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WITH NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS

ON THE

NATURAL HISTORY OF EASTERN CANADA.

BY

A. LEITH ADAMS, M.A, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S.,

S/aj^ Surgeon-Major.

AUTHOR OF "wanderings OF A NATURALIST IN INDIA," "NATURAL HISTORV AND
ABCHyEOLO<;V OF THE NILE VALLEY AND MALTF.SE ISLANDS "

THE RUBY-THROATED HUMMING-BIRD.

LONDON :
Henry S. King & Co.,

6$, CORNHILL, & 12, PATERNOSTER ROW-

1873-

m 214762

Wataou <£ Hazell, Printers, London and Aylesbury.

«ill

[A// rights reserved.^

I DEDICATE THIS VOLUME

MY OLD COMRADES OF THE TWENTY-SECOND
(CHESHIRE) REGIMENT,

IN REMEMBRANCE OF OUR BROTHERHOOD,
EXTENDING OVER TWO-AND-TWENTY YEARS,

IN VARIOUS QUARTERS OF 1\H£ GLOBE.

PREFACE.

THE following studies v/ere conducted during leisure
hours snatched from other and more pressing avoca-
tions, and have been subject to the frequent interruptions
which fall to the lot of the observer who is prevented from
devoting continuous attention to his work. This may in some
measure explain any want of cohesion and strict systematic
arrangement that may be apparent in the method of treating
the subjects dealt with, whilst my short residence in New
Brunswick disqualifies me from writing an exhaustive treatise
on its natural history. Nevertheless I hope, as one of the first
attempts towards elucidating the natural history of an im-
portant and interesting portion of the Canadian Dominion,
that my little volume may receive some favour, more
especially on the other side of the Atlantic, where cultivators
of this branch of learning have not, until of late years, been
by any means numerous. Indeed, considering the inviting
fields presented by the New World, it appears surprising
how little has been accomplished in what naturalists call
Field Studies ; for although almost every animal and many
of the plants and rocks have been named and described,
very little is known of their geographical distribution, which
has elsewhere been ascertained by compounding the labours
of local and independent observers. The explanation of

viii Pre/a^.

this defect, at all events as regards North America, might
be accounted for on the hitherto flominant principle that the
sole aim of science should strictly be utility as applied to
the physical wants and interests of mankind ; or, in other
words, that whatever learning did not show the all-mighty
• Dollar in prospective, was at once to be condemned as futile !
This dogma, so apparent formerly, is now, however, rapidly
vanishing, both in the Uhited States and Canada.

Reverting to the circumstances under which the following
observations were obtained, it might not be altogether out
of place were I to indite a few further remarks, mostly with
the view of recommending the study of the natural sciences
to individuals who may enjoy the leisure and taste for like
pursuits. Yet I wish more particularly to address myself
to the younger officers of the Army and Navy, and to none
more pointedly than members of my own profession, whose
previous studies render them especially adapted for prose-
cuting physical inquiries.

Thus, a knowledge of human anatomy, physiology,
chemistry, and botany, forming portions of a medical educa-
tion, is eminently qualified to foster tastes for natural history
researches ; whilst, on the other hand, the grand principles
of the construction and functional agencies of lowlier
organisms, mineralogy, and surface geology, would doubtless
prove of great advantage in the elucidation of some obscure
and hidden forms of disease, their causes, and remedies. The
benefits, however, derivable under these heads are so self-
evident that further comment seems to me unnecessary. In
fine, let me exhort Army and Navy officers generally to try
physical studies as remedies for idleness during the many
leisure hours spent in often less profitable undertakings, for
Nature's field is broad and inviting, so that he who runs may
read. To my confreres experienced in travel I would bring
the matter home in this way — Think of the dreary, listless
life on the foreign station ; the cankering ennui and trying

Pre/ace. ix

climate ; no books, no recreations, to turn to excepting the
one unknown book of Nature spread out before him, which,
however, is about the last he feels himself capable of perusing.
He may know thoroughly the theory and practice of his
immediate calling, but not having been taught to seek an
acquaintance with any of the collateral sciences beyond -his
own, he looks on the teeming beauties of the external world
with in( ifference, so that

" A primrose by the river's brim
A yellow primrose is to him,
And it is nothing more." "

The topography of countries and physical geography of the
sea are to him sealed letters. He may be wandering in
regions where no physical inquirer ever set foot, and be sur-
rounded on all sides by natural objects both inviting and
instructive. But his eye had not been trained to an inquisi-
tive appreciation of Nature, and it is just as much as he can
do to take in a few salient points which, even by comparison
with former experiences, fall dead on an understanding
already dulled and surfeited by a profusion of nu; J^ that is
grand and beautiful in Creation. It is needless to remark
what a panacea for idleness, and its often frightful train of
evils, is the study of Nature, and in particular to persons so
circumstanced, I am not, however, advocating its cause on
the strength of b ing oi ly a method of keeping one's hand
out of a worse turn, but in the belief that the highest and
most important object of all human science ought to be
mental improvement (using the term in its most comprehen-
sive sense), and that when pursued with a different aim its
effects are often rather pernicious than beneficial. The study
of Nature, in particular field-work, when properly cultivated,
is assuredly adapted to invigorate discipline, and develop the
mental powers, and thus supply materials for the grandest
ultimate truths. It robs the mind of contracted and pigmy

X Preface.

ideas, and teaches us to take close as well as comprehensive
views of objects, and argue from facts and not from notions,
— a Temple of Science, to enter which in a suitable mood of
thought will awaken the holiest and most lofty conceptions,
and where the mind of the worshipper, instead of being
dwarfed as heretofore, will find its powers become colossal,
and be expanded by the Genius of the place. " The reason,"
says Aristotle, " why men do not sufficiently attend to facts
is the want of experience, hence those accustomed to physical
inquiries are more competent to lay down the principles
which have an extensive application ; whereas others, who
have been accustomed to many assumptions without the
confutation of reality, rarely lay down principles, because
they take few things into consideration."* So spoke the
great Stagirite 2,200 years ago ; it cannot therefore be other-
wise than gratifying to such of Dame Nature's disciples as
have devoted their lives to a consideration of her rich and
inexhaustible stores, to observe how her grand truths begin
to be appreciated, and that too in academic halls where not
long since it was considered an offence to associate natural
science teachings with the humaniora.

I shall now proceed with the thread of a narrative which
began long years since, and has been continued on to Malta,
from whence I now take it up.

With persons who have devoted considerable attention to
the physical phenomena of any region, there is engendered an
amor loci almost like that for one's native land. I can well
remember the 24th of March, 1866, when, from the deck of
the troopship "Simoom," I watched the familiar cliffs of the
above-mentioned island fading in the distant horizon, and
how there came over me feelings of regret at bidding adieu
to scenes which for the previous six years had afforded me
much mental instruction c.nd pleasurable occupation. But
having been heretofore a wandering student of nature, and

* "DeGen. et Corr.," i, 2, 316.

1

jP^ Preface. ^ W .

accustomed to sudden "nterruptions before my programme
was completed, I had no alternative but to submit to the
decrees of fortune, and break fresh ground where she chose
to place me. Our vessel reached Gibraltar in the course of a
few days, when I enjoyed a hurried visit to the famous bone-
caves of the Rock, Among members of the public services,
civil, naval, and military, whose avocations call them fre-
quently, and at very short notice and considerable risks, to
sojourn in foreign and often inhospitable lands, there is a
small class who, without any professed knowledge of science,
collect stores of natural objects, which they freely deposit in
home museums or hand over to the cabinet naturalist for
description. Such an example, and one of the most pains- . .
taking and indefatigable, was the late Captain Brome. This
enterprising cave explorer, by means of the military prisoners
under his command, conducted a scries of excavations which
eventuated in very important discoveries in connection with
the bygone history of the Rock, during periods far anterior
to any written records, but possibly coeval with the presence
of man on this portion of Spain, when there was a direct
land communication between the two continents. These
researches wouid therefore be of intense interest to me, in
connection with similar phenomena I had been investigating
in the little insular group just left; inasmuch as, when the
two are compounded, they furnish very cogent proofs of
the great physical changes which the entire basin of the
Mediterranean has undergone during epochs no doubt far
back in the ordinary computation of time, but of modern date
in the chronology of the geologist. Nineteen days after
leaving Gibraltar we entered the Bay of Fundy, and shortly
afterwards proceeded to New Brunswick, where the following
notes were taken. These I will now lay before the reader,
much in the same form as I have already attempted to
describe the natural objects of other lands.

Here I must express my obligations to those gentlemen

J

xii Preface,

who have furnished me with valued information. To the late
Governor, the Honourable Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon,
G.C.M.G., my thanks are due for several interesting facts
in connection with the local natural history, besides what
will be referred to in the sequel. I am also indebted to my
friend Dr. Jack, LL.D., Principal of the University of New-
Brunswick, for many important points in connection with the
physi>..al geography of the region ; and to Mr. Hannay, for
data referring to the early colonization of the Province and
the history of the aborigines.

My best thanks are owing to Mr. Pope, of Prince Edward
Island, for several observations on the local natural history,
as well as a very interesting collection of ancient stone
implements found by him in the island.

Lastly, I am indebted to the master-hand of my distin-
guished friend J. Gould, F.R.S., for the appropriate vignette
on the title-page, and also to my esteemed young friend
R. De Courcy Laffan, Esq., for valued aid.

To Mr. G. Taylor, photographic artist, Fredericton, I am
under obligations for the care and trouble bestowed by him
in taking photographs of several of the natural objects in the
work, ,

London, January, 1873.

CONTENTS

PART I.
CHAPTER 1.

PAGE

New Brunswick : General Sketch of its Resources, Physical
Aspect, Climate, and Natural Products — Arrival at St. John —
Local Politics — River Scer'^ry — Fredericton — Natives, their
Past and Present — Stone Age, Sculptures, Ancient Kitchen
Middens— Disappearance of certain Animals during the His-
torical Period - -- i

: CHAPTER II.

Backwoods Men- -Influence of the Climate on the Anglo-Saxon
— Modes of Living — Thoughts on Emigration — French Settlers
of Tracadie, Leprosy — Charms of Forest Life — Native and
Euiopean Myths — The Puma, Lynx, Wild Cat— Sable and its
varieties — Mink, Weasel — Fisher Cat, Skunk, and Otter — In-
crease of the Wild Quadrupeds of Nova Scotia — On Species
Making — Bear — Influence of Forest Reclamation on the Habits
of Animals — Fox and its Varieties — Albinism and Melanism - 40

CHAPTER III.

Aspect of the Forest after a Snow-storm — Tracks of Wil 1 Animals
on the Snow — Hare ; its changes of Pile — Adaptation of the
Feet of Wild Animals for Snow Travelling — Feet of Moose and
Caribou compared — Their Habits — Extermination — Moose and
Irish Elk compared — On the Interment of Fossil Deer —
Enormous Horns of Moose-^Modes of Hunting the Native Deer
— Origin of Moss Swamps and Caribou Barrens — The Pitcher

XIV

Cofitents.

PAGE

Plant — Beaver; its Habits and Extermination — Musk Rat —
Porcupine, small Muridae — Bats — Squirrels — Melanism — Flying
Squirrels — Effects of the Climate on European Brown Rat and
Mouse 7^

CHAPTER IV.

The Lumberer's Camp Life and Hospitality — Forest Fires —Bar-
barous Mode of Hunting the Moose — Moose Yard — Moose
Hunt — Difficulties of Forest Travelling — Natural Decay of
Forest Trees — Lost in the Wilderness loi

PART IL

BIRDS AND REPTILES.

CHAPTER V.

Rapacious Birds — Bald headed Eagles stooping on Fish — Similitude
between Birds of Boreal America, Asia, and Europe — Hawks,
Owls — Effects of Climate and Civilization on certain Rapacious
Birds — Numerical Estimate of the Migratory and Resident
Birds — Eflects of Cold and Climate on the inward and outward
Economies of Animals and Plants — Results of Climate on
cer<^ain Indigenous and Foreign Animals and Trees — Pines split
by Frost — A Silver Frost — Climate affecting Fruits — Ox-eye
Daisy — Crows and Jays — Canada Jay assuming the Habits of
the Kingfisher — The Thrushes — Robin and his Habits — Young
Birds Feeding vlieir Companions — Songs of American Thrushes
— Catbird, or Carolina Mocking-bird ; its modes of Mimicking
Sounds — Woodpeckers prospecting rotting Pine Trunks — The
Log-cock — Differences in dimension of Species from different
Latitudes and Longitudes — Birds laying indefinite numbers of
Eggs - - -

117

CHAPTER VI.

Habits and Haunts of the Ruby-throated Humming-bird — Migratory
Movements of Warblers — Swallows and their Migrations —
Influence of Forest Clearing on the Habits of Birds — Birds
abandoning their Young at the Migratory Season — Waxwings :
their Love Gambols — Departure and Arrival of the Crow Black-
bird— Loves and Courtships of Birds 144

*i^-"- -T

$

Contents. XV

CHAPTER VII.

PAGE

Discomforts of Sleighing during Thaws — Effects of unusually Cold
Seasons on Winter Migratory Birds — Winter-breeding Birds —
Crossbills and their Varieties of Plumage — Possible Causes of
the Crossing of the Mandibles and bending of the Beaks of
certain Birds — Deformed Beaks of Birds — Habits and Modes of
Nesting of the White-winged Crossbill — The Pine Bullfinch —
Redpoll — Snow Bunting — Snow Bird — Familiarity of Forest-
loving Birds — Partridges and their unsuspicious Ways —
Partridge Shooting — Dogs trained to Point at Partridges in
Trees -----159

CHAPTER VIII.

Directions and Causes of the Migrations of the Birds of Boreal
America, and Laws bearing on Variation of Species — Ducks
Building in Trees — Abnormal Habits of Animals — Celibacy
among Birds — Strange Habits of the Great Northern Diver —
Attachment to its Young — A Loon Hunt — Reptiles — Turtles,
Snakes — Frogs — Tritons. ;

PART III.

FISHES.

CHAPTER IX. .

Salmon ; its Decadence — Object of my Excursion to the Schoodic
Lakes — Forest Scenery — Incidents of Travel — Maine and its
Liquor Laws — Lewey's and Long Lakes — Silvery Salmon Trout
— Fly Pest — Trout Fishing — Description of the Silvery Salmon
Trout — Grand Lake ; its Scenery — Glacial Erosion — Parasites
in Fishes — Effects of Light on Coloration of Fishes — Sea Trouts
of Europe and America -------- 201

CHAPTER X

The Brook Trout of North America, and its Varieties — Trout
Fishing, and Game Qualities of the Brook Trout — Lake Trouts
of Boreal America — The Mackinau Salmon or Namaycush, or
Great Trout of the Lakes — The Siscowet — The Togue — Distri-
bution, Haunts, and Distinctions of the Species — Lake Trout

I

XVI

Contaits.

Fishing — Smelt -of North America — Capelin — White Fishes-
Shads — Cusk — Alewive — St/iped Bass Fishing — Perches and
Lake Bass — Sturgeon Fisheries- — Lamprey — Cat Fish— Eels —
American Hake — Marine Fishes 229

PART IV

GEOLOGY.

CHAPTER XI.

Geology — Rocks and Soils — Primary Rocks — Interment of recent
Fishes in Strata — Coal Measures — Physical Features of the
Coal Beds — Episode of Forest Life — New Red Sandstone —
Glacial Phenomena, past and present — Table of Rock For-
mations, with their valuable Minerals 261

CHAPTER XII.

The Naturalist's Calendar, showing the Changes of Climate, the

Arrivals and Departures of Migratory Birds, Fishes, etc. - , 2I '

APPENDIX.

Quadrupeds .-.. 295

List of the Birds of New Brunswick - - . - - - - 296

Reptiles •J03

Amphibians ------...--. 303

Climate . . - . 307

Meteorological Observations 308

Table of Monthly and Seasonal Means of Temperature, etc. - 320

Consanguinity of Tracadie Lepers - 32 1

:EWeJler,Lu}v

5^^-

ira3 History

NEW BRUNSWICK.

ArwCenjO huiian. Hitchtn-rmeldtng.

tr, liOv'

Siltr^' X Ki/tff £■ Cc 65 Corti}aU, London.

.

SCULPrrRE FOUND ON THE BANKS OF LAKE UTOPIA.

CHAPTER I. '

New Brunswick : General Sketch of its Resources, Physical Aspect,
Climate, and Natural Products — Arrival at St. John — Local Politics
— River Scenery — Fredericton — Natives, their Past and Present —
Stone Age, Sculptures, Ancient Kitchen Middens — Disappearance
of certain Animals during the Historical Period.

WHERE is New Brunswick.-' asked a young friend when
the order arrived at Malta directing our regiment to
proceed to this colony. I confess to having had a rather vague
notion of its whereabouts on the occasion in question, and I
dare say there may be some of my readers similarly affected.
At all events, my interrogator and m5^self were soon informed,
inasmuch as, fetching the fine old Imperial Atlas presented
to the corps by the late Lord Gough when he commanded the
regiment, we traced out the limits of New Brunswick as
follows : It lies between Lat. 45° and 48= 5' W., Long. 63° 50'
and 67° 5 3' N. It is separated from Lower Canada (now Quebec)
by the River Restigouche and Bay of Chaleur on the north, and
is bounded on the east by the Gulf of the St. Lawrence ; west,
by the State of Maine ; and south, by Nova Scotia and Bay of
Fundy. As compared with its sister provinces — to wit. Nova

B

2 FUId and Forest Rajnbles.

Scotia, Quebec and Ontario, i icluding Prince Edward's Island,
New Brunswick is comparatively a wilderness region ; indeed,
with the exception of the southern portion, little has yet
been done towards reclaiming the vast forests about the
sources of the Upper St. John River,* and where the Miramichi
and Restigouche take their rise. These embrace districts pre-
senting all the features of the primitive forests of other por-
^.ons of the continent; and, although for the most part thinned
by the axe of the woodman, they continue still to maintain
their ancient denizens, in spite of the trapper and hunter.
The moose, woodland reindeer, bear, beaver, sable, mink, etc.,
although greatly reduced and decreasing in numbers as com-
pared with former years, are not yet on the verge of extinction ;
and while the excessive waste and destruction by man of the
fishes in the lakes and nmninsf waters have greatly reduced
their numbers, still, notwithstanding the shutting off of migra-
tory species by means of mill-dams and other artificial barriers,
and the illicit use of the spear and net, vast shoals of salmon,
white fishes, smelts, shad, etc., continue to frequent a few of
their ancient haunts, and require only a safe passage through
obstructions, and some conside-ation on the part of the settlers,
to increase and multiply in many inland waters from which
they had been expelled.

New Brunswick therefore embraces three degrees of lati-
tude, and is upwards of 200 miles in breadth, and, although the
least populated of the four grand provinces composing the
Dominion of Canada, is watered by many large rivers, besides
noble lakes, all of which now present a remarkable contrast,
as regards the numbers of the fishes, with the boundless
waters washing its shores. So much is this the case, that,
turning to the narrative? of the early voyagers and settlers, we
find that incredible quantities of fishes frequented localities

* The St. John is 450 miles ih length, and navigable more or less to
its sources, with the exception of the Grand Falls, distant 225 miles from
the ocean ; the falls are about 60 feet in height.

Destruction of Food Fishes. 3

where not one individual now exists; and, on referring to dates,
it will be observed that less than a century has sufficed to bring
about this extinction. I shall frequently refer to the rapid
extermination of many animals through human agency, and
to the destructive propensity which characterizes the settlers
of the present day — a wanton love of destruction, in many
instances similar to that of the Indian, as if a spice of the old
savage nature still lurked in them also. No doubt the impru-
dent use of the spear and net has been the chief cause of the
decrease in inland fisheries, but the most efifectual modes of
extermination have been through mill-dams, and pollution of
rivers and their bottoms.

On these points all inquirers are unanimous, whilst it is the
belief of many that, by proper surveillance, introduction of
fish-ways, and prohibition of nuisances, the salmon will return
to his ancient haunts. I am doubtful, however, if this will be
a sovereign remedy. I doubt very much whether a salmon
will care to go up streams paved several feet deep with
decomposing sawdust and rubbish, to find a by no means
tempting entrance to the dam, and when that is surmounted
another or another expanse of the same bottom before he
gains clear water. Surely, small blame to him shoulu he be
somewhat punctilious under such circumstances, more especi-
ally in rivers choked up by rubbish and lumber for long
distances above their debouchures.

There are few rivers better adapted for migratory fishes than
the St. John. From its mouth to the Grand Falls, there drain
into it no less than fourteen large influents, once the favourite
haunts of salmon, shad, gaspereau, etc. ; and even now, with
all the poaching and obstructions, it is wonderful that any fishes
attempt to run up : indeed, almost every second salmon or
grilse caught by the rod either presents spear wounds, or is
maimed in some manner by standing nets. Not lotig since
many hundreds of salmon were speared on the spawning-beds
of the Miramichi River, in order to procure ova for transmission

B 2

4 • Field and Forest Rambles.

to the United States ! Fortunately, the St. John is too broad to
be efifectually netted ; so that, if its influents were protected,
there would not be much difficulty in re-stocking them.

The waves of the Atlantic impinge on shores deeply indented
by bays, creeks, fiords, and river estuaries, up which the
majestic tidal wave rushes for miles, and mingles with fresh,
water far above the usual limits observed in European rivers
So enormous is the pressure on the influent waters of the
St. John, that a spring tide raises the river eight inches at
the capital, eighty-two miles from its mouth. Moreover, the
vertical rise in some of the most distant reaches of the Bay of
Fundy attains the unexampled height of sixty to seventy feet,
or even more. Such conditions, therefore, must doubtless favour
the migrations of the finny tribes.

The attractions of the lakes, rivers, and forests, the unpa-
ralleled beauty of the foliage in autumn, the glorious sunsets,
and the sombre and impressive grandeur of the forest solitudes,
are all full of art studies, whilst the disciples of Nimrod and
good old Isaak Walton may, by proper selection of season and
locality, indulge their tastes to the fullest extent.

The country is exceedingly flat, the highest point scarcely
exceeding 3,000 feet above the level of the sea.*

The climate, although' far more severe and trying as regard

extremes of cold and heat than that of Great Britain, is, with

the usual precautions, well adapted to the constitution of the

Northman. Of course the coast region enjoys milder seasons

than the central and northern portions. The Newfoundland

fogs cool the summer heat, and the extremes of winter are

tempered by southern winds and oceanic currents, — neither of

which, however, extend their influences beyond short distances

inland. Indeed, so marked are the differences between the

climates of the interior parts compared with the coast region,

* Bald Mountain, near the sources of the Nepsiguit and Tobique rivers,
is in one of the wildest and least explored regions of the province.
The height of this mountain has not been carefully measured, but possibly
it is not less than 2,500 feet above the sea.

Climate and Seasonal Condiiions. 5

that the maxima of ten degrees of heat and twenty-one degrees
of cold obtain in the former ever the climate of the seaboard.

Among the first impressions of Canadian scenery, few are
more striking than the freezing, snowing over, and breaking up
of the ice on the great rivers and lakes. The short-lived but hot
summer is succeeded by the sharp biting frosts of autumn, and
a long and rigorous winter, occupying more than half the year.
There is no spring worthy of the name ; for the rush from winter
hoar to refulgent summer is so rapid that the leaf buds and
opens out in the course of two days. It is the absence of that
gradual transition from one extreme of temperature to another
that arrests the attention of the fresh arrival, as compared
with the climate of England.

Towards the end of October, soon after the hard-wood
forests have cast off their gorgeous autumnal attire, and those
beautifully coloured leaves that hang so gracefully and decorate
so grandly many a spreading maple, now lie stiff and faded on
the soil ; when the snipe and woodcock have left the alder
swamp, and with all the summer birds of passage are on their
way to Florida and the south, and the time has arrived when
the hare and weasel are turning grey ; then it is we look forward
to the severe frosts that are to close up the navigation and
cause the steamboats to beat a hasty retreat seaward. First,
there forms some shore ice along the banks, then portions float
downwards, and, provided a north-wester is blowing, these soon
coalesce and run in fields, gliding silently onwards. The pas-
senger steamboats which plied daily during the summer months
are in readiness for immediate departure, and probably before
two days they have gone, for the sheets of ice begin to join, con-
solidate, get packed, and forced under and above one another,
so that there is no knowing how soon the river may be frozen
over completely. Sometimes without any premonitory appear-
ances there is an equal freezing all over, and the surface
becomes like a mirror in a single night ; but oftener, from the
pressure of the floes, the surface becomes very rough and un-

6 * * Field and Forest Rambles.

even. As the words pass from mouth to mouth, " The river has
closed ! " idlers stroll toward the bank to witness adventurers
with their long poles picking their way from hummock to
hummock, until at length they gain the shore. Next day it is
perfectly safe ; skaters are seen wherever the ice is unbroken,
and horses and sleighs cross. The river is now hermetically
sealed for the next five months, unless at what are called " air-
holes," where several blocks jammed together cause an eddy
which does not freeze up for some weeks afterwards. The
latter is one of the dangers in skating and travelling on the
rivers, until the safe portions have been indicated by sticking
pine saplings along the routes. Should an unsuspecting traveller
fall into one of these open air cavities, he will most assuredly
be carried under the ice if the current is at all strong, his only
chance, in the absence of assistance, being to swim against
the current. One afternoon 1 saw a skater piump into one of
these dangerous places, when suddenly another, observing the
accident, pulled off his coat, and as he skated past the man in
the water, tossed it towards him, who caught the sleeve, and was
dragged out by the impetus wherewith the other was going.
The feat was done so cleverly that I asked the performer if he
had been accustomed to save persons in that way, and he told
me that he had pulled many out of air-holes, and that provided
one is a good skater and can get near enough to the individual,
there is no more ready and efficacious method. On another
occasion I observed a skater fail, when another pulled off his
coat and dashed toward the drowning man, who caught it, and
was lying on the ice in a shorter time than I take to write down
the fact. The best skating takes place immediately after the
freezing-over. Sometimes when the ice is glare and smooth,
a good skater can in a few hours go down from Fredericton,
the capital, to St. John, over eighty miles. The climate
inland is dry, cold, and bracing, with a clear atmosphere and
most exhilarating, so that when well wrapped up one abso-
lutely does not feel a temperature many degrees under zero

IVitiier Aspect of the Rivers. f

so much as a few degrees under freezing in a damp, raw
atmosphere. I have often thought what a change to the fishes
this freezing over of the rivers must be. In all but total dark-
ness for months, first dimly supplied through their ice roofs,
then a heavy fall of snow, and it is eternal night to them until
the breaking up in April.

About the middle of November skating is brought to a
sudden termination by snow filling up all the rough, uneven
surfaces of the rivers, which are now converted into unbroken
plains, with the mighty waters flowing on silently beneath.
All now is winter-Hke ; the sleighs glide along to the music
of many a merry bell ; every one is well muffled up, for the
severest frost takes place before Christmas. The wood-cutter
has gone to fell trees, a solemn silence reigns in the forest,
save the cracking of the branches at night from cold, which
now and then attains to 37'' below zero of Fahrenheit. We
take long walks on snow shoes, — the sporting cor nunity in
particular, in order to get themselves into working order for
the reindeer and moose hunting. Looking along the bosom
of the St. John, all is one vast mantle of snow, save a black
spot here and there representing a man fishing for cusk
through a hole in the ice, or a dead bullock or horse dragged
to the surface to await the breaking-up in spring. February
and March bring more and more snow, which is piled up in
great masses along the streets above the pavements, — some
three to four feet on an average covering the country, and
quadruple that thickness where it has drifted; then there is no
travelling save by sleighs and snow shoes.

At length, towards the end of March, the struggle between
the sun and the cold begins to show signs of terminating in
favour of the former, for the day is lengthening out, and
although there is hard frost at night, the heat softens the sur-
face by midday. The migratory thrush, better known as
"Robin," comes in about this time, and the snow bird and Penn-
sylvanian sparrow utter their welcome measures on fence and

8 Field and Forest Rambles.

tree ; and the crow draws nearer to man. There is skating and
trabogging in the early part of the day. The latter requires me
to state that this amusement is performed by means of small
sleighs with broad polished runners, on which two or more are
seated. When on some beaten path, or where the surface snow
has become so hard and glazed as to bear a heavy man, then
with feet or sticks we guide the sleigh as it flies down the slope,
the only drawback being the trouble of pulling it up. Again,
these pleasant social gatherings break the monotony of the short,
dull winter's day, and accordingly old as well as young often
take delight in the harmless and healthy pastime in spite of
many a mishap of a very ludicrous nature, such as when some
unapt steersman lands his fair burden in a snow wreath, or
dives thereinto head-foremost, so that the feet only are left
visible above the surface.

April showers begin to tell on the river, and balmy south-
easters, like the Fohen of the Alps, eat away the snow which
vanishes before our eyes. It is getting unsafe to cross the
river, and the ice is giving way round the margins, and is
rising in the centre so that the water on the surface runs off
by the sides. We hear of the gradual opening up of the
navigation from the mouth upwards, and of large fields having
broken up and run out. Still we can cross the river with a pole,
but no horse is safe. At last it is only after a frosty night
that we can venture over, and then the raftsman, accustomed
to run from log to log, is about the only one brave enough to
venture across. Sometimes when he is in mid-river the whole
mass begins to move, and he has a narrow escape. Now
comes the grand finale — the enormous pressure from above
piles vast sheets pell-mell on each other, or sends tons upon
tons of solid ice (blocks often averaging twelve to twenty-four
inches in thickness) against the bank, tearing up soil, and
pushing everything befo'-e them.

Occasionally an island in mid-river, formed of alluvium, and
famous for its splendid crops of hay, gets completely covered

Bnakmg-iip of the Ice in spring. 9

with stones pushed up by stranded icebergs. It is not
the detached blocks that do the harm so much as large
fields of ice ; these come along at the rate of about three
miles and a half an hour, with an enormous movicntum —
so much so, that in one instance a wooden house, built
on a jetty on the bank, had its upper story completely
carried away by the advancing icebergs, which absolutely
cut the building in two just as the inmates were making
their escape. The ice, covered with stones, logs, and rubbish,
crushing and seething in huge hummocks, forms a perfect
picture of chaos. I have thought in the pell-mell arrangement
that there is some similitude between the river then and the
rugged surface of a lava field broken up and fissured.*

The inhabitants on the banks of the St. John look forward
to this breaking up with interest, less now, however, since
the railway has made them independent of water carriage ;
still, at all times, it effectually dispelled the dull monotony of
the long winter. At length the cry that the river is going
sends the anxious to gaze on the remarkable scene. " It has
started!" exclaims one, and just as the already shattered
mass has commenced to move, there is a jam somewhere,
above or below, that causes the shore ice to rise up, and
hummock after hummock standing on edge, scores and rubs
the banks ; njw ploughing up the soil, then impinging so
heavily on the solid pier made of huge pine trunks, that it
absolutely knocks a hole through them as one would push
his finger through pie-crust.

The damming back caused by the floes riding over and
submerging each other, often becomes a serious matter with
the inhabitants located in the intervales or river valley along
its banks, thus causing the water to rise and flood the surface
to a dangerous extent, as I will show in the sequel in the case
of the . :pital, when the banking back raised the waters so
high that the town was inundated.

* See page 277.

lO Field and Forest Rambles.

Reference will also .be made to the fertility of the
surfaces annually overflowed by the river. These islands and
river valley flats produce luxuriant hay crops, which are
stacked in barns placed on more elevated points, but which,
however, during the breaking up of the ice in spring, are some-
times carried off bodily, and go to form the heterogeneous
flotsam and debris observable on such occasions, drifting pell-
mell with the ice floes. During one such occurrence a large
shed-full of hay was seen passing Fredericton perched on the
shattered tops of a huge ice island,* when an adventurous person,
springing from berg to berg, managed to attach a rope to the
structure, which was eventually brought ashore. It takes two
or three days uefore the chief body of ice has run seaward,
whilst masses continue piled up along the banks for a few
. weeks. By the end of April, the loud scream of the steamer's
whistle attracts every one to the landing, and, although not a
blade of grass has yet sprung, and not a bud opened out, yet
with all the mud and mire consequent on the thawing, we are
delighted to welcome back this harbinger of civilization, and
to look forward to six months of something like what we had
been accustomed to in old England. Looking at the above
phenomena as . exponents of periods unrecorded, I must say
they are of intense value to the geologist, for granting they
may be feeble in force, still, as I will attempt to point out in
the conclusion, they have important bearings, which he will
always do well to study when attempting an interpretation of
far-back epochs in the earth's history.

One of the most interesting and suggestive subjects in
connection with the natural history of this region, is that
referring to the early condition of the aborigines, and the

* The St. John, for reasons stated, cannot, of course, be a rapid river.
During the inundations, it has been roughly computed, by Dr. Jack,
LL.D., Principal of the University of New Brunswick, to flow at the
rate of about five miles an hour ; but subsequently, and when frozen
over, the velocity is very much less.

^ Natural History Capabilities of the Region. 1 1

causes which have brought about the marked deterioration of
race since the advent of the whites ; nor are the results of
civilization and reclamation of the primeval forest, on the
lower forms of life, much less worthy of attention. The
migrations of the birds, their numerical prevalence as com-
pared with former years and other lands, together with the
local Reptology, Ichthyology, etc., also furnish new and
instructive data. The Botanical productions offer a wide and
very interesting field, and have not hitherto, as a whole, been
accurately tabulated. The Geology is extremely inviting, and
affords materials of great scientific and economic value. Such
are the main features of the country to which reference will be
made in the following pages.

A strange enchantment creeps over the traveller — more
especially should he possess an inquisitive mind — when,
transplanted to a new country, he finds himself surrounded
by a diversity of natural objects ; some perfect strangers,
others similar, or so closely allied to what he had seen before,
that they at once recall associations of far-distant countries.
But first impressions being hastily formed, are very often
anything but correct ; nevertheless they create materials
,for pleasant after-reflections. I cannot, for example, forget
my first impressions of tropical scenery as displayed in the
luxuriance and verdure of the Seychelle Islands, nor of the
plains of Hindoostan from the tops of the western Ghauts, the
colossal grandeur of the Himalayas — to wit, my first glimpses
of the Vale of Cashmere, a bird's-eye view of a Tartar steppe,
Egypt from the Pyramids, the Nubian Desert, Switzerland,
and the Alpine tops and valleys from the Righi, Vesuvius,
etc.; all of which, in spite of years, remain still so indelibly im-
pressed on my memory as to appear but visions of yesterday.
But the enjoyment derived from a contemplation of Nature is
oftener better appreciated by reflection afterwards than at the
time. Perhaps the reason may be, to some extent, that we are

12 Field and Forest Rambles.

too busy in studying the attractions of objects to turn towards
a general meditation on the pleasure in connection with the
scenery, climate, and incidents of travel. All these come back
in the form of agreeable recollections subsequently, especially
if conjured up under circumstances likely to make them
more appreciated. Thus I often recall very pleasurable
remembrances of foreign lands merely by comparison with less
agreeable scenes at home, and particularly when contrasted
with dismal London fogs and uninviting landscapes.

I must acknowledge, however, that it was an extremely bitter
April day when our vessel cast anchor in the harbour of St.
John, New Brunswick. The snow had scarcely disappeared,
ajid the noble river, flooded by up-country thaws, was pouring
its gelid waters into the Bay of Fundy, whilst the great tidal
wave, compressed on either side, was rapidly rising to levels
far above what are seen elsewhere ; at all events as compared
with the shores of the Mediterranean which we had lately left.
Recounting first impressions, I may briefly, en passant, jot
down the chief novelties that greeted us on the above occa-
sion ; to wit, the muddy streets and wooden side pavements,
which give one- an idea of walking over a log bridge ; the
busy, bustling inhabitants and their wharfs crowded by piles
of timber ready for shipment. Naturally, there was always,
a regular exodus from the city of the inquisitive to see new
comers, which they were in the habit of repeating weekly on
the occasion of the advent of the steamboats from the States,
just like the squireen who comes down from the domain to see
the coach come in ; and why not } But withal these were
troubled times as compared with ordinary occasions, for can-
nons were bristling on the heights of Carleton opposite, and
the St. John Militia were out. In fact, the good folks on
shore were in a ferment, for there was a threatened Fenian
invasion, which we had been ordered on from Malta to assist
in repelling. At all events the mandate came to us to " Clear
decks!" " Bank fires, and prepare to depart at the shortest

First Impressions of N^ew Brunswick. 13

notice ! " So sending the non-combatants on shore, we hung
about in harbour during the next ten days, expecting either
to sail, or what was, I suspect, more congenial to the tastes of
some of us — viz., an order to disembark and make ourselves
comfortable on the mainland.

These were anxious days, however, to many, but possibly far
less serious than rumour stated ; at all events, to us, they were
uncommonly uncomfortable, seeing that a cold north wind blew
down river, and often a chopping sea prevented the inquisitive
from landing to view the lions of the place, thus driving us
to become victims of that horrid tedium and "that awful yawn
which sleep cannot abate." Being tied to the ship, we felt the
restraint the more that it was forced, whilst diversities of
opinion as to the crisis seemed to indicate that the step was
unnecessary, some politicians who came on board asserting
that the whole affair was a hoax got up by our American
cousins to bother John Bull on account of the precious
Alabama. Others looked with earnest faces at our red coats,
ana remarked that " Colonel Harding and his fine fellows had
not come an hour sooner than wanted " ! At length the rigour
of martial law slackened, and availing myself of the opportu-
nity, I proceeded on shore for the purpose of examining a
remarkable fragment of Old Red Sandstone which fringes this
portion of the southern coast, and overlies a series of strata
supposed to belong to the same age as those of Ontario, in
which Sir William Logan discovered the oldest known fossil,
named the Eozoon Canadense.'' As our captain's gig dropped
astern of the transport "Simoon," and was being rowed towards
Carleton, numbers of fishing boats were seen dragging nets
heavily laden with the well-known American shad named
the "Alewive," which at this season crowds the harbour before
proceeding up the rivers for spawning purposes ■ indeed so
burdened were several of the nets that the wonder was how

* See Dawson, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xxi., p. 51; and
Carpenter, ditto, p. 59.

14 Field and Forest Rambles.

the meshes held together.* 1 thought of the poor Maltese
fisherman who so often slaves all day and catches little, and
of the adventurous natives of old Albion, who frequently go
forth on the same errand never to return, while here among
crowded steamboats and heavily-laden wood vessels, the hardy
New Brunswicker encloses such great multitudes of fishes that
his net fills the boats until they wellnigh sink.

The interesting locality famous for the beautiful specimens
of fossil plants met with in the above-mentioned Old Red
Sandstone beds is fully a mile distant from Carleton. The
" Fern Ledges," as they are familiarly called, comprehend
shelves of shale covered by seaweed, which the geologist
must remove before cleaving the rock, when he will disclose
most beautiful and perfect impressions of ferns and numerous
other cryptogamic plants, many of which have been described
by Mr. Hart and Dr. Dawson,t and doubtless more remain for
the assiduous palaeontologist.

One of the chief characteristics of New Brunswick scenery
is its flatness, — the traveller's difficulty being to attain an
elevation wherefrom a prospect can be obtained. Excepting
the ridges and low hills in the neighbourhood of the city
of St. John, and the higher lands in the northern part of
the province, it is rare to meet with an eminence command-
ing anything like an extensive view. To him, therefore, who
has sojourned on the Continent of Europe, there will come
an occasional feeling of disappointment — such as that which
strikes the tourist on the Nile, when, in the absence of
monuments of antiquity, he is continually surrounded by

* ** The annual catch of this shad in the harbour of St. John varies
from 12,000 to 16,000 barrels, and sometimes reaches 20,000 barrels."
This represents an enormous weight of fishes, seeing that a barrel is cal-
culated to contain about 196 lb. of flour. Of course a smaller figure
would be required for fish, unless when packed herring-fashion. — See
Perleys Catalogue, p. 208.

t Hart, Appendix A., p. 131, Bailey's Report, and Dawson, -(4m^. GeoL,
p. 514 ; and Jour. Geol. Soc. London, vol. xvii., p. 296, 1862.

New Brunswick Scenery. 15

mud banks, and patches of cultivation, or the eternal same-
ness of the desert. This, however, should not perplex the
student of nature.

The St. John derived its name from the early voyagers,
but the circumstances under which it was so designated
are not altogether clear.* To the natives it was known by
the name VVollastook, or Awolostook, which signifies " big
river." It is indeed a grand and noble river, for, independent
of its navigability, there is an annual inundation like that of
the Nile, at the spring freshets, when the low or carse lands
become flooded, and settlements insulated, <50 that when the
retrocession takes place, irrespective of irrigation, there has
been a deposit of fertilizing mud thrown down, which serves
to nourish the grass, and produce remunerative hay crops,
especially on the islands. It takes several hours to steam up-
river, and there are many turnings and twistings which open
up some varieties of woodland scenery. Near Fredericton
are " the narrows," a sudden bend in the river's course to
be particularly referred to in the sequel ; then the spire of
the handsome cathedral comes in view ; and finally a pretty

* Mr. Hind writes : " One of the earliest historical notices of the
River St. John dates from 1 598, when it was called ' Riviere de la
Grande Baie,' or ' La Baie Francaise,' as the Bay of Fundy was formerly
designated. This occurs in the letters patent confirming the appointment
of the Sieur de la Roche, Lieutenant-General au Canada, Hochelaga,
Terre-Neuve, Labrador, Riviere de la Grande Baie (St. John in the Bay
of Fundy), Norembegue (the present State of Maine), et les terres adja-
centes. — (L'Escarbot.) In the admirable Report by the late Dr. Robb on
the Agriculture of the Province, reference is made to the discovery of the
St. John by ' Champlain, on St. John's Day, in the year 1604 ; ' and
in Monro's New Brunswick there is a quotation from Haliburton's Nova
Scotia, in which the name St. John is stated to have been given to it
because it was discovered on the 24th of June, the day of the Festival of
St. John the Baptist. Mr. Munro says also that this noble river was
discovered by Dee Monts. It is clear from L'Escarbot, that the river was
known previously to 1598. But in 4604 Sieur de Monts visited La
Riviere de la Grande Baie, and changed its name to the St. Jean." —
Report on Geology of New Brunswick, page 28.

'i6 Field and Forest Rajnb/es.

little country town surrounded by trees, and spread out on
a broad alluvial flat, which, like a rounded promontory, is
washed in front and two sides by the St. John.

In honour of the House of Brunswick, Fredericton has its
Queen, King, Brunswick, George, and Charlotte streets. As
at St. John, wood houses and wood pavements predominate ;
indeed everything is timber, and its wharfs groan with piles
of the same material ; altogether a thriving, bustling little
town, now brought in direct communication with the sea-
port by a railway which is being extended further north-
wards. Although dwarfed as regards size by the city just
named, still, from position and antiquity, Fredericton claims
to be the capital, although shorn of the little grandeur of
the older days of irresponsible governments, when the mother
country was teaching her colonies how to walk. But now
that the infantile stage, as we may so designate the past,
has given place to adolescence and a promising manhood,
what between railways, and other latter-day features of the
industry and enterprise of this hardy people, there is to all
appearances a bright future for little Fredericton. The city
of Frederick (how the " k " has got out of the modern ortho-
graphy I cannot say) was founded by the early settlers at
this point, chiefly because the situation was central, and
about the highest navigable station for vessels.* However,
steamers of small draught, with paddle-wheel astern, find their
way up even to the Grand Falls, which are 125 miles above
Fredericton. At the latter the river is about three-quarters of
a mile in breadth. Among the institutions of the past regime,
there is still an Upper and Lower House of Assembly, and a
Governor, although the province is but an integral portion of
the Great Dominion, and by way of comparison has not half
the demand for this paraphernalia of government as, for
example, either Scotland or Ireland ; but perhaps it is as well
to let the present generation live out their old associations. I
* Fredericton, as the crow flies, is about sixty niiles inland.

University of New Brunswick.

17

must not, however, in these very cursory remarks, omit notice
of the University of New Brunswick. The planting of a tree
of knowledge in this wild wilderness, dates far back in the
Anglo-Saxon occupation of the land, and although originally
established on models of the old country, it has fought a hard
Dattle for many years. How indeed could anyone expect sons
of the reclaimers of the primeval forest to care much for clas-
sical educations, more especic^lly when their progenitors at-
tained their positions by manual industry and mere endurance?

Thus the college for many years had to be content with the
products of the distant schools in backwood settlements, and
endure some prejudices by no means encouraging to the
ardent and able professors who have long reflected so much
credit on the institution. Times, however, have altered, and,
moreover, as New Brunswick proceeds on its onward match
of civilization, this handsome structure, perched on the terrace
cliff overlooking the thriving little bustling town and lovely
scenery of the St. John, must, doubtless, in process of time
come to the front, and be the centre of intelligence and learn-
ing in south-eastern Canada.

So much for this the central city and capital of the province
where my head-quarters were located for three years, and from
whence I made various excursions in quest of the materials
described in the following pages.

The first and foremost subject of interest to the student of
nature in every country is the natural history of its aborigines,
wherever this can be traced with any accuracy ; but even the
antiquary who picks up the rudely fashioned stone implements
of the Somme Valley, or even the more polished weapons of
the same material, must often be disposed to speculate on the
probable habits, appearance, etc., of peoples who lived in the
remote ages of which history has preserved no record. There-
fore, in the New World, what between the short time that has
elapsed since the Stone Age, and the presence still of waifs
and strays of the same race that then existed, he is enabled to

C

i8

Field and Forest Ram' '5.

derive lessons and apply comparisons with far greater certainty
than could be obtained from a mere consideration of the mute
records.

Before proceeding to a consideration of a few points in
connection with the present condition of the native Indians of
the region, I may state that I made it an occupation to visit
their encampments wherever opportunity occurred ; moreover,
being frequently brought in contact with the huntiiig members
of the community, and having volunteered professional services
during sickness, I could at all events judge for myself as to
their social life and habits. It was soon apparent, however,

NOEL MITCHELL, A HALF-BRED MELICITE HUNTER.

that very little of their past history is to be obtained from
even the most intelligent ; inasmuch as, even apart from their
persistent indifference to treat on any subject connected
with either their past history or present condition, there would
seem to be an absolute incapacity to comprehend the meaning
of such inquisitiveness on the part of the interrogator. In
fact, there is a sort of silent and dogged bluntness of the
understanding, whether natural acquired through the force
of unfavourable circumstances under which they have been
placed ; so much is this the case, that I was sometimes in-

Native Indians. 19

clined to the belief that many acts of ingratitude shown for
fav^ours received, were also the result of pent-up animosities
associated with an inherited distrust of every mark of consider-
ation shown towards them by the conquering race ; and pro-
bably this is true to some extent, although it would appear to
be owing, in no small degree, to an undemonstrative character
natural to them.

I am, however, perfectly aware of the unsatisfactory con-
dition one is placed in who has to narrow his observations to
a small spot on a large continent. For this reason, and from
the absence of any personal experience with reference to the
natives of the adjoining regions, I am bound to state frankly
that these notes are very limited ; nevertheless, as far as
opportunities occurred and circumstances permitted, I hope
there will be found some points of interest, not only acceptable
to the general reader, but what the author had also much at
heart at the time, an acquaintance with the character and
modes of life of the primitive inhabitants of the region, con-
sidered from the stand-points from which the antiquarian and
ethnologist view such subjects. Moreover, to the naturalist,
wherever he is placed, and however tempting may be other
branches of science, there must always be a welcome field
of research in endeavouring to trace the natural history of
his own species back into unrecorded times, more particu-
larly in the New World, where the transition from savagery to
civilization is, comparatively speaking, but of yesterday.

Our speculations, therefore, with reference to the habits,
modes of living, and appearances of the stone-folks of ancient
Europe, receive suggestive data from a study of the existent
races of North America.

A strange fate, indeed, is the apparent doom of the red
Indian ! — already driven across the continent by the great
wave of European civilization, which, having overwhelmed the
mass, has left a few stragglers behind, whilst the greater portion
has either entirely disappeared, or been repelled to the slopes

c 2

20

Field and Forest Rambles.

of the Rocky Mountains, where they are making a last stand
against the white man, with whom they have nothing in com-
mon, and from whom they borrow only the worst traits of his
character. Moreover, so indifferent are the aborigines every-
where to the examples of their European conquerors, that to
this day, even in the chief cities of Canada, the beaii-ideal of
fashion with the Indian squaw is a cast-off black hat for a
head-dress, and a dirty blanket for a shawl. Thus, shod in
her native mocassins, with her battered features and stealthy
gait, siie may be seen prowling about the streets in broad
daylight, at once a conspicuous and sad picture of utter
wretchedness and poverty. Such was the first example of a
New Brunswick Indian that attracted my attention during a
saunter along the streets of the pleasant country town just
mentioned. In fact, I can picture almost every item of her
attire and aspect ; to wit, the short stature, green and yellow
complexion, big coarse features, and capacious mouth, black
eyes and hair ; the old battered hat which none but an
Irishman would covet, a glaring red cloth round her neck,
and blanket across her shoulders. There she stood at the
corner of a street, gazing listlessly at the red-coated soldiers
just arrived from Europe, who in groups returned the inspec-
tion with far greater signs of wonder, and some droll epithets,
which I trust, poor creature, for her sake, she did not under-
stand. A little further on, and who is that dark-complexioned
man staggering forth from a spirit-store } A stout, sturdy-
looking fellow enough, with a bloated countenance, and voice
hoarse with sottish gibbering : he has just been twitted by a
passer-by on his drunken condition, and has tendered a rude
response in broken and all-but-unintelligible English. He sees
me, knows I am a fresh arrival, and straightway asks if I
" have any cents for a drink." " Bill, you have had enough ! "
replies another wayfarer ; at which he again responds in
language not by any means parliamentary, and continues
muttering and barking forth exhortations for money. He is

Habits atid Characteristics of the Natives. 2 1

dressed in the cast-off raiments of gentility, but they are a long
way too short for him. His coarse features are deeply pitted
by smallpox, and like his hands swollen and chapped by cold
and debauchery, whilst the straight unkempt black hair strews
his shoulders. Such were the two first specimens of the
aboriginal inhabitants of New Brunswick that came under my
notice : I had hoped exceptions to a general rule, but further
acquaintance with the race showed this not to be the case.

The form and features of the native of New Brunswick,
as far as I could determine from the present race, seem to
resemble the Esquimaux rather than the Red Indian of the
south and west. The stature was to all appearances short, but
now the admixture of white blood has changed the original.
Still the coarse features, thick nose and lips, large mouth and
prominent cheek bones, rather small eyes, and a fulness of the
soft parts of the circumorbital region, black and straight hair,
are maintained even when it is clear there has been a continued
intermixture. Of course the female shows the half-bred
conditions more clearly than the opposite sex ; and although
the skin is often pale, the dark eye and hair, with an absence
of any disposition to curling, are prominent characters and
generally present. As to the cranial development, in the
absence of materials it would be impossible to speak with
certainty ; none of the skulls I have examined could be
authenticated as genuine, and were exhumed from graveyards
known to have been used by the tribes since their contact with
the whites ; moreover, the present race is particularly sensitive
about any interference with their ancient burial-grounds, so
that, excepting in out of the way places, it would be extremely
difficult to obtain specimens of the true Micmac or Melicite
skeleton. Looking at their race characteristics, the Indians of
New Brunswick furnish a good illustration of a people rapidly
progressing towards extinction, without having preserved any
written or monumental record ; indeed, were it not for imple-
ments of the chase picked up occasionally, we should have few

i2 Field and Forest Rambles.

other data to establish the existence of the human inhabitants
of the region previous to the arrival of the first European
travellers. But small as these memorials happen to be, they
furnish much valuable information to the archaeologist. Thus,
without a literature of any sort, not even the faintest attempt
at a trace or scribble of what could be styled writing is notice-
able on any of the relics, and what is equally unsatisfactory
are the narratives or so-called traditions we hear from the lips
of the more intelligent natives. In fact, to listen to their talk is
to give ear to what sailors call "long yarns" savouring strongly
of the imagination of the narrator. Many of the old terms
are obsolete, and replaced by French or English words, so that
their language, as now spoken, is corrupt to a degree ; indeed,
to attempt to recover any portion of their unrecorded history
from these miserable remnants appears to me a profitless
undertaking. They nevertheless maintain a good deal of their
ancient manners and mode of living. The majority are
employed in hunting, fishing, building canoes, making baskets,
mocassins, and fancy bead-work on leather or birch bark, A
few have taken to the agricultural pursuits and manual labour
of the white man, but it is apparent that nothing comes so
natural to them, or is so congenial to their tastes, as the pursuit
of wild animals, and consequently the hunting portion of the
community are in request, being much employed in directing
expeditions after moose, caribou trapping, etc., more especially
among the military officers, whom the poor creatures will miss
now that the British force has been withdrawn ; indeed,
they may well believe their best friends have nigh departed,
and mourn the loss over the wigwam fire, in camp and forest,
of the gentlemen who invariably paid them handsomely, and
treated them with the utmost kindness in spite of many acts
of ingratitude and their dogged indifference, which after all
may, as just observed, be inherent.

No doubt one of the greatest barriers to the social improve-
ment of the Indian is the total absence of education, in par-

Native Mortality. 2$

ticular among the female sex, and consequently a dogged
indifiference to benefit in any way by the examples or advice
of the pale-faces. Thus, whilst the males are brought in
contact with the whites, and in some cases receive the rudi-
ments of an English education, the squaws stick to the lodges,
and, as a rule, talk only the native language, with all the nar-
row-minded prejudices consequent on their exclusive habits.
They are in general ugly, and probably from constant indoor
life and unsanitary conditions, get soon aged in appearance.
Marriage takes place at puberty, so that it is not uncommon
to hear of females who have born fourteen to fifteen children,
more than half of whom die before or during dentition. I
was astonished at observing the absence of parental affection,
even among the most respectable members in the villages.
Love, as it exists in civilized society, has seemingly no place
with them, but after all this is not to be wondered at, seeing
they are sprung of the great Algonquin race, whose language
does not contain the verb "to love."* Scrofula, consumption, and
various other diseases dependent on abnormal modes of living,
are prevalent in their camps ; indeed the infantile mortality is
appalling, as I have good cause to state from personal in-
quiries; indeed, scarcely one-half of the children arrive at the
age of puberty, and, with few exceptions, all die by what may
be designated " pieventible diseases."

Moreover, it would seem that any admixture with the
white race has added neither strength nor stamina to the
Indian, nor sharpened his intellectual faculties, and most
assuredly not improved his morals ; however, it must be taken
into account that there has been a very great change in his
habits, and a substitution of unhygienic modes of living for
the healthy nomadic existence of former days. We cannot
therefore maintain that the mere cross has eventuated in the
undoubted failure in strength and stamina which characterize
the New Brunswick Indians of the present day as compared

* See Lubbock, " Origin of Civilization," p. 58.

24 Field and Forest Ra7nblcs.

with their progenitors. With reference to the hereditary and
transmissible diseases, such as have just been mentioned, it
is highly probable that they owe their origin to unsanitary
conditions of living rather than to any direct transmission from
the whites. Thus, a wooden shed badly built suffices for a
winter covering, without further preparation to exclude the
intense cold ; here, round an over-heated stove, the squaw and
children huddle, while wretched ground pallets of rags form
their bedding ; there is no household comfort or economy
whatever, Vv^hole families living from hand to mouth. Of course
there are exceptions; such, however, is the pitiable condition
of the majority. But of all the besetting demons that ever
danced destruction around the Indian, that fiend has been
drunkenness. If only temperate habits could be formed,
and more trouble taken by the whites in encouraging them to
set out their villages on the models of the settlers, and in
making the aged comfortable, and in holding forth induce-
ments to the well behaved, instead of the live and let live
system hitherto pursued, there might still be hopes of pro-
longing their existence ; but as matters have been, and continue
to go on, it seems clear that there is a race between the red
man and the larger quadrupeds who shall be the first to
disappear from the land where both once flourished and
multiplied ! Unfortunately, however, he is of obdurate heart
and slow to adopt our manners and customs, the force of habit
being strong within him ; moreover, he soon finds that his
ways can never be our ways, and that, do what he may, even
to his utmost, he cannot manage to place himself in other
than a doubtful equality with even the poorest and humblest
of white men ; indeed, it is the case that, whether pure bred
or half-caste, nay, even without ^ny traceable blood of an
Indian in his vein:;, he carries traits of character and habits
which more or less exclude him, irrespective of caste, from
the society of all excepting his own people. I was often
amused with what doubtless is a relic of the conciliatory

Sio7ie Age in New Brunswick. 25

language practised by the early settlers, in hearing residents
address the Indian with the prefix "Brother." Brother
Indian, forsooth ! He will never be a brother to the white
man, whom it might better become if, instead of fraternal
epithets, he contributed something more solid in the way of
material help ; at all events he might try to do his very
best, so as to let his poor brother die out in a respectable
manner.

