § 170, 1. Assemani, § 165, 12. Assenath, § 32, 3. Asses, Feast of, § 105, 2. Asterius, § 50, 6.
„ of Amasa, § 57, 4. Astruc, § 165, 11. Asylum, Eight of, § 43, 1. Athanaric, § 76. Athanasian Creed, § 59, 2. Athanasius, § 44 ; 47, 3 ; 50 ; 52, 2. Athenagoras, § 30, 10. Athos, Monks of Mount, § 70, 3 ;
■69, 1. Atriuvi, § 60, 1. Attila, § 46, 7. Atto of Vercelli, § 100, 2. (PAubigne, Merle, § 178, 2.
Th. A., § 139, 17. Audians, § 62, 1. Aiidientes, § 35, 1. Audientia ejnsc, § 43, 1. Augsburg Confession, § 132, 7.
490
INDEX.
Augsburg Eeligious Peace,§ 137, 5.
Augustus of Saxony, § 141, 12.
Augusta, § 139, 19.
Augusti, § 182, 5.
Augustine, § 47, 18, 19 ; 53, 2-5 ; 54, 1 ; 61, 1, 4 ; 63, 1.
Augustine, Missionary to Eng- land, § 77, 4.
Augustinus Triumplius, § 118, 2.
Augustinian Order, § 98, 6; 112, 5.
August Conference, § 179, 1.
Aurelian, Emperor, § 22, 5 ; 33, 8. „ Bishop, § 63, 1.
Auricular Confession, § (U, 1 ; 104, 4.
Aurifaber, § 129, 1.
Auscidtafili, § 110, 1.
Australia, § 184, 7 ; 202, 12.
Austria, § 165, 9 ; 190, 3 ; 198.
Autbert, § 81, 1.
Auto al nasciemento, § 115, 12. „ de fe, § 117, 2. ,, sacramentale, § 115, 12.
Autoceplialic Bishops, § 46, 1.
Auxentius of Dorostorus, § 76, 1. „ of Milan, § 47, 14.
Avars, § 79, 1.
Avenarius, § 142, 6.
Aventin, § 120, 3.
Averrhoes, § 103, 1, 2.
Avicenna, § 103, 1, 2.
Avignon, § 110, 2-5.
Avitus, § 53, 6 ; 76, 5.
Azimites, § 67, 3.
Baader, Francis, § 175, 5 ; 187, 3 ;
191, 2. Baanes, § 71, 1. Babaus, § 52, 3. Babeuf, § 212, 1. Babylonian Exile of Popes, § 110,
2-5. Bach, Sebastian, § 167, 7. Bacon, Roger, § 103, 8.
Bacon, Lord Verulam, § 164, 1.
Baden, § 196, 2, 3 ; 197, 13.
Bahrdt, § 170, 4, 7.
Baius, Michael, § 149, 13.
Bajazet, § 110, 11.
Balaus, § 48, 7.
Balde, Jac, § 158, 3.
Baldwin of Jerusalem, § 94, 1 ;
98,7. Baldwin of Flanders, § 94, 4.
„ the Heretic, § 108, 4. Balsamon, § 68, 5. Balthazar of Fulda, § 151, 2. Baltic Provinces of Russia, § 139,
3 •, 206, 3. Baltimore, Lord, § 208, 5. Baltzer, § 191, 1, 3. Baluzius, § 158, 2. Bampfield, § 163, 3. Ban, § 89, 6 ; 106, 1. Banez, § 149, 13. Bangor, § 85, 4. Baphomet, § 112, 7. Baptism, § 35, 2-4 ; 58, 1, 5 ; 141, 13. Baptismal Font, § 60, 4 ; 88, 5. Baptismus Clinicorum, § 35, 3. Baptists, § 163, 3 ; 170, 6 ; 208, 1 ;
211, 3. Baptistries, § 60, 4. Bar, David, § 170, 4. Baradai, § 52, 7. Barbatianus, § 62, 2. Barbs, § 108, 10. Barckhausen, § 169, 1. Barclay, § 163, 5. Bar-Cochba, § 25. Bardesanes, § 27, 5. Barefooted Friars, § 98, 3 ; 149, 6. Bar Hanina, § 47, 15. Bar Hebrteus, § 72, 2. Bari, Synod at, § 67, 4. Barkers, § 170, 7. Barlaam, § 67, 5 ; 69, 2. Barlaam and Josaphat, § 68, 6.
INDEX.
491
Barletta, § 115, 2. Barnabas, § 14 ; 30, 4. Barnabites, § 14'J, 7. Barnim, § 133, 4. Baronius, § 5, 2 ; 149, 14. Barriere, § 149, 6. Barrow, § 143, 4. Barsmnas, § 52, 3. Bartholomew, Massacre of St.,
§ 139, 16. Bartholomew of Pisa, § 98, 3. Bartolemeo, Era, § 115, 13. Basedow, § 171, 4. Basel, §130, 3, 8; 196,4.
„ Council of, § 110, 8, 9 ; 119, 7. Basil the Great, § 44 ; 47, 4 ; 59, 6.
,, chief of Bogomili, § 71, 4.
,, of Ancyra, § 50, 3.
„ the Macedonian, § 67, 1 ; 68,
1;71,1; 73,1. Basilica, § 60, 1, 2. Basilicus, § 139, 26. Basilides, the Gnostic, § 27, 2. „ the Martyr, § 22, 4. Basnage, § 5, 2 ; 161, 7. Basrelief, § 60, 6. Bassi, § 149, 6. Bathori, Steph., § 139, 18. Bauer, Bruno, § 174, 1 ; 182, 6.
„ Lor., §171,7. Baumgarten-Crusius, § 182, 4. M., §180, 1; 194,6. „ Sigism. Jac, § 167, 4.
Baumstark, § 175, 7. Baur, Chr. F., § 182, 7 ; 5, 4.
„ Gust., § 194, 1. Bautain, § 91, 1. Bavaria, § 78, 2 ; 151, 2 ; 165, 10 ;
195 ; 197, 14. Bavo, § 78, 3. Baxter, § 162, 3. Bayle, § 164, 4. Bayly, Lewis, § 162, 3. Beatification, § 104, 8.
Beaton, § 139, 8.
Beaumont, § 165, 7.
Bebel, § 212, 5.
Bebenburg, § 118, 2.
Beccus, § 67, 4.
Beck, Tob., § 182, 12.
Becket, § 96, 16.
Bede, The Venerable, § 90, 2.
Beethoven, § 174, 10.
Begging Friars, § 98, 3-6; 103,
3-6; 112,2-6. Beghards and Beguins, § 98, 7;
116, 5. Bekker, Balthaz., § 161, 5. Belgium, § 200, 4-7. B-llarmine, § 149, 4, 10, 14. Beller, Card., § 188, 13. Bellini, § 115, 13. Bells, § 60, 5.
„ Baptism of, § 88, 5. Brjfia, § 60, 1. Bembo, § 120, 1. Beuard, Lor., § 156, 7. Bender, § 176, 4. Benedetto of Mantova, § 139, 23. Benedict III., § 82, 5.
„ v., § 96, 1.
„ VI., VII., § 96, 2.
„ VIIL, IX., 96, 4.
„ X., § 96, 6.
„ XL, § 110, 1.
„ XII., § 110, 4; 67, 5; 112, 1. Benedict XIIL, XIV., § 165, 1.
„ of Aniane, § 85, 2.
„ Levita, § 87, 1.
„ of Nursia, § 85, 1. Benedictines, § 85 ; 98, 1 ; 112, 1 ;
186, 2. Benedict Medal, § 188, 13. Benefice System, § 86, 2. Bengel, § 167, 3.
Benno of Meissen, § 93, 9 ; 129, 1. Berengar, § 101, 1, 2.
492
INDEX.
Berengar, I., II., § 96, 1. Berg, John, § 153, 7.
„ Book of, § 141, 12. Berlage, § 188, 6. Berleburger Bible, § 170, 1. Bern, § 130, 4 ; 199, 3, 4. Bernard of Clairvaux, § 102, 2, 3 ; 94, 2 ; 96, 13 ; 104, 10 ; 108, 2, 3, 7; 109. Bernard tlie Missionary, § 93, 10.
„ Sylvester, § 102, 10.
„ de Saisset, § 110, 1.
„ Tolomei, § 112, 1. Bernardino of Siena, § 112, 3. Bernardines, § 98, 1. Berno of Clugny, § 98, 1. Berruyer, § 165, 14. Bertha, § 77, 4. Bertheau, § 182, 11. Berthold of Limoges, § 98, 6.
„ of Loccum, § 93, 12.
„ of E,egeusbiii'g, § 104, 1.
„ Leonard, § 171, 7. Berti, § 165, 15. Bertrada, § 96, 10. Bertrand de Got, § 110, 2. Berylle, Pet., § 156, 7. Beryllus, § 33, 6. Bespopowtschini, § 103, 10. Bessarion, § 67, 0 ; 08, 2 ; 120, 1. Besser, § 181, 4, Bestmann, § 182, 21. Bethel, § 183, 1. Bethman-Holhveg, § 193, 4. Beuggen, § 183, 1. Beust, von, § 198, 2, 4. Beyschlag, § 182, 10. Beza, § 138, 8; 139, 14 ; 143, 2, 5. Bianchi, § 116, 3, Bible Societies, § 183, 4 ; 185, 1. „ Communists, § 211, 6. „ Revision, § 181, 4. ., Translations, § 37, 1 ; 59, 1 ; 115, 4.
Bible reading forbidden, § 105, 3
185, 1. Biblia imuperuni, § 115, 3. Bickell, § 194, 4. Biedermann, § 182, 19. Biel, Gebr, § 113, 3. Bienemann, § 142, 4. Bilderdijk, § 200, 2. Billicanus, § 122, 2. Bilocation. § 105, 4. Bingham, § 169, 6. Bischof, Conrad, § 175, 2. Bishops, § 17, 5 ; 34, 2 ; 45 ; 84 ; 97. ,, Election of, § 34, 3; 45;
84 ; 97, 3. Bishops' Bible, § 202, 1.
„ Paragraph, § 197, 11, 12. Bismarck, § 197 ; 212, 5. Bittner, § 175, 2. Blackbui'ne, § 171, 1. Blahoslaw, § 139, 19. Blanc, Louis, § 212, 1. Blandina, § 22, 3. Blandrata, § 148, 3. Blasilla, § 44, 4. Blastus, § 37, 2. Blau, Dr., § 165, 13. Blaurer, § 125, 1 ; 133, 3 ; 143, 2. Blaurock, § 147, 3. Blavatski, § 211, 18. Bleek, § 182, 11. Blondel, § 161, 7. Blood vases, § 35, 2.
„ baptism, § 35, 4.
„ revenge, § 88, 5. Bloody Marriage, § 139, 16. Blot-Sweyn, § 93, 3. Blount, § 168, 3. Bhie Ribbon Army, § 211, 2. Blum, Bishop, § 197, 6, 11. Blumhardt, § 196, 5. Bluntschli, § 180, 1 ; 196, 3. Boabdil, § 95. Bobadilla, § 149, 8.
INDEX.
493
Bobbio, § 78, 1 ; 85, 4. Boccaccio, § 115, 10. Bochart, § 161, 6. Bodelschwingh, § 183, 1. Bodin, § 117, 4 ; 148, 3. Boeckh, § 181, 3. Boethius, § 47, 23. Bogatzky, § 167, 6, 8. Bogoniili, § 71, 4. Bogoris, § 72, 3. Bohl V. Faber, § 174, 7. Bolime, Jacob, § 160, 2. „ Mart., § 142^ 4. Bohemia, § 79, 3 ; 93, 6 ; 139, 19 ;
153, 2. Bohemian Brethren, § 119, 8 ; 139,
19. BiJhmer, § 167, 5. Bohringer, § 5, 4. Bois, Professor, § 203, 8. Bolanden, Cour. v., § 175, 2. Boleslawof Poland, § 93, 7. ,, „ Bohemia, 93, 6. „ Chi'obry, 93, 7. Boleyn, Anne, § 139, 4. Bolingbroke, § 170, 1. Bolivia, § 209, 2. Bollandists, § 158, 2. Bolsec, § 138, 3. Bolsena, Mass of, § 104, 7. Bomberg, § 120, 9. Bomelius, § 125, 2. Bona, § 158, 2. Bonald, § 186, 9. Bonaventura, § 103, 4 ; 104, 10. Boniface, Apostle of German}',
§ 78, 4-8. Boniface I., § 46, 6. „ II., § 46, 8. „ III., IV., § 46, 10. „ VI., § 82, 8. „ VII., § 96, 2. „ VIIL, § 110, 1; 99, 4; 117, 1.
Boniface IX., § 110, 6 ; 117, 2. Boni liomines, § 108, 2. Bonner, Bp., § 139, 4, 5. Bonosus, § 62, 2. Book of Discipline, § 139, 9. Boos, Mart.. § 187, 2. Booth, General, § 211, 2. Bordelum, Sectaries at, § 170, 4. Borgia, § 110, 10, 12.
„ Francis, § 149, 8. Borromeo, § 149, 17 ; 151, 2. „ Society, § 186, 4. Borsenius, § 170, 4. Boruth, § 79, 1. Borziwoi, § 79, 8, Bosio, Ant., § 38, 1. Boso, § 95, 8. Bossuet, § 5, 2 ; 153, 7 ; 156, 3 ;
157, 3 ; 158, 2. Bost, Pastor, § 156, 1. Bothwell, § 189, 10. Bourdaloue, § 159, 2. Bourges, Pragmatic Sanction of ,
§ 110, 9. Bourignon, § 157, 4. Bouthillier de Eance, § 156, 8. Boyle, § 164, 3. Bradacz, M. v., § 119, 8. Bradwardine, § 113, 2. Braga, Syn. of, § 76, 4.
Brakel, § 169, 2.
Bramante, § 115, 3 ; 149, 15.
Brandenburg, § 134, 5 ; 154, 3.
Brandt, § 181, 4.
Braniss, § 174, 2.
Brant, Seb., § 115, 11.
Braun, Hermesian, § 191, 1.
Brazil, § 150, 3 ; 209, 3.
Breckling, § 163, 9.
Breithaupt, § 159, 3.
Breitinger, § 162, 6.
Bremen, § 127, 4 ; 144, 2.
Brendel, § 151, 1.
Brentano, § 188, 3.
494
INDEX.
Brenz, § 131, 1 ; 133, 3 ; 141, 8 ;
142, 2, 6. Brest, Synod of, § 72, 4 ; 151, 3, Brethren, The four long, § 51, 3. „ of the Free Spirit, § 116,
5. Bretliren of the Common Life,
§ 112, 9. Brethren, Bohemian and Mora- vian, § 119, 7. Brethren, The United, § 16S. Bretschneider, § 174, 3 ; 182, 2. Bretwalda, § 77, 4. Breviary, § 56, 2 ; 149, 14. Briconnet, § 120, 8 ; 138, 1. Bridaine, § 158, 1. Bridge-Brothers, § 98, 9. Bridget, St., § 110, 5 ; 112, 4, 8. Bridgewater Treatises, § 174, 3. Brief, Papal, § 110, 16. Briesmann, § 139, 8. Brinckerinck, § 112, 9. Brinkmann, § 197, 6, 11. Britons, Ancient, § 77. Broad Churchmen, § 202, 1. Broglie, Due de, § 203, 5, 6.
„ Bishop, § 200, 1. Brothers of the Common Life,
§ 112, 9. Brothers of Mercy, § 149, 7. Brothers of the Free Spirit, § IIG,
5. Brown, Archbishop, of Dublin,
§ 139, 7. Brown, Rob. (Brownist), § 143, 4.
„ Thomas, § 164, 3. ^ Bruccioli, § 115, 4. Briick, Dr., § 132, 7. Brucker, Jac, § 167, 8. Bruggeler, Sectaries, § 170, 4. Brunehilde, § 77, 7 ; 46, 10. Bruneleschi, § 115, 13. Bruno of Cologne, § 97, 2.
„ the Missionary, § 93, 13.
Bruno of Eheims, § 98, 2.
„ „ Toul, § 96, 5.
„ Giordano, § 146, 3. Brunswick, § 127, 4 ; 135, 6 ; 194,
5. Bucer, § 122, 2 ; 124, 3 ; 131, 1 ;
133, 8 ; 135, 1, 3, 7 ; 139, 5. Buchel, Anna v., § 170, 4. Buchfiihrer, § 128, 1, Biichner, § 174, 3. Budaius, § 120, 8. Buddeus, § 167, 1, 4. Buffalo Synod, § 208, 4. Bugenliagen, § 125, 1 ; 127, 4 ;
133, 4 ; 139, 2 ; 142, 2. Biilau, § 139, 3. Bulgaria, § 67, 1 ; 73, 3 ; 175, 4 ;
207, 3. Bidgari, § 108, 1. Bulls, Papal, § 110, 16. Bull, The Golden, § 97, 2 ; 110, 4. Builiuger, § 133, 8 ; 138, 7 ; 161, 4. Bimsen, § 181, 1, 4 ; 182, 17 ; 198, 1. Bunyan, § 162, 3. Buren, § 144, 2. Burgundians, § 76, 5. Burmann, § 161, 7. Burnet, Bishop, § 161, 3. Bursfeld, Congi-egation of, § 112,
1. Busch, John, § 112, 1. Busembaum, § 158, 1 ; 149, 10. Buttlar Sectaries, § 170, 4. Butter week, § 56, 7. Buxhowden, § 93, 12. Buxtorf,.§ 161, 3, 6. Byron, § 174, 7. Byse, § 200, 8.
(Jaballero, § 174, 7, Cabasilas, § 68, 5 ; 70, 4. Cabet, § 212, 3. Cabrera, § 205, 4. Cadan, Peace of, § 133, 3.
INDEX.
495
Csecilius, § 63, 1. Osedmon, § 89, 3, Csesarius of Aries, § 47, 20 ; 53, 5 ;
61,4, Csesarius of Heisterbach, § 103, 9. Cainites, § 27, 6, Caius, § 31, 7 ; 33, 9. Cajetan, Card,, § 122, 3.
„ of Thiene, § 149, 7, Galas, § 164, 5. Calatrava, Order of, § 98, 8. Calderon, § 158, 3. Calendar Eeform, § 149, 3. Calixt, Geo., § 153, 7 ; 158, 2, 8. Calixtines, § 119, 7. Calixtus II., § 96, 11.
ni., § 96, 15 ; 110, 10. Callinice, § 71, 1. Callistus, § 33, 5 ; 41, 1. Calmet, § 165, 14. Calov, § 153, 7 ; 159, 2, 4, 5 ; 160, 2. Calvin, § 138 ; 143, 5. Camaldulensian Order, § 98, 1. Camera JRomana, § 110, 16. Camerarius, § 142, 6. Camisards, § 153, 4, Campanella, § 164, 1. Campanus; § 148, 1. Campbellites, § 170, 6. Campe, § 171, 4. Campegius, § 126, 2, 3 ; 132, 6. Campello, § 190, 3. Camp-Meeting, § 208, 1. Cancellaria Romana, § 110, 16. Canisius, § 149, 14 ; 151, 1. „ Society, § 186, 4. Canon, Biblical, § 36, 8 ; 59, 1.
„ of the Mass, § 59, 5.
„ in Music, § 115, 8.
„ Law, § 43, 2. Canonas Aposit., § 43, 4. Canouesses, § 85, 3. Canonical Age, § 45, 1.
Life, § 84, 4 ; 97, 3.
Canonici, § 84, 4 ; 97, 3. Canossa, § 96, 8. Canova, § 174, 9. Canstein, § 167, 8. Cantores, § 34, 3. Cantus Ambros., § 59, 5.
,, figuratus, § 104, 11.
„ firmus, § 59, 5. Canute the Great, § 93, 2, 4. Canus, § 149, 14. Canz, § 167, 2. Capistran, § 112, 3. Capito, § 124, 3 ; 130, 3 ; 131, 1. Capitula Carlsiaca, § 91, 5, „ Clausa, § 111, „ episcoporum, § 87, 1. Capitularies, § 87, 1. Cappadocians, The Three, § 47, 5. Cappadose, § 200, 2. Cappel, Peace of, § 130, 9, 10. Cappellus, § 161, 3, 6. Capuchins, § 149, 6. Caraccioli, § 139, 24, Caraffa, § 149, 2, 7 ; 139, 22, 23. Carantanians, § 79, 1. Carbeas, § 71, 1. Cardale, § 211, 10. Cardinals, § 97, 1. Carey, § 172, 5. Carl, Dr., § 170, 1. Carlomann, § 78, 5. Carlstadt, § 122, 4 ; 124, 1, 3 ; 131,
1 ; 139, 2. Carmelites, § 98, 6 ; 149, 6. Carnesecchi, § 139, 22, 23. Carnival, § 56, 4 ; 105, 2. Carpentarius, § 128, 1, Carpocrates, § 27, 8, Carpov, § 167, 4. Carpzov., J. B., § 117, 4 ; 158, 3 ;
167, 1. Carpzov, J. G., § 167, 4, Carranza, § 139, 21, Carrasco, § 205, 4.
496
INDEX.
Carthusians, § 98, 2 ; 112.
las Casas, § 150, 3.
Casimir of Berleburg, § 170.
„ ,, Bi'unswiclv, § 12G, 4. Cassander, § 137, 8. Cassel, Religious Conference of,
§ 154, 4. Cassianus, § 44, 4 ; 47, 21 ; 53, 5. Cassiodorus, § 47, 23. Castellio, § 138, 4 ; 143, 5. Castellus, § 161, 6. Castelnau, Pet. v., § 109, 1. Casuists, § 113, 4. Casula, § 59, 7. Catacombs, § 38, 1-3. Cataphrygians, § 40, 1. Catechetical School, § 31, 1. Catechism, Heidelberg, § 144, 1.
„ Luther's, § 127, 1.
Catechisms, § 115, 5. Catechismus Genevensis, § 138, 2. „ Eomanus, § 149, 14.
Catechoumens, § 35, 1. Catetice, § 48, 1. Cathari, § 108, 1. Catharine of Aragon, § 139, 4.
„ Bora, § 129.
de Medici, § 139, 13 S.
„ II. of Russia, § 165, 9.
„ St., of Sweden, § 112, 8.
of Siena, § 112, 4 ; 110, 5,6. Cathedral, § 84, 4.
„ Schools, § 90, 8. Catholicus, § 52, 7. Catholicity, § 20, 2 ; 34, 7. Cave, § 161, 7. Celbes, § 28, 4. Celibacy, § 39, 3 ; 45, 2 ; 84, 3 ; 96,
7; 111,1; 187,4. Cellites, § 116, 3. Celsus, § 23, 3. Celtes, Conrad, § 120, 8. Celtic Church, § 77.
Cemeteries, § 38 ; 60, 2.
Cencius, § 96, 7.
Centuries, The Magdebui'g, § 5, 2,
Ceolfrid, § 77, 3, 8.
Cerdo, § 27, 11.
Cerinthus, § 17, 3 ; 27, 1.
Cesarini, § 110, 7.
Cesena, § 112, 2.