It is not four hundred years since the early voyagers, who
first came in contact with the natives of New Brunswick, found
them living in wigwams made of birch-bark, and using canoes
of the same material, without any apparent knowledge whatever
of metals save native copper, which they hung about their
persons in the shape of ornaments. In fact, like the aborigines
of other portions of the continent, they were nomadic hunters,
living entirely on the wild denizens of the forest and water, in
the pursuit of which they used weapons made entirely of stone
and bone, little aware of the vast mines of iron underlying
more than one encampment where we now pick up their
stone implements,* But rough as were their weapons in
general, not a few show the very perfection of polish and
finishing. They had flint knives of divers sizes and shapes
for skinning beaver, mink, otter, deer, and bears ; arrow-
heads to penetrate the thick fur of the first, and spear-points
of large size wherewith the reindeer and moose were slain,
and the sturgeon's mailed hide pierced ; axes to split fire-
wood and dig through the ice ; wedges of divers dimensions
and degrees of workmanship, and the war axe with which
they fought their deadly foes, the Iroquois of the banks of
the St. Lawrence, or the natives of Newfoundland, with whom,
according to tradition, they carried on wars and formed

* For example, the vast iron mines of Woodstock, which furnish an
excellent quality of iron, giving an average ratio of 32 per cent, in the
samples. See Hind's Report, p. 161, and Prof. Bailey's Report on the
Mines and Minerals of New Brunswick, p. 58.

,in ji nv .wi^fjitmrr

26 /*'it/d and Forest Ratnbles.

national alliances for its prosecution.* Indeed, although the
present generation retains scarcely a tradition of any val'ie
or accuracy, their old misunderstandings with the Mohawks
are still religiously preserved and utilized in many native
villages for the purpose of frightening the children into obedi-
ence ; moreover, several of the aged entertain an inherited
dread of the name, and would fly to the woods at the sight
of a Mohawk,

The Jesuit fathers seem to have been the pioneers of civiliza-
tion in New Brunswick, as well as elsewhere in the northern
portion of the continent, followed by the white trapper and
trader, who exchanged iron tomahawks for furs, when the Stone
Age passed away, and with it the decline and decadence of the
Indians, so that the entire recollection of the stone and bone
weapon days vanished from their minds in the course of a few
generations.! But to their forefathers it was a Golden Age,
which, however, as time rolled on, was soon forgotten, until, by
degrees, they were compelled, in their struggles for existence,
to yield inch after inch of their noble forests, and dwindle down
to a handful of degenerate beings, preyed on by poverty,
disease, and vice, which, in the ordinary course of events, must
exterminate the race before another century or two have
passed away.

Referring back to the beginning of the sixteenth century',
and the state of civilization in which the early voyagers found
them, it appears that the races of this portion of north-eastern

* " Acadian Geology," p. 42.

t Nowhere in the province are stone implements met with in such
abundance as on the banks of Grand Lake, Queen's County, where the
ancient race had evidently large encampments, and the Melicite still hunts
the musk rat ; also on the Tobique River above the Grand Falls. I have
often deputed native hunters to procure specimens, and on eliciting their
impressions thereon usually received a laugh of ridicule at the idea of such
weapons being used in the destruction of the large animals ; indeed, some
looked on them as children's toys, and in no instance were theii real
histories guessed, unless by men who had picked up the information from
Europeans.

Stone Age in New Briuisivkk. 27

America were not so far advanced in civilization as many of
the neighbouring > ••ibes,to whom the use of copper and iron was
known long before the advent of Columbus. This, however,
may have had something to do with the climate and physical
condition of the locality, and more particularly the abundance
of means of subsistence which did not necessitate excursions
beyond their own native forests and rivers. The aborigines of
New Brunswick then comprehended, as now, a seaboard and an
inland tribe, speaking dialects for the most part similar, and
related by blood to the great Algonquin race of the St. Law-
rence and westward.* According to the French missionaries,
the seaboard tribe, Micmacs or Souriquois, alone were esti-
mated, in 161 1, at from 3,000 to 3,500, not to speak of the
St. John and other Indians of the inland race called the
Etchemins, Eteminquois, better known at the present day as
the Melicites, who were then probably more numerous. Now,
I believe, the two tribes do not number over a thousand souls.
The stone implements met with throughout the Canadian
Dominion and Northern United States present similarities in
form and workmanship. But what appears remarkable as
compared with the Old World, is the finding of very rudely
chipped tools along with the highly polished, — a circumstance
suggestive of their contemporaneity. It appears, as I shall
observe presently, that when we come to examine the Cana-
dian celts, and take into account the exact purposes for which
they were fabricated, and consider carefully the conditions
under which a primitive people would have existed as regards
climate, food, and so forth, these discrepancies in regard to
the sequence of the stone ages in the two continents admit of

* Moreover, the similarities of many words to Old World roots have
been considered by American philologists as eminently suggestive of a
European migration westward, and this is considerably strengthened by
comparison of the languages of the Old World with the various dialects of
the great Algonquin language, as pointed out by Mr. Rhand, missionary
to the Micmac Indians of Nova Scotia, in an appendix to "Dawson's
Geology."

28 Field and Forest Rambles.

explanation, at all events as regards Canada. At the same
time, it is not improbable that either partially or wholly the
same may apply to certain regions of the Old World, where
the two arc found together.

In New Brunswick, as elsewhere in North America, there does
not appear to be any evidence of a Bronze Period. Although
copper is met with in small quantities in the Devonian strata,
and was known to the aborigines, they seem only to have
used it as an ornament to adorn their persons. The Iron Age,
as before stated, came in rapidly, indeed so quickly that the
present generation is ignorant of stone implements having been
used by their forefathers, just as much apparently as we are
of the owners of the flint tools of Europe. The iron toma-
hawk, therefore, soon took the place of the greenstone celt,
and was their chief object of barter with the early French
voyagers and traders. Thus the long, narrow, adze-shaped
iron hatchet, stamped with a " Fleur-de-lis," * is occasionally
picked up along the great river valleys.

Referring to what may be called types of the weapons and
implements of stone used by the Indians of New Brunswick,
the arrow heads, figs, i, 2, and 3, represent the usual pattern.
No. 2 seems to have been used extensively, and is always
the best finished, with an acute point and sharp cutting edges.
The smaller point, fig. 3, made of white quartz, chipped or
polished, is also not uncommon, and occasionally all may be
collected in the same situation.

Fig. 5 represents a very rudely shaped spear head, nearly
nine inches in length, from an old encampment on the Tobique
river, where the natives, and their foes the Mohawks, were
wont to engage in desperate fights.

Stone hatchets of divers size, some very finely polished,
such as fig. 6; others are so rudely fabricated that, unless used
for wedges or ice axes, it would be difficult to imagine the pur-

* I have seen specimens of this adze from the banks of the Miramichi
River.

Stone A^e in New Brunswick.

29

WEAPONS AND IMPLEMENTS USED BY THE INDIANS OF NEW BRUNjWICK,

i'iliJ' t^'. I-

30 J^/Wi/ a7id Forest Rambles.

pose for which theywere applied. These are sometimes met with
in numbers huddled together, and, in consequence, it has often
occurred to me that they were merely implements in the first
stage of manufacture. Now when we consider that the country,
is covered with snow for nearly half of the year, and take the
rigours of the climate into account, together with the necessities
of a sparsely distributed population subsisting entirely by the
chase and fishing, we might well believe that they would lay in
a supply of weapons for winter use, and nothing is more likely
than that the unfinished tools were merely chipped into shape,
their polishing and finishing being left to such time as neces-
sity demanded.*

Fig. 8 is the common form of knife. I believe flakes of
flint were used for the same purposes. The cub-shaped
implement (No. 7) of greenstone is a foot in length, and highly
polished ; it was discovered, with several stone arrow heads,
including fig. 3, and some hatchets, in a spruce-bark coffin
containing the remains of a warrior. Unfortunately, the above
is the only one of such-like relics that I had an opportunity of
examining ; its larger extremity is bevelled off" to a blunt edge,
with several rude transverse lines at the further end. It would
be difficult to guess the precise use to which this celt was
applied. I showed it to several old Indians, but one only
ventured an opinion to the effect that it might have been used
for separating the bark from birch and other trees. Scoops
and smaller stone tools, besides hooks and needles of bone,
are met with on the sites of old encampments and under the
foundations of the log huts occupied by the remains of the
tribes, who, like remnants of other primitive races, still display
a preference for their ancient haunts, lingering on in small

* Dr. Dawson, referring to the stone implements of this region, remarks
(*' Acadian Geology," p. 41) that both the chipped and polished were used
at the same time for different purposes. This is probable, no doubt, to
some extent ; but several spear heads and stone hatchets appear to me so
imperfectly fabricated as to be at best inoperative as war implements, and
certainly next to useless for the chase^ wood-cutting, or ice digging.

Stcnie Weapons used by the Indians.

31

colonies on the sides of certain bays, rivers, or lakes which had
been favourite hunting and fishing grounds from time imme-
morial. For example, there is a small detachment living in huts
on the left bank of the St. John, opposite Fredericton. Here,
among the debris of the middens, I have picked up skulls
of the sturgeon, or bones of moose, mink, beaver, and other
animals which they continue to hunt, just as will be noted pre-
sently, obtains in the case of the ancient refuse heaps of their
forefathers ,' indeed, in a perpendicular section of the river
alluvium on which the above encampment stands you may
mark successive deposits of these remains to the depth of
several feet. I failed to discern stone implements in undis-
turbed strata, but on the beach by the river's margin, and
probably washed out of the bank, several stoije celts and arrow
points were found by the natives. Thus, from the conical shaped
birch bark wigwam of the Stone Age, down to the wooden hut
of the Iron Age, the same people have sojourned on the old
hunting-grounds where, to all appearance, the Melicite and
Micmac will end his days, like the last of the Mohicans.

Fig. 10 represents a stone pot, deeply blackened by smoke,
found in the Province, and, as far as the local implements are
concerned, may be considered unique. It has been deposited
in the Museum of St. John, where I noticed also the curious
hammer, fig. 9, which is a stone celt perforated for the handle,
with a belt of ferruginous cement {a) welded round the
middle, no doubt with the design of adding to the weight : b
is the cutting edge, and c the heel. The celt is about four
inches long by two inches in breadth.

Reverting to the finely polished specimens. Many are so
exquisitely fashioned, particularly the arrow edges, that the
present race often express wonder how their forefathers fabri-
cated such tools without employing metal ; indeed, Noel
Mitchell, and other Melicite Indians, who deigned to take any
interest in my endeavours to glean this amount of knowledge
of their progenitors' habits, were fairly at a loss to realize the

32 Field and Forest Rambles.

following method, and even laughed to scorn the idea of such
very finely chipped edges as of fig. 2 having been done by
pieces of bone, and it was no use attempting to persuade them.
Nevertheless the probabilities are, that as at the present day,
among the Pitt River Indians of California, the same custom
was more or less prevalent among the eastern races. Of the
former, Lieutenant E. G. Beckwith, of the U. S. Army,*
says : —

" One of them seated himself near me, and made from a
fragment of quartz, with a simple piece of round bone, one
end of which was semi-spherical, with a small crease in it (as
if worn by a thread) the sixteenth of an inch in depth, an
arrow-head, which was very sharp and piercing, and such as
they use on all their arrows. The skill and rapidity with
which it was made, without a blow, but by simply breaking
the sharp edges v/ith the creased bone by the strength of his
hands — for the crease merely served to prevent the instrument
from slipping, affording no leverage — was remarkable."

Although flint seems to have been always preferred when
readily procurable, inasmuch as the most perfectly shaped
and artistic weapons, at all events, that I have seen, were
made therefrom; nevertheless there were many hatchets of
soft friable sandstone, with a shallow groove near the heel,
the wedge-shaped extremity indicating some use distinctly
different from that of a hatchet ; perhaps they were war
implements, or used in felling deer in deep snow : the latter
custom, a^ will be shown in the sequel, is still in vogue and
extensively pursued by both natives and Europeans, in spite
of an Act of Parliament prohibiting the barbarous practice.
. Talking of the Sioux Indians of the Upper Missouri and
Minnesota Rivers, Dr. Muller-f- remarks: "Arrows of the

* "Report ofExplorationsfora Route for the Pacific Railroad," vol. ii.,
• p. 43 of 2nd Report.

t Page 6i, " Report of Surgical Cases treated in the Army of the United
States from 1865 to 1871. Washington.

Modes of Makhig Flint Weapons. 33

same tribe are not always made of the same size and
material, and are shaped by the savages according to their
prevail ng fancy: the Toutons on the Upper Missouri, foi
instance, using both iron arrow-heads, also those made out of
flint. In the same quiver of an Indian belonging to any one
tribe, a great variety of different shaped arrow-heads will be
found, which proves that the same tribe follows no special
type, but fashions them according to any kind of taste."

With reference to other relics of the past race, tobacco-pipes
of stone, very rude in construction, are found on the islands
in the St. John, where the aborigines of old were wont to
spear the salmon, bass, or sturgeon. Their antiquity, how-
ever, may be doubted. The natives, moreover, have a tradition
that it was not very long ago that the Indians smoked only
their native willow bark (5. nigra), which they even now mix
with tobacco, or use alone when the latter is not procurable.

The absence of pottery, as far as I have noticed, seems re-
markable ; and I scarcely think if it had been in common use
there would have been an absence of traces in the middens
and old encampments; but so small a portion of the region
has been examined, that I shall not be surprised if further
disclosures confirm the presence of clay-made ware of some
sort. I mention this especially in connection with the stone
pot just referred to. The absence of sculptures of any sort on
bone or stone is also worthy of notice, if we except a very
remarkable object figured in Dawson's "Acadian Geology," and
said to have been found on the banks of the Kennebeckasis,
one of the influents of the St. John River. This work of
art, according to the above authority, " is three feet in length,
and is composed of a hard conglomerate, occurring in situ
in the vicinity of the place where it was discovered. It has
the aspect of a rude attempt at the execution of a sphinx or
cherub, and may have been a monumental stone, or the orna-
ment of a gate, or the charm of a medicine-man." *

* " Acadian Geology," p. 45.

D

«!

'U

: t

1

34

J^ic/(/ and Fotrst Rambles.

Nothing further is known of the rehc, only that it was dug
up when making a cellar in a district far from any locality
where such things were likely to be fabricated, thus leaving
little doubt as regards its antiquity.

The next (see vignette on page i) is if anything more
mtcresting, and represents a human head in bas-relief, some-
what exceeding the natural dimensions. It is cut on a slab
of red granite, and was discovered in a perfectly accidental
manner lying among blocks of the same rock on the banks
of the beautiful lake of Utopia, at the southern corner of the
province. The outline of the features is exceedingly clear
and distinct, the nose and forehead forming almost one straight
line, somewhat like that seen on Mexican sculptures. I spent
several days in the locality searching for further relics, and more
especially the remains of a temple building said to have ex-
isted at one time on a bluff overlooking the lake, of which,
however, not a trace was observable. I believe these two
sculptures are the only ancient remains of theii kind that have
hitherto turned up in New Brunswick, — I might even say
Canada and the Northern States. The skill displayed on the
medallion clearly indicates a high knowledge of art, never
attained by the forefathers of the present Indians ; more-
over, if it be not the work of a preceding race, it might be
one of the trials of skill of some clever Jesuit father in the
early days of colonization ! Indeed when a drawing of this
sculpture was displayed at the Boston Natural History
Society, some members pronounced it a very modern impo-
sition, and asserted it to be a likeness of the great Washing-
ton ! I took pains, however, to satisfy myself on that point,
having been assured by my friend Mr. Wetmore, of St.
Stephen, to whom it was presented by the workmen, that he
saw the moss growing on the slab, and was among the first
to visit the spot, when he inspected it in situ. It has been
deposited by this gentleman in the Natural History Museum
of St. John.

Ancient Indian Refuse Heaps. 35

Ancient Indian kitchen middens may be said to be found
along the entire Atlantic coast line of the American con-
tinent. With reference to the region now under consideration,
they are found on the shores and islands of the Bay of Fundy,
and other portions of the coasts of New Brunswick, and the
adjoining State of Maine; the conditions of the animal
remains indicating in some instances considerable antiquity,
whereas the shells in other cases point to more recent interments.
I examined several of these heaps on the islands in the Bay
of Fundy, and along the fiord of the St. Croix River for many
miles. Although a large number had evidently been levelled
and utilized for top-dressing, enough remain to show that,
whether as articles of food, bait, or both, the aboriginal
races collected vast quantities of the well-known clam, and
qua-Jiog, besides two species of oyster {O.borealis ct Virginian <x),
and the common forms of Natica crepidula solcn, etc., the
debris of which strew the coasts of several of the inlets in the
Bay of Fundy, their numbers evincing the profusion of each
species. It has, however, been asserted by no less an authority
than Dr. Gould, that all, especially the three first species, are
becoming rapidly extinct north of Cape Ann, Massachusetts.*

It is likewise stated that their disappearance has been in
part, or altogether, owing to the saw mills in the vicinity of
the beds, and that the clam.s, once plentiful in situations on
the coast of Maine, have vanished since the lumber mills were
erected in their neighbourhood. Whatever may be the cause,
there is certainly something remarkable in the decadence of
this shell-fish, as I shall also have occasion presently to observe
of a dack which frequented the same area. Mr. Wyman, in
1867, examined several shell heaps near Portland, in Maine,
and in Massachusetts, when he foiind stone and bone imple-

* " Mollusca of Massachusetts," and Sewall's "Ancient Dominions ;"
also Hitchcock's Report, " Scientific Survey of the State of Maine, i860,"
p. 292. It is worthy of notice that drifted shells of the O. borealis are
met with in abundance on the shores of Sable Island, in the Gulf of the
St. Lawrence, as I am informed by Dr. Gilpin, of Halifax, Nova Scotia.

D 2

36

Field a7id Forest Rambles.

ments, also fragments of hand-made pottery, and remains of
upwards of twenty quadrupeds and birds, all belonging to
recent species. But the most mteresting of his finds were
perfect limb bones of the great auk, now extinct, which he
moreover believes did probably linger on in the Bay of
Fundy after the advent of the first settlers ; and Mr. Wilson
has lately shown that the bird was not rare in certain parts
of Newfoundland within the remembrance of the present
generation.*

A good idea of the contents of the kitchen middens met
with on the islands and shores of the far-famed Bay of Fundy
may be gathered from the following instance. I examined
one of several mounds on the coast of an inlet named Passa-
maquoddy Bay.f The above lay, along with other mounds
of a similar shape, on a flat facing the sea, and had the greater
portion destroyed by the wash of the waves at high tide, dis-
ciosing a perpendicular section composed almost entirely of
clam shells interspersed with mussels, whilks, and the common
planorbis. The former (especially the mussel My a aren-
aria) were extremely abundant, and for the most part in frag-
ments ; however I procured several very large ones, averaging
Ah by 3 inches in breadth, which the fishermen of the neigh-
bourhood told me were very much larger than any recent
specimens they had seen. The other animal remains belonged

* See Wyman's "American Naturalist," 1868; and "Newfoundland
and its Missionaries," by the Rev. W. Wilson, Cambridge. Mass., 1866.

t There has been a controversy regarding the etymology of this word.
It appears, from Dawson's " Acadian Geology," (p. 2), that the learned
author, with the natural desire to maintain a becoming derivation of the
name under which he has associated the geological features of Nova
Scotia and New Brunswick, disputes the conclusions of the Commissions
on the Settlement of the North-eastern Boundary, who assert that
Acadia is derived from the native name of the fish "pollock" whereas
according to Mr. Rhand it means " place of residence." Whatever may
be the real etymology of the word, I must state, as regards the Passama-
Quoddy Bay, — whether as they assert it is derived from Pas (great), aqua
(water), aquoddie (pollock), or not,— that this fish is common in the bay,
and its remains are plentiful in the shell heaps.

Ancient Indian Refuse Heaps. 2il

to the following. The beaver, repelled and now exterminated
within a radius of 90 miles, seems to have been plentiful in
the neighbourhood, to judge from the fragments of bones and
entire jav/s and teeth dispersed throughout the heap. These
did not however differ in any respect from individuals now
inhabiting the northern rivers of the province.

A jaw of the little field mouse {^A. Gapperii) was met with.
It is also a denizen of the locality at the present day. Remains
of the Virginian deer were likewise plentiful, and several of its
long bones showed by their longitudinal fractures that they
had been split for marrow. All the bones were very light
and dry, and readily adhered to the tongue. It is requisite to
observe that the surrounding country, in particular the valley
of the Maguadavic River (River of Hills), has been a favourite
resort of this deer from time immemorial, no doubt in conse-
quence of the rugged outlines of the country ; however, the
numbers annually captured in snow-drifts, and destroyed in
early spring when the thaws set in, are to all appearances in
excess of the births, so that there is every likelihood of its
extinction taking place before long, which, as regards New
Brunswick, would be complete, seeing that the animal is
localized in its distribution, being all but confined to the river
valley above mentioned. I found besides numbers of bones
and jaws, evidently of pollack and other large fishes, includ-
ing scales of the sturgeon now also plentiful, and the arrow
point of bone, shown in plate, fig. 4, also fragments of bone
hooks and worked pieces of the Virginian deer's horns turned
up with fragments of charcoal. But neither in this kitchen
midden, nor in two others partially explored by me on the
same coast line, westward, were layers of charcoal found such
as Professor Chadbourne describes in shell mounds examined
by him on the coast of the adjoining State of Maine,*
indicating that fires had been made on the heaps. From

* See " Maine Nat. History Society Proceedings for 1859 ; " also
" Report on the Agricultural and Scientific Survey of Maine," p. 290.

38

Field and Forest Rambles.

\

the general arrangement of these middens on flats, and along
shallow shores, it seemed likely they had been the refuse
heaps of wigwams placed immediately behind them, such as
the Fuegian is forming at this day. Moreover, we find them
nearer home in many a fishing village, and in front of Irish
cabins; indeed within a stone throw of these old shell piles you
may come on temporarily erected bark wigwams of the same
sugar-loaf shape used by the ancient Melicites, whose de-
scendants repair annually to St. Andrews with their basket-
work and wares. Moreover there is difficulty in picking one's
way to the cabin door through the filth and garbage they are
too lazy to convey from the immediate precincts of their
dwellings. Thus this custom of savage man still lingers on
in civilized life.

But there is another trait of character of the wild man
which we have refined, and that is, the love for the chase and
destruction of wild animals. When this is pursued to the
exclusion of everything intelligent beyond the mere slaying,
there is engendered that potent impulse a longing for the
pursuit, — in other words, a craving that is never satisfied,
and seldom cries " enough " as long as there are birds or
beasts to be killed. If we give way too much to this in early
life, our tastes will soar no higher, and we may bid "good-bye"
to mental culture ever afterwards. Thus the youth who
thinks of nothing but sport, grows up, like the savage hunter,
a fine fellow indeed ; but unless he can separate the pleasures
of the gun, rifle, rod, and chase from his business, it is not
much mark he will make on the civilization of his day ; for
after all, he has been reverting to the habits of primeval man,
and displaying a spice of the old times when " Wild in woods
the noble savage ran." It is in this way that the love of the
chase, and of wild countries, come to us so readily ; indeed
there arc few who have wandered in the wilderness but
get to like it so that the refinements of civilization become
irksome. There is the charm of freedom in savage life, which

Exlennination of the Native Atiifnais. 39

once realized is never forgotten, and if pursued for a length
of time creates a desire to be away from, at all events, the
centres of civilization, so much so that of the two states of
existence, we learn to prefer that which seems to have been
the original of man. In fact, is this not an instance of a
reversion or throwing back, as Mr. Darwin calls it, to the
traits of a common progenitor }

Referring to the gradual extinction of the larger quadru-
peds of the region, it may be stated that the walrus, once very
plentiful on the shores of the province, has now been repelled
to the Frozen Ocean. It was common in the Gulf of the St.
Lawrence as late as 1770, where important stations, such as
Point Miscou, owe their former notoriety entirely to the
walrus hunting : indeed, since the commencement of the
present century there appears no record of the animal having
been seen in Canadian waters ;* but what is of more singular
import, and far less explicable, is the disappearance of the bird
commonly known as the Labrador duck {C. Labradorius),
from the Bay of Fundy and other portions of the adjoining
coast. I give this on the authority of my friend Mr. Board-
man, whose extensive acquaintance with American ornitho-
logy, and more especially of the region I am considering,
entitle his opinions to every consideration. He assures me
that the pied duck was very plentiful up to late years in
many of the bays along the New Brunswick coast, and also
in the New York market, but has now become very rare, so
much so, that its name is recorded among the desiderata of
the Smithsonian Institute. It is very unlikely that this
migratory bird has been exterminated by man ; the causes of
the extinction of the great auk, which could not fly, and the
persecution of the walrus, beaver, etc., with all the odds
against them, are evident ; but the causes of the extinction
of certain shell fishes and the duck are not so apparent.

* See Gilpin, Trans, of Nozm Scotia Inst. 0/ Nat. Science, vol. ii.,
p. 126.

"^f"

i

40

/vV/rf' and Forest Rambles.

\

CHAPTER 11.

Backwoods Men— Influence of the Climate on the Anglo-Saxon — Modes
of Living — Thoughts on Emigration — French Settlers of Tracadie,
Leprosy — Charms of Forest Life — Native and European Myths
—The Puma, Lynx, Wild Cat— Sable and its varieties— Mink,
Weasel— Fisher Cat, Skunk and Otter— Increase of the Wild
Quadrupeds of Nova Scotia — On Species Making — Bear— Influence
of Forest Reclamation on the habi*.3 of Animals — Fox and its
Varieties — Albinism and Melanism.

BEFORE proceeding to details in connection with the
fauna and physical characters of the region, I will
record my impressions in relation to the influences of this
sub-frigid climate on the European settlers, also certain
conditions of living which appear to me to exercise baneful
influences on their health. , •

To one just arrived from Northern Europe there is as-
suredly something disappointing in the outer aspects of the
middle aged of both sexes inhabiting the remoter districts of
New Brunswick. Where he expected to meet burly, well-
nourished farmers, sallow, weather-beaten countenances and
spare, sinewy frames predominate among men of forty, while
the pallid faces of the women indicate often ten years in
advance of their real ages. The question naturally suggests
itself. What is the cause or causes of this anomaly } In exa-
mining the sanitary aspect of the question, it soon becomes
apparent that several important influences are at work in con-
nection with the habits, food, and climate. It is possible I
may not have recognized one-half of the causes, but according
to what came under my notice, the following seem to produce

Log Fires versus Stoves. 41

deleterious results on the general health of the rural commu-
nities. It is evident, in the first place, that the winter climate
is trying to the Anglo-Saxon, and requires him to make exer-
tions in order to maintain the animal heat.

The first settlers, pursuing the course still practised by the
woodcutters in the wilderness, lived in log-built shanties, which
they heated by open fires. Of late years stoves in the centre of
the apartment have been substituted, for the reasons that they
consume less wood, radiate heat better, and are more conve-
nient for cooking purposes, whilst the former only diffused heat
in front, and created an in-draught of cold air from the door,
thus chilling the backs of the inmates. Indeed, thio is more
noticeable than it may seem to the general reader, as all will
allow who have sat round a log fire in a hut when the ther-
mometer was several degrees under zero. But at the same
time there can be no question that the log fire was, in some
respects, the healthier of the two ; and as the inteii3e cold
invites crowding around the fire, it is a usual custom for the
whole family to pass days in the dry, stove-heated atmosphere
of their small cottages, so that in spring they look pale
and shrivelled. So apparent is this, that no one who has
passed a year in the interior of Canada but must have been
struck by the pallid aspects, especially of the women and
children, who, as matters of course, are more within doors than
the men. Such a mode of existence, prolonged for nearly half
the year, coupled with salted provisions and general sameness
of diet, has, unquestionably, evil effects on the general health,
exciting constitutional diseases, such as consumption, dyspep-
sia,* and the scorbutic states frequently observed among the
badly-fed residents of wilderness districts,

* I have frequently been impres?ed with the belief that the majority of
cases of disordered digestion so prevalent among the settlers in remote
districts are greatly owing to the bread or beans not being properly cooked.
The latter, as is well known, are highly indigestible when carelessly pre-
pared, as shown by the combination of the sulphur and phosphorus pro-

*"

42

Field and Fonst Rambles.

Moreover, the extremes of cold are trying to constitutions
not originally strong, and we can well believe the nrivations
of the early settlers did pretty well demonstrate nature's rule,
that the hardiest and strongest only survive ; indeed, con-
sidering the difficulties to be encountered, it is highly probable
that only persons of this description thought of emigrating.
Probably, therefore, the secret of acclimatization is a good
constitution and due attention in maintaining a healthful con-
dition of mind and body. Having resided for several years
both in hot and cold climates, I have been struck with the
circumstance that fresh arrivals feel the extremes less during
the first year or two than subsequently, which may be ac-
counted for in some ways from the novelty of the situation and
attractions of a new country, more especially if the individual
keeps both body and mind in healthful exercise. As to the
colour of the hair and complexion, or rather temperament, in
connection with a foreigner's susceptibility to the diseases of
very hot and very cold countries, I do not think any very
derinite rule can be laid down : however, as far as my observa-
tion extends, I did not notice that dark or fair complexioned
Europeans were more or less susceptible to the diseases of one
or other, but I suspect it is the opinion of every one who has
looked into the subject carefully, that the persons who stand
all climates best have vigorous circulations with good digestive
organs and skins easily tanned, which means nothing more
than rude health ; nevertheless, there being so many inter-
mediate states usually admitted as healthful conditions, it is
difficult to particularize the exact temperament that will fulfil
these ends.

I have always noticed that although persons may sojourn
for long periods in trying climates, and enjoy their usual
health, still when exposed to vicissitudes there is no mis-
taking the advantages of the former over all other inter-

ducing flatus, otherwise, in combination with the articles above stated, they
form a diet in every way suited to the labouring man.

fc

Effects of the Climate on Europeans. 43

mediate gradations, whether of dark or fair temperaments.
Persons who readily lose the natural glow of health, and be-
come pallid on exposure to great cold or extremes of heat, for
example, are not easily browned by the sun ; such are soonest
fagged by inordinate bodily exertions, although the indi-
vidual will sometimes refuse to admit what is palpable to
the looker-on ; still there is no mistaking this simple fact, and
its general application, I have had much experience of the
physical requirements of the British soldier, and after over a
score of years' observation, am well convinced, in order to
support the fatigues and hardships which he is daily called
upon to undergo, that, irrespective of stamina, no man ought
to undertake to meet the vicissitudes of tropical sun and soil
until he is at least twenty years of age. My own impression
is that, whether as a colonist or belonging to the army, he who
has to fight against the climate of Canada on the one hand,
and Central Africa or India on the other, should be fully de-
veloped ; therefore the minimum age ought not to be under
twenty-five. This I know full well would bring few recruits
to our depots, but it is a case of pounds, shillings, and pence
which the ratepayer will do well to consider.

After all, the men who have made the most marked im-
pression on the history of civilization have been, as a rule, the
possessors of a mens sana in corpore sano, I mean where the
hardships of sun and soil have to be overcome. Some have
fallen victims to one or both before the battle was over, whilst
others, like Livingstone,* weathered the storm. All fulfil the
natural law whereby the strongest gain the day, or, in other

* Many practical illustrations of what has been stated are fresh in
my memory. Without particularizing individual instances, I may observe
that se.veral of the men of mark who have aided in extending our Indian
empire, have been famous for their great activity and powers of endurance,
perhaps in some cases selected ; but I opine in the majority of instances
their chief recommendations were indomitable pluck and enterprise, with
powers of endurance which carried them through difficulties where nine
out of ten of their compeers would have succumbed.

44 Field and Forest Rambles^

words, the vigorous, and healthy, and the happy survive and
multiply ; and it would be well if all intending reclaimers
of the wilderness, whether bound for Canada or elsewhere,
did fully realize the hard struggles before them, — inasmuch as,
however inviting the prospect may be beforehand, or to the
casual on-looker, in serious practice there are many obstacles
to be overcome which demand the full exercise of vigorous
manhood, and unusual patience, energy, and perseverance.
We can easily suppose, therefore, that the privations of the
early Canadian settlers must have pretty well demonstrated
these facts with reference to the climate.

The most unhealthy seasons of the year are during the thaws
of spring, and in autumn at the setting in of the cold months,
when the rapid transitions of temperature invariably create
sickness. Consumption is always most fatal in midsummer,
after the variable weather, inflammations of the lungs, es-
pecially pneumonia, are prevalent in winter, the latter being
the disease par excellence of the climate, which carries off
the aged and persons whose constitutions have been under-
mined by intemperance, and is the chief exciting cause of
consumption. It seems that alcoholic drinks here, as in all
very cold countries, recommend themselves, and no doubt,
under certain conditions, are beneficial ; but both whites and
Indians seem perfectly unable to withstand the allurements of
whisky drinking, so that they are either confirmed drunkards
or teetotalers, the latter to an extent often injurious to weakly
individuals. It is a frequent subject of remark that the second
and third generations of Europeans born and brought up in
the colony have not the strength nor stamina of their fore-
fathers, and this is evidently a general rule, — the result, per-
haps, of several influences. Looking at the subject in what
seems to me its proper bearings, it will be observed that the
original reclaimers of these vast forests must of necessity have
been a temperate and hardy race, dependent entirely on their
own exertions, distant from the demoralizing temptations of

Effects of the Clifnate on Europeans. 4K

towns, and surrounded only by the bare necessaries of life ;
while their children inherited the lands they had cultivated
with far less demand on their energies ; and finding that their
patrimony could always bring enough to maintain them in
idleness, they neglected the farm, and the soil became impo-
verished. In this way whole districts, once famous for their
fertility, are now worn out entirely from the prolonged system
of constant demand without adequate remuneration.*

The settler in the wilderness districts spends the year be-
tween the woods and the farm, and no doubt, of the two, he
infinitely prefers the former, where he is not over-worked, and
always gets a good dinner and pay for a hard day's work.
But as soon as he has driven the logs down the streams, he
must hasten to his home to till and saw enough to maintain
his family during his absence. Sad experience has long since
established a canon that no branch of industry can prosper
as long as there is ready access to alcoholic drinks; hence
none are allowed, tea being substituted and used extensively
at each meal. Thus, while pork, fresh meat, beans, molasses,
and home-baked bread are the sole articles of food in the
lumber camp, he lives more sparingly in his home, where salted
pork is often the only animal food in the larder from year's
end to year's end. The result is, wherever the sameness of
living has been pursued for some time, there is never much
difficulty in recognizing its effects on the outward aspect of
the inhabitants.! Here, unlike the United States, the infusion

* In the rural districts agriculture is still very primitive, whilst horti-
culture is very much neglected ; in fact, neither have received anything like
the attention they deserve, and apparently never will until the forests are
exhausted and the settler thinks more of his farm than of felling trees.

t During my wanderings in the forest districts I was constantly applied
to for advice regarding conditions of ill-health demonstrably the result of
long-continued subsistence on one sort of food ; scurvy and diseases
resultant of mal-assimulation being especially common. It would, I feel,
be beneficial to health in the rural districts if more wheaten bread was
used and less buckwheat, which, although it tastes well, is poor in nitro-
genous substances and fat ; moreover, the custom of serving up both

4^ Field and Forest Rambles.

of fresh blood from northern Europe is small, and intermar-
riages keep up a repetition of one stock, so that, when con-
tinued generation after generation, I have no doubt the con-
ditions just referred to would, in combination with climate,
produce a deterioration of race which nothing but the former
and a change of living are likely to obviate.

With reference to the reclamation of the forests and the
persons best suited to cope with the rigours of the climate
and other difficulties, although I do not wish to enlarge
on this subject, I cannot resist recording a few remarks in
connection with emigration, more especially my own impres-
sions (such as they are) regarding the description of men best
suited to contend against a trying climate and reclaim the
primitive forests. I think it will be the opinion of persons un-
prejudiced in every way, that the young agricultural labourer,
with a perfectly sound constitution, and accustomed to the
hardships and fatigues incident to his calling, is by far the
best pioneer of cultivation in the backwoods of Canada.
Such do not soon get disheartened through the asperities of
the soil pr weather, and being unaccustomed to great expecta-
tions, are more easily contented with the small returns that, as
. matters of course, will attach themselves to the fortunes of the
first settler. While on the other hand, as has not unfrequently
been the case, gentlemen farmers, and officers of the army,
settle in the wilderness; the latter, captivated by the shooting

buckwheat and wheaten cakes hot, and often undercooked, must be
pernicious to persons of weak digestion. Mr. Hitchcock, in his " Scientific
Report on Maine" (p. 358), makes the following observation on the
apparent effects of buckwheat on the physique of the French settlers in
the more secluded portions of the State : " It may be a matter of fancy
on our part, but we thought we could see some connection bet^veen the
physical energy of the farmers in that section and the crops that they
I , raise. There was an apparent listlessness and lack of physical stamina in

[i those Acadians who cultivated little else than buckwheat for bread, com-

pared with those who paid attention to the culture of the wheat and other
1^^ cereals. Whether the buckwheat diet was the cause, and the debility the

effect, or vice versa, we will not here attempt to decide."

Observations 07i Einigration. 4T

and fishing, as much as the independence and novelty of the
h'fe, have turned their swords into Canadian ploughshares.
The first, I opine, will find their prospects poorly realized ;
and to the second, I would be very much inclined to say,
" Don't ! Do not reverse your social position and aspirations
for the doubtful chance of bettering your circumstances at
the expense of undoing all that education and refinement
your parents may have even stinted their purses to provide
for you !"

No doubt the war one has to wage against nature on the
one hand and climate on the other is, as regards New Bruns-
wick and like countries, best suited to such as have never
been accustomed to a much better state of existence, and
whose inclimtions are in keeping with the society with which
they are destined to associate. I speak entirely of the wilder-
ness districts and their reclamation. In the numerous towns
and cities of Canada there is ample room for the exercise of
the best intelligence and enterprise, but there, as everyvvhere
else, one must know how to proceed.*

An example of the evils of intermarriage in combination
with unsanitary modes of living, such as have been detailed, is
shown among the French settlers on the north-eastern frontier
of the province. Descended from the early Norman colonists,
they speak their mother-tongue and maintain the old religious
faith ; indeed, so exclusive are they, that it is rare to hear of
any one marrying out of his own sect. Moreover, so closely
are they bound by family ties, that in one district (Carraquette)

* During my peregrinations in New Brunswick I was frequently struck
by observing how the national characters of the settlers are displayed in
the appearance and management of their farms, even in the second and
third generation? born in the country. The tidy, well-kept, well-fenced
farm of the En^'lishman and thrifty and canny Scot, and the wretched
cabin, the slatternly and dilapidated precincts of the Irish, with the eternal
pig roaming about wherever it listed, are so conspicuous that in travelling
through forest clearings I could generally guess the nationality of the
owners.

48

Field and Forest Rambles.

it is a usual occurrence to give marriage dispensations. Thus
hereditary diseases are common, and of all others that terrible
scourge Elephantiasis, or Greek Leprosy, has maintained a
prominent position among the maladies of these poor creatures
for many years. Indeed so frightful have been its ravages, that

FRENCH LEPERS OF TRACADIE.

the Government was obliged to build a hospital in the district
for the especial treatment of such cases. This very wise measure
has had the good effect of isolating the disease, but sometimes
the wretched victim, rather than undergo forced detention in
the dismal lazaretto, betakes himself to the woods, and is

Difficulties of Forest Travelliiig. 49

there surreptitiously maintained by friends. No doubt the
dietary contributes towards developing the inherent predis-
position : indeed many of the afflicted attribute their con-
ditions to feeding on salted fish for lengthened periods, and in
consequence of the prevalence of the disease in families, there
grew a belief that it was communicable by touch. This, how-
ever, has been clearly proved not to be the case, whilst on
the other hand the hereditary transmission is indisputable,
as shown by careful observations made by Drs. Bayard and
Wilson of St. John. Considering the scientific interest con-
nected with the natural history of this formidable malady,
I have made an abstract in the Appendix from the report of
these gentlemen, showing the consanguinity of the inmates of-
the lazaretto at the time of their inspection. The repulsive
aspects of many of the unfortunate beings are too shocking to
relate, and although a good deal has been done to ameliorate
their conditions, still, from all I could IcEirn, there are few
public charities in the province more deserving general support
than the leper hospital of Tracadie. . . ■, .

I made an ineffectual attempt to visit these poor outcasts,
but at a season of the year when travelling is very difficult in
consequence of thaws ; indeed I got as far as the mouth of the
Mirimachi River, and was within forty miles of the lazaretto,
when a continuance of May floods carried away bridges and
destroyed the usual route along the north-east coast. Never
shall I forget the four days spent in traversing these sixty
miles of New Brunswick forest in a wretched waggon yclept
the " Royal Mail," when after twenty-four hours' struggling
over the most villanous of roads, we halted at midnight at a
country inn, where I slept on the floor, with the mail-bags for
a pillow. How the driver of the diligence fell asleep as we
'.vere rattling down a steep hill, and by way of bringing the
negligent whip to a sense of duty, his neighbour, a Presbyterian
parson, nudged him so violently as to knock the culprit from
his box ; the meeting with the skipper of a German vessel in

£

50 Field and Forest Rambles.

a farmhouse, where we stopped to dine and change horses ;
and the story of a pursuit after his crew who had deserted him
in Miramichi Bay a few days previously, together with many
other incidents of travel which occurred under anything but
pleasant circumstances, are all duly chronicled in my remem-
brance ; alloyed with the kindness and hospitality of rny friend
Dr. Benson, of Chatham, to whom I am further indebted for
his able report on the lepers, and much valued information
in connection with the interior econom.y and condition of the
Tracadie asylum. Although prevented from making a personal
inspection of the hospital, I must not leave the subject without
some further notice of the establishment, and therefore tran-
s scribe the following excellent description by the late Governor,

the Hon. Sir Arthur Gordon, already published in " Vacation
Tourists" for 1863. Talking of the origin of the leprosy. Sir
Arthur says : —

"There is an obscure and doubtful story that, some eighty or
a hundred years ago, a French ship was wrecked on the shore
of the county of Gloucester or Northumberland, and that some
of those who escaped from the crew were sailors of Marseilles,
who had caught in the Levant the true eastern leprosy, the
terrible Elephantiasis Grcecoriim. However this may be, there
is no doubt that for many years past a portion of the French
population of these counties has been afflicted with this fearful
malady, or one closely allied to it — probably that form of
leprosy which is known to prevail upon the coast of Norway.
About twenty years ago the disease seemed to be on the in-
crease, and so great an alarm was created by this fact, and by
the allegation (the truth or falsehood of which I have never
been able satisfactorily to ascertain) that settlers of English
descent had cau^I t and died of the disease, that a very
stringent law was p ssed, directing the seclusion of the lepers,
and authorizing any member of a local Board of Health con-
stituted by the Act, to commit to the Lazaretto any person
afflicted with the disorder. After being for a time established

Leprosy among the French Settlers 0/ Tracadie. 5 1

at Sheldrake Island, in the Miramichi River, the hospital was
removed to Tracadie, in the county of Gloucester, where it
continues to remain.

" The situation of the Lazaretto is drean' in the extreme,
and the view which it commands embraces no object calculated
to please, or indeed to arrest, the eye. On the one side is a
shallow, turbid sea, which at the time of my visit was un-
enlivened by a single sail ; on the other lies a monotonous
stretch of bare, cleared land, only relieved by the ugly church
and mean wooden houses of a North American village.

" The outer enclosure of the Lazaretto consists of a grass
field, containing some three or four acres of land. Within
these limits the lepers are now allowed to roam at will. Until
lately, however, they were confined to the much narrower
bounds of a small enclosure in the centre of the large one,
and containing the buildings of the hospital Itself

" Into these dismal precincts I entered, accompanied by the
Roman Catholic Bishop of Chatham, the Secretary to the Board
of Health, the Resident Physician, and the Roman Catholic
\ riest of the village, who acts as Chaplain to the hospital.

" Within the inner enclosure are several small wooden build-
ings, detached from each other, and comprising the kitchen,
laundry, etc., of the establishment ; one of these edifices, but
newly completed, is furnished with a bath — a great addition
to the comfort of the unhappy inmates. The hospital itself is
a building containing two large rooms, the one devoted to the
male, and the other to the female, patients. In the centre of
each room is a stove and table, with a few benches and stools,
whilst the beds of the patients are ranged along the walls.
These rooms are sufficiently light and well-ventilated, and at
the time of my visit were perfectly clean and neat. In the
rear of these rooms is a small chapel, so arranged that a
window obliquely traversing the wall on each side of the par-
tition, which divides the two rooms, enables the patient of
either sex to witness the celebration of Mass without meeting.

E 2

52 Field and Forest Rambles,

Through the same apertures confessions are received, and the
Holy Communion administered. I may here remark how
curious an illustration is thus afforded to architectural students
of the object of those low skew windows often found in the
chancels of ancient churches. In a remote corner of North
America, in a rude wooden building of modern date, erected
by men who never saw a mediaeval church, or possess the least
acquaintance with Gothic architecture, convenience has sug-
gested an arrangement precisely similar to one which has
long puzzled the antiquaries and architects of Europe.

" At the time of my visit there were twenty-three patients in
the Lazaretto, thirteen males and ten females, all of whom
were F'-ench Roman Catholics, belonging to families of the
lowest class. These were of all ages, and suffering from every
stage of the disease. One old man, whose features were so
disfigured as to be barely human, and who appeared in the
extremity of dotage, could hardly be roused from his apathy
sufficiently to receive the Bishop's blessing, which was eagerly
sought on their knees by the others. But there were also
young men, whose arms seemed as strong, and their powers
of work and of enjoyment as unimpaired, as they ever had
been ; and — saddest sight of all — there were young children
condemned to pass here a life of hopeless misery.

" I was especially touched by the appearance of three poor
boys between the ages of fifteen and eleven years. To the
ordinary observer they were like other lads — bright-eyed and
intelligent enough ; but the fatal marks which sufficed to
separate them from the outer world were upon them, and they
■were now shut up for ever within the walls of the Lazaretto.

" An impression similar in kind, though feebler in degree, is
produced by the sight of all the younger patients. There is
something appalling in the thought that from the time of his
arrival until his death, a period of perhaps many long years,
a man, though endowed with the capacities, the passions, and
the desires of other men, is condemned to pass from youth to

Leper Hospital of Tracadie. 53

middle life, and from middle life to old age, with no society
but that of his fellow-sufiferers, with no employment, no amuse-
ment, no resource ; with nothing to mark his hours but the
arrival of some fresh victim ; with nothing to do except to
watch his companions slowly dying around him. Hardly any
of the patients could read, and those who could had no books.
No provision seems to be made to furnish them with any
occupation, either bodily or mental, and under these circum-
stances I was not surprised to learn that, in the later stages of
the disease, the mind generally became enfeebled.

" The majority of the patients did not appear to me to suffer
any great amount of pain, and I was informed that one of the
characteristics of the disease was the insensibility of the flesh
to injury. One individual was pointed out to me whose hand
and arm had been allowed to rest on a nearly red-hot stove,
and who had never discovered the fact until attention was
arrested by the strong smell of the burning limb, which was
terribly injured."

I never think of the haunts of the larger wild quadrupeds
of this region without associating them with many scenes
deeply impressed on my memory, of the delightful winter days
spent in roaming on snow shoes over the forest, or the
nights when under the shelter of the little hut made of pine
boughs, and covered over with snow, its cheerful log fire in
the centre, and our pallets of the softest spruce foliage, we
recounted the adventures of the day, or listened to the long
yarns of the Indian.

How vivid come back these and like recollections ! the
solitude and perfect stillness of nature, only broken by the
twigs cracking from intense frost, the loud chattering of stray
squirrels, or the phantom-like form of a hare springing over
the snow, the dreary barren with only here and there a single
tree, or clump of stunted pines, the impervious alder swamp,
anon the dismal darkness of the forest ; now the deep impres-

^

'

54 J^ie/c/ and Forest Rambles.

♦t sions of a moose, then the broader and less hoilow prints of

the reindeer ; the fox's sharply defined dimples, the lynx's
broad pads, and shallow track of the sable or mink, whilst

I from beneath every bush close around the bivouac, are seen

innumerable sojournings of the smaller weasels that come
forth at night to feed on the refuse of our humble fare, or the
little short-tailed wood mouse, attracted by the light and heat,
and not yet taught to fear man, is seen running about the
humble hearth. I think, moreover, of the Indian, seated on
the opposite side of the log fire, pipe in mouth, mending a
torn moccasin, as he narrated some hunting or trapping adven-
ture, or what was always most akin to his fancy, a discourse
on the supernatural. Indeed, their belief in ghosts and goblins,
fairies, water sprites, and monster animals, if in any way inferior
to that of their forefathers, must indeed be small.

It used to be my favourite occupation during visits to Indian
villages, or in excursions to the wilderness, to provoke discus-
sions on all sorts of traditional stories, or elicit personal narra-
tives in regard to their habits and customs, and, I will say, a
more impracticable race does not exist. It was of no use
talking to the squaw on any subject save the price of moc-
casins or snow shoes, for, indeed, little she cared to tell her
social life, whilst the man was seldom induced to talk unless
when separated from the others. But by the blazing log
fire in the depths of the forest, during the winter night, when
he and the European attempt to wile away the long hours,
there comes over him at times a disposition to be commu-
nicative, and nothing will delight him more than narrating
his experiences of the supernatural, of which he has generally
a few sensational instances handy, and is generally prepared
to listen to any fresh example^ more especially if at all
connected with forest life. My friend Mr. Edward Jack,
the most experienced wilderness traveller in the province,
informed me that he nearly terrified an old Indian out of his
wits by assuring him that "a monster spirit had appeared close

Indian Myths and Legends. 55

by, and demanded to know where the Indian was, as he
desired to eat him," at which the latter became so terrified
that nothing subsequently would induce him to leave the
camp fire after nightfall. I moreover well recollect another
occasion when hunting Virginian deer with my excellent
friends Colonels Andcijon and Wetmore. We had settled
down in a deserted shantie previous to beating a hard-wood
forest, when the native, a brother of the Indian just referred to,
after cooking our dinners and spreading the pine tops, on
which we reclined under rugs, and having piled the logs on
the fire for the night, betook himself, as usual, to his corner,
whilst we chattered and talked until one after another fell
asleep. However, from some cause or other (possibly being
my first night in camp) rest would not c me to me, so dozing
and waking, I tossed about under the blanket. Besides, there
were porcupines calling in the forest, and strange sounds like
the breaking of dried twigs under feet, whilst mice kept pass-
ing over me to feed on the refuse of our dinners. Restless
and uncomfortable, I popped my head from under the rug to
find Sabates, the Indian, seated, with pipe in mo ith, intently
gazing into the blazing fire. In a trice I was alongside of
him, whilst my two friends snored in concert under their
blankets. Talking of the porcupines, he assured me in the
first place that their noises always preceded a thaw, and
certainly such was our experience on the above occasion.

Then reverting to the cracking of twigs, he would not posi-
tively say what was the reason ; perhaps a deer or a str^.y bear
might be about ; " there were sounds," he said, " sometimes
in the forest which no one could explain ! " At last, from one
thing to another, we got on ghosts, when Sabates warmed
rapidly, and at once proceeded with a long narrative, the
gist of which ran as follows. One night, when alone in a
very unfrequented portion of the forest, where he had been
hunting musk-rats, he was on the point of reclining under a
little temporary cover made of branches of trees placed on

56 Field and Forest Rambles.

uprights, when, to his utter astonishment, a female figure
appeared in the gloom before the fire.

" Come now, Sabates," said I, "you did not see her closely!"

" I seed her," replied Sabates, " as clear as I see you !
And what do you think ?" he continued, " when I returned
to my people, who live on the banks of the Schoodic Lakes,
I found a squaw, one of my near relatives, had died on that
very night!"

It is, however, scarcely fair to be hard on the heathen, when
at the same time we find the white race indulging in similar
if not more extravagant delusions. Thus, when I retorted to
his narrative with a smile of incredulity, Sabates asked if "I
had heard of the Monster of Utopia," which lake, as the crow
flies, was not ten miles distant. We have already seen the
archaeological interest attached to the district, and in the
sequel I will revert to its waters in connection with the brook
trout ; in the meantime I shall relate briefly a supernatural
wonder connected with this beautiful forest loch.

During midsummer, 1867, some lumbermen employed at a
saw mill situate at the north end of the lake observed on one
occasion that the waters, usually remarkably placid, were sud-
denly disturbed by the splashing of some object, which certain
individuals asserted was fully ten feet in breadth and about
thirty in length. The most reliable of the witnesses informed
me that, although he saw the water furiously disturbed in a
circumscribed area of the above dimensions, he did not observe
any object ; and this I believe is the most correct statement
The entire phenomenon did not last above a minute, when the
surface became smooth like the rest of the lake, which was
remarkably tranquil at the time. During the two following
days the same appearances were alleged to have been seen
by other observers in difierent parts of the lake ; and so posi-
tive were the residents that some monstrous animal was the
cause, that they set large hooks baited with salt fish and
pork, and which I found attached to logs in various situations.

The Monster of Lake Utopia. 57

The credulous asserted that the slimy track of some huge
animal had been traced from the ocean to the lake some thirty
years ago ! and we were considered adventurers in sailing on
the lake so soon after the above occurrence. The question,
however, came to be, "What was the real cause of the disturb-
ance," for there could be no doubt that a remarkable appear-
ance as regards the surface of the water did take place. The
lake is picturesquely situated in a deep basin, surrounded by
wooded hills, which are composed for the most part of red
felspathic granite, the only direct communication with the sea
being by canal and river, whilst the latter presents a barrier
at its mouth over which it is absolutely impossible for stur-
geons, or a fish of any sort, to make their way ; moreover the
lake is only six miles in length by about one in breadth. We
might suppose, therefore, sub-lacustrine rock fisiures, con-^
taining air and water from the water-shed, suddenly opening
in places ; or shoals of eels or fishes, such as are often observed
in the case of the little sardine-like fish in the Mediterranean.
Again, I have noticed, in secluded lakes in Thibet and
Ladakh, that whirlwinds not unfrequently disturb parts of
the surface, especially where cross currents of air from gorges
meet ; and this is the case on Lake Utopia. At all events,
the monster was decidedly Utopian in every sense.

Returning to the natives. Any familiar objects or sounds
seem to have always made lasting impressions on the Indian's
mind, and the more remarkable, the more likely were they to
take a place in his wild legends and wilder mythologies. As
examples — the night screech of the owl had to them a lin-
guistic significance, and the squirrel's continual chattering on
the approach of man is accounted for in the following pretty
fable.

The red squirrel chooses the dense, dark forest of hemlock
spruce among the moss-covered and rotting prostrate trunks
where it sports about and stores up cones for winter ; there
came a belief among the ancient Indians of New Brunswick,

58 Field and Forest Rambles.

that the squirrel had been an enormous animal, but that one
day an old man of the tribe was asked by the Great Spirit
what he should most desire, and he replied, " To reduce the
size of this giant squirrel!" Whereupon he received the
divine mandate, and going forth from the council chamber,
stretched out his hand, when the squirrel shrank to its present
proportions : "therefore the result has been that the little crea-
ture has ever since been querulous at the sight of man ! "

But there were other monster animals, according to their
legends, besides this great ntiko, or squirrel. Stories are told
of huge moose, beavers, and "the wonderful Great Turtle"!*
How the snowy owl still laments the Golden Age when man
and all animals lived in perfect amity, until it came to pass
they began to quarrel, when the great immortal Glooscap,
or Clotescarp, got disgusted, and sailed across the seas, to
return when they made up therr differences. So every night
the owl repeats to this day his "Koo koo skoos" — "Oh, I
am sorry ! oh, I am sorry ! " Thus, whatever was strange or
uncommon in the habits and appearances of animals, either
in the production of fear, or calculated to excite curiosity in
the savage's mind, was sure to be utilized in one way or
another : for example, the passenger pigeon was their ideal of
"rapidity in movements;" the ungainly bear, jet black excepting
a white mark on its chest, elicited a story of how the " beauty
spot was produced." The amphibious musk-rat was associated
with "good actions," as it furnished food and fur for winter. To
this day fabulous tak are told of the " Lhoks," or " Indian
Devil," and its ferocity, but unless the puma had at one time
ranged over the New Brunswick forests, there is no other feline
animal formidable enough to attack man.

• The gigantic tortoise of the Hindoo mythology is a strange contrast
to this myth of the American Indians, and whether in either case u chimera
or not, it is remarkable that the imaginations of the two races were so
concordant. For the above and other Indian traditions in connection
with New Brunswick, see the interesting " Wilderness Journeys," by the
Hon. H. Gordon, "Vacation Tourists " for 1862-63.

Feline Animals of the Region. 59

According to Dekay,* the Puma does not probably range
further north than New York ; but it may just be possible that
now and then an individual strays into the forests of this region.
I have a record made by the late Dr. Robb, Professor of
Natural History in the University of New Brunswick, of a
large feline animal having attacked 'and nearly killed a man
near the capital of the province in 1841, and he further states
having seen the skin of a puma from the vicinity of Quebec.
The ferocity and cunning of the glutton has made it famous
in more southern regions, but the animal is unknown within
our boundaries.

The Lynx is still plentiful, and the Wild Cat {L. rufus)
is not uncommon, but under the latter are included numerous
domesticated varieties, which, when abandoned on the breaking
up of the log camps and such-like, betake themselves to the feral
life, and are frequently captured in traps set for sable and
mink ; and as the fur partakes of the richness of the wild felinae,
jet black sorts especially are valuable. It may be, moreover,
that crosses take place between the wild and tame animal.

The American Sable or Pine Marten is considered by
certain authorities to be only a variety of the Russian sable,
whilst others maintain specific distinctions. In dimensions,
length of tail, coloration, and quality, or rather quantity of thv;
fur, they assimilate pretty closely, only the density of the pile
is most assuredly in favour of the Old World animal, as shown
by their marketable values. But this difiference is no doubt
owing to climate, as the varieties in colouring are common to
the denizens of both continents. The two sorts of skins
familiarly known to Canadian trappers as the hard and soft
wood sables, are so pronounced that dealers make distinctions
in their prices.t

♦ " Natural History of New York."

t The hard wood or light coloured skin usually fetch two dollars, while
that of the dark or soft wood sable varies from two and a half to three
dollars and upwards.

6o Field and Forest Rambles.

Natives and hunters state that the former, or the orange and
saffron cc'oured sable, lives more or less ''n forests composed
of deciduous leaved trees, and the Ijitter in the dense pine
woods. I can well believe that the exposure to light in the
maple woods, as compared with the eternal gloom of the coni-
ferous forest, would be sufficient to bring about these remark-
able differences ; indeed, looking at the advantages these
colorations are to both — take, for example, in the autumn,
when the ground is covered with the many yellow and red
leaves of the various sorts of trees, then the black sable would
be conspicuous when hunting, whereas the other would scarcely
be .ecognized. At all events, we must say that there is
a predisposition to variation in the species, and that from
whatever cause the same is apt to be continued and propo-
gated by offspring, provided the parents are both similarly
shaded. I have repeatedly arranged series of sable skins
from one large forest tract composed of long stretches of
nothing but coniferous trees, with only hard wocd sparingly
distributed throughout, when without difficulty I was enabled
to form a regular gradation from one extreme to the other.
Now, although it frequently takes place that the two sorts are
met with in the same situation, this does not militate against the
fact that the animals prey chiefly on squirrels, partridges, and
the like, which repair to feed on the nuts, etc., that furnish
their chief food in summer and autumn, as do the denizens
of the coniferous region in winter, therefore we may fairly
ccnciude that, if nature does select the animal best suited
to the circumstances, she did wisely towards the sable,
inasmuch as its means of subsistence are distributed over
two districts very distinct as regards sunshine. With reference
to physical features, we might go so far as to believe that
supposing the pine forests should disappear, and only the
maple, beech, birch, and so forth remain, in process of time the
dark-coloured sable would become extinct. From abundant
data I was enabled, as far as the New World animal is con-

The American Sable and its Varieties, 6 l

cerned, to establish the following comparisons between ity
outward appearance and bony parts, with the denizen of
northern Europe and Asia.*

The average length of the American sable, as indicated from
the very many specimens examined by me, is nineteen inches,
exclusive of the tail, which averages six inches. The tail verte-
brae do nearly extend to the end of the hind feet, which is also
the case with the old world animal ; nevertheless I observe
Professor Baird stating -)* that in the specimens procured in
the United States the feet reach only to the middle of the
tail. The balls of the toes, as usual with its compeers, are
densely covered with woolly hair in winter and are naked in
summer. The skulls of the two agree in all particulars.
In the orange and saffron varieties of Canada the upper parts
are more or less orange, with dark tips to the hairs and
shadings of the same extending down the back. The yellow
occupies about three inches of the tail, the remainder being
black, like the extremities. I observed th?.t several skins
procured in the same district showed a few white hairs at the
tip, and in one in particular there was a conspicuous orange
and white tuft at the distal extremity, thus showing a pre-
disposition to a character common to many carnivorous
quadrupeds, both closely and remotely allied to the genus,
or according to the doctrines advanced by Mr. Darwin. J
Are we to say it is a partial reversion to the colour of
a common progenitor }

It seems that the lighter the upper parts of the Canadian
sable, the more so are the lower; and the darker the pile,

* I am indebted to my friend Lieutenant Sweeny, 22nd Regiment, an
experienced and skilled trapper, for many opportunities of examinmg
large collections of skins of the martens of northern New Brunswick, as
well as numerous specimens of their skeletons, which he kindly procured
for me ; also an interesting series of thirty-two sable skins from the hard
and soft wood forests of the central part of the province.

t " United States Pacific Railway Report," vol. viii., 152.

\ See " Origin of Species," " Animals and Plants under Domestication,"
and " Descent of Man," passim.

62 • Field and Forest Rambles.

the more pronounced is the black dorsal stripe. The smallest
specimens are generally the darkest, with often a greyish-
white front patch, and only a faint tinge of yellow on
the hips ; in fact, the description of the Russian sable by
Brandt * differs in no way as regards colorc.ion from the
sable of this region. The hair on the head, neck, and throat
is bushy and very light coloured in winter, so that when the
animal faces you the darker hind parts become more or less
hidden, and thus advantageous towards sneaking on its prey.
Moreover the margins and inside of the ears are pure white,,
giving a very attractive aspect to the handsome creature when
on the alert. I fancy a hare would with difficulty discern
the sable on snow when in this position. The orange throat
patch is always varying both in richness and extent : some-
times it is brilliant saffron, often with dark markings inter-
mixed, and not unfrequently yellowish-white ; at all events
all the yellow seen on this marten attains the deepest hues
on the throat patch, and on the flanks and sides of the belly,
the first coming to a point between the fore legs.

It is evident from the descriptions given by Baird of the
American sable that the diagnosis he attempts to estaiblish
between it and the M. Zibellina will not apply to the animal
found in this region, which in all particulars, excepting in
the fur being less dense, is seemingly in no other respect
different from the Asiatic and European animal, — at least, as
described by the above eminent Russian zoologist. At most
the American can only be called " a yellower or more yellowish
brown, and less densely furred variety A the Asiatic sable ; it
is surely not a distinct species, nor is the dark variety a pine
marten {M. Maries), seeing that specimens are as black as any
described by European authors. Regarding the seasonal
changes, as will be pointed out in the sequel, it is a general
rule with all the quadrupeds of this region, either in tl e chang-

• ((

Beitrage Saugethiere Russland," 1855.

The Black Minx and ita Varieties. 03

ing of colour or in the additional coat, that they are at*:ained
towards the end of October, and shed in March and April.

The Black Mink was at one time very plentiful in the
foiests, but the Indian and trapper have made sad havoc in
its numbers ; moreover che future bodes badly, considering the
increased demand for its fur ; however, like others of its con-
geners, the mink possesses an ardent attachment to localities,
and may still be found close to towns and settlements. The
first individual I saw was hunting for trout on a brook within
a mile of the capital. Not perceiving me, it came within a few
feet before discovering its mistake, when with an amount
of nimbleness scarcely to be expected from its short legs, the
handsome little creature bounded along the bank with the
alacrity of the sable. From all accounts this and the Nurek
{P. lutreola) of Siberia are much alike, only it is said the
latter is smaller, with the edges of the upper Up white ; but
the mink varies a great deal in this respect. I found two out
of eight captured on the Miramichi had the edges of the upper
lip hoary ; moreover it is well known to traders and trappers
there are two sizes independent of sex and apparently of age ;
indeed, so marked is this that many dealers consider them two
distinct animals, the larger being obtained near the sea coast.
The last statement, however, may not be altogether correct ;
still I found among hundreds of skins so much discrepancy
in dimension, that there need be no hesitation in accepting
the statement above given. Thus, after making allowances for
the overstretching, I have noted two sets averaging thirteen
and sixteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Like the
sable, it is subject to varieties, but only in respect to the white
on the lower parts, which is often entirely wanting ; but many
have longitudinal white stripes on the belly, and even a cru-
ciform band of the same colour.

The smaller weasels of America have been entirely sepa-
rated from European allied forms, but no doubt in many cases

i4 Field arid Forest Rambles.

on questionable grounds. The COMMON WHITE WEASEL
of this continent, named Putorius Richardsonii, is most dis-
tinctly allied to the li.ii.:i::e, so closely that several skulls and
skins from this region fail in my hands to show any appreciable
distinction, with the exception that the fur of the American
ermine is not so rich as that of northern Europe. I have
not seen specimens of the so-called New York ermine, from
the New England States, but as far as the latest and most ac-
curate descriptions extend there is seemingly no well-marked
difference between it and the T. Richardsonii, perhaps only
what would arise from climate. I have examined several fine
specimens of the ermine of New Brunswick, one of which in
the flesh measured six and three-quarter inches, exclusive of
the tail, which was seven inches.*

The most common and widely distributed of Acadian mar-
tens is a little brown weasel, which agrees better with the T.
Cicognonii of authors than any other recorded species, but
only in dimensions ; for whilst 1 have seen no full-grown indi-
viduals so small as the T. Pusillus of Audubon, I have before
me specimens apparently in no ways different from the so-
called New York Ermine, either as regards size or colouring ;
but seeing that there is already great confusion engendered by
European and American naturalists in regard to the specific
characters of the above, I shall enter more into details. The
Little Brown Weasel of New Brunswick varies from nine
to nine and three-quarters inches in length, inclusive of the
tail, which is from two and a half to three inches to the
extremity of its vertebrae, and about one-fourth of the
entire length of the animal. The hind legs stretched to
their fullest extent do not come within half an inch of the
last caudal vertebrae. The black of the tail extends for fully

* The sulphur yellow tinge conspicuous in this as in other allied
species which turn white in winter, being localized to the hips and lo'ver
parts, appears to be owing to emissions from the stench bag, the contents
of which are of that colour, just as the red of the hair in the inner sides of
the legs of the Red Deer and other mammals is caused by urip':'.

Weaselsy ike Ermine^ and Pekau. • ^

half an inch beyond the tip. This weasel is brown above in
summer, with white upper lips and lower parts, the latter more
or less tinged with sulphur-yeilow ; the hairs on the dorsum of
the feet greyish-brown ; tail always tipped with black for about
two inches. The winter pilage is white, with the yellowish
tinge on the hips and belly. The tubercles of the feet are
obscured by hair in winter, and to a less extent in summer.
As regards its summer pilage and size, it is closely allied to
the European weasel (M. vulgaris).

The winter coat shows a dense woolly fur, which is rapidly
attained — indeed, so soon that I have seen it completed in the
course of two weeks after the first fall of snow, when, as in
many of the other indigenous quadrupeds and birds, there is
also an absolute increase in the weight, caused by additional
layers of fat all over the body. It is said to bring forth four
to five young at each litter, and breeds two to three times
during the year, which accounts for the plentiful distribution
of the species.

The Fekan, or FiSHER Cat, so closely allied to the mink
in habits, is becoming rare in this region ; individuals, how-
ever, are met with, but they more often make their presence
known to the trapper by carrying off the baits from sable and
mink traps. This the pekan readily accomplishes, owing to
superior strength and agility ; even when caught in fox-traps,
it has been known to bite off" the captured limb.*

Like others of its family it bounds on the ground, springing
(as I have seen often) five feet at one leap on soft snow. Here
again, as in the mink, there is often present, and as frequently
absent, a little grey patch on the th/oat, in others on the belly
between the Tore and hind legs.

In all the specimens I have examined, the footpads were

* I am indebted to Mr. Sills, of Fredericton, a gentleman of gre. t •
forest experience and much discernment, for several valued data in con-
nection v'ith the habits and haunts of these and other quadrupeds of New
Brunswick

F •

^ Field and Forest Rambles, '■'

bare at all seasons. Like the sable, it turns hoary on the head ;
moreover, in case its dark colour, longer legs, and larger frame
might render it conspicuous in the snow, the white extends
to the tips of the hairs on the neck and head, as in the sable.
The length of the body, exclusive of the tail, is not over twenty-
five inches, as I ascertained from specimens in the flesh. It
preys at all seasons on fish, squirrels, or whatever favourite
land or fresh-water animal happens to come in its way, in the
capture of which it is said to display remarkable adroitness.
Trappers familiar with its habits state it has two litters within
the year, and from five to eight on each occasion, which would
be remarkable fecundity, even allowing for the numbers
captured and its general distribution. Perhaps the biannual
breeding may not be regular. During heavy falls of snow,
when the carnivorous quadrupeds are hard pressed for sub-
sistence, and also when the temperature is very low, seldom
any of the mustelinae appear, hence it is a current opinion
that they sleep for short periods in midwinter ; indeed, it
has often appeared to me surprising how they manage to
obtain subsistence at this season even on ordinary occasions.
The smaller weasels that can prowl under the snow after
mice do, doubtless, fare ''ell; but such as the mink, pekan,
and raccoon, with the riv rs closed ?nd the hares under
the pine boughs buried in the snow, an .' the squirrel high up
on the tops of the pines, must have oiten a hard struggle
for existence.

There cannot be a doubt that 'the SKUNK hibernates in
this district, very few being seen between October and April.
It is the least agile of any of the native polecats, and can be
overtaken without difficulty ; this defect, however, is made up
by its powerful means of defence. The foetid odours evolved
by the mustelinae in general most assuredly attains the extreme
of pungency in the skunk, and it is remarkable to observe its
wide diffusion. I remember driving, one dark night, along a
highway, when the effluvium of a skunk was perceived for

The Skunk and its Habits. Iflf

nearly two miles. So persistent is it that articles of clothing
retain the smell tor years, and the dried bones of a skeleton
I picked up in the forest not only retained, but communicated,
the stench to a number of birds' skins in the same cabinet *
When pursued by dogs and its foes, it ejects the fluid, in the
form of spray, at its pursuers, as was illustrated on one occa-
sion when a party of officers belonging to the 22nd Regiment
came suddenly on what, to them, appeared "a most strange
and beautiful black and white cat!" which they pressed and
hounded on their dogs to capture, lutle a. 'are of the nature of
the animal and the consequences oi such rashness. Indeed no
sooner did the leading dog get within a yard or two than the
little creature suddenly stopped, and with head down and tail
erect, sent a shower of the liquid straight in its face, when the
dog howled most piteously, and making for a swamp close by,
plunged into the mire, while simultaneously with the occurrence
the surrounding forest became suddenly permeated by a most
noisome and abominable odour, which adhered to the clothing
for days ; moreover, one of the gentlemen informed me that
the bath sponge he used on the following day smelt of the
skunk. The compressor muscle in this species, the Hudson's
Bay Weasel {M. Hudsonicus), is extremely powerful, seeing
that the animal is enabl \ to propel the contents of the stench
bag for ten and, I have been told, even fifteen feet.

The slow mode of profjression of the skunk, unlike any of
its tribe, is evidently engendered from an inherited confidence
in its power of resisting attacks of its enemies by this formid-
able and strange mode of defence. Its eye is said to have
a d\ill aspect, wanting the sparkling vivacity of many of
its congeners ; perhaps this may be owing to its hybernating
habit, as the eyes of the other non-hybernating skunks of the
temperate and sub-torrid regions of the continent, although

• Dr. Gilpin perceived the odour for nine miles. There is no account-
ing for tastes ! he says the Indians " like the odour, willingly eating the
tainted meat." — Trans. Inst. Nat, Science of Nova Scoiia, vol. ii., p. 68.

F a

68 Field and Forest Rambles.

small, are said to be bright and piercing. In Mexico, Cali-
fornia, and Texas there are reported to be eight or nine other
species besides the above. The condition of the cornea
just described seems more or less common to all animals that
spend a portion or the whole of their existence in darkness,
and may arise from prolonged disuse of the organ. I have
repeatedly observed, in the case of bears and other animals
which spend the winter in a dormant state, that their corneas
were almost lustreless in spring, and never so bright as subse-
quently after exposure to light. Moreover it will be, I think,
generally found that wherever one of the senses is defective
another is unusually acute. The moose, as will be before
noted, has a relatively small eye, but very acute senses of
smell and hearing ; the bear is the same ; and hundreds of
similar examples are familiar to natural observers. I wonder
if the blind rats of the Kentucky caves possess acute hearing
and smell, such as the moles and other subterranean mammals.
I must confess there is a very regular accordance between the
size and brilliancy of the eye and the animal's habits, whether
it searches for subsistence in daylight, twilight, or in total dark-
ness ; and the modifications of the organ, from use or disuse.
All seem to be owing to natural selection, for no careful
observer can gainsay Mr. Darwin's words, " that use strengthens
and enlarges certain parts, and disuse diminishes them, and
that such modifications are inherited." *

The Otter of Canada is said to differ from the European
species f by having a larger muffle, with the pads of the feet
separated from the toes by hair ; the fur is also richer, and
more of a chestnut-brown.

With all the reclamation of the forest tracts of Canada, and
the destruction of their wild quadrupeds, it is particularly
pleasing to the naturalist to learn that several species which
had been on the verge of extinction are again returning to

* " Origin of Species," p. 134.

t Baird, " Pacific Railway Report," vol. viii., p. 186.

The Canadian Otter and Raccoo7i.

69

their ancient haunts. In a series of interesting papers lately
published by Dr. Gilpin in the Transactions of the Institute of
Natural Science of Nova Scotia,* it would appear that such as
the bear, raccoon, and beaver are returning to localities from
whence they had been driven in former years. With reference to
the raccoon he s.iys, " It has penetrated the whole length of the
Annapolis Valley during the last thirty years in such num-
bers as to damage the crops of the mountain farmers, whilst
on the southern side, separated by the river and basin, he is
unknown. Les Carbot, who visited Nova Scotia in 1606,
speaks of small animals very round and fat, which had black
paws like monkeys, as plentiful there at that time. These must
have been raccoons. J note this as curious that they should
retire before cultivation, and then return 3CX) years afterwards,
under such different circumstances, to cultivated fields instead
of primeval forests, to corn and maize instead of wild fruits and
berries." These observations suggest considerations with re-
ference to the cause or causers of albinism and nigritism, and
to consider how far the changed conditions of life may have
brought about these states ; mdeed, so changeable are the
colourings of the fur of the raccoon that, as Baird states, it is
rare to meet with two individuals coloured exactly alike. It
would be interesting, therefore, if we could find out whether or
not the animal has always been subject to this remarkable
mutability as regards colouring. Indeed so pronounced are
many varieties of the carnivorous quadnipeds just mentioned,
that the species-maker mij^ht indulge his proclivities to a large
extent, were it not that we know sufficient of each animal's
habits to show the inutility of any such proceeding.

It has frequently appeared to me, as it must doubtless strike
every one whose field of observation has extended beyond one
district or region, and not been narrowed to the naming and
descrijing of objects in museums, how much it has become a

* See vol. ii., p. 83, ei seq.

70 Field and Forest Rambles.

habit with certain naturah'sts to isolate closely allied forms,
on the score of adding to the fauna and flora of the country
in which their own particular fields of study have been directed.
This is very apparent with several well-known American
zoologists, and seems in some instances to arise from an idea
that whatever remarkable objects are furnished by the Old
World, there are equally interesting representatives in the
New, but distinct, and therefore must on no account be allowed
to be considered identical. I am far, however, from wishing
'to apply this solely to the many distinguished observers who
adorn the annals of natural science in the United States, nor
to assert that it is a general practice anywhere ; the merest
tyro knows full well that the affinities and analogies of natural
objects are not so easily defined as all that ; but this much I
do believe, that if the study of the Geographical Distributions
of animals and plants were prosecuted with the vigour bestowed
in the descriptive details of the individual objects, we should
have fewer synonyms in our nomenclature. Reverting to the
subject of allied natural objects common to the old and new
worlds, I have been much interested in an elaborate article
on the well-known Big-horn or large Mountain Sheep {Qvis
montand) of the Rocky Mountains,* more especially as
during my wanderings in central Asia I had frequent oppor-
tunities of examining specimens of the equally magnificent
Mufflon of that region, named the Ovis Ammon, or Nuang
of the Tibetians. The specific differences, according to the
excellent au "k -ity named, taken from specimens of the
American animal, are referable to slight discrepancies in the
curvature, dimensions, direction, markings, anrl distances be-
tween the horns. Now, having examined very many heads
and skins of the Ovis Ammon of the Himalayas, I have
found the differences in all these respects in individuals even
more pronounced than Mr. Baird seeks to establish as specific
between it and the Big-horn of western America.

* Baird, " Pacific Railway Report," vol. viii., p. 674.

Wild Sheep and Bears of the Old a7id New World, 7 1

Again, the Big-horn is said to inhabit the continent as far
north as Alaska, opposite which is Siberia, the head-quarters of
the Ovis Ammon. I shall, therefore, be in no ways surprised
if further researches show the two sheep to be one and the
same species.

The connections between the Barren Ground Bear of
Richardson and the Brown Bear of Europe and northern Asia
on the one hand, and the so-called Isabel-coloured Bear of the
Himalayas on the other, are so close that naturalists have
agreed on the first being equal to the second ; such being the
case, I have still smaller doubts, from careful comparisons, that
the second is also equal to the third. Thus the Ursus Arctos
at one time or other in its history roamed over the most part of
Europe, Asia, and the boreal regions of America. As to the
specific distinctions between the beaver of Europe and North
America and the fossil remains met with in both continents,
there is no one who has even read up the literature of this
subject but must feel very much disposed to come to the
conclusion that in these cases the evidence shows distinctions
without differences.

The Black Bear has maintained its position in the forest
tracts of the North American continent better than many far
less persecuted animals ; indeed, although very much dimi-
nished in numbers now, and within even a quarter of a
century, still in the large tracts of primeval forests towards
the sources of the St. John and Miramachi rivers it is not in
any way uncommon ; indeed, even around the larger towns an
occasional individual may be seen in autumn feeding on rasp-
berries and other fruits. Bears are all great wanderers, unless
when old age compels them to restrict their movements and
select their retreats. I visited a forest tract near the sources
of the Miramachi, where the old " dead falls "* and numerous
remains of sable traps showed that both animals had abounded

* Heavy logs made to fall on the animal when passing under them.

72 Field a7id Forest Rambles.

in the district. For many years the bears that used to come
in numbers to feed on the autumn fruits totally disappeared
until 1865, when there was a general failure all over the country;
then, to the astonishment of the settlers, their old enemies
rapidly increased, and the locality became overrun by bears
until the grain was reaped, when they dispersed.* Although
it prefers vegetable to animal food, nothing comes amiss, from
a sheep down to the daintiest fruit the forest can afford.

The decayed trunk of a pine is a favourite position for hyber-
nating ; but if such is not procurable, it will make a bed in
some clump of trees, selecting the nearest soft substance at hand.
The desire to retire to its winter retreat becomes manifest as
soon as the cold has destroyed all the fruits and the grain has
been gathered ; then it sleeps for the greater part of the day,
moving from place to place, and on every occasion attempting
to make a bed, until at length it settles down for its long
siesta, which is seldom broken throughout the winter months ;
however, during the usual mild weather that sets in suddenly
afte* a continuance of intense cold, it will rouse from its
slumbers and walk about the vicinity of its layer, picking a
scanty subsistence by devouring the bark of tre is ; f but its
susceptible organism and a recurrence of cold compel it to
return to its layer.

The only abnormality in colouring to which the animal
is subject is the frequent absence of the white spot on the
brisket, which is more or less defined in all bears, even

* Mr, Rowan says it is plentiful on the island of Anticosti, off the
Gulf of the St. Lawrence, where it feeds on fish and spawn thrown up
on the beach, and makes its den in dense shrubberies where it hibernates.
— Fields May, 1869.

t The Esquimaux believe the polar bear prevents the passage of evacua-
tions during hybernation by devouring moss and earth, whilst the Indians
of this region entertain a belief that the obstruction is caused by eating
quantities of pine resin, and precisely the same view is maintained by the
natives of the Himalayas with reference to the brown bear. I often
.observed, immediately after leaving its den, that the spoor of the latter
was very mucous, which nlay have led to this mistake.

Black Bear and Us Habits, 73

in the brown species. In outward appearances there is a
close resemblance between it and the black bear of the
Himalayas, which, however, always maintains the white
crescent on the brisket, and invariably more of it ; at the
same time, there are pronounced cranial and other dis-
tinctions, considered quite sufficient to separate them ; where-
as the barren ground bear and the old-world brown bear, and
its variety the isabelline bear, are, as I have shown elsewhere,
most probably identical.* All must, however, disappear with
the spread of cultivation, and considering the price set on the
snout t is three dollars, it is surprising that so many con-
tinue to frequent the region. I was informed, however, that
two are the usual number born at one litter, but now and
then three are seen.

The nervous centres of certain bears must be extremely
sensitive to very low temperatures. I noticed that a tamed
individual of the above species, belonging to the 22nd Regi-
ment, during several days of severe frost, when the glass stood
steadily below zero of Fahrenheit, although sheltered in a barn
among straw, became very drowsy, and scarcely ate its food
until the temperature rose ; it never, however, absolutely
fell into a complete stupor, and the evacuations went on more
or less. No doubt the fat with which tht body is loaded
in autumn maintains the animal heat, but it rapidly dis-
appears in spring, even in a few days after the bear leaves
the den, and beforehand with the female when the cubs
are suckling. The birth of the latter takes place shortly

♦ "Wanderings of a Naturalist," p. 238.

t The Auditor-General of New Brunswick, W. J. Beeck, Esq., furnished
me with the following data. During the years 1860-62 no less than 569
bears' snouts were produced, when the Act was repealed, but so numerous
and destructive did the animal become that the law had to be repassed
.in 1865 ; the result was that 1,173 were brought to the magistrates; in
1866, 347 ; in 1867, 867 ; thus in six years no less than 2,956 bears were
destroyed, not to speak of what had been shot by sportsmen, and not
reported.

74 Field atid Forest Rambles, ■- ■

before the parent leaves the den ; indeed, it would seem
from various instances brought to my notice that the sleep
is not continuous, in any case being made up of successions
of prolonged repose with fits of dosing or dreamy indolence.

Civilization has exercised a marked influence on the habits
of several forest animals : thus the Hare and Birch Partridge
are rapidly drawing close to settlements, and the Lynx and
Red Fox are following on their trail. With reference to
the advantages of these three mammals in making their
ways over snow, we find the lynx and hare have expansive
furred feet, which enable them to progress rapidly, whilst the
fox's are small in proportion, and sink deeply ; so that I
scarcely think in a fair run in the open it would be a match
for the latter; indeed, of the winter resident carnivora it is the
only one so helplessly constituted, although (as will be pointed
out in the sequel) both the Moose and Virginian Deer, among
the local ruminants, are greatly at a disadvantage with their
enemies. ...

The above, moreover, might be cited in support of Professor
Baird's assertion,^ that the Red Fox of eastern America is the
descendant of individuals of the European animal imported
many years ago, and allowed to run wild and overspread the
country ; and further, that its remains not having been met
with in a fossil state in America, whilst exuviae of the grey
species are abundant in the bone caves, is additional evi-
dence. He adds, " The muzzle of the European fox is larger
than that of its new world congener, and the eyes are further
apart, the feet are more slender and not so densely furred,
the texture is not so soft and silky, and, on the whole, it is
not so large as the American fox, while the colour is not so
golden." How far the regions and necessities of life and
climate may have brought about these modifications cannot
at present be shown with accuracy, but there is no reason why

* " Pacific Railway Report," vol. viii., p. 121.

changes of Colouring m the Fur of the Fox. 75

the fox of Europe and America, more than the brown bear,
should be a distinct species. As to its introduction through
man's agency, there does not appear any valid proof, and the
geological evidence is very small, seeing that so few dis-
coveries of post-tertiary fossil remains have yet been made.
It may be that the red fox has been driven northward
from the more temperate climates of the United States, and
that the larger body and shorter muzzle and yellow tinge are
due to natural selection ; perhaps these conditions are now
developing with the individuals in the northern regions, so that
in process of time the foot will expand like the Arctic species,
and enable the animal to progress over the soft snow as easily
as the hare and indigenous feline quadrupeds.

At all events there is a decided tendency to variation in the
animal as it affects Canada. For example, the Cross Fox, a
decided race, is often localized ; it breeds with the other, form-
ing intermediate gradations, which the dealers call "mongrels."
Sometimes the dark bands along the back and across the
shoulders are very pronounced, in others very faint, but more
or less observable in all when the skin is hung in certain lights,
indicating perhaps that this was the original colouring. As I
will again point out with respect to the Rodents, there is a
disposition to melanism in this fox, generally observable in a
predisposition to sooty shades of colouring" of the lower parts,
culminating in what are called the silver-grey and black
foxes, which however are now rare * in consequence of being
always destroyed wherever they are seen. The siiver-grey
might be callea a black fox with grey tips to the hairs, and
perhaps a modification in accordance with climate, as a jet
black object on the snow would be v^xy conspicuous, unless,
as in the sable and others just described, there was a winter
change of the fur of the face, which seems to be the case
even with the darkest coloured foxes. If, as Professor Baird

* Skins of the last are in great demand : I have known as much as sixty
dollars given for a single skin.

76 . Field and Forest Rambles, ,

surmises, the red fox came from Europe, I opine the original
individuals must have been unusually cunning, or else Rey-
nard has been greatly molested since, inasmuch as trappers
state that scarcely anything will induce him to enter a trap ;
accordingly the majority are poisoned by strychnine, which is
said to materially injure the skin, causii^ the hair to fall out
during the process of tanning.

The repugnance of one species to breed with another closely
allied in form and habits may be the reason why black or white
varieties do not continue to propagate, the individual being
thus driven to lead a life of celibacy. Looking, for example,
at an albino blackbird or a black fox, and bearing in mind
what has just been stated, and that even although the voice and
habits are the same, and the animal associates with its species ;
still, the very decided difference as regards outward appearance
would be sufficient to forbid intercourse between it and the
typical individual. I have for many years noted carefully all
information I could obtain from personal observation and reli-
able sources with reference to albinism and melanism in
wild animals, and as far as I have been enabled to make out
the occurrence seems to be accidental, and often happens only
in single individuals, or to one in a brood of birds ; but there
are evidently exception^. I was shown by Colonel Otty, of
the New Brunswick Militia, a specimen of an albino Ruffed
Grouse from a covey similarly marked, all having red eyes
and white plumage, excepting a shade of the original colour
on the back and flanks. And Mr. Boardman informed me that
he had often seen similar individuals, and states that an albino
of the Migratory Thrush and Rusty Grackle is also of common
occurrence : both birds, be it observed, are highly gregarious,
and very plentiful in the localities they frequent. But in no
instance in his long experience did he observe them pairing.
The differences, however, between pied and slight varieties and
decided black or white sorts are often so gradual, that in the
slighter cases we might well suppose that the abnormalities

Interbreeding of Varieties of Beasts and Birds. 77

are maintained by interbreeding. For instance, sparrows and
other finches with white wing quills may be seen breeding with
normally attired individuals ; and no doubt the silver-grey,
like the cross fox, freely cohabits with the red fox of North
America. - •

It is therefore probable that with extremes only there is any
great repugnance to intercourse. Nevertheless we observe
a strong disposition in certain species, — nay, even genera and
families of animals — to produce albino and black varieties.
Of the latter, both foxes and squirrels furnish good examples,
to which further reference will be made in the next chapter.

78 Field and Forest Ra,nbl€s,

CHAPTER III.

Aspect of the Forest after a Snow-storm — Tracks of Wild Animals on the
Snow — Hare ; its changes of Pile — Adaptation of the Feet of Wild
Animals for Snow Travelling — Feet of Moose and Caribou compared —
Their Habits — Extermination — Moose and Irish Elk compared — On
the Interment of Fossil Deer — Enormous Horns of Moose — Modes of
Hunting the Native Deer — Orirrin of Moss Swamps and Caribou
Barrens — The Pitcher Plant — Beaver ; its Habits and Extermination —
Musk Rat — Porcupine, small Muridae — Bats — Squirrels — Melanism
— Flying Squirrels — Effects of the Climate on European Brown Rat
and Mouse.

THE perfect stillness of a Canadian forest during or im-
mediately after a heavy fall of snow is something remark-
able ; solemn silence reigns supreme, for it is no longer broken
by the cracking or creaking of branches, or the notes and forms
of biro or beast. The scenery is also changed ; you wander
down some familiar pathway to find it transmuted into what
recollections mighl suggest in a Christmas pantomime. * Here,
the pines and spruces, with their boughs overburdened with snow,
slope downward, whilst masses are piled up round the trunks,
and those of the leafless maples and deciduous leaved trees
which stand out in spectre-like ugliness. The enormous accumu-
lations of snow o»: the branches of spruce and pine trees would
appear to act mechanically by their dead weight, hence it may
be from this cause that the boughs have attained the grace-
ful downward swoop so characteristic of the conifers of high
latitudes, inasmuch as the fibres become outstretched, so that
even on relieving a branch of its load of snow it will only
partially return to the horizontal. We may on like occasions
estimate the numbers of quadrupeds in a district by their

Aspect of the Forest after a Snow-storm. 79

tracks visible after a fall of snow. One of the first to stir when
the weather clears up is the lynx. I have frequently followed
its footprints for miles, now noticing when one had sat on its
haunches by a fir stump, watching the outcom.ings of mice ;
then where it had made a spring on the creature, the tiny
tracings of whose feet look like as if a large beetle had crawled
over the soft surface ; but they terminate abruptly, not however
too soon for the mouse's safety, for just as the mighty paw
had been on the point of descending, that instant the mouse
dived headlong into the snow. The lynx delights in deserted
lumber camps, where it is generally certain of a mouse, which,
after all, must be a small morsel to such a large animal, yet
seemingly a coveted tit-bit, although the hare furnishes its
chief subsistence. Like other furred quadrupeds, the lynx is
scarcely to be recognized when dressed in its summer and
winter robes, — the thickness of the latter giving it the appear-
ance of being a much larger animal ; hence, as I have already
remarked, the stories of the Indian Devil (puma) may have
thus originated. '

The colour of the pile of the American Hare and other
mammals that turn grey in winter is brought about most dis-
tinctly by climate, a sudden setting in of cold hastening the
change, just as it is retarded by a continuance of mild weather
at the commencement of winter. The summer or brown coat
is rapidly attained in June, and that of winter more gradually,
the proces? of change in the latter being accomplished not
only by an ?.ctual change in the colouring matter of the hair,
but by an additional growth ; the denizens of the colder parts
getting their winter dress sooner than the hares along the
Atlantic coasts, where the climate is milder, whilst the tamed
individual well sheltered from cold scarcely changes at all.*
This hare is very prolific, breeding often twice a year, and

* See an excellent article on this subject by my friend and late brother-
officer, Mr. Welch, Assistant-Professor of Pathology in the Army Medical
School. — Proc. of the Zool. Soc, of London, April 8, 1869.-

Sa Field and Forest Rambles.

producing four to five young at a time ; moreover, the latter
are said to couple before a twelvemonth. Reference will be
made elsewhere to the steady increase of hares in this region,
consequent on the destruction of their four-footed enemies,
much to the advantage of the great Virginian and Snowy owls,
which prey extensively on the animal, keeping it in a con-
stant state of dread, especially during winter, when, in common
with other rodents, it seeks to evade the stoop of rapacious
birds by diving instantly headlong into the snow, thus escaping
them, but ensuring destruction by man, and such animals as
the fisher-cat and lynx, who can easily dig it out.

The leveret, in common with the young of other members
of the family, presents a mark of relationship in having the
white spot on the forehead. Like the variable hare of Scotland
and Tibet, the above is by no means shy. Its runs are in
thick bush, where when pursued it may be heard stamping its
feet. The flesh is not savoury, and is highly flavoured with
turpentine during winter, when the animal subsists chiefly on
conifers. It is also subject to differences in size, the denizens
of hilly parts being larger than such as frequent the level forest
tracts. '

The foot of the American hare, like that of nearly all the
furred animals, is admirably adapted for progression on snow,
inasmuch as not only are the feet bones lengthened, but they
admit of much lateral expansion, so that with the intervening
fur there is presented an excellent snow-shoe, which enables
it to run with ease on the softest surface. I measured several
fore footprints three inches, and hind foot impressions four
and a half inches in breadth. The nails i^re long in winter,
for the reason that their tips are not subjected to the same
amount of friction as in summer.

Modifications of structure and appearance, either of advan-
tage to the individual or the reverse, are highly instructive.
For example, in comparing the feet of the Moose and Reindeer,
it appears strange that nature should have been so considerate

tf^^sfc

Hoofs of Reindeer and Moose co7upared. ■ 8i

towards the latter, and so neglectful of the safety of the elk,
and, I may add, the Virginian deer ; so evident is this, that it
might be fairly questioned if the two latter have always been
natives of Canada. Indeed, whether or not they were driven
northward by man or by other causes, at all events the
defects in regard to their means of progression in winter tell
effectually on their powers of escape from man and four-footed
foes. Thus considered, we may suppose the reindeer will sur-
vive longest, from the fact that its light, hollow, and expansive

HOOF OF REINDEER.

HOOF OF MOOSE.

foot enables it to outstrip its foes over snow, when the other
two sink to their haunches. The Virginian deer runs on the
hard frozen surface, but is at a great disadvantage in deep soft
snow or drifts, where it may be readily captured ; indeed,
after unusual storms the caribou has been mobbed and killed ;
but neither are so helpless as the moose, more especially
during the spring season, when the frozen surface readily
gives way at every step, necessitating great exertion, while

82 ' Field and Forest Ramb/es. ■ .

t^ie sharp edge of the ice wounds the fetlock. Hence the
latter repairs to situations where food can be procured
without much travelHng ; whilst the light concave and expan-
sive hoof of the reindeer, with its rounded points and sharp
edges, enable it to wander about with perfect ease on hard and
frozen surfaces ; in fact it would be difficult to cite a better
example of the adaptation of a member to meet a difficulty
than is displayed in the construction of the foot of the caribou,
nor of what might be styled a bad design in the solid, heavy,
and sharp-pointed hoof of the moose.

These differences account therefore for the opposite habits
of the two in winter ; inasmuch as the elk seeks situations
where there is abundance of its favourite shrubs, to wit, striped
maple and moose wood,* where the herd remains until they
have cropped every bush, or, skirting the barren, nibbles the
young poplars, which also form its chief subsistence at this
season. Thus whilst the moose affects dense forests and feeds
on bark and underwood, the reindeer delights in the more open
parts, wandering from place to place, and browsing on grass,
moss, or lichen,t more especially the long trailing moss
familiarly known as the " old man's beard," which hangs in
graceful tresses from trees. It subsists in summer on various
sorts of crow and whortle berries, birch foliage, etc., and is also
partial to seaweed, and in former times was wont to repair
to the seaboard districts to obtain it, just as the northern form
does now in Greenland.

With reference to the. dimensions of certain deer common
to North America, and of wide distribution, it has been

* Acer Pennsylvanicum and Dircapalustris.

t The reindeer moss or lichen {CladonicB\ said to be the almost sole
subsistence of the Lapland variety, would seem to be scarce nowadays ;
indeed, we are toid there is not even enough to afford occasional food.
These differences in the nature of the animal's subsistence, coupled with
climate and physical condition, may have influenced the different varieties
of reindeer. With reference to the absence of cladonice in Greenland, see
Brown's " Notes on the Mammals of Greenland," Field, 1868.

fSSSCni.

Effects of Food and Climate on the Deer Tribe. 83

ascertained, as in the case of other animals, that much depends
on situation. The Virginian deer decreases in size south-
wards in latitude, and the individuals of mountain regions are
relatively larger than the denizens of the plains ;* and the same
rule is applicable more or less to the reindeer. Indeed we
might suppose the arctic, barren ground, and caribou or wood-
land reindeers to be one species, subject to diversities in size and
dimensions of horn in each of the forms, the largest specimens
being procured in regions favourable as regards food, haunts,
climate, etc., while the reverse, amounting to a marked de-
terioration of race, obtains where these conditions are not so
conducive to the animal's well-being.

There is evidently a similar deterioration of race taking
place in the eland in various parts of South Africa. I am
informed, on the authority of W. Bell, Esq., who has sojourned
for several years in that region, that the eland, once plentiful
all over Natal and the plains of the Orange Free State, is
now exterminated, excepting on the intervening mountains,
to which it has been repelled. Here, from having to undergo
rigours of climate foreign to its primordial state of existence,
a race has gradually been formed not only smaller in size,
but, from constant persecution and the requirements of
mountain life, are much more active, and their limbs and bodies
are more gazelle-like than their progenitors ; whereas the
former denizens of the plains, what between good pasturage
and other favourable conditions, became 39 fat and inert that
colonists and natives were in the habit of capturing them.

Again, looking at the development of the senses in the
moose and caribou as being advantageous or otherwise in their
struggles for life, it will be found that the former relies to
the greatest extent for safety on smell and hearing, while
the latter has also powerful sight. Moreover, much as we
must be struck on viewing the massive proportions of the
moose, 'n h, after all, far from what would be called a hand-

* Baird, Am. Jour, of Science y vol. xli., 1866, p. 12.

o a

84 Field and Forest Rambles.

some animal ; on the contrary, either when at rest or in motion,
its form is most decidedly ungainly, the head being greatly
out of keeping with the other parts, and the eye lacking
very much the size, brilliancy, or prominence of the stag and
caribou. But after all we should not expect this sense to be
highly developed in an animal frequenting the dense forest,
where smell and hearing would be more likely to discover
danger. It is therefore on this account we find symmetry
has been sacrificed to utility; inasmuch as the enormous
nasal cavity, great expansion of its chambers, and extent of
surface covered by the olfactory membrane, together with
the large ear-conchs, attest the importance of these organs.
But acute hearing is also present in the caribou, as every
hunter knows full well when stalking the animal ; for although
the twigs may be cracking in all directions through intense
cold, the animal at once recognizes the sounds produced by
the hunter in contradistinction to nature ; but should man
by dint of craft manage to creep near enough, and the deer
happen to be lying down, and consequently not favourably
placed for a fatal shot, he has only to break a rotting twig,
when the herd will instantly spring to their feet, and he
may pick and choose his buck. The caribou, like other
deer, when not previously molested is easily approached,
and at the first report of the rifle becomes so completely
electrified by the unaccustomed sound that it will stand
gazing in 'onder, while the adroit hunter is dealing deadly
bullets in rapid succession. The animal is steadily decreas-
ing in the New Brunswick forests, not so much on account of
the numbers slain as from the intrusion of man on its haunts,
being extremely sensitive of molestation, and when once
fairly frightened will continue on the move for days in suc-
cession, nibbling moss from the trees as it goes along.* The

* New England States seem to have been its southern limit on the
eastern side of the continent. In an interesting volume entitled
" Description de I'Amdrique," published in Paris in 1672, it is stated that

Habits of Moose ^ Reindeer, and extinct Elk, 85

moose is often found in winter within hearing of the wood-
man's axe, but many barrens formerly frequented by the
other are now entirely deserted since tree felling com-
menced in their vicinity.

The gradual extermination of the Moose and Reindeer
through human agency, and the disadvantages under which
they now compete with enemies, contrast in some way with
the disappearance of several congeners during prehistoric
periods, more especially that noble representative the Irish
Elk. Although we have no well-established data to show
th?' the former preceded man in North America, still no
one knows what the future may reveal. But America had
also its gigantic stag, the dimensions of which even exceeded
those of the Hibernian ruminant,* so that both continents
stand in similar relation with reference to these extant and
lost species ; possibly there may have been a closer relation-
ship between the two extinct deer than is at present shown ;
as regards the moose and European elk, it was the opinion
of Cuvier long ago that they arc identical.! When we con-
sider the disadvantages wherewith the moose contends in
regard to man and climate, it need create small surprise that

the woodland reindeer was then a native of Prince Edward Island, and
hunted by the Indians. The walrus was also said to be exceedingly
common on the island. Now both animals i- -e extinct, indeed neither has
been known to exist there since the notice referred to. Indian retuse-
heaps, containing oysters, clams, and bones of these animals, were coinmon
until of late years, and furnished manure and top-dressing to the settlers.
Prince Edward Island seems to have been a favourite Indian fishing
station, and their rude stone and bone implements are still met with, and
have been found in conjunction with human skeletons. A body enveloped
in spruce bark, and surrounded by war implements of flint and bone,
among others the club-shaped greenstone tool, No. 7, already noticed,
was discovered there some years since.

* C. Americaniis fossilis, much resembling the Wapiti, was found by
Leidy in the post-tertiary deposits of Natchez. — Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc.
Philad., etc.

t Ossemens fossilcs, tome vi., p. 132.

86 ' Field and Forest Rambics.

a huge ruminant like the Irish stag, slanding from ten to
eleven feet to the summit of its antlers, with a spread of horn
often eight to ten feet, must have at all times been subjected
to unfavourable competition wit' man and four-footed foes.
One can scarcely conceive such a spread of horn could be
carried through the forest without coming frequently in con-
tact with trunks and branches ; hence, possibly, the animal
may have only frequented the open country. The moose,
when excited by the amorous roaring of the cow, the bellow-
ings of a rival, or the imitative sounds of the Indian, crashes
madly through the forest, with snout extended and horns
thrown well back on his massive withers, so as to prevent their
becoming entangled among the stouter branches. His progress
through an alder swamp, which is highly obstructive to other
animals, and teasing beyond measure to the two-footed pur-
suer, is to him of no importance, seeing that his stout limbs
and short neck, as compared with the crest and horns of the two
extinct stags, are admirably suited to overcome such obstruc-
tions. If we should wonder, therefore, how he can make his
way through the Canadian swamps and dense forests, what
must have been the difficulties incurred by the others under
similar circumstances } The frantic excitement of the males
of certain deer during the rutting season is wonderful ; I have
known many instances of the red deer of Cashmere having
been killed at this season by the hunter merely breaking
decayed branches in the forest, when the infuriated animal, in
expectation of meeting a rival or mate, blindly rushed forward
until it was too late to find out its mistake.* We may well
imagine, therefore, what often resulted at this season on many
a swampy valley of Ireland of old, when its great horned
hart, maddened by passion, scoured down the slope to the
marsh side, beyond which, descrying the object cf his desires,
he halted for a moment, and erecting his splendid head in
defiance of obstacles, dashed frantically through the marly

* " Wanderings of a Naturalist in India," p. 188.

Fifidi fig of Deer Remains 171 Bogs. 87

bottom with tremendous strides and desperate exertions,
until overwhelmed in the deepening mire he sank shoulder
deep and finally disappeared, there to remain until his bones
were dug up by the farmer in attempts to reclaim some old
bog.

It may possibly be owing to accidents of the above descrip-
tion that more male than female skeletons are recorded ; how-
ever, on the excellent authority of Professor Harkness. F.R.S.,
who has inspected many remains of the Irish elk, I am told
that the country people fancy all skulls without horns belong
to mired cattle or horses, and therefore do not preserve them-
Still, when we take into consideration the large quantities of
the remains of this elk met with in the shell marl under the
peat, and the circumstance that the horns are generally those
of adults, and in full growth, such as would obtain at the rutting
season, there is some probability that the individuals either
met their death in the above way, or were driven into the
morasses by their enemies. Moreover, in the case of the
moose, it is a favourite habit of the animal to repair to lakes
for the purpose of escaping the annoyance of insects in sum-
mer, and in autumn to feed on water lilies and other aquatic
plants.

Apropos of the moose, and the pugilistic propensities of the
bull during the rutting season, I was informed by Colonel
Saunders, of the New Brunswick militia, that he had in his
possession two pairs of horns of bull mooses, which were
found dead in the foi est, with their antlers firmly locked in
each other. The individuals had been either killed in the en-
counter, or else the horns becoming firmly entwined, caused
death by starvation. Similar accidents Lave been recorded,*
and instances are also extant of antelopes sending their horns

* Two specimens locked in this way, from North Carolina, are preserved
in the Hunterian Museum, Royal College of Surgeons. See also Richard-
son, *' Faun. Bor. Americana," p. 252. Darwin, '* Descent of Man," voLii.,
p. 240, et scq.

88 Field and Forest Rambles.

into the brains of their antagonists * Moreover, I have known
several examples of ibexes pushing their rivals over preci-
pices.! Reverting to the moose's habit of repairing to lakes
and ponds for the purposes above stated, I was informed by-
persons who had seen it in autumn browsing on the leaves of
water-lilies, that it then constantly plunges its head under
water. Now the horn begins to separate about this time, and
perhaps the submersion might somewhat accelerate the pro-
cess, so that many may drop in the lake, and be preserved in
the mud ; indeed it occasionally happens that an individual
gets mired, and one example was given me where a woodsman
was attracted by the stench of a decomposing moose which
he found in a small tarn almost submerged, with only a por-
tion of the back above water ; and a similar occurrence was
also related of the caribou ; thus explaining to some extent why
so many Irish elks' remains are met with in bogs. Moreover,
there is a further illustration of how the bones of such ani-
mals may be preserved for indefinite periods in the case of
gypseous marls in Albert county, on the coast of the Bay of
Fundy. Here the country is broken up by pot-holes caused by
rain ; many forming large pitfalls, which, getting covered over
by snow in winter, an unwary moose or caribou now and then
stumbles into the hollows, where it is soon covered up by soil,
so that complete skeletons of these animals have been found in
digging for gypsum in the above situations. The Indians assert
that deer bury their cast antlers, and this is the reason why few
are met with in comparison to the number of any one species
frequenting a particular locality, and I have often remarked
the same absence of fallen horns, in the case of the deer of the
Himalayas; but on the other hand we must bear in mind the
dense and interminable forest tracts over which these animals

* A fine specimen illustrative of this may be seen in the Derby Museum,
Liverpool.

t Author's " Notes on the Habits of some of the Mammals of India,"
Proc.Zool. Soc. London, iZ^Z.

DiffiensioHS of the Horns of the Moose. 89

roam ; besides, as I had cause to suspect, they choose secluded
spots for the express purpose. However, this important fact
is noteworthy with reference to the finding of horns of extinct
species in marshes. Moreover it is well known that the moose is
in the habit of hastening the shedding of the antler by rubbing
it against the stems of alder bushes in swamps, where Indians
say more moose horns are found than in the forest. It seems
that the time of shedding the horn is somewhat irregular in
various regions, being rather earlier in Nova Scotia than in New
Brunswick. A good many, however, are cast before the ice has
covered the lakes. In the case of the moose, not unfrequently
young males carry them until the .2nd of December, whilst
the female and young reindeer also frequently retain theirs
until March. I have heard almost fabulous descriptions of the
size and weight of certain heads of moose,* and the Indians,
as we have seen, hold a tradition that the animal was once
double its present size. Has this any reference to the great
extinct stag just referred to t I was assured, moreover, by a
gentleman conversant with forest life, and an experienced
hunter, that an Indian informed him of having killed a female
moose with small horny, and considering that such anomalies
are not rare in other members of the family, the females of
which are hornlesd, it is possible the instance in question may
be correctly stated, thus furnishing an example of the male
weapon of defence being transmitted to the opposite sex,
which in the caribou is a rule, whilst in the female Wapiti
there are often bony protuberances in place of the horn.
The development of the reindeer's horns is moreover remark-

* A magnificent specimen was presented to the Prince of Wales during
his visit to Canada, the weight of the dried skull and horns being fifty-six
pounds ; the extreme breadth across the antlers seventy inches. Another
large specimen, in the possession of Mr. Boardman, weighs fifty pounds,
and has nineteen points, with a span of sixty inches, the palm antler
being thirteen inches broad. This gentleman has also a splendid example
of the caribou's head, the horns of which have thirty-iive snogs. The
two latter specimens were procured in New Brunswick forests.

go Field and Forest Rambles. .

able as being produced at a very early age, which, coupled
with their full development in the female, is supposed by Mr.
Darwin " to be due to the males having first acquired them as
weapons for fighting with other males ; and, secondly, to their
development for some unknown cause at an unusually early
age in the males, and their consequent transmission to both
sexes."* At all events, the predisposition in certain female
mammals and birds to assume male characters is always inte-
resting and instructive.

The moose is decreasing steadily ; indeed, considering the
wholesale destruction practised by settlers and Indians, it is
remarkable how any survive. But this most unsportsman-
like and savage custom is not altogether confined to them, for
I regret to say not a few English gentlemen, who would aflfect
to hold it a disgrace to shoot a partridge in the breeding
season, yet in defiance of laws, and regardless of the time-
honoured principles which every right-minded hunter — and
let us say, every right-feeling man — respects, do also repair
to the forest on exactly the same errand, or, in other words,
to blow out the bra. .is of this noble elk as it flounders, heavy in
calf, through the hard-frozen snow, its fetlocks often streaming
with gore, as now sinking shoulder deep, then with all but super-
natural exertions it vainly struggles to escape from its pursuers
and the dogs, which are tearing the brute to pieces. It is a sick-
ening sight indeed to see an animal which in a few weeks would
tax the best energies of the hunter, now from force of circum-
stances compelled to be shot like a dog, or knocked down
with the woodman's axe in its native forests. We might, how-
ever, speculate as geologists on a similar method of exter-
minating the Irish and American fossil elks during post-
glacial epochs, provided these animals and man existed under
conditions similar to those which obtain in the case of the
moose during the spring months.f

* " Descent of Man," vol. ii., p. 245 (ist edition).

t Some idea of the massacres practised in New Brunswick may be con-

Habits of the Moose affd Reindeer. ' 91

In respect to the above method of hunting the moose, I
refer the reader to the next chapter, where he will find the
facts detailed at greater length, and be enabled to form, his
own conceptions on the subject.

The natural timidity of the wild animal is said to be
strangely absent in the calf moose as compared with the rein-
deer ; indeed, I have been informed by persons who had cap-
tured it that the young one seldom displays any fear, unless
when irritated by dogs, when it has been known to drop dead
through paralysis of the heart. Of the latter, two instances
were given me by independent observers, — one where a dog
rushed suddenly on a calf moose, which fainted and expired
immediately ; another, when startled by a loud sound, the
animal suddenly sank in the same way*

The cow moose is always fat and in good condition when
carrying the calf, while the bulls are lean during winter and
until the green food reappears. Looking therefore at all the
advantages and weak points in the bodily construction and
habits of the moose, it is apparent that, compared with the
reindeer, there are defects which must always be injurious
to the animal's well-being, and none more so than the hoof,
— contrasting in the latter respect, as before rem^irked, v.ith
that of the caribou, in being solid, unyielding, and pointed, and
readily sinking through the hard crust; while the light, hollow,
and expansive hoof of the reindeer is admirably adapted to
such circumstances. The extinction of both keeps pace with
the disappearance of their native forests, which now in this
part of the Dominion are rapidly vanishing before the lum-

ceived from the fact that, not many years since, no less than 400 moose
were butchered on the banks of the Magaguadavie river by the settlers
during one season, mostly on account of their hides ; and although there is
a penalty of forty dollars imposed in each instance, it is a notorious fact
that both Indians and whites continue the work of destruction, and even
sell the flesh in the public streets

* The Hor. Sir A. Gordon says the same of a grey squirre' which died
of fright on being captured. (" V/anderings," ty>. cit, p. 29.)