Cevennes, Prophets of the, § 153,
4 ; 170, 2, 7. Chaila, du, § 153, 4. Chalcedon, Council of, § 46, 1, 7 ;
52,4. Chaldean Chi-istians, § 52, 3 ; 72,
1 ; 150, 4. Chalmers, § 178, 2 ; 202, 7. Chalybseus, § 174, 2. C/ianibre ardente, § 139, 13. Chamier, § 161, 7. Chandler, § 171, 1. Channing, § 208, 4. Chantal, § 156, 7 ; 157, 1. Chapels, § 84, 1, 2. Chaplain, § 84, 1, 2. Chapter of Cathedral, § 84, 4 ; 97,
2; 111. Chapters, Controversy of the
three, § 52, 6. Charlemague, § 78, 9 ; 79, 5 ; 81,
1 ; 82, 2, 3 ; 89, 2 ; 90, 1 ; 92, 1. Charles of Anjou, § 96, 20-22. „ the Bald, §82, 4, 5, 8; 90, 1. „ Martel, § 81 ; 82, 1. „ IV., Emperor, § 110, 4, 5 ;
117, 2. Charles VII. of France, § 110, 9. „ v.. Emperor, § 123, 5. „ I., II. of England, § 153,
6 ; 155, 1, 3. Charles IX. of France, § 139,
14-16. Charles IX. of Sweden, § 139, 1. „ XII. „ §165,4.
„ Albert of Sardinia,§ 204,1.
INDEX.
497
Charles Felix of Sardinia, §204, 1. „ Alexander of Wui'ttem-
berg, § 165, 5. Charles Theodore of Bavaria,
§ 165, 10. Charles of Lorraine, Cardinal,
§ 139, 13 ; 149, 2, 17. Charisms, § 17, 1, Chastel, § 5, 5. Chateaubriand, § 174, 7, Chatel, Abbe, § 187, 6. Chatimar, § 79, 1. Chazari, § 78, 2.
Chemnitz, § 141, 2, 12 ; 142, 2, 6. Cherbnry, § 164, 3. Children, The Praying, § 167, 1. ,, Baptism of, § 17, 7 ;
35, 4 ; 58, 1. Children's Conmimiion, § 36, 3 ;
58,4. Children's Crusade, § 94, 4. Chili, § 209, 2. Chiliasm, § 33, 9 ; 40, 4 ; 108, 5 ;
162, 1 ; 211, 7. Chillingworth, § 161, 3. China, § 93, 15 ; 150, 1 ; 156, 12 ;
165, 3 ; 184, 6 ; 186, 7. Chinese Eites, § 156, 12. Choir, § 60, 1.
Chorale, § 142, 5 ; 160, 5 ; 181, 2. C'horepiscopi, § 34, 3 ; 45 ; 84 ;
97,3. Choristers, § 97, 3. Chorifantes, § 116, 2. Chosroes, § 11 ; 64, 2. Cln-ism, § 35, 4. Christ, Order of, § 112, 8. Chi'istian Association (CTerman),
§ 172, 5. Christian, Bishop, § 93, 13.
„ II,, III. of Denmark,
§ 139, 2. Christian Baptists, § 170, 6 ; 208, 1. Christina of Sweden, § 153, 1.
VOL. III.
Clu'istopher of Wiirttemberg,
§ 133, 3. Christo sacrum^ § 172, 4. 'KpLCTTos Trdo-xw//, § 48, 5. Chrodegang of Metz, § 48, 4. C'hronicon jiaschale, § 48, 2. Chrysolaras, § 120, 1. Clu-ysologus, § 47, 17. Chrysostom, § 47, 8 ; 51, 3 ; 53, 1. Chubb, § 171, 1. Chm-ches, § 38. Church Army, § 211, 2.
„ Discipline, § 39 ; 61 ; 89,
6; 106. Chui-ch History, Idea, Periods,
Sources, etc., of, §§ 1-5. Church Law, Catholic, § 43, 3-5 ;
68, 5 ; 87 ; 99, 5. Church Law, Protestant, § 167, 5. ,, Property, § 45, 4 ; 86, 1 :
96, 15. Church States, § 82, 1 ; 185, 3.
„ Year, § 56, 6. Chytrseus, § 141, 12 ; 142, 6. Ciborium, § 60, 5. Cilicium, § 106. Cimabue, § 104, 14. Circumcelliones, § 63, 1. Cistercians, § 98, 1. Ciudad, § 147, 7. Clara of Assisi, § 98, 3.
„ Nuns of St., § 98, 3. Clarendon, Council at, § 96, 16. Clarke, Sam., § 171, 1. Classes, § 143, 1. Classical Synods, § 143, 1. Claude, § 161, 3, 7. Claudius Apollinaris, § 30, 4. „ L, Emperor, § 22, 1.
II., „ §22,5. „ of Savoy, § 148, 3.
„ Tui'in, § 90, 4 ; 92, 3. „ Matthias, § 171, 11. Clausen, § 201, 1.
32
498
INDEX.
Clemangis, § 110, 3 ; 118, 4. Clemens, F. J., § 191, 3. Clement of Alexandria, § 31, 4. „ of Eome, § 30, 3. „ IL, § 96, 4, 5. „ III., § 96, 8, 16. „ IV., §96, 20; 103,8. „ v., §110, 2; 112,7. „ VI., § 110, 4, 5. „ VII., § 110, 6-, 126, 2; 132,2; 149,1. Clement VIIL, § HO, 7 ; 149, 2,
13, 14. Clement IX., X., § 156, 1. XI., § 165, 1, 7. ", XIIL, XIV., § 165, 9.
a Heretic of Britain, § 78, 6. Clementine Homilies and Recog- nitions, § 28, 3, 4. Clementincc, § 99, 5. Cleomenes, § 33, 5. Clergy, § 34, 4. Clerici vagi, § 84, 2. Clericis laicos, § HO, 1. Clericus, § 169, 6. Clermont, Synod at, § 94 ; 96, 7. ClimaciTS, § 47, 12. Clinici, § 34, 3 ; 45, 1. Cloister Schools, § 90, 8. Cloots, Anach., § 165, 12. Clothilda, § 76, 5, 9. Clovis, § 76, 9. Clugny, § 98, 1 ; 165, 2. Cluniacs, § 98, 1. Cocceius, § 161, 4, 6 ; 162, 5. Coclileens, § 129, 1 ; 135, 10. Cock, H. de, § 200, 2. Codde, § 165, 8. Codex Alexandrinus, § 152, 2.
Sinaiticus, § 182, 11. Co^'lestine I., § 46, 1 ; 52, 3 ; 53, 4. „ IL, § 96, 13. „ HI., § 96, 16.
Coelestine IV., § 96, 19,
v., §96,22. Coelestines, § 98, 2.
,, Eremites, § 98, 4,
Coelestius, § 53, 4. CoelicolEe, § 42, 6. Coenobites, § 44. Coisi, § 77, 4. Coke, § 169, 4. Colani, §-203, 8. Colenso, § 202, 4. Coleridge, § 202, 1. Colet, § 120, 6, 7. Colidei, § 77, 8. Coligny, § 139, 14, 16 ; 143, 6. Collatio cum Donafint., § 63, 1, CoUer/ia jMIobibL, § 159, 3.
„ jjt'eteh's, § 159, 3. Collegial System, § 167, 5. Collegiants, § 163, 1. Collegiate Foundations, § 84, 4. CoUegiuvi caritativnm, § 169, 1. „ Germanicinn, § 151, 1-
„ Melveticnm, § 151, 2.
Collenbusch, § 172, 3. Collins, § 171, 1. Collyridian Nuns, § 57, 2. Colman, § 77, 6.
Cologne, Cathedral of, § 104, IB', „ Conflict of, § 190, 1. „ Reformation of, § 135, 7^
136, 2 ; 137, 7. Colombiere, § 156, 6. Colonna, § 110, 1, 3.
„ Vittoria, § 139, 22. Columba, § 77, 2. Columbanus, § 77, 7, Columbus, § 116. Comenius, § 163, 9 ; 168, 2. Comes Hieron., § 59, 3. Commendatory Abbots, § 85, 5 :,
111, 2. Commodian, § 31, 12 ; 33, 9. Commodus, § 22, 2.
INDEX.
499
Common Prayer, Book of, § 130,
5,6. Communicatio idioinatuvi, § 141, 9. Communism, § 211, 6 ; 212, 1. Compact, The Basel, § llf), 7. Competentes, §35, 1. Compiegne, Diet of, § 82, 4. Composition, § 89, 5, 6. Compromise, Belgian, § 13ft, 12. Comte, § 174, 2 ; 210, 1. Concha, § 60, 1.
ConcUium Germcniicum. § 78, 5. Conclave, § OG, 21. Concomitantia, § 105, 1. Concord of Wittenberg, § 133, 8.
„ Formula of, § 141, 12. Concordat of Austria, § li)8, 2. „ Baden, § 196, 2. „ „ Bavaria, § 195, 1.
„ „ France, § 203, 1.
„ „ Holland, § 200, 1.
„ „ Portugal, § 205, 5.
„ „ Prussia, § 193, 1.
„ Spain, § 205, 1. ;, „ Upper Ehine,§ 196,1. ,, „ Vienna, § 110, 7.
„ „ Worms, § 96, 5.
„ „ Wiirttemberg, § 96, 5.
Conde, § 189, 14, 16, 17.
„ Louise de, § 186, 2. Conference, Evangelical, § 178, 4. Confessio, § 57, 1. Confession, § 36, 3 ; 61, 1 ; 89, 6 ;
104, 4. Confessio Aiifjustana, § 132, 7.
., ,, Variafo, § 141,
4, 7. , ■
Cotifessio Belfjica. § 139. 12. „ Bo/iemica, § 139, 19. „ Czetigeriatia, § 139, 20. „ Gallicana, § 189, 14. „ Hafnica^ § 139, 2. „ Helvetica I., § 133, 8. „ „ II., § 138, 7.
Covfessio Hungarica, § 139, 20. „ Marchica, § 154, 3. ,, Saxonica, § 136, 8. „ Scotica, § 139, 9. „ Sigismimdi, § 154, 3. „ Tetrapolit., § 132, 7. Confession, Westminster, § 155, 1. „ Wiirttemberg, § 136, 8. Confessores, § 22, 5 ; 39, 2, 5. Confirmation, § 35, 4; 139, 19;
167, 2.
Co»fitfatio Conf. August., § 132, 7.
Congregatio de auxiliis, § 149, 13.
„ de propag. fides, %1'bQ,
9.
Congregationalists, § 148, 4 ; 162,
1 • 202, 5. Congregations, § 98, 1 ; 186, 2. Conon, Pope, § 46, 11. Cononites, § 57, 2. Conrad I., Emperor, § 96, 1. „ 11., § 96, 4. „ III., §96, 18; 94,2. „ IV., § 96, 20. „ of Hochsteden, § 104, 18. „ „ Marburg, § 109, 3. „ „ Massovia, § 93, 13. „ „ Megenburg, § 118, 2. Conradin, § 96, 20. Consalvi, § 185, 1 ; 192, 3. Conscientiarii, § 164, 4. Consensus Dresdensis, § 141, 10. „ Genev., § 138, 7. ,, Sendomir, § 139, 18.
„ repetitus, § 159, 2.
Tigurinus, § 188, 7. Consilia evangelica, § 39. Consistories, § 142, 1. Consof amentum, § 108, 2. Constance, Council of, § 110, 7 ;
119, 5, 7. Constantia, § 50, 2. Constantino the Great, § 28, 7 ; 42, 1, 2 ; 60, 1 ; 63, 1.
500
INDEX.
Constantine I., Pope, § 46, 11. IL, „ §82,2. ,, Chrysomalus, § 70, 4.
,, Copronymus, § 66, 2.
,, of Mananalis, § 71, 1.
„ Monomachus, § 67, 3.
„ Pogonnatns, § 52, 8.
„ Porphja-ogenneta, §
68, 1. Constantinople, Second (Ecum.
Council at, §46, 1 ; 50, 4,5 ; 52, 2. Constantinople, Fifth CEcum.
Council at, § 52, 6. Constantinople, Sixth fficum.
Council at, § 52, 8. Constantinople, Seventh CEcum.
Council at, § 66, 2, 3. Constantinople, Eighth CEcum.
Council at, § 67, 1. Constantius, § 42, 2 ; 50, 2.
„ Chlorus, § 22, 6.
Conditutio Horn., § 82, 4. Constitution of Early Chui'ch,
§17. Constitutiones apost., § 43, 4. Contarini, § 135, 2 ; 13f>, 22. Continentes, § 39, 3. Contraremonstrants, § 161, 2. Conve7iensa, § 108, 2. Conventuals, § 112, 3. Conversi, § 98. Converts, Romish, § 153, 1 ; 165,
6 ; 175, 7. Convocation, English, § 202, 3. Copts, § 52, 7 ; 72, 2. Coquerel, § 203, 4, 8. Coracion, § 33, 9. Coran, § 65. Corbinian, § 78, 2. Cordeliers, § 149, 6. Cornelius, Bishop, § 42, 3. Coronation, Papal, § 96, 23 ; 110,
15. Corporale^ § 60, 5.
Corporations Act, § 155, 8 ; 202, 5. Corputs C'atJiol. et Evangel., § 153, 1.
„ Chridi Festival, § 104, 7.
,, dodr. Misnicum, § 141, 10.
,, juris canon,, § 99, 5.
„ Pruthen., § 141, 2. Correctores Horn., § 99, 5. Correggio, § 115, 13. Cosmas of Jerusalem, § 70, 2. „ Indicopleustes, § 48, 2. „ Patr., § 70, 4. „ Usurpator, § 66, 1. Cossa, Cardinal, § 110, 7. Costa, Is. da, § 200, 2. Coster, § 149, 14. Cotta, Urs., § 122, 1. Councils, CEcumenical, § 43, 2. Counter-E/eformation, § 151 ; 153 ;
105, 4. Cour, Did. de la, § 156, 4. Courland, §93, 12; 139,3. Court, Ant., § 165, 5. Covenant, § 139, 8 ; 155, 1. Cowper, § 172, 4. Cranach, § 142, 2. Cranmer, § 139, 4, 5. Cranz, § 115, 8. Crasselius, § 167, 6. Crato of Craiftheim, § 141, 10;
137, 8. Creationism, § 53, 1. Crell, J., § 148, 4.
„ Nich., § 141, 13.
„ Paul, § 141, 10. Crescens, § 30, 9. Crescentius, § 96, 2, 4. Creuzer, § 174, 4. Cromwell, § 153, 5, 6; 155, 1-3. Crookes, § 211, 17. Cross, § 38, 2 ; 60, 6.
„ Discovery of the, § 57, 5.
„ Ordeal of the, § 88, 5.
„ Sign of the, § 89, 1; 59, 8;
72, 5.
INDEX.
601
Crotus, Eiibiamis, § 120, 2, 5. Crucifix, § GO, G. Cruciger, § 13G, 7. Cruco, § 93, 9. Cruger, § 160, 5. Crusaders, § 98, 8. Crusades, § 94 ; 105, 3. Crusius, Mart., § 139, 2G.
„ Chr. Aug., § 107, 4. Crypto-Calvinists, § 141, 10, 13. Crypts, § 38, 1 ; GO, 1. Cubricus, § 29, 1. Cudworth, § 164, 3. Culdees, § 77, 8.
Ctim ex apostolatiis officio, § 149, 2. Cummins, § 208, 1. Cunaeus, § 161, G. Cupola, § GO, 3. Curati, § 84, 2. Curseus, § 141, 10. Curci, § 187, 5. Curia, The Papal, § 110, 15. Curio, § 139, 24, Cursores, § GO, 5, Cusa, Nich. of, § 113, 6. Cynewulf, § 89, 3. Cyprian, St., § 22, 5; 31, 11; 34,
1,7,8; 35,3; 39, 2; 41,2,3. CyjDrian of Antioch, § 48, 8.
„ Sal., § 167, 4 ; 169, 1. Cyran, St., § 157, 2. Cjrriacus, § 104, 9, Cyril of Alexandria, § 47, G ; 52,
2,3. Cyril of Jerusalem, § 47, 10 : 52,
2,3. Cyril Lucar, § 152, 2.
„ and Methodius, § 73, 2, 3 ;
79, 2, 3. Cyrillonas, § 48, 7. Cyrus of Alexandria, § 52, 8. Czersky, § 186, 6.
Dach, Sim., § 160, 3.
Dachsel, § 186, 4. Dagobert I., § 78, 1, Daill6, § 161, 3, 7. Dalberg, J, v., § 120, 2, 3.
„ K.Th.v.,§187,3;192,2, Dale, § 202, 3, Dahimtica, § 59, 7. Damascus I., § 46, 4 ; 59, 1, 4.
II., § 96, 5. Dames dii CcRiir sacre, § 186, 1. Damiani, Petrus, § 97, 4 ; 104, 10 ;
106, 4. Damiens, § 158, 1. Dandalo, § 94, 4. Daniel of Winchester, § 78, 4, Danites, § 211, 14. Dankbrand, § 93, 5. Daimecker, § 174, 9. Dannhauer, § 159, 5, Dante, § 115, 10. Danzig, § 139, 18. Darboy, §189,3; 203. Darbyites, § 211, 11. Darnley, § 139, 10. Darwin, § 174, 3. Dataria Horn., § 110, 16. Daub, § 182, 6, Daumer, § 175, 7. David of Augsburg, § 103, 10.
„ ,,'Dinant, § 108, 4.
„ Christian, § 167, 9. David is, Fr., § 148, 3, Davis, § 211, 17. Deacon, § 17, 5 ; 34, 3. Deaconess, § 34, 3. Deaconess -institutes, § 183, 1. Dean, § 84, 2. Decius, Emperor, § 22, 5.
„ Nich., § 142, 3. Declaratio Thornuensis, § 153, 7. Decretals, § 46, 3. Decretists, § 99, 5. Decretum Grelasianum, § 47, 22. „ Gratiani, § 99, 5.
502
INDEX.
Defensores, § 45, 5. Deism, § IGl, 3 ; 171, 1. Delieieux, § 117, 2. Delitzsch, § 182, 14. DeMo, § 149, 11.
Demetrius of Alexandria, § 31, 5. ,, Cydonius, § 68, 5.
„ Mysos, § 139, 36. Demiurge, § 26, 2. Denek, § 148, 1. Denecker, § 160, 1. Denifle, § 191, 7. Denison, § 202, 2. Denmark, § 80; 93, 2; 139, 2;
201, 1. Denzinger, § 191, 9. Derezer, § 165, 11. Dernbach, § 151, 1. Z)e salute animaruvi, § 193, 11. Desanctis, § 204, 4. Descant, § 104, 11. Descartes, § 161, 3 ; 164, 1. Deseret, § 211, 12. Desiderius, § 82, 1. Desprez, § 203, 3. Dessau, Convention of, § 126, 5. Dessler, § 167, 6. Deutinger, § 191, 6. » Deutsche Theologie," § 114, 2. De Valenti, § 174, 3. Devay, § 139, 20. Dhu Nowas, § 64, 4. Diana of Poitiers, § 139, l3. Diatessaron, § 30, 9 ; 36, 7. Diaz, Juan, § 135, 10. Didache, § 30, 7. Didascalia AjMd., § 43, 4. Didenhofen, Synod of, § 82, 4. Diderot, § 165, 12. Didier de la Cour, § 156, 7. Didymus of Alexandria, § 47, 5.
„ Gabr, § 124, 1. ' DieckhoiF, § 182, 21. Diedrich, § 177, 3.
Diepenbroek, § 189, 1. Dieringer, § 191, 6. Dies Stationtnn, § 37 ; 56, 1. Diestel, Past., § 176, 3. Dietrich, Meister, § 103, 10.
„ Veit, § 142, 2. Dillmann, § 182, 11. Dinant, David of, § 108, 4. Dinder, Archbishop, § 197, 12. Dinkel, Bishop, § 187, 3. Dinter, § 173, 3 ; 180, 4. Diocletian, Empei'or, § 22, 6. Diodorus of Tarsus, § 47, 8. Diognetus, § 30, 6. Dionysius of Alexandria, § 31, 6,
14; 33,7,9; 35,3. Dionysius the Areopagite, § 47,
11 ; 90, 8. Dionysius Exigiius, § 47, 23. „ of Paris, § 25.
„ Rome, § 33, 7. Dioscurus of Alexandria, § 52, 4.
„ Eome, § 46, 8. Dippel, § 170, 3. Diptychs, § 59, 6. Disciplina arcani, § 36, 4. Disputation at Baden, § 130, 6. „ „ Basel, § 130, 3.
„ „ Bern, § 130, 7.
„ Leipzig, § 122, 4. „ „ Eome, § 175, 3.
„ Zurich, § 130, 2. Dissenters, § 143, 3, 4 ; 155, 1-3 ;
202, 5. Dober, § 168, 3, 4, 11. Docetism, § 26, 2. Doctor acutus, § 113, 2. ,, aiiijelicus, § 103, 6. „ audientiuin^ § 33, 1. ,, Christia7iiss., § 113, 4. „ ecstaticus, § 114, 5. „ invincihUis, § 113, 3. „ irrcfragihilis, § 103, 4, ,, melijiuus, § 102, 2,
INDEX.
503
Vodor mirahUis, § 103, 8.
„ profundus, % 103, 8; 110, 2.
„ 7'esol utissimus, § 113, 3.
„ seraphicus, § 103, 4.
„ suhtilis, § 113, 1.
„ universalis, § 103, 5. Dodores audienlium, § 34, 3.
„ ecdesia; § 47, 22. Doderlein, § 171, 8. Dodwell, § 161, 7. Dolcino, § 108, 8. Pollinger, § 190, 5; 191, 5, 9;
175, 6 ; 5, 6. Domenichino, § 149, 15. Domenico da Pescia, § 119, 11. Dominic, St., § 98, 4 ; 106, 3. Domiuicans, § 98, 5 ; 109, 2 ; 112:
4 ; 186, 2. Dominus ac redemt., § 165, 9. Domitian, Emperor, § 22, 1.
„ Abbot, § 52, 6.
Domiius of Antioch, § 52, 4. Donatio Constantini, § 87, 4. Donatists, § 63, 1. Domiet, Card., § 190, 3. Pore, Gustav, § 174, 9. Coring, Matt., § 113, 7. Uormitoria, § 38, 2 ; 60, 4. Dorner, § 182, 10. Dorotheus, § 30, 6. Dort, Synod of, § 161, 2, Dositheus of Samaria, § 25, 2.
„ „ Jerusalem, § 152. 3.
Drabricius, § 163, 9. Dragonnades, § 153, 3. Drake, § 174, 9. Drey, § 191, 6. Druids, § 77, 2. Drummond, § 211, 10. Drusius, § 161, G. Druthmar, Christ., § 90, 4, 9 ; 91,
3. Dualism, § 26, 2. Dualistic Heretics, § 71.
Dubois, Pet. v., § 118, 1.
„ Card., § 165, 7. Ducange, § 158, 2. Duchoborzians, § 166, 2 ; 210, 3. Dufay, § 115, 8. Dufresne, § 158, 2. Dulignon, § 163, 8. Dumont, Bishop, § 200, 7. Dumoulin, § 161, 3, 7. Dungal, § 92, 2. Dunin, § 193, 1. Duns Scotus, § 113, 1. Dunstan, § 97, 4 ; 100, 1. Dupanloup, § 189, 3 •, 203, 3-5. Duplessis-Mornay, § 139, 17. Durseus, § 154, 4. Durandus of Osca, § 108, 10.