92 Field and Forest Rambles.

bcrer's axe, while their ancient enemy, the Indian, is also
steadily yielding and melting away in an unequal contest
with the white man, so that in a few centuries both the na-
tives and larger quadrupeds will have vanished, leaving few
traces behind them. We need not wonder, therefore, that the
larger extinct quadrupeds — to wit, such animals as the Irish
elk, mammoth, dodo, and great auk — became exterminated,
more especially if man was contemporary with them.

Formation of Barrens. — The Pitcher Plant. — The
moss swamps, or •" caribou barrens," are met with throughout
the region, either in the open or in the forest. They appear
to have been originally formed from melted snow accumulating
in hollows, where in process of time mosses and other aquatic
plants gained the ascendency, transmuting the surface into a
soft bog, which gradually dried up until the decomposing weeds
formed a soil where the coniferous trees took root ; first in
small numbers here and there, their dv/arfed dimensions and
outward surfaces densely covered with trailing moss and
lichen, showing a struggle for existence. In the less reclaimed
parts we find thicke*;s of alder, willows, etc., while the
Labrador tea plant {L. palusiris) and other shrubs flourish
on the bog generally, where the hare and musk-rat make
their tracks, the latter towards some reed-covered pond not
yet fully overrun by aquatic plants. Thus it would seem that
many of the smaller lakes are steadily disappearing ; the
rate however at which this is going on cannot, as a matter of
course, be ace irately computed in a comparatively speaking
newly settled country; but I have been assured, on the autho-
rity of residents, that many barrens now exist where lakes stood
not fifty years ago. Some barrens may have both effluent
and affluent streams, but many are mere hollows fed by
the melting snow on their sides. The barren is moreover a
favourite feeding ground of the reindeer, where it ploughs up
the snow with its snout and feet in quest of moss and lichen,

The Pitcher Plant and its Uses. 93

divining, in a remarkable manner, the particular spots where
these plants grow in luxuriance.

Conspicuou5 among the flora are various sorts of orchises,*
remarkable for elegance and beauty, while the well-known
Pitcher Plant {S. purpurea) is still more attractive on account
of the remarkable construction of its foliage. Each leaf has
a rounded arching hood at the apex, the interior of which is
clothed with stiff dagger-shaped bristles pointing downwards,
while the cavity is more or less filled with water and drowned
insects, also live worms and larvae.

It would be difficult to assign a reason for ♦.nis unusual
construction of the leaf, inasmuch as there is 10 need of any
such contrivance to hold water, seeing that the plant is al-
ways well supplied from the wet bog in which it grows, unless,
as indicated by Gray,t the drowned insects furnish manure to
nourish it.:}:

• What induces the fly to go into the cavity } Perhaps at-
tracted by the hope of procuring subsistence, after traversing
the part covered with bristles, it finds itself unable to return;
or, losing its footing, falls into the well, from whence it is
unable to extricate itself on account of these obstacles.

* Among others I may mention Plantanthea obtusiata, rotundifoliay
oriculata, and the very attractive blephariglottis, and its gorge ous ally
the great purple orchis {peramoena) Arthusa bulbosa, and many other
orchidacecB, v, hich the student will be enabled to determine from the very
excellent and clear description of Asa Gray, " First Lessons in Botany,"
p. 442, et seq.

t Op. cit., p. 51.

X The Indian's idea is that the liquid is filtered up the leaf stalk, and
therefore is purer than any other water ; hence he is always wishful to
direct the attention of the traveller by quaffing its contents. I well recol-
lect the disgust depicted on the countenance of my companion, who first
drew my attention to the plant, when, after he had demonstrated the circum-
stance by drinking the contents of several pitchers, I pointed out numbers
of drowned flies and red worms among the bristles. Moreover the water
is insipid, and is, no doubt, the accumulation of rain drippings from the
hood, as the pitcher gets nearly filled during wet weather, whilst the con_
tents remain frozen throughout winter.

94 Field and Foresi Rainblcs,

Rodents. — Insectivora. — Bats. — There would appear
little to be added to the natural history of an animal
so well known as the Beaver, especially since the pub-
lication of Mr. Morgan's elaborate work ;* however, out
of curiosity I visited, in the depths of winter, a beaver dam,
near the sources of the S.W. branch of the Miramachi river,
where, and among the more secluded forest wilds around the
head waters of Restigouche, Tobicue, and Nepisiguit, a few
still linger ; it cannot be, however, long before the noise of the
lumberer's axe and the trapper will expel or extirpate every
beaver from the country, inasmuch as the creature is very
susceptible of molestation, and will not flourish unless left in
undisputed possession of its haunts. The great strength of
the creature's jaws was well exemplified on several trees near
this dam. Selecting a tough alder stump of nine inches in.
circumference, I counted the chisellings, and found there were
from thirty-four to thirty-six distinct marks of the incisors to
within a very short distance of the centre, before the tree had
toppled over.f Unfortunately, a heavy snow-storm came on
and obscured the outline of the dam a id its works, but we
could see distinct traces cf the extensive tree felling that had
been going on, and the stumps with their incisions slanting, as if
done by an axe. Our guide informed me that he visited the
locality during the previous autumn, and demolished a large

* "American Beaver and his Works."

t The persevering industry wherewith the animal labours at its dam is
well illustrated in the size of the trees it will often cut down ; but I have
observed that it seems sometimes to fall into error in selecting, or else
taking by chance, trees of too large size, as evinced by the prostrate trunk
lying where it was felled, without any further division. On one of the
influents of the Restigouche, the Hon. Sir A. Gordon mentions that " heaps
of large trees, some of them four or five feet in circumference, were
seen lying prostrate ; and on examination we found them to be all freshly
cut down by beavers. Gabriel (/.^., the Indian) said we might travel for
years in the forests and not come upon such a spectacle again. We
counted twenty-nine trees cut down, besides multitudes of shrubs and
\i\x%\its."— Wilderness Wanderings^ p. 28.

The steady Extitiction of the Beaver. 95

portion of the dam for the purpose of letting off the back water,
which had inundated a large flat and the forest where he had
been engaged with a party of wood-cutters ; but now, to his
astonishment, he found not only that the beavers had repaired
the breech, as shown by quantities of logs sunk in deep water,
but that the meadow was as much flooded as ever. We ranged
all over the swamp, now frozen and covered with several feet of
snow, yet could not perceive any further traces of the animals,
which had, no doubt, been scared away by the lumbermen in
the vicinity. On reference to the map it will be observed that
the northern portion of the province is completely inter-
sected by networks of streams and rivers, so that a colony of
beavers is enabled to retreat from one to the other, just as the
wood-cutters happen to intrude on their haunts. Unlike the
musk rat, it is extremely sensitive of molestation, and readily
abandons a favourite resort when subjected to annoyance.
Both Indians and old settlers assert that formerly all the
work was done by day, but is now chiefly carried on at night ;
which statement, if correct, shows the influence of civiliza-
tion on the habits of the animal. A trapper long practised
in beaver hunting told me that after April or May, when
the young are born, the males leave the dams and wander
about for several weeks, quite away from the females, who
also disperse as soon as their offspring are able to provide
for themselves ; moreover, that they congregate towards the
end of summer. These ways, in connection with its slow
progress on land, would make the odoriferous glands service-
able in leaving their effluvia on substances, in order to guide
them towards each other when they re-assemble in the rutting
season. The same, moreover, might be said of the skunk, and
even the contents of the infraorbital glands of certain deer,
not excepting the bag of the male Musk. No doubt, how-
ever, with the Skunk, as before shown, the abominable odour
serves also as a means of defence.

The beaver, when he has totally disappeared, will leave

■■PW^WW»I^^BI»«PIIIPPF'^!P

96 Field and Forest Rambles.

traces behind him such as few, if any, quadrupeds have done.
Although now verging towards extinction, it was at one time
very common in the United States and Canada, as shown
by the numerous meadows teeming with grass that were
formed by the creature ; indeed, as regards New Brunswick,
there are few rivers that have not numerous old beaver dams,
which produce excellent crops of hay, and furnish a feature
of the landscape. In the remote wilderness districts the
beavers are said to be somewhat increasing, but only here and
there. Like the Indian and the Deer tribe, all will before
long be creatures of the past ; and whilst the man will leave
no useful trace of his handicraft behind, the beaver —
the more intelligent animal in one or two respects, (to v/it,
diligence and providence) — has thus built a monument of its
industry which will last for ages.*

The Musk Rat, or Musquash of the Indians, although very
common, and much persecuted, has managed to linger on
even in the vicinity of towns. I was frequently struck by the

* The Hon. Sir A. Gordon, in the article referred to, in recording his
observations of the beavers on the river Restigouche, gives the following
interesting account of one of the animal's store depots. " But though we
did not see a single beaver, we saw signs of their habitation and modes
of life, which I confess I almost hesitate to set down, lest I should be
thought to tell a traveller's tale. At some little distance from the beaver
camp, down the stream, was a regular path, beaten quite hard, and
evidently by these animals ; for though the path was well defined, it was
nowhere cleared for more than a foot or so from the ground. This led to a
regular storehouse of wood, where a number of birch-logs, for winter food,
about the thickness of a man's arm, were piled side by side and on each
other, each about eighteen inches long, and cut with perfect regularity to
the same length. That the deposit had been formed by beavers there
could be no doubt, but what their object was in making such a store at a
distance from their dwellings, or why they should have taken as much
trouble to equalize the length of their logs, and pile them neatly, as the
best lumberers would their cordwood, I am at a loss to guess." Perhaps
this was a reserve store in the vicinity of the rrjoilar dep6t, and lodges.
I was informed of a similar example on the Tobique river, and can only
account for them on the supposition that the beavers having filled up
their storehouse in the dam, and finding there might not be enough for
winter, formed the reserves at an y easy distance.

Deer s Horns Gnawed by Porcupines.

97

singular methods adopted by this little creature to escape
observation, one in particular is the habit of forming itself
into a loose ball, which, unless by the practised eye of the
trapper, cannot be distinguished from a stone or clod of earth
or stump. But this plan of sitting motionless on the approach
of danger is also common to squirrels and many birds, also to
certain partridges and pheasants, and the porcupine, which,
however, is well protected. There is a vulgar opinion, both
among settlers and Indians, that the latter has the faculty of
shooting its spines Lke so many arrows, from the circumstance,
unknown to them, that when the animal is bearded it defends
itself by means of its tail, which is whisked across the dog's
face with great dexterity and force, leaving the spines sticking ;
or as often happens, the adversary, unconscious of danger,
rushes madly on the porcupine ; indeed dogs are sometimes
destroyed in this way. The porcupine delights in deserted
lumber camps, where \\ gnaws old sugar barrels. It is also
partial to the bark of the maple on the same account ; indeed
the bark of trees is its fc.vourite food, and many saplings are
entirely destroyed by the creature. Although generally dis-
tributed over the region, it is most plentiful in rocky situations,
and lives in societies, its presence being usually indicated by
heaps of spoor on the rock ledges.* The cast and weathered
antlers of deer being usually found with the tips gnawed, are
supposed to have been mutilated by their owners ; but after
examining several specimens of moose horns so bitten, I
could clearly define traces of the incisors of porcupines,
who, doubtless, eat them from choice, considering the number
usually found in this condition.

Of the smaller insectivora and rodents, both the little

* The spoor of the porcupine (z>., the pellets) is very much larger than
might be supposed from the size of the creature, consequently the inex-
perienced hunter is apt to mistake its droppings for those of deer, as
occurred to me on a certain occasion, when I spent an hour in carefully
tracking a porcupine, under the belief that I was on the trail of a
Virginian deer.

H

gh Field and Forest Ra^nbles.

Shrews, named after Richardson and Cooper, are plentiful
in the wilderness districts.

On comparing them carefully with descriptions, it seems
that both S. Richardsonii and S. Fosteri of Richardson are so
closely allied that I could not perceive any distinction, further
than the density of the fur, which after all is most probably
an effect of climate. But these shrews are also common
in backwood settlements, where they take the place of the
European Mouse, which has not yet found its way into the
wilderness. The two MOLES, including the Mole Shrew {B. tal-
poides) and Star-Nose, are plentiful ; the only Bats being the
common New York and Hoary Bats. The last ( V.primiosus) is
the most plentiful. The long period they are forced to con-
tinue in states of hibernation, extending sometimes to nearly
seven months, is suggestive in many respects. One captured
in May, soon after its appearance, showed how easily the
nervous system is influenced by cold. I directed the contents
of Richardson's ether spray producer on the skull and spinal
column, when the bat closed its eyes instantaneously, and
seemed to all appearance dead, remaining in this condition
for several minutes, when the effects wore off, and it gradually
returned to life ; but doubtless there is a disposition in the
brain and nervous system of all animals that hibernate to be
more easily affected by cold than others.

The Common Red Squirrel {S. Hudsonii) is probably
more plentiful now than formerly, for, like the hare, it has fewer
enemies since the smaller carnivora have been extirpated. It
is also, however, getting familiar, and increasing in numbers
about dwellings ; thus displaying a marked change in its
habits, inasmuch as its favourite haunts are in the deepest
solitudes of the forest.

The generality of the members of this genus seem disposed,
more or less, to take on dark shades of colouring, as is the case
with the foxes, and occasional instances of melanism are not
unfrequent. For instance, on the reliable authority of Mr.

Black Varieties of Squirrels. 99

Boardman, I learn that there is a district on the south coast of
the province where all the squirrels belonging to this species
are black, and trappers have told me that black varieties of the
grey squirrel are not rare. The latter, however, is not so
generally distributed as the other, being confined to districts.
The intensity of the black colouring in the specimens I have
seen varies from a shining sooty black to an intense black ; and
perhaps, as before observed, the reason why these, and so many
albino races of birds and beasts are met with in this region, is.
the little molestatioi^ to which they are subjected as compared
with Europe, where every strange animal is destroyed. It would
be useless even to speculate on the cause or causes of the
black fur of the squirrels. We may suppose it would certainly
be of service to the little animal during summer in the sombre
darkness of the forest, as much as the contrary would obtain
in winter ; but the distinctions between this and the normal
colouring in both species are so characteristic that, unless
attracted by voice or some peculiarity, I do not suppose
that the black sort would breed with the other ; but should
two or more of the former come together, we might imagine
the propagation of the black race, which would naturally
associate and expel, or, on the other hand, be expelled by,
the normally coloured, according to their physical capa-
bilities.

The Flying Squirrels are of two species. I have care-
fully compared skins with descriptions, and make out one species
which may stand as the Pterotnys Volucella of Cuvier, and
another and much larger one agreeing with the P. Sabrintis
of Richardson. The differences between the two are these:
The former is seldom over five inches in length, exclusive
of the tail, which is four inches ; the upper parts are light
fawn, the lower white with the roots of the hairs of the same
colour, the tail is lighter coloured than the back. The other
is seven inches in length, and the tail is five and a quarter ;
the upper parts are mouse-brown, the lower white with the

H 2

lOO Field and Forest Rambles,

roots of the hairs plumbeous.* Both are found on the
banks of the St. John River, and in the interior. I have heard
of black varieties having been captured in the district.
The well-known Ground Squirrel (7". striatus) is very common,
and comes much about gardens. I have also seen several
instances of melanism in this species. The Maryland Mar-
mot or " Ground-hog " has also of late years become more
sociable and more abundant, and is abandoning the forest for
cultivated tracts. Besides the Jumping Mouse, there is the
Short-eared Hamster and the White-footed species,
which take the place more or less of the European mouse
and rat in the backwood settlements and localities not yet
invaded by the latter, the distribution of which is more or
less confined to the seaport towns and also the banks of
navigable rivers. Neither, as might be expected, stand
the cold like the native Muridce, indeed there appears to
te a mortality among the European rats and mice during
very cold weather, although like other imported animals
they get a thick fur in winter; still by exposing live mice
to a temperature of 15° Fahrenheit in the open, they survive
only for an hour or two, and seemingly from the posture in
which I have found them, death must have been rapid, inas-
much as two individuals exposed during a cold north wind,
when the glass registered about 16° Fahrenheit, were quite
lively when placed in the cage, and in the course of a few
minutes I fouftd them frozen to death and seated on their
hind-quarters with their eyes open ; whereas the native mice
above mentioned may be seen running about, apparently
unaffected by much lower temperatures.

♦ Since the above was written I find P. Sabrinus is included in lists of
the mammals of Nova Scotia, and has therefore most probably been
hitherto overlooked in Maine and New Brunswick.— See Gilpin, Trans.
Inst. Nat, Hist. Nova Scotia, voL ii., p. 14.

Intense Cold in the Clearings and the Forest. \o\

CHAPTER IV.

The Lumberer's Camp Life and Hosr''-iity — Forest Fires — Barbarous
Mode of Hunting the Moose — Moose Yard — Moose Hunt — Diffi-
culties of Forest TraveUing — Natural Decay of Forest Trees — Lost in
the Wilderness.

DURING March, when alternate thaws and frosty nights
prevail, I started for the wilderness with a woodman
well versed in his craft. Although not a hunter in the
proper sense of the term, he was known far and wide as a
famous moose slayer, — that is, instead of gun or rifle he pre-
ferred his axe, with which he had felled many a helpless moose
when struggling through the hard frozen snow. Having
placed our necessaries on a small hand sleigh, we pushed
through the forest by devious pathways, and arrived at a
wood camp, after a fatiguing march of upwards of twelve
miles on snow shoes. It is a common remark that the
climate of the forest in winter is far healthier than the open
country, and no doubt such is the case, for the reason that the
extremes of cold are not intensified by wind. Thus often
when sleighing over a bleak country, with a north-wester
blowing fiercely, when the horses look as if dusted over with
chalk, and our furs and whiskers are thickly powdered, we
experience a delightful change the moment the woods come
between us and the piercing blasts. The log or lumber
camps are all constructed on much the same model, being
composed of pine trunks placed lengthwise, one ::.bove the
other, with a sloping roof covered over with pine boughs and a
thick layer of snow. The fire is in the centre, whilst around it

I02 Field and Forest Rambles. • .

the inmates He on pallets made of the soft twigs of the spruce
with their feet inwards, whilst all are well wrapped up in rugs
and blankets. Excepting weekly changes of under-clothing,
no doffing of outer garments takes places at bedtime, and
the modes and means of ablution are neither effective nor
ample, but, on the contrary, primitive in the extreme, as are
many other domestic and household arrangements of these
hardy and hospitable foresters. Nevertheless the comfort of
the log hut is much beyond what we might expect to find in
the depths of the primeval forest; and although every available
space is occupied at night, there is no impurity of the atmo-
sphere, as an enormous log fire is kept burning constantly,
the apartment being thus freely ventilated through the large
smoke flue of the roof.

The diet of the lumberman during the five or six months
he is occupied in felling trees in the wilderness consists of
occasional fresh animal food, conveyed through the forest,
frozen, and on sleighs; or now and then a moose that may
have unfortunately yarded in the vicinity ; but the chief fare
is salted pork, bread, potatoes, beans, with tea and sugar, to
the total exclusion of spirituous liquors of every description.
The result is, what with temperate habits, and exhilarating,
healthy outdoor occupations, there are created as fine speci-
mens of humanity as ever wielded axe or poll. Being away from
the temptations of the towns, their simple fare and life have
taught them, with the rigours of the climate, to make kindly
welcome whatever forest wanderer happens to enter the
wicket of the log hut ; and I must say, who have more than
once been indebted to their kindness, that nowhere is hospi-
tality more genuine than around the log fire of the Cana-
dian lumberman.

After building the camp, the next course pursued is the
clearing of lanes in the direction of the banks of streams,
where the logs are piled up to await the great thaws of
spring, when they are floated to the main rivers. The vast

Mode of Driving Timber doimi the Streains, 1 03

accumulations of snow in the woods turn many of these insig-
nificant brooks into torrents, which are further swollen by-
means of dams so constructed as to be rapidly opened out
when the lumber tumbled into the bed of the watercourse is
borne down in a furious rush to the river of which it is an
influent. This, called "stream driving," is the finale of the
winter's work, the financial success of which is dependent
altogether on the continuance r.nd extent of the thaws.
Sometimes when the latter are gradual, more than half of the
timber is left in the forest until the following year, and of
course the market is influenced accordingly. I do not know
a more exciting scene of its kind than to stand and watch a
party of these stalwart woodmen, with their long iron-shod
poles, jumping from log to log with amazing agility, now
balanced on the readily yielding timber, now, with acrobatic
dexterity, leaping from one log to another among the noise and
clamour of exulting voices, and the fouling and jamming of
one log on the other as they crash along the devious windings
of the surging torrent.

We had not long settled down into the ways of our good
friends in the camp before a hard frost set in at night, and ena-
bled us to run with ease on snow shoes. One afternoon after a
toilsome day's wandering over the forest in quest of whatever
natural objects might turn up, I returned to the hut to find my
moose-slaying friend expatiating to the numerous inmates on
his hunting exploits in the district some years before, and how,
between axe and gun, he and several companions slew no less
than twenty elks in the course of a few weeks. I had
scarcely finished expostulating with him on the cruelty and
illegality of destroying t^e hinds then, when they are heavy
with calf, when suddenly i.^.e little wicket opened, and there
crawled into the hut two stalwart settlers, accompanied by
several dogs. "Halloo!" exclaimed my companion, "here
come the moose wardens ! " " Why/' addressing one of them,
" you, surely, of all men, are not bound on moose hunting

I04 ' Field and Forest Rambles.

now?" It was the case, however, for although appointed
conservators of the moose by the magistrate of the district,
they had travelled upwards of fourteen miles in order
to secure three mooses, which had been seen for
some time within a short distance of our camp, and
having observed us pass their settlement they imagined we
had heard of the deer, and were hurrying to the spot. My
guide, already disposed to consider me absurdly scrupulous
as regards the two points on which I utterly dissented from
him, with reference to the mode and time he selected for
hunting, became, now that the poachers arrived, more en-
couraged than before, so, after some hesitation, I promised to
accompany the party, but only as a spectator. Accordingly ,
on the following morning all sallied forth on snow shoes, and
dispersed over the forest in quest of footprints, which were
soon discovered, when men and dogs followed them up as
fast as the nature of the ground would permit. On looking
closely at the tracks I found tnat three mooses had passed only
a few days previously, and, as usual, in " single file," treading
as near as possible in each others footsteps. " Our start " was,
assuredly, a strange one ; the uncouth, bearded backwoodsmen
in fur caps, and dressed in grey homespun, looked perfectly
equal to the occasion, whilst ten or a dozen dogs, picked up
at various farms on the way, presented a heterogeneous
collection of mongrels, which barked and yelped atound us
in perfect ignorance of the work they were about to engage
in, save a large-boned bull-mastiff, which, we were informed,
seldom missed his hold of the muzzle of the animal. Each
of the so-called wardens carried a gun and axe, whilst my
henchman stuck to his faithful weapon, and laughingly re-
marked to a brawny blacksmith that however much the latter
might trust to a musket, it was his belief that if he did not in
the excitement of the moment either shoot himself or a neigh-
bour he would most assuredly miss his mark, and we shall see
anon that this surmise was not far from proving correct. Having

Favourite Winter Food of the Moose. 105

«

witnessed the hounds " turned off," and all speeding along the
moose tracks, I struck across to an alder swamp for the purpose
of examining the natureof the food on which the animal browses
at this season, nor had I gone far before footprints and large
hollows where the herd had lain showed I was in one of their
yards, on the confines of a large barren, overgrown with
moosevve9d, aspen, poplars, and alder bushes, which they had
cropped and barked, many of the saplings having become
stunted in growth by depredations of former years. Looking
northwards, the eye ranged over a vast tract where once a
stately pine forest grew, now overspread by deciduous leaved
trees, with only here and there a solitary spruce or pine
which had not yet attained the height of the old charred
and black mast-like forms of its predecessors, towering many
feet above it, although nearly half a century had passed since
they were destroyed in the frightful conflagration known as
the " great Miramachi fire," that desolated the major half of
the central and northern portions of the province.*

On surveying the enormous tract demolished by the fiery
hurricane, I was reminded of the remarks made by an old
man on the previous night ; — how, at the time referred to, he
and his wife, having an infant at her breast only a week old^
were driven from their little clearing in the forest, with
nothing beyond the clothes on their backs ; — how they
wandered about for hours, not knowing whither they were
going, half stifled by smoke, when night came on, and
hearing a disturbance in the wood close by, stumbled
against their only horse, and before knowing it found them-

♦ Another memorable fire occurred during the summer of 1870, It
began in the upper provinces, and extended to New Brunswick, where
serious damage was occasioned. These periodical conflagrations seem
dependent on continued droughts and prevalence of high winds during
midsummer and early autumn. Like all such occurrences, they commence
with unimportant beginnings, and are sometimes made intentionally, but
areoftener the result of clearing tracts for settlements. Inolden times the
Indians frequently set fire to the forests to annoy hostile tribes and the
early colonists.

io6 Field and Forest Rambles.

selves within a stone's throw of the home they had aban-
doned in the morning, whilst the crackling of the fire and
red-hot ashes raged on every side ; — how on the following
morning, as they sought to escape by forest paths, the
frightened moose, caribou, bears, lynxes, etc., and partridges,
were constantly hurrying past, and how on their arrival at the
banks of the Miramachi, two of the former nearly ran over
them on their way towards the river, into which they dashed
and swam to the opposite bank. The desolation worked by
the fire on the above occasion was marvellous ; so changed
were the physical features of the country that the narrator,
when he returned to his farm soon afterwards, was at first
unable to identify his property, until absolutely at the door
of the dwelling, which owing to a swamp on one side and a
large tract of clearing on the other, had been saved from the
general destruction which overtook everything in any way
combustible.

While contemplating the scene of this terrible fire, suddenly,
on my right, there came forth from the forest loud shouts of
men and bellowings of dogs. At once divining the cause, I
made for the wood with all speed, and had just gained the
moose-yard when a female elk came crashing through the cover,
and passed within a few yards of me, pursued by the dogs, who,
running nimbly on the frozen crust, hung about her flanks,
yelping and barking, whilst she was making laborious efforts
to escape. Now and then she suddenly sank to the shoulders ;
again her hind-quarters would almost disappear ; sometimes
I lost sight of the pursued and pursuers, as the former
doubled backwards and forwards in the denser parts of
the woods, where the snow was not so heavy as in the
barren and along its skirts. Twice or oftener I came within
easy shooting distance, and was reproached by my hench-
man for not firing, and perhaps had I known the sufferings in
store for the poor brute I might have been induced then and
there to put an end to the chase ; but having that morning

Hunting the Moose '"'' on the Crusts 107

made a secret vow not to shoot at a hind, I was obdurate.
Nor did his request to borrow my gun meet with consent :
so shouldering his axe with redoubled energy, Brown pushed
forward, and once I saw him raise it, and as suddenly
lower the weapon as the animal twisted and turned in a
clump of pine saplings. He had, in fact, lost a good chance
of braining the moose or breaking its spine, and now, over-
excited by the chase an J dead-beat by extra exertion, he had
no alternative but to give in, whilst the elk and its canine
foes pursued their ways through the forest. Being myself
fairly out of breath, I hung back also ; and as we were both
moving leisurely along, there appeared the two wardens, who
had lost the tracks in attempting to cut off the animal's retreat.
But now that the hounds were in full cry and the moose well-
nigh worn out, it seemed only a matter of time to get up with
our quarry ; we accordingly followed the footprints, which were
painfully distinct from the blood of the wounds inflicted by the
dogs, or made by the frozen crust. Here I noticed large gouts
where she had halted for a moment, or a gory pit caiised by her
nose, when in her struggles she had suddenly sunk to the brisket
and buried the muzzle, or where mouthfuls of snow had been
seized to slake thirst and cool the parched tongue. I must, how-
ever, allow that the chase was exciting, and had it been a male
moose I should have enjoyed the fun immensely; but con-
sidering the circumstances, I could not enter heart and
soul into the hunt in the same way as my companions, who,
now worked up to the very extreme of venatical frenzy, were
madly rushing on regardless of all obstacles.

It is a most perplexing moment to the Canadian hunter
when, in hot pursuit of his quarry, he happens to strike the
tip of the unwieldy 3now shoe against a snag, and is sent "a
cropper, spread eagle-fashion," on his face, the long snow shoes
standing on end. If inexpert at recovering himself, he may
have to roll about for some tinr i before gaining the erect
position. Indeed it so happened, for as we sped along in

io8 Field and Forest Rambles.

single-file, the tivo wardens leading, an accident of this nature
occurred to the blacksmith, whose gun went off at the same
time, lodging its contents close at his companion's heel !

The number of pursuers was now reduced to Brown and
the other moose warden, whilst the son of Vulcan and
myself were left breathless in the rear. However, not to be
altogether outstripped, we redoubled our efforts once more,
and after a series of "trips" arrived at the brink of a stream,
when my bailiff companion, without a moment's hesitation,
leaped on the snow-covered ice, and as quickly disappeared
up to the armpits — gun and all. Thus reduced to his axe, he
struggled on, whilst I cautiously made my way to the opposite
side, and in a trice was standing by a thicket of pine trees, where
lay the poor moose breathless and exhausted, with the dogs
crowding around so closely that the warden was afraid to fire.
However the victim was finally despatched, and the reek-
ing body of a full-grown calf extracted from its carcase, which
on being quartered was hidden in the snow, to be conveyed
to the settlements as opportunity occurred. So ended this
inglorious day's sport, the first and last of my moose hunting
adventures in the spring season. It may be confidently
stated, however, as far as this region is concerned, that nine
out of twelve elks are killed in the above way.

The instance just narrated is however rather an exception
to the rule, in so far that the sport lasted for upwards of an
hour and a half; whereas in general, from the deepness of
the snow and thickness of the crust, it is seldom that the
animal can progress any distance before the bullet or axe
are brought to bear on it.

Of course my companions were overjoyed at their success ;
moreover, not content with the final issue, the hardier of the
two backwoodsmen struck off on a fresh trail, having only a
crust of bread and a piece of cheese in his pocket. Sleeping
out that night, he only returned to the lumber camp on the fol-
lowing evening, when he brought tidings of having slain another

Methods of Fi tiding One's Way in the Forest. 109

hind, which contained two calves! All this he accomplished
on the simple fare above mentioned, passing the night on the
snow, whilst throughout the day he was constantly on the
move, traversing at least some thirty miles of forest. This
man furnishes an illustrati- ii of the extraordinary powers of
endurance of these hardy settlers: having some years previ-
ously fallen into the St. John River when crossing on the ice,
he swam into open water and finally ashore, where he was
picked up, encrusted in ice, and so benumbed that no one
expected he would recover.

Of course the legitimate time to hunt the moose is toward
the end of summer and in autumn, before the horn drops,
when, however, few of the industrious settlers can spare time
for such occupations, setting aside the woodcraft necessary in
stalking the animal at this season. Although the legislature
attempts to put a stop to a wholesale destruction which must
sooner or later exterminate the animal, residents in the out-
of-the-way places, irrespective of the sport, find, what between
the value of the skin and the flesh, that a moose at all times
is worth killing, and therefore evade the law whenever oppor-
tunities occur.

It is surprising to observe the accuracy wherewith
woodmen will hit oflf a lumber camp without any footmarks
to guide them." This, they informed me, is accomplished by
noticing the appearances of trees and the effects thereon
of .the prevailing winds ; however, many allowed that they
very often get out of their reckonings, and wander about for
hours, until some brook or stream carries them to a familiar
watershed or drainage valley. The American larch, better
known as the Tamarack, when growing in the barren and
exposed to the prevailing winds, becomes bent usually iii a
S. and S.E. direction ; accordingly it is by this circumstance,
and by marking the position of the moss on trees, windfalls, and
direction of streams, together with whatever acquaintance the

no Field and Forest RambUs.

■ ' *

individual may happen to possess with reference to the stars,
that the Indian is enabled to find his way in the primitive
forests, where few white men could shape their course except
by the compass. A few natives are still apt in these respects,
and no doubt with their forefathers the faculty amounted to an
instinct ; but now, excepting experienced hunters, it is rare to
find them displaying remarkable excellences in this branch of
forest craft, which, like many other traits of their primordial
lives, has been obliterated by civilization. But even in the
immediate vicinity of settlements there is lo diiTiculty in losing
one's way ; indeed, I have known many experienced forest
rangers get beyond their reckonings, and wander about for
hours.

I started on a beautiful October morning for the purpose
of beating the forest in quest of partridges, with the chance
of a stray shot at a hare, woodcock, or snipe. Selecting a
part of the country only sparsely settled, I drove some ten
miles along a forest road to a burned tract, now covered
with a second growth of soft and hard wood trees, inter-
spersed with charred and blackened trunks of many noble
pines that had passed through the great conflagration of 1825
(just referred to), and the wasting influence of the frosts and
thaws of subsequent years. The autumn tints had already
appeared on the leaves, and in their exceeding beauty and
variety of colouring dappled the forest with brilliant patches
of red, yellow, and purple. I was soon beating along alder
swamps or scrambling over the fallen trunks, now pushing
through thickets, then sinking knee-deep in bofi; or the soft
moss or the rotting lumber around the roots of the noble
old hemlock spruces, which spread their gnarled branches and
feathery foliage on every side, and nodding towards their mother
earth with the weight of centuries, seemed doomed before
long to totter and fall prostrate by the side of their fore-
fathers. The natural decay and death of these patriarchs
of the forest seem to be brought about by a disposition to

Natural Decay of Forest Trees. 1 1 1

overstep, as it were, the centre of gravity, the tree getting
top-heavy, when by a slight disturbance it fairly topples
over, the roots standing up erect, with masses of rock and
soil between them ; often, however, the trunk breaks across
near the ground. There is, moreover, canker and dry-rot,
which gradually destroy the soft interior, in some cases to
a surprising extent, when the tree is to all external appear-
ances in full vigour. Many fall from the effe :ts of frost and
thaws loosening the soil around their roots ; but the most
fatal catastrophes follow hurricanes, which send one on
another, producing what is known as windfalls, which, as
just stated, serve to indicate the direction of the prevailing
wind. The perfect stillness of the woods at this season is
remarkable, for nearly all the birds of passage have flov. n
southwards, and, save a solitary squirrel, or a few migratory
thrushes among the berries in damp places, one wanders over
miles of forest and seldom meets with a living creature.
Thus, after several hours' search, I determined to penetrate
further into the interior, and selecting as my landmark one
gigantic pine trunk, that rose like a huge mast far above
the underwood around, I proceeded on through the gloomy
solitude, and had not gone far when the increased activity
of the dog quickened my pace, and away we went as fast
as the nature of the ground and obstacles would allow.
The scent was strong, and for more than half an hour our
course lay entirely in an opposite direction to that which we
had just been following. At length, as the spaniel drew up
at a rocky ledge, and barked furiously, I discovered the cha-
racteristic spoor of a porcupine, which in all probability had
taken to earth under the rock.

It being now sunset, and not having a compass or any means
of directing our course, I began to feel that the sooner we got to
the old pine trunk the better, so with unpleasant forebodings of
what was coming, we made towards the skirts of the thick wood,
but no landmark was visible among the seemingly interminable

112 Field and Forest Rambles.

growth of larch, birch, poplar, etc., stretching far and wide over
the vast level country. Moreover, on climbing a tree, and
straining my eyes over the expanse, I found, instead of one
gigantic trunk, more than a dozen of equal magnitude, here and
there, as far as the eye could reach. An enormous old pine, in
the far distance, bearing a resemblance to my landmark, deter-
mined me to make for the spot ; but on returning to " terra
firma^ the thick bush around obscured all distant objects, and
each charred pine looked so like its neighbour, that we had not
proceeded far through the decaying bracken, and over rotting
trunks and soft ground covered with rich red bunch-berries,
before, halting in bewilderment, I sat down, and now, for the
second time in my forest wanderings, began to realize the
horrors of being lost in the woods.* It was five p.m., and the
sun was disappearing behind the tall trees ; so shaping our
course eastward, we made for what seemed more open country,
and pushing rapidly down the side of a ravine, in hopes of
coming on some pathway, we struck a goodly-sized brook,
which again added to our perplexity, as we had not crossed the
stream before. At length, bewildered how to proceed by tree
or watershed, we finally commenced searching for the footprints
of cattle, which sometimes roam for long distances from the
settlements ; stopping now and then to listen for the sound of
their bells ; but nought was heard beyond the last chirps of
grasshoppers in the damp places. Once there came a hollow
sound like that of a lumberer's axe, from the direction of
the forest ; but it was not sharp enough, and more resembled
the woodpecker's tap on some skeleton trunk. Wandering
from place to place until it was getting so dark that we could
scarcely recognize objects at any great distance, there at length
appeared footprints of cattle in a swamp, and before another
half hour, we came unexpectedly on a snake fence, enclosing a
little clearing and cottage, the inmate of which informed us

* A similar but more trying incident I have described in my
"Wanderings in the Western Himalays,"etc., p. 233.

Difficulties of Forest Travelling.

113

that we had overshot the spot where we had entered in the
morning by some six miles, and that had we continued in a
north-westerly direction, we might have wandered about for
days before arriving at a settlement. With an empty game-
bag, and only a crust of bread since eight a.m., I turned my
face homewards, wondering how many more experiences of a
similar nature would be required before I could be taught
the requisite precaution of taking bearings beforehand ; yet,
strange to say, I repeatedly afterwards lost my way in
wilderness districts where one might imagine there should
have been little difficulty in finding the proper course. One
of the common mistakes made by persons unskilled in forest
travelling, is a disposition to incline constantly in one direction,
until at length you return to some spot traversed before. This
is owing sometimes to the devious directions of the "logging or
lumber paths," which constantly intersect each other, forming
in many forest tracts complete labyrinths, which puzzle the
wanderer until he is compelled to trust to chance in making
his escape.

PART II.
BIRDS AND REPTILES.

I 2

PART II.
BIRDS AND REPTILES.

CHAPTER V.

Rapacious Birds — Bald-headed Eagles stooping on Fish — Similitude
between Birds of boreal America, Asia, and Europe — Hawks, Owls —
Effects of CHmate and Civilization on certain Rapacious Birds —
Numerical Estimate of the Migratory and Resident Birds— Effects of
Cold and Climate on the inward and outward Economies of Animals
and Plants — Results of Climate on certain Indigenous and Foreign
Animals and Trees — Pines split by Frost — A Silver Frost — Climate
affecting Fruits — Ox-eye Daisy — Crows and Jays — Canada Jay as-
suming the Habits of the Kingfisher — The Thrushes — Robin and his
Habits — Young Birds Feeding their Companions — Songs of American
Thrushes — Catbird, or Carolina Mocking-bird ; its modes of Mimick-
ing Sounds — Woodpeckers prospecting rotting Pine Trunks — The
Log-cock — Differences in dimension of Species from different Lati-
tudes and Longitudes — Birds laying indefinite numbers of Eggs.

THE rapacious birds observed within our boundaries
amount to about thirty species, of which only a few reside
throughout the winter, as may be readily surmised considering
the climate, and the fact that by far the greater number of the
smaller birds are migratory ; but doubtless the former is less
a barrier to their appearance in winter than the absence of the
latter, and as the extinction of forest and reclamation of land
extends, so will the numbers of birds, great and small, increase.
Moreover, the hare, as I have shown elsewhere, is now fast
attaining the characteristics of the European rabbit, and is as

1 1 8 Field and Forest Rambles,

rapidly multiplying as its four-footed foes are being destroyed,
so that we may expect such hawks and owls as prey on it will
in time become plentiful and resident, just as are the peregrine
and goshawk, which must fare now far better during the
winter months than formerly, when the feline quadrupeds
were plentiful.

A solitary instance of the TURKEY BUZZARD and two
specimens of the GoLDEN Eagle are recorded by Board-
man, who thinks the latter may remain throughout the year.
The White- Headed or Bald Sea Eagle is seen at all
seasons on the coasts, and on the lakes and rivers in summer,
where it preys extensively on salmonoids. Few recommend
themselves to notice more forcibly than this noble-looking
bird, more especially when engaged in hunting for food;
the pure white head, neck, and tail contrasting with the
black of the other parts, as with break-neck impetuosity he
plunges headlong on his quarry, remind us of the glowing
descriptions and vivid delineations of the American orni-
thologists, Smith and Audubon, who have certainly spared
neither pen nor pencil in attempts to render imperishable
and impressionable all the ennobling qualities of this the
heraldic emblem of their country. Nevertheless, allowing
for the heightened enthusiasm of these patriotic naturalists,
the main facts they describe are still rehearsed daily on
many of the great rivers and along the shores of the
United States and Canada. On one occasion, during an
examination of the geology and Indian refuse heaps before
mentioned, in the vicinity of the pretty little town of St.
Andrews, in the Bay of Fundy, I found myself on the dome-
shaped or rather glacial rounded summit of Shamcook
Mountain, some 700 to 800 feet above the level of the lovely
Passamaquoddy Bay, with its little islands and outline recalling
recollections of the Gulf of Naples as seen from the summit of
Vesuvius, whilst the scenery towards the north was hilly with
deep intervening troughs containing natural tarns where the

The Bald Eagle Stooping 07i its Quarry, 1 19

togue or grey-spotted trout (5. confinis) is plentiful. When
contemplating the enchanting panorama, I observed four of
these eagles circling gracefully over the placid waters, their
dark bodies and white extremities showing boldly forth
against the deep blue of the heavens. At last one, parting
company from the rest, descended to lower levels, and after a
gyration or two suddenly turned and sank perpendicularly on
the surface, but only for an instant, when it rose again and
made shorewards with a fish in its talons, before the others
had time to observe its movements. At length one perceiving
the successful capture, hesitated for an instant, when with closed
wings it stooped grandly some 300 yards in one fell swoop,
followed by the remainder, and, although the distance was
far, I could hear their wild cries as each contended for the
fish, which after all fell into the lake during the melee,
and must have escaped, as iione of them followed, but, on
the contrary, returned to their former outlook, to use
Longfellow's words, by "invisible stairs ascending and scaling
the heavens."

The position from whence this scene was witnessed displays
in a remarkable manner the so-called "muttoning" and strice
caused by ice friction, just as if a glacier from the highlands
northwards had passed down the lakes and over the Shamcook
hill down into the bay ; indeed, along all the river valleys
opening into the Bay of Fundy precisely the same pheno-
mena are visible, showing, as I shall notice elsewhere, that
in all probability a vast sheet of land-ice once covered the
area, and moved steadily, or pretty much so, from north to
south.*

The birds of boreal Europe and America are, perhaps, more
closely allied than many naturalists suppose. If we eliminate
the absolutely identical, and those which differ from each other
to a very small extent, there remain but only a few peculiar to

* See Hind, Dawson, and Bailey : especially the Report of Mr. Hind,
p. 190.

I20 Fidd and Forest Rambles.

the northern portions of both continents. I think there is also
a disposition in the present day to keep closely-allied birds
apart, rather than link them together — too much of what
might be called the cabinet diagnosis, founded on the bare
aspect of skins in museums, without any consideration of
the influence of habits, climate, and other causes, in bringing
about alterations in form and external appearances of such
objects as closely resemble each other, but differ in a few
minute points of distinction. Again, the naturalists of
particular countries often hold fast by the names originally
given to species since shown to be identical with others
previously known ; thus the Canadian eagle, duck, hawk,
and American osprey still retain separate specific appel-
lations, although it is well known that they are identical
with the golden eagle, peregrine, falcon, and osprey of the
Old World.

The Peregrine remains here throughout the year, and
breeds on the rocky shores of the Bay of Fundy.

The Osprey is plentiful along the rivers and their fiords
in summer, where it may be seen constantly stooping on fish.
It arrives early, when the ice is breaking up on the lakes
and rivers, and just as the migratory fishes are pushing
up from the sea.

The Pigeon Hawk {F. columbariiis) spends the year in the
region, and feeds in winter on the Canadian grouse and
ruffed partridge, as does its ally the goshawk, one of the most
destructive and daring enemies of the poultry-yard. I am
inclined to believe it kills hares also ; at all events the young
suffer in common with smaller rodents. A straggler of the
Greenland gyr falcon has been seen now and then in winter, but,
according to Baird, it has been killed as far south as New York
and Providence. When all the alder swamps are bare, ai d the
forest more opened out, no doubt buzzards, now uncommon,
will increase in numbers in summer, when there is abundance
of frogs and the like. At present the marsh, broad-winged,

«

' Fat on Animals during Winter. 121

and red-tailed buzzards are common in suitable places, and
also breed.*

The Little Kestrel (/^ sparverius) lays its eggs in
hollows in rotting trees ; and I am assured, on the authority
of Mr. Boardman, that when such is the case, it may, as
with the woodpeckers, noticed elsewhere, be made to lay an
indefinite number of eggs by leaving one in the nest.

The Owls, like nearly all the resident animals, get fattest
in winter ; however, as might be expected, this would be
almost if not altogether without a single exception, still as
regards woodpeckers, I did not observe any difference be-
tween their summer and winter conditions ; for the reason, I
suppose, that they return in winter to the far less rigorous
temperatures of the depths of the forests. It is a noticeable
circumstance, moreover, that in the case of the brown Vir-
ginian owl, its plumage is paler at this season, which I suspect
is the Atlantic variety mentioned by Baird.f Some indi-
viduals procured by me in mid-winter had no less than a
quarter of an inch of fat all over the surface of the skin. Both
this species and the snowy owl, which however departs in
May, are deadly enemies to the hare, and I was assured that
the barred species, although smaller, does capture the latter
by inserting its very acute and curved talons into the eyes.
The civilization of the backwoods has already allured many
owls to the settlers barn. For instance, the pretty little saw
whet often takes up a permanent residence in the hay-shed,
to the extent, in some instances, of breeding there. I saw a
great Virginian horned species taken out of an otter trap
baited with a duck ; but both this and the large snowy
owl prefer hares, inasmuch as when snow is deep, and the
rodents lie hidden under it, one or other may be seen intently
scanning the openings formed when the lower branches
of coniferous trees get borne to the ground by the weight of

♦ I noticed a white or albino specimen of the last in Mr. Boardman's
collection. t Pacific Railway Report

• •

122 Field and Forest Rambles.

the mass ; the hare, however, is often master of the situation ;
and when desirous of crossing the surface, sallies forth sud-
denly, and expanding its broadly padded feet, flies across the
snow pursued by the owl, which stooping with all haste, is
just on the point of capturing its prize, when head-foremost it
buries itself in the soft snow, which closes in rapidly behind it.
Indeed, so accustomed has the hare become to pursue the
above practice, either through personal experience, or inherited
dread, that the woodsman, taking advantage of it, throws up
his cap or axe as one is passing, when the terrified bunny
dives headlong into the snow and is easily captured.

Looking at the owls which frequent this region, it will be
observed that no less than seven out of ten species are also
natives of Northern Europe.

Effects of Climate on Animals and Plants. —
The migratory birds arrive ett masse, and set about their
nidifications without delay ; hasty marriages take place in the
ornithological world here as compared with the prolonged
love-making of the birds of less rigorous climates, for scarcely
has the most assidious reared a second brood before the chilly
nights towards the end of August warn them that the time is
come for a rapid retrograde movement. By the middle of the
month nearly all the swallow tribe are off, and the warblers
after them, while the finches and thick-billed birds assemble
in flocks, and, reinforced by arrivals from more northern parts,
tarry for a week or two longer, and until the first frosty
night in October, when the last of the host disappear, and
we are reduced to our residenters and the new winter arrivals.
According to the carefully compiled list of Mr. Boardman,
and further information he has kindly furnished me,* there

* Mr. Boardman has for many years devoted a very close attention to
the local ornithology not only of New Brunswick but adjoining State of
Maine and Bay of Fundy, — his museum of the birds of the district repre-
senting an amount of industry and skill seldom noticeable excepting in
public collections. For his Ust of the birds of this region, see Proc.
Boston Soc. of Nat. Hist. , vol. ix., 1 862.

. Injluence of Cold on Mioratio7is of Birds. 123

appear to be only about forty resident birds, including thirty
land and ten water birds, while there are no less than 296
migratory species, including also of course such as only tarry
for a short time on their way to and from more boreal regions.

Seeing that winter lags to May, and sharp frosts set m
before the middle of October, it is evident many birds must
be expeditious in their movements, especially such as breed
in the country. I think with the exception of such hardy
wanderers as the migratory thrush, snow bird, chipping
sparrow, anH a few more early arrivals, very few of the other
migrants remain long enough to enable them to rear two
broods; indeed several have barely time to bring up the first
before the approaching cold warns them to be off to more
genial regions. The flights of many bird's from this and other
northern lands are often very rapid. One cold night may
make a difference, as I have often noticed, especially in the
case of the swallow tribes, more especially if accompanied
by a north wind, when the flock retreats b?ifore it. Then
many a rural scene is suddenly robbed of some its most
attractive objects.

Now when we think of generations on generations of birds
being subjected constantly to the influences of this climate,
and the expeditious movements it engenders in comparison with
others, or even members of the same species that sojourn in
regions where they have not to endure such vicissitudes,
and the bird is put to no unusual exertion in procuring food,
we may well believe that the strongest and most vigorous
individuals are likely to be found among members who have
had their constitutions tried, and that these will, through
natural selection, attain advantages over the others ; hence
may be the origin of the differences in the outward appear-
ance, etc., of animals from different regions, as I shall point
out in the case of the woodpeckers, etc.

It wijl be observed that in animals which change to white
in winter, especially the hare, weazel,, etc., that the whiskers

124 Field and Forest Rambles. ,

and long stiff bristles about the mouth become grey from their
tips, and not from the roots, as if cold was the cause of the
change, or some agency acting from without ; and this is most
probably the case ; moreover, there can be no question as to
the influence of low temperature in stimulating the new
growth. There is, moreover, a seemingly strong disposition
for the lower parts of animals to become white in winter, i.e,
the parts in closest contact with the snow ; thus, the under
surfaces of the deer tribe are always whitest. And as if from
its habit of constantly digging among the snow with its
snout in quest of food, we find the cariboo with a white
patch on its lips and around the hoof; indeed the same may
be observed in domesticated animals, especially on their
bellies and snouts. This has been frequently pointed out to
me on the bellies and elsewhere in horses, who did not show
any appearance of grey on their lower parts in summer.*

I was frequently much struck in observing how rapidly
imported a^iimals, such as short-haired hounds, attain a long
thick fur; indeed the brown rat, European mouse, sheep, cattle,
pigs, etc., become changed in their outward appearance in
winter from this very cause; so much so that the two first-
named look then much bulkier than their old-world compeers.f

* It is supposed that Europeans become grey more rapidly in these
cold regions than in England, and that the beauty of the Canadian
ladies soon fades. As to the former, it seems that the extremes of cold
and heat do exert some influence ; at all 'jvents, I have observed that the
venerable tint proceeds more rapidly, i.e. men get sooner grey than they
would in central or southern Europe. But I acknowledge this may be
more apparent than real, — ^just as it is said the fair sex lose their teeth
early from eating too many sweets. No doubt the very cold winters and
gushing summers are trying to the fair complexion of the Anglo-Saxon
female, more especially should there be much direct exposure to alterna-
tions of high and low temperatures, which may influence the colouring of the
hair quicker than a continuous residence in a torrid or temperate climate.

+ I don't think the European brown rat and mouse flourish in the in-
leridr of Canada, although abundant enough in the seaport towns. The
intense cold of many inland cities tries them ; and, as I have shown else-
where, the mouse cannot long withstand a very low temperature, such as
the native hare, squirrel, and the like would endure with impunity.

Native Birds Destroyed by Intense Cold. 125

The rapidity wherewith both wild and domesticated
animals become fat in accordance with the severity or other-
wise of the approaching winter, is another provision of nature
in order to enable them to withstand the cold. We have
seen this to be the case with birds. Indeed the law seems
universal as regards the denizens of such regions as that now
under consideration. Both Europeans and natives assert that
they can prognosticate a very cold winter by inordinate
quantities of fat on the intestines and epiploon of wild and
domesticated quadrupeds ; moreover even man (white or red)
is no exception to the rule, the differences m weight in
summer and winter being very evident. I well remember a
butcher informing me at the beginning of the very cold
winter of 1 867, that he knew the weather would be severe, as
he had not seen so much fat on the omenta and about the
kidneys of pigs, sheep, and cattle for many years.

Being desirous of finding out how indigenous animals with-
stood the winter climate, I solicited Mr. Boardman's great
experience with reference to the birds. He says : " I remember
during the cold season of 1858-9 that crossbills and pine
finches were very numerous, and I procured a lai^e number
in February, to see how far the eggs had advanced, and founu
them nearly as large as buck-shot. Two days afterwards
we had a warm shower ^ then a sudden change to extretne cold,
which killed every small native bird in the woods, where
we found their bodies in abundance. The result was far from
being common ; not one bird was seen again durinf the
season, and the ruffed grouse were exceedingly scarce from
the circumstance that the entrances of their burrows in the
show were frozen over and the birds were starved to death,
and in spring tlioir bodies were found here and there all over
the forest."*

* The s;.ae we shall sec presently obtains even in Britain, although
not so pronounced ; btit now and then seasons do occur when numbers o
our native birds perish from cold.

126 Field and Forest Rambles. ,.; . .

The fowl is preserved in New Brunswick with difficulty ;
not so the Guinea-fowl, seemingly a hardier bird, which
is rather a curious circumstance when we consider the
native haunts of the two. But what is still more surprising
is the fact that the turkey chooses to roost on the bare
branches of trees in place of the cover of the hen-house, even
when the thermometer is at its lowest, just as we observe
it braving equatorial climates and that of India ; where, how-
ever, according to Mr. Blyth, it is said to deteriorate.*
Moreover Baird,-f* an excellent authority on this subject,
states that the domesticated bird is descended from the so-
called Mexican species, and not the wild turkey of the United
States. This assertion is further strengthened by Leconte,t
who btates that the latter species has never been known to
breed in confinement, and that the coloration of the plumage
of the domesticated bird and Mexican species are in many
respects alike, and distinct from that of the former. Be that as
it may, I have seen broods of turkeys like as many herons
perched on the topmost branches of tall trees during exceed-
ingly cold weather when they might have roosted in barns.
Indeed, farmers stated to me that when left to themselves they
infinitely prefer out of doors at all seasons, and usually select
prominent and exposed situations.

With reference to the effects of low temperatures on plants
as well as animals, I well remember during my first excursion
into the forest in winter, there had been a heavy fall of snow,
and the roads were scarcely formed ; indeed, the horse in
several of the back settlements had to drag the sleigh at a
\valk for miles, so that the lumber camp we were seeking was
not gained until sunset, when, just as we were partaking of
the tea and fried bacon of our hospitable entertainers, I

* See Darwin, "Animals and Plants under Domestication," vol. ii.,
pp. 197 and 335.

t " Pacific Railway Report," Ix., p. 617.

X "Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences, Phil.," 1857, p. 179.

Intense Cold affecting the Growth of Trees. 127

started to my feet on hearing the loud whooping of an owl,
and before they could well remark on the cause of my de-
parture I had disappeared, and was wading in the deep
snow towards the object of my solicitations, which turned
out to be a fine specimen of the snowy owl. In a trice
I had its skin off, when the condition ci the body became
apparent. Layers of fat covered the entire carcase, thicker
in the armpits and along the flanks, but universally dis-
tributed over the frame, whilst the internal organs were
loaded with it. But I was too tired to think over the
owl's obesity, and soon fell asleep, coiled up in blankets
on the spruce tops, where I lay not "on a bed of roses,"
being awoke several times by the cracking of the branches
and trunks of the forest trees, consequent on the lowness
of the temperature, sounds to which my companions had
been accustomed, but they were novel to me, and towards
midnight became so frequent and loud that one might have
imagined pistols were being fired all around the camp.