„ William, § 113, 3. Dilrer, Albert, § 115, 13 ; 142. 2. Durousseaux, § 200, 7. Diisselthal, § 183, 1. Dutoit, § 171, 9. Duvergier, § 157, 5.
Eadbald, § 77, 4. Eaniied, § 77, 6. Eardley, § 178, 2. Easter-Festival, § 37, 1 ; 56, 3, 4. „ Reckoning of, § 56, 3 ; 77
3. East Friesland, § 170, 3. East Indies, §64, 4; 150, 1; 155,
11 ; 165, 3 ; 167, 9 ; 168, 6 ; 184, 5. Ebed Jesu, § 72, 1. Ebel, § 176, 3.
Eber, Paul, § 141, 10 ; 142, 3. Eberhard of Bamberg, § 102, 6. J. A., § 111, 4-7. „ Bishop of Treves, § 197,
6. Eberlin, § 125, 1. Ebionites, § 28, 1. Ebner, § 114, 6. Ebo of kheims, § SO ; 87, 3.
504
INDEX.
Ebrard, § 182, 16 ; 195, 5 ; 5, 5. Ecbert of Schonau, § 107, 1. Eccart, John, § 142, 5. Ecdesia Chridi Bull, § 203, 1. Ecclesiastical Titles Bill, § 202, 11. Ecetse, § 70, 3. Echter, Jul., § 151, 1. Echternach Procession, 188, 11. Eck, § 122, 1, 4 ; 123, 1 ; 130, G ;
135, 2, 3 ; 149, 14. Eckhart, Meister, § 114, 1. Ecthesis, § 52, 8. Edelmann, § 171, 3. Edessa, School of, § 31, 1 ; 47, 1. Edward VI. of England, § 139, 5. Edwin, § 77, 4. Egbert, § 77, 8 ; 78, 3. Egede, § 167, 9. Egli, § 199, 3. Eichhorn, J. G., § 176, 7.
„ Minister, § 196, 2.
„ Nich., § 174, 5. Eiclisfeld, § 151, 1. Einhard, § 88, 6. elpwv, § 39, 2. Eisenach, Conference at, § 172, 2.
„ Attentat, § 194, 2. Eisenmenger, § 161, 7. Eisleben, Magister, § 141, 1. Elagabalus, § 22, 4. Eleesban, § 64, 4. Eleutherus, § 40, 2. Elias of Cortona, § 98. Eligius, § 78, 3, Elipandus, § 91, 1. Elisaeus, § 64, 3. Elizabeth, St., § 105, 3.
„ of Brandenburg, § 128, 1.
„ ,, Calenberg, § 134, 5.
„ „ England, § 139, 6-8.
„ „ Herford, § 163, 7, 8.
„ „ SchOnau, § 104, 9 ;
107, 1. Elizabeth-Society, § 186, 4,
Elkesaites, § 28, 2.
Eller, § 170, 4.
Elliot, § 162, 7.
Eltz, Jac. v., § 151, 1.
Elvenich, § 191, 1.
Elvira, Syn. of, § 38, 3 ; 45, 2.
Elxai, § 27, 2.
Elzevir, § 161, 6.
Emanation, § 26, 2.
Emancipation Bill, § 202, 9,
Emmerau, § 78, 2.
Emmerich, § 188, 3.
Empaytaz, § 199, 5.
Emser, Jerome, § 123, 4 ; 149, 14.
Encratites, § 27, 10.
Encyclicon, § 52, 5.
Encyclopaedists, § 165, 14.
Endemic Synods, § 43, 2.
Energumens, § 35, 3.
Enfans sans souci, § 115, 12.
Enfantin, § 212, 2.
England, § 139, 4; 143, 1 ; 154, 4 ;
155 ; 162, 1 ; 202. Ennodius, § 46, 8 ; 59, 4. Enoch, Book of, § 32, 2. Enraght, § 202, 3. Eoban, St., § 78, 7. Epaon, Council of, § 76, 5. Ephesus, Council of, § 52, 3 ; 53, 4. Ephraem, § 47, 13 ; 48, 7 ; 59, 4. Epigonus, § 33, 5. Epiphanes, § 27, 8. Epiphanius, § 47, 10 ; 51, 2, 3 ;
57,4, Episcopal S3'stem, § 167, 5. Episcopi in partihus, § 97, 8. Episcopius, § 161, 2. Epistolce decretales, § 46, 3.
„ formcttce, § 34, 6,
„ ohscur. vir., § 120, 5.
„ paschales^ § 34, 6 ; 56, 3.
„ sijnodales, § 34, 6. EjniJce T/u/estecc, § 22. Erasmus, § 120, 6 ; 123, 3 ; 125, 3.
INDEX.
505
Erastianism, § 202, 7, Erastus, § 117, 4 ; 144, 1. Erfurt, University of, § 120, 2. Eric of Calenberg, § 136, 1.
„ „ Sweden, § 80, 1 ; 93, 2,
„ St., § 93, 3, 11.
„ the Eed, § 93, 5. Erigena, § 90, 7 ; 91, 5. Erimbert, § 81, 1. Erlembald, § 97, 5. Ernest the Pious, § 160, 6.
„ of Liineburg, § 120, 4 ;
127, 3. Ernesti, § 171, 6. Ernestine Bible, § 160, G. Esch, John, § 128, 1. Eschenmayer, § 176, 2. Escobar, § 149, 16 ; 158, 1. Essenes, § 8, 4 ; 28, 2. Essenius, § 161, 5. Established Church, § 139, 6;
202, 1. Esthonia, § 93, 2 ; 205, 3. Estius, § 150, 14. Ethelberga, § 77, 4. Ethelbert, § 77, 4. Ethelwold, Bishop, § 100, 1. Etherius of Osma, § 91, 1. Ethiopia, § 64, 1. Etshmiadzin, § 72, 2. ^vxapiarta, § 17, 7 ] 36, 3. Ei'XfXo.toi', § 61, 3. Eucherius, § 47, 21. Euchites, § 44, 7 ; 71, 3. Eudocia, § 48, 5 ; 52, 3, 4, 5. Eudoxia, § 51, 3. Eudoxius, § 50, 8. Eugenius II., § 82, 4. ^, III., §96, 13.
IV., §67, 6; 110,8,9. Eulalius, § 40, 6. Euler, § 150, 14. Eulogies, § 58, 4. Eulogius of Caesarea, § 53, 4.
Eulogiusof Cordova. § 81, 1 ; 90, 6.
Eunapius, § 42, 5.
Eunomius, § 50, 3.
Euphemites, § 42, 6,
Eupkrates, § 28, 4.
Euric, § 76, 2.
Eusebians, § 50, 2.
Eusebius of Caesarea, § 36, 8 ; 47.
2 ; 50, 1 ; 59, 1. Eusebius of Doryliium, § 52, 3. „ „ Emesa, § 47, 8. „ „ Mcomedia, § 50, 1. „ VerceUi, § 50, 2. Eustasius of Luxeuil, § 78, 2. Eustathians, § 44, 7. Eustathius of Antioch, § 50, 8. „ „ Sebaste, § 44, 3, 7
62, 1. Eustathius of Thessalonica, § 68,
5 ; 70, 4. Euthalius, § 59, 1. Euthymius Zigabenus, § 68, 5. Eutyches. § 52, 4. Euzoius, § 50, 8. Evagi'ius, § 5, 1. ! Evangelical-Party, § 202, 1, 4. j Evangelists, § 17, 5 ; 34, 1. Evangelmm ccternum, § 108, 4. Evolutionists, § 174, 2. Ewald, The black and white, § 78,
9. Ewald, H., § 182, 3. Exarchate, § 46, 9 ; 76, 7 ; 82, 1. Exarchs, Episcopal, § 46, 1. Execrahilis, § 110, 10. Exemption, § 98, Exercises, Spiritual, § 149, 9;
188,1. Excommunication, § 35, 2 ; 88, 5 ;
106,1. Exodus-Churches, § 211, 6, 7. e^o/MoKoyTiai^, § 32, 2. Exorcism, § 35, 4 ; 58, 1 ; 142, 2 ; 167, 2.
506
INDEX.
Exorcists, § 33, 3. Exsurge Domini^ § 123, 2. Extra, § 99, 5. Extranece, § 39, 3. Extravatjantes; § 99, 5. Eyck, § 115, 13. . Eznik, § 64, 3. Ezra, Fourth Book of, § 32, 2.
Faber, John, § 130, 2, 6.
„ Stapulensis, § 120, 8. Fabian, Bishop of Rome, § 22, 5. Facundus of Hermiane, § 47, 19 ;
52, 6. Fagius, § 139, 5. Falk, Dr., § 174, 8 ; 193, 5, 6 ; 197,
2, 3, 5. Familists, § 146, 5. Farel, § 130, 3 ; 138, 1, Fasts, Ascetic, § 44, 4 ; 107.
„ Ecclesiastical, § 37, 3; 5(j,
4, 7; 115, 1,12. Fatak, § 29, 1. Faustus of Mileve, § 54, 1.
„ „ Rhegium, § 47, 21 ; 53,
5. Favre, Pet., § 149, 8. Fawkes, Guy, § 153, 6. Fazy, § 199, 1. Febronius, § 165, 10. Fecht, § 167, 1. Federal Theology, § 161, 4. Felicissimus, § 41, 2. Felicitas, § 22, 4. Felix, II., § 46, 4.
„ III., § 46, 8 ; 52, 5.
„ IV., §46,8.
„ v., § 110, 8.
„ of Aptunga, § 63, 1.
,, the Manichasan, § 54, 1.
„ Pratensis, § 120, 9.
,. of Urgellis, § 91, 1. Fell, Marg., § l(i3, 4. Feneberg, § 187, 1.
Fenelon, § 157, 3 ; 158, 2. Fenian-movement, § 202, 10. Ferdinand I., § 137, 8 5 126, 2, 3 ; 139, 19, 20. II., §151,1; 153,2. „ VII. of Spain, § 205, 1. „ I. of Castile, § 95, 2.
III. „ §95,2. „ the Catholic, § 95, 2 5 117, 2 ; 118, 7. Ferguson, Fergus, § 202, 8. Ferrara, Council of, § 67, 6 ; 110,
8. Ferrer, Bonif., § 115, 4.
„ Vincent, § 115, 2 ; 110, 6. Ferry, Minister, § 203, 6. Ferula, § 60, 1. Fessler, Bishop, § 189, 3.
„ Ign., § 165, 13. Fevidalism, § 86, 1. Feuerbach, § 174, 1, 3 ; 182, 6. Feuillants, § 149, 6 Feyin, Synod of, § 64, 3. Fichte, J. G., § 170, 13.
„ J.H.,§174,2; 211,15. Fiesole, § 115, 13. Fifth Monarchy Men, § 162, 1. Filioque, § 50, 7 ; 67, 1 ; 91, 2. Finkenstein, § 176, 3, Finland, § 93, 11 ; 139, 1 ; 2015, 3. Firmian, § 165, 4. Firmcius Maternus, § 47, 14. Firmilian, § 34, 3 ; 35, 3. Fischart, § 142, 7, Fisher, Bishop, § 139, 4. Fisherman's Ring, § 110, 16. Fitzgerald, § 189, 3. Five Mile Act, § 155, 3. Flacius, § 141, 4-8 ; 142, 6 ; 5, 2, Flagellants, § 106, 4; 116, 3;
149, 17. Flagellation, § 106, 4; 116, 3;
149, 17. Flavia Domitilla, § 22, 1.
INDEX.
507
Flavian of Antioch, § 50, 8.
„ Constantinople, § 52, 4. Flechier, § 158, 2. Flemming, § 160, 3. Fletcher, § 169, 3. Fleury, § 5, 2 ; 158,2; 165,7. Flieclner, § 183, 1. Flora, § 27, 5. Florence, Council of, § 67, 6 ; 72 :
110, 8. Florentius Eadewin, § 112, 9. Florinus, § 31, 2. Florus Magister, § 90, 5 ; 91, 5. Folmar, § 102, 6. Fontevraux, Order of, § 98, 2. Fools, Festival of, § 105, 2. Formosus, § 82, 8. Formula Concordia:, § 141, 9.
„ Consensus Helvet., § 161,
3. F5rster, J., § 142, 6.
„ prelate, § 118, 3 ; 197, 0. Fortunatus, § 48, 6. Fouque, de la M., § 174, 5. Fourier, § 212, 1. Fox, George, Quaker, § 163, 4, 5.
„ American Spiritualist, § 211,
17. France, § 139, 13-17 ; 153, 4 ; 165,
5; 203. Francis, St., § 93, 16 ; 98, 3 ; 104,
10 ; 106, 5. Francis de Paula, § 112, 8.
,, ,, Sales, § 156, 6; 157, 1. Francis I., of France, § 110, 9, 14 ;
120,8; 126,5, 6; 139, 13. Francis II., of France, § 139, 14. Francisca Eomana, § 112, 1. Franciscans, § 98, 3; 112, 2; 149,
6. Francis Xavier Society, § 186, 4. Franck, Seb. § 146, 3. „ John, 160, 4. „ Michael, § 160, 4.
Franck, Sal., § 167, 6.
Francke, A. H., § 159, 3 ; 167, 2, 8,
9 ; 160, 7. Franco of Cologne, § 144, 11. Frank, J. H., § 182, 15. Frankists, § 165, 17. Franks, The, § 76, 9. Frankfort, Synod of, §91, 1 ; 92, 1. ,, Concordat of, § 110, 9, 14. Frankfort, Parliament of, § 189, 4. „ Recess of, § 141, 11. Troubles of, § 134, 3. Fratres de communi vita, § 112, 9. „ minores, § 98, 3. „ pontijices, § 98, 9. ,, jjrrtefZica/ore*, § 98, 5. Fraficelli, § 112, 2. Fredigis, § 90, 4. Frederick I., Barbarossa, § 96, 14,
15 ; 94, 3. Frederick II., Emperor, § 94, 5 ;
96, 20 ; 97, 2 ; 99, 3 ; 109, 2. Frederick III., Emperor, § 110, 9. „ III., of Austin, § 110, 3. „ I., of Prussia, § 169, 1. „ II., „ § 165, 9;
171, 4. Frederick I., of Denmark, § 139, 2, IV. „ §167,9,
„ of Palatinate, § 153, 3
„ Aug. the Strong, § 153, 1
„ the Wise, §122, 3; 123, 9
,, William, the Great
Elector §154,4. Frederick William II., § 171, 5. „ III., §171, 5; 172, 3 ; 177, 1 ; 193. Frederick William IV., § 177, 2 ;
193. Freemasons, § 171, 2 ; 104, 13. Free-will Baptists, § 162, 3 ; 208, 1. Free-thinkers, § 1(54, 2 ; 171, 2. Freiligrath, § 174, 5.
508
INDEX.
Fresenius, 167, 8. Freylinghansen, § 167, 6-S. Fricke, § 182, 21. Fridolin, § 77, 7 ; 78, 1. Friedewalt, Convention of, § 12(),
6. Friedrich, John, § 190, 1 ; 191, 7. Fries, § 174, 1. Frisians, § 78, 3. Frith, § 139, 4. Frithigern, § 76, 1. Fritzlar, § 78, 4. Fritzsche, § 183, 3. Frobenius, § 120, 6. Frohschammer, § 191, 6. Froment, § 188, 1. Fronto, § 23. Frumentius, § 64, 1. Fry, Elizabeth, § 183, 1. Fugue, Musical, § 115, 8. Fulbert of Chartres, § 101, 1. Fulco, Canonist, § 102, 1.
„ of Neuilly, § 104, 1. Fulda, § 78, 5 ; 151, 2. Fulgentius, Ferr., § 47, 20. „ of Euspe, § 47, 20.
Gabler, Andr., 182, 6.
„ Th. A., § 171, 5. Gabriel, Didymus, § 124, 1. Galen, § 23. Galerius, § 22, 6. Galileo, § 156, 4. Gall, St., § 130, 4, 8. Galle, Peter, § 139, 1. Gallienus, § 22, 5. Galilean Church, § 156, 3 ; 203. Gallizin, Am. v., § 172, 2. Gallus, St., § 178.
„ Emperor, § 22, 5. Ganganelli, § 165, 8. Gangi-a, Synod of, § 44, 7 ; 45, 2. Gardiner, Allen, § 184, 2.
„ Bishop, § 139, 4, 5.
Garibaldi, 185, 3.
Garve, § 170, 4. Gasparin, § 203, 4. Gannilo, § 101, 3. Gauzbert, § 81, 1. Gavazzi, § 204, 4. Gebhardt of Eichstedt, § 96, 5. „ „ Cologne, § 137, 7
„ Salzburg, § 97, 2. Gedike, § 154, 3. Gedimin, § 93, 14. Geibel, § 174, 6. Geier, § 159, 4.
Geiler of Kaisersb., § 115, 2, 11. Geisa, § 93, 8. Geismar, § 78, 4. Geissel, § 194, 1. Gelasius, I., § 46, 8 ; 47, 22 ; 59, 6.
IL, § 96, 11. Gelimar, § 76, 3. Gellert, § 176, 11 ; 172, 1. Genesis, The little, § 32, 2. Genesius, § 71, 1. Geneva, § 138 ; 199, 1, 2, 5. Genghis-Khan, § 72, 1. Gennadius, § 47, 16 : 48, 3.
„ Patr., §68, 5; 67, 7.
Genseric, § 76, 3. Gentile Christians, § 18. Gentilis, § 148, 3. Gentilly, Synod of, § 91, 2 ; 92, 1. Gemtfledentes, § 35, 1. George Acyndynos, § 69, 1.
„ of Brandenburg, § 127, 3 ;
132, 6. George of Saxony, § 122, 4 ; 126,
5 ; 128 •, 134, 2, George, Bishop of the Arabs,
§72,2. George of Trebizond, § 68, 2. Gerbert, § 96, 2 ; 100, 3. Gereuth, § 188, 6. Gerhard Groot, § 112, 9.
John, § 159, 4 ; 180, 1. „ Segarelli, § 108, 8.
INDEX.
509
Gerhard Zerbolt, § 112, 9. Gerhardt, Paul, § 154, 4 ; 160, 4. Gerike, P., § 139, 18. Gerlach, L. v., § 175, 1 ; 176, 1. „ Otto v., § 181, 4. „ Stephen, § 139, 26. St. Germams, Peace of, § 139, 15. German Empire, § 192 ; 197.
„ Catholics, § 187, 6. Germany, Young, § 174, 5. Germanus, Patr., § 66, 1. Gerson, § 110, 6, 7 ; 112, 6 ; 113, 3 ;
118, 4 ; 119, 5. Gertrude the Great, § 107, 1.
,, of Hackeborn, § 107, 1. Gesenius, W., § 182, 3.
Just., § 160, 3. Gewilib of Mainz, § 78, 4. Geysa, § 93, 2. GfrOrer, § 5, 4 ; 175, 7. Ghazali, § 103, 1. Ghent, Pacific, of, § 139, 12. Ghetto, §95, 3; 185, 1. Ghiberti, § 115, 13. Gichtel, § 163, 9. Gieseler, § 5, 4. Giessen, University of, § 154, 1;
196, 1, 5. Gil, Juan, § 129, 21. Gilbertines, § 98, 2. Gilbertus Porretanus, § 102, 3. Gildas, §90, 8. Giotto, § 115, 13. Gisela, § 93, 8. Gladstone, § 202, 10. Glass, Painting on, § 104, 14 ;
174, 9. Glassius, § 159, 4. yXwaffoui XaXeTw, § 17, 1. Gnesen, Archbishopric of, § 93, 2. Gnosimachians, § 62, 3. Gnosticism, § 18, 3 ; 26-28. Goar, St., § 78, 3. Gobat, Bishop, § 184, 8, 9.
Gobel, § 165, 15. Goch, Jolm of, § 119, 10. God, Friends of, § 116, 4. Godfrey of Bouillon, § 94, 1.
„ „ Strassburg, § 105, 6. Goethe, § 171, 11. Goetze, § 171, 8. Gomarus, § 161, 2. G onzago. Cardinal, § 149, 2. Gonzalo of Berceo, § 105, 6. Good Friday, § 56, 4. Goodwin, § 161, 6. Gordianus, § 22, 4. Gorg, Junker, § 123, 8. Gorm the Old, § 93, 2. Gorres, Jos., § 174, 4 ; 181, 1 ; 5, 6. Goschel, § 179, 1, 2; 182, 6, 15. Gossler, § 193, 6 ; 197, 11.
Gossner, § 187, 2 ; 1&4, 1.
Gothic Architecture, § 104, 12.
Goths, § 76.
Gotter, § 167, 6.
Gottschalk, Prince of Wends, § 93, 9.
Gottschalk, Monk, § 91, 5, 6.
Goudimel, § 143, 2 ; 149, 15.
Grabau, § 208, 2.
Grabow, § 210, 10.
Graf, § 182, 18.
Graffiti, § 38, 1 ; 39, 5.
ypafifiara reTVirwiJ.iva, § 34, 6.
Grammont, Order of, § 98, 2.
Grant, § 184, 9.
Granvella, § 135, 1, 2, 3.
Gratian, Emperor, § 42, 4.
„ Canonist, §99, 5; 104, 4.
Gratius Ortuinus, § 120, 5.
Graumann, § 142, 3.
G rebel, § 180, 5.
Greece, §207.
Greeks, United, § 151 ; 206, 2.
Green, § 202, 3.
Greenland, § 93, 1 ; 167, 9 ; 184, 2.
Gregentius, § 48, 3.
510
INDEX.
Gregoire, Bishop, § 165, 15. Gregory!., §413, 10; 47, 22; 57, 4; 58, 3 ; 59, 5, 6, 9 ; 61, 4 ; 76, 8 ; 77,4. Gregory II., III., § 66, 1 ; 78, 4 ;
82, 1. Gregory IV., § 82, 4. „ v., § 96, 2. „ VI., § 96, 4. „ VII., §96, 7-9; 94; 101, 2. Gregory VIII., § 96, 16 ; 94, 3. „ IX., § 96, 19; 99, 4; 109, 2. Gregory X., § 96, 21 ; 67, 4. „ XL, § 110, 5; 114, 4; 117, 2. Gregory XII., § 110, 6, 7.
XIII., § 139, 17 ; 149, 3. 4,17. Gregory XIV., § 149, 3. „ XV., § 156, 1, 4, 5. „ XVI., § 185, 1. ,, Abulfarajus, § 72, 2. ,, Acind3aios, § 69, 2. ,, of Constantinople, § 207, 1. ,, of Heimburg, § 118,- 5. „ Illuminator, § 64, 3. „ Palamas, § 69, 2. „ Scholaris, § 68, 5. ,, Thaumaturgvis, § 31, 6. „ Nazianzen, § 47, 4 ; 48. 5, 8; 59,4. Gregory of Nyssa, § 47, 4. „ of Tours, § 90, 2. „ of Utrecht, § 78, 3. Gregorian Chant, § 59, 3. Gretna-Green, § 202, 6. Gr6vy, § 203, 5. Grey, Lady Jane, § 139, 5. Griesbach, § 171, 7. Groot, Gerh., § 112, 9. Gropper, § 135, 3, 7. Grosseteste, § 97, 4.
Grotius, § 153, 7 ; 161, 2, 6, 7.
Gruber, § 170, 1, 2.
Gruet, Jac, § 138, 4.
Grundtvig, § 201, 1.
Grunthler, § 139, 24.
Grynaus, § 133, 8.
Gualbertus, § 98, 1.
Guardian, § 98, 5.
Guatemala, § 209, 2.
Guelphs, § 96, 7.
Guericke, § 5, 5 ; 176, 1 ; 177, 2 ;
182, 13. Guerin, § 98, 2. Guevara, § 209, 2. Guiana, § 184, 2. Guibert, Archbishop, § 203, 5. ,
„ of Nogent, § 101, 1. Guide of Arezzo, § 104, 11.
„ de Castello, § 102, 2 ; 108, 7.
„ of Siena, § 104, 9, 14. Guigo, § 98, 2.
Guise, Dukes of, § 139, 13-17. Guizot, § 185, 3 ; 203, 2, 8, Gundiberge, § 76, 8. Gundioch, § 75, 5. Gvmdobald, § 76, 5. Gundulf, § 108, 2. Gunpowder Plot, § 153, 6. Guuthamund, § 76, 3. Gunther of Cologne, § 82, 7. Giinther, Ant., § 191, 3.
Cyi-iacus, § 160, 4. Gilnzburg, Eberlin of, § 125, 1. Gury, § 191, 9. Gustavus Adolphus, § 153, 2 ;
160, 7. Gustavus Adolphus Society, § 178,
1. Giitzlaf, § 184, 6. Guyon, § 157, 3. Gylas, § 93, 8. Gyrovagi, § 44, 7.
Haag, Pastor, § 196, 3.
INDEX.
511
Haas, Jos., § 210, '2>
,, Charles, § 175, 7. Haco the Good, § 93, 4. Hadrian, Emperor, § 28, 3 ; 2-5 ;
39, 6. Hadrian I., § 66, 3 ; 82, 2 ; 91, 1.
„ n.,§67,l; 79,2; 82,7; 83, 2. Hadrian III., § 82, 8.
„ IV., §96, 14.
„ v., § 96, 22.
VI., § 149, 1 ; 126, 1. Hagenau, § 135, 2. Hagenhach, § 182, 9 ; 5, 5. Hahn, Aug., § 176, 1. „ Michael, § 172, 3. „ Missionarj', § 18-J, 3. Hahn-Hahn, Ida, § 175, 7. Hakem, § 95, 2. Haldane, § 199, 5. Haldanites, § 170, 6. Halle, University of, § 167, 1. Haller, Alb., § 171, 8.
„ Berth., § 130, 4.
„ L. v., § 175, 7. Hamann, § 171, 11. Hamburg, Bishopric. § 80, 1. Hamilton, Patrick, § 139, 8. Hammerschmidt, § 1(30, 5. Handel, § 167, 7. Haneberg, § 189, 4 ; 197, 6. Hanne, Dr., § 180, 3. Hannington, Bishop, § 184, 4. Hanover, §193,8; 194,3. Hans, Brother, § 115, 11. Harald the Apostate, § 80.
„ Blaatand, § 93, 2. Hardenberg, § 144, 2. Hard-Shell Baptists, § 170, 6. Hardouin, § 165, 11. Hare, § 211, 17. Harless, § 182, 13 ; 195, 4. Harmonites, § 211, 6. iiarmonius, § 27, 5.
Harms, Claus, § 176, 1. „ Louis, § 184, 1. Harnack, Th., § 182, 13. Hartmann, E. v., § 174, 2. Hase, § 5, 4 ; 176, 1 ; 182, 5. Hasse, § 5, 5. Hassun, § 207, 4. Hattemists, § 170, 8. Hatto of Eeichenau, § 90, 3.
„ I. of Mainz, § 83, 3. Hatty-Humayun, § 207. Hiltzer, § 130, 5 ; 148, 1. Haug, § 170, 1. Hauge, § 201, 3. Hauser, § 188, 5. Hausmann, Nich., § 133, 4. Hausrath, § 182, 17. Haydn, § 174, 10. Haymo of Halberstadt, § 90, 5. Hebel, § 171, 11. Heber, Bishop, § 18-1, 5. Hebrseans, Sect of, § 170, 8. Hebrews, Gospel of the, § 31, Ki. Heddo of Strassburg, § 84, 2. Hedinger, § 170, 1. Hedio, § 130, 3. Hedwig of Poland, § 93, 14.
„ St. of Silesia, § 105, 3. Heermann, § 160, 3. Hefele, § 189, 3, 4 ; 191, 7. Hefter, § 184, 8. Hegel, § 174, 1. Hegesippus, § 31, 7. Hegius, § 120, 3. Heidanus, § 161, 5, 7. Heidegger, § 161, 3. Heidelberg Catechism, § 144, 1 University, § 120, 3. Heine, § 174, 5. Heinrichs, § 171, 5. Hejira, § 65. Held, H., § 159, 3.
„ Imperial Orator, § 13-i, 2. Helding, § 136, 5.
512
INDEX.
Helena, Empress, § 57, 5, 6.
„ of Kussia, § 73, 4. Heliand, § 89, 3. Hell, § 106, 3. Hellenists, § 10, 1. Helmstedt, § 159, 2. Heloise, § 102, 1. Helvetius, § 165, 12. Helvidius, § 62, 2. Hemero -baptists, § 25, 1. Henuneiiin, § 118, 5. Hemming of Upsala, § 93, 11. „ Professor, § 111, 10.
Hengstenberg, § 176, 1 ; 182, 4. Henke, § 5, 3 ; 171, 7, Henoticon, § 52, 2. Henricians, § 108, 7. Henry I., Emperor, § 93, 2 ; 96, 1.
„ II., § 96, 4.
„ III., § 96, 4 ; 97, 1.
„ IV., § 96, 6.
„ v., § 96, 11 fF.
„ VI., § 96, 16.
„ VIL, § 110, 2.
„ I. of England, § 96, 12.
„ II. „ § 96, 16;
94, 3. Henry VIII. of England, § 125, 3 ;
139, 4, 7, 8. Henry II. of France, § 139, 13.
„ III. „ §139,17,18.
„ IV. „ §139,17.
Henry of Brunswick, § 126, 5 ; 135,
6,10. Henry of Saxony, § 134, 4.
„ de Hessia, § 118, 5.
„ of Langenstein, § 118, 5.
„ of Lausanne, § 108, 7.
„ of Nordlingen, § 114, 6.
„ of Upsala, § 93, 11.
„ the Lion, § 93, 9.
„ Wendish Prince, § 98, 9.
„ of Ztitphen, § 128, 1. Hensel, Louise, § 174, 6.
Heppe, § 170, 3 ; 182, 16. Heracleon, § 27, 5. Heraclius, § 52, 8 ; 57, 5 ; 64, 2. Herbart, § 174, 2. Herder, § 171, 11. Heretic's Baptism, § 35, 5, Hergenrother, § 5, 6 ; 191, 7. Heriger, § 80, 1. Hermann von Fritzlar, § 114. „ Premonstrat., § 95, 3.
,, of Cologne, § 133, 5.
„ von Wied, § 133, 5 ; 135, 7 ; 136, 2. Hermannsburg, § 184, 1 ; 193, 8. Hermas, § 30, 4. Hermes, § 191, 1. Hermias, § 30, 10. Hermogenes, § 27, 13. Herrero de Mora, § 205, 5. Herrmann, § 182, 20. Herrnhut, §168; 169,3. HervEBus, § 102, 8. Herzog, Old Catholic Bishop, § 190,
3 ; 199, 3. Herzog, Prelate, § 197, 10, 11,
„ J. J., § 5, 5. Hess, J. Jac, § 171, 6. Hesse, § 127, 2.
„ Darmstadt, § 196, 4 ; 197, 15.
„ Cassel, § 154, 1; 193, 9;
194, 4. Hesshus, § 144, 1, 2. Hesychasts, § 69, 2. Hetmrm, § 22, 2. Hettinger, § 191, 6. Heubner, § 184, 5. Heumann, § 167, 4. Hexapla, § 31, 5. Hibbert Trust, § 202, 4. Hicks, § 211, 3. Hieracas, § 39, 3. Hierocles, § 23, 3. Hieronomites, § 112, 8. High-Churchmen, § 202, 1.
INDEX.
513
Hilarion, § 44, 3, Hilaiy of Aries, § 46, 7.
„ „ Poitiers, § 47, 14, Hildebert of Tom-s, § 101, 1 ; 104,
4,10. Hildebrand, § DG, 4 ff, ; 101, 2. Hildegard, § 97 ; 107, 1 ; 109. Hilderic, § 76, 9. Hilduin, § 90, 8. Hilgenfeld, § 182, 7. Hilgers, § 191, 6. Hiller, § 167, 6. Hincmar of Laon, § 83, 2.
., „ Eheims, § 82, 7 ; 83,
2; 87,3; 90,5; 91,5. Hippolytus, § 31, 3 ; 33, 5 ; 40, 2 :
41,1. Hirschberger Bible, § 167, 8. Hirsoher, § 187, 3 ; 191, 6. Hitzig, § 182, 3. Hobbes, § 164, 3. Hoe V. Hoenegg, § 154, 4 ; 159, 1. Hofacker, § 211, 4, Hoffmann, Christ., § 211, 8. Fr., § 191, 2. G. W., § 196, 5. „ Melch., § 147, 1. „ Chr. K. v., § 182, 14.
Dan., § 141, 15. Hofmeister, Seb., § 130, 4. Hofstede de Groot, § 200, 2. Hohenlohe, § 188, 2.
„ Card., § 189, 1 ; 197, 7.
Holbach, § 165, 12. Holbein, § 115, 6, 13 ; 113, 5 ; 142,
2. Holland, § 165, 7 ; 200, 2, 3. Hollaz, § 167, 4, 8. Holtzmann, § 182, 17. Hoinberg, Synod of, § 127, 2. Homoians, § 50, 3. Homoiousians, § 50, 3. Homologoumena, § 36, 8. Homoousians, § 33, 1 ; 50, 1. VOL. III.
Hunigern, § 177, 2, Honoring, Emperor, § 42, 4 ; 53, 4, I., § 46, 11 ; 52, 8, 9. II., § 96, 13. III., § 96, 19. IV., § 96, 22. Honter, Jac, § 139, 20, Hontheim, § 165, 10, Hoogstraten, § 120, 4 ; 122, 3, Hooper, § 139, 5, Hormisdas of Rome, § 46, 8 ; 52,
5, 6, Horsley, § 171, 1, Hosius, Bishop, § 50, 1, 2, 3, „ Cardinal, § 139, 18. Hospinian, § 161, 7. Hospital Brothers, § 98, 8. Hossbach, § 180, 4. Host, § 104, 2. Hoting, § 197, 10, Hottinger, § 5, 2 ; 161, 6. Howard, Catherine, § 139, 4. Huber, J., § 189, 1 ; 190, 1 ; 191, 7.
„ Sam., § 141, 14. Hubmeier, § 130, 5 ; 147, 3. Hucbald, § 104, 11. Huetius, § 158, 1. Hug, § 191, 8. ,
Hugh Capet, § 96, 2. Huguenots, § 139, 14 ff. ; 153, 4 ;
166, 5. Hugo a St. Caro, § 103, 9.
„ of St. Victor, § 102, 4 ; 104,
2,4. Hiijjo de Faijens, § 98, 8. Hiilsemann, § 153, 7 ; 159, 2. Humanists, § 120. Humbert, § 67, 3 ; 101, 2. Humboldt, Alex, v., § 174, 3. Hume, § 171, 1. Humiliates, § 98, 7 ; 101, 2. Hundeshagen, § 196, 3. Hungary, § 93, 8; 139, 20; 153,
3 ; 198, 6.
514
INDEX.
Hunneric, § 76, 3 ; 54, 1. Hunnius, -Silgid., § 141, 13.
„ Nich., § 159, 5. Huntingdon, Lady, § 169, 3. Hupfeld, § 182, 3 ; 194, 4. Hurter, § 175, 1. Husig, § 64, 3. Huss, § 113, 7 ; 119, 3-6. Hutten, Ulr. v., § 120, 2, 3 ; 122, 4. Hy, § 77, 2. Hyacinth, § 93, 13. Hylists, Anc. Materialists, § 26, 2. Hymn Music, § 142, 3 ; 171, 1 ;
180, 1. Hymnology, § 17, 7 ; 36, 10; 59,
4; 89,2; 104, 10; 115,7. Hymns, Catholic, § 149, 15.
„ Protestant, § 142, 3 ; 143,
2 ; 160, 3 ; 162, 6 ; 167, 6 ; 175, 10. Hypatia, § 42, 4. Hyperius, § 143, 5 ; 154, 1. Hypophonic singing, § 59, 5. Hypostasianism, § 33, 1. Hypsistarians, § 42, 6. Hystaspes, § 32, 1.
lamblichus, § 24, 2.
Ibas, § 47, 13 ; 52, 3.
Iberians, § 64, 4.
Icarians, § 212, 3.
Iceland, § 93, 5 ; 139, 2.
Idacius, § 54, 2.
Iglesia Espaiiola, § 205, 4.
Ignatius of Antioch, § 22, 2 ; 30,
5; 34,1,7. Ignatius, Patr. of Constant., § 67,
1. Ignatius Loyola, § 149, 8. Ifjnorantins, § 165, 2. Ijejasu, § 150, 2 ; 156, 11. Ildefonsus, § 90, 2, 9. Illuminati, § 165, 11. Illyria, § 46, 5, 9. Images, § 38, 4,
Images, Controversy about, § 60 ;
92, 1. Image-worship, § 57, 4 ; 89, 4. Immaculate Conception, § 104, 7 ; 112, 4 ; 113, 2 ; 149, 13 ; 156, 6 ; 185, 2. Immanuel Synod, § 177, 3. Immunity, § 84, 1. Impostores tres, § 148, 4. Incense, § 59, 8. Iiidusi, § 85, 6. In Ccena Domini, § 117, 3. In commendam, § 86, 5 ; 110, 15. Independents, § 143, 4 ; 155, 1 ;
162, 1. Index jjrohihttorius, § 149, 14. Indulgences, § 106, 2 ; 117, 1. Ineffahilis, § 185, 2. In eniinenti, § 157, 5. Infallibility, § 96, 23; 110, 14;
149,4; 165,8; 189,3. Infant Baptism, § 35, 3 ; 58, 1. Infralapsarianism, § 161, 1. Infula, § 84, 1. Inge, § 93, 3. Ingolstadt, § 120, 3. Innocentum festum, § 57, 1 ; 105, 2. Innocent I., § 46, 5 ; 51, 3 ; 53, 4 ;
61, 2, 3. Innocent II., § 96, 13.
III., § 96,17, 18; 94,4; 102,9; 108,10; 109,1. Innocent IV., § 96, 20; 72, 6. „ .v., § 96, 22. „ VL, § 110, 4, 5. „ VII., § 110, 6. „ VIII., § 110, 11 ; 115, 4. „ IX., § 149, 3. „ X., § 156, 1; 153, 2; 157, 5. Innocent XL, § 156, 1, 3 ; 157, 2. „ XII., §156, 1,3; 157, 3. XIIL, § 165, 1. In pa)iihits iiijidcliuin, § 97, 3.
INDEX.
515
Inquisition, § 109, 2 ; 117, 2 ; 139,
22 ; 149, 2 ; 151 ; 156, 3. Inspiration, Doctrine of, § 3(j, 9. Insula sanctorum, § 77, 1. Intentionalism, § 149, 10. Interdict, § 106, 1. Interim, The Augsburg, § 136, 5,
6. Interim, The Leipzig, § 136, 7.
„ „ Eegensburg, § 135, 3.
International, § 212, 4. Interpreters, § 34, 3. Investiture, § 45, 1 ; 84; 90, 7, 11,
12. lona, § 77, 2. Ireland, § 77, 1 ; 139, 7; 153, 6;
202, 9. IrenjBus, § 31, 2 ; 33, 9 ; 34, 8 ; 40, 2. Irene, § 66, 9. Irish Massacre, § 153, 6. Irvingitss, § 211, 10. Isaac, the Great, § 64, 3.
„ of Antioch, § 48, 7. Isabella of Castile, § 95, 2 ; 117, 2 ;
118, 7. Isabella II. of Spain, § 205, 2. Isenberg, § 184, 9. Isidore the Gnostic, § 28, 2.
„ of Pelusium, § 47, 6 ; 44, 3.
„ the Presbyter, § 51, 2, 3.
„ Euss. Metropol., § 73.
„ of Seville, § 90, 2. Islam, § 65 ; 81 ; 95. Issy, Conference of, § 157, 3. Itala, § 36, 8.
Italy, § 139, 22 ; 189, 7 ; 204. Ithacius, § 54, 2. Ivo of Chartres, § 99, 5.
Jablonsky, § 168, 3. Jacob el Baradai, § 52, 7.
„ Basilicus, § 139, 26.
„ a Benedictis, § 104, 10.
„ of Brescia, § 112, 3.
Jacob ben Chajim, § 120, 8.
„ the Conqueror, § 95.
„ of Edessa, § 47, 13.
., ,, Harkh, § 71, 2.
„ „ Jiiterbogk, § 118, 5.
„ „ Maerlant, § 105, 5.
„ „ Marchia, § 112, 4.
„ „ Misa, § 119, 7.
„ „ Nisibis, § 47, 13.
„ „ Sarug, § 48, 7. Jacobi, § 171, 10. Jacobini, § 197, 9, 12. Jacobites, § 52, 7 ; 72, 2. Jacopone da Todi, § 104, 10. Jaldabaoth, § 27, 7. James the Just, § 16, 3.
„ V. of Scotland, § 139, 8. „ I. of England, !^ 117, 4 ; 139,
11 ; 153, 6 ; 155, 1. James II. of England, § 153, 0;
155, 3. James III. of Baden, § 153, 1. „ Molay, § 112, 7. „ a Voragine, § 104, 8. Jansen, Cornel., § 157, 5. Jansenists, § 157, 15 ; 165, 6. Januarius, St., § 188, 10. Janus, § 189, 1. Japan, § 150, 2 ; 156, 11 ; 184, 0 ;
186, 7. Jaroslaw I., § 72, 4. „ II., § 73, 6. Jivson and Papiscus, § 30, 8. Java, § 184, 5. Jay, le, § 1.58, 1. Jazelich, § .52, 3. Jena, Univ. of, § 141, 1, 6. Jeremias II., § 73, 4 ; 139, 26. Jerome, § 17, 6 ; 33, 9 ; 47, 16 ; 48,
1 ; 51, 2 ; 53, 4 ; 59, 3. Jerome of Prague, § 119, 4, 5. Jerusalem, Bishopric, § 184, 8.
„ Church of the New,
§ 170, 4.
516
INDEX.
Jesuates, § 112, 8.
Jesuits, § 149, 8-12; 150; 151;
156, 2-9; 157, 2, 5; 165, 7-9;
186, 1 ; 197, 4 ; 199, 1. Jewish Cliristians, § 18; 28; 211,
9, Jewish Missions, § 167, 9 ; 184, 8. Jews in Middle Ages, § 90, 9 ; 95,
3. Joachim of Ploris, § 108, 5.
„ „ Brandenburg, § 128,
1 ; 134, 5. Joachim II. of Brandenburg, § 134,
5 ; 136, 5. Joan of Arc, § 116, 2. Joanna, Popess, § 82, 6,
„ of Valois, § 112, 8, John I., Pope, § 46, 8.
„ VIII. and IX., § 82, 8 ; 79,
2; 67,1. John X., XII., XIII., § 96, 1.
„ XIV., XV., XVI., § 96, 2.
„ XVII., XVIII., § 96, 4.
„ XIX., §96, 4; 57,1.
„ XXL, §96,22; 82,6.
„ XXII.,§110,3; 112, 2; 113,
1 ; 114, 1. John XXIII., § 110, 7 ; 119, 4.
„ the Constant, § 124, 5.
„ Frederick, the Magnani- mous, § 133, 2 ; 136, 3 ; 137, 3. John Lackland, § 96, 18.
„ VII. of Portugal, § 205, 4.
„ Sigismund, § 154, 3.
„ the Apostle, § 16, 2.
,, of Antioch, § 52, 3.
„ Beccos, § 67, 3,
„ of Capistrano, § 112, 3.
„ „ Climacus, § 47, 12.
„ ,, the Cross, § 49, 6, 16.
„ ,, Damascus, § 66, 1 ; 68, 2-5.
„ ,, Ephesus, § 5, 1.
„ „ God, § 149, 7.
„ „ Hagen, § 112, 1.
John of Jandun, § 118, 1.
„ Jejunator, § 46, 10 ; 61, 1.
„ of Leyden, § 133, 6.
„ de Monte Corvino, § 93, 15.
„ Moschus, § 47, 12.
,, of Nepomuc, § 116, 1.
„ Ozniensis, § 72, 2.
„ v., Palaologus, § 67, 5.
„ VII., „ §67,6.
„ of Paris, § 118, 1.
„ „ Parma, § 108, 5.
„ Philoponus, § 47, 11.
„ the Presbyter, § 16, 3 ; 30, 6.
„ Prester, § 72, 4.
„ of Ravenna, § 83, 3.
„ „ Salisbury, § 102, 9.
,, Scholasticus, § 43, 3.
„ Scotus Erigena, § 90, 7 ; 91, 5.
„ Talaja, § 52, 5.
„ of Trani, § 67, 3.
„ „ Turrecremata, § 110, 15.
„ Tzimiskes, § 71, 1.
„ of Wesel, § 119, 10. John, St., Festival of, § 57, 1.
,, Disciples of, § 25, 1.
„ Knights of, § 98, 8, Jonas of Bobbio, § 77, 3.
„ „ Orleans, § 90, 4 ; 92, 2.
„ Justus, § 123, 7; 134, 5;
142, 2. Jones, § 182, 3. Jordanes, § 90, 8. Joris, David, § 148, 1. Joseph, Patr., § 67, 4 ; 70, 1.
„ I., Emperor, § 165, 1.
„ II.,§165, 10; 186,2. Josephus, § 10, 2 ; 13, 2. Jovi, § 80, 1. Jovinian, § 62, 2. Juarez, § 209, 1. Jubilee Year, § 117, 1. Jubilees, Book of, § 32, 2. Juhili, § 85, 2. Juda, Leo, § 130, 2 ; 143, 5.
INDEX.
517
Judson, § 184, 5. Julia Mammsea, § 22, 4 ; 31, 5. Juliana, § 104, 7. Julianists, § 52, 7. Julian, Emperor, § 42, 3, 5 ; G3, 1. „ of Eclanum, § 47, 21 •, 53, 4. „ „ Toledo, § 90, 2, 9, „ St., §188, 8. July Law, Pruss., § 197, 10, 11. Julius I., § 46, 3 ; 50, 2. „ XL, § 110, 13. „ III., § 149, 2. ,, Africanus, § 31, 8. Jumjiers, § 170, 7. Jung-Stillung, § 171, 11. Jimilius, § 48, 1. Junius, Fr., § 143, 5. Jurieu, § 161, 7. Jiis circa socro, § 43, 1 ; 167, 3. „ primarum j>j-ec., § 165, 1. „ regalke, § 156, 1. „ spoliorinn^ § 110, 15. Justin I., § 52, 5.