In certain forest tracts it will be noticed that spruces,
especially the black sort, also birch and other hard and
soft wood trees, are furrowed by deep longitudinal seams,
extenrling often throughout the entire length of the trunk^^
and even penetrating to the pith. This splitting of the wood
is owing to extrenie cold acting on the vegetable fibre, and
no doubt produces the reports above-mentioned, which are
also occasioned by the snapping across of the decayed
branches. I did not observe the longitudinal rents in sap-
lings ; it may be for the reason that their fibres admit of
more elasticity than the old tree. Moreover, although the
rent does often extend to the centre, there is seemingly no
evil effect on the health of the tree, and in the course of
a few years it gets filled up hy new bark, when the outline
has much the appearance of the seam produced by light-
ning. The explosion consequent on such a rent is often
startling; and although the fissure may not be evident

128 ' Field and Forest Raynbles.

immediately afterwards, it opens out after the thaws of
spring. My always obliging friend Mr. Edward Jack,* to
whom I am much indebted for valuable information on
forest lore, informed me that the trees for the most part
affected grow in exposed places, such as ridges where the
north wind plays. Indeed, in felling maple and other
hard-wood trees for firewood, I have been astonished to
observe how deeply the cold will penetrate into the sub-
stance of the stem without disorganizing or seemingly im-
pairing the vitality, even to the freezing of the central
fibres. The authority above named moreover assured me
that trees covered with moss were not subject to these
rents, being, no doubt, protected thereby. The effects of
cold are, moreover, exemplified by the quantities of last year
growths to be seen strewing the snow around the trunks
of both the evergreen and deciduous-leaved trees; hence
there is a cropping of the tips of the branches in these
latitudes not observable in the trees of milder climates.
And no doubt from this cause it is that not only the leaf
falls sooner and assumes a brighter tint than in central
Europe, and that the former have fewer branchlets as com-
pared with corresponding species in milder climates.

The effects of cold on animals and plants are further
illustrated in many ways. Reverting to the cause of the white
colourings, whether the direct result of low temperature or not,
there is also an undoubted predisposition or idiosyncrasy in
the animals so affected to be acted on by the climate, just as
the denizens of desert countries take on the grey-brown hues
which, in respect to permanence of colouring, are comparable
with the artic fox and hare. If the climate, therefore, of
Eastern Canada were to become more or less rigorous, we

* Gratitude, pays a lawgiver, comes more nearly than any social virtue
to justic?. I cannot, therefore, allude to Mr. Jack without recalling
recollections of happy hours spent in the agreeable society of his relations
to a fair member of whom I am indebted for the original delineations of
more than one illustration in thi| volume.

Effects of a Silver Frost on Ti ces.

129

might expect that the changes in the outward appearances of
many of its mammals and birds would go hand in hand. As to
plants, no doubt the thicker bark of the birch trees, and also
their more stunted forms as met with on high elevations and in
high latitudes, are provisions of nature in order to protect them
from cold and exposure. I think, moreover (although my
observations were not completed to my satisfaction when I
left), that the hard and soft wood trees of New Brunswick,
growing in places much exposed to the cold north-west winds
of winter, have relatively thicker outer coverings than the same
species growing in sheltered situations; whilst the conifers
especially show under these circumstances a remarkable ten-
dency to gather moss, which, although no doubt a protection
to the tree, is seemingly injurious to its growth. During the
very severe wi'nter of 1867 I noticed that many foreign trees,
such as acacias, growing in the open, and even rose bushes
which had been in a flourishing state, were killed outright
through the cold, whilst other trees had only the branches on
their tops damaged. During early spring the following is not
a rare occurrence : a shower of rain is rapidly succeeded by
severe frost, called " silver frost," when the bare boughs of the
deciduous-leaved trees and evergreens become encrusted with
ice, presenting a very striking and beautiful appearance in sun-
light, just as ii they were composed of as many twigs of crystal,
sparkling most splendidly. But the effect is often fatal to the
garden fruit trees, and such as are not natives of the region.
I was assured by a gentleman of much experience in horticul-
ture, that the plum trees introduced into the province from
Europe rarely produce fruit, and seem to deteriorate rapidly
into stunted forms, gnarled and covered with excrescences.
The effects of the cold winters and hot summers of Canada
are, however, notorious with respect to such as, for instance,
the apple tree, which has at length got so acclimatized that
individuals imported to England, although seemingly not
affected by the change in any way, cannot be got to produce

K

1^

I30 Field and Forest Rambles.

ripe fruit, for the reason that the summers are not hot enough.
This, however, is not seemingly a permanent condition, and is
probably easily overcome after one or two generations. Pre-
cisely the same thing takes place in Canada with the seeds of
maize imported from Florida, which, moreover, do not produce
the same returns as such as have grown for many generations
in the country,* and probably a like consequence would result
from the transference of apples from England to Canada, and
of Indian corn from the latter to the Southern States. Most
unquestionably, however, the effects of climate, as shown in
these cases, have considerably modified the organization of
the plant. - '

One of the most pernicious weeds in New Brunswick
pastures is the well-known ox-eye daisy, introduced by the
first settlers, who are said to have respected it in consequence
of its resemblance to the modest denizen of the glades and
fields of the old country. At all events, it has prospered and
taken advantage of their consideration, so much so t^hat in many
farms it chokes up and exterminates the grasses and native
plants. Whether it is that the plant enjoys greater advan-
tages in the climate, or that the soil is better suited to it, or is
hardy, and therefore more calculated to struggle and compete
with the other herbs of the field, or that its fecundity is the
result of neglect on the part of the husbandman, there can be
no doubt that it prospers where the daisy {B. perennis) is
starved to death, as neither it nor ivy will grow in the open.

In connection with the crows and thrushes of the region, it
may be remarked that the Raven {C. carnivorus) of the New
World differs from its congener of Europe and Asia in having a
more slender bill. I do not know how far this is a universal
characteristic throughout the continent ; but as there are no
other distinctions, it may be a question how far such a slight

* This grain is put in the ground at the end of June, and reaped about
the middle of September.

Fear of Man in certain Forest Birds, 131

peculiarity entitles it to be considered a distinct species. The
Carrion Crow (C. Americanus) * is somewhat larger than the
Old World corby, with the neck feathers less pointed ; how-
ever there is no mistaking the " caw " of the former, which
resembles the bark of a dog. Indeed, we might, on the
principles of natural selection, fairly ask how far these modi-
fications may have been brought about by circumstances
which a closer acquaintance with the habits and haunts of
these four birds could explain. The raven affects the shores
of this region, whereas the crow is universally distributed, re-
pairing more or lt:s to the coast districts in winter. It is much
persecuted by the settlers on account of its pilfering habits,
and, in common with the Blue J^vy {C. cristata), is wild and
wary. The contrast in this respect between the latter and its
far less gaudy congener the Canadian Jay, is easily explained,
for whilst the former is in request on account of its beautiful
wings, the latter is allowed to pass unchallenged, and
accordingly retains all its pristine indifference to man's
presence, being his constant companion in the wilderness, and
alighting even on the carcase of the slain moose, whence its
familiar name of moose bird. I have moreover seen it picking
this animal's flesh from a carcase carried on the back of an
Indian. Why it breeds in midwinter I cannot discover,

* Mr. Rowan, whose observations in the island of Anticosti I have
freely quoted, observes in connection with the habits of the black duck
{Anas obscura) and this species in midsummer : " I never had any
trouble in keeping our larder supplied with black duck. In the spring
they seem to live entirely on herring spawn and small shellfish, and feed
amicably on the beach along with the gulls and crows. The latter birds
are in clover here at this season. I could not at first account for the
number of urchin and other shells which lay scattered about the plains,
but I soon found out that they had been carried there by the crows. I
saw a crow one day fly up in the air with an urchin and drop it on the
rocks, and repeat the operation two or three times before he managed to
get at the interior." — Field, May i, 1869. And Prof. Verril says the crow
is one of the most " unsuspicious of birds " in Anticosti. Proc. Boston
Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. ix., p. 138.

K 2

132 Field and Forest Rambles.

inasmuch as it has a second brood in spring. I have here
referred to the Canada lynx capturing trout like the mink and
fisher cat, and elsewhere of rooks and jackdaws taking to
aquatic habits, and fishing like gulls *

I am informed by the gentleman just quoted that he has
repeatedly seen the Canada jay capturing trout in brooks
after the manner of kingfishers ; and, knowing its crafty and
familiar ways, I can well suppose such an occurrence; never-
theless, it is difficult to imagine that a bird not constructed
for such a mode of obtaining subsistence should take to the
not easily acquired habits of divers.

The true thrushes of this portion of the continent com-
prehend four species, of which the well-known ROBiN or
Migratory Thrush is by far the most common. None
can be said to be resident ; but even during the very severe
winter of 1867-68 many robins managed to brave the cold,
and survive until spring, by feeding on native berries and
whatever subsistence they could obtain in and around the
settlements and towns. It is a common assertion that an
unusual show of fruits presages a severe winter ; and certainly,
as far as the one in question was concerned, I observed re-
markable returns of autumn berries and garden fruits, such
as the choke cherry, mountain ash, elder, and the like. At
best, however, any of the thrush family must have a hard
struggle for existence during a New Brunswick winter ; and
most probably a large proportion of the loiterers perish be-
fore spring, just as I shall show is not unfrequently the
case with resident and winter animals, besides such as arrive
too soon, or delay their autumn migrations.

The same sometimes obtains in our own country with re-
ference to fieldfares and redwings. I well recollect during
the memorable winter of 1837 seeing in the north of Scotland
numbers of the dead bodies of these bii-ds under hedges

* " Wanderings," p. 45 ; " Natural History and Archaeology of Egypt
and the Maltese Islands," p. 33.

Effects of Intense Cold on Birds. 133

and in sheltered places. This I further observed at the latter
end of December, 1870, during unusually frosty weather, at
Kinsale, where the song-thrushes, blackbirds, fieldfares, red-
wings, missel-thrushes, titlarks, grey and pied wagtails are
extremely plentiful during winter. Then after a few days'
continuous frost many became so enfeebled that the village
boys captured them with the hand or knocked them over
with stones. It was then interesting to observe the relative
powers of resistance of the different species, inasmuch as
the missel-thrush and blackbird seemed far less affected by
the temperature than the fieldfare, redwing, and song-thrush.
The pied wagtail, however, suffered most, being often very
feeble, and scarcely able to fly beyond a few yards ; whilst
the titlark and grey wagtail, although materially affected, were
least so. What a contrast all these birds presented to robin-
redbreast, which, owing to its habit of drawing near houses^
always manages to brave the coldest seasons with impunity ;
and not only that, but when the others were crouching,
rufTed and starving, under shelter, its lively little form may
be seen piping on any bare twig I suspect the missel, being
the largest, is also the hardiest of British thrushes. Moreover
on that account it holds its own against all its compeers,
driving them away from the feeding-grounds. Much, how-
ever, depends on facilities in procuring food ; for the grey
wagtail during winter repairs to springs seldom frozen, where
it picks up subsistence with the snipe, when the latter is
obliged to abandon bogs and swamps. The old saying
that " a hungry man is an angry man," is also referable
to birds under the above conditions, as shown by the fretful
tempers which they display towards one another. No doubt
the migratory thrush is hardy enough ; but as the ground
berries and fruits are covered over, and the vibernums and
mountain ash become more or less overwhelmed in snow,
a fruit-eating bird must make great efforts to support
itself and struggle against the cold. Perhaps in process of

134 Field and Forest Rambles.

time, as cultivation increases, it may so happen that there
will be ample supplies of winter berries, and this hardy bird
may be induced to spend the winter in these latitudes,
seeing that it does not go very far south in winter* The
boldness it displays during the breeding season, when its
haunts are invaded by the squirrel, crow, and grackle, its fami-
liar habits, late departure, and early arrival, — all testn'y to
its innate strength and stamina, which will always be advan-
tageous in any struggle for existence. After feeding on the
fruits and berries, it assembles in flocks towards the middle
of September, at which season it is very fat and plump.
A few then disappear ; but the majority still linger on until
sharp frosts in October compel them to beat a retreat to
the central and southern States of the Union. It is a pretty
sight to watch a flock start on their pilgrimage ; they then
fly high and keep close together, with that characteristic
mode of flight peculiar more or less to the thrush family.

I know no better prophet of the coming warm showers of
April and May than the robin as he sits on the snake fence
uttering his familiar chuckee c/mckee, repeated in quick suc-
cession, just as the English blackbird often presages a change
of weather, f

The song of the robin, like that of many more members of
its family (the famous mavis excepted), is not varied, and
shows a uort of incompleteness, as if the bird had lost notes
and was trying its utmost to recollect them — a sort of
laborious effort to catch up lost ones to which Le now and

* It is said to have braved the Atlantic, r.nd been found in Central
Europe ; and knowing its powers of endurance and pluck, I well believe
It- would survive where many larger birds would perish.

t I dare say some of my readers may be familiar with the blackbird's
well-known chatterings on such occasions ; it is not, however, always
easy to obtain a view of the little sable foreteller when thus engaged, as
it chooses a dense shrubbery, where, frisking from branch to branch with
upright tail and wings slightly raised, it keeps uttering a metallic tinkling
call som'swbat similar to the words " Klink, klink," frequently repeated .

.^

The Habits of the Migratory Thrush. 135

then attains, but in repeating them gradually falls back on
less melodious sounds, terminating in harsh trills, as if he
were doing his very best to discourse sweet music, but in
doing so was invariably breaking down. Moreover, like
his compeers, he has a soft, low-toned love song when
in company with his mate, and sings at n'ght, especially
during the full moon— rather a troublesome trait with the
domesticated individual. When pairing, or during the
time the female is sitting, he seeks the topmost branches
of some maple or pine close by, where he pours forth his
blackbird-like chant with surprising earnestness and vigour,
more perhaps for the purpose of competing with a rival
than with any intention of amusing his partner. The nest
is built after the fashion of the blackbird's, and placed in a
tree generally close to houses ; however, when that is not
feasible he betakes himself to forests and plantations.

Whether the same birds repair to their haunts of the pre-
vious year or not may be doubted ; but on the authority of
Mr, Wilmot, Governor of New Brunswick, I was informed
that a lame robin built its nest for five successive years
in his orchard ; in this instance, however, it is just probable
that this maimed individual never left the district. I have,
moreover, been frequently told by residents of robins repair-
ing old nests which they continued to occupy year after
year. The migratory thrush is easily reared, and makes a
very attractive cage-bird. The backwoodsmen, however,
rather prefer to enjoy its presence around the settlement,
where it hops about with raised hood, jerking its tail and
emitting the thrush-like notes that recall to remembrance
the woodlands of the old country. To the newly-arrived
emigrant, the robin takes the place of the well-known denizen
of home, and thus, from Newfoundland to Mexico, it is
known by no other name. Moreover, ever faithful to its times
of incoming and departure, it makes forced marches, often
arriving before the last snow has fallen, and as frequently

136 Field and Forest Rambles.

tarrying until every berry is devoured, and the soil is so hard
and crisp that no grub or insect of any sort can be obtained ;
indeed, I feel assured if subsistence were procurable it would
frequently tarry all the winter.

In rearing the young, I frequently observed that individuals,
when able to feed themselves, assume the duties of their
parents and nurse their younger brethren, picking up worms
as fast as I supplied them, and cramming the others so
assiduously that on removing the latter they would
appear quite disconsolate, chirping and moving about the
perches with worms in their bills. Although the adult robin
has none of the spots and markings of other members of its
family, still, like the young of the blackbird, they are spotted
on the breast and belly until the first moult ; which is an
important point when we come to study the affinities com-
mon to thrushes in general.*

The song of the HERMIT Thrush (T. Pallasii), like that
of the last-mentioned bird, is incomplete, just as if it had
learned certain bars composed of highly clear and sweet mel-
low notes, which suddenly terminate, and you listen to hear
what will follow, when there is a rapid repetition, just as if he
had got up his part so far, but for the life of him could not vary
it further.f The hermit thrush well deserves its name, de-
lighting in thickets and dense woods, and ascending now
and then to the topmost branches of stately trees, from
whence its loud notes fall on your ear with an agreeable
welcome, rendered doubly so after the long dreary winter;
for it shows by its presence that the summer is not far
off, although the bud has not yet opened. It takes its de-
parture towards the end of September. The nest is made

* See Darwin, " Descent of Man," vol. ii., p. 183.

t Mr. Boardman, to whom I am so much indebted for very valued
information on the zoology of this region, likens the song of the hermit
thrush to the words, " O sphercl, sphcrel j O holly ^ holly j 6>, clear away,
clear away ; O, clear up, clear up /" as if the little creature was praying
for the bright sunny days of midsummer.

The Cat-bird and its Mimicking Ways. 137

of twigs, lined with mud and fine dried Cfrass, and is usually-
placed either in a bank or bush close to the ground ; the
eggs are greenish-blue. In point of hardihood it is not
nearly so able to stand cold as the robin. I reared several,
which died suddenly during a cold night in the latter end
of October. Another diminutive throstle is the Olive-
BACKED Thrush {T. Swainso?iii)) its migrations, as com-
pared with the last, differ in thus far, that it goes further
north in summer, and does not go so far south. As usual,
all sing at night: its close ally, Wilson's Thrush {T. fid-
vescens), is also a summer visitor within our boundaries ; both
partake of the same seeming imperfections in their songs as
the preceding bird.

While on this subject, I may refer to the case of the Cat
Bird {M. Carotinensis), the sole representative in our region
of the mocking-bird, and brown thrush {M. mfus). Neither
of the two last have been hitherto observed so far north, but
the mocking-bird rarely visits Massachusetts, where the latter
is common.

It is strange that the cat-bird, the natural cry of which
clearly resembles the mew of the cat, should show such a
remarkable dislike for any feline animal. This peculiarity
we know is more or less present in all the smaller birds, but I
doubt if it is displayed in them to the same extent as as we find
in the case of the above. I reared an individual, which became
very docile and familiar, coming out of its cage and perching
on my hand, or following me about the house. Although never
evincing any dread of a dog, even of hairy terriers, no sooner
was a cat, or the skin of a hare, placed near the cage, or
anywhere within view, than it became intensely excited.
I have often wondered if this inherited distrust of the cat
could be explained in any way with reference to the imitative
peculiarities of the bird. In other words, is it possible that
some ancestor began to mew like a cat whenever he saw the
wild cats in his haunts, and that in process of time it came to be

138 Field and Forest Rambles.

an established habit ? Even Mr. Darwin might smile with
something approaching contempt at this explanation ; but he,
in common with all who are competent to discuss the subject,
knows how ignorant we are of many of the laws of inherit-
ance. The broken imitations of noises, and fragments of
songs, uttered by the mocking-birds, are scraps copied from
familiar sounds. The individual just mentioned imitated, in a
rough way, the rasping of a saw, from constantly hearing the
sound in the woodyard, and two or three notes of a white-
winged crossbill in a neighbouring cage; but every imitation
was unfinished, as if the bird's memory could not retain more
than a few of the pointed notes.*

Now with reference to the part played by animals in the
propagation of plants, thrushes no doubt convey seeds of plants
and fruits for long distances, perhaps more extensively in this
region, where, in common with the other migrants, they fly
long distances on a stretch when migrating. There is a current
assertion that passenger pigeons have been killed in New
Brunswick with rice in their crops. About the last food it
obtains here is buckwheat,t which is found growing about wild
in the forests far away from settlements.

Again, looking at what are called " blue berry plains" — large
tracts of forest country that have been at one time burned, and
are now overgrown with shrubs and whortle berries — forming
insulated patches in the very centre of the forest, are sometimes
so effectually locked in thereby, that the winds have little
chance of conveying seeds. Here, besides the vaccina, are
found other ground fruits, and the choke cherry, mountain
ash, or elder, on which bears, pigeons, cedar birds, thrushes,
etc., feed at the end of the season when migratory movements

* According to Boardman, both the Baltimore and Orchard Orioles
rarely appear in our forests ; perhaps in the no very distant future, when
the country is more opened out, they will become plentiful, seeing that
both are very common in the neighbouring New England States.

t P. Tarturicum is extensively cultivated on the banks of the St. John.

Seeds propagated by Animals and the JVmds. 1 39

commence. The bear is a great wanderer, and very partial to
wild fruits;* whilst cherries and haws are often swallowed
entire by thrushes, which subsequently eject the stones of the
former. Under these circumstances, therefore, it is highly
probable that birds contribute largely towards the geographical
distribution of plants.

It seems a law in nature, that after a Canadian pine
forest has been burned down, the larch, aspen, alder, poplar,
and birch take the place of the cone-bearing trees; just as
around the deserted log camps, we find the great willow herb
{F. angustifolimn).

No doubt, however, many seeds are conveyed by the winds,
some dying from falling in the shaded forest, or in situations
inimical to germination, while the pine and spruce seeds that
would have replaced the parent tree were destroyed by the
fire. Moreover, such birds as the crossbills, redpolls, and pine
finches, who feed on seeds of birch, aider, mountain ash, etc.,
probably convey them to the burned lands, where they readily
take root. I have often remarked in the first growth on
such tracts that the young birches and maples were growing
in clusters, the former being the most numerous, as we should
expect when we compare the numerical arrangement of their
seeds in the catkin of the birch and the capsule of the maple.

As may be easily supposed, the boundless forest tracts of
this region present tempting retreats for woodpeckers, of
which four species are resident and about as many migratory.

Conspicuous alike from his dark mantle, white head, and
scarlet crest, as his large size, is the Black Woodcock,
or Log Cock of the settlers {P. Pileatus). This, the king
of our scaasorial birds, is fully eighteen mches in length, and
inhabits the dense forest ; although nowhere common, it is
generally diffused over all suitable localities, where its loud

* I have frequently observed its dung, and also that of the black bear
of the Himalayas, made up almost entirely of the seeds of wild fruits.
— See *' Wcinderings in India."

140 Field and Forest Rambles.

tappings proclaim its presence at long distances. I was
puzzled for a time how to account for only a tree here and
there, among hundreds exactly similar, having been selected by
the woodpeckers for their diggings, and why in many instances
the perforations covered only one side of the trunk , when
one sultry forenoon, whilst seated near a rotting pine, I heard
several distinct scratchings in the interior as if as many mice
were nibbling the wood. On splitting the trunk open, I found
many large woodworms busily employed in making their tun-
nellings ; and thus it appeared to me that probably the wood-
peckers discovered the whereabouts of this their favourite food
by listening to the sound made by these worms when exca-
vating passages in the interior of the tree. Indeed it is ex-
tremely likely that by hearing they are enabled to find out
the particular site of the worm, as it is not every tree that
contains this insect. I have often seen wpodpeckers halt for
a few minutes now and then on their way up a trunk, as if
listening for the welcome sound of these large white worms,
one of which ought to be a dainty dish to the majority of the
species, although perhaps only a bite to this the most portly
of all. The strong wedge-shaped bill of the woodpecker per-
forates the tough Cedar ( T. occidentalis) to the rotting centre
in quest of these insects, perhaps only when the bird has
been assured beforehand by a process of auscultation that it
is sure to find its prey by digging through several inches of
fresh wood. Some idea of the extreme durability of this, the
American arbor vitcs, may be conceived from the fact that
snake fences have been pointed out to me no less than fifty
years old, which with the exception of some surface weathering
looked as durable as on the day they were put up. The
woodpecker delights to hunt on soft-wood trees growing on
light sandy soils, as these pines do not attain huge dimensions,
and show an early tendency to death of the centre, when
the worm attacks that part, and often turns the trunk into
a perfect shell, which the first hurricane blows down.

Woodpeckers prospecting Rotten Trees.

141

Whether woodpeckers return to the hollows of decaying
trees and become semi-torpid or not, it is a fact which
every forest warder who has had his attention directed to the
circumstance must have noticed, that no sooner does the
severe frost of midwinter set in than the above and other
resident woodpeckers suddenly disappear ; whereas, should a
sudden thaw take place, they come out again in numbers.

The two most common woodpeckers are the Hairy and
Downy species, which bear a resemblance to the Greater
and Lesser Woodpeckers of Europe, but differ in some im-
portant characteristics. Individuals from various regions present
remarkable discrepancies in size. Thus the hairy woodpecker
of Canada is much larger than the same bird of Mexico, which
is again smaller than that of the southern and middle States —
the extremes being from eight to eleven inches in length.
Professor Baird has noticed that birds of wide distribution
in latitude,* whether migrant or resident, will be found to
be larger the higher the latitude of the place of birth, and that
there is a certain variation in size dependent on the extreme
northern and southern limits of distribution during the breed-
ing season, the more northern individual being the larger, the
more southern the smaller. This is precisely what I have
noticed with reference to the birds of Europe and Asia. I
found the redbreasts, thrushes, blackbirds, etc., of Southern
Europe smaller than those of England, and the black partridges
and jackals, etc., of the plains of India relatively much smaller
than the same animals met with on the temperate regions of
the Himalayas. Again, the authority just referred to states
that the black and hairy woodpeckers, although neither are
migratory, both have a wide distribution in latitude, and that
there is a very great difference in size — for example, between
specimens from Florida and Canada ; and these laws he found

* This author'ty rerords the same in connection with the belted king-
fisher, a species common to the entire continent, there being a remark-
able difference in the size of specimens from the Atlantic and Pacific
shores, the eastern being the smaller. — Am. Journal of Science, vol. xli.

142 Field and Forest Rambles.

held good with many of the mammals of the contin«^nt, espe-
cially the deer and certain squirrels, which are much larger in
the north than the south, and in the mountains than in the
lowlands. Then as to colouring: Baird also found that birds
living in forest countries and on the coast are darker in
colouring than those of the interior, owing perhaps to climate,
shade, and protection in the one case, and greater exposure to
the elements on the other. As far as my experience extends,
I have noted in the three continents of the Old World, and in
America, that what we call the prismatic colours are far
brighter and clearer in birds constantly shaded by foliage than
in species which hunt in the open, and that white _ nd bleached
colourings attain their intensities in desert living birds. At
all events, nothing can exceed the purity and richness of the
plumage of many of the migratory and resident birds of the
Canadian forest.

We have two examples of the three-toed woodpeckers : one
is resident, the Black-BANDED arctic species ; the other,
much less common, and apparently migratory, is the Banded,
THREE-TOED WOODPECKER. The first is distinguished from
all its other three-toed allies by having the back entirely
black, whilst the latter is readily known by having the back
banded transversely with white ; both have yellow instead of
red patches on the head in the male, but these are wanting in
the female. The above are all the resident woodpeckers yet
recorded in our forests. Of the migratory species, the well-
known "yellow-hammer, or golden wing," (Colaptes) is common;
it arrives in June, has its young fledged by the middle of
August, and is off south again in October. Perhaps one of the
most common of all our summer scansorial birds is the pretty
Yellow-bellied Woodpecker (P. varius, Lin.\ readily
recognized by its red crown and throat ; the latter is white in
the female. The only noticeable difference observed in the
specimens I have procured here, as compared with Audubon's
descriptions, was in the relative smallness of the scarlet patch

Birds laying indefinite numbers of Eggs. 143

on the crown. I have frequently seen this woodpecker
capture insects on wing. The Red-headed Woodpecker
{P. erythrocephalus) I have seen on wing ; it is rare, and per-
haps non-resident. Mr. Boardman states to me that any of
the above will lay an indefinite number of eggs provided one
nest ^^'g is left ; and the same we have seen occur with the
sparrow-hawk of America, which likewise builds in holes in
trees. I have fancied that the darkness prevents their seeing
their eggs, and by trusting to touch they keep laying as long
as only one ^g'g is felt. Should this be the case, it is probable
that the same may happen with other species which lay their
eggs in dark places.

144 Field and Forest Rambles.

CHAPTER VI. ■ \

Habits and Haunts of the Ruby-throated Humming-bird — Migratory
Movements of Warblers — Swallows and their Migrations — Influence of
Forest Clearing on the Habits of Birds — Birds abandoning their Young
at the Migratory Season — Waxwings : theii* Love Gambols — Departure
and Arrival of the Crow Blackbird — Loves and Courtships of Birds.

OF all the strangers of the grove, of all the sweet messen-
gers of a Canadian spring, no one species recommends
itself lo the notice of the student of nature more than the ruby-
throated humming-bird. This exquisite little creature, undis-
mayed by the still ungenial weather, and propelled by some
secret yearning to seek a temporary home in these wild woods,
arrives pretty regularly by the end of May, when the bud is
just opening out. Then, like a large moth, it announces its
presence at the drawing-room window by the sharp hum of its
wings as it flutters around the exotics, placed there to catch
the first warm sunshine. I w^ell remember one forenoon,
shortly after my arrival in the country, when seated in the
garden enjoying the delightful prospect of early spring, that a
small green object shot past me, and before I could well direct
attention to its movements, another and another, refulgent in
glossy hues, were seen fluttering around the currant flowers,
now suspended over them — in one instant off — now perched on
a twig — then shooting away across the ftnce into my neigh-
bour's garden : hovering anon around the peach blossom, their
red sapphire breasts flashing in the bright sunlight with every
movement of cheir beauteous little forms. Such are my first
garden remembrances of the humming-bird. Were I to

The Summer Home of the Hum?ning-bird. 145

dwell on the subject of its wilderness haunts, I might attempt
to picture a scene in early June, when the balmy south winds
and sweet sylvan landscape tempted me forth with my rod to
the alder-fringed brook in search of trout, through the rapidly
rising vegetation of the old beaver meadow, among the
gorgeously attired orchises, the purple trilliums, the wild
yellow lily, and the welcome remembrancer of home the chaste
anemone ; when the forest resounds with the notes of many a
joyous songster, and the twin flower is perfuming the atmo-
sphere ;* there, with the busy bee, it may be seen flitting from
one favourite flower to another. The constant activity of its
movements is surprising, as is also its dogged indifference
to man's presence. I have often stood within an arm's length
of flowers over which individuals were humming; indeed, in
attempts to get at favourite plants it will enter houses and con-
servatories, and if captured feign death- by shutting its eyes and
lying motionless, when the inert body will suddenly make a des-
perate effort to escape.! The clustering flowers of the currant
are especially preferred by them, perhaps on account of their
being the first garden plant that blooms. At all events, it is
around them that we see humming-birds in the greatest abun-
dance ; sometimes six or eight may be observed hovering
about, the males chasing each other in rival emulation for
choice of the females, and greatly to the discomfort of the
humble bees that frequent the same plants. On one occasion

* The two-flowered Liiiaea {Lincea berealis), although familiarly known
to the Scottish botanist, being met with on the banks of the Dee and else-
where, is a northerly plant, and abounds in Norway and Sweden, where, as
in New Brunswick, the sweet fragrant odour of its modest-looking flowers
permeates the woods and forests for miles. In thus blooming early it has
been likened to the career of the immortal Swedish naturalist whose
name it bears, and who first pointed out its characteristics, and " with
whom this humble but charming plant was an especial favourite." — See
Gray's Lessons in North American Botany, p. 163.

t This mode of feigning death reminds one of certain beetles, not to
speak of such animals as the jackal of India, which often simulates the
stillness of death when captured by hounds.

L

146 Field and Forest Rambles.

I witnessed two almost collide ; when at first the bee, seem-
ingly unaware who his antagonist might be, was on the
point of making off, but hesitated for a moment, when all
at once, as if each had discovered its mistake, they shot
away in opposite directions.

The geographical distribution and affinities of the ruby-
throated humming-bird are interesting, extending as it does
from Brazil to the confines of the Arctic region, along the
eastern portion of the continent, whilst its very close ally
{T. Alexandri) occupies the western half: indeed, so closely
related are the two birds as regards colouring, that it may be
doubtful whether they should be separated. The former is seen
in the most secluded forest tracts early in May, and suddenly
vanishes by the end of September, thus lagging longer than the
swallows and hardier birds. I never found its nest, although I
have frequently watched a pair for hours. It builds in gardens
and orchards, affecting the same fruit-tree far years, but whether
the same birc^h - jturn to the haunt of the previous year does
not appear. Ijowever, it undoubtedly has its favourite locr "1-
ties, which are n.ever without individuals, whilst apparently
more tempting retreats are passed over, — thus leading to the
belief that either the same birds come annually to the spot, or
that the locality has some peculiar attractions not observable
by us. I do not know that the male and fe»^:^le sit alternately
on the eggs j but whether or no, as their upper parts are much of
the same dull shade of colouring, they would be inconspicuous
when on the nest. An observer says : "The nest is usually
placed on the horizontal branch of an apple tree, and covered
with moss so as to resemble the place where a limb has been
taken off, and a circle of bark has risen round the spot. As
the female is green, birds of prey might easily pass ov^r it
without discovering the nest below." *

Every one familiar with the climate of Canada, and the
haunts of humming-birds, will think in vain why and where-
* Peabody, Zool. of Mass. ^ Boston^ 1S38. p. 341.

Ca 'ses of the Migrations of Birds.

147

fore this species in particular should annually roam so far
beyond the region frequented by its compeers. Why does it
not content itself with the eternal summer of the south, instead
of forming the exception, and hurrying north as soon as the
weather will allow, to enjoy a short-lived warm season in
Labrador or Newfoundland, \v^here it has scarcely time to rear
its young before the time comes for the retrograde movement?

All we can say is that some inherited instinct is at work,
perhaps to them as precious as is the longing for the holidays
to the schoolboy, full of pleasant reminiscences, which of course
would grow by experience; and judging from the mute and
inert lives many migratory birds, to my knowledge, do pass
in their winter quarters, it may be birds, like human beings,
love change.

The sexual instinct has sometimes appeared to me to be
either a direct cause or a direct effect of the migratory bird's
movements ; perhaps in such as lag long in winter quarters it
may hasten departure ; but, as elsewhere observed, I have
found that few birds on the way to their summer retreats show
that enlargement of the sexual organs observed during
courtship and nidification. On this account I have been dis-
posed to think that the aphrodisiacal tendency is not always
the exciting cause, although it may occasionally influence the
movements of certain species.*

The Warblers which frequent these woods in summer are
numerous ; and as regards habits, there is little to add that
is not common to the majority. I must therefore refer the
reader to the list of birds of the region at the termination of
this volume. There are a few, however, which I may briefly
allude to, more especially with reference to their numbers and
geographical distributions. No doubt when the country is
more opened out and the forests cleared, and extensive culti-
vated tracts are formed, many species will increase in numbers.
Moreover (as we have seen) many birds formerly confined to the

. * " Natural History and Archaeology of Lower Nile Valley and Malta,"
pp. 12, 102, and 106..

L 2

148 Field and Forest Rambles.

fo/ests have taken to the neighbourhood of towns, and perhaps
in the not far distant future, when the climate becomes
modified by the destruction of forest tracts, certain birds
now uncommon will become plentiful, whilst on the other
hand indigenous species, dependent on evergreen trees
for subsistence, will decrease or go elsewhere. The Nash-
ville warbler, Sylvia ruficapilla (Wilson), presents a strange
geographical distribution, being seemingly rare everywhere;
but, according to Reinhardt, the little creature is met
with as far north as Greenland in summer. On the au-
thority of Mr. Boardman, I include in the list the warbler
Sylvia proiotiotarius, by no means common north of the
Ohio River, and partial, more or less, to the sub-tropical
portions of the continent and West Indies. The following,
moreover, are common with us, and breed and migrate to the
West Indies, viz., the black and white Creeper, the blue
Yellow Back, the Maryland Yellow Throat, the Black-
throated and Yellow-rumped Warblers, the Chestnut-sided,
the Blackburn's, the Blackpoll, the Black and Yellow Cape
May, and the Yellow Redpoll Warbler. According to Mr.
Baird, * all our thrushes frequent the West Indies in
winter. Indeed Cuba seems to furnish no less than sixty
species of its winter visitors which breed here, including
ten rapacious birds. He accounts for the comparative
superiority of numbers in Cuba by the probability that
it lies in the route by which most species of the Eastern
provinces reach middle America in winter. This high
authority on the ornithology of North America has fur-
ther stated in his admirable and highly suggestive paper,
to which I am often referring, that whilst many of the
birds of the eastern regions content themselves with the
Gulf of Florida and its land latitudes in winter, and pass
in small numbers even further southwards, few, perhaps

* " On the Distribution and Migrations of North American Birds,"
Am. Jo urn. 0/ Science, vol. xli. (1866), p. 18.

Directions of the Migrations of Birds.

149

none, of the characteristic birds of the middle regions of
the continent go as far as the Isthmus of Panama or be-
yond ; moreover, that the migratory birds of the Rocky
Mountain region go only a comparatively short distance
southward into Mexico, few of them even reaching Guate-
mala, but preponderating on the west coa:.t." Thus there is
a general north and south migration, with little intermix-
ture of the birds of the Pacific and Atlantic coast regions;
moreover, Baird, as observed in the last chapter, has noted re-
markable disproportions in size between specimens of the same
species of both mammals and birds from high and low latitudes,
and even from high and low altitudes. This very interest-
ing subject of inquiry he further elucidates in this way :
he found among the extensive material in the Smithsonian
Institution that specimens of birds from further north than
40° Latitude (taken as an average line of demarcation) were
larger than those born in the more southern localities ; and
this even was the case with indigenous species ; moreover,
there appeared in the birds of Florida a strange tendency
to " absolute increase of the size of the bill, even with di-
minution in general bulk." This would almost indicate a
deterioration of race, such as I have remarked in certain wild
animals occupying the torrid plains of India and the same
species on the Himalayas. Again, whilst "the Florida birds
were found to have larger bills than their more northern
brethren, several of the birds of the middle and western
regions of North America show an increase in the length
of the tail, as compared with the same or allied species
in the east" With such illustrations, on the authority of
one so competent to observe as the learned Secretary of
the Smithsonian Institution, we cannot fail to regard these
and like variations in size and proportion of the organ-
isms referred to, as valuable exponents in determining
species. Such important inquiries, extending over entire
continents, and pursued in a true philosophical spirit, will

150 Field and Forest Rambles.

most assuredly terminate in the complete overthrow of
the doctrines which aim at restricting many closely allied
animals and plants to certain regions.

In connection with the probable future extension of the
geographical distribution of many birds to New Brunswick,
at present either not met with there or only casual stragglers,
there can be no doubt that the remarkable changes in the
physical aspect of North America since the advent of
Europeans have very materially influenced the habits and
distribution of many animals and plants. Among other re-
markable examples may be noticed the present mode of
nesting of the PuRPLE MARTIN, Cliff, Barn, and White-
bellied Swallows;* also the little Chimney Swift
{C. pelasgid) ; indeed, in prehistoric times, the same might
be said of their European congeners, but the differences
in their cases are not so apparent. All the above, in the
northern parts of the United States and the Canadian Dominion,
generally build their nests about houses in preference to
their ancient haunts among rocky cliffs and in holes of
• trees. The Purple Swallow has now such a predilection for
man's society on account of the preponderance of insect
life which invariably surrounds him wherever he goes, that
he has only to construct a small cot with several chambers,
and place it on a pole at the door of any solitary shanty
in the wild wilderness, when year after year, with the cer-
tainty of the seasons, it will be tenanted by these birds in
preference to any other situation. This fine, powerful, and
I might say warlike swallow — for indeed it is extremely
combative, and well able to hold its own in the struggle for
life, being quite a prodigy of valour — makes daring sallies ; I
have seen the inmates of numerous cots, with extraordinary
alacrity, rise from their various residences in a body, and

* I have seen several cream-coloured or albino individuals of the barn
swallow, and Mr. Boardman informed me of other specimens, so that the
abnormality may not be uncommon.

Darhig Sallies of the Purple Swallow. 151

with that rapidity of flight for which they are famous, fly
straight at some unsuspecting sparrow-hawk which happened
to pass overhead. The latter, apparently aware of the par-
ticular birds that were tormenting him, would increase his
flight, as with loud screams they pounced down on him, until
he was fairly driven beyond the precincts of the town, when
all wheeled about and trooped back to their dififerent stations.
It is the same with every bird that comes near the cot ;
they even attack cats, and hunt away robins and the crow-
blackbird, which sometimes establishes itself in the cots before
their advent in spring.

The cliff" swallow and the last species are said to have been
unknown in Eastern America until shortly before the Revo-
lutionary War.* If this assertion be correct, we have a
good illustration of the influence of civilization on the geo-
graphical distribution of birds. At all events, the above species
is common on the seaboard of the province where it breeds,
arriving early in May; I did not observe it in central New
Brunswick, but Mr. Boardman states that it is a regular
summer visitor along the shores of the Bay of Fundy,t but
does not remark on its breeding retreats. The former
swallow, usurping the towns and settlements, probably drives
off" the others from its haunts; hence the barn and white-bellied
swallows are seldom seen in situations where the former
has taken up its abode, whilst the sand martin, as else-
where, aff"ects the sides of rivers and sandy banks. But the

* With reference to the cliflF swallow, Mr. Peabody states : " The first'
account of its habits was derived from Long's expedition to the Rocky
Mountains. Since that time the whole body have commenced a great
system of emigration, moving gradually on towards the Atlantic, till now
it is become quite common in many parts of New England ; its wild
practice was to build against the sides of cliffs, but when it comes into
civilized life it builds under eaves and cornices where its nest is partially
sheltered from the xdxc\.P —Birds of Massachusetts, Reports of the Zoologi-
cal Survey of the State, p. 345. Boston, 1838. I think Audubon makes a
statement to the same efiect.

t See Catalogue, Proc. Boston Nat. Hist. Soc, 1862, p. 125.

152 . Field and Forest Rambles.

little chimney swift {C. pelasgid), which in former times was
wont to breed in hollow trees, now prefers the flues of
chimneys, where colonies frequently collect, selecting of course
such as are not in use. This extremely active creature arrives
in central New Brunswick about the beginning of May, whilst
its hardier relative, the purple swallow, is one of the earliest
visitors, and a sure harbinger of spring, even when frosty
nights still retard vegetable growth, and the migrations of
less adventurous wanderers. The numbers and powerful
whirring motions of the wings of the chimney swift when
circling over the housetops during the breeding season are
very attractive ; the males, in chasing each other in their
love jealousies, sometimes knock together. I v/atched a flock
one afternoon, when one rash bird dashed furiously against
another, which fell to the ground dead, as if it had been shot.
None of the swallow tribe lag much beyond the end of
August in the more inland districts, thus barely remaining
three months in the country; but as if conscious that their
time is precious, they set to work to nidificate immediately on
their arrival, whilst such as rear two broods, or find they are
late in accomplishing the object of their sojourn, may be seen
drilling their offspring in the morning or afternoon in short
flights around the church spires and chimney-tops. Then
suddenly the thermometer falls to near freezing at night, and
on the following morning all have vanished. It is asserted*
that the migratory instinct is so powerful that late in the
autumn swallows and house martins frequently desert their
tender young, leaving them to perish miserably in their nests.
Although I have no experience of such instances, yet I can well
believe that this is frequently the case with the above species
when i'earing the second brood ; indeed, in the case of the
Carolina waxwing, which does not arrive in New Brunswf k
until well on in June, and leaves early in the fall, I found
several nests containing dead young birds after the parents

* Sec Darwin, " Descent of Man," vol. i., p. 84.

Constitutional Peculiarities of Migratory Birds. 153

had left. No doubt, therefore, such occurrences are frequent
when the cold sets in unusually early. Thus, looking at such
migratory birds as the robin and chipping sparrow, which
come in early, and are the very last to depart, we may readily
3uppose that they will increase, and multiply quicker, and
extend their geographical limits further than such as the
waxwing. It is a matter, in fine, of constitution and food ; so
that provided both are equal to the maintenance of the
creature, so is it likely to flourish and rear a healthy and
numerous progeny. But these are naturally hardy birds, and
feed on fruits and seeds ; therefore their braving the climate is
not so surprising as the case of such pretty little warblers as 5.
cestiva and maadosa, which, of all the insectivorous migrants,
arrive the earliest and are the lasL to depart. These hardy
songsters are therefore not only the most numerous, but have
extended their range further than their less adventurous allies.
The two Waxwings — to wit, the Carolina and Bohemian
chatterers — exactly reverse their visits to this region ; the
former comes in vast flocks in June, whilst the other appears
only occasionally in midwinter ; it is, in fact, an accidental
visitor ; * moreover, the latter is a native of boreal regions,
whilst the Carolina waxwings belong to more genial climates.
According to Swainson,t the chatterers derive their nourish-
ment almost exclusively from vegetable food ; and doubtless
this is true to a great extent ; but I have repeatedly observed
the Carolina waxwing, or cedar bird, in June, employed for
hours in pursuing insects like flycatchers, more especially in the
waste country, where flocks may be seen among the decayed
pines, for the reason that the soft berries were not then ripe.
The ornaments, like red sealingwax, in both species, are shown
off to great advantage by the male cedar bird during the breed-
ing season ; then it is a pretty sight to witness him making love,

* Individuals have been obtained as far south as Fort Riley, on the Mis-
sissippi. Baird, Pacific Railway Report^ vol. ix., p. 317.
t Swainson's Birds, Cabinet Cyclopc^dia, vol. ii., p. 71.

154

Field and Forest Rambles.

with his wings outstretched, as he coquets in a fantastic way-
round his mate, who may be admiring his gambols, and little
red bells, as they tremble with the vibration of the quills. Kow
the Bohemian waxwing received the name of Chatterer I
cannot say, for beyond a soft " cheep " I have not heard the
cedar bird utter another sound.* As has been noticed in
connection with the distribution of plants through birds,
dejections the cedar bird no doubt also contributes, a3 it
swallows the choke cherries and other fruits entire ; moreovci
its migrations are rapid, coming in suddenly and departing
with rapidity — even, as I have observed in some cases, before
its young have left the nest.

The Crow Blackbird {Q. versicolor), like the Rusty
Blackbird (5. fermgifteus), arrives very regularly as to
time; the former, like the swallows, is partial to certain
breeding-places, preferring tall pine groves, to which possibly
the same birds return year after year. Whether from the effects
of climate or the failure of food (I believe the former), it leaves
suddenly as soon as the broods are ready for the journey ; but as
its wings are not well adapted for rapid and continuous flights,
it takes its time in going south ; hence, as 1 have often
observed, large flocks are seen journeying across the tops of
the forest trees in September, flying only short distances, but
steadily moving southwards at a slow rate as compared with
the sharp-pointed winged birds — to wit, swallows and hawks,
which seldom loiter on the way.

* In the Report on the Zoology of Massachusetts fo*- 1838, p. 291, the
Rev. W. O. B Peabody describes a rather strange parrot-like habit ot thi
bird ; he says : " They may not unfrequently be seen sitting in a row, when
one who has found a favourite morsel of fruit hands it to his next neigh-
bour ; he, instead of eating it, passes it on, and thus it goes round, each
one declining it with a Parisian nod of his tall cap that is perfectly irre-
sistible." I apprehend most observers have failed to notice this piece of
eccentricity ; and allowing something like what is stated in the first part
to be near the truth, I must doubt the " Parisian nod." Who knows into
how many educational works this story, evidently more fanciful than real
has been copied ?

Hardy Migratory Finches. 155

The well-known Yellow Bird, or American Goldfinch
{Chrysomitris tristis), spends the winter in the New England
States; but although it lingers in New Brunswick until all the
autumnal seeds, especially the thistles, have fallen, none pluck
up courage to brave the cold ; but as soon as the snow com-
mences to depart, numbers suddenly appear, even at the
beginning of April. This bird illustrates the rapid change in
colouring of plumage, inasmuch as the dusky hues of winter
disappear before the little creature makes . its appearance in
New Brunswick ; indeed all the males, no matter how soon they
arrive, are decked in the beautiful yellow and black garb
characteristic of the breeding season. Its ally the pine finch
{C.pimis)y referred to before, being coniferous as regards food,
is indigenous to the region.

We have, besides, among our summer arrivals from the south,
several species of finches, strong and hardy birds, which, if
at all inclined to accept the fare of the pine finch, might, as
far as the climate is concerned, stop here during winter. One
of these, the Purple Finch {Fringiiia purpurea), belongs to
a genus the majority of the species of which are partial to
boreal latitudes, and also the BLUE and RoSE-BREASTED
Grosbeaks might well, as far as constitutional powers
are concerned, remain with us throughout the year; but it is
clear that the failure of food is the chief and perhaps the sole
cause of their departure. The first-named passes the winter
in the central regions of the northern continent, pushing far
north in spring to breed ; its bright red ^ilumage and sweet
and varied song recommend it to every intelligent observer.
I have often been delighted to witness its gambols during
the wooing season, when the gay-coloured male may be seen
displaying his attractions before the sombre-clad females on
some paling, now fluttering from bough to b«>ugh, then hopping
along the fence with the feathers of the head and back erected,
whilst his bride pursues him, and seems either displeased or is
urging him on to parade his beauties for her especial benefit.

•56

Field and Forest Rambles.

Another very common and attractive finch is the Bobolink
{Dolic/iojiyx orynivorus), known in more southern latitudes by
the names of reed and rice bird ; it seldom makes its appear-
ance with us until the fine weather in June, when its attractive
form and numbers bring it to public notice generally. The
changes in the plumage of this finch are also peculiar and
abrupt. The black breeding attire of the male, with more
or less of a buff tinge on the tips of feathers, suddenly changes
to the less distinctive garb of the female immediately after the
duties of incubation are completed.* It is a pretty sight to
observe the bobolink (so called from the call, which, however,
is not well expressed by the word) during the breeding time
fluttering from branch to branch along the sides of hay-fields,
where it makes its nest on the ground.

Another prominent object in similar situations, and one
famous for its boldness and familiarity, is the KiNG-BTRD, or
tyrant ^y-cdXchcr {Tyrranuscarolinensis); the peculiar fluttering
mode o*" flying (during which it utters a chattering call) and per-
tinacity wherewith the tyrant sets to bully almost every animal
that approaches its haunts, render it a conspicuous object in
our summer landscape. I have seen a red squirrel almost
frightened out of its wits by the sallies of this bird, and even
cats get perturbated by its rapid and constant stoops and the
harsh screams uttered as it sweeps past close to them.

The cries and notes of male mammals, birds, and some
insects during the breeding season are evidently more or less
intended to make known their presence to the females. The
roaring of the stag in the dense foresl;, and more especially the
aggravation of his bellowings when the sounds of a hind fall
on his ear, the boisterous chirpings and screams of bachelor
birds, are all produced by strong passions directed towards
the desire for the possession of the female. The hermit
moose, who has spent the winter and summer alone in the
wilderness, without perhaps ever coming across a companion

* I have seen an albino of this species.

Loves and Courtships of Birds. 157

of his own species, seems to be influenced just as much as the
female by the changes in his constitution at the rutting season.
The law is general, at all events as regards the vertebrata,
and obviously more or less present in lowlier forms. Again,
although the vocal and instrumental music of birds is most
likely a production of the noises and cries, from long habit,
and the excellence of some species over others, it has become
hereditary and inherent, so that the bird has recourse to its
song whenever it feels happy and comfortable. But there is no
accounting for musical taste in animals, and, if it comes to
this, even in man, when we think that the harshest and most
unmelodious noises may be the very reverse in the estimation
of those they are meant to please.

Now with reference to the state of the generative organs
at the breeding season, I have found that, as a general
rule, the males of ary one species show a regular and pro-
portionate enlargement ; but exceptions are not unfrequent,
which explains instances of unpaired birds, and what often
occurs, viz., that when a female or male of a mated pair is killed,
the survivor soon obtains another partner. In the case of the
chaffinch, bullfinch, and goldfinch, it is not uncommon to see
males and females unpaired at the breeding-time. I can
therefore well believe, wiih Mr. Darwin,* that " certain males
and females do not succeed during the proper season in
exciting each other's love, and consequently do not pair,"
This, I could imagine, is very common with old birds, just
as I noticed with aged bears on the Himalayas,t and is
the case also with the tiger, lion, etc., that when the animal
gets on in years it generally leads a life of celibacy, and
retires from the society of its species.

Mr, Jenner Weir, J quoted by Darwin, says "he never

sees or hears the note of the wild bullfinch; yet when one

* " Descent of Man," vol. ii,, p. 107.

t "Wanderings in India," p. 241 ; and Mr. Rohan, as we shall see in
the sequel, observed the same with water birds in the island of Anticosti,
X " Descent of Man," vol ii,, p. 105.

is8

Field and Forest Rambl'^s.

of his caged males has died, a wild one, in the course of a
few days, has generally come and perched near the \v idowed
female, whose call-note is far from loud."

I don't suppose many amateur bird-catchers have had a
more extensive experience in capturing this bird than my-
self. During my bo^'<«h days I was constantly so occupied ;
and the bullfinch bemg an especial favourite, I soon became
familiar with its habits. As is well known, it seems not un-
frequently to pair for life ; and not rarely, indeed, a male
and female, or two or more of one sex, may be observed
continually together.

I have captured them at all seasons, and often taken a
male close to his nest by means of a female decoy. The call
note is not often heard in the wild state, for ' the reason
that the pair usually keep close together ; but when either
get separated or a stray bird happens to be calling close
by, I have seen a male and female desert their nest to
look at the new comer. I do not agree with Mr. Weir
that the call-note of the female is " far from loud ;" on the
contrary, when she chooses to exert her lungs, although not
quite so clear as that of the male, her whistle is equally strong.
I have, moreover, captured the male siskin by means of
another, when the former had its nest and eggs in the neigh-
bouring tree. As regards starlings, sparrows, and the like,
which breed in societies, there ar6, no doubt, numbers of
bachelors and old maids who do not pair, or who are late in
becoming excited by t^^^ sexual passion, and therefore ready
to fill up a casualty.

Finally, with reference to the long courtship of the birds
of mid-Europe. As we have seen, it contrasts with the
short love-making of the migratory species in North-eastern
America, and in consequence there might likely be more
instances of unmated individuals among the former, for the
reason that the passions are gradually developed, whereas in
the latter they suddenly spring ..ito full vigour.

Effects of a sudden Thaw on Forest Travelling. 159

CHAPTER VII.

Discomforts of Sleighing during Thaws — Effects of unusually Cold Sea-
sons on Winter Migratory Birds — Winter Breeding Birds — Crossbills
and their Varieties of Plumage — Possible Causes of the Crossing of the
Mandibles and Bending of the Beaks of certain Birds — Deformed
Beaks of Birds — Habits and Modes of Nesting of the White-winged
Crossbill — The Pine Bullfinch — JledpoU — Snow Bunting — Snow
Bird — Familiarity of Forest-loving Birds — Partridges and their un-
suspicious Ways — Partridge Shooting — Dogs trained to Point at
Partridges in Trees.

I WAS in the habit of making regular excursions to the
wilderness in early spring, for the purpose of studying the
habits and modes of nesting of the earliest breeding birds, such
as the crossbills and others. The difficulties, however, of sleigh-
ing at this season, especially in the bye-roads and more un-
frequented thoroughfares, are occasionally so great that few
residents attempt long journeys until the greater portion
of the snow has melted. A heavy fall at the beginning of
March, 1868, added to what remained, gave an average of
five feet, so that a sudden thaw would, as a matter of course,
render the roads all but impassable for horses. Unfortunately,
when I then started, on the i6th of the month, a south-east
wind gave indication of a thaw; hoping, however, that the
thermometer would fall at ni^ht, I loaded the sleigh, and with
a guide set off for the village of Stanley, distant some twenty-
five miles. My companion, although experienced in travelling,
was as little av/are as myself of the difficulties before us.
For the first few miles things went on smoothly enough ; the
pathway had been well oeaten by teams, so that ho.'se and
sleigh swept along without hindrance. However, the soft

i6o . Field and Fared Rambks.

south-easter in our faces getting stronger every hour pro-
claimed an unusual thaw, and when we got into the less fre-
quented districts, there were indications of impending trouble
given by the horse now and then sinking to her knees, and an
occasional plunge threatening the safety of the trams ; but
my companion not showing any symptoms of disquietude,
I continued goading on the animal. Indeed, the dogged
indifference of friend " Malcolm " was amusing. Like his
countrymen, he had imbibed the usual slang expressions of
the Yankee, and freely interlarded his conversation with the
true nasal "I guess," or the decided negative of " Nu Sur."
His exclamations were invariably "O my! " with which he
interrupted every stage of conversational narrative, no matter
what might be the nature of the subject. Indeed, by
eliminating these repetitions from his sentences, there was little
left, and when by dint of hard pressure I could start him on
some episode of his forest life, what between these and the
countless "says he," "says she," or "says I " interlarding the
story, I often thought we should never get to the finale. Then
the imperturbable stoicism of the narrator, not a muscle of
whose face betrayed the slightest emotion in spite of all
these superfluous utterances, not even when re'iearsing the
history of his amputated finger, which was as lo lows. " I
guess you think this here finger of mine was chopped off by
an axe ; but no, it was a horse that done it. I was giving him
a drink, when he caught my middle finger and carried it right
away, and giving it a chew dropped it in the manger. I thought
that bad enouf," added Malcolm, "but not content with nipping
off my finger, he gave me a kick behind and sent me flying out
of the stable door." Just as the worthy woodsman was about
to end his tale, the horse, who had been sinking now and then,
gave a sudden stagger, and before she could recover herself
went down on all fours up to the belly, and every few minutes
subsequently showed that further progress would be tedious,
to say the least, on account of the rapidly increasing thaw.