., MartjT, § 30, 9 ; 33, 9 ; 3(i, 3,7. Justin the Gnostic, § 27, 6. Justina, St., § 48, 8.
,, Empress, § 50, 4. Justinian I., § 42, 4 ; 45, 2 ; 46, f) ;
52, 6. Justinian II., § 46, 11. Juvenal of Jerusalem, § 53, 3. Juvencus, § 48, 6.
Kaliler, § 176, 3. Kahnis, § 182, 15, Kaiser, § 128, 1. Kaiserwerth, § 183, 1. Kamehameha, § 18^1, 7. Kamel, Sultan, § 94, 4, 5. Kanitz, § 176, 3. Kant, § 171, 10, Karaites, § 72, 1. Kardec, § 211, 17.
Karg, Controversy of, § 141, 3. Katerkamp, § 5, 6. Kaulen, § 191, 8. Keil, § 182, 13. Iveim, § 182, 17, Keller, Bishop, § 196, 6. Kellner, § 177, 2. Kempen, Stephen, § 125, 1. Kempis, Thomas a, § 112, 9 ; 114,
7. Kenrick, § 189, 3. Kerner, Just., § 176, 2. Kessler, § 124, 1 ; 130, 4. Ketteler, § 175, 2 ; 187, 3 ; 189, 3 ;
196, 1-^ ; 197, 1, 4, 15. Kettler, § 139, 3. Kierkegaard, § 201, 1. Kiev, § 73, 4, Kilian, § 78, 2. Kings, § 160, 4,
„ the Three Holy, § 56, 5. Klehitz, § 144, 1. Klee, § 191, 6. Kleuker, § 171, 8. Kleutzea, § 191, 9. Kliefoth, § 181, 3; 182, 14 ; 194, 6. Klopstock, § 171, 11, Knajip, A., § 181, 1.
„ G. Ch., § 171, 8. Knights, Teutonic, § 98, 8 ; 93, 13.
„ of St, John, § 98, 8. Knox, § 139, 9, 11, Knutzen, § 164, 4, Kohlbiiigge, § 179, 3. Kohler, § 170, 4, Kollner, § 5, 5, Konigsberg, Eelig. Process., § 176,
3. Koppen, § 171, 8. Korner, § 141, 12. Kornthal, § 196, 5, Krafft, § 195, 2. Kraus, Xav., § 5, 6. Kriideuer, § 176, 2 ; 199, 5.
518
INDEX.
Krummaclier, G. D., § 179, 3. F. W, § 178, 2. Kiibel, § 196, 2. Ivublai-Khan, § 93, 15. Kuenen, § 182, 20. Kuhn, § 191, 6. " Ivultur-kampf," German, § 197.
„ Belgian, § 200, 5.
„ French, § 203, 6.
Kuyper, § 200, 2.
Labadie, § 163, 7, 8, Labarum, § 22, 7. Labrador, § 184, 2. Labyrinth, The Little, § 31, 3. Lachat, § 199, 3. Lacordaire, § 187, 4 ; 188, 1. Lactantius, § 31, 12 ; 33, 9. Ladislaus, St., § 93, 2.
„ of Naples, § 110, 7.
Laforce, § 183, 1. Lainez, § 149, 8. Laity, § 34, 4. Lamartine, § 174, 7. Lambert le Begue, § 98, 7.
„ of Avignon, § 127, 2; 130, 2. Lambeth Articles, § 144, 5. Lamennais, § 187, 4 ; 188, 1. Liimmer, § 175, 2. Lammists, § 163, 1. Lampe, § 169, 2, 6. Lancelot, § 159, 5. Landulf, § 97, 5. Lanfranc, § 96, 8 ; 101, 1, 2. Lang, H., § 199, 4. Lange, Joacli., § 167, 1, 4,
„ J. Pet-, § 182, 9. Langen, End. v., § 120, 3. Laplace, § 161, 2. Lapland, § 93, 11 ; 163, 4 ; 184, 2. Lapsi, § 22, 5. Lardner, § 171, 1. Lasalle, § Kw, 2 ; 212, 5.
Lasaulx, Am. v., § 188, 4. Las Casas, § 150, 3. Lasco, J. a, § 139, 18. Lateran, § 110, 15.
„ Synods L,§ 52, 8; 96, 11. „ IL, § 96, 13. „ IlL, § 96, 15. „ IV., §96, 18; 101, 2 ; 104, 3-5 ; 106, 1 ; 109, 2. Latimer, § 139, 5. Latitudinarians, § 161, 3. Latter-day Saints, § 211, 10, 12-
14. Laud, § 155, 1. Laurence, Martja', § 22, 5. „ Bishop, § 46, 8. „ Archbishop, § 77, 4. Laurentius Valla, § 120, 1. Lausanne, § 196, 5. Lauterbach, § 129, 1. Lavater, § 171,' 11. Lay Abbots, § 85, 5. „ Brethren, § 98. Lazarists, § 156, 8. Leade, Jane, § 163, 9. Leander of Seville, § 76, 2 ; 90, 2. Lectionaries, § 33 ; 59, 3. Ledochowski, § 197, 3, 6, 7, 12. Lee, Anna, § 170, 7.
„ Bishop, § 211, 74. Lsfebvre, § 188, 4. Legates, § 96, 23. Legenda aurea^ § 104, 8. Legends, § 57, 1. Lcfjio fulminatrix, § 22, 3.
„ Thehaica, § 22, 6. Lehnin, Prophecy of, § 153, 8. Leibnitz, § 153, 7 ; 160, 7 i 164, 2. Leidecker, § 161, 5. Leidrad of Lyons, § 90, 3; 91, 1. Leipzig Disputation, § 123, 4.
„ Kelig. Conference, § 154, 4. Leland, § 169, 6 ; 171, 1. Lenau, Nich. v., § 174, 6.
INDEX.
519
Lentulns, § 13, 2.
Leo I., the Great, § 45, 2 ; 46, 7 ;
47,22; 52,4; 54, 1,2; (31,1. Leo IL, § 46, 11.
„ in.,§82,3; 91,2.
„ IV., §82, .5.
„ VIIL, §96, 1.
„ TX. § 67, 6 ; 96, 5.
„ X.,§110, 14; 121,1; 122,2, 3; 194, 4.
„ XL, §149, 3.
„ XIL, §185, L
„ XIIL, § 175, 2; 18-5, 5; 188, 8, 9 ; 191, 12 ; 197, 9 ; 200, 5 ; 203, 6.
„ of Achrida, § 67, 3.
„ the Armenian, § 6(>, 4.
„ Chazarus, § 66, 3.
„ the Isaurian, § 66, 1 ; 71, 1.
„ the Philosopher, § 67, 2 ; 68, 1.
„ the Thracian, § 52, 5.
„ Henry, § 175, 1. Leonardo da Vinci, § 115, 13. Leonidas, § 22, 4. Leoviske, § 108, 10. Leontius of Byzant., § 47, 12. Leopardi, § 174, 7. Leopold I., Emperor, § 153, 3, 7.
,, of Tuscany, § 165, 9. Leovigild, § 76, 2. Leporius, § 52, 2. Lessing, § 171, 6, 8, 11. Lestines, Synod of, § 78, 5 ; 86, 2. Lestrange, § 186, 2. Lexicius, § 32, 4, 5. Levellers, § 162, 2. Lej^ser, § 155, 4. Libanivis, § 42, 4. Lihellafici, § 22, 5. Libelli ijacis, § 39, 2. Liber cotijirinitaf., § 98, 3. ,, diurmts^ § 46, 11 ; 52, 9. „ 2xischalis, § 56, 3. ,, pontificalia, § 90, 6.
Liberal Arts, § 90, 8. Liberation Society, § 202. Liberatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. Liberius of Home, § 46, 4 ; 50, 2, 3. Libertins, § 146, 4. Lihy^i Carolini, § 92, 1. Licet ah initio, § 139, 23. Licinius, § 22, 7, Lightfoot, § 161, 6. Light, Friends of, § 176, 1. Liguorians, § 165, 2 ; 186, 1. Limborch, § 161, 7. Limbus infantium, § 106, 3.
., patrum, § 106, 3. Liiaina ajjosff., § 57, 6. Linus, § 17, 1. Linz, Peace of, § 153, 3. Lippe, Princes' Diet of, § 154, 2 ;
194, 5. Lipsius, § 182, 19. Liptina, Synod of, § 75, 5 ; 86, 2. Lisco, § 181, 4. Litany, § 59, 9. Lithuanians, § 93, 14. Litterce format ce, § 34, 6. Litvirgical dress, etc., § 59, 7 ; 60,
3. Liturgy, § 36,1; 59, 6; 89, 1;
104, 1. Liudger, § 78, 3. Liutprand, § 82, 1. Livingstone, § 184, 4. Livinus, § 78, 3. Livonia, § 93, 12 ; 139, 3 ; 153, 8 ;
168, 5 ; 200, 3. Locke, § 164, 2.
Lodges, Free Masons', § 104, 3. Lohe, § 175, 1 ; 183, 1 ; 208, 2. Lola Montez, § 195, 2. Lollards, § 116, 3 ; 119, 1. Lombardus, § 102, 7. Longobards, § 76, 8. Lope de Vega, § 158, 3. Loretto, § 115, 9.
5^0
INDEX.
Loscher, § 167, 1, 2, 4.
Louis the. Bavarian, § 110, 3, 1.
„ „ German, § 82, 5, 7.
„ „ Pious, §82, 4; 90,1.
,, II., Emperor, § 82, 5.
„ VII. of France, § 94, 2.
„ IX., the Saint, § 93, 15;
94, 6 ; 96, 21. Louis XL, § 110, 13.
„ XIL, § 110, 13, 14.
„ XIIL, § 153, 4.
„ XIV., § 153, 4 ; 156, 3 ; 157,
2, 3, 5. Louis I. of Bavaria, § 195, 2.
„ IL „ §195,3.
„ V. of Hesse, § 154, 1.
„ VI. of Palatinate, § 143, 6. Lourdes, § 188, 14 ; 203, 5. Lothair L, Emperor, § 82, 5.
„ II.,ofLothringia, §82, 5, 7. „ IIL, the Saxon, § 96, 13. Lotze, § 174, 2. Low Churchmen, § 202, 1. Loyola, § 149, 8. Loyson, § 189, 8, Liibeck, § 127, 4. Liibker, § 174, 4. Lucar, Cyr,, § 152, 2. Lucerne, § 199, 1. Lucian, Martyr, § 31, 9.
„ of Samosata, § 23, 1. Lucidus, § 53, 5. Lucifer of Calaris, § 47, 14 ; 50,
2,8. Luciferians, § 50, 8. Lucilhx, § 63, 1. Lucius IL, Pope, § 96, 13.
„ IIL, § 96, 16. Lucrezia Borzia, § 110, 10. LudmiUa, § 79, 8 ; 93, 6. Luis de Leon, § 149, 14, 15. Luke of Prague, § 115, 7 ; 119, 8 ;
189, 19. Lullus of Mainz, § 78, 7.
Lullus Eaimund, § 93, 16 ; 103, 7
Liineburg, § 127, 3.
Luthardt, § 182, 14, 21 ; 194, 1.
Luther, § 122-135.
Lutherans, Separatists, Pruss.,
§ 177, 2, 3. Luther-Memorial, § 178, 1.
„ Jubilee, § 175, 10. Liitkemann Controversy, § 159, 1. Lutz, Minister, § 195, 3 ; 197, 4. Luxeuil, § 78, 1. Lyons, Council of, § 67, 4 ; 96, 20,
21. Lyra, Nich. v., § 113, 7.
Mabillon, § 158, 2. Macarius the Elder, § 47, 7.
„ Magiies, § 47, 6. Maccabees, Fest. of, § 57, 1. Macedonius, § 50, 5. Maochiavelli, § 120, 1. Maccovius, § 161, 7. MacConochie, § 202, 3. Macmahon, § 203, 5, 6. Macrae, § 202, 8. Macrianus, § 22, 5. Macrina, § 47, 5. Madagascar, § 184, 3, Madiai, § 204, 3. Maerlant, § 105, 5. Magdeburg, § 127, 4 ; 137, 1. Magider historiarum, § 105, 3.
„ sententiarinn, § 102, 4. Majna Charta, § 96, 18. Magnoald, § 78, 1. Magnus the Good, § 93, 4.
„ ■ of Mecklenburg, § 134, 5.
„ „ Upsala, § 139, 1. Mai, Cardinal, § 191, 7. Maid of Orleans, § 116, 2. Maimbourg, § 158, 2. Maimonides, § 103, 1. Maiuau Law, § 197, 11. Maintenon, § 157, 3.
INDEX.
5-21
Mainz Cath. Union, § 180, 4;
197, 1. Majorist Controversy, § 141, (5,
10. Maistre, § 187, 9. Malachi, Proph. of, § 149, h. Malakanians, § 166, 2. Malan, § 199, 5. Malchion, § 33, 8, Maldonatus, § 149, 14. Maltese, § 98, 8. Mamertus, § 59, 9. Mandajans, § 25, 1 ; 28, 2. Mandeville, § 171, 1. Manfred, § 96, 20. Manichajans, § 29 ; 54, 1. Manning, § 189, 3; 202, 2, 11. Mansi, § 165, 15. Mantua, Council of, § 9(i, 6.
„ Congress of, § 110, 10. Manuel Coninenus, § 69, 1. Manzoni, § 174, 7. Maphrian, § 52, 7. Mara, § 13, 2. Marburg Bible, § 170, 1.
„ Church Order, § 127, 2. „ Colloquy, § 132, 4. Marcellus of Ancyra, § 50, 2.
IL, § 149, 2. Marcia, § 22, 3 ; 41, 1. Marcian, § 52, 4. Marcion, § 27, 11. Marcionites, § 27, 12 ; 54, 1 ; 64, 5. Marco Polo, § 93, 15. Marcosians, § 27, 5. Marcus Aurelius, § 22, 3. „ Eremita, § 47, 7. „ Eugenicus, § 67, 6 ; 68, 5. Maresius, § 161, 3, 7. Margaret of Navarre, § 120, 6 ;
146, 4. Marheincke, § 182, 6. Maria Theresa, § 165, 9. Mariana, § 149, 10, 14.
Marinus, § 63, 1. Mariolatry, § 57, 2 ; 104, 8. Marius Mercator, § 47, 20.
„ Victorinus, § 47, 14. Marloratus, § 143, 3. Marnix, Ph. v., § 139, 12. Maronites, § 52, 8 ; 72, 3. Marot, § 143, 2. Marozia, § 96, 1. Marriage, Chi'istian, §39, 1; 61,
2 ; 70, 2 ; 88, 3 ; 89, 4 ; 104, 6. Marsden, § 184, 7. Marsilius of Inghem, § 113, 3.
„ „ Padua, § 118, 1.
Martensen, § 182, 10. Martin I., § 46, 11 ; 52, 8. „ IV., § 96, 22. „ v., § 110, 6. „ of Braga, § 76, 4 ; 90, 2. „ „ Mainz, § 114, 4. „ „ Paderborn, § 175, 2 ; 189,3; 197,6. Martin of Tours, § 47, 14 ; 54, 2.
„ St., § 165, 14. Martyrs, § 22, 5.
„ Acts of, § 32, 9. „ Veneration of, § 39, 5. Martyrologies, § 57, 1 ; 90, 9. Marx, § 212, 4. Mary of England, § 139, 5. „ „ Guise, § 139, 8. „ „ Jesus, § 156, 5. „ „ Scotland, § 139, 6, 8, 10. Maryland, § 208, 5. Mass, Canon of, § 59, 6.
„ Sacrifice of, § 36, 6 ; 58, 3 ; 88, 3. Massacre, Irish, § 153, 6.
„ of St. Bartholomew, § 139, 16. Massacre of Stockholm, § 139, 1.
„ „ Thorn, § 165, 4.
Massiiians, § 53, 5. Massillon, § 158, 2.
62%
INDEX.
Mi^striclit, § 161, 7. Matamoros, § 205, 4. Maternus, Jul. Firm., § 47, 14.
„ Pistorius, § 120, 2. Mathesius, § 142, 2, 3. Matilda, Margravine, § 96, 8, 10. Matthias, Emperor, § 153, 2. Matthys, Jan., § 147, 8, 9. Maiilbronn, Formula, § 141, 12. ,, Conference, § 144, 1.
Maur, Monks of St., § 156, 7.
„ St., § 85. Maurice of Hesse, § 1.54, 1.
„ „ Orange, § 139, 12;
161, 2. Maurice of Saxony, § 136 ; 137. Mauritius, St., § 22, 6.
„ Emperor, § 46, 10.
Maxentius, § 22, 7. Maximianus Hercnlius, § 22, 6. Maximilian I., § 110, 13.
II., 8 137, 8 ; 139, 9. „ I., Duke of Bavaria,
§ 151, 1. Maximilian III, Elector of Bava- ria, § 165, 10. Maximilian I., King of Bavaria,
§ 195, 1. Maximilian II., King of Bavaria, ^Maximilian Francis of Cologne,
§ 165, 13. Maximilian, Emperor of Mexico,
S 209, 1. Maximilla, § 40, 1. Maximinus Daza, § 22, 6, 7.
„ Thrax, § 22, 4.
Maximus, Emperor, § 54, 2.
„ Confessor, § 47, 12 ; 52,
H. Mayer, Seb., § 130, 4. ]May La-vvs, Prussian, § 197, 5, 6.
,, „ Austrian, § 198, 6. Maynooth Bill, § 202, 9. Mayhew, § 162, 7.
Mechitarists, § 165, 2. Mechthild, § 107, 2. Mecklenburg, § 134, 5 ; 194, 6. Medici, § 110, 11. Meinhart, § 93, 12. Meinrad, § 85, 6. M(!l, Conrad, § 169, 1. Melanclitlion, § 122, 5 ; 139, 13 ;
141, 7, 9. Melchers, § 188, 12 ; 189, 3 ; 197,
6, 12. Melchiades, § 46, 3 ; 63, 1. Melchionites, § 147, 1. Melchisedecians, § 33, 3. Melchites, § 52, 7. ]\Ieletius of Antioch, § 50, 8. „ „ Lycopolis, § 41, 4. Melissander, § 142, 3. Melito, § 30, 8 ; 36, 8 ; 40, 1. Memnon of Ephesus, § 52, 5. Menander, § 25, 2. Mendelssohn, § 171, 3.
„ Bartholdy, § 174, 10.
Mendez, § 152, 1. Mendicant Friars, § 98, 3. Menius, § 141, 6. Menken, § 172, 3. Mennas, § 52, 6. Meiuionites, § 147, 2 ; 163, 1. Menologies, § 57, 1. Menot, § 115, 2. Mensurius, § 63, 1. Mercedarians, § 98, 9. Mercerus, § 143, 5. Merlan, § 170, 1. Merle d'Avibigue, § 178, 2. Mermillod, § 189, 3 ; 199, 2. Mersen, Treaty of, § 82, 5. Merswin, § 114, 2, 4. Mesmer, § 174, 2. Mesrop, § 64, 3. Messalians, Christian, § 44, 7.
Pagan, § 42, 6. Meth, § 163, 9.
INDEX.
523
Methodists, § 169, 4, 5 ; 208, 1 •
211, 1. Methodius, § 73, 3 ; 79, 2.
„ of Olympus, § 31, 9 ;
38, 9. Metraphanes, § 67, 6.
Critop., § 152, 2. Metropolitans, § 34, 3 ; 83, 3. Mettrie, la, § 165, 12. Mexico, § 209, 1 ; 190, 3. Meyer, H. A. W., § 182, 11. Meyffart, § 160, 3. Michael, Archangel, § 88, 4.
„ Acominatus, § 68, 5.
„ Balbus, § 66, 4.
„ of Bradacz, § 119, 8.
„ Cserularius, § 119, 8.
„ of Cesnea, § 112, 2.
„ the Drunkard, § 67, 1.
„ Palseologiis, § 67, 6. Michael Angelo, § 149, 15. Michaelis, Chr. Ben., § 167, 3. „ J. D., § 171, 6. „ J. H., § 167, 3. Michaelmas, § 57, 3. Michaud, § 190, 3. Michelians, § 171, 3. :\richelis, § 190, 1 ; 191, 6. ]Micislas, § 93, 7. Milicz, § 119, 2. Militia Chriisti, § 37. Mill, Walter, § 139, 8. Millennium, § 33, 9. Milman, § 182, 4. Miltiades of Athens, § 30, 8 ; 37, 3.
„ „ Home, § 46, 3.
Miltiz, § 122, 3. Milton, § 172, 3. Minimi, § 112, 8. Minnesingers, § 105, 6. Minorites, § 98, 3. Minster, § 84, 4. Minucius Felix, § 31, 12. „ Fundanus, § 22, 2.
Missa Cateclium. ef fidelium, § 36,
2, 3 ; 58, 4. Missa Solitaria, § 58, 3.
„ Sponsor um^ § 61, 2 ; 88, 3 ;
104, 6. Missa Marcelli, § 149, 15. MissaJe Rom., § 149, 14. Missionary Societies, § 172, 5 \
5 ; 184, 1 ; 186, 6. Missions, Foreign, § 75-78 ; 93. „ ,, Catholic, § 150 ;
156, 10, 12 ; 165, 3 ; 186, 7. Missions, Foreign, Protest., § 142,
8; 143, 7; 160, 7; 162,7; 167,
9 ; 168, 11 ; 184. Missions, Home, Catholic, § 149,
7 ; 156, 4 ; 186, 4, 5. Missions, Home, Protest., § 183. Missions, Priests of the, § 156, 8. :\lissoui'i Sjmod, § 208, 2, 3, Mistewoi, § 93, 9. Mitre, § 84, 1. Mizetius, § 91, 1. Medalists, § 33. Moderates, § 202, 7. Mogilas, § 152, 3. Mogtasilah, § 28, 2. Mohammed, § 65.
II.,§67, 7; 110, 10. Mohammedans, § 184, 9. Mohler, 191, 4 ; 5, 6. Molanus, § 153, 7. Molay, § 112, 7. Moleschott, § 174, 3. Molina, § 149, 13. Molin-ceus, § KJl, 3. Molinos, § 157, 2. Momiers, § 199, 5. Mommers, § 169, 2. Mompelgard, Relig. Confer., § 138,
8. Mouardia tlicoloyor., § 103. 3. Monarchians, § 33. Moiiastcriioii Ciericor., § 45, 1.
524
INDEX.
Monasticism, § 44 ; 70 ; 85 ; 98 ;
112; 149; 156; 1G5 ; 186. Mongols, § 93, 15. Monica, § 47, 13. Monita >Secreta, § 149, 9. Monod, § 203, 4. Monogram, § 38, 4. Monophysites, § 52, 5, 7 ; 72, 2. Monothelites, § 52, 8. Montalembert, § 189, 9 ; 190, 1. Montalte, § 157, 5. Montalto, § 149, 3. Montanists, § 40. Montanus, Arias, § 149, 14. Monte, del, § 149, 2. Monte Cassino, § 85.