Love-makings of Win Ur-brceding Birds. i6l

By midday we reached a small wayside inn, within about six
miles of Stanley village. Here, wh'lst the horse was being fed
and our dinners prepared, I amused myself watching flocks of
white-winged crossbills, pine siskins, and redpolls crowding
on the dung-heaps and around the door, the male birds all in
perfect plume, and singing sweetly on the trees around, — the
brilliancy of the red of the males of the former contrasting
with the white landscape as they coquetted around the females,
shewing off the white beauty-spots on their wings, which they
half expanded as they strutted from side to side, while the
pretty little redpolls, with their hoods erect, gamboled in
tlie bright sunshine around their mates, who, like the others,
did not seem in any way moved by their love-makings. No
doubt, however, the love season was commencing, as here and
there, among the hundreds assembled around the house, I
could mark pairs which came together and went off again to
the forest; the majority, however, had not made their choice
of partners, and were evidently only meditating matrimony.
The blue and Canada jays were also about : the "former as shy
and wary as the other is tame and familiar, for reasons else-
where observed.

The remainder of the day's journey commenced as it ended,
under most discouraging circumstances ; indeed no sooner did
the horse attempt to mount a steep bank behind the inn than
she sank shoulder-deep, and we had scarcely gained the top of
the ridge, when, meeting a traveller returning from Stanley,
we were informed that the road was absolutely impracticable,
and judging from the wearied aspect of the man, and bleeding
fetlocks of his horse, there could be ro doubt we were about
to face difliculties of no ordinary description. But resolved
to try, I loosened the reins, and dismounting, left the horse
to pick her way along the all but trackless forest road,
whilst we pushed the sleigh behind, and jogged along as
best we could. In vain the traveller, who as I ascertained
subsequently was the Methodist clergyman of the district,

M

1 62 Field and Forest Rambles. .. *.

advised us to return, and even after we had fairly turned our
backs on him, exclaimed, "You will both remember me
and my advice should we meet again!" yet Malcolm, soUo
voce, in his quiet drawling way, " guessed he had been out in
worse weather," and, encouraged by his indifference, I allowed
the team to proceed ; so onward we staggered, horse and man
floundering and sinking at every step. At times the horse
rolled over on its side, or both fore-legs sinking simultaneously,
sent its nose into the snow ; now the hind quarters disappeared*
when the animal assumed the appearance of a giraffe. Still on-
ward we crawled, making very slow progress, but not yet alto-
gether brought to a standstill, until we got clear of the forest
where the road led across an open, over which the snow had
drifted to the depth of six or eight feet. Here matters became
desperate, as finally, with a tremendous plunge, down went the
poor animal, until nothing was seen except its back and head,
when there was no alternative but to dig her out. Accustomed,
however, to such contretemps y instead of struggling, as most
horses would do, the poor patient bruie resigned itself to fate,
and waited patiently until we had cleared away sufficient snow
to enable her to regain her legs ; no sooner was this done than
another step, and a repetition of the immersion, proved that
our journey was at an end for that day at all events. Matters
had indeed become critical : the sun was on the horizon, we
were several miles from the village, and there were no signs of
a human habitation, while my horse lay shivering in the snow!
But not even these untoward events shook the imperturbable
coolness of the guide, for he lighted his pipe, and not till then
did he utter a single word, when, after a deep whiff, came a
suggestion to the effect that if the horse could be got under
cover there would be no difficulty in making up beds for our-
selves in the sleigh among the bear-skins. Indeed his conclusion
seemed inevitable. All around was a vast mantle of snow,
with only the tops of snake fences visible here and there ; but
just toward the q^%q. of the forest there appeared a small puff

A Backwood Shanty and its Inmates.

163

of smoke, to which I hastened, to find a hut almost buried
in a bank of snow, containing an old Irishman, with his
wife and an idiot girl, huddling round a log fire. Having
told my tale of trouble, the good Samaritans tendered a
share of their humble chin to man and beast, so that in the
course of two hours' hard work, both horse and sleigh were
dragged to the little cabin, where we spent the night on the
floor by the fireside, whilst the horse was domiciled with the
pig, cow, and poultry in an adjoining outhouse. Dead-beat,
we fell asleep directly after supper, but were awakened at
midnight by loud sounds. These were found to be caused by
the lunatic daughter, who, excited by our appearance, would
not settle down, and had kept making uncouth noises within
the little bunk in which she was imprisoned. In vain her
parents suggested all manner of punishments if she did not at
once cease her incoherences, when at length she succumbed,
but only when threatened with decapitation at our hands.
The result was that she repaired on the following morning to
the cow-shed, anc' nothing would induce the poor girl to come
indoors until we had gone. I had a long talk with her parents,
both of whom had left Cork forty-five years before, and settled
in the centre ":1 tijs forest, where they had made the little clear-
ing, and managed to rear a family of several sons and the idiot.
However, " the boys," as they called them, had gone to the
United States, so that the man and his better-half were left
in their old age to struggle as best they could, with the addi-
tional infliction of a helpless child, and a climate particularly
trying to old people. Indeed their story was much like that of
many others in this land, more especially such as settle down
in districts at a distance from towns and markets. As long
as the parents can work, and their sons and daughters con-
descend to remain under the paternal roof, there will be a
sufficiency to keep soul and body together ; but when health
fails or old age comes, and the boys find out they can do
better elsewhere, then comes back the old struggle for exist-

M 2

1 64 FieM and Forest Rambles.

ence, which had beei; manfully met in early life, but cannot
now be maintained.

Day dawned, and still the thaw continued ; moreover, as
I gazed across the open there appeared pnother sleigh and
party occupying the place where we had come to grief.
We had been the cause of their troubles, inasmuch as having
learned at the inn of our departure, they followed our
tracks to experience the same disaster and a night's bivouac
on the snow. By dint of much hard work we managed to
work our way back to the wayside inn, when the wind
chopped round to the north, and before the following morn-
ing the roads were perfectly passable, and the surface hard
and frozen.

In the above valley flows the Nashwauk, a tributary of the
St. John, and once famous for its salmon, as will be further
noticed in the sequel. Along this river's banks snow had
drifted more than on level tracts, thus forming huge loosely
packed mounds. On the morning after our return to the
inn, as I strolled on snow shoes over the hard glazed crust,
and was ascending one of these mounds, I became somewhat
startled at first by the sudden cracking of the surface crust
in the form of long rents, extending for several hundred
leet, followed by hollow rumbling noises like reports of muffled
guns, caused by the fracture of the crisp surface sounding
along the loose substratum. Sometimes an enormous mass
would rend in two, and sink several i* Hes, conveying a feeling
that one was likely to be suddenly engulfed in some internal
chasm.

During the memorable winter of 1867-8 (one of the coldest
experienced in New Brunswick for nearly half a century),
there was an inordinate number of crossbills, pine bull-
finches, pine siskins, and redpolls, common winter birds,
but evidently rendered more so on this occasion by additional
arrivals from m.ore northern regions, and a general collecting
of each species into large nocks. Being very desirous of

Nest of the White-ivinged Crossbill. 165

obtaining the nest and eggs of the White-WINGED CROSS-
BILL and Pine Finch, which breed in midwinter, I paid a
visit to a forest much frequented by these birds, in January,
1868, during very cold weather* Here were large flocks of
the former, either about the lumber camps or the settlements;
but although I besrowed much time, I could not make out
that there was a general nidification going on. However,
about the middle of the month, I was fortunate enough to ob-
tain a nest and three eggs, and another was brought to me some
weeks previously. As the nest and eggs of this crossbill are
rare in collections, I may state that it is made' of the black
moss called the " old man's beard," which hangs in long and
graceful tresses from the branches of many trees, furnishing,
as we have seen, a staple article of food of the reindeer. This
is interwoven with birch bark and twigs, and the interior is
lined with wool or soft moss. It is usually placed in the fork,
although sometimes in the hole of a tree. The ^^^ is bluish-
white, with red streaks on the larger end. At one lumber
camp in the wilderness I took no less than thirty crossbills in
the course of an hour with hair nooses, and a snow shoe placed
after the schoolboy's method of capturing birds with a sieve.
There appeared a large preponderance of immature plumaged
and adult males over the females, which, however, were nume-
rous, and one of which laid an egg in the cage soon after capture
The immature plumaged or former year's bird showed the
same enlarged genital organ as the adult ; thus demonstrating
the fact that, like other spec'es, it breeds before the full costume
is gained. No pairing was noticed, possibly ^rom the circum-
stance that the flock represented birds off" duty, their partners
being on the nests ; for when we think of the lowness of the
temperature at the time, it would surely be certain death to

* The mean daily temperature for the month was 12° Faht. On two
days only did the glass rise to 34°— the lowest being 14°, and for twelve
days the readings were below zero ; but this was not the coldest month,
December, 1 867, being very much more severe.

1 66 Field and Forest Rambles.

the young, and destruction of the vitality of the egg, to leave
them exposed for any length of time.

The various shades of plumage in this and other crossbills
are demonstrably the result of age ; the red of the adult male
not being attained until the third year. The great diversities
in colouring, from the olive-green of the young male — like that
of the female — to the various red and yellow combinations of
the adolescent bird, are perhaps connected in some way with
imperfect and gradual moultings. Now, when the rigorous
climates it frequents are considered, we might expect that a
complete moulting would be attended, in autumn, with some
risks to the bird, and probably it is on this account that the
above and other species do not obey the general law ; and as
to breeding in winter, if it be the case that the majority is
then composed of birds from higher latitudes, the well-known
fact that many other migratory birds breed in their winter re-
treats makes the case of the crossbills and pine bullfinches not
a singular one. This, however, leaves the cause of the inter-
mediate coloured plumage totally unexplained, unless it be the
case that accidental varieties are more likely to take place in
birds that are slowly and constantly dropping their feathers
and obtaining fresh ones; but why at length an uniform robe
should be attained does not appear, unless the former variations
are relics of long-lost colourings of some bird member of the
genus Curvirostra. The white-winged crossbill of Europe
differs, it is said, from this only in respect of the bill, which
is said to be rather stouter than that of the other, which
is remarkably slender and compressed, more especially as
compared with its compeer the American crossbill. The
latter is also a resident, but whether a winter breeder or
not I cannot discover; at all events it has one brood in
the spring, as I have frequently seen fledglings in July, long
after the second brood of the other had dispersed. Both
are very hardy birds, and usually assemble in flocks ; but I
have not seen the two together, and the last-named rarely in

Causes of the strange Curving of Birds Beaks. 167

winter. It is apparently also less carnivorous than the white-
winged crossbill ; whose sharp, narrow, and falcated bill is
better adapted for slipping between the imbricated scales of
the red spruce and other cones. I have repeatedly noticed
that they extract the seed by a twist, like a dentist extracting
a molar, just in such a way as to cause the forceps to cross
its blades. Now as the young have the mandibles even, and
as the direction of the tips in the old birds is sometimes to
the right and sometimes to the left, one might speculate
on a far-back time when some progenitor discovered, in its
struggle for existence in the pine forest in winter, that the
seeds of the cones were to be got at, and when in its attempts
to get at them the bill, which is not so strong and conical
as that of the pine bullfinch, became curved, until at length
the condition became hereditary and transmissible. Indeed,
this hypothetical mode of reasoning does not stop at the
crossbills ; for, looking to the digging habits of, for example,
the curlew and ibis, and the dredging way of feeding of the
flamingo, the poking under stones of the avoset, godwit, and
numerous other birds with bent and distorted bills of slender
make, we might with as much plausibility attribute the present
outline of the bill in them to habits long practised.

Looking at a few pointed instances in connection with the
birds of this province, I might cite the long-billed curlew,
common to the entire [temperate region of the Continent,
but here only an en passant visitor on its way north and south
at the usual times. This bird, and, I might add, its European
congener the slender-billed curlew, are subject to much
diversity in regard to the bill. As regards the former species,
Mr. Baird found* that scarcely two specimens shared the
same length and dimensions of the bill. Another widely
distributed water bird, the sanderling, the habits and haunts
of which are well known, shows also much diversity in
size of body and length of bill. The ling plover {E. semi'

* Op. cit., p. 728.

1 68 Field and Forest Rambles.

Mlmatiis), "besides the webbing of the feet, by which it is
alone distinguished from E. hiaticula, and thus interesting
from being an adjunct to the bird in the way of swimming as
well as wading, has also been probably acquired through
natural selection. Now this species has likewise a very wide
distribution, and is very abundant, and, according to the
e:icellent authority just quoted* there is much discrepancy
in the length of bills in individuals, even to the extent that
the student, meeting only with the two extremes, would
deem it impossible that they should be specifically identical.
I might cite numerous other pertinent examples — to wit, the
Little Willet {T.Wilsoiiii), the Red-backed Sandpiper,
etc., etc. But to return to the crossbills. We frequently
meet with analogous deformities in other birds — for example,
the rook and the carrion crow seem especially subject to such
states. In one instance I found the mandibles more slender
than is natural ; and probably this defect was the cause of the
distortion, which was evidently a serious incumbrance to the
bird when feeding, for whereas the usual length of the bill is two
inches and a half, in the above the upper mandible was three
inches and a half along the curve, and the lower four inches. It
is clear, therefore, that this conformation entirely precluded the
possibility of the individual obtaining subsistence in the usual
manner ; it must have, therefore, used the upper blade like a
pickaxe ; but the bristles on the nostrils and base of the bill
were extensively denuded, like that of old rooks, as has been
alleged by inserting the bill deep in soil, which must have
been next to an impossibility in this case. Therefore, unless
the denudation took place prior to- the deformity, it is utterly
impossible that it could have occurred afterwards.

The point, however, we are most concerned about at present
is the attempt to interpret the probable cause of the deformity,
having seen the disadvantage it would be to the bird in its
struggle for existence. Among quadrupeds the well-known

* Op. at., p. 725.

Uses of the Crossbill to a Cone-feeding Bird. 169

case of the incisor teeth of rodents might be quoted, where the
plane of contact between the upper and lower is deflected, so
that the teeth, growing, as they do, by additions from behind,
often protrude, and grow upwards or downwards, as the case
may be, to an indefinite extent, and often cause the death of
the animal by starvation. In the case of a bird, we may sup-
pose a similar accident occurring in a young individual, the
bill of which happens not to be so stout as usual, and from
seme twist in digging has been displaced, so that the tips are
not in apposition, and would accordingly go on growing in
the same way until the deformity, as above, resulted. Now,
although to a granivorous animal such a condition would be
decidedly injurious, in the case of the conical-shaped bill of the
cone -feeding crossbill, the sharp cutting and falcated edges
would be just the opposite, for they would scoop out the seed
of a cone more eflectually than a slender straight beak, from
which we might conclude, on the principle of natural select
tion, that no better accident could have occurred to the finch,
and scarcely a worse one to the crow, who subsists more or
less by picking up substances on the surface.

The crossbill makes use of the hooks to assist it in moving
along the sides of the cage, where it crawls like a parrot ; it has
also another similar habit, that of picking up cones with its feet
and carrying them to a branch, where, hawk-like, it holds them
in its talons and dissects them from top to bottom. Never^
theless, in winter, all the pine-feoding birds seem willingly to
abandon their iir-cones for the refuse of the lumber camp or
the dunghill, and the buds of early spring.

At the end of March, when the sunny days invite us forth,
flocks of crossbills, redpolls, and pine siskins may be seen on
the firs, spruces, and larch trees, singing sweetly, whilst the
females and young of the year are feeding on the cones.
Shortly afterwards the males disappear, and throughout the
summer we only meet with small flocks, which would lead to
the belief that the majority go to more northern regions.

lyo Field a7id Forest Rambles.

The tameness of forest birds is not confined to winter, and
times when there is a difficulty of procuring food, for in the
crossbills I found them equally fearless in midsummer; indeed,
in the solitudes of the primeval forest, and where animals
have been little disturbed, we find its denizens, like the
wild fowl on Enoch Arden's island, " so wild that they are
tame."

The loud canary-like note of the white-winged crossbill is
seldom uttered in captivity, and is replaced more or less by a
low, sweet, warbling measure, evidently a love song, like that
of the thrushes referred to in the last chapter. Of the many
cage-birds I have kept, none seemed to take to confinement
more readily than this finch, the creature being quite as indif-
ferent a few minutes after capture as if had been born in con-
finement ; indeed, fear of man seemed quite unknown to them.
It must be stated, however, that the individuals referred to
were captured in a forest remote from human habitations, and
probably had never been molested. It is remarkable, more-
over, to observe how fear is developed among wilderness
animals; not, however, by man's presence alone, so much as
by the noise of fire-arms : hence, in the savage times of stone
and bronze, many of the larger mammals are likely to have
long retained their primordial indifference of him.

The Pine Bullfinch (/. emiclcator) is said tc differ from the
European bird of the same name only in being larger, the
wing of the former, according to Baird,* being 476 inches,
but that of several adult males and females procured by me
in the New Brunswick forests did not exceed 440 inches, thus
conforming to the size of the Old World specimens. Although
many are resident, like the last, the majority arrive in September
from the northern regions, returning in spring. I noticed a great
preponderance of females in winter ; and although the young
of the year resemble the latter, and do not attain the beautiful
red plumage of the male until the second year, among very
* "Pacific Railway Report," p. 410.

Faviiliar Forest Finches and their Songs. 1 7 1

many specimens procured at all seasons, I have never been
enabled to meet with a young bird. It is said to breed in the
region, but I am not aware of its nest having been found.
Another winter resident met with in very small numbers in
summer is the PiNE SiSKIN {C. piniis) ; it breeds early, and
has its young flying before the first summer migrants arrive in
April, when large flocks may be observed feeding on the buds
of the hawthorn preparatory to their departure northwards.
It is very closely allied in habits to the well-known siskin of
Europe, with a song more melodious, thus becoming a very
choice cage-bird, and is easily tamed. I set several at liberty
after a confinement of a few months, when, to my astonish-
ment, all returned to their cages after an absence of several
days in the neighbouring woods.

Another European winter visitor, the REDPOLL {A.linarid),
arrives in New Brunswick, in large numbers, at the com-
mencement of winter, and suddenly vanishes with the snow
in spring. I could not find out its nest. Soon after its
appearance the male puts on the breeding plumage, the
crimson first appearing on the cheeks, then extending down-
wards. I doubt, however, if it is a condition in connexion
with the pairing, being in this instance present in the males of
large flocks of both sexes, throughout the winter. There is
much variety in the extent and brilliancy of the crimson and
the size and thickness of the bill, just as I found with the
linnet affecting Tibet and Tartary,* some males rivalling all
the others in the amount of gaudiness of their attire. Thus
it would appear that there are favoured individuals ; and no
doubt, as I have noticed in regard to other birds, such as
the trumpeter bullfinch,! the finest plumaged males are most
assiduou.s in their attentions to the females, and are most
likely to be preferred by them. Many of the most brilliantly
coloured individuals captured in February from flocks, after

* " Wanderings," p. 284.

t " Natural His'.ory of Nile Valley and Malta," p. 17.

172 Field and Forest Ra?/ib/es.

being caged for a few weeks, and fed on hemp and canary
seed, rapidly lost the crimson shadings ; indeed, such is the
case generally, and especially with linnets, who seldom regain
their markings in captivity.

The Snow Bunting {P. nivalis) puts in an appearance
in September, sometimes in larger numbers than at others,
and with the Lapland larkspur (only a few of which, how-
ever, sojourn in the region during winter) disappears early
in spring. The common BLUE or SNOW Bird {F. hycmalis)
comes in early in spring, the majority departing to regions
south of the States of New England in autumn. A few,
however, spend the winter in the more genial climate of the
interior of the forest, about logging camps, in company with
the above finches. Here again, as I have had frequently
to point out, is another example of a bird very numerous and
gregarious, subject to albinism and piebald varieties, of which
I have seen several examples. Moreover, this is one of many
birds, including the migratory thrush, that would doubtless
brave the winter climate were food more easily procured.

These winter songster: hold precedence as to numbers,
as follows : the cros':bill, pine bullfinch, pine siskin, and
redpoll. Their sweet voices and beautiful forms recall to my
recollection ma ay characteristic winter scenes of blessed
memory. To the solitary hunter or trapper in his hastily
built .shanty, they are often the only objects that break
the stillness of his dreary solitude. Crowding around the
lumberer's Camp, they relieve. the monotony by their enliven-
ing chants and cheerful ways ; indeed, to the cook they are
his only companions all the dismal winter day, when his
comrades have gone forth to fell trees ; now crowding on the
refuse heaps, or around the slop-pails, ard on the door-sill,
picking up particles of bread, pork, or sugar, and, as before
stated, preferring the salted substances to all others. Again,
the forest ranger in quest of these little outposts of civiliza-
tion, with no object to guide him over the wilderness, rests

Characteristic ll^iiitcr Scene in the Forest. 1 73

his aching limbs after the heavy tramp on snow shoes now
and then for a few minutes to listen for the sound of the axe
or the notes of these birds, knowing full well that one or
other will bring him to the camp ; and the Indian, when he
has slain his moose and cut it up into convenient portions
capable of being easily transported on a hand-sleigh, has
scarcely well begun to flay his quarry before the cheuckish-
mink (the crossbill) and the umkcnewee-cis (moose bird) gather
round him. Whether it be that feeding on such dainty food as
the hunter and woodsman afford them, they grow to eschew
the dry cones in winter altogether, it is a fact that after a heavy
fall of snow, when their usual feeding spots around the camp
are covered over, they repair to the door in flocks, and become
so tame that I have then actually fed them from my hand.
Pine cones and the dried seeds of such trees as the alder are
all the forest affords in midwinter, so that it is not im-
probable that this decided change of feeding has produced or
is producing nanges in the organism of the species ; at all
events, we must allow that the camp feeding life is a very
decided change from that enjoyed by these birds when these
boundless forests were all their own. The desire for animal
food so conspicuous in the Canada jay or moose bird, may in
the absence of lumber camps in summer have led to its king-
fisher habit before noticed. It is strange how such herbivorous
birds as thrushes, etc., reared on flesh, get so fond of it that
they prefer animal to their natural food, and how salt, usually
fatal to such birds as hawks, should be especially liked by the
finches of the wilderness.*

No doubt many animals have become extinct from being un-
able to struggle against their foes. This I believe will be the

* The caged individuals of the white-winged crossbills, aUhough always
preferring hemp-seed to fir-cones, were fond of taking them up to their
perches ; and I have seen individuals in spring, after feeding on the tender
buds of the larch, betake to the withered catkins, perhaps as much for
variety as anything else.

174 Field and Forest Rambles.

case sooner or later with the partridges of this region, and that
at no verydistant period, for more stupid birds than the RUFIED
or Birch Partridge and the Canada Grouse in their native
wilds do not exist. The early settlers knocked them down
with sticks; indeed I have seen a whole brood exterminated in
this way, and remember traversing a swamp in a wood close to
Fredericton, when four of the latter flew into the pine trees
and I shot one, to find the rest gazing on perfectly indifferent,
waiting their turn until I re-loaded and despatched them in suc-
cession. Numbers of the ruffed grouse perish during rigorous
winters. Its general habit of diving head-foremost into
the snow and forming a burrow, where it passes the night, is
well known ; but it may so happen that a sudden thaw taking
place overnight, is followed by a rapid frost, when the surface
gets hardened, and the bird is unable to force its way out; the
result is that nearly all the partridges are smothered, and in
spring their bodies may be seen strewing the forest in every
direction. The Canada grouse, which is feathered to the toes,
and altogether a hardier bird, does not seemingly resort to this
practice in winter. As if desirous of putting off the spruce and
pine-top diet as long as possible, both species may be seen
scraping the snow up to the last moment in quest of anything
green in the shape of grass, or devouring berries of whatever
tree they come across, mountain laurel included ; and as many
persons have fallen sick immediately after partaking of their
flesh at this season, it is probable the poisonous qualities of
the plant may have been transmitted. Again, like the hare,
when they have fed on the pine tops for a week or two, their
flesh becomes so highly tainted by turpentine as to be
scarcely palatable. -

With all the defects in intelligence displayed by the
Canadian partridges, the Birch has advantages in its colour
assimilating to that of surrounding objects. I have often flushed
covies into trees, and searched for a length of time, and after
all failed to discern their presence, until the rustle of their ^

Shooting Partridges in Trees. 175

wings on departure showed that I must have been looking at
them. These birds evidently, like many Himalayan pheasants,
feel chat by flying to a tree they escape immediate danger, and
can look down on their pursuers with indifference ; indeed
until the use of fire-arms they had little to fear in the dense
woods and forests except from their four-footed foes ; more-
over their statue-like posture, with neck outstretched, and their
motionless position on the moss-clad spruce bough,*render it
extremely difficult to recognize them.

Although partridge-shooting in Canada is ignoble sport, the
gastronomic quality of the flesh of the birch partridge in par-
ticular is of high character, and coupled with the exhilarating
exercise, tempts many an orthodox sportsman to deviate
from the established canon of his craft and take to ''potting,"
even at such close quarters that he is obliged to blow the
bird's head off in order to save the cafcase from utter de-
struction. In September and October, as soon as the broods
of the year are able to fly, they repair to the dank parts of the
forest, alder swamps, or lumber paths, where they delight to
scrape and sun themselves at midday. At this season the
sportsman may make a large bag, but he must possess a well
trained dog, which, as far as outward appearance goes, may be
the greatest cur in existence provided it has been taught to put
up the birds and stand barking at the foot of the tree until
its owner can manage to push through the thicket and mark
the partridge, standing usually on one of the lower branches
with outstretched neck gazing down in astonishment — ^just
such a mark as Mr. Briggs would never have missed ! Some
of these mongrel dogs display, however, remarkably good
training. Their tuition is accomplished in this way : a cord
attached to the leg of a dead partridge is passed over the
branch of a tree, and as the dog draws on the bird it is
gradually pulled along the ground and then suddenly swung
up to the branch. I am told that an intelligent mongrel will
become a proficient after a few lessons. On one occasion at

176 Field and Forest Rambles.

which I was present, a very degenerate and diminutive re-
presentative of the genus raised a covey of birch partridges in
thick cover, but when we came to inspect the trees not a bird
was to be seen, and we were on the point of departure when
the dog became much excited and set to barking furiously
under a large maple. In vain we looked, for no partridge
was to be seen ; still the dog barked, and began to bite and
tear off the bark, when at length three birds were discovered
standing mot'ionless on the moss-covered boughs, and within
a few yards of us. The owner informed me that whenever
the creature lost patience, and took to biting objects around
a tree, it was a sure sign that there were birds on the
branches, and that he seldom left the lumber and logging
paths in search of them until he heard the bark,

Lists of American Birds.

177

CHAPTER VIII.

Directions and Causes of the Migrations of the Birds of Boreal America,
and Laws bearing on Variation of Species — Ducks Building in Trees —
Abnormal Habitsof Animals— Celibacyamong Birdsy-Strange Habits
of the Great Northern Diver — Attachment to its Young — A Loon
Hunt — Reptiles — Turtles — Snakes — Frogs — Tritons.

ALTHOUGH for the last half century naturalists have
directed their attention to the study of the birds of the
New World, it is only of late years that zoological geography
in general has been prosecuted with the amount of care and
research its importance deserves. In America, Wilson and
Audubon paved the way towards an accurate knowledge of
the species, and subsequent observers added to the rich stores
accumulated by them. When Prince Charles Lucien Bonaparte
published his geographical list of the birds of Europe and
Northern America, in 1838, he :;oniputed the number of
species of North American birds at 471, whilst the latest
census, made by Professor Baird,* raises the number to about
680, exclusive of species common to the Old and New Worlds.
Since the latter list was published, many new species have
been added ; for whilst the birds of the United States, and
the eastern portion of the Canadian dominion, are now well
known, those of the Pacific side of the continent, Mexico, and
the Arctic Regions have not been fully determined.

Turning to our chief subjects of inquiry, it must be apparent
that an accurate knowledge of the ornithology of the neigh-
bouring countries is requisite in determining the distribution
.'.nd migrations of the birds of New Brunswick ; accordingly,

* " Report on the Birds of the United States," Pacific Railway Report.

N

178 Field and Forest Ra^nbks.

we shall have to refer to that of Greenland on the north-east,
and to the imperfect data in connection with the birds of
north-eastern Asia on the one side, and South America on
the other. Thus it is apparent that, as regards North
America, we are at present only enabled to determine with
approximate precision the laws which, in the case of the
birds of Europe, have long been clearly defined. It is a fact
generally accepted by naturalists that about 60 species of
birds are common to the northern continents of the New and
Old Worlds ; thus, by eliminating these we find there are about
444 species peculiar to Europe, and no less than 680 strictly
North American birds. As regards the other continents above-
mentioned, it is unnecessary, for the illustration of our subject,
to draw comparisons. It is apparent, therefore, as far as
North America and Europe are concerned, that their birds
differ considerably; and indeed the same may be said of their
natural objects generally.

With reference to the geographical distribution and migra-
tions of the birds of North America, it was found by Professor
Baird* that the general principles in regard to these points
were demonstrable from a consideration of the climate and
physical characters of the continent; accordingly, he divides
North America into two grand ornithological (nay, zoological
as regards the class vertebrata) regions, — viz., the eastern, or
Atkntic ; and the western, or Pacific. Referring to the
accompanying sketch map, the eastern division extends from
the Atlantic seaboard, westward across the Alleghanies and
over the valley of the Mississippi and its fertile prairies, to
about the 100° of longitude, or to the beginning of the sterile
plains.

The western division begins at the western border of the
cistern, or along the sterile plains of the trans-Mississippi
country, and extends across to the Pacific Ocean. These
are better defined, on the chart where the part shaded repre-

■ * "American Journal of Science," vol. xli.

H-

Bh'cis of North America and Emvpe C07Upared. 179

sents regions not exceeding 800 feet above the level of the sea,
and its western margin the limits of the eastern region. Thus
it will be observed that the northern boundary of the weslern
division turns westward at the mouth of the Mackenzie River
along the shores of the Arctic Sea. Now as to the general
directions of bird migrations, they are in all continents, from
north to south, along shore lines, valleys, and mountain chains.
A glance, however, at the maps of Europe and America will
suffice to show the advantages possessed by the New World
in these respects, chiefly in its rivers, mountain ranges, and
depressed lands trending in the direction of the routes of
the bird wanderers, whereas the Alps and Mediterranean Sea
appear to present obstacles to the birds of passage on their
way to and from Africa and Northern Europe ; but whilst
not very much influencing their movements, there can be no
question that they stand in the way of the distribution of
mammals and other animals, which in North America are
free to roam over vast tracts of country from north to south.

With reference to the especial direction pursued by the
birds during their migrations, it has been found that the birds
of the eastern region go to and return from their summe*-
and winter quarters by the Atlantic coast and the great valley
of the Mississippi, whilst the western species hug the shores of
the Pacific and the western slopes of the Rocky Mountains; and
while the majority of the birds of the former division take
up their winter quarters in and around the Gulf of Mexico,
Florida, and the West Indies, a small portion only going into
South America, it has been observed on the other side that
very few go further south than the Pacific shores of Mexico.
Thus the winter visitors to the West Indies are, with very few
exceptions, summer residents in the north-eastern portion of
the United States, Canada, and the Arctic Regions. It will
be observed that the peculiar tongue-shaped promontory of
Florida protrudes on the coast, having Cuba and the Bahamas
at its apex. We would therefore expect, from what has just

N 2

i8o , Field and Forest Rambles.

been stated, that as the waves of winter visitors are proceed-
ing southward, they would, in all likelihood, tarry on their
way. Such, in fact, is the case. Accordingly, we find some-
thing like eighty species of American migratory birds affecting
Cuba in winter, against a far less proportion in Jamaica, which
is further eastward, and positively an almost total absence of
any but South American birds in the island of Trinidad.
Thus Cuba and the Bahamas stand in relation to the birds of
North America in much the same way as Malta and Sicily
afford resting-places to the migratory birds of Europe ;
indeed, it has been very clearly pointed out that few North
American species winter in South America, that do not also
winter in Cuba, or, at all events, make a temporary stay
in the island during their spring and autumn migrations.
Although the above directions embrace the chief routes or
highroads pursued by the migratory birds, there are other
inland highways and byways by which they travel, irrespec-
tive of the valleys of the Mississippi and Mackenzie rivers.
The sketch map indicates the chief mountain ranges and high
lands, more especially the Rocky Mountains, Appalachians,
and elevated lands of Labrador, running north and south,
all of which present excellent routes ; but doubtless from the
headlands of Newfoundland and Nova Scotia many a bird
wanderer starts, and makes straight for Florida without one
stoppage on its way. Of the vast hosts of eastern migrants
that repair annually to feed around Hudson Bay, not a few gain
their summer quarters by the Mississippi valley (as is demon-
strated by their numbers along that route in spring), whilst they
return by the Atlantic coast, or vice versd. But on the western
side, the great mountain chains and the coast line pretty
accurately determine birds' movements, and make them more
regular than along the Atlantic division. As to the extent
of the migrations, we find almost every possible degree, from
birds whose migrations extend over a few hundred miles
of latitude to such as breed in the Arctic Regions and

Closely -allied Varieties of Bi,ds Interbreeding. i8i

winter in Patagonia. From what has been stated, it will be
observed that, as a general rule, the migratory birds of eastern
and western America pursue a northern and southern course
in their respective provinces. In accordance with these
facts, we find the two great regions characterized by
distinct forms or types ; even in cases of species common to
both, there are characters which distinguish them from one
another. As an example, the well-known yellow woodpecker
{Colapates auratiis) extends from the Atlantic across the con-
tinent to the upper Missouri, where it is replaced by a very
closely allied species, differing from it in having the shafts of
the quills red instead of yellow. Now, whether these two birds
are distinct species or only permanent varieties of ore species,
we have it on the excellent authority of Professo' Baird that
at the line of junction of the two grand ornithic provinces, in-
dividuals are met with showing a combination of the charac-
ters of both, which, in conjunction with the following examples,
would seem to indicate that the eastern and western forms
interbreed. The well-known snow bird {F. hyematis), also
the long-crested, and Steller's jays, present characters common
to both on these boundary lines between the eastern and
western provinces, whilst the seaboard specimens are at once
characterized by very permanent and distinct colourings.^ Let
us see what indications are presented of similar crossing of
allied species among the Old World avifauna. In Egypt the
common chimney swallow is distinguished from the European
bird by the intense rufous on the belly, with spots of the same
colouring on the tail. These, as is well known, are pale rufous
or dirty white in the true Hirnndo rustica. Now the latter
passes through Egypt in spring and autumn during its annual
migrations ; the result is that now and then individuals of the
two are to be met with, showing intermediate grades, which
may be owing to interbreeding. Again, in Malta, we find
specimens of the Spanish sparrow {far cxcellcn~e the domestic
* " Birds of United States," Pacific Railuay Report.

1 82 Field and Forest Ra^nbles.

sparrow of the island), so closely allied to the Italian spar-
row, which is found in Sicily and Calabria, as to lead to the
belief that there is here again a communication between these
very distinct forms* Would space allow, we might multiply
examples similar to the above. Suffice it to say that, con-
sidering the close and intimate connection between many
species, and the influence of migrations in bringing about an
intercourse between closely allied forms, it may be readily
believed that there is no branch of natural history more likely
to aid our knowledge of the causes of variations in animals than
that which aims at establishing their geographical limits and
movements. . . - .

Having briefly indicated the chief points in connection with
the migrations of the North American birds, I shall epitomize
a few facts regarding their distribution. The most important
of which is the effect of certain influences on the size and
external appearance of species. It has been found, from vast
collections of specimens from remote localities, that there are
not only pronounced differences in size, but also in coloration,
between animals of the same species from high and low latitudes ;
morever, that these differences are apparent in individuals of
the same species, having a wide distribution in the same
latitude, and even as regards elevation above the sea level.
In birds these peculiarities are not so apparent as in man and
the quadrupeds ; however, several remarkable instances might
be adduced among migratory and non-migratory birds. With
reference to these it has been observed that migratory birds
remarkable for their great range show the leastvariation in size,
whereas such as have a wide distribution in latitude without any
special migration present very pronounced discrepancies in the
development of certain organs, such as the wings, bill, feet,
etc. ; indeed, so marked are these in individual species of
woodpeckers, that it has been the impression of some
naturalists that the extremes, from widely remote localities,

* Author, op. cit., p. 85.

Birds Common to Europe and North America. 183

might be fairly considered distinct species; moreover, that the
higher the latitude of the place of birth of any species, the
larger will be its size; for example, as I will show presently,
enormous flights of the well-known golden plover, breed in
Canada, many pushing up into the Arctic Regions, of these
the individuals born in the former are relatively smaller than
the specimens reared further northwards. Much evidently de-
pends on the amount of food and the distance gone over in the
migrations, which cause a greater development of the muscles,
the oiii and feet participating in the laws which regulate the
development of organs in connection with the animal's re-
quirements. As to coloration, it has been frequently observed
that birds frequenting coasts are darker in plumage than those
of the interior ; hence the bleached appearance of many of
the denizens of the desert tracts, as observed in the larks and
other birds of Egypt, etc., as compared with the darker hues
of the denizens of forests and of the umbrageous vegetation
of the tropics.

I have stated that there are only about sixty species of
birds common to the northern continents of Europe, Asia, and
North America. Now with reference to birds common to the
Old and New Worlds. These are chiefly water birds, there
being only a very few land species.— to wit, the golden eagle,
peregrine falcon, osprey, sea eagle, rough-legged buzzard, long-
eared, snowy, and hawk owls, sand martin, Bohemian chatterer,
pine grosbeak, redpoll, snow and Lapland buntings, raven (?),
willow grouse, and ptarmigan. Moreover, eliminating the
above, we find that nearly thirty-five land and about as many
water birds, strictly American, have turned up accidentally
from time to time in Europe, more especially in Great Britain ;
whereas in the interchange between Europe and America the
numbers are restricted to only a very few species, including
the white-rump and skylark among the land birds, and these,
with the exception of the lark, are met with in Greenland.

The causes of this marked discrepancy have been accounted

184 Field and Forest Rambles.

for by a sttidy of the laws which regulate the direction of the
winds. Thus between latitudes 32° and 50° in North
America, the regular direction of the prevailing winds is from
the west, the breadth of the atmospheric current being
about 20°, its greatest intensity culminating about latitude
45°. But there are variations in the amount of intensity at
different seasons of the year in accordance with the rotation of
the earth and the sun's declination. Moreover, the great polar
and southern winds, at the times of the year when they pre-
dominate, are also influenced by the same cosmical forces,
which give them likewise a tendency towards the west. Now it
is a fact, both as regards the seasons of the year (spring and
autumn) and the birds transferred to Europe, that their trans-
portation is in strict accordance with the times of the migra-
tions of the species then on their routes to and from their
summer retreats. Thus, as elsev.here, the occasional transfers
of American birds to Europe are eff'ected by the prevailing
winds ; moreover, these data explain why far more American
birds find their way to Europe than vice vcrsd.

As regards the European continent, it is the case that the
migratory birds lag longer on their way north in spring than
they do in autumn, whereas in Canada the very reverse woulu
seem to prevail. This, I think, might be explained by taking
into consideration the natures of the climates of the countries
where the majority of the birds of passage spend the summer.
Thus the Canadian winter extends over nearly half of the year.
There is no spring season ; summer advances with amazing
rapidity, and sharp frosts set in early in September, so that
the majority of migratory birds, we will say in latitude
50°, have barely time to rear one brood before the season
returns for their retrograde movements, thus imposing on
them the necessity of a rapid advance from their winter to
tKeir summer quarters, in order to accomplish the duties of
incubation.

Again, the young birds of the year not having attained

Injliiencc of Equinoctial Gales. 185

sufficient strength to enable them to accomplish long flights,
the autumn American migrant proceeds leisurely south-
ward ; whereas in Europe it lags c>n for several weeks longer,
until autumn is nearly spent, when it has to push on quickly
to its winter quarters. Of the vast flocks of migratory
thrushes, and, as we shall see presently, golden plovers, that
annually start in autumn from Newfoundland for Florida
and the south, it may so happen that stragglers are now
and then caught in the "south-westers" that then prevail,
and are carried toward? the British Islands ; or, in the case
of birds belonging to the latter country, an occasional in-
dividual or even a flock may be conveyed to Iceland or
Greenland, where, with the regular migratory species, they
might eventually find their way to North America.

But as regards the Arctic route, by which a transference of
the birds of Europe, Asia, and America might be accomplished,
it may be stated with reference to Greenland that out of
about thirty-four strictly American migratory birds which
frequent that region all belong to the eastern province of
the latter continent, and of these only six have turned up
in Europe ; again, Iceland, lying to the east of Greenland,
receives scarcely an American bird, either migratory or
accidental, whilst on the other hand it furnishes more Euro-
pean birds than Greenland. It would therefore appear,
whatever may take place on the western Arctic shores of
North America, that, anyhow, it is improbable that the
intercontinental transfer of species from America to Europe
can be by the Arctic route ; thus adding an additional proof
that the conveyance of the birds of the New World to Europe
is by the atmospheric currents we have just indicated.
Among the accidental arrivals in Europe from America are
enumerated several non-migratory species, which may have
been carried out to sea by gales. Among others, as I noticed
with reference to on*, of its European congeners, in Malta,*
* Op. cit., p. 92, and Popular Science Review, vol. iv., p. 330.

i86

Field and Forest Rambles.

the tiny ruby crowned kinglet {Regulus calendula), and several
small American warblers, in no ways constituted to bear the
• hardships of the Atlantic, are transported for long distances
by means of gales. But, as a general rule, the majority of the
wanderers are hardy birds, given to making long and venture-
some journeys.

Taking into consideration the advanced state of our know-
ledge of the ornithology of Europe as compared with America,
it cannot be expected that the laws which govern the dis-
tribution and migrations of its birds will admit of the same
exactness as to details ; indeed, it may be said with truth
that the study of zoological geography generally is still in
its infancy ; at the same time, from what has already been
accomplished in this department of natural science, there
is every cause to expect that the time is not far distant
when many of the obscure points in relation to the origin of
animated objects will be cleared up by means of more diligent
studies in connection with their habits and distribution.

Reverting to the migrations of the birds of the region
under consideration, it will be observed that the majority
of the migratory water-fowl of north-eastern America stick
more or less to the coast lines on their ways north and
south, and keep more together in autumn, for the simple
reason that more than half are young and inexperienced
birds following the leadership of their parents. This, how-
ever, only applies to such birds as are gregarious ; for it is
a remarkable circumstance, and one not explicable unless
on the belief of inherited instinct, how such a tiny creature
as the humming-bird, born in northern Canada, should find
its way alone to Mexico and the West Indies. Referring
to such birds as breed in regions north of New Brunswick,
and winter in the United States, the islands, and Mexico,
it is well known, in the cases of snipe, woodcock, geese,
ducks, golden plovers, and so forth, that for one seen in
spring a dozen or more will be observed in autumn. This

Early JMigratory Birds.

187

is no doubt to be explained, partly by the increase of
numbers, but also by the fact that the bird hurries forward
to nidificate in spring, retiring only step by step in the fall.
Thus I inva iably noticed that more migratory birds arrived
in central New Brunswick before the snow had disappeared
than tarried after the first fall in autumn. This I supposed
was owing to the impulse to breed which drives the bird
to seek its summer retreat before the country is quite
ready for it. But these were generally hardy finches, such as
the Pennsylvanian sparrow, song, snow, and chipping finches,
which, as already stated, appear along with migratory thrushes
early in April, often coming in for several snow-storms after
their arrival. There can be no doubt that birds which per-
form their migrations in flocks have the advantage over the
solitary wanderer which has to trust to its own judgment
alone. Hence it may be inferred that the latter would be
most likely to be found beyond its boundaries, unless when
stragglers get detached from the main body, just as now
and then a couple or more of Canada geese stop in New
Brunswick and breed, whilst the multitude goes to the
Hudson Bay Territories.*

Besides failure of food and change of climate, the inherent
desire of certain species to pair may perhaps prompt the
bird to migrate, but I very much doubt if this is generally
the case. I dissected several species in Malta in spring,
when on the way to their summer retreats, but in no in-
stance were the genital organs enlarged excepting in such
as tarry and breed in the island, t

The bird when it starts in autumn for its winter quarters
is invariably plump and in good condition ; some remark-
ably so ; indeed, in the case of Wilson's snipe, individuals I

* There is an interesting paper on this subject by Mr. J. M. Jones,
F.L.S., " On Some of the Rarer Birds of Nova Scotia," in the Trans. N.
Scotia lust, of Nat. Science^ vol. ii.,p. 70.

+ Op. cit., p. 102.

1 88

Field and Forest Rambles.

have shot in autumn appeared inconveniently loaded with
fat, the average weight of several specimens being five ounces
and a half But the bird is not by any means in such
good condition in spring. Mr. Boardman visited Florida
during several successive winters, where he found nearly
all the summer migrants of this region leading inactive
lives as compared with their habits in the north ; and all
the song-birds, and such as are usually vociferous, very
mute: precisely the same obtains with the water-birds,
especially of the Old World, as I have shown in my "Natural
History and Archaeology of the Nile Valley and Maltese
Islands/'* with reference to the goose, duck, and other winter
visitors to Egypt. Under such conditions, therefore, we should
expect them to push rapidly forward in spring to their
breeding grounds. The rule, as regards the water-fowl of the
New and Old World, applies more or less to the la*^.d birds
of the latter at both seasons ; inasmuch as the spring
quails on their way from Africa to Europe are particularly
fat and plump, and the same is the case with the smaller
warblers, including the garden warbler, which is the far-
famed beccafico of the Italians ; in fact, most grain and insect-
feeding birds keep in a good bodily state in either retreat,
and in the case of the warblers of Europe they apparently
fare better in their winter than summer quarters ; hence they
cannot in general have such severe struggles for existence
as many water-fowl dependent on certain conditions of the
surface for a proper supply of food.

I was especially struck by the enormous flocks of Canada
and Brent g-^ese that pass over New Brunswick, to and from
their breeding grounds, north of the 50° parallel of latitude.f
Of course their times of arrival and departure are subject to
some irregularities consequent on the degrees of mildness or

* Pages 19 and loi.

t Many of the gullies — to wit, Tracadie, on the north-east coast — abso-
lutely swarm with them in May and October during the migratory seasons .

Migrations of Waterfowl i^i AzUuvm. 189

severity of the seasons ; but taking them generally, I found
that, in common with such birds as breed in high latitudes,
they tarry longer on their way south in autumn than they do in
spring; indeed, in the case of the geese, although the main body
pushes to Southern Florida by the end of October, solitarj''
individuals, and even small flocks, may be seen in the open
parts of Canadian rivers throughout the winter, indeed a few
breed on the lakes.

Looking at the map, we can readily suppose that flocks of
birds bound for Florida and the south could not obtain a
better starting-point than the projecting headlands of Labra-
dor, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia, from which, by keeping
the land on their right, they would scarcely fail to fetch the
former. The routes by which the majority proceed from the
Southern States to the temperate and sub- Arctic Regions, are,
however, not confined to the coasts alone. Although the
mallard, pintail, shoveller, gad wall, etc. etc., proceed to the
north in great numbers, but few, comparatively speaking, are
seen on the Atlantic coast, possibly for the reason suggested
by Baird,* that their routes may be further westward, or along
the great river valleys and the Appelachian ranges. Enormous
flights of golden plovers pass down the Bay of Fundy in
autumn. I have a well-authenticated record of a dense flock
which passed over the city of St. John like a cloud of locusts,
commencing at dark, and continuing throughout the greater
part of the night. It is rarely that they tarry beyond a day
or two at this season, unless through adverse winds, which
often send them inland ; indeed, the bird cannot afford to
loiter, seeing that, according to Baird,t the golden plover of
North America ranges over 90° to 95° of latitude twice an-
nually ! J The varieties of the European and American golden

* "American Journal of Science," vo). xli. ; and Jones, op. cit,

+ Ibid., vol. xli., p. 32.

X See Hurd's "Naturalist in Bermuda" for many interesting data in
connection with the migratory movements of this and other American
species.

I go

Field and Forest Rambles.

plovers — viz., the long-legged race and the so-called Virginian
bird — are noticeable characters, requiring explanation with
reference to the habits of the two races. Again, departures
from established habits peculiar to any genus, family, or even
order of animals are of especial interest to the scientific inquirer.
Thus the tree-building ducks furnish examples of a number*
of species pursuing very different ways of living from the
generality of their compeers, so that we naturally seek to find
out if any of the others do occasionally follow the same
course. One of the most common and at the same time most
highly prized of the resident ducks of our region is the dusky
duck {A. obsatra), which often weighs three pounds. Although
its nest, as a rule, is placed on the ground, yet it occasionally
builds in trees, as I am informed by Mr. Boardman, who took
the eggs from its nest on a birch tree twenty feet above the
level of a lake! The American sheldrake, hooded, and Bar-
row's golden eye, bufile- headed duck, and that prince of
beauties the wood-duck,* all nestle on trees, but not invariably.

Probably, if the truth were known, thi^:, anomaly was occa-
sioned through the force of circumstances compelling the indivi-
duals to seek positions safe from the attacks of their four-footed
foes, such as the fox, otter, lynx, and the like ; or is it only the
relic or reappearance of a long-lost habit of their progenitors .-*
Mr. Boardman has further furnished me with a strange instance
of two sorts of birds rearing their young in the same nest.
He noticed two females of the hooded merganser and wood-
duck fighting for the possession of a hole in a sand-bank,
where he found their broods in one nest, there being no less
than fourteen of the former, and nine ducklings of the latter.
It has often appeared to me, on observing a bank riddled with
the holes made by the sand-martin, how easy it must be to
mistake one nest for another.

Returning to the abnormal habits of quadrupeds before

* Large nuriibers of these birds are captured in nets during their
migrations when the flocks are flying down the Penobscot River in Maine.

Abnorffial Habits of certain A7ii?nals. 1 9 1

observed, the fisher and mink are partly terrestrial and partly
aquatic. The latter is said to swim like an otter, and its
toes being webbed give it advantages in this respect, and,
with the inordinate growth of hair on them in winter, afford
double facilities for progressing easily on snow and in
water. But it clearly obtains its staple subsistence, like
other polecats and martens, by feeding on mice and land ani-
mals ; therefore it may be a question whether its piscatory
habits have not been acquired through some failure in the
numbers of the former. At all events, examples of a similar
description, or any deviations from what appear to be the
established laws of natural objects, deserve especial attention,
as pointing towards the solution of important questions per-
taining to the origin of species. We have seen that the lynx
is said to capture fish ; domesticated cats are very fond of fish,
and instances are recorded of their hunting after them in brooks ;
jays have been seen acting the part of kingfishers; and I
have frequently seen pigeons, rooks, and jackdaws, like gulls,
picking up food from the surface of water.* How far the
acquired habit might entirely supersede the natural ways of
the animal, and on that account bring about modifications in
its structure and outward appearance through generations of
individuals, remains to be shown when sufficient data have
been collated.

The purple sandpiper spends the winter on the seaside
in vast numbers ; although common to the eastern portion of
North America and also Europe, there is not, according to
Baird, any difference between specimens ; perhaps, as with
the spotted tringa, there is a pretty constant interchange of
individuals during the equinoctial and other gales. We must
agree with Mr. Darwin,t that established and regular currents
of the sea or the atmosphere should not be considered altogether

* See '* Wanderings in India," p. 46; and "Nat, Hist., etc., of Nile
Valley and Malta," p. 33.

t " Origin of Species " p. 364.

192

Field and Forest Ra?nbles.

accidental means of transport in the case of animals or
plants; perhaps many species common to two widely remote
regions may have been originally conveyed by these agencies;
and no doubt, if the custom of destroying every strange bird
were less practised, many would remain and breed and mul-
tiply ; but a new comer, if at all attractive, is slain imme-
diately. It is not, therefore, improbable that many species,
now indigenous to certain countries, may have in the first
instance been transported by means of the winds. Again,
such as overstep the usual limits of their annual migrations,
and settle down and breed, may occasionally spend the
winter, and become partially indigenous to the region, and
through many generations return to the same district as in
the case of swallows. I am certain that several species of
warblers and other birds which come to this province in
summer do not breed, possibly for the reason that they are
so few that no mate can be procured. This, for example,
would seem to be the case with the following warblers, of
which solitary individuals may be seen every summer in
New Brunswick woods and forests ; doubtless, however, they
do breed when they have a chance. I give them for the
reason that I have invariably found only single birds, and
these most generally males, viz., the Sayornis fuscus Sialia
sialis^ Regulus calendula, Dendroica canadensis and castanea.
No doubt many more might be added. In some springs the
scarlet tanager is common, at others not an individual is seen.
Of the warblers which breed here, few manage to rear more
than one family, and, with the exceptions already noticed, all
arrive within a few days of one another, and usually earlier on
the coast districts than inland, where likewise they tarry
longer in the fall, in consequence of the milder climate. I
think certain water birds, such as curlews and sanderlings,
do not invariably breed, inasmuch as flocks may be seen
throughout the entire year feeding together, and showing no
disposition to nidificate. I was very much struck by this

Strange Mode of Decoying Wild Fowl. 1 93

apparent anomaly as regards India, where some birds do not
seem invariably to nidificate in spring and summer. For
example, the house sparrow of Hindostan appears to breed
at any season, and others, more especially certain warblers, if
they have any regular period, do not usually pair at the same
time with other members of their species. 1 may, moreover,
record the like observations of Mr. Rowan. He states, as
regards the island of Anticosti, that " In the hatching season
I observed several small flocks of geese, which were not en-
cumbered with families, and ev'dently intended to remain in
that happy condition. I shot a good many of these birds,
and found them, unlike the hatching ones, fat and plump. I
noticed the same thing with ducks. On the i8th of June I
came across a flock of bachelor and maiden black ducks
{A. obscurd); I shot three or four of these, and I never
tasted better ducks in my life."*

The Great Northern and Red-throated Divers are
characteristic objects on almost every New Brunswick lake
during the summer months. The red throat of the latter
(common to the two sexes) is often entirely wanting in speci-
mens frequenting this region, and, as is usual with birds remark-
able for their abundance, several instances of albinism have
been noticed, but not two together. The Loon is particularly
conspicuous; not only on account of its stately form and attrac-
tive plumage, but also for the loud plaintive woo-loo, which is
often the only sound that breaks the stillness of the forest loch.
Although wild, and not easily approached, yet by waving
a hat or displaying any conspicuous object, such as a piece
of red cloth, they may be brought within rifle range. Mr.
Rowan says,t with reference to this bird and others frequent-
ing the island of Anticosti in summer : " I found that many
of the waterfowl, including the geese and the divers, were of
a very inquisitive turn of mind, and I used often to decoy
them within shot oy waving a coloured pocket-handkerchief.
• Field, May ist, 1869. ' t Ibid., May, 1867.

O

194

Field and Forest Rambles,

The geese, mistaking my dog for a fox, would often approach
quite close to him in a defiant way. But more inquisitive
even than a woman is the red-throated diver. These birds
are sometimes a positive nuisance, coming in from miles round
to look at a canoe, and then circling, chattering and shrieking,
around it. On the plains I have brought them up from
a great distance by standing on a hummock and shouting and
waving my hat. Although there are great numbers of them, I
could not find a nest. They are called ' wobbles ' by the fisher-
men, who often catch them in their nets. On the high rocks
on the north shore of the island, incredible quantities of
sea-birds hatch — cormorants, gulls, puffins, sea paroquets, and
pigeons. These birds all live sociably together. Hundreds
of them lay their eggs side by side on the same ledge of
rock, and may be seen seated in front of them in rows like
soldiers. On one occasion, when I fired a shot to alarm them,
the number that rose was so great that for a minute or two
I could hardly see the sky, and their droppings in the water
resembled a heavy shower of rain or hail." Both the divers
before mentioned breed in the lakes of the province, arriving
j ust as the ice commences to break up. I have seen many broods
of the great northern diver, but rarely more than one young one
was observed with the parent, although the usual number of eggs
seems never lebs than two. The chick remains for a long
time with the parent, and is seldom fully fledged and able
to fly until towards the end of September ; however, what it
wants in this respect is made up by activity in the water.
During my excursion to the Schoodic lakes, in the adjoining
state of Maine, as the canoe was gliding along the surface of
Grand Lake, among the numerous islets where the loon breeds,
we were attracted by the loud calls of two of these birds,
which were accompanied by a young one, not larger than a
teal. It was an interesting sight to observe how the parents
attempted to defend the object of their solicitude, by redoubling
their cries, and making vigorous efibrts to outstrip our light

Predatory Habit of the Loon.

195

bark, which, however, gained steadily on them, until the
male rose and flew towards an islet, thinking perhaps that we
should follow him. Then, as matters began to look desperate,
the female, unable to remain longer, began alternately to
swim away, and to face us, until, fairly driven to extremity,
she raised her graceful piebald figure like a mermaid, and, half
flying, half treading on the surface, and at the same time
splashing the water with her wings like the paddles of a steam-
boat, shot along for some fifty yards, and alighted, uttering
louder and wilder cries, as with desperate struggles she essayed
to entice the fledgling to follow. Just as my gun was being
raised, she got up, and again beating the water for some dis-
tance, gradually rose higher, and flcv/ away disconsolate to
join her mate. Wc then set to work to capture the chick, but
soon found it was much too agile, as every time the skiff
approached it dived under water, reappearing some ten or
twenty yards off". Once it popped up its head by the side of
the canoe, and I made an attempt to seize it, when down head-
foremost shot the little creature, and I could discern its form
far below us.

The trappers and fishermen on many of the lakes com-
plain of the depredations of the loon among the fish in stake
nets. I was informed by my friend Captain Wolseley,
of the 22nd regiment, that during an excursion to the Sciff"
Lake, in the upper Schoodic waters, where the great spotted
togue and silvery salmon trout are plentiful, his attention
was directed by a trapper to numbers of mutilated trouts m
nets, supposed to have been attacked by either otters or large
individuals of the former fish, which is the Salmo ferox of the
lakes of New Brunswick. At length several northern o^/crs
were seen regularly in the vicinity, and finally the mystery
was solved by one being caught in the meshes of the net.

The Reptiles of New Brunswick are neither numerous nor
formidable. None of the serpents seem to be poisonous,
provided that the Rattlesnake is not found within our limits.

O 2

196

Field and Forest Rambles. \

It is said, however, to have been observed in the south-westerrl
parts of the state of Maine, but there is no record of its pre-
sence in the province as far as I can discover. The period of
activity of many species of reptiles common to this region and
more southern latitudes is, of course, relatively very much
smaller in the former. Few are seen before the middle of June,
and such as frequent the land disappear, for the most part,
by the end of August. I have seen several specimens of the
Snapping Turtle, which is said to be rather common in many
rivers and lakes communicating with the Bay of Fundy. The
Painted Turtle is not rare in ponds and streams. I have also
seen an individual of the Spotted Emys. The Wood Terrapin
is very generally distributed, and is often found in woods at a
considerable distancQ from water. The Musk Tortoise affects
ponds and ditches; its very small size (seldom over three
inches and a half in length) and strong odou*' readily dis-
tinguish this species. I have not been enabi^'d to identify
more turtles, but in a list of the reptiles of Maine* there is
included with the above one specimen of the Box Turtle
{Cistudo Virginea).

The Striped Snake {Entainia sirtalis) is said to appear
about New York towards the end of May ; here it is rarely
seen before the end of June, and disappears fully a month
earlier than in the New England states. There is evidently
considerable variety in the outward colouring of this adder, as
several small specimens I have examined seem to agree with
the so-called Little Brown '^VidikQ {Coluber dekayi)o{\\o\hxooV.
One of our most common fangless snakes is the active little
green species {C. venialis), and the Milk or Leopard-spotted
{Coluber eximius), which is readily distinguished by the beau-
tiful oval chestnut spots and the minute red punctations dis-
tributed over its upper surface. The Bascanion constrictor, or
Black Snake {Ncrodia sipedoitt or Water Snake), Storcria occi-
pito-inaculata, and the Ring-necked Snake {Diadophis pmic-
* Dr. Fogg, Proc. Portland Nat. Hist. Society,

Musical Utterances of Toads and Frogs. 197

tatiis) having been identified in Maine, may doubtless turn up
here also.

I well recollect, soon after my arrival in the country, meeting
a soldier of my regiment one afternoon, and talking over our
experiences of the New World. "This is a strange land,"
said he, " where the frogs whistle and the crows bark ! " and
certainly these two familiar denizens of home remembrance
are here represented by species which, however little they
may differ from them in appearance, are widely divergent as
regards voice.

The great expanse of swamps and stagnant waters presents
admirable retreats for various species. In the still summer
evenings, when the firefly is about, and the crickets, grass-
hoppers, and the like have just ceased their noisy utterances,
then comes forth from the dank places such a medley of voices,
in different notes, that we can hardly believe that all are pro-
duced by frogs. There is the loud hoarse cough of the large
Bull Frog {Rafia pipiens), accompanying the clear pipe of the
Yellow-throated Green Frog {R.fojitinalis), and the less musi-
cal croak of the handsome Leopard Frog {R. Imlecind)^ and
other species, to wit, the Pickerel and Wood Frogs. I have,
besides the above, which are common, identified the little Tree
Toad (Hyla versicolor)^ whilst the well-known common Bufo
Americanus abounds in all suitable localities.

Salamanders are numerous. I have confirmed the presence
of the following species : 5. Jw^z^/<?/«^^^(Dekay), the Blue-tailed
Skink {Scincus fasciattis), Dusky Triton {Triton niger), and
Red-backed Salamander, besides several sorts not determined
accurately. The following species I was unable to name: "A
true triton — length, five inches ; body, smooth and tapering ;
head, ovate, depressed, rounded in front ; eyes, prominent and
converging ; upper parts plumbeous in life, darker after death,
and brown after immersion in spirits for a day ; tail, tapering
and compressed ; sides of body faintly spotted with white,
lower parts pale ; anterior feet, four-toed, the second and

174

Field and Forest Rambles.

third toes largest ; posterior, five-toed, third and fourth the
lai^est. ,

The reptiles of the region, as well as of Canada, and even
North America generally, deserve a closer attention than has
yet been accorded to them ; indeed, the list in the Appendix
is by no means perfect.

PART III.
FISHES

PART III.
FISHES

CHAPTER IX.

Salmon ; its Decadence — Object of my Excursion to the Schoodic Lakes- —
Forest Scenery — Incidents of Travel — Maine and its Liquor Laws —
Lewey's and Long Lakes — Silvery Salmon Trout — Fly Pest — Trout
Fishing — Description of the Silvery Salmon Trout — Grand Lake ; its
Scenery — Glacial Erosion — Parasites in Fishes — Efifec's of Light on
Coloration of Fishes — Sea Trouts of Europe and America.

THE extermination of the land animals, water birds, and
shell fishes before noticed, contrasts, in the modes by
which they have disappeared, with that of the salmon,
which used to abound from the frozen region to the 40th
parallel of latitude ; uow it is rarely met with south of
44°; but although it has been long known, there are several
interesting features connected with its natural history and
its connections with northern forms to be worked out. The
chief migratory movements of the fish in New Brunswick
waters are such as usually obtain elsewhere, a good deal
depending on the breaking up of the ice. The spawning
season is - over by the beginning of November, when the
majority make a rush for the sea. Parr are commoi.. in April
and May in the rivers, and its smalt are taken in vast numbers
by fly and bait towards the end of August, when, like the
former, they are possibly on their way to the sea. No doubt,
however, although the chief runs of fish towards the sea are in

202

Field and Forest Rambles.

April and May, and the return takes place before the rivers
are frozen over, there is a general and continuous passing up
and down throughout the year, as obtains in the Old World
rivers ; moreover the shrouding of the Canadian fresh waters
in ice for lengthened periods, makes it difficult quite to settle
the up and down courses of migratory species.*

I started with my friend Professor Loring Bailey, of the
University of New Brunswick, in the month of August, 1866,
on an excursion to the great chain of lakes, on the south-
western frontier of the province, known as the Schoodic
Lakes, which drain into the St. Croix River. One of the
objects of my journey was to ascertain the truth of certain
reports made to me in connection with a belief whici
prevailed in the district, to the effect that the salmon exist
in these inland reservoirs, and their effluent and infuent
waters, but is so much stunted in growth, that its average
weight seldom exceeds three pounds, the largest rarely att^.in-
ing seven pounds. This so-called pigmy race is supposed by
European fishermen to have been brought about by a constant
residence in fresh water, the individuals having been prevented
from getting to sea by dams and artificial barriers, and having,
as it might be, lost themselves among the network of lakes
which covers the frontiers of Maine and New Brunswick.

The scenery between Fredericton on the St. John, and St.

Stephen on the St. Croix, n othe western frontier of New

Brunswick, presents a monotonous sameness. The country

* Some idea of the extermination of the salmon through human agency
may be gathered from the following data in connection with this region .
It is in the recollection of persons now living that the Kennebeckasis, a
large influent of the St. John, literally swarmed with salmon ; now it is
rare to find a single fish. Mr. Vinning, in his report to the Local Govern-
ment, says : " The inhabitants appear to be actuated by an insane desire
to destroy every salmon that appears in its waters." The same may be
said of other branches of the St. John, such as the Oromocto, Nasha-
waak, etc., once famous salmon waters, now without a single fish, in
consequence of the mill dams which stretch across them, and the wholesale
destruction of the fish on its spawning beds.

Physical Features of New Brunswick, 203

is flat, and for the most part covered with wood and forest
clearings, or, in other words, sparsely settled, and that only,
for the most part, along the line of our route. One of the
chief physical features in the otherwise level country, is Bald
Mountain, about twenty miles west of Fredericton. This
eminence or hill, to which further reference will be made in
the sequel, rising only a few hundred feet above the surround-
ing district, is composed of trap, and forms a portion of the
igneous belt which fringes the great coal basin of this and
the adjoining province of Nova Scotia. The view from its
top shows an unbroken expanse of forest, stretching far and
wide on every side, and as far as the eye can reach, with
long-drawn ridges alternating with valleys, whilst here and
there the blue waters of a forest tarn, a gap, or a clearing,
are seen peeping through the tree-tops. The dark shades of
the spruce and pine consort well with the lighter green of the
maple and other hard woods, whilst far above their brethren
stand the charred and weathered forms of many a noble tree
that perished in the afore-mentioned conflagration of 1825,
which swept almost diagonally across the entire province.
Along the road to St. Stephen's, a distance of eighty-five!
miles from the capital — as, indeed, anywhere throughout thig;
portion of the continent — the geologist is constantly impressed
by indications of the Glacial Epoch, in the shape of rocks
planed and polished, as if by a lapidary, with grooves and
scratches running for the most part north and south, whilst
long trains of granitic and other boulders, with their concomitant
drift and clay, strew the surface everywhere, more especially
on the sides of slopes and valleys, where vast accumulations of
sorted sand and gravel form great mounds and " horsebacks."
These seem to indicate, as will be pointed out in another
chapter, at least two periods in the above far-back epoch — one
when the land was for ages clad in an enormous mantle of
moving ice ; another when the climate became less rigorous,
and the country was subjected to considerable further denu-

204 Field and Forest Raviblcs.

dation from the thaws that took place towards the close of that
glacial period. This was the idea presented to my mind's eye
on viewing these phenomena, and it seems to me to accord
best with the facts as they now stand ; better, no doubt, than
the theory that the land had all been u rider the ocean, and
that of polishing and scratching the rock was done altogether
by icebergs, which no doubt is true enough to some extent,
where the land was clearly submerged under the sea. But
these wide-spread indications can scarcely be put down alto-
gether to the latter, at all events in the case of the inland
portions of this continent.

To return to the journey and its agreeable concomitants,
which always add to the naturalist's pleasure when contem-
plating objects of interest. With unusual delight I recall to
mind many incidents of the above excursion, the more so as my
companion's tastes were congenial with my own. Indeed, one
is better without a companion than in the society of an
individual who will not fulfil the behests of good fellowship
and friendship ; more especially the selfish man, who looks on
every one else's occupation as secondary to his own ; he is
surely best alone ! I met two persons on the Nile who had
been travelling together for many weeks, and through their
own faults had managed to make each other as uncomfortable
as possible. One ridiculed his companion because he was
always hunting beetles, whilst the latter retaliated with sneers
of contempt on an utter absence of intelligent curiosity on
the part of his comrade ! But bad as is the want of affinity
in such cases, what must it be when the companionship
extends to a lifetime, in the shape of husband and wife.-* and
verily like instances are not rare. We are familiar with the
appellation of " nonsense books," given by Lady Scott to the
productions of her gifted partner, and we see daily examples
of men of science and learning, making permanent alliances
with natures absolutely incapable of estimating the aim and
object of their lives; hence, marriage often makes or mars

Forest Jravelling and Scenery. 205

the student ; for it is easy to shake off a temporary alliance,
whilst an absence of similarity in character and disposition in
husband and wife can only culminate in conjugal unhappiness.
Blessed indeed must that pair be who can say,

" Smit with love of sister arts, we came,
' , And met congenial, mingling flame with flame."

There is a monotonous sameness in forest scenery very apt
to tire even the most ardent naturalist ; for it is made up of the
eternal succession of trees, broken only by settlements here and
there along the highway, the majority only isolated cottages,with
a small cultivated patch sufficient to supply the wants of the
inmates, while around the fields are extensive tracts, terminating
abruptly at the forest, and overspread with snags not yet up-
rooted, and significant of the labour yet required for reclamation.

Primeval as is the native forest, so primitive also are the
habits of the settlers who struggle for existence in its wilds ;
where mile upon mile not a billet or shelter of any kind is ob-
servable ; and the straight road, like an avenue, is seen gra-
dually narrowing in the distance, with one eternal vista of
tree and bush along its sides. Here it crosses a swamp, over
which the usual corduroy foundation of logs threatens to smash
the axle, or overturn the part, by the wheel frequently sinking
halfway in some muddy pool. Now we rattle pleasantly along
some gravel bank, among a second growth of birch, poplar,
and so forth, when the presence of fields and the tinkling of
the cattle bells tell of our approach to civilization. In a trice
we arrive at a cottage; there is no sign-board, and, as far as
outward appearances go, it seems large enough for the in-
mates ak '. Here it is that the stage-coach changes horses,
and you may bait, and if inclined to dine, can be regaled, on
short notice, with fried bacon and eggs, and any quantity of
tea, but no liquor is allowed. "We have not the licence!"
adds the dame ; yet I dare say there is a private bottle.
In the loft there is a spare bed for the benighted traveller,

2o6 " Field and Forest Rambles.

and a kind welcome to gentle and simple, whether he pays
his way or is a penniless tramp. I will not particularize
individual instan<ies, which indeed would be black ingratitude
for more substantial benefits received, but I may state in a
general way, for the information of the wayfajer in the wilds of
New Brunswick, nay, even in the so-called teetotaling state of
Maine, that there is little difficulty in procuring at all events
abundance of " white- eye," * or even better liquors, provided
there is a clear understanding between him and " mine host."
I recollect an occasion, during one trip, when a very civil and
obliging landlord in Maine informed me that he had just been
fined heavily, and even narrowly escaped several months' im-
prisonment, on account of several bottles of brandy having
been discovered in sacks of flour he had imported from the
British provinces. Of course he knew nothing about them —
how could he } He had no licence ! At length dinner came,
but no beer, and only tea, tea, tea ! It was in vain we tried to
insinuate ourselves into the good graces of the host. He was
obdurate ; in fact, there was a general suspicion that we might
be persons in authority pretending to have come over the
border ; so it was " pot-luck " or nothing. At length tobacco,
that grand substitute for strong liquids, asserted its sway. We
all got talkative, and from that became confidential At last
mine host disappeared, and I was preparing for bed, when a
small boy coming up to me requested that I should follow him.
So, from room to room, down several steps into a dark cellar,
through another into total darkness, when a door opened,
and behind a small bin, like a ticket-seller's box, v/as seated
the landlord, with a bottle of Bass's ale in one hand and a
pewter mug in the other. We refresh ourselves, the bottles
are restored to a hiding-place, and mum is the countersign as
we shut the little doors and hasten into daylight, and rejoin
our companions as if nothing had happened. It is perfect

* A vile concoction called whisky, but pure fire water. I have seen
soldiers under its influence exhibiting symptoms of furious mania.

i4b

Ludicrous Occurrence at an Inn. 207

nonsense to speak of the Maine liquor laws. It is well known
all over the state that if spirituous liquors cannot be got at the
druggist's shop on medical grounds, there are plenty in every
hotel, and those who dare not drink openly and get intoxicated
in the towns and villages, repair to the wilderness, where in
autumn what are called " blackberry parties " generally end in
drunken brawls. I remember, when encamped on the banks
of Grand Lake, being astonished at seeing two young men
quite intoxicated, who had only passed our tent an hour
before, apparently perfectly sober. The Indian told us that
they had come out for "a spree," and fetched a bottle of whisky,
on the consumption of which they would return either to
replenish it, or to end their debauch. What pleasure it could
have been to these two young men to sit down in the wild
wilderness among the blackberries and make themselves
insensible with vile liquor smuggled from New Brunswick, was
more than I could divine ! Before I proceed to the consider-
ation of the natural objects observed during our excursion, I
must not omit notice of an amusing instance of inquisitive
curiosity on the part of several " loafers " about the little inn
of Princetown, on the banks of the Schoodic lakes. As we
drew up at the door, there happened to be some half-dozen
idlers seated on a bench smoking and whittling sticks; but no
sooner did the dog-cart and its inmates make their appear-
ance than all gathered round to see our goods and chattels
being removed. "They're going a-gunning and fishing, I
guess !" said one, as my implements of the chase and my rod
were handed down. Next came the professor's botanical
vasculum, and his wooden machine, somewhat like a large
double sampler-frame with a wooden back, for compressing
plants, together with a rather unusually-shaped portmanteau
and a large carpet-bag. Every one gazed intently at the two
first, and particularly at the machine, when a rather elderly-
looking, bearded man " guessed it might be a cheese press ! "
" They are pedlars ! " said another. I heard it remarked by

2o8 Field and Forest Rambles.

the ostler that we were " photographers ! " but the crowning
absurdity was when my friend, bursting with laughter, came
to inform me that he had just been accosted by one of the
lookers-on, who asked, in confidence, " when the performatice
would take place ?" — whether Punch and Judy, a panorama,
or a musical entertainment were " guessed," I cannot say, but
nobody could divine our legitimate undertaking. The sporting
part was intelligible, and the geologist's hammer looked like
prospecting for minerals and such-like, both of which they could
understand, and appreciate in a way ; but the gathering of wild
flowers and putting them in paper was beyond the conception
of these goodnatured backwoodsmen. * =

Owing to the kindness of my excellent friend Mr. Board-
man, on the following day we found a bell-tent, an Indian,
and a canoe at our service ; so taking in the necessary stores
for several days' consumption, we at once launched our frail
bark, and shot across the glassy waters of the Schoodic lakes,
into the wild wilderness.

Thus, on the nth of August we left Princetown, on the side
of Lewey's, the most south-westerly of the Schoodic chain.
Here the surrounding country is flat, and the banks of the lakes
are more or less covered with dense forest and shrub, which
also clothe several islets, whilst the margins are profusely
overgrown by aquatic plants, where, among the violet-blue
flowers of the pickerel weed, I recognized the well-known
Cardinal flower, with its intensely red and elegant petals.
The Yellow Water-lily was plentiful, but its far more gorgeous
rival, the White Nymphaea, was less common, and confined to
secluded reaches, where, with "snowy bosom sunward spread,"
it blooms gaily by the side of broods of the exceedingly
handsome wood duck {Aix sponsd), and its fai less attractive
congener the black duck {Anas obscura). In such forest-
locked and weedy ponds, as the canoe shoots through the
rushes, it will require only some practice in order to secure
a fair bag of wild fowl, or, with bait or spinning tackle, to

The Pike an Exterminator. 209

capture pickerel and perch in numbers. Some fifty years
since the salmon and brook trout ruled supreme ; but the
mills and lumber dams have most effectually barred and for-
bidden their entrance, and about ten years since an American
introduced the pike {Esox reticidatiis) into Lewey's, which
communicates directly with Long and Big Lakes. The result
is that it is fast exterminating all the other fishes, viz., trout,
chub, dace, redfin, eel, etc. The diminution in the numbers
of these fishes, and the rapid increase of their destroyer (I am
assured on good authority) have been remarkable.

The distance from Princetown by canoe to the debouchure
of the Grand Lake Stream is about twelve miles. The latter
is about four miles in length, and connects the upper waters
of Grand, etc., with Big Lake by a series of rapids, in which
abundance of Silvery Salmon Trout reside. The pike
has apparently not yet settled in the Grand Lake, and I
hope may never obtain the mastery of its waters, were it
only for the sake of this splendid salmonoid. The waters of
the Grand Lake are clear compared with the others. This
arises from the circumstance that its bottom is covered with
granitic boulders and sand, instead of mud, which prevails in
the Big, Long, and Lewej'^'s Lakes. Moreover, the former is
the abode of the Togue, which our Indian informed us is not
met with in the adjoining basins just mentioned. At the east
end of Big Lake are seen the huts of the Passamaquoddy
Indians, the remnants of a tribe that once lorded over the wild
wilderness around for ages. One of their number steered our
canoe, and proved, on short acquaintance, an able hunter ;
and, what is not common with his race, he was honest, truth-
ful, and willing. From him I obtained much valuable
information that no personal experience within my grasp
could obtain ; and, first, I made him find out if the Silvery
Salmon Trout was known to the old men of his tribe, when
it turned out that they had speared and taken it from time
immemorial, even in the St. Croix, along with the salmon, from

2IO Field and Forest Rambles.

which they distinguished it by another name, something hke
onnenook. But without this testimony, I was assured by
Mr. Boardman that it is only of late years that the silvery
salmon trout has been repelled to its present situation ; indeed,
he recollects full well the time when it and the salm^^n ire-
quented the St. Croix River, from its mouth to its sources.
Thus the fact that both inhabited the same region, within
the influence of the tideway of the Bay of Fundy, closes the
dwarfed salmon argument, to which further reference need
scarcely be made.*

After a pleasant row through these two lakes, where broods
of wild ducks kept my gun in constant requisition, we dis-
embarked at the debouchure of Grand Lake stream, and
pitched our tent under the trees, where the unfortunate Pro-
fessor spent a night of intense torment from mosquitoes. I
don't know exactly why these pests do occasionally single out
certain persons in preference to others, but, although I have
had very good cause to complain in common with others,
I must say neither black fly, sand fly, nor mosquito managed
to make me so miserable as many of my companions. Indeed,
on the following morning, after breakfast, whilst the Indian

* Dr. Gunther, in his Catalogue of the Salmonidas in the British Museum,
says : "The question whether any of the migratory species can be retained in
fresh water, and finally accommodate itself to a permanent sojourn therein,
must be negatived for the present. Several instances of successful expe-
riments made for this purpose have been brought forward ; but all these
accounts are open to serious doubts, inasmuch as they do not afford us
sufficient proof that the young fish introduced into ponds were really
young migratory salmonoids, or that the full-grown specimens were iden-
tical with those introduced, and not hybrids or non-migratory trout of a
somewhat altered appearance in consequence of the change of their
locality. We have seen the experiment tried at two places in South
Wales, by the Rev. Augustus Morgan and by W. Peel, Esq., of Taliaris,
and in both cases the salmon and the pure sewin died when not allowed to
return to the sea. However, the latter gentleman pointed out to me that
the hybrid fishes from the sewin and the trout survived the experiment,
and continue to grow in a pond perfectly shut up from communication
with the sea. In that locality neither these hybrids nor the trout spawn."

"^WWWii^^^^^^S^^BnB5ipigp|pi9^™gHB

Attacks of Insects in Forests. 2 1 1

was conveying the canoe and our chattels along the portage
by the banks of the torrent, it was an odd and I must also
allow a ludicrous sight to see our party on the march. Like
a gentleman suddenly caught in a shower, at the same time
suffering from an excruciating toothache, his coat collar raised,
and pocket-handkerchief tied round his head, my friend
led the van, with his vasculum on his shoulders, and in his
hand a spruce bough which he whisked about^ his ears, whilst
the tormentors, blackening his neck and hands in tens of thou-
sands, were almost driving him distracted. Whether my East
Indian experiences had anything to do with their selection
of the Professor in preference, it was clear, from the swarms
which enveloped him, that he had greater attractions ; whereas
the native, with the major portion of his person hidden in
the canoe, which he carried on his shoulders bottom upper-
most, seemed the most indifferent. At length, after an
uncomfortable two hours' march, we gained the banks of
Grand Lake, and encamped on a clearing close to the
point of exit of its effluent. Here a lumber dam or bridge
stretches across, and occasions a rapid flow through several
sluices, which empty into a deep basin immediately below
the dam. This is the general rendezvous of the Silvery
Salmon Trout, where as many as fifty may be captured by
one rod in a day during May and June, and where barrelfuls
are annually salted or iced, and transported to the large cities
of the United States. The excitement then is intense, and
the banks of the river are covered with encampments. One
would fancy that in such a circumscribed area it would only
require a few years' fishing to destroy the entire colony ; but
I was assured on very good authority that, in spite of the
increased number of fishermen, there is no diminution what-
ever; on the contrary, that the fishes are rather on the
increase. It is stated that the larger the number of adults
captured gives a better chance for the young to come to

maturity, as the former devour the fry.

p a

212 Field and Forest Rambles.

I lost no time in repairing to the scene, and sorting my
fishing gear, when at the second throw two salmon trout
jumped simultaneously at the brilliant red hackles ; the next
minute I struck them, and, after a pretty and exciting run of
about five minutes, both were landed on the pier.

We soon found that it required no great art or skill to
capture this fish ; for the Indian, borrowing a piece of line,
fastened it to an alder rod, and baiting with a grasshopper,
seemed more successful than with my spinning tackle and
artificial flies. In spring the fish are more voracious, dashing
furiously at any light object drawn rapidly against the current.
The alimentary canals of many, dissected on the spot, were,
with few exceptions, filled with the small fry of the silvery
dace, redfin, roachdace, brook minnow, and red-banded species,
besides the two-spined stickleback, with its strong pectoral
spines, and another species very plentiful in the stream and
adjoining lake. A few stomachs were empty, or contained
only a light-coloured mucus. The back and crown of the head,
as seen immediately after the fish is taken from it native ele-
ment, are of an intense olive-black, profusely spotted with darker
spots, which extend to the dorsal fin, and decrease towards the
lateral line. I'he spots on the back are scarcely to be ob-
served after exposure for a short time to the atmosphere, and
the upper parts rapidly shade into blue-black. The largest
out of eight or ten captured by our party measured sixteen
inches in length, and its greatest depth, just anterior to the
dorsal fin, was three inches and a quarter. The smallest,
possibly a third or fourth year fish, measured thirteen inches in
length, its greatest depth being two inches and three-quarters.
It differed only in the number of spots on the gill covers, there
being four and six on opposite sides, whereas nine large
rounded spots usually characterize the adult. The fish
spawns in the above situation early in November, and also
pushes into the lake for the same purpose, where numbers
are caught, but they do not jump readily in still water;

■■■i

The Silvery Salmo7i Trout.

213

indeed, in July and August it is frequently impossible to "get
a rise," although hundreds may be seen lying at the bottom
of the lumber dam basin. The flesh is of a rich salmon-
colour in spring, getting pabr as the summer advances. The
flavour, although not equal to that of the salmon, and wanting
the delicious relish of the brook trout, is vastly superior to
that of the togue, or any pf the lake trouts.

I now come to the descriptive details of this beautiful and
little-known salmonoid, which, the reader will observe, formed
the main object of my excursion to these lakes. Although long
familiar to the natives and whites under various appellations,
it did not receive attention from scientific observers until 1855.*

In comparing data of the various waters in which it has

THE SILVERY SALMON TROUT (SALMO GLOVERl).

been hitherto recognized, I feel that, irrespective of re-
cords, I should have been unable to fix its geographical distri-
bution without the assistance of several observant fishermen
friends, who chose to interest themselves in the natural history

* Girard was the first to describe this trout under the name of S.
Scbago, calling it doubtfully a salmon trout. (^Acad. Nat. Sciences,
Penn., 1853.) And subsequently, unaware that he was characterizing the
same fish, names it a new salmon trout, S. Gloveri, from Union River in
the state of Maine. (Proc. Phil. Ac. of Arts and Sciences), 1855, p. 55.)
I learn from Mr. Boardman that it has been exterminated in the Sebago
Lake. We find Dr. Gilpin {Nova Scotia Institute of Nat. Sciences,
April, 1866, p. 86), recognizing the S. Gloveri in the lakes of that province,
and Loch Lomond in New Brunswick. He states, moreover, that it is
named the " gray ling " about Halifax.

214

Field and Forest Rambles.

of this remarkably fine salmon trout. My especial thanks are
therefore due to Dr. Gilpin, of Halifax, and Dr. Fiske, of St.
John, also to my friends Major Monk, Captain Wolseley, and
Lieutenant Young of the 22nd regiment.

The haunts of the Salmo Gloveri, which I have named
the Silvery Salmon Trout, as far as is yet known, appear to be
restricted to the Atlantic provinces.* No doubt, like other
species rather localized, it is frequently confounded with varie-
ties of the Brook and Sea Trouts. This may be owing to the
diversities in colouring of specimens caught in different seasons,
and also to its dimensions, which apparently differ in certain
waters. It would seem, from information furnished me, that
there are few of the great rivers fed from lakes and flowing into
the Bay of Fundy in which the "shiners"! have not been seen,
and perhaps the same may be said of the Gulf of the St. Lau-
rence, as its presence at the present day in the Saguaney
might demonstrate. The westward distribution has not been
defined, and therefore I am inclined to believe in its restric-
tion to the eastern portion of the Canadian Dominion and
the state of Maine, which, regarded as a zoological province, is
only a portion of New Brunswick. I opine that the chief reasons
why it came to be considered a dwarfed race of salmon are
that according to prevailing opinions it was only to be met

♦ These are as follow : Schoodic Lakes, on the western frontier of
New Brunswick ; Loch Lomond, and Mispeck River ; Union River,
Maine ; Saguenay River, and its head waters. In Nova Scotia its presence
has been established in St. John's Lake, Grand Lake, Salmon River, and
Pockwock Lake. According to Mr. Herbert, in his " Fish and Fishing
of the United States," it is said to have once frequented the Kennebec
River in the state of Maine. I have no doubt, however, that further
researches will greatly extend its boundaries. It was noted as far back
as 1842 by the late Dr. Gesnser, in his "Geological Report on New Bruns-
wick," under ihe name of "shiner," from specimens seen by him in the
situation I am now describing.

t So called by Europeans, from the very brilliant white lower parts of
individuals captured in early spring or in autumn ; when " struck " it
flashes forth the molten silver of its lower parts in a very dazzling and
conspicuous manner.

Regions frequented by it. 2 1 5

with in lakes and rivers cut off from the sea by rjill-dams
and such-Hke artificial or natural obstructions ; however, it is
now known that such is not invariably the case, for in some
i.-T-tances, doubtless, like the sea trout, it at all events visits
the tidal waters ; and yet, as we shall see, like the smelt, white
fishes, cusk, etc., it can also prosper and multiply without
goin^ into salt water.

There are few fish, if any — not even the king of fresh-water
fishes included — that rival this beautiful salmonoid in the
game qualities which the rod and line involve, or surpass it in

GILL COVER OF S. SALAR.

GILL COVER OF S. GLOVERL

beauty, strength, and symmetry, although there may be some
difference of opinion as regards the relative excellence of
its flesh, which, in point of richness, cannot be compared
with that of the salmon ; however, the persons who main-
tain its connection with the last, allege that the differences
in these respects are owing to its restriction to fresh water.
I shall, therefore, now proceed co show the anatomical
distinctions between the two and other salmonoids of the
North American continent.

2l6

Field and Forest Rambles.

In the first place, the outlines of the gill covers of allied
species with which it is at all likely to be confounded, show,
for example, as regards the salmon (5. salar), on the preceding
page, that the posterior point of juncture between the oper-
culum {o) and the sub-operculum {s) is about half-way between
the upper end of the gill opening and the lower angle of
the sub-operculum in the salmon, whereas h\ the silvery-
salmon trout and sea trouts it is nearer to the lower angle
of the sub-operculum than to the upper end of the gill open-
ing. The operculum is, moreover, relatively larger in S. salar
than in 5. Gloveri or S. trutta of Europe, indeed than in any
other recorded salmonoid. The maxillary in the adult sal-

rtv

TV

HEAD OF SALMO GLOVERI.

mon extends as far back as the posterior margin of the
eye, but in Glover's trout (/) it reaches further; and
whilst it reaches only to the middle of the eye in the parr
and smalt of the salmon, in the same conditions of Glover's
salmon trout I found it extending almost to the posterior
margin of the orbit.

The vomer has a double row of small teeth in the young
salmon, whereas there is only a single row in the smalt of
5, Glo%*eri. The number of vertebrae also differ, being fifty-
nine in the former and fifty-seven in the latter ; as also the
pyloric coeca, which from numerous instances I found to

Compared iviih its Congeners. 2 1 7

vary from forty-nine to fifty-one,* whilst it is well known
that the average in the salmon is between fifty-five and
seventy-seven.

These data of themselves might be accepted as character-
istic of the specific differences between the fish in question
and the salmon, without reference to outward appearances
and colouring ; but as both also present important distinctions,
it is necessary to revert at greater length to their chief pecu-
liarities. At the same time, to a casual observer who is con-
tent to trust to external coloration, it must be admitted that
there is a decided resemblance in this respect between the
salmon grilse and the adult of the silvery salmon trout. In
form they also assimilate ; but the latter is the more elegant,
the head being contained five times in the total length. We
shall recur to the coloration presently ; but before doing so it
is necessary to compare our fish with the sea trouts. I sent
several specimens to Dr. Gunthur, F.R.S., in 1868, who,
after comparing them with the 5. trutta and its form S. Cam-
briciis of England, informed me that, " It differs from S. trutta
only slightly in the shape of the gill covers, and from 6". Cam-
bricus in having a few more coeca — forty-nine. It has one
vertebra less than either of the two British species. The
fish has nothing to do with the salmon." The last remark,
as might be expected from what has been already detailed,
may be considered conclusive as regards the Silvery Salmon
Trout being a dwarfed race of S. salar.

But the interest connected with the silvery salmon trout,
either from a scientific or economical stand-point, requires
that all should be recorded of its characters and habits.
To proceed, therefore, with my personal examinations. The
head is rather long as compared with its depth ; I refer to

* In four specimens, including two small and two full grown, the verte-
brae were invariably as stated, whereas the pyloric coeca were fifty in two
and forty-nine and fnlty-one in the others. Gilpin says the latter are about
thirty,— evidently a mistake.

2 1 8 Field and Forest Rambles.

the breeding season. The operculum {o) is rather short,
its length being not more than half its depth in the adult,
whilst in the young it is much more. The operculum
is well ossified, presenting the usual striae observed also in
the sewin and other sea trouts. The sub-operculum {s) bulges
out at V, beyond the end of the operculum. The point of
junction between the two posteriorly being, as I before stated,
nearer to the lower margin of the gill opening in the adult,
and about equidistant in its smalt. The pre-operculum,
(i)) has a very distinct lower margin, which passes by a
wavy, rounded angle into the hinder margin. The snout
is long, and knobbed in males during the breeding season,
and for some months subsequently (see m and «), the promi-
nence being of one or other of these shapes, /. e.y either
truncated, or, recurving in the old fish, where it is always
more or less permanent, and sinks deeply into a correspond-
ing hollow in the upper jaw. The labial (/) is very strong,
and longer than the snout. The head of the vomer differs
from that of the sewin in having a few permanent strong
teeth, which, as before stated, extend in the young in a zig-
zag line down the bone for nearly the entire length of the
palatines. In the adult they gradually disappear to two or
three on the head of the vomer. It would apoear, therefore,
that the teeth differ in the sewin and Gloveri.

Fins. — The fins of the 5. G lover idiVQ moderate in length;
the tail is deeply forked in young and adolescent specimens
up to eight inches in length, but the longest rays are not
twice as long as the middle rays. In the adult and aged
the hind margin of the tail is nearly even, but never rounded.
I have examined its parr in June, and the smalt in December,
when the blue bars seem to be present even in specimens from
eight to ten inches in length, which, moreover, retain eight
to ten red spots along the lateral line. There are always
large circular black spots on the gill covers, more numerous
and conspicuous in certain specimens th?n in others, and
scarcely ever in the same numbers on both sides. The result

Its outward Characteristics, 219

of many investigations has led me to establish the fin formula
as follows : — The gill rays being 11 to 12, D 14, P 13-14
V9-10, A 10, C 2i4-«.*

The head of the silvery salmon trout is bluish-black above,
silvery on the cheeks, increasing to pearl-white on the throat.
There is often a tinge of brown on the lower jaw and pre-
operculum. In fresh specimens captured in rapids during
the breeding season, and in spring, there will be found nume-
rous dark circular spots on the crown of the head. The back
and tail are of the same colour, sides silvery, belly pearl-white
and spotless. Black spots extend over the dorsal region, on
its fins, and the tail, and along the sides of the body, between
the lateral line, but stop short of the belly. In males, a few
red spots are met with here and there in the centre of the
black spots. The inner surfaces of the pectoral and ventral and
the sides of the anal fins are tinged with black. I have failed,
among the extensive collections examined at all seasons, to
observe the X -shaped spots of the sea trout and sewin. Here
again there is another apparent distinction between it and its
close allies.

The eye is large in proportion ; its sclerotic is a dirty white,
and the iris pale yellow. The molten silver colouring of the^
breeding season is especially brilliant in this fish, and the brown
taints on the head sometimes extend in irregular patches
along the abdomen ; indeed, when in full dress, I do not know
a more attractive salmonoid.

The teeth are largest on the tongue, where they vary in
number from eight to twelve, decreasing relatively from the
outer maxillaries to lower labials, labials, palatines, and vomer.

The average weight is from two and a half to three pounds,
but individuals are captured of seven pounds, and on reliable
authority I know of one caught through the ice or these lakes
weighing ten pounds and a half. Even larger fish are mentioned

* Gilpin {pp. cit., p. 88) gives the formula thus : D 12-13, P 14, V 9, A 9,
C 20, but the number varies, and dividing rays are apt to be counted as
two.

250

Field and Forest Rambles.

by fishermen, but any weighing over six pounds are uncom-
mon. It is extremely prolific, swarming at certain seasons in
the effluent and influent lake streams, where thousands are
speared, netted, and taken by rod. Unlike the sea-trout, when
struck it leaps often out of water, and never dives.

The relative dimensions of the individual, page 213, drawn
from a photograph, when compared with a salmon of nearly
the same size, are as follows : —

"• ' " ■ . ' "■

Silvery sal-

Sea salmon ;

mon trout:

weight,

weight, I Jib.

15 oz.

In.
17

Lines'

5

In.

^5

Lines*

Length from tip of snout to ends of tail

6

j> „ ends of central rays of

tail

16

I

14

5

yf „ end of scales on tail . . .

15

I

13

7

. j^ „ end ofbase of adipose fin

12

5

II

I

„ ' „ end of attachment of anal

12

5

10

II

»» » anus

II

...

9

7

,1 „ first rays of ventrals ...

8

5

6

9

„ „ end of dorsal ...

8

6

7

2

„ „ commencement of dorsal

6

5

5

9

„ „ posterioredgeofgillcover

3

6

2

8

» . » nape

2

S

I

8

» „ posterior edge of orbitar

bones

I

7

• • •

„ „ base of snout, i.e., hind

part of orbit

I

9

I

2

„ „ centre of orbit

I

5

I

„ „ tips of labials

I

9

• * •

...

Length of labial bone

I

2

I

„ lowerjaw

2

I

• I

7

„ pectoral fin

2

...

I

10

„ ventral

I

5

I

5

„ ventral appendage

• ■ ■

tV

...

„ attachment of dorsal

2

I

...

„ longest rays of ditto

2

2

I

8

„ last ray of ditto

t < •

A

...

1^^

„ attachment of adipose fin

• t •

s

...

5

„ height of ditto

* * •

A

...

1^

„^ attachment of anal .. .

I

2

I

I

„ longest ray of ditto

I

6

I

5

„ space between anal and tail

2

2

• t •

„ lobes of tail

3

...

• • •

„ central rays of ditto from end of scales . . ,

I

I

5

„ depth of caudal fork

I

...

1^*

* These two last admeasurements are very diagnostic between this
species and the salmon ; the rays being less scaled in the latter, whilst the
caudal fork is not so deep.

Its Parr and Smalt, ill

In the same stream, and in company with the above, my
friend Mr. Young captured two small fish, which appear to me
to be the smalt of this species. These I carefully compared with
the silvery salmon trout and parr of the salmon, and found that
as regards shape, fins, gill rays, and outward form, they agree
in every particular with the former. The settlers and trap-
pers about Sciff Lake, in the upper Schoodic region, state also
that this is the young of the " shiner ; " and as the salmon
does not frequent these waters, the probability is strong that
this is the parr or smalt of the Salmo Gloveri. The follow-
ing are the distinguishing points of the two specimens re-
ferred to. Both were males : length, five inches and a half ;
upper parts and tail bluish-black with evident traces of darker
spots on the head and back. Sides, silvery below the
lateral line. Upwards of nineteen brilliant vermilion spots
along the lateral line ; gill covers silvery, with two or more
round black spots on the operculum. There are ten oval
light blue bars crossing the lateral line, as in the parr of the
salmon, and most evident when the scales are removed.

The best, and, as far as I know, the only recorded descrip-
tion of its spawning bed, is given in an interesting report on
the "Fisheries of the State of Maine," by Mr. Foster.* He
says : '* These beds are made in the gravel where the current
is rapid, but just on the verge of a ripple in the water ; rarely
seen on the lower side of a ripple. They make large exca-
vations— the sand and gravel for which are carried out by the
current, and form a mound below. A large number of both
sexes are often seen together in one hole. No fighting is
observed among the males. It is more common, however, to
see a single pair working together, lying side by side in the
nest. They make .the excavation by fanning with the tail, no
digging with the head being observed. They spawn near the
entrances to the lakes. Whether the spawning beds lie in their
course, or that the fish are attracted by the rafts, but in early

* See Report for 1867-8.

222 Fidd and Forest Rambles.

spring they keep in the tracks of the rafts, crossing the lakes
as if following them (the rafts) to the debouchure."

One of the most picturesque portions of the western
Schoodic region is Grand Lake. This noble sheet of water is
broken here and there by islets, and surrounded, even to the
water's edge, with forests of pine and hard wood, whilst its
bottom is covered with granitic boulders, which, in combination
with drift, are spread far and wide among the arboreal vegeta-
tion around. Great banks of gravel run along the side of the
effluent stream, where a slate formation, possibly Silurian,
has a dip scarcely less than the perpendicular, and a strike
right across the mouth of the Grand Lake Stream. The
slate, again, is flanked on the lake side by syenitic rocks,
which form the basin of this and the other lakes. The hypo-
thesis that many lake basins have been brought about by the
friction of solid masses of ice during the Glacial Period,
requires, when applied to the Schoodic and other New Bruns-
wick lake reservoirs, that the glacial erosion should have been
enormous to have excavated these vast troughs in solid
granite, even supposing the existence of highlands in their
vicinity from which the frozen masses received their momenta,
which however in this case are entirely absent, besides the fact
that lake basins are wanting in other situations where the beds
are composed of much softer rocks. That these lacustrine
depressions may have resulted from phenomena in connection
with previous aqueous erosion, and irregular or violent oscil-
lations of level during periods of upheaval and depression,
and moreover that the pre-glacial deposits existed at the time
when the glaciers first passed down the valleys and were
removed by them, are to me apparently legitimate deductions
when the facts in connection with the strata and surface
geology are duly weighed. But sjj^culations with reference to
this remarkable epoch in the earth's history must of necessity
be at variance with one another, more especially wlien one set

I

Familiar Scenes on Forest Lakes. 22$

of observers continues to adhere entirely to what is called the
"glacial " and another to the "iceberg" theories.

The stillness of the scenery is impressive, and after the eye
has ranged over the great expanse of wood and water, or
revelled in the varied, changing, and unparalleled beauty of
the maple and other leaves in autumn, and got accustomed to
the prospect, the mind naturally longs to know what manner of
animals live in these forests of maple, poplar, spruce, and pine,
with the charred and weathered forms of their dead brethren
towering weird-like above the living.* Or, peering down-
wards, we desire to become familiar with the denizens of the
deep, for at this season in vain we scan the mirror-like surface
in quest of waterfowl, and to no purpose troll for "togue,"
and run silently up the weedy shores in quest of ducks. Then,
shooting across the placid bosom of the lake for several miles,
we begin to meditate a return to camp, when hark ! at last the
solitude is broken. What is that loud plaintive cry proceed-
ing from yonder island, and echoed back in scarcely feebler
sounds from the opposite cove } It is the familiar " wu-loo "
of the great northern diver, and we spy its long neck in the
distance. Louder and more frequent are the cries ; another and
another chimes in on our starboard side as we move rapidly
forward, and the Indian spies young loons with their parents
not five hundred yards off. More garrulous do the old birds
become as we approach ; at length, after expending their cries
in vain, they raise their graceful figures, and in the usual way,
half flying, half swimming, splash the waters with their wings
like the paddles of a steamboat for upwards of fifty yards,
then rising above the surface, shoot rapidly away to yonder
islet in the distance, and abandon their offspring to their fate.

During our sojourn at Grand Lake, I captured several red-

* During a short excursion on the shore I came on the trail of bears
among the blue berries, and several footprints of Virginian deer were also
noticed.

224 * . Field and Forest Rambles.

fins, chub, dace, sticklebacks, etc., and, strange to say, found
almost every individual enormously distended by a species of
TAPEWORM. The abdomen was so enlarged that in many
cases the flat worm could be discerned through the attenuated
walls, slight pressure producing rupture, when one or more of
the creatures were seen lying loose in the cavity. I examined
one five inches in length, extracted from the abdominal cavity
of a young chub not over three inches long. This specimen,
like the others, belonged apparently to one species, and repre-
sented the undeveloped and jointless state of the bothro-
cephali, or broad tapeworms. The head was pointed, body
rapidly widening for the anterior third, then tapering steadily
towards the tail, which was slender and pointed. None of the
silvery salmon trout or perch captured contained them, nor
were there apparently any embryos of the parasite in the livers
and viscera of redfins and dace, which contained the above in
the abdominal cavity. On the generally received opinion that
these worms never attain a perfect state until they get into the
intestines of other species of fish that prey on their host, one
would expect to meet with perfect bothrocephali in the silvery
salmon trout, perch, and pike, that devour the redfins, etc.
Moreover, the water-fowl, herons, etc., should be infested by
them ; and perhaps such is the case, although I could not
discover these parasites in their interiors. But an allied species
is found also in man, and apparently it has not yet been shown
from whence he derives the unwelcome tenant. The subject,
viewed from the above point of view, presents some unpleasant
features as regard fish food ; but there is a certain obscurity
still hanging over the whole study, that leaves room to question
whether the development of all the stages of tapeworms is
not possible in the same animal. At all events, I cannot
recommend the chub, etc., of the Grand Lake Stream as
savoury articles of food, and am only too happy to be in a
position to state that the silvery salmon trout, as far as I

Colouration of Trout. 225

know, is piscis integer et innocens as regards those disgusting
parasites.*

The effects of LIGHT on the colouring of fishes are well-
known, and doubtless the denizens of the Canadian rivers must
be materially influenced in these respects, seeing that the fresh
waters are hermetically sealed for nearly half the year, whereby,
moreover, we are debarred from knowing what may be going
on in relation to their migratory movements. Indeed, I have fre-
quently noticed in brooks and rivers free from obstructions, that
the trout is far more highly and brightly coloured, and in better
condition, than the same species inhabiting waters shut off from
the sea by impassable waterfalls or artificial obstructions. This
is so very apparent that every one experienced in Canadian
trout fishing can at once make out the difference. Thus
the more rapid the stream and the less shaded by forest,
with a pebbly bottom, the more brilliantly and clearly
coloured are its fishes ; moreover, this is so conspicuous
as regards the brook trout, that the red-bellied variety
was at one time considered to be a very good species. f
In fact, the more one sees of fishes in nature, the more
it becomes apparent that by trusting to colouring and
other ejiternal characters, influenced by locality and seasonal
changes, there is a certainty of falling into the grave error of
proclaiming objects as distinct species which are only varieties.
I am sadly afraid many naturalists in their zeal do delight in
" species manufacturing," and care little for what the future
may disclose, when the " truth will out," and all their beautiful
species must cease to be considered other than forms of what
had been described previously. In no branch of Natural His-
tory is this more apparent than among fishes, and especially the

* Dr. Holmes, in the Maine Report before quoted, speaks of a species
of caligus which infests the scales of this trout. I looked for it particu-
larly, but failed in discovering the parasite. Perhaps it is peculiar to the
lake life of the fish, and disappears when the latter enters the rapid streams
in June, which to the above is si emingly as the sea is to the salmon.

t " Natural History of New \ork," vol. iii., p. 236, pi. 39, fig. 136.

Q

226 Field and Forest Rambles.

famiW su'^uonidce, which at present contains several hundred

species.

I have dwelt at length on the natural history of the silvery
salmon trout, not only on account of the scientific inte-
rest in connection with the appearance and habits of a rare
and very little known fish, but also with the view of attracting
more attention to its presence, in hopes that, through the efforts
of the pisciculturist, it may yet find its way into the lakes and
rivers of the Old World, as I am informed by Mr. Boardman it is
now flourishing in the New Hampshire waters, into which it was
introduced some years since. A lake fed or drained by rapid
rivers is its favourite resort at present, although I believe this
condition has resulted more or less from the pressure of circum-
stances, and that the fish originally pursued habits similar to
its close allies the Canadian and European sea trouts, from
which it differs in some characters, which entitle it to be con-
sidered a salmon trout distinct from any of the others. At the
same time it recommends itself to the notice of all followers
of Walton, for, indeed, any old fisherman's heart will beat
audibly on witnessing the spring of this fine fish when struck ;
then I have seen it toss itself fully four feet out of water, and
at the Grand Lake Stream sluice I watched an individual stem
a powerful torrent for several minutes.*

It is rather remarkable that no one has yet established spe-
cific distinctions between the so-called Sea Trouts of north-
east America and the well-known European fishes of the same
name. There is a very poor drawing and meagre description
in Cuvier's great work of a sea trout sent to him from
Canada by Colonel Hamilton Smith, and to which he has
given the name of Salmo Canadensis. This is the more to be

* In the Madawaska, one of the rivers draining off the contents of the
great lakes near the sources of the St. John, I was told that there is a
" silvery sided pigmy salmon, or small grilse," which the French settlers
name the *' pointeur," from its aptitude to jump at bait or fly, but whether
it be this fish or not, I do not know.

Si a Troiits geturally. 227

wondered at seeing that sea trouts are r.bundant on the eastern
Atlantic shore from Maine to Newfoundland, and I regret I
cannot in any way, from personal c»bservation, clear up this
strange hiatus in the natural history of a common fish. Mr.
Perley, not only a fisherman of much practical experience, but
also an observer of the appearances of fishes, considered the
sea trout of Canada as being identical with the Salmo triitta
of Europe ;* but I doubt very much if he looked deeper than
a few external appearances ; at the same time it will not sur-
prise me should his opinion be confirmed ; indeed, as far as
written descriptions and accounts of the habits of the fish ex-
tend, there is a very decided resemblance between the Old and
New World species. Dr. Gilpin f gives a minute account of
the Sea Trout found in the rivers and salt waters of Nova
Scotia. I perceive, moreover, in comparing Dr. Gilpin's
description of Sulmo Canadensis with S. Rossii of Richard-
son, X that there is again a decided resemblance. I shall
point out again presently how the sea-run brook trout is often
mistaken for this species ; indeed, in some of the rivers on the
north-eastern shore of New Brunswick, to wit, Tabucintac,
incredible numbers are captured by the settlers, who consider
they are taking the BROOK Trout. But the important question
comes to be, is there any connection between it and the silvery
salmon trout just described } Is the latter a land-locked
variety of the former .'' Mr. Wheelright§ observes that the sea
trout of north-western Europe gets land-locked, and individuals
in consequence never visit the sea. It would be exceedingly
curious and instructive to show whether or not the changes in
Salmo Gloveri admit of contrast with Salmo Canadensis, so far
that by natural selection we could safely allow it to be a variety
of the other, more especially as I have pointed out that the
anatomical characters common to both as established by one of
the most competent of living ichthyologists, indicate that a very

* Op. cit., p. 197.. X ^' Faun. Bor. Amer.," p. 163.

t op. cit., p. 84. 18^ '/. § " Spring and Summer in Lapland."

Q 2

228 Field and Forest Ravibks.

close and specific relationl>hip does exist. I have, moreover, a
strong conviction that the so-called Salmo Canadensis will turn
out to be specifically identical with Salmo trntta, or else there
is more than one species in the cis- Atlantic waters. As to the
sportint^ qualities of the former, although it was not my fortune
to capture it in the main rivers and briny deep, I have the
descriptions of several fishermen vivid in my thoughts ; and
there is also the record of two, whose practical experience may
be accepted by those who may desire to indulge in the exciting
sport. "The sportsman will find it aT[horoughly game fish,
rising well at a brilliant fly of scarlet ibis and gold (in June),
and affording sport second only to salmon fishing. The
writer has caught this fish with the scarlet ibis fly in the water
of the Nuf, at the entrance of St. Peter's Bay, on the north side
of Prince Edward Island, to the weight of five pounds ; but
the most sporting fishing is from a boat under easy sail, with a
* mackerel breeze,' and oftentimes a heavy ' ground swell.' The
fly skips from wave to wave at the end of thirty yards of line,
and there should at least be seventy yards more on the reel. It
is truly splendid sport, as a strong fish will oftentimes make a
long run, and give a sharp chase down the wind."*

Frank Forrester, in his " Fish and Fishing," calls it " royal
sport;" moreover, a friend informed me that on the north-
eastern shore of this province, in July, himself and two other
fishermen landed no less than 400 sea trout in one day with
the fly, from the waters of the river Tabucintac, which flows
into a gully of the same name, famous, as before stated, as
one of the best wild-fowl shooting-grounds, and where, in the
beginning of October, abundance of wild geese and ducks are
readily obtained.

* Perley, op. cit., p. 199.

River and Brook Trout s 0/ Canada . 229

CHAPTER X.

The Brook Trout of North America, and its Varieties — Trout Fishing,
and Game Qualities of the Brook Trout— Lake Trouts of Boreal
America — The Mackinau Salmon or Namaycush, or Great Trout of
the Lakes — The Siscowet — The Togue — Distribution, Haunts, and
Distinctions of the Species — Lake Trout Fishing — Smelt of North
America — Capelin — White Fishes — Shads — Cusk — Alewive — Striped
Bass Fishing — Perches and Lake Bass — Sturgeon Fisheries — Lam-
prey— Cat Fish — Eels — American Hake — Marine Fishes.

'T^HE Brook Trout of North An .^rica is what naturalists
-■- call a good species ; nevertheless it is being constantly
confounded on the Atlantic seaboard of Canada with the sea
trout, with which it is frequently found ; but the shortness of the
intermaxillaries (page 230, //), and the length and narrowness of
the labials {g) are very characteristic. Indeed this ready method
of characterizing the fish is worthy of the especial attention of
persons in the way of procuring these salmonoids, inasmuch
as Europeans are constantly confounding the one with the
other during the migratory seasons, when each is on its way
from or to the ocean.