„ Coi-vino, § 93, 15. Montesquieii, § 165, 14. Montfaucon, § 165, 11. Montfort, Sim. de, § 109, 1. Montmorency, § 139, 13, 14. Moody, § 211, 1. Moors, § 81 ; 95. Moralities, § 105, 5. Morata, § 139, 24. Moravia, § 79, 2. Moravian Brethren, § 119, 5. Moray, The Regent, § 139, 11. More, Sir Thomas, § 120, 7 ; 139, 4. Morel, § 139, 25. Moreno, § 20f), 2. Morgan, § 171, 1. Morinus, § 158, 1. Moriscoes, § 95, 2. Morland, § 153, 5. Mormons, § 211, 12-14. Morone, § 135, 2 ; 137, 5 ; 139, 22. Morison, § 184, 6. Mortara, § 175, 8. Morton, § 139, 11. Morus, § 171, 8. Mosaics, § 60, 6 ; 104, 14. Moser, J. F. v., § 167, (5, 8.
„ K. F. v., § 171, 10 ; 172, 2.
Moses of Chorene, § 64, 3. Mosheim, § 5, 3 ; 167, 4 ; 169, 1. Moslems, § 65. Moulin, du, § 161, 3. Mollis, § 190, 4. Movers, § 191, 8. Mozarabians, § 81, 1. Mozarabic Liturgy, § 88, 1 ; 104, 1. Mozart, § 174, 10. Mtesa, § 184, 4. " Murker,'' § 176, 3. :Muhlenberg, § 208, 2. Mlihler, v., §193, 4; 197,2. Milller, Ad., § 175, 7.
„ Bem., § 211, 6.
„ Cx., § 183, 1.
„ H., § 160, 1.
„ J. v., § 171, 11.
„ J. G., § 171, 8.
„ Jul., § 182, 10. Miinster, City, § 133, 6. „ Seb., § 143, 5. Miinzer, Thos., § 124, 4, 5. Muratori, § 165, 12. Muratorian Canon, § 36, 8. Murillo, § 158, 3. Murner, Thos., § 125, 4 ; 130, 6. Murrone, § 112, 4. MusEeus, § 141, 7 ; 144, 2. Musculus, Andr., § 141, 12. Wolfg., § 141, 14. Music, § 59, 3 ; 104, 11 ; 115, 8 ; 149,15; 158,3; 172, 1; 171, 10. Muspilli, § 89, 3. Mutianus, § 120, 2, 3. Mwanga, § 184, 4. Myconius, § 125, 1.
„ Oswald, § 133, 8.
Mysos, § 139, 26. Mysteries, § 105, 5 ; 115, 12. Mystics, Eastern, S 9 J ; 102 ; 103 ;
107; 114. Mystics, Grecian, § 47, 7, 11 ; 68, 3.
INDEX.
525
Mystics, Catholic, § 149, 10 •, 156,
1-4. Mystics, Protest., § 14G ; KiO, 2 ;
169, 3,
Naassenes, § 27, 6. Nagelsbach, § 173, 4. Namszanowski, § 197, 2. Nantes, Edict of, § 139, 17 ; 153, 4. Napoleon I., § 165, 5 ; 185, 1 ;
203, 1. Napoleon III., § 185, 3 ; 203, 3, 4 ;
209, 1. Narthex, § 60, 1. Nassau, § 193, 6 ; 196, 4. 2iatales episc, § 45, 1.
„ Martyrum, § 39, 5. Natalis, Alexander, § 5, 2 ; 157, 2. Natalins, i? 33, 3. National Assembly, French, § 165,
15. National Convention, § 165, 15. Natorp, § 181, 2.
Naumburg, Bishopric of, § 135, 5. „ Princes' Diet, § 141,
11. Nauplia, Syn., § 207, 1. Nauvoo, § 211, 10. Naylor, § 163, 4. Nazareans, § 28, 1. Neander, § 5, 5 ; 182, 4.
„ Joach., § 162, 6. Nectarius, § 61, 6. Nemesius, § 47, 6. Nennius, § 90, 8. Neophytes, § 34, 3, Neo-Platonists, § 24, 2 ; 42, Nepomuk, § 116, 1. Nepos of Arsinoe, § 33, 9. Nepotism, § 110. Neri, Philip, § 149, 7 ; 158, 3. Nero, § 22, 1. Nerses I., § 64, 8.
■„ . IV., Clajensis, § 72, 2.
Nerses of Lampron, § 72, 2.
Nerva, § 22, 1.
Nestor, § 73, 4.
Nestorians, § 52, 3 ; 64, 2 ; 72, 1 ;
150, 4 ; 184, 9. Nestorius, § 52, 3. Netherlands, § 139, 12; 162, 4;
169, 2 ; 184, 5 ; 200. Neuendettelsau, § 183, 1. Neumann, § 160, 4. Neumark, § 160, 4. Newman, § 202, 2. New Year, § 56, 5. Nicsea, Council of, § 40, 1 ; 41, 4 ;
46, 8 ; 50, 1 5 56, 8. Nicephorus Gregoras, § 69, 2.
„ Callisti, § 5, 1.
Nicetas Acominatus, § 68, 5.
„ of Nicomedia, § 67, 4.
,, Pectoratus, § 67, 3. Nicholas I., § (u, 1 ; 73, 3 ; 82, 7 ;
83, 3 ; 91, 5. Nicholas II., § 96, 6,
„ III., IV., § 96, 22.
„ v., § 110, 9, 10.
„ of Basel, § 114, 4.
„ Cabasilas, § 68, 5 ; 70, 4.
„ of Clemanges, § 118, 4.
,, „ Cusa, § 113, 6.
,i V. d. Fliie, § 116, 1.
„ of Lyra, § 113, 7.
„ „ Methone, § 68, 5.
„ Mysticus, § 67, 2.
„ of Pisa, § 110, 12.
„ I., Czar, §206, 1,2; 210, 2. Nicolai, Publisher, § 171, 4.
„ Henry, § 146, 5.
„ Philip, § 142, 4. Nicolaitanism, § 96, 5. Nicolaitans, § 18, 3 ; 27, 8. Nicole, § 158, 1. Niebuhr, § 193, 1. Niedner, § 5, 4. Niemeyer, § 171, 7.
526
INDEX.
Nightingale, § 183, 1.
Nihilism, § 102, 8,
Nihilists, § 212, 6.
Nikon, § 163, 10.
Nilus Sinaiticus, § 44, 3 ; 47, lO.
„ the Younger, § 100. Nimbus, § 60, 6. Ninian, § 77, 2. Nii)hon, Monk, § 70, 4.
„ Patriarch, § 70, 1. Nismes, Edict of, § 154, 4. Nitschmann, § 168, 3, 11, Nitzsch, § 182, 10 ; 193, 3, 4. Noailles, § 165, 7. Nobili, § 156, 11. Nobla leiczon, § 108, 14 (vol. ii.,
p. 471). Nobreja, § 150, 3. Nobvmaja, § 150, 2. Noetus, § 33, 5. Nogaret, § 110, 1. Nolasque, § 98, 9. Nominalists, § 99, 2 ; 113, 3. Nomo-Cauon, § 43, 3. Nome, § 86, 2.
Non-Intrusionists, § 202, 7. Nonconformists, § 143, 2, 3 ; 155.
1, 2. Nonna, § 47, 4. Nonnus of Panopolis, § 48, 5. Norbert, § 98, 2 ; 96, 13. Normans, § 93, 1 ; 95, 1. North African School, § 31, 1. North America, § 208. Norwegians, § 93, 4 ; 139, 2 ; 201,
13. Nosselt, § 171, 8. Noting of Verona, § 91, 5. Notker Balbulus, § 88, 2.
„ Labeo, § 100, 1. Novalis, § 174, 5. Novatian, § 31, 12 ; 41, 3. Novatus, § 38, 2, 3. Noviciate, § 44, 2; 86, 1.
Noyes, § 208, 6.
Nuiiez de Area, § 175, 2.
Nunia, § 64, 4.
Nuns, § 44, 5.
Nuntio, § 151, 1.
Nuremberg, Eelig, Peace of,
§ 133, 2. Nuremberg, Diet of, § 126, 1, 2.
Oak, Synod of the, § 51, 3.
Gates, Titus, § 153, 6,
Oheramviergau, § 174, 10.
Oberlin, § 172.
Ohiati, § 85, 1.
Oblations, § 36 ; 39, 5 ; 61, 4.
Obotrites, § 93, 9.
Observants, § 112, 2 ; 149, 6.
Occam, § 112, 2 ; 113, 3 ; 118, 2.
Occultists, § 211, 18.
Ochino, § 139, 24 ; 147, 6 ; 149, 6.
O'Connell, § 199, 9.
Octaves, § 56, 4.
October Assembly, § 178, 3.
Odensee, Diet of, § 139, 2.
Odilo of Bavaria, § 78, 5.
Odo of Clugny, § 98, 1 ; 100, 2 ;
104, 10, 11. Odoacer, § 46, 8.
(Ecolampadius, § 130, 3, 6 •, 131, 1. (Ecumenius, § 68, 4. Oersted, § 174, 3. Oetingen, § 182, 15. Oetinger, § 170, 5 ; 171, 9. Oehler, § 182, 14. CEitvres, § 186, 4. Officium S. Marice, § 104, 8. OiKdvofioL, % 45, 5. Oischinger, § 191, 6. Oktai-Khan, § 93, 15. Olaf, § 80, 1.
,, Haraldson, § 93, 4, 5.
,, Schosskonig, § 93, 3.
„ Trygvason, § 93, 4, 5.
„ St., §93,4.
INDEX.
527
Olcott, § 211, IS. Oldcastle, § 119, 1. Oldenbarneveldt, § 161, 2. Oldenbiu'g, § 194, 5. Olevian, § 144, 1 ; KJl, 4. Olga, § 7B, 4. Olgerd, § 93, 14. Oliva, § 108, 6."!
Olivet, Monks of Mount, § 112, 1. ■ Olivetan, § 138, 1 ; 143, 5. Olshausen, § 176, 3. Ommaiades, § 81 ; 95, 2. Oncken, § 211, 3. Oneida-sect, § 211, 6. Onochoetes Deits, § 23, 2. Oosterzee, § 200, 2. Ophites, § 27, 6, 7. Opitz, § 160, 3. Optatus of Mileve, § 63, 1. Opzoomer, § 200, 3. Orange, Synod of, § 53, 6. Oratories, § 84, 2. Oratory of Divine Love, § 139, 22. „ Fathers of the, § 155, 7. „ Priests of the, § 149, 7. Ordeals, § 89, 5. Ordericns Vitalis, § 5, 1. Ordination, § 45, 1. Or'dines majores et minores, § 34, 3. Ordo Romamis, § 59, 6, Organs, § 88, 2; 104, 11; 115, 8 ;
154, 3. Origen, § 31, 5 ; 33, 6-9 ; 36, 9 ;
61, 4. Origenist Controversy, § 51. Original Sin, Controversy abont,
§ 141, 8. Orosius, § 47, 19. Ortlibarians, § 108, 4. Ortuinus Gratus, § 120, 5. O senium pads, § 35. Osiander, Andr., § 126, 4 ; 135. 6 :
141, 2. Osiander, Luc, § 159, 1.
Osiandrian Controversj-, § 141, 2.
Ostiarii, § 34, 3.
Ostrogoths, § 76, 7.
Oswald, § 77, 5.
Oswy, § 77, 5, 6.
Ota, § 78, 2.
Otfried, § 89, 3.
Otgar of Mainz, § 87, 3.
Otternbein, § 208, 4.
Ottheinrich, § 1 35, 6.
Otto I., § 93, 2, 8 ; 9(5, 1.
„ II., III., § 96,-2, 3.
„ IV., § 96, 17.
„ of Bamberg, § 93, 10.
„ „ Passau, § 114, 6. Overbeek, Painter, § 174, 9.
Dr., § 175, 5. Overberg, § 172, 2. Owen, Rob., § 212, 3. Oxford, § 202, 2.
„ Movement, § 211, 1.
Pabst, § 191, 3.
Pabulatores, § 44, 7.
Paccanari, § 186, 1.
Pachomius, § 44, 1, 3, 5.
Pacianus, § 47, 15.
Pacifico, Fra, § 104, 10.
Pack, O. v., § 132, 1.
Paderborn, § 133, 5.
Paez, § 152, 1.
Pagani, § 42, 4.
Pagi, § 158, 2 ; 5, 2.
Pagninus, § 149, 14.
Pajon, § 161, 3.
Palamas, § 69, 2.
Palatinate, § 135, 6 ; 144, 1 ; 153,
1, 3 ; 196, 4. Paleario, § 139, 22, 23. Palestrina, § 149, 15. Paley, § 171, 8. Palladius, § 47, 10. Pallium, § 46, 1 ; 59, 7 ; 97, 3. Palm Sunday, § 56, 4.
528
INDEX.
Pamphihis, § 31, 6,
Pan- Anglicanism, § 202, 1.
Pandulf, § %', 18.
Pan-Presbyterianism, § 179, 3.
Pantanus, § 31, 4,
Pantheon, § 46, 10.
Papa, % 46, 1.
Papacy, § 34, 8; 46, 2; 82; 96;
110; 149; 156; 165; 185. Papal Elections, § 46, 8, 11 ; 82, 4 ;
96, 6, 15, 21. Papebroch, § 155, 2. Paplmutius, § 45, 2. Papias, § 30, 6 ; 33, 9. Paraholani, § 45, 3. Paracelsus, § 146, 2. Paraguay, § 156, 10 ; 165, 3. Parens, § 159, 5. Parker, Matt., § 139, 6.
„ Theodore, § 211, 4. Parnell, § 202, 10. ParocMa, § 84, 2. Parochus, § 84, 2. Parsimonius, § 141, 8. Pasagians, § 108, 3. Pascal, § 157, 5 ; 158, 1. Pascale, § 139, 25. llaffxo- ffravpiaffi/jiov and dvaaraffi/xov,
% 56, 4. Paschal Controversy, § 37, 2. Paschalis I., § 82, 4. IL, § 96, 11. III., § 96, 15. Paschasius, § 99, 5 ; 91, 3, Paschkow, § 206, 1. Pasquino, § 149, 1. Passaglia, § 187, 5. Passau, Treaty of, § 137, 3. Passion Play, § 105, 5 ; 115, 12 ;
174, 10. Pastor, § 84, 2. Pastor ceternus, § 189, 3. Patarem, % 108, 1.. Pataria, § 97, 5.
Patent, Austrian, § 198, 3.
,, Hungarian, § 198, 6. Pater Orthodoxies, § 47, 4. Patriarchs, § 46. Patriciate, Roman, § 82, 1. Patrick, St., § 77, 1. Patrimonium 2Muperum, § 45, 4.
„ Petri, §46, 10; 82, 1.
Patripassians, § 33, 4. Patx'onage, § 84. Patronus, § 57, 1. Paul, the Apostle, § 15. ,, Burgensis, § 113, 7, ,, Diaconus, § 90, 3. „ Orosius, § 47, 20. „ the Pei-sian, § 48, 1, „ of Samosata, § 33, 8 ; 39, 3. ,, Silentiarius, § 48, 5. „ of Thebes, § 39, 4. ,, Warnefried, § 90, 3. „ •l.,§82,l.
„ II.,§110, 11, 15; 119,4. „ III.,§149,2;134, 1;139, 23. „ IV., § 149, 2. „ V.,§155, 1, 2, 5; 149, 13. „ I. of Eussia, § 186, 2. Paula, St., § 44, 5.
„ Francis de, § 112, 8. ,, Vine, de, § 156, 8. Pauli, Greg., § 148, 3. Paulicians, § 71, 1. Paulinus of Antioch, § 50, 8. „ „ Aquileia, § 90, 3.
„ „ Milan, § 47, 20 ; 53, 4. ,, Missionary, § 77, 4. „ of Nola, § 48, 6 ; 60, 5. Paulus, Dr., § 182, 2. Pauperes de Lugduno, § 108, 10. „ Catholici, § 108, 10. „ Lombardici, § 108, 12. Payens, § 98, 7. Pax dissid., § 139, 18. Pearson, § 161, 6, 7. Peasants' War, § 124, 5.
INDEX.
529
Pectorale, § 59, 7. Pelagius, § 47, 21 ; 53, 3, 4.
„ I., Pope, § 46, 9 ; 52, G. „ II., „ §46,9. Pelayo, § 81, 1. Pellicanus, § 120, 4, note. Pellico-Silvio, § 173, 7. Peuance, § 104, 4. Penda, § 77, 4. Penitential BooivS, § 61, 1 ; 89, 6 ;
103, 6. Penn, § 163, 5. Pentecost, § 37, 1 ; 56, 4. Pepin, § 78, 5 ; 82, 1. Pejjucians, § 40, 1. Peraldus, § 103, 9. Perates, § 27, 6. Peregrinus Proteus, § 23, 1. Peres de lafoi, § 186, 1. Perfectionists, § 211, 6. Perfectus, § 21, 1. Pericopes, § 59, 2 ; l(i7, 2. Peristerium, § 60, 5. Perkins, § 143, 5. Peroz, § 64, 2. Perpetua, § 22, 5. Perrone, § 175, 2 ; 191, 9. Persecution of Christians, § 23 ; (il. Persia, §64, 2; *93, 15. Perthes, § 183, 1. Peschito, § 36, 8. Pestalozzi, § 171, 12. Petavius, § 158, 1. Peter the Apostle, § 16, 1.
„ d'Ailly, § 118, 4.
„ of Alcantara, § 149, 5, 16.
„ „ Alexandria, § 41, 4.
„ „ Amiens, § 94, 1.
„ „ Aragon, § 96, 18.
„ „ Bruys, § 108, 7,
„ Cantor, § 103, 3.
„ of Castelnau, § 109, 1.
„ „ Chelczic, § 119, 7.
„ „ Clugny, § 96, 13.
VOL. III.
I Peter Chrysolanus, § 67, 4.
„ Chrysologus, § 47, 16.
„ Comestor, § 105, 5.
„ Damiani, §97, 4; 104, 10;
106, 4. Peter Dresdensis, § 115, 7.
,, of Dubois, §118, 1.
„ Fullo, § 52, 5.
,, Hispanus, § 9(5, 22.
., the Lombard, § 102, 5 ; 104,
2,4. Peter Mongus, § 52, 5.
„ of Murrone, § f)8, 2.
„ „ Pisa, § 90.
„ „ Poitiers, § 102, 5.
„ yiculus, § 71, 1.
„ the Venerable, § 98, 1 ; 102,
2; 109. Peter I. of Russia, § 166.
„ and Paul, Festival of, § 57,
1. Peter, Fest. of Chair of St., § 57, 1.
„ Church of St., § 115, 13. Peter's Pence, § 82. Petersen, § 170, 1. Peterson, § 139, 1. Petilian, § 63, 1. Petrarch, § 115, 10. Petrejus, § 120, 2. Petrikan, Synod, § 139, 18 ; 148, 3. Petrobrusians, § 108, 7. Petrow, § 163, 10. Petrucci, § 157, 2. Peucer, § 141, 10 ; 144, 3. Peyrerius, § 161, 7. Peysellians, § 170, 6. Pfaif, § 167, 4, 5, 8. Pfett'erkorn, § 120, 4. Pfeffinger, § 141, 7. Pfeiffer, Aug., § 159, 4. Pfeuninger, § 171, 8. Pfieiderer, § 182, 19. Pflugk, § 135, 3, 5; 136, 5; 137, G. Pharennin ISyu,, § 77, 6.
34
530
INDEX.
Pharisees, § S^ 4. Philadelphia, § (30, 4. Philadelphian Churches, § 170, 1. „ Period, § 1(38, 4.
„ Sect, § 163, 8.
Philaster, § 47, 14. Philip, § 14 ; 17, 2.
,, the Arabian, § 22, 4.
„ I. of France, § 96, 8, 10.
„ IL,Ang.,§94,3; 96, 18.
„ the Fair, § 110, 1, 2 ; 112, 7.
„ II. of Spain, § 139, 12, 21.
„ of Swahia, § 96, 17.
„ the Magnanimous, § 12(3. 4, 5; 135, 1, 3; 137, 3. Philippi, § 182, 13. Philippists, § 141, 4 K Philippones, § 163, 10. Philippopolis, Synod of, § 50, 2. Philipps, § 175, 7 ; 191, 7. Phillpotts, § 202, 2. Philo, § 10, 1. Philopatris, § 42, 5. Philoponus, § 47, 11. Philosophical Sin, § 149, 10. Philosophoumena, § 31, 3. Philostorgius, § 4, 1. Philoxeuus, § 59, 1. Philumena, § 27, 12. Phocas, § 46, 10. Phoebe, § 18, 4. Photinus, § 50, 2. Photius, § 67, 1 ; (38, 5. Phyietism, § 207, 3. ^uTi(^o/j.evoi, § 35, 1. '^dapToKdrpai, § 52, 7. Piacenza, Coiuicil, § 94. Piarists, § 156, 7. Picards, § 116, 5 ; 119 8. Pichler, § 191, 7. Pick, § 211, 8. Picts, § 77, 2.
Picvis of Mirandola, § 120, 1. Pideritz, § 133, 5.
I Piedmont, § 204, 3. j Pietism, Lutheran, § 159, 3 ; 167, 1 - ,, Reformed, § 162, 3, 4. „ in 19th Century, § 176, 2\ Pilate, Acts of, § 14, 2 ; 31, 2. Pilgrim of Passau, § 93, 8.
„ Fathers, § 143, 4 ; 208, 1. Pilgrimages, § 57, 6; 89, 4; 104,
8 ; 115, 9 ; 188, 5, 6. Pin, du, § 158, 2. Pionius, § 30, 5. Pirkheimer, § 120, 3. Pirminius, § 78, 1, 5. Pirstinger, § 125, 5 ; 149, 14. Pisa, Council of, § 110, 6. Piscator, § 143, 5. Pistis, Sophia, § 27, 7. Pistoja, Synod of, § 165, 10. Pistorius, § 135, 3.
,, Maternus, § 120, 2,
Pins II., § 110, 10; 118, 6; 119, 4.
.. III., § 110, 13.
;; IV., §149, 2.
„ v., §149, 3; 139,23.
„ VI., § 165, 9, 10, 15.
„ VII., § 185, 1 ; 203, 1.
„ VIII., § 184, 1 ; 193, 1.
„ IX., §185, 2 If.; 17.5,2; 188,
8; 189,3; 197,7; 202,11. Placseus, § 161, 3. Planck, § 171, 8. Planeta, § 59, 7. Plastic Arts, § 60, 6 ; 89, 6 ; 104,
14 ; 115, 13. Plato, § 7, 4 ; 47, 5 ; 68, 3 ; 99, 2. Phiton, § 166, 1. Platter, § 130, 4. Plebani, Plehs, % 84, 2. Plenaries, § 115, 4. Pleroma, § 26, 2. Pletho, § 68, 2 ; 120, 1. Pliny the Younger, § 22, 2. Plotinus, § 24, 2. Plotizin, § 210, 4.
INDEX.
)31
Plutschau, § 167, 0.
Plymouth Brethren, § 211, 11.
Pneumatomachians, § 50, 5.
Pobedonoszew, § 206, 1.
Poblenz, § 184, 5.
Pecquet, § 146, 4.
Pococke, § 161, 6.
PocUebrad, § 119, 7, 8.
Poetry, Christian, § 48, 5, 6 ; 105,
4 ; 173, 6. Poggio, § 120, 1 ; 110, 5. Poiret, § 163, 9.
Poissy, Eelig. Confer., § 139, 14. Poland, §93, 7; 139, 18; 16.5, 4;
206, 2, 3. *
Pole, § 139, 5, 22. Poleuion, § 47, 6. Polenz of Samland, § 125, 1. Poliander, § 142, 3. Polo, Marco, § 93, 15. Polozk, Synod of, § 206, 2. Polycarp, § 22, 3 ; 30, (3 ; 37, 2. Polychronius, § 47, 9. Polycrates, § 37, 2. Polyglott, Antwerp, § 149, 14.
„ Complutensian, § 120, 8.
„ London, § 161, 6.
„ Paris, § 158, 1.
Pomare, § 184, 7. Pombal, § 165, 9. Pommerania, § 93, 10 ; 134, 4. Pom])onazzo, § 120, 1. Ponce de la Fuente, § 139, 21. Poenitentiaria Horn., § 110, 16. Pontianus, § 38, 1. Ponticus, § 22, 3. Pontius, § 98, 1. Popiel, § 206, 1. Popular Philosophy, § 171, 4. Pordage, § 163, 9. Porphyiy, § 23, 3 ; 24, 2. Portig, § 180, 3. Portiuncula, § 98, 3. Port Ro}axl, § 157, 5.
Portugal, § 165, 9 ; 205, 5.
Positivism, § 174, 2 ; 210, 1.
Possessor of Carthage, § 53, 5.
Possevin, § 139, 1 ; 151, 2, 3.
Possidius, § 47, 18.
Post- Apostolic Age, § 20, 1.
Postilla, § 103, 9 ; 116, 6.
Pota,mi8ena, § 22, 4.
Pothinus, § 22, 3.
Prceceptor Oermania', § 122, 5.
Pnepositi, § 84, 2.
Prsetorius, § 160, 1.
Praxeas, § 33, 4.
Prayer, § 37 ; 39, 1.
Preaching, § 36, 2; 59, 3; 89, 1;
104, 1 ; 115, 2 ; 142, 2. Preaching Orders, § 98, 5 ; 112, 4, Pre-Adamites, § 161, 4. Prebends, § 84, 4. Precaria, § 86, 1. Precists, § 96, 23. Predestination, § 53; 91, 4; 125,
3; 141, 12; 161, 2, 3; l<i8, 1;
208, 3. Prepon, § 27, 12. Presburg, Peace of, § 192. Presbyter, § 17, 2, 5 ; 34, 3 ; 45. Presbyterians, § 143, 3 ; 162, 1 ;
202, 4 ; 208, 1. Prierias, § 122, 3. Priestley, § 211, 4. Primacy, Papal, § 34, 8 ; 46, 2, 3. Primasius, § 48, 1. Priniian, § 63, 1. Prisca, § 40, 1. Priscillianists, § 54, 2. Probabilism, § 149, 10 ; 113, 4. Procession of Holy Spirit, § 50, 6 ;
67, 1 ; 91, 2. Processions, § 59, 9. Prochorus, § 31, 18. Procidians, § 27, 8. Proclus, Montanist, § 31, 7 ; 40, 2. N^^oplaton., § 24, 2 ; 42, 5<
532
INDEX.
Procopius of Gaza, § 48, 1.
„ the Great, § 119, 7.
Procopowicz, § 166. Professiofid. Trid., § 149, 14. Proles, § 112, 5. Proli, § 211, 16. Propaganda, § 156, 9 ; 204, 2. Prophecy, § 143, 3, 5. Frojjotsitt. Cleri GnUicam, § 15(i, 3 ;
203, 1. Proselytes of Gate and Eighteons-
ness, § 10, 2. TlpJcrKKavais, § 39, 2. llpo<T(j)opai, % 36, Prosper Aquit., § 47, 20 ; 48, 6 ;
53,8. Proterius, § 52, 5. Protestants, § 132, 3. ^' Profesta7itenverein,''^ § 180. Proudhon, § 212, 1. Provida soUersque, § 196, 1. Prudentius, Poet, § 48, 6.
of Troyes, § 91, 5. Psellus, § 68, 5 ; 71, 3. Pseudepigraphs, § 32. Pseudo-Basilideans, § 27, 3.
„ Clement, § 28, 3 ; 43, 4.
„ Cyril, § 96, 23.
„ Dionysius, § 47, 11,
„ Ignatius, § 43, 5.
„ Isidore, § 87, 2.
„ Tertullian, § 31, 3. Psychians, § 26, 2 ; 40, 5. Puhlicani, § 108, 1. Pufendorf, § 167, 5. Pulcheria, § 52, 4. Pullus, Eob., § 102, 5. Punctation of Ems, § 165, 10. Purcell, § 186, 5. Purgatory, § 61, 4 ; 67, 6 ; 104, 4 ;
106, 2, 3. Purists, § 159, 4. Puritans, § 143, 3, 4 ; 155. Puseyites, § 202, 2.
Puttkamcr, v., § 174, 8; 193, Vj- 197, 10.
Quadragesima, § 37, 1 ; 56, 4, 5, 7.
(Quadra tus, § 30, 8.
Quadrivium, § 90, 8.
Quakers, § 163, 4, 5, 6 ; 211, 3,
Quanta cura, § 185, 2.
Quartodecimans, § 37, 2 ; 56, 3.
Quenstedt, § 159, 5.
Qiiercum, Syvod ad^ § 51, 3.
Quesnel, § 165, 7.
Quicunque, § 50, 7.
Quietists, § 157.
Quill hextum, § 63, 2.
Quinquagesima, § 37, 1; 56, 4.
Quintin, § 146, 4.
Quod numquam, § 197, 7.
Rabanus, § 90, 4 ; 91, 3, 5.
Rabai^t, § 165, 5.
Babinowitz, § 211, 9.
Eabulas, § 52, 3 ; 48, 7.
Eacovian Catechism, § 148, 4.
Eadama I., II., § 184, 3.
Eadbertus, § 90, 5 ; 91, 3, 4.
Eadbod, § 78, 3.
Eadewins, Flor., § 112, 9.
Eadstock, § 206, 1.
Eaimund Lullus, § 93, 10 ; 108, 7 .
„ Martini, § 103, 9.
,, of Pennaforte, § 93, 16 ;
99^ 5 , 113, 4. Eaimmid du Puy, § 98, 8.
„ of Sabunde, § 113, 5.
„ „ Toulouse, § 109, 4.
Eakocgy, § 153, 3. Eambach, § 167, 6, 8. Eamus, § 143, 6. Eanavalona, § 184, 3. Eance, de, § 156, 8. Eaphael, § 115, 13.
„ Union, § 186, 4< Eapp, ^ 211, 6,
INDEX.
533
Raskolniks, § 103, 10 ; 210, 3. Rasolierina, § 184, 3, Raspe, § 105, 3, Bass, Bishop, § 19(j, 7. Rastislaw, § 79, 2. Ratherins, § 100, 2. Rationalism, § 171; ]7(J, 1; 1S2,
2, 3. "
Ratramnus, § 67, 1; 90, 5; 91, 3,
4,5. "i?a«7ies//o«y,"§183, 1. Rauscher, Card., § 189, 3 ; 198, 2. Ravaillac, § 139, 17. Raynaldi, Oderic, tj 5, 2. Realism and Nominalism, § 99, 2 ;
113, 2. Recafrid, § 81, 1. Reccared, § 76, 2. Rechiar, § 76, 4. liedusi, § 85, (5. Becofjnil, Clem.. § 27, 4. ffecoiiciiiatio, § 39, 2, Recursus ah abiitui, § 185, 4 ; 192,
4 ; 194, 9 ; 197, 9. Redemptions, § 88, 5. Redemptorists, § 165, 2 ; 186. 1. Reformation in head and mem- bers, § 118, 3. Refngees,Freneh Hu2;rienot, § 153,
4. ^ Rog-enshurg Colloquy, § 130, 3, 10.
„ Convention, § 126, 3.
„ Declaration, § 135,4,
„ Diet, § 133, 2 ; 135, 3.
„ Reformation, § 135, ().
Synod, § 91, 1. Regino of Priim, § 90, 5. Reginus, § 104, 11. Regionary Bishops, § 84. liefjida fidei, § 35, 2. Reichenan, § 78, 1. Reimarus, § 171, 6. Reinerius Sachoni, § 108, 1. Reinhard, Mart,. § 139, 2,
Rpinhard, Fr. Volk., § 171, 8.
Reinkens, § 190, 1,
Raiser, Fred., § 119, 9 ; 118, 5,
Reland, § 169, 6,
Relics, Worship of, § 39, 5 ; 57,
5 ; 88, 4 ; 104, 8 ; 115, 9. Jielif/iosi, § 44,
Remigius of Auxerre, § 90, 5. „ „ Lyons, § 91, 5.
„ „ Rheims, § 76, 9.
Remismund, § 76, 4, Remoboth, 5? 44, 7. Remonstrants, § 161, 2, Renaissance, § 115, 13 ; 149, 15. Renan, § 182, 8. Renata of Ferrara, § 138, 2 ; 139,
22. Renandot, § 165, 11, Reni, Guido, § 149, 15. Reparatus of Carthage, § 52, 6. Repeal Association, § 202, 9. Reservcdio meidalis, § 149, 10. Reservations, § 110, 15. Reservatiaii ecclest,, § 137, 5. Restitution Edict, § 153, 2. Reuchlin, § 120, 8, 4. Reuss, § 182, 18. Revenues of the Church, § 45, 6 ;
86, 1. Ihcersiirits, § 207, 4. Revivals, § 208, 1, Revolution, French, § 165, 14.
,, English, § 1.55,
Rex Chridianixs;, § 110, 13, Rhaw, § 142, 5, Rhegius Urbanus, § 120, 3 ; 127,
3; 125,1. Rheinwald, § 83, 2. Rhenius, § 184, 5. Rhense, Elector, Union of, § 110, 4, Rhetorians, § 62, 3, Rhine League, § 192. Rhodoald, § 67, 1 ; 82, 7. Rhodon, § 27. 12,
)34
INDEX.
Rhyming Bible, § 105, 5.
„ Legends, § 105, 5. Eiccabona, § 175, 2. Ricci, Laur., § 165, 9.
„ Matt., § 150, 1.
„ Scipio, § 165, 10. Richard Coeur de Leon, § 94, 8. „ of Cornwallis, § 94, 5.
„ St. Victor, § 102, 4 ;
104, 4. Riclielieu, § 153, 4. Richter, C. F., § 167, 6. „ Emil, § 182, 22.
„ Greg., § 160, 2
„ Jean Paul, § 171, 11.
„ Louis, § 174, 9. Ridley, § 139, 5. Rieger, § 167, 8. Rienzi, § 110, 5. Rietschel, § 174, 9. Riga, § 93, 12 ; 139, 3. Rigdon, Sidney, § 211, 12, 13. Riley, § 209, 1. Rimbert, § 80, 2. Rimini, Syn., § 50, 3. Rinck, Melch., § 147, 1. Ring and Staff, § 96, 6, 7. Ringold, §93, 14.' Rmkart, § 160, 3. Eist, § 160, 3, Misjiis Paschales, § 105, 2. Eitschl, § 182, 7, 20. Ritter, Erasm., § 130, 4, 8.
„ J. J., § 5, 6.
„ Carl, § 174, 4. Ritualists, § 199, 2. Rizzio, § 139, 10. Robber Synod, § 52, 4. Robert of Arbrissel, § 98, 2.
„ „ Citeaux, § 98, 1.
„ Grosseteste, § 108, 1.
„ Guiscard, § 95, 1 ; 96, 6, K.
„ Pullus, § 102, 5.
„ of the Sorbonne, § 108, 9.
Robert of France, § 104, 10,
Robespierre, § 165, 15,
Robinson, § 148, 4.
Rodigast, § 160, 4.
Rodriguez, § 149, 8 ; 150, 4.
Roell,"§ 161, 5.
Roger of Sicily, § 95, 1 ; 96, 18.
Rohr, § 176, 1 ; 182, 2.
Rokycana, § 119, 7.
Rollo, § 98, 1.
Romanz, § 174, 2.
Roman Architecture, § 104, 12.
Romanus, Pope, § 96, 1,
Romuald, § 98, 1.
Ronge, § 187, 6.
Roos, § 171, 8.
Rosary, § 104, 8 ; 115, 1.
Roscelinus, § 101, 3.
Rose, The Consecrat, Golden, § 96,
23. Rosenkranz, § 182, 6. Rosicrucians, § 160, 1. Rossi de, § 191, 7 ; 38, 1. Rostar, § 211, 5. Roswitha, § 100, 1. i?ote Homcina, § 110, 16. Rothad of Soissons, § 83, 2. Rothe, A., § 167, 6 ; 168, 2.
„ Rich., § 5, 4 ; 180, 1 ; 182,
10. Rothmann, § 147, 9. Roublin, § 130, 5 ; 147, 3. Roundheads, § 155, 1. Rousseau, § 165, 14. Rubianus Crotus, § 120, 2, 5. Riickert, § 174, 6. Rudelbach, § 182, 18 ; 194, 1. Rudolph of Hapsburg, § 96, 21,
22. Rudolph II., § 129, 19 ; 137, 8.
„ of Swabia, § 96, 8. Ruet, § 205, 4. Rufinus, § 5, 1 ; 47, 17 ; 48, 2 ;
51, 2,
INDEX.
535
Ruge, § 174, 1.
Etigen, § 93, 10.
Rugians, § 76, G.
Ruiiixirt, § 158, 2.
Rulman Merswin, § 114. 2. 4.
Rupert, § 78, 2.
„ of Deutz, § KJ2, 8. Rupp, § 176, 1 ; 178, 1. Russel, Lord, § 202, 1, 5. Riissia, § 73, 5-6 ; 151, 3 ; 163, 8 ;
166; 20(5; 219,3,4; 212,6. Rust, § 195, 5. Ruysbroelv, John of, § 114, 7.
„ William of, § 93, 15.
Sahatati, § 108, 10.
Sabbath, § 56, 1.
Sabbatarians, § 163. 3 : 211, 5.
Sabeans, § 22, 1.
Sabellius, § 33, 5, 7.
Sabiuianus, § 60, 5.
Sacco di Homa, § 132, 2.
Sachs, Hans, § 142, 3, 7.
Sack, K. H., § 182, 9.
Sacramentalia, § 58 ; 104, 2.
Sacraments, § 58 ; 70, 2 ; 104. 2-5.
Sacrament ariit 1)1, § 59, 6.
Sacrificati, § 22, 5.
Sacrum rescript., § 53, 3.
Sacy, de, § 158, 1.
Sadducees, § 8, 4.
Sadolet, § 138, 3 ; 139, 22.
Sagittarius, § 159, 4.
Sailer, § 165, 12 ; 187, 1.
Saints, Worship of, § 57, 1 ; 88, 4 ;
104, 8. Saladin, § 94, 3.
Sales, Francis de, § 15(j, 7 ;
,, Nuns of, § 156, 7. Salisbiiry, John of, § 102, 9 Salmeron, § 14!), 8. Salt Lake. § 211, 10. Salvation Army, §211. 2.
157. 1.
Salvianus. § 47, 21. Salzburg, § 78, 2 ; 79,
„ Emigrants of, § 164, 4. Samaritans, § 10 ; 22, Sampseans, § 28, 2. Sanbenito, § 117, 2. Sanchez, § 149, 10, Sanction, Pragmatic, § 96, 21;
110, 9, 14. Sancth-simiirn, § 104, 3. Sandwich Islands, § 182, 7, Sankey, § 211, 1. Sapor L, § 29, 1. Sapores, § 64, 2. Sarabaites, § 44, 7. Saracens, § 81 ; 95, Sardica, Council of, § 4(), 3 ; 50, 2. Sardinia, § 204, 1, 3, Sarmatio, § 62, 2. Sarpi, § 156, 2 ; 158, 2. Sartorius, § 182, 13. Saturnalia, § 56, 5. Saturninus, § 27, 9. Saimier, § 138, 1 ; 139, 25, Saurin, § 169, 6. Savonarola, § 119, 11. Savonieres, Syn. of, § 91, 5, Sbynko, § 119, 3, 4, Srala miita, § 115, 9. Schaffhaiisen, § 130, 8. Schelling, §171, 10; 174,1. Schenkel, § 182, 17 ; 196, 3, 4 ;
180, 1. Schiller, § 171,11. Schirmer, § 160, 4. Schism. Papal, § 110, 6.
between East and West, §67. Schisms in the Ancient Church.
§41; 50,8; 52,5; 63. Schlegel, Fr., § 174, 5 ; 175, 7.
„ J. Ad., § 172, 1. Schleiei-macher, § 5, 4 ; 182, 1 : 174, 3.
536
INDEX.
Schleswig-Holstein, § 127, 3 ; 15G,
2; 201^1; 193,7. Schlichting, § 148, 4. Schmalcald Articles, § 134, 1, „ League, § 138, 1, 7.
„ War, § 136.
Schmerling, § 198, 3, 4. Schmid, Leop., § 187, 3 ; 191, 2 ;
196, 4. Schmidt, Erasm., § 159, 4. „ Lor., § 171, 3. „ Seb., § 159, 4. Schmolck, § 167, 6, 8. Schnepf, § 122, 2 ; 131, 1 ; 133, 3, Schuorr, § 174, 9. Schoberlein, § 181, 8. Schola palatitia, § 90, 1.
„ Sa.vouiraj § 82. Scholastica, St., § 85, 3. Scholasticism, Greek, § 47, 6 ;
68, 8. Scholasticism, Latin, § 99 ff. ;
113. Scholasticiis, John, § 43, 3. Scholten, § 200, 2. Schools.
Schopenhauer, § 174, 2. Schortinghuis, § 169, 8, Schroeckh, § 5, 3 5 171, 8. Schubert, § 174, 3, 8. Schultens, § 169, 6. Schultz, Herm., § 182, 20. Schulz, Dav., § 183, 3. Schwartz, § 167, 9. SchAvarzenberg, § 189, 3, SchAveizer, § 182, 9, SchAvenkfeld, § 146, 1, Scotists, § 118, 2. Scotland, § 77, 2 ; 189, 8 ; 202, 7,
8, 11, Scots, 77, 2.
Scottish Cloister, § 98, 1 ; 112. Scotus, John Duns, § 113.
„ Erigena, § 90, 7 ; 91, 5.
Scriver, § 160, 1. Scythianus, § 29, 1, i^ecuhnn obscurum, § 100. Secundus, § .50, 1. t^edes Apostolicce, § 34. Sedulius, § 48, 6. Segarelli, § 108, 8. Segneri, § 157, 2. Seller, § 171, 8. Selden, § 161, 6. Selnecker, § 141, 12 ; 142, 4. Sembat, § 71, 2, Semi-arians, § 50, 3, Semi-jejvinia, § 37, 2. Semi-pelagians, § 53, 5, Semler, § 171, 6 ; 5, 3. Sendomir Compact, § 139, 18. Seneca's Correspondence, § 32, 7. Sententiarists, § 102, 5. Sepp, § 191, 8 •, 174, 4. Septimius Severus, § 22, 4. Septuagint, § 10, 2 ; 36, 8 ; 48, 1. Sequences, § 88, 2. Serapeion, § 42, 4. Seraphic Order, § 98, 3. Serenius Granian., § 22, 2. Serenus of Marsilia, § 57, 4. Sergius of Constantinoijle, § 52, 8.
„ „ Ravenna, § 83, 2.
„ L of Rome, §46, 11; 68,3.
„ II., § 82, 5.
„ HI., § 96, 1.
„ IV., § 96, 4. Serrarius, § 149, 14. Servatus Lupus, § 90, 5; 91, 5. Servetus, § 148, 2. Servites, § 98, 6, tServus servorum Dei, § 46, 10. Sethians, § 27, 6. Seventh-Day Adventists, § 211, 1.
„ ,, Baptists, § 168, 8. Severa, § 23, 4 ; 26. Sever ians, § .52, 7. Severina, § 28, 4.
INDEX.
537
Severinus, Missionary, § 7G, 0.
Pope, § 46, 11. Severns, Emperor, § 22, G,
„ Wolfg., § 137, 8. Shaftesbury, § 171, 1. Shakers, § 170, 7. Sherlock, § 171, 1. Shiites, § 65, 1. Ship of the Church, § 60, 1. Sibylline Books, § 32, 1. Sicily, § 81 ; 95. Sickingen, § 120, 4 ; 122, 4 ; 123,
7 ; 124, 2. Siena, Syn., § 110, 7. Sievekingr, § 183, 1. Sigfrid, § 93, 1. Sigillaria, § 56, 5. Sigismund of Burgundy, § 76, 5. „ Emperor, § 110, 7, 8; ,
119, 5. Sigismund I. of Poland, i? 139, 18. Aug. „ §139,18. III. „ §139,18. Sigurd, § 93, 3.
Silesia, § 127, 3 ; 153, 2 ; 165, 4. Silesiiis, Angelus, § 157, 4 ; 160, 4. Silverius, § 46, 9. Simeon of Jerusalem, § 22, 2.
„ Stylites, § 44, 6.
„ called Titus, § 71, 1.
„ Czar, § 73, 3.
,, Metaphrastes, § 08, 4.
„ of Thessalonica, § (j8, 5.
„ „ Tournay, § 103, 2.
„ VI., VII. ; Counts of Lippe, § 154, 2. Simeoni, § 205, 4. Simon Magus, § 25, 2.
„ Eich., § 158, 2.
„ St., § 212, 2. Simonians, § 27, 8. Simons, Menno, § 147, 2. Simony, § 96, 5. Simplicius, § 42, 5.
Siricius, § 45, 2 ; 46, 4. Sirmium, Syn., § 50, 2, 3. Sirmond, § 158, 2. Sisters of Mercy, § 156, 8 ; 186, 2. Sixtus II., § 22, 5.
„ III., § 46, 6.
„ IV., § 110, 11; 112, 3; 115, 1. Sixtus v., § 149, 3, 4, 14.
„ of Siena, § 149, 14. Skeleton Army, § 211, 2. Smith, Jos., § 211, 10.
„ Pearsall, § 211, 1.
,, Eobertson, § 202, 8. Socialism, § 212. Socinians, § 148, 4 ; 202, 5. Soissons, Syn., § 78, 4 ; 102, 8. SoUicitudo omniinn, § 185, 1. Somerset, § 139, 5. Sophia, Church of, § 60, 3. Sophronius, § 52, 8, Sorbonne, § 103, 9. Soter, § 36, 8.
Southcote, Joanna, § 211, 5. Spain, § 76, 2, 3 ; 95, 2 ; 139, 21 ;
205. Spalatin, § 122, 6. Spalding, Bishop, § 189, 3. Spangenberg, John, § 142, 6.
„ Bishop, § 168, 7.
Spanheim, § 5, 2 ; 161, 3, 7. Speaker's Bible, § 202, 1. Spencer, John, § 161, 6.
„ Herbert, § 174, 2. Spener, § 15^,"3 ; 167, 5. Spiera, Fr., § 139, 2, 4. Spinoza, § 164, 1. Spires, Diet, § 12(), 6 ; 132, 3 ; 135,
9; 147,4. Spirit, Sect of the New, § 108, 2. Spiritales, § 40, 5. Spirituals, § 164, 1. Spirituels, § 146. 4. Sponsors, § 35, 5 ; 58, 1.
538
INDEX.
Ssufis, § Gl, 1. Stackhouse, § 1G8, G. Stahl, § 182, 15 ; 193, 6. Stancarns, § 141, 2. Stanislaus, St., § 93, 2,
„ Znaim, § 119, 4.
Stanley, § 184, 4. Stapfer, § 169, G. Stapulensis, § 120, 7, 8. Starck, § 175, 7, Starowerzi, § 163, 10 ; 210, 3. Stauclenmaier, § 191, G. Staudlin, § 171, 8. Staupitz, § 112, G ; 122, 1. Stedingers, § 109, 3. Steffens, § 174, 3 ; 177, 2. Stein, Baron v., § 176, 1. Steinbart, § 171, 4, 6. Steinmetz, § 167, 8. Stephan I.,. § 35, 3.
II., § GG, 2 ; 78, 7 ; 82. 1. „ III.,§GG,2;82, 1. „ IV., § H2, 4. „ v., VI., § 82, 8. „ IX., § 9G, G. „ St., § 93, 8 ; 96, 3. „ of Palecz, § 119, 4, 5. „ Sunik, § 72, 2. „ Tigerno, § 98, 2. „ Mart., § 194, 1. Stephanas, § 18, 4. Stephen Langton, § 9(>, 18. Stier, § 181, 1 ; 183, 4. Stigmatization, i; 105, 4 ; 188, 3. Stirner, Max., § 212, 1. Stolberg, § 5, G ; 165, 6. Storch, Nich., § 124, 1. Storr, § 171, 8. Strassburg, § 125, 1.
„ Minster, § 104, 13.
Strauss, Dav. Fr., § 174, 1; 182,
(i, 8 ; 199, 4. Strconeshalch, Syn., § 77, G. Sti'ossinaycr, t^ 189, 3, 4,
Stuart, Mary, § 139, 5. Studites, § 44, 4. Sturm of Fulda, § 78, 4, 5. Stylites, § 44, 6 ; 78, 3 ; 85, 6. Suarez, § 149, 14. Siibiiitrod/tdce, § 39, 3. Subordinationists, § 33, 1. Suevi, § 76, 4. Suffragan Bishops, § 84. Sully, § 139, 17. Sulpicius Se-verus, § 47, 17. Summa of Holy Scripture, § 125, 2. Summaries, Wiirttemb., § 160, G. Siimin'm defiideranfeSj § 117, 4. Summists, § 102, 4. . Siimmns EpiscojuiSj § 167, 3. Sun, Children of, § 71, 2. Sunday, Fest. of, § 17, 7 ; 37 ; . 56, 1.
Sunnites, § 65, 1. Sup2iUcationes, § 59, 9. Snpralapsarians, § 161, 1. Supernatural ists, § 171, 8 ; 182,
4,5. Suso, H., § 114, .5. Sutri, Syn., § 96, 4. Swabian Articles, § 132, 5.
• „ Halle, Sect in, § 108, 6. Sweden, § 80 ; 93, 3 ; 139, 1 ; 201, 2. Swedenborgians, § 170, 5 ; 211, 4. Sweyn, § 93, 2. Switzerland, § 78, 1 •, 130; 138;
162, 6 ; 189, 7 ; 190, 3 ; 199. Sydow, § 180, 4. Syllabus, § 185, 2. Sylvester I., § 42, 1 ; 46, 3 ; 59, 5 ;
82, 2. Sylvester II., § 94 ; 96, 3.
„ III., § 96, 4.
Bern., § 102, 10. S//iuhoIiiiit Apod., 2 35, 2 ; 59, 2.
„ Athan., § 59, 2.
„ Nic. Constanf., § 59, 2,
,, Nicainum, § 50, 1,
INDEX.
)39
S3'mmachiis, Pope, § 4G, 8.
Prefect, § 42, 4. Sympherosa, § 32, 9. Synagogues, § 8, 3. Syncretist Controv., § 159, 3, Synergists, § 53, 1. Synesius, § 47, 7 ; 59, 4. S)jn<jramma Suevic, % 131, 1. Synod, Holy Russian, § 16().
„ The Holy Athens, § 207, 1. Synods, § 34, 5 ; 43, 2, iSi/nodus pahnaris, § 46, 8, Syrians, § 184, 9 ; 207, 2. Syzigies, § 27, 3 ; 28, 3.
Tabernaculum, § 104, 3. Taborites, § 119, 7. Taepiiigs, § 211, 15. Tafe],Imm., §211, 4. Tahiti, § 184, 6. Talmud, § 25. Tamerlane, § 72, 1 ; 93, 15. Tamuls, § 184, 5. Tanchelm, § 108, 9. Tartars, § 73, 1.; Tasso, § 149, 15. Tatian, § 27, 10 ; 30, 10. Tauler, § 114, 2. Teellinck, § 161, 4. Teetotallers, § 202, 9. Telesphorus, § 22, 2. Teller, § 171, 4, 7. Templars, § 98, 8 ; 112, 7. Terminants, § 98, 8. Terminism, i? 167, 2. Territorial System, § 1()7, 5. Tersteegen, § 169, 1. Tertiaries, § 93, 3, 5. Tertullian, § 31, 10 ; 33, 4, 9 ; 34,
8 ; 40, 3. Tertullianists, § 40, 3. Tessareskaidecatites, § 37, 2. Test Act, § 153, 6 ; 1.55, 3 ; 202, 5. Tostam, of XII, Patri,, § 32, 3.
Tetzel, § 122, 2.
Teutonic Knights, § 98, 8 ; 93, 13.
Theatines, § 149, 7.
Thecla, § 32, 6.
Theiner, § 186, 1 ; 187, 4 ; 191, 7.
Theodelinde, § 76, 8.
Theodemir, § 92, 2.
Theodo I., II., § 78, 2.
Theodora, § 46, 9; 52, 6; 71, 1.
Theodore of Abyssinia, § 182, 9.
Theodoret, § 47, 9 ; 52, 3, 4.
Theodoric, § 46, 8 ; 76, 7.
„ of Freiburg, § 103, 10.
of Niem, § 118, 5. Theodoras, Pope, § 52, 1.
Ascidas, § 52, 8.
,, Balsamon, § 43, 3.
„ Lector, § 5, 1.
„ of Moj)Suestia, § 47, 9 ;
48, 1 5 52, 3 -, 53, 4. Theodorus Studita, § 66, 4.
of Tarsias, § 90, 8. Theodosius the Great, § 42, 4 ; 47,
15 ; 50, 4. Theodosius II., § 42, 4. Theodotians, § 33, 3. Theodulf of Orleans, § 89, 2 ; 90, 2. Theognis of Nicfea, § 50, 1. Theonas, § 50, 1. Theopaschites, § 52, 6. Theophanies, § 96, 2. Theophilus, Emperor, § 66, 4.
„ of Alexandria, ^ 42,
4; 51,2,3. Theophilus of Antioch, § 30, 10, „ Din, §64, 4.
,, „ Moscow, § 166, 1.
Theophylact, § 68, 5. QeordKos, § 52, 2, 3. Therapeutse, § 10, 1, Theresa, St., § 149, 6, 15, 16. T/iesaitrus supcrcroijat.^ § 106, 2. Thiers, § 203. 5. Thiersch, § 211, 10.
540
INDEX.
Thietberga, § 82, 7.
Thietgaut of Treves, § 82, 7.
Thilo, § IGO, 3.
Tholuck, § 182, 4.
Thomas Aquinas, § 103, 6 ; 96, 23 ;
104, 4, 10. Thomas Becket, § 96, 16.
,, Bradwardine, § 118, 2.
of Celano, § 104, 10. „ a Kempis, § 112, 9 ; 114, 7. Thomas Christians, § 52, 3. Thomasius, Chr., § 117, 4 ; 159, 3 ;
167, 4, 5. Thomasius, Gottfr., § 182, 13. Thomassinus, § 158, 1. Thomists, § 113, 3. Thontracians, § 71, 2. Thorn, Declarat., § 153, 7. ,, Massacre, § 165, 4. „ Eelig. Confer., § 153, 7;
154, 4. Thorwaldsen, § 173, 9. Thrasimund, § 76, 3. Thurihnlinn, § 60, 5. Tkiirificati, § 22, 5. Tiara, Papal, § 96, 23. Tiberius, § 22, 1. Tieck, § 174, 5. Tieftrunk, § 171, 7. Tillemont, § 158, 2 ; 5, 2. Tillotson, § 161, 3. Timotheus Alurus, § 52, 5. Tindal, Matt., § 171, 1.
„ William, § 139, 4. Tiridates III., § 64, 3. Tischendorf, § 182, 11. Titian, § 115, 13 ; 149, 11. Titidi, § 84, 2. Titus of Bostra, § 54, 1. Toland, § 171, 1. Toledo, Syn., § 76, 2. Toleration Acts, English, § 155, 3 ;
202, 5. Toleration Edict, Austr., § 165, 10.
Toleration Patent, Pruss., § 193. 3. Tolomeo of Lucca, § 5, 1. Tolstoi, § 206, 1. Tonsure, § 45, 1 : 77, 3. Tooth, Arth., § 202, 3. Torgau, Articles of, § 132, 7. „ Book of, § 141, 12. ,, League of, § 126, 5. Torquemada, John, § 110, 15 ;
112, 4. Torquemada, Thomas, § 117, 2. Toulouse, Syn,, § 105, 5 ; 108, 2 ;
109, 2. Tours, Syn., § 101, 2; 110, 13. Tractarianism, § 202, 2. Tradition, § 33, 4. Traditors, § 22, 6. Traducianism, § 53, 1. Trajan, § 22, 2. Tranquebar, § 167, 9. Translations, § 57, 1. Transept, § 60, 1. Transubstantiation, § 58, 2 ; 104, 3. Transylvania, § 139, 20. Trappists, § 156, 8. Tremellius, § 143, 5. Trent, Council of, § 149, 2 ; 136, 4. Treufja Dei, § 105, 1. Tribiir, Princes' Diet, § 96, 7,
„ Syn., § 83, 3. Trinitarian Controversy, § 32 ; 50. Trinitarian Order, § 98, 2. Trinity, Festival of the, § 104, 7. Order of the Holy, § 149,
4. Trishagion, § 52, 5, 6. Trithemius, § 113, 7. Tricium, § 90, 8. Troparies, § 59, 4, Troubadours, § 105, 6. TruUanmn, I. Cone, § 52, 8.
IL „ §63,2; 45,2 IHibingen, § 120, 3. Turkey, § 207,
INDEX.
541
Turrecremata, John, § 110, 16 ;
112, 14. Tnrrecremata, Thos., § 117, 2. Turretin, J. A., § 161, 1, 6. Turribius, § 54, 2. Tutilo, § 88, 6. Twesten, § 182, 10. Tyclionius, § 48, 1. Typus, § 52, 8. Tyrol, § 193, 4. Tyre, Syn., § 50, 2.
Ubertiuo de Casalo, § 108, (5. Uhiquitas Corp. Chr., § 141, 0. Udo, § 62, 1. Ugolino, § 165, 12. Uhlhorn, § 103, 8. Uhlich, § 176, 1. Uleiiberg, § 149, 15. Ulfilas, § 76, 1. Ullmann, § 182, 10 ; 196, 3. Ulrich of Augsb., § 84, 3,
„ ,, Wvirttemb., § 133, 3, Ulrici, § 174, 2 ; 211, 17. Ultramontanism, § 188 ; 197. Umbreit, § 182, 11. Unani Sanctam, § 110, 1. Unctio extremely § 61, 3 ; 70, 2 ;
104, 5. Uniformity, Act of, § 139, (i ;
155, 3. Unigenitus, § 165, 7. Union Attempts in the Eastern
Church, § 67, 4, 5 ; 152, 2 ; 175,
4-6. Union, Catholic Protestant, § 137,
8 ; 153, 7. Union, Lutheran Keformed, § 155,
4 ; 167, 4 ; 169, 1, 2. Union, Prussian, § 177, 1. Unitarians, § 148 ; 163, 1 ; 211, 4. United Brethren, § 119, 8.
„ Greeks, § 72, 4; 151, 3;
206, 2.
Universities, § 99, 3.
„ Bill, § 199, 5.
Urban II., § 96, 10 ; 94.
„ III., § 96, 16.
„ IV., § 96, 20.
„ v., § 110, 5 ; 117, 2.
„ VI., § 110, 6.
„ VII., § 149, 3.
„ VIII., § 156, 1, 4, 9 ; 157, 5. Urbanus Rhegius, § 127, 3. Ursacius, § .50, 3. Ursiuus of Home, § 46, 4.
„ Zach., § 144, 1 ; 169, 1. Ursula, St., § 104, 9. Ursuline Nuns, § 149, 7. Ussher, § 161, 6, 7. Utah, § 211, 10. Utraquists, § 119, 6. Utrecht, Church of, § 165, 7.
„ Union of, § 139, 12.
Vadian, § 130, 4. Valdez, § 108, 10. Valence, Syn., § 91, 5. Valens, Emperor, § 50, 4 ; 42 4. Valentinian I., § 42, 4. n., § 42, 4. III., § 46, 3 ; 46, 7. Valentinus, § 27, 4. Valerian, § 22, 5. Valla, § 120, 1. Vallombrosians, § 98, 1. Valsainte, § 186, 2, Valteline Massacre, § 153, 3. Vandals, § 76, 3. Vanne, Cougreg. of, § 156, 7. Varanes I., § 29, 1.
„ III., § 64, 2. Variata, § 141, 4. Vasa, Gustavus, § 139, 1 ; 142, 8. Vaaquez, § 149, 10. Vatican, § 110, 15.
„ Council, § 189. Vatke, § 1,S2, IS.
542
INDEX.
Vaud, Canton, § 199, 5.
Vega, Loije de, § 158, 3.
Vt'lasqiiez, § 98, 8.
Venantius Fortuiiatus, § 48, 6.
Venema, § 169, 6.
Venezuela, § 209, 2,
Vercelli, Syn., § 101, 2.
Verdun, Treaty of, § 82, 5.
Vergerius, § 134, 1 ; 139, 24.
Vermilius, Pet. Mart., § 139, 5, 24.
Veronica, § 13, 2.
Versailles, Edict of, § 165, 5.
Vosjaers, Sicilian, § 96, 22.
Vesfihi(h(m, § 60, 1.
Vestments, Ecclest., § 59, 7.
Veuillot, § 188, 1 ; 203, 3.
Viaticmn, § 104, 5.
Vicelinus, § 93, 9.
Victor I., § 33, 3, 4 ; 37, 2 ; 40, 2 ;
41, 1. Victor II., § 96, 5.
„ III., § 96, 10.
„ IV., § 96, 15.
„ of Vita, § 48, 2.
„ Emmanuel I., § 204, 1.
„ „ II., § 185, 3;
204, 1, 2. Victor, St., Monastery of, § 102,
4,8. Victorinus, Marius, § 47, 14.
,, of Pettau, § 31, 12 ;
33, 9. Victorius, § 56, 3. Vienna, Congress of, § 192, 3.
„ Peace of, § 139, 40. Vienne, Council of, § 110, 2; 112,
1, 2, 7. Vigilantius, § 62, 2. Vigilius, § 46, 9 ; 52, 6. Vigils, § 35 ; 56, 4. Vikings, § 93, 1, Villegagnon, § 143, 7. Vilmar, § 182, 14 ; 194, 4. Vincent of Beauvais, § 99. (i.
Vincent Ferrari, § 115, 2 ; 110, 6.
,, of Lerins, § 47, 21 ; 53, 5.
„ de Paula, § 156, 8. Vinci, Leon, da, § 115, 13. Vinet, § 129, 5. Viret, § 138, 1.
Virgilius of Salzburg, § 78, 6. Virgins, The 11,000, § 104, 9. Visigoths, § 76, 2. Visitation, Articles of, § 141, 13. Vita quadragesimalis, § 112, 8. Vitalis Ordenicus, § 5, 1. Vitus, § 46, 3. Vitringa, § 161, 6. Vladimir, § 73, 4. Vladislaw, § 119, 7.
IV., § 153, 7. Voetius, § 161, 4, 5, 7 ; 162, 4 ; 163,,
7. Volkmann, § 169, 1. Voltaire, § 105, 5, 14, 15. Vorstius, § 161, 2. Vossius, § 171, 11. Vulgate, § 59, 1 ; 136, 4 ; 149, 14.
Waddington, § 203, 5, 8.
Wafers, § 104, 3.
Wagner, Eich., § 174, 10.
W^ila, § 82, 5.
Walafrid Strabo, § 90, 4 ; 91, 3,
Walch, J. G., § 167, 4.
„ Fr., § 171, 8. AValdemar I., § 93, 10. IL, § 93, 12. AValdensians, § 108, 10-12; 119,
9, 10 ; 139, 25 ; 153, 5 ; 204, 4. Waldrade, § 82, 8, Wallace, § 211, 17. Walter of Habenichts, § 94, 1. „ St. Victor, § 102, 9. ,, V. d. Vogelweide, § 105, 6, Walther, Hans, § 142, 5. ,, Mich., § 159, 4. „ Dr., §208, 2, 3.
INDEX.
543
Walton, Brian, § IGl, 6. Warburton, § 171, 1. Ward, § 156, 8. Warnefrif'd, § 90, 3. Wartburs, *? 1'23, 8. "VVatts, Isaac, § 16'J, 6. Wazo of Liege, § lOf). Wearnioutli, § 85, 4. Weber, F. W., § 174, G. Wecelinus, § 95, 8. Wechabites, § 65, 4. Wegelin, § 160, 3. W^egscheider, § 182, 2. Weigel, Val., § 146, 2. Weingarten, § 5, 5. Weiss, Bern., § 182, 11. Weissel, § 160, 3. WelUiausen, § 182, 18. Wends. § 98, 9. Wendelin, § 161, 7. Wenilo, § 91, 5. Wenzel, § 119, 8. WenzeslaAV, § 98, 6. Wertheimer Bible, § 171, 2. Wesel, John of, § 119, 10. Wesley, § 169, 3, 4. Wessel, § 119, 10. Westeras, Diet of, § 139, 1. Westminster Assembly, § 155, 1. Westphal, § 141, 10. Westphalia, Peace of, i? 153, 2. ., Reform, § 188, 5.
Wette, de, § 182, 8. Wetteran, § 170, Wettstein, § 169, 6. Whitaker, § 148, 5. Whifcefield, § 1(59, 8. 4, Whitgift, § 148, 5. Wibert, § 96, 6, 8. Wichern, § 188, 1. Wiclif, § 119, 1. Wido of Milan, § 97, 5. Wied, H. v., § 188, 5 ; 185, 7, Wieland, § 171, 11.
Wigand, § 141, 10.
Wilberforce, § 184.
AVilfrid, § 77, 6 ; 78, 3 ; 88, 8.
Wilgard, § 100.
Wilibrord, § 78, 3.
Willehad, § 78, 8.
William of St. Amour, § 108, 8.
„ ,, Aqnitaino, § 98, 1.
,, ,, Champeaux, § 101, 1.
„ „ Conches, § 102, 10.
,, the Conqueror, § 9(), 8, 12.
„ Durandus, § 113, 3.
„ of Modena, § 93, 13. „ Nogaret, § 110, 1.
„ „ Occam, § 112, 2 ; 113, 3 ; 118, 2. William Rufus, § 96, 12.
,, Ruysbroek, § 93, 15.
„ of Thierry, § 102, 2, 10.
„ „ Tyre, § 94, 8.
,, ,, Bavaria, § 135, 8 ; lo(J, 2, 6 ; 151, 1. W^illiam IV., V., of Hesse, § 154, 1.
„ I. of Orange, § 129, 12.
„ III. of Orange, § 153, (i ; 155, 3. William I., German Emperor,
§ 193 ; 197. Williams, John, § 184, 7.
Roger, § 162, 2 ; 163, 8. Willigis, § 96, 2 ; 97, 2. Wilsnack, Mirac. host of, § 119, 3. Wilson, § 172, 5. Winckelmanu, § 165, 6 ; 174, 9. Windesheim, § 112, 9. Windthorst, i? 197, 1, 6 ; 188, 3. Winer, § 182, 4. Winfrid, § 78, 4-8. Wion, § 149, 8. Wiseman, § 202, 11. Wishart, § 139, 8. WisliceuuS) § 176, 1. Witch Hammer, § 117, 4. „ Process, § 117, 4.
544
INDEX.
Witsius, § IGl, 7 ; 169, 4. Wittenberg, § 120, 3.
„ Catech., § 141, 10.
. _ „ Concord., § 133, 8.
„ Sketch of Reform,
§ 135, 13. Witzel, {^ 137,8; 149, 15. Wolf, J. Chr., §167, 4. WolfenbiitteJ, Fragments, § 171,
6. Wolff, Chr. v., § 167, 4 ; 171, 10. Wolfgang, William, of Palatine
Neuburg, § 153, 1. Wolfram of Eschenb., § 105, (j. Wollner, § 171, 5. Wolmar, Melch., § 138, 2, 8. Wolsey, § 120, 7. Woltersdorf, § 167, 6, 8. W^oolston, § 171, 1. Worms Edict, § 123, 7. ,, Concordat, § 96, 11. „ Consultation, § 137, C\ „ Eelig. Confer., § 135, 2. Wratislaw, § 79, 3. Wulflaich, § 78, 3. Wulfram, § 78, 3. Wurttemberg, § 133, 3 ; 196, 5, 6 ;
197, 14. Wiirzburg, Bish. Congress, § 192,
4. W^yttenbacb, Dan., § 169, 6.
„ Thomas, § 130, 1.
Xavier, § 149, 8 ; 150, 1.
Xenaias, § 59, 1.
Ximenes, § 117, 2 ; 118, 7 ; 120, 8, 9.
Young, Brigham, § 211, 12. Yvon, § 1G3, 8.
Zacharias, Pope, § 78, 5, 6 ; 82, 1.
„ of Anagni, § G7, 1.
Zapolya, § 130, 20. Zelatores, § 98, 4. Zell, Matt., § 125, 1. Zeller, Ed., § 182, 9 ; 199, 4. Zeliis domus Uei, § 153, 2. Zeno, Philos., § 8, 4.
„ Emp., § 52, 5.
,, of Verona, § 47, 14. Zenobia, § 32, 8. Zephyrinus, § 33, 3, 5 ; 41, 1. Zeschwitz, § 182, 14. Ziegenbalg, § 167, 9. Zillerthal, § 198. Zimmermann, § 178, 1 ; 182, 2. Zinzendorf, § 168; 170, 2, 3 ; 171,
3. Zionites, § 170, 4. Ziska, § 119, 7. Zollikofer, § 171, 7. Zosimus, § 46, 5 ; 53, 4, Zschokke, § 176, 1. Zulu Kaffres, § 184, 3. Zurich, § 130, 2 ; 199, 4. Zwick, § 143, 2.
Zwickau, Prophets of, § 124, 1. Zwingli, § 130 ; 131, 1.^32, 4.
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