The brook trout is further distinguishable in the following
particulars : the labial {g) is four times larger than the inter-
maxillary, extending for some distance behind the orbit ; its
crest (/) is thin and sharp on its upper edge, and differs conse-
quently from the sea trouts of both Europe and America, as
well as the brook trout of the former, which has a much
broader crest and labial. Again, the distance from the tip of
the snout to the extremity of the labial equals the length of

230 Field and Forest Rambles.

the upper surface of the head. The inter-operculum (/) is
short and triangular, the sub-operculum (^) is about half as
high as the operculum ip). The pre-operculum {s) has its
lower margin well rounded, resembling a shepherd's crook,
with the extremity turning upwards, and not forwards, as in
many allied trouts.

The triangularly-shaped cluster of sharp teeth on the outer
part of the vomer is another pointed character. The lingual
teeth appear to vary in number from three to six on each side,
but I am not certain if this is not a sexual distinction, or con-
nected with age ; the gill rays also vary from eleven to twelve
on either side. The fin formula is as follows : — Dorsal rays,
10-13 ; pectoral, 12-13 ; ventral, 8-9; anal, 10; caudal, iQ^-f.

BROOK TROUT.

The lateral line contains 1 16 scales ; the vertebrae are 6% ;
and there are 38-39 pyloric coeca. The above are the
only safe characters whereby this trout is to be distin-
guished ; indeed the naturalist or fisherman trusting to out-
ward aspect and colouring must be prepared to meet per-
plexity in every brook and inland water. The lower fins
have invariably white margins, with more or less of a black
lining, whilst the vermilion and golden spots, red hues, and
pale of the belly are subject to much diversity, and are
unquestionably connected with the food and haunts of the
individuals. Thus, the darker shadings will invariably be
found in the denizens of muddy lakes and dark waters,

Effects of Change of Habits and Light. 23 1

whereas the trout of clear sunny brooks, as also the sea
sun-fish, display most beautiful vermilion and golden spots
with intensity of the white, the latter often appearing like
molten silver.*

The aspect of the fish changes rapidly once it has got into
the tidal Wc ters, the contour then being much like that of the
sea trout, whilst the flesh becomes pink from feeding on mol-
lusca and echinae. So changed is the individual then from the
permanent denizens which do not migrate to the sea, that it is
a common assertion by persons who capture the fish on such
fivers as the Miaramichi that there are " two sea trouts " met
with in summer, the one being the above and the other the
true sea or salmon trout. I procured many specimens of the
former, and after subjecting them to careful comparison, find
that, with the exception of the brilliancy of colouring and
salmon-like form, all were but highly-dappled brook trouts, very
different, it must be granted, from denizens of the forest-shaded
loch or dark inland waters. Indeed, so distinct are the colour-
ings of the trout after it has dipped itself in the sea, and those
of individuals from the latter, that when they are placed side
by side I do not blame the observer trusting to outward signs
in connection with colouring, should he at once pronounce
them distinct species ; moreover, irrespective of the conditions
above mentioned, no doubt the long sojourn under ice exer-
cises also an influence, as the colouring of fishes is appa-
rently greatly predisposed to be acted on by these and such-
like influences.

The brook trout averages from one to two pounds, the
largest attaining to five or six pounds. Although many pro-

• I noticed that this species is very sedentary in many brooks and in-
fluents of the St. John River ; so much so, that there is no difficulty in
distinguishing individuals from different localities. The red-bellied trout
{S. erythro-gastra of Dekay) is a good example of the highly coloured
denizen of the clear sunny waters, especially such as flow over the Devo-
nian and Silurian slates of the middle and northern portions of the
province.

232 Field and Forest Rambles.

ceed to the tideways of rivers in autumn, the migration is by
no means general, even in rivers free from artificial or natural
obstructions.

Allowing for the majority of the larger trouts being cap-
tured, many brooks absolutely swarm with the fish, with very
few exceptions not averaging over a quarter to a half pounu in
weight, whilst in the lake from whence the brook rises, large
dark-coloured residents called " bull trouts," which never leave
it, are found, to the exclusion of the small fry. This is so
remarkable in some instances that the settlers account for it
by supposing that the adults prey on the young and expel
them froin their haunts; hence fishermen say that more spawn
and fry of this and the other salmonoids are destroyed by the
animals themselves than by rod, line, or spear.

Notwithstanding the varieties consequent on the external
surroundings, there are one or two associated brook trouts
which may be distinct species. For example, should the
following turn out to be only a race of the brook trout, it is
assuredly a very well-marked one. Into Lake Utopia, before
noticed, flows a small stream from a tarn in the vicinity. In
October vast quantities of the true S.fontinalis are met with
on their way to spawn in the tarn ; whilst in Lake Utopia,
the entrance of the brook, is a trout of an average smaller
size, of a silvery grey, profusely spotted with yellow all over
the back and sides, including the dorsal fins ; the lower fins
are white-margined, but otherwise there is a very decided
difference between the two sorts. The former are then heavy
with ova, but the light-coloured have neither the ovarium nor the
milt highly developed ; and as to size, individuals of the same
dimensions of each sort are plentiful, so that the differences in
colouring are not dependent on age. I could find no anato-
mical distinctions between the two ; and as neither can get to
the sea, on account of a very precipitous water-fall, and the
light-coloured trout seems peculiar to the lake, and is not
seen in any of its influent or effluent waters, but always apart

V

Varieties of the Brook Trout. 233

from the other, this question might fairly be put, Is the light-
coloured trout a distinct species ? If not, what is the cause of
the abnormality ? The so-called Salmo oquassa (Girard),* met
with in the deep lakes in Maine, would seem from description
to be closely allied to if not identical with the last. Its
local name, " blue back," with the general colourings of the
N^ sides and lower parts, very closely approach the above, which
therefore may be considered distinct from S.fontinalis — at all
events, as usually met with in New Brunswick. I do believe
however, if we were to note all the peculiarities of the fresh-
water salmonoids of even the region now under consideration,
that as far as differences are concerned the number hitherto
recorded might be quadrupled. Indeed the question, " What
constitutes a species V may well be asked in connection with .
the salmon family, but we can scarcely blame the cabinet
naturalist, with only skins, preserved specimens in spirits,
drawings, and descriptions before him, should he be disposed
to multiply their numbers. A feasible explanation is the
interbreeding of allied species forming fertile varieties, which
under such conditions would be increasing the already
extraordinary number of forms which, even as far as the
British Isles are concerned, have become very numerous,
indeed perhaps too numerous.! By this I mean that if we
studied their habits and haunts as car'^fully as we do speci-
mens, no doubt many so-called species would turn out to be
only seasonal conditions or local forms.

The brook trout, unlike its European congeners, seldom
refuses the earthworm at any season, but in July will readily
jump at the artificial fly, generally preferring a " red hackle."
In the numerous streams it is met with in enormous numbers ;
perhaps no salmonoid is more prolific, whilst few, if any, excel

• " Boston Society of Natural History," vol. iv., p. 262.

t See Gunthur in his admirable monograph published in the "Proceed-
ings of the Zoological Society," and also the "Catalogue of Fishes " in the
British Museum. 1862.

234 Field and Forest Rambles.

it in the grace and elegance of its motions. I think it a more
powerful fish than its European ally, as certainly it equals, if
not surpasses, any of its tribe in brilliancy of colouring.

A more beautiful sight can scarcely be imagined than, by
the side of some pool "o'erhung with wild woods thick'ning
grten," to peer through the darkening waters, and watch the
finny tribes pursuing their various modes of life. It is not
. often one is so fortunate, but now and then, among the clear
waters of the numberless brooks running over the granite and
slate rocks of New Brunswick, I have come on a basin below
some cataract, with its bottom covered with rounded stones,
where, by the side of the water-logged pine or jutting shelf,
■ half hidden from view, and tiger-like prepared for a sudden
- dash, lurks the brook trout. See, those large bright eyes are
scanning every corner ! How graceful are the movements of
the fins, every ray of which is in motion ; whilst the regular
heaving of the gills, and the play of the lissom but muscular
body, show thai he is able and ready to pounce on whatever
objects his choice may determine. At length something ap-
pears, and before we can well note his absence he has shot
through the clear v/aters, captured his prey, and returned once
more to his hiding-place !

Lake Trouts. — The non-migratory lake trouts of North
America, as far as has yet been ascertained, comprehend three
forms, to which the following specific names have been given :
the Namaycush, or Great Trout of the Lakes ;
the ToGUE, or Grey-spotted Lake Trout ; and the
Siscowet. The first was described by Pennant at the
close of the last century, the second by Dekay in 1842,
and the third by Agassiz in 1850. According to the present
state of our knowledge of their haunts, it appears that the
namaycush inhabits the great lakes extending from the
Northern United Staicc to the Arctic Sea. The togue is
said to frequent only the New England, Nova Scotian,

Lake Trout s of N^orth Avterica. 235

and New Brunswick lakes, including the state of Maine ;
whilst the siscowet is seemingly restricted to Lake Superior,
where Agassiz also recognized the namaycush. But little
is known of their habits ; moreover, several instances have
occurred lately of one or other of these trouts turning up in
lakes where their presence was unsuspected ; it is, therefore,
not unlikely, when their geographical distributions are better
worked out, that this seeming partiality to certain waters m^y,
after all, be more apparent than real. Further, it appears that
their claims to be considered distinct species rest altogether on
certain minor details of structure and colouring in each, which,
however, have been further abridged by late researches. It

THE TOGUE, OR GREY-SPOTTED /ROUT OF THE LAKES.

will not, therefore, be surprising to such observers as may have
enjoyed opportunities of studying them in their native haunts,
should thqse so-called species turn out to be only varieties of
seasonal or sexual conditions of one grey-spotted lake trout,
common to the boreal regions of the continent. I shall now
point out the recorded differences between each, together
with my own personal observations of the togue, as met with
within the boundaries of our region.

The namaycush, Mackinau salmon, and salmon trout of

the Canadians is known to Indians by various other names.

It was first described by Sir John Richardson, who gives a

lucid account of the fish.* The most noticeable differences

* "Fauna Boreali Americana," p. 197, pi. 79, 85.

V

236

Field and Forest Rambles.

between it and the other two are in the formation of the
labials {a), where the crest {c) projects beyond the limb of
the bone, the latter being not quite three times the length of
the intermaxillary {b). This peculiarity (if persistent) is cer-
tainly very characteristic of the namaycush. The ventral fin

LABIAL

HEAD OF THE NAMAYCUSH.

is placed further back than in the togue and siscowet, and the
tail is more forked. There is a double row of teeth, extending at
least half an inch backwards on the vomer. The teeth, gums,
and roof of the mouth have a tinge of purple, hence Mit-
chell's name, " Amethystine Salmon."

"HE SISCOWET.

The siscowet is known by this native name apparently in con-
tradistinction to the last, which is also found in Lake Superior.
The former appears to be very plentiful about Isle Royal.
Agassiz makes out the following distinctive characters ; but as
many are also common to the other two, I merely indicate the
discrepancies. The lower branch of the pre-operculum {a)
is more extended than the upper {b). The pectoral fin {c) is

The Grey -spotted Trout. 237

longer, and further from the gill opening, than in either of the
other two trouts, and the dorsal {d) is said to be larger, with
a more slender and less club-shaped adipose fin {e). The anal
(/) is as high as the dorsal, but not so lonj.

The Togue was supposed to be identical with the namaycush
until Dekay's description, when he named it Salmo conjinis*

I find, however, that his so-called differences are in several
instances not general ; and perhaps a better acquaintance with
their natural histories will further establish a closer connection
between the two. For several years this fish, as met with in
our waters, was supposed to be identical with the Loch Awe

HEAD OF THE TOGUE.

■

trout {S. ferox\\ from which it seems to differ in many
points.

I had abundant opportunities of seeing the togue at all
seasons and in various stages of its growth, so that, as far as
the denizen of our forest-shadec lakes is concerned, I believe
the following will be found to be an accurate description of
its appearance and habits.

The external colouring varies of course according to the

• " Fishes of New York."

t Mr. Perley was, I believe, the originator of this opinion, from a com-
parison between figures and general descriptions of the European fish. —
op. cit., p. 197.

238 Field and Forest Rambles.

nature of the lake bottom, and whether or not the individual
may have been caught during the breeding season. When in
full vigour, in October, during the spawning month, the males,
with the exception of the unusually large individuals, will be
found very much alike, and more or less of a dark greenish -
grey, getting fainter towards the belly, which is dappled with
dull and purer white patches. The yellowish-grey spots, some
as large as buck-shot, extend over the body and tail. The
latter is said not to be the case in the namaycush, but from
Agassiz' drawing,* they are evidently present on the tail of the
siscowet.

There is more or less of an orange tinge on the lower fins,
especially the pectorals, but the purple in the inner surface
of the mouth of the namaycush is seemingly absent in the
togue.

In full health and vigour the Togue presents a close resem-
blance to the full-grown salmon. The head y rms one-fourth of
the total length from the snout to the ti j ' \ the caudal. It is
rather flat above and convex in prc^le. (See pages 235 and
237.) The eye is midway between the tip of the snout and the
nape, and about twice as near to the former as to the hinder
edge of the gill cover. The labials (p. 237,^) are fully three times
as long as the intermaxillaries (^), thus contrasting with the
namaycush, but identical with the siscowet. The labial crest,
{J}) does not extend beyond the extremity of the bone, as it does
in the namaycush. The length of the lower jaw is equal to that
of the upper surface of the head. Like other lake and river
salmonoids, it has a prominent knob on the extremity of the
lower jaw, which in ordinary sized males is not permanent,
and only seen during the spawning season. In old males,
however, it is very conspicuous, and, as in the salmon, fits
into a cavity in the upper jaw ; indeed it would appear to
become developed with age, so that all very large salmonoids
have it more or less throughout the year. The gill covers

* " Fishes of Lake Superior."

Characteristics of tlie Togue. 239

are almost similar in the three, and broadly distinctive as^
compared with the brook trout, and the sea and salmon trouts,
whilst the outline of the gill cover, and the relative dimensions
of the operculum (^), and its points of junction with the
sub-operculum {p) in all the American lake trouts, assimilate
closely to the salmon (5. salar), whilst the crescentic outlinr
of the pre operculum {s) is broadly distinctive, and resembles
that of S. ferox of Europe.

In the New World lake trouts, the pre-operculum bulges to
a degree, owing to the enormous development of the great mas-
ticating muscle in front. The general features of the opercular
apparatus in lake trouts, as compared with other salmonoids,
are distinctive : the operculum {p) is four-sided, well rounded,
and of greater height than breadth ; the sub-operculum
(/) is nearly one-third smaller than the last, and is triangular
in its upper half, elliptical in its lower borders, and terminates
at its articulation somewhat in the form of a fish-hook. The
operculum {s\ with the exception of the siscowet, is long,
slen(' jr, crescentic, and almost vertical, with a prominent ridge,
and the usual foramina upon its anterior surface.

The teeth of the togue are strong, slightly curved, and
conical ; those on the outer and lower maxillaries are the
largest. The vomer is armed with a few teeth in a cluster
or in regular double row, as is said to be the case in the
namaycush — although in the young of the former the teeth
run in a zigzag way down the bone in a single row for some
distance ; but in old fish there are usually seven. Two adult
male togues examined by me gave the following formula,
which it may be remarked is absolutely identical with that
given by Richardson as the scheme of dentition in the namay-
cush, viz., intermaxillaries, 7~T \ labials, 19-19; palatines,
13-131 lower jaw, 19-19; tongue, 8-8; vomer, 7-7.*

It is worthy of note that in young and adolescent indi-
viduals of the togue, a third row of teeth is frequently observed
* " Fauna Boreali Americana," p. 182.

240 Field and Forest Rafnbies.

on the centre of the tongue, where sometimes one or two
may be met with in the aduh.

The fins vary considerably. By compounding many notes
taken at different times from a large number of specimens,
and striking an average, I found that the same discrepancies
are applicable to the three American lake trouts *

The adipose fin is club-shaped in the togue and namaycush,
and, as before stated, not so long and slender as in the sis-
cowet. The specimen represented in page 235 was a very
fine togue captured during the spawning season in the Toledi
Lakes, Upper St John. It displays the powerful proportions
of the fish at this time of the year, which are very different
to what obtain subsequently when fecundation has taken
place. The scales of this species, and seemingly of the other
two, are small and elliptical, decreasing in size from above
downwards. I counted in two instances 132 along the lateral
line, which some authorities state takes its origin at the upper
angle of the operculum, but this statement, made I believe
originally by Dekay, is incorrect in the case of the togue,
and it would appear, also, in the other two. The line com-
mences at the upper third of the operculum (^), and
curves slightly downwards until beyond the pectoral fin, when
it runs straight for the tail. The latter, although furcate in
the old, is by no means so in younger individuals. There is
often an abnormal thickening or enlargement of the lower
caudal lobe which I have seen in several instances, and the
same has been noticed by other observers. It is met with in
both sexes, but whether congenital or induced I cannot say ;
it may have originated from the friction in digging the sand
for the deposition of the ova. I counted 1 30 pyloric coeca and
62 vertebraet in two females of the togue.

* Thus in the namaycush, siscowet, and togue the fin rays are as
follows: Gill rays, 12-13; D, 12-14; P, 12-14; A, 11-13; V, 9-10;

c, 19I4.

t " Holmes, in "The Maine Agricultural and Scientific Report, 1862,"

Food of the Togue.

241

The togue abounds in the great lakes at the sources of the
St. Croix and St. John rivers, deriving one of its local names
from the Toledi Lake, where, and in Lake Temiscouata, it is
extremely plentiful. Dr. Gilpin, of Halifax, seems to have
been the first to proclaim its presence in Nova Scotia.
According to Dekay, it is common in the lakes of New
England, where Europeans give it a variety of names;
its western and northern ext^^nsion, however, is imperfectly
noted. I am unaware of the namaycush and cogue having
been met with in the same waters. The partiality of the
latter for certain lakes, or at all events its seeming absence
from others to all appearance better adapted to its habits, may
be more apparent than real, seeing that, like non-migratory
lake trouts in general, it passes much of its existence in the
profoundest depths, as is shown by the frequent use of a thirty
fathom line in fishing for togue through the ice. It repairs
to shallows to feed on trouts, smelts, and the like ; indeed the
last-named fish would appear to constitute its favourite winter
subsistence, inasmuch as out of several individuals dissected
by me in midwinter, and from different lakes, all contained
smelts. It preys extensively also on eels and cyprinids, and
is in fact a tyrant with an appetite so voracious, that quan-
tities of twigs, leaves, and fragments of wood are constantly
found in its stomach. The great monster will sometimes rise
to spinning tackle, but in so sluggish and undemonstrative a
manner, that the troller may fancy he has caught a water-
logged pine or stone. In this way, I had my line checked
on the Schoodic lake, when striking gently, I found I had
missed a large togue, whose trenchant teeth had made a
series of deep furrows in the chub with which the hook was
baited. It is rare for this fish to rise to spinning tackle, and
the Indian who steered the canoe assured us that he had not

p. no, gives 113 ccEcal appendages and 65 vertebras, which, unless it is a
mistake, shows considerable irregularity in the numerical proportions of
the former.

24 2 Field and Forest Rambles.

seen the like before. No doubt the flashing of the blades
attracted the monster, to find the chub on the hook. It is
naturaJ'y sluggish and inert, ami apparently much of a bottom
feeder. As we glided along the shore of one of the islets,
composed more or. less of granitic boulders, our attention was
directed by the guide to a large black object on the bottom,
among a mass of stones. This he a.sserted was a monster togue,
which, if such was the case, must have exceeded three feet in
length ; moreover, he showed us two notches on the side of his
canoe, representing the dimensions of an enormous individual,
which an Indian had speared in the same waters during the
spawning season, the admeasurement being no less than four
feet five inches.

The average weight of the togue is seemingly about
nine pounds, but this may not be altogether correct. I
have seen individuals weighing fifteen pounds, and fishermen
and Indians speak of having captured togues from twenty-five
pounds to thirty pounds, and even forty pounds in weight.
Probably the largest seldom leave the deep bottoms of the
great lakes. A noble specimen of this uncouth-looking deni-
zen of these forest-shaded lochs is now before me. If ever bull
trout deserved the name, those prominent eyes, huge muscular
jaws, broad back, deep sides, with the force of the frame
centred in front, might well win that appellation for the togue.
The Indian indulges his love of the marvellous wh^n talking
of him ; and although often impromptu stories are got up to
amuse and impress you with the learning and knowledge of
the speaker, still, even in the absence of unwritten history,
one may detect figments of their wild legends and mythology,
strangely mingled even with the traditions of their earliest
Christian instructors, — of monster togues and sturgeons that
appeared on the surface of the lakes at night, striking such
terror among the tribe that they were forced to abandon
their hunting grounds ; indeed such, with the pigmy fairies,
giants, and other oflfspring of their ever-fruitful imaginations.

spawning Season 0/ the Togue. 243

rendered famous whatever localities the apparitions were said
to frequent.

Raftsmen accustomed to pass along Grand Lake assured
me that they had often seen a shoal of togues depositing their
spawn, and surrounded by thousands of eels, hornpouts, dace,
etc., which assemble to feed on the ova ; moreover, that neither
the males nor the females remain beyond a few days on
the ground. Sometimes the roe is deposited between stones,
where the males may be observed fertilizing it. At this
season the Indian plies his spear unmercifully, killing hun-
dreds and wounding more. The flesh varies in colour, from
orange to cream colour — according, 1 imagine, to the season
of the year. As an article of food it is very fat, with little
flavour, unless in the shape of "fish-cake well seasoned by
Harvey's sauce," when the fisherman's appetite will pronounce
it a delicacy, only surpassed a hundredfold by a broiled or fried
brook trout, or its congener the silvery salmon trout.

The Smelt of the western Atlantic seaboard differs as-
suredly in several particulars from the European fish. More-
over, it may be that there are more than one species in the
former waters ; at all events, there is a set of smelts that never
go to sea, and another that comes up the rivers merely to
spawn, and returns to the ocean. Perhaps, like the brook
trout and the white fish, it can live altogether in fresh water.
I carefully compared many specimens from land-locked lakes,
open rivers, and the sea, but could not discover any dis-
tinctions, all agreeing with the O. viridescens of Lesueur, and
O. operlanus of Artedi,* the fin rays being, D, lo-ii; P,
12-14; V, 8-9; A, 16 (will stand 17 if the last ray, which
is cleft, is counted). The teeth and gill rays are absolutely
the same as in the above ; it has sixty-two vertebrae.f

* Dr. Gunthur {pp. cit.y p. 167) also says that the American fish is
scarcely distinct from O. operlanus.

+ I examined a female which had sixty- three, this single exception oc-
curring among eight to ten specimens examined.

R 2

244 - Field and Forest Rambles.

As soon as the ice breaks up and drifts seaward, sculls
upon sculls of this savoury fish push their ways up the rivers,
where they bite bait readily, and are captured by nets.
Again, at the same season the individuals of the land-
locked lakes, impelled by the same instinct as the others,
issue from the deeper waters, and crowd many brooks and
streams so densely that the struggling mass is often lifted
out of water by sheer pressure from below and behind ;
indeed, so plentiful are they then in the brooks running
into Lake Utopia, before noticed, that I have been told by
persons who had captured them by thousands, that there
is no difficulty in filling a landing net at every haul. As just
observed, the smelt is a favourite prey of the great spotted
lake trout, which, with the brook trout, pursues them during
winter, the former chasing the sculls to the influent waters,
whilst the latter follows them up stream. The smelt is heavy
in spawn in spring, but I have frequently obtaired individuals
in this state in midwinter from the sea coast; and in the large
river estuaries on the Gulf of the St. Lawrence enormous quan-
tities are captured in Januarj"- in the same state. Whether the
roe is retained in these smelts until the rivers open, or whether
there is one set which deposit their spawn in the sea and another
which deposit it in the rivers, is not apparent ; at all events,
the same crowding together takes place in salt as in fresh
water. I obst.rved in the St. John River that the first
captured in April and May were females, and most probably
they precede the males to the spawning-ground, as is seem-
ingly the case with other fishes, and notably so with the togue
and other lake trouts, as I have been told by raftsmen and
others who have watched them ; moreover, I have frequently
supposed that the despe' ate scrambling which takes place in
the brooks when the former is pushing up to spawn may be
in part, if not altogether, caused by the combined excite-
ment of both sexes in their desperate efibrts to reach their
goal.

Smelt and Caplin cast on Shore.

245

Enormous numbers of smelt are caught on the seaboard
in midwinter, mostly to feed pigs, the flesh of which be-
comes tainted by the cucumber flavour of this fish. As will be
shown in the sequel, like herrings and others which congregate
in dense shoals, the vast mass may occasionally become tliC
sport of the waves, and, like the caplin (seldom seen so far
south as New Brunswick), is sometimes cast in vast quantities
on the rugged coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland*

The sea-going smelt, after depositing its spawn, disappears,
and is said to return to the sea about midsummer, when
the land-locked fish repair to the profound depths ]pi the
lakes ; and it is assuredly remarkable to observe how quickly
they all vanish from streams and rivers that had been
literally swarming with them. Indeed, like the white fish,
they readily devour worm-bait in spring, whereas afterwards
nothing induces them to touch it — for the reason, probably,
that the excessive demand in the one case being beyond the
resources of the locality, induces the fishes to eat what they
might refuse when food is plentiful.

There would appear to be two species of White FISHES
{coregoni) in the salt and fresh waters of New Brunswick,
but their characters have not been carefully marked out.
Every spring, with the breaking-up of the ice, there appears
on the St. John a salmonoid to which the settlers give
the name of gizzard fish. It has the squarely truncated
snout and upper jaw overlapping the lower, and to all

* Referring to the former on the shores of Anticosti, Mr. Rowan
remarks in the Field, May, i86g: "In the month of June the caplin
come in shore to spawn, followed by all the hupgry monsters of the deep.
Each tide leaves thousands of these little fish high and dry on the beach.
After a storm I have seen cartloads of dead caplin on one little strip of
beach, and I have fished up enotigh live ones out of the water with one
scoop of my kettle to do for breakfast. They are the best bait for cod
fish." Moreover, the caplin forms a staple article of food of the salmon
and other fishes along the northern shores of the St. Lawrence. — Wutt
Canadian Naturalist, vol. vi., p. ill.

246 Field and Forest Ravibles.

appearances equals the C, albus of Richardson, and is not
distinct from C. sapidissimus of Agassiz, — thus, perhaps, being
identical with the far-famed attihawmeg of the Cree Indians.
The gizzard-like construction of the stomach, the walls of
which in many specimens I examined were fully three-
quarters of an inch in thickness, is said by the author of
the " Fauna Boreali Americana " to be distinctive of the last-
named species. '

Although it is stated that it feeds on shells and small fishes, I
have most frequently found insects, larvae, and vegetable fibre
in its stomach ; and the tongue, which Agassiz states to be
smooth in C. sapidissimus of Lake Superior, is covered with
minute conical teeth in the denizens of St. John River. It
is truly a delicious article of food, and seems never to
pall on the appetite of even those dependent on it for
their entire subsistence. The distribution of the coregoni*
as regards New Brunswick, is very much like that of the
smelt, there being a set that cannot possibly leave the fresh
water, and another which goes and returns regularly. With
refercfnce to the former, exactly the same obtains as with
other land-locked salmonoids ; there is a season of the year
(summer in this case) when the fish retires to the profound
depths of lakes, where it remains unobserved until autumn,
and then repairs to shallows, where numbers are captured. We
might suppose that the fish was originally a resident fresh-
water species restricted to the great inland lake basins, and
shut off from the °a by insurmountable barriers, such as
that which isolates tne great lakes at the sources of the St.
John River, and, as Perley remarks, a few may have acci-
dentally been conveyed over the Grand Falls * I have not
seen individuafs from the former situation ; and whilst allow-
ing that they may be distinct (perhaps two or more species),
from a close scrutiny of the sea-going sort, there cannot, to
my mind, be a question but that it is identical with the

Op. cit.y p. 205.

, • Mig7'atio7is of Cusk and Shad. 247

attihavvmeg. The average weight of the latter is barely
two pounds, whilst individuals of the former, from the head-
waters of the St. John, are reputed to weigh from five to
six pounds. There the white fishes are so plentiful, that
Professor Bailey informs me they jump in dozens to the
splash of the canoe paddle as the Indian shoots his skiff
along the Tobique lakes.*

The same remark is applicable to the CuSK, or SPOTTED
Burbot (Z. maculosa), as obtains in the case of the smelt and
white fishes, there being a set that never leaves the fresh water,
and another that comes from and returns to the sea regu-
larly. I compared specimens from the two situations, and,
excepting in the former being rather darker in colouring, there
are no appreciable distinctions. The sea-going set ascend
the rivers in winter, and are captured through the ice when
heavy with spawn. Nothing further is observed with reference
to its movements until October, when numbers are captured
on sand shoals, some from six to seven pounds in weight.

In the introductory remarks at the commencement I men-
tioned the prevalence of the Gaspereau or " Alewive " {A\
tryannus) in vast sculls in the Bay of Fundy during spring,
when they collect for the purpose of pushing up the rivers to
spawn. According to Perley,! it spends the winter in the
south, and does not enter the Bay of Fundy until April. As
in the case of the other migrants, the return to salt water
is not marked by any indications of its presence, so that it
is probable they return independently. The Shad {A. sapu
dissima), in the opinion of Dekay,:}: comes also from the south
to the northern waters, running up the rivers for shorter

* Perhaps the shad salmon {A. chiieformis) included in my List
as being met vita in Maine, might turn out to be this land-locked white
fish. (See Report of the Agriculture, etc., of Maine ; ist series, 1861,
and 2nd series, 1862, pp. 31 and 60.) A superficial examination would
soon tell the differences between it and the C albus.

t Op. lit., p. 208.

X " Fishes of New York."

248

Field afid Forest Rambles.

distances to spawn ; although occasionally a few push up the
great rivers a long way.

None of the migratory fresh-v/ater fishes — the salmon ex-
cepted— afford better sport to the angler than the far-famed
Striped Bass {R. lincatus). Although its head-quarters are
evidently in the briny deep, where it may be captured at all
seasons, still, as soon a:j the rivers open in spring, there is a
rush of bass up the St. John ; probably the males precede the
females, seeing that the first fish usually captured belong to
the former; at all events, the reproductive organs are then fully
developed in both sexes. About the midille of June they
commence to play on the surface in a remarkable manner,
jumping and gamboling like bonito or porpoises. The shallows
around the islands near Fredericton are evidently a favourite
resort, as annually, from time immemorial, the natives have
repaired to the locality for the purpose of spearing them. It
was at one time very plentiful in many of the large rivers and
seaboard creeks, but, like the salmon, has not only been for-
bidden its ancient haunts and spawning-grounds through mill-
dams, but the seine, bag net, and spear, recklessly used at all
seasons, have caused the complete extinction of the fish in
various localities, and promise to bring about a speedy annihila-
tion, at least as far as the inland waters are concerned. The
experiment of transferring it into lakes above the dams has
been tried in Maine, but with rather imperfect success;
perhaps the fish cannot entirely subsist in fresh water. Ac-
cording to the Indian belief, it is asserted that the males chase
the females on these occasions ; most probably, however, it is
the stronger males driving ofi* the smaller from the spawning-
beds. Be that, however, as it may, the scene on a beautiful
summer afternoon is extremely exciting. There a few canoes
containing the remnants of the Melicitc tribe, with a sprink-
ling of European spectators, may be seen dropping quietly
down the river, each with an Indian in the prow, spear in hand,
and another at the stern paddling gent'y : then a sudden splash

1

.;

Habits and Haunts of Striped Bass. . 249

close by calls for his utmost exertions, and, like an arrow, the
birch-bark skiff is shot towards the spot, v/hen the man in
front, resting on hi knees, with much force and dexterity sends
his three-pronged harpoon straight on the fish, which, if large,
may give a considerable deal of trouble before it is safe in the
canoe. This bass attains an enormous size, individuals of eighty
pounds in weight having been captured. The generality,
however, of all I have seen taken in the ai>ove situation, with
one or two exceptions, did not exceed six pounds, although I
know of many of from twenty to thirty pounds having been
speared in the rivers at distances varying from sixty to ninety
miles inland. The numbers found in fresh water in winter
make it uncertain whether or not there is any regular season
for its return to the ocean. From all accounts, it is partial to
seaboards indented by long creeks and fiords,* with rocky
bottoms and shoals, where it delights in following the boats
in winter. Whether there be really a dormant cofidition or not
during winter, it is the case when the rivers are frozen that
numbers of bassf may be seen lying perfectly motionless on
the bottom, when by making holes in the ice they may be
easily speared or captured by dip nets. It rises to a red and
gold artificial fly, but evidently prefers bait, more especially
squids, clam shell-fish, smelt, lobster, etc. As a game fish
and as an article of food the striped bass stands high, whilst
the beauty and symmetry of its outline, more especially of the
smaller-sized individuals, recommend it to notice.

The Yellow Perch is one of the most common of the
resident fresh-water fishes,^ as I have noticed elsewhere, even
in lakes frequented by the ravenous pike. Its congener, the
white species (J/. Americana) ^ is also widely distributed.
Some observers surmise that perches, sticklebacks, and such
fishes armed with spines, hold their own against the prc-

* Perley, op. cit., p. 180.

t The word is derived evidently from its native name, " bassagis."

X It spawns early in May, on sandy bottoms.

250

Field and Forest Rambles.

datory species, and perhaps with a certain degree of truth ;
still I found a specimen of the Two-SPINED STICKLEBACK in
the stomach of the soft-mouthed Silvery Dace (Z. chryso-
leiicas) ; rather remarkable, seeing that the former is distin-
guished for the very stout and laige size of its armature. The
percoids of the New Brunswick waters require careful study ;
indeed, from specimens and reports of fishermen, I am much
inclined to believe that there are undescribed species. For
example, in one of the inland lakes there is a perch captured
in midsummer, and again through the ice in midwinter, so
very distinct from the white species, with which it has hitherto
been confounded, that I do not hesitate to consider it either
new to science, or else that imperfectly described species
named by Dekay * the White Lake Bass of Lake Erie {L.
albidus).

The two specimens I examined were caught in Lake
Oromocto, one of the head-waters of the Magaguadavic River,
by my friend Colonel Anderson, of the New Brunswick Militia.
These, com'pared with Merone Americana, showed the fol-
lowing peculiarities. The former has the back more arched
anterior to the dorsal fin, with a hollow at the nape, and a more
produced snout. The spines of the opercle differ also ; and
the lateral line, which is concurrent with the back in the white
perch, is straight in this bass. These points are very apparent
when specimens of the two are placed side by side ; moreover,
in the fish in question we find the scales advancing to the
tips of the fins, besides disparities in th< dative length of the
rays, as well as in the size and colouring of their bodies.
These and probably other important details I have not ob-
served seem to establish a specific character for this perch, two
specimens of which were twelve and fifteen inches in length.
The settlers about the lake say it is plentiful, and individuals
are often captured weighing two pounds. Its flesh is firm,
and better flavoured than that of either the yellow or white

* " Natural History of New York," vol. iii., ^. 13.

Mortality among Lamprey Eeis. 251

perch. Although not apparently known to frequent the other
lakes, I make no doubt that the so-called white perch of inland
lakes will turn out to be this species ; at all events, as far as I
had opportunities of knowing, there is no doubt a third species
has been overlooked by Perley and other ichthyologists who
have worked at the fishes of north-eastern America.

The Sharp-nosed Sturgeon is the only species o^ the
genus met with in New Brunswick waters. It is strange that
neither natives nor whites .have yet succeeded in discovering
its spawning-grounds, although no doubt it deposits its ova in
the rivers and lakes, more especially in the reaches within
the influence of the tides; nor is the isinglass collected; indeed
the Indians seem to be unaware of the substance, although
very fond of the flesh, which they collect and salt for winter
use. As soon as the rivers are cleared of ice, and the spring
freshets have subsided, sturgeons collect at several points in
the rivers, where the natives spear them. Now and then a
monster seven or eight feet in length tosses himself out of the
water, falling lengthways with a loud splash, as if in wanton
playfulness. The natives assert, however, it is to escape from
the Lamprey Eel, which is reputed to attach itself to their
bodies, and prey on their vital parts. With reference to the
latter fish, which is very common in certain rivers in summer,
migrating seaward in the cold months, during autumn there
is a strange phenomenon often observable, in vast numbers of
Igtmpreys being found dead along the sides of the smaller
influents of rivers, as if they had been destroyed by some
general cause. Indeed, unless it is that they had delayed
their sojourn too long in fresh water, it would be difficult to
account for such wholesale destruction as is not unfrequently
observed in many streams. On the Miramichi, where numbers
are found dead towards autumn, Mr. J. L. Price told Mr.
Perley* that "he often observed lampreys in August in
languishing conditions, head and throat greatly oloated, and

♦ op. cit., p. 226.

252 Field and Forest Rambles.

the whole body covered with a white mucous secretion ; "
moreover, that " when disturbed at the spawning season, it will
pursue the intruder, however formidable, with great spirit, even
beyond the bounds of the water."

The tough and mailed hide of the sturgeon * must have
tried the flint spear-head of the Indian of old ; and yet,
judging from the prevalence of its remains in the kitchen
middens, the fish must have entered greatly into the fare of the
natives. The two-barbed steel weapon used by the present
race contrasts with the former ; and, unless left in the body,
or unless many were driven in in succession, it is difficult to
understand how the simple pointed flint was retained during
the struggles and scuffles such as ensue at the present day
with the formidable and efficient harpoon ; for even with all
its superior advantages, canoes are frequently upset when a
large sturgeon is struck and suddenly makes off". No doubt
there is a spice of the old savage hunter still lurking in the
hearts of these degenerate descendants of a ruder race, and it
is interesting to note how apethetic and unimpressionable
they are on most subjects, until recui-ring to exploits of the
chase, such as bass and sturgeon spearing, deer hunting, and
the like, when the minutest details are preserved and narrated
afterwards with marked delight. The smallest sturgeons
captured in the rivers are seldom under a foot, whilst inter-
mediate sized individuals, up even to fifteen feet in length, are
taken in the fresh and salt waters ; the generality, however,
are about half as long.

During June, when the silvery salmon trout is plentiful in the
streams connecting the various lakes, there is found associated
with it a Red-banded Sucker, five to six inches in length,
with a brilliant red bar extending lengthways down its sides.
I examined several specimens of this fish, kindly procured for
me from the Sciff" Lake stream of the eastern Schoodic chain
of lakes by Major Monk and Captain Wolseley. It seems to

* Pasagis of the Melicite Indiaais.

Variety of Fresh-ivater Fish. 253

be also found in the upper waters of the Androscoggin River,
in the state of Maine; but further there are no accounts of its
presence north of the state of Vermont, where it was discovered
by Lesueur, and named by him Catostomus longirostris. The
specimens above referred to were examined by Dr. Gunthur,
who informs me that they differ only from this species in the
length of the anal fin, which varies according to sex and season.
The well-known TOM CoD {M. pruinosd) is the only other
representative of the family Gadida frequenting our inland
fresh waters. The " frost fish," as it is familiarly called,
seldom exceeds eight to twelve inches in length, and, although
very plentiful along the shores and brackish waters, does not
push far up the rivers ; but 1 have occasionally seen individuals
captured through the ice at a distance of ninety miles from
the sea. The most plentiful and generally distributed of all
our fresh-water fishes are the numerous representatives of the
carp, chub, sucker, dace, shiner, minnow, etc., which crowd the
still waters of all the lakes and slow-flowing rivers. Few have
yet attracted the fisherman or angler, either on the score of
food or sport, and in all probability they will be discarded as
long as there are better fish to fry ; still, several species are
worthy of attention, at least as articles of food. There is
evidently great confusion in the nomenclature of many
species, and, unless one has specimens wherewith to compare
the varieties of chubs and dace of our rivers and lakes, he will
find it next to impossible to establish the specitx identity of
certain representatives of the genera Catostomus and Leucisciis ;
indeed, from published details and plates of the fishet of any
portion of this continent to which I have had access, it would
seem to me no easy matter to identify even the more common
species of these soft-finned fishes. I shall therefore refer
merely to such as I have been enabled to recognize, without
reference to the published lists, which evidently accept certain
species as common here because they are found in adjoining
regions.

254 Field and Forest Rambles.

The common Sucking Carp of the larger rivers (in which
it is very common) agrees in every particular with the L.
cephaliis or Chub Big-head of Kirtland.* It may be the same
as the Horned Sucker of Lesueur ; f but the description by
that author does not come up entirely to our fish in relation
to the exact position of the horny tubercles on the head,
which, as far as I can discover, are restricted to the male fish,
and only cuticular appendages, being easily rubbed off, and
evidently a seasonal condition, referable to winter and spring.
So various are the changes in some species, that I observe that
what were considered perfectly distinct are now proved to be
the same fish at differtnt seasons of the year. The use of the
horns may be to scrape up the sand or mud when the female
deposits the ova ; at all events, this sucker, when captured in
June and the three following months, wants these tubercles,
and may be distinguished from any other of its congeners by
a black spot at the anterior base of the dorsal fin, a dark
band on the side of the body in the course of the lateral line,
with a golden band above it — the latter best seen immediately
after the fish leaves the water. This species takes bait, but is
often very sluggish and inactive, and may be seen in small
schools on the sandy bottoms of streams near their debou-
chures, and lying listlessly, so that there is no difficulty in
capturing them with dip nets. The flesh is certainly superior
to that of the common chub, red-fin, and the smaller dace,
although that may be paying it a small compliment. The most
common chub is seemingly subject to certain varieties, or
else there are two or more species very closely allied — so near,
indeed, that they seem to run into each other, and yet the
extremes make what some naturalists call good species. My
impresssion on comparinj^ a great many specimens of New
Brunswick chubs with descriptions of those of the Northern
States, is that authors have made distinct what appear to be

* " Boston Journal of Natural History," vol. iii., pi. 5, fig. 2.
t " Journal Acad Natural Science," "ol. i., p. 93.

The Dace Mitmow and the Cat-fish, 255

only phases of one fish ; at all events, the nearest description
of our chub is recorded under the head of the Leucisais
nitidus by Dekay;* and what he calls the Bay Shiner
{L. chrysoptertis), and Storer the "silvery dace/'f seem to be
only seasonal conditions of the same species. There is here
a fine field for the ichthyologist, as the study of the Cyprinidce
of America requires especial care and attention, being beset
with many difficulties, which only a large experience, and
comparisons of many individual specimens, will overcome.

The New York Shiner {C. chrysoleticas) of Mitchell is very
common in all the fresh-water streams ; it never attains
above six or eight inches in length, and is only useful as bait
in the capture of more savoury fish ; the same may be said
of that pest to the angler familiarly known as the RED-FIN
{L. corniitus), and its less beautiful but larger congener the
Roach Dace {L.pulchellus) of Storer. I have several times
captured with bait a small dace, olive green, with a golden
dorsal stripe, agreeing with the BANDED Dace of Dekay.

The smaller dace and minnows are numerous. I could
identify the Black-nosed Dace or Brook Minnow (Z. atro-
nasiis). There is another small LeuciSCUS often found in
brooks, about three inches in length, eyes large and prominent,
irides silvery, pupils black, tail deepl- f ked ; above olive,
with a dark line down the back ; iridescent lines on sides above
the lateral line, which is single ; scales on body large ; lower
parts silvery white and shining ; tips of the fins orange.

The Many and the Two Spined Stickleback {G. occi-
dentalis and biacidatus) are both plentiful, and like the dace,
chub, etc., deposit their spawn in July.

The ugly Cat-fish {P. catus) sometimes attains a weight
of one pound. It is not plentiful, but is often found in the
same haunts with the Yellow Perch. Like some of the chubs,
it displays a wonderful tenacity of life, and, although frozen

* '■'• New York Fauna," p. 21 r, plate 30, fig. 95
t " Fishes of Massachusetts," p. 90.

256

Fidd and Forest Rambles.

hard, may be recovered by careful thawing. This may be
illustrated with any of the fishes which, after several hours'
exposure to a very low temperature, may be restored to life
provided the freezing is rapid after emersion and the thawing
very gradual. The Pike has not hitherto appeared in any of
our waters, although, as before noticed, it has been introduced
into the head-waters of the St. Croix River on the western
frontier, and is rapidly exterminating the cyprinids and fry
of the indigenous fishes. The most common eel of our fi^esh
waters is Angnilla tejmirostris of Dekay, which is said to go
and come from the sea regularly. This, however, seems
doubtful; at all events the majority are sedentary in the
lakes, and are there captured by the Indians by means of
baskets called eel-pots. The larger specimens seem to difier
considerably in the shape of the head, and some greatly
exceed the usual recorded dimensions of the fish. Whether
the A. Bostonicnsis of Lesueur is identical with the former
I cannot say, but shall not be surprised if further comparisons
show more than one species inhabiting the rivers of this
province.

It is a remarkable circumstance that, contrary to the re-
corded habits of the fish elsewhere, the American Hake
{Mcrluciiis albidus) frequents several lakes at the head-waters
of the great reaches communicating with the St. John near its
delta, and is captured '" numbers through the ice with hook and
bait. Being essentia 1 salt-water species, its thus resorting
to inland fresh and brackish waters would seem to indicate
that it does so, if not for spawning purposes, for prtrticular
food, which (according to persons who catch them) is the
young of the gaspereau.

Many of the marine fishes are very interesting, and of great
economic value; but, as I have not had sufficient opportunities
of gaining a close acquaintance with this branch of the local
ichthyology, I will merely enumerate a few of the most im-
portant food fishes. Although not so plentiful as in the days

Food Fishes of the Atlantic Coast.

257

before the advent of the whites, still the following are abun-
dant in the bays, creeks, and sea basins around the coasts,
and furnish valuable and staple articles of commerce.

The Norway Haddock has its southern limit about New
York, and Is not common ; but the American fish of that name
is exceedingly numerous. The Spring and Autumn Mackerels
and Herrings refer to several species ; all are famous as arti-
cles of food, and spawn on our shores, and are especially
plentiful in the Bay of Fundy. Two sorts of Cod and Hake,
the Pollock, Tusk, Halibut, Flounder, and Skate, make up a
bounteous supply of food fishes scarcely surpassed in quantity
or quality by those of any other country. Indeed it requires
only a glance at the map to be convinced of the advantages
ofife«-ed to the finny tribes in the way of food and shelter.

PART IV.

GEOLOGY.

.'> 2

» *

PART IV.
GEOLOGY

CHAPTER XL-
Geology — Rocks and Soils — Primary Rocks — Interment of recent Fishes
in Strata — Coal Measures — Physical Features of the Coal Beds —
Episode of Forest Life — New Red Sandstone — Glacial Phenomena,
past and present — Table of Rock Formations, with their valuable
Minerals.

THE geological features of New Brunswick are very ''n-
teresting, but rather complicated, and in places by no
means easily worked ; the long winter, extensive forest tracts,
gener vil level country, with few clifif exposures and great depth
of glacial drift on the svirface, are antagonistic to the geologist's
researches; nevertheless, the chief river valle^^s ofifer fair
sections of the strata, which are well exposed m the southern
parts of the province, and along the coast lin^s and islands of
the Gulf of the St. Lawrence and Bay of Vundy, where they
have been studied \vrith care by several competent geologists. '^

* See "Dawson's Acadian Geology," Drs. Gesner and Robb ; Professor
Bailey's and Hart and Hind's Reports ; P.ofessor Johnston's Map and
Report on the Agricultural Capabilities ci the Province ; Mr. Matthew,
your. Geol. Soc. Lon., vol. xxi., and late^ Mr. Hind's paper in vol xxv.

262 Field mid Forest Rambles.

The northern and wilderness regions are, however, only now
being explored by the Geological Survey of Canada,

Of the fourteen grand divisions of strata so classified by
Lyell,* seven have hitherto been identified in New Brunswick ;
these, considered in chronological succession, from below up-
wards, are briefly, Laurentian, Cambrian, Silurian, De-
vonian, Carboniferous, Triassic, and Post Tertiary.

The two first comprise groups of granitic and granatoid
beds, limestones, sandstones, slates, and conglomerates of vast
and variable thicknesses ; often much metamorphosed and
altered by volcanic agencies, and also by the disturbing actions
of upheaval and depression, the dips of not a few giving an
angle of 90"^. The discovery of traces of animal life — to wit,
the so-called Eozoon Canadense in the Laurentian beds of
Upper Canada, has not yet been further strengthened by the
finding of like remains in strata of the same or any other age
in New Brunswick, perhaps from the reason that the latter
have not yet been so carefully examined. Iron, copper, and
galena have been discovered in certain districts, but hitherto
neither of the two first groups of rocks have, so far as they
have been observed, been found to be very productive of useful
minerals. Nor, unless where covered with Glacial Drift, do
they furnish good lands for settlements.

The Silurian Beds appear to overlie or flank the Lauren-
tian and Cambrian on their inland side, but the exact position
and distribution of the former have not yet been accurately
determined ; perhaps many beds supposed to belong to these
very ancient rocks may, on closer acquaintance, turn out, as
will be shown presently, to appertain to more recent formations.
According to Bailey and others, about the same agricultural
conditions prevail wherever these beds appear. They are pro-
ductive of considerable mineral wealth, and no doubt, when
carefully examined, will yield most valuable ores. Iron and
antimony mines have been opened in several localities, but
* " Elements of Geology," sixth ed., p. 102.

How ifnportani Discoveries are tnadc. 263

there is seemingly a want of money and means of transport
both of which will, no doubt, in time be forthcoming. The
Devonian, or Old Red Sandstone, is very well developed,
and here, as in other lands, presents prominent topographical
positions, and confers a very remarkable facies upon the
scenery. However, the soils formed by its disintegration are
of themselves poor, but fortunately the drift deposits covering
them often make up for their unproductiveness. The granitic
rocks of the central portion of the province, and also the band
of slates flanking the latter, evidently belong to this s jries.

Until 1868 these slates were* considered by Dr Dawson
and others to belong to the Lower Silurian rocks ; but the
discovery of fossils peculiarly Devonian on their f^ank, would
seem to make them of this age.

An interesting example of how much science is now and
then indebted to outsiders in connection with some of its
important discoveries is shown in the case of my friend Mr.
Edward Jack, of whom reference has been previously made.
This gentleman, although engaged in, the very arduous and
even adventurous occupation of a forest surveyor, has found
leisure and not scrupled to employ the same in enriching his
mind with whatever knowledge, in connection with literature
and science, was within his grasp, with the ulterior object of
applying the information practically during his avocations. In
this way it happened one day, when seated on the side of a
small brook in the centre of a wild forest tract, that he employed
a short respite in examining the shelves of slate rocks in the
vicinity, where he picked up several fossils which have been
the means of deciding the age of the beds above mentioned.
These Old Red Sandstone slates cover an extent of country
in New Brunswick alone of little less than 170 miles in length,
and 20 in breadth, and, in the absence of any fossils, were
until then supposed (from their position and mineral consist-
ence) to be Silurian beds.

264 Field and Forest Rambles.

Before referring to the next series of rocks overlying the
Old Red Sandstone, I may diverge for a short time from the
immediate consideration of the strata, to that referring to their
fossil remains. It is well known that in this and the over'ying
coal formations, — for instance, in the coal measures of the
Joggins in Nova Scotia, and elsewhere in the Old World, — vast
accumulations of fossil remains, to wit, fishes, etc., indicate
a wholesale destruction of animal life, suggesting questions of
how such phenomena might have been brough t about. To
the philosophic mind they might indicate oscillations in the
relative positions of land and sea, and no doubt such may
have occasionally been the case; but a far simpler explanation
is also feasible, as is shown by the following occurrence, of
which I was an eye-witness.

In the Bay of Fundy, opposite the island of Grand Manan,
there is the large gap in the coast-line made by Passama-
quoddy Bay, into which several fair-sized rivers drain. One,
the Magagudavic, before mentioned, is reached by means of a
long fiord of several miles in length. At a short distance west-
ward, there is a small creek named Anderson's Cove, formed
in the trappean rocks of which the coast line is composed.
These beds are considered by geologists as belonging to the
Devonian or Old Red Sandstone formations of southern New
Brunswick. Anderson's Cove is, in fact, the sea-ending of a
ravine down which runs a small streair. into a very muddy
lagoon of upwards of 1,300 feet in circumference. The latter
is oval in shape, and communicates directly at high tide with
Andersjn's Cove by means of a narrow and rocky channel,
filled with masses of amygdaloid trap, fragments of which are
mixed with the mud forming at the bottom of the lagoon.
There is a beach of sand in front of the lagoon, besides a
sea-wall formed of sand and masses of rocks and stranded
logs of wood piled in disorder along the shore; so that,
excepting during furious gales, the only direct communication

Destruction of Herring Fry. 265

with the lagoon is by the passage just mentioned. During
high tide the waves rush up this channel with force, stirring
up the mud of the lagoon, when the water in the basin fre-
quently assumes almost the consistency of pea-soup. Thus
the lagoon is a shallow morass of brackish water at low tide,
receiving a constant supply of fresh water from the stream
which is depositing its debris on the slimy bottom ; moreover,
land-shells and other organic remains are being conveyed by
the stream or washed by the rain into the basin, whilst on the
other hand the powerful tidal wave of the Bay of Fundy
brings up quantities of marine moUusca, radiata, etc., remains
of which strew its bottom and sides. Such, in all probability,
has been the usual state of matters in this quiet corner of the
bay for unreckoncd ages, broken only at long intervals by
occurrences such as I shall now describe.

On the 24th of September, 1867, a very heavy gale from
the west blew directly into Anderson's Cove, and more especi-
ally on the entrance of the lagoon at the eastern end. The
result was, that the mud became disturbed to an unusual
extent, and the amount of the water in the area was doubled in
quantity. During the gale enormous numbers of dead fishes
were seen floating on the surface of the turbid waters of the
morass, and on the following morning, when the hurricane
had subsided, a spectacle presented itself surpassing anything
of the kind observed by the residents on previous occasions.
The entire lagoon, from its entrance to the limits of the tide,
was covered with dead fishes. The species, with the excep-
tion of a few mackerel and New York flounders, was found to
be the young of the American herring {Clupca elongatd) ave-
raging about six inches in length. This fish is said to spawn
in the neighbourhood, and usually large shoals had been
observed for some weeks previously in and about Anderson's
Cove. I chanced to be in the vicinity about a fortnight after
the occurrence just mentioned, and, when on my way to the
scene of the disaster, was made uncomfortably aware of their

266 Field and Forest Rambles.

proximity even at the distance of two miles, by an intolerable
stench from decomposing fish, contaminating the atmosphere
in every direction for five miles around Anderson's Cove.
The smell was found to emanate not only from the latter, but
also from the fields around, where many cartloads had been
deposited by the farmers ; nevertheless, the quantities of
rotting fish around the margin of the lagoon seemed very little
diminished by the amount taken away for manure, not to
mention what had been consumed by the flocks of gulls and
crows A^hich were feeding sumptuously on their remains.

After skirting the shore of Anderson's Cove, we reached
the entrance of the narrow, tortuous passage leading to the
lagoon ; here the first traces of the disaster were manifested
by enormous quantities of fishes, impacted between and among
the fallen masses of rock, which were literally besmeared all
over with the crushed flesh and bones of herrings, whilst the
sides and bottom of the lagoon were covered with their entire
and mangled remains, forming heaps several feet in depth,
more especially in places where there had evidently been
eddies, whilst the limits of the tide were distinctly marked by
a pile of their bodies which fringed the basin of the lagoon.
On the muddy bottom they lay as thick as herrings \'^ a
barrel, interspersed with remains of crabs, lobsters, sea-mussels,
and other shells, together with enormous numbers of the dead
bodies of star-fishes, etc.

A friend who resides in the neighbourhood suggested that
the shoal had been chased into the enclosure by sharks, or
other predaceous fishes, and were subsequently suffocated by
the muddy waters of the lagoon. But the mangled remains
in the passage and shallow water in Anderson's Cove, together
with the fury of the gale, rather seemed to indicate that the
vast assemblage, getting into shallow water, and under the
influence of the breakers, was driven pell-mell up the passage
and against its rocky sides into the lagoon, where the survivors
perished from the combined fury of the waves and the muddy

The Testimony of Rocks. 267

waters. During our examination of the bottom of the lagoon,
it was apparent, even in the short space of time that had
elapsed since the gale, that many of the fishes had been com-
pletely covered over by mud conveyed or re-disturbed by
every tide, and deposited also from the water-shed around the
morass. No doubt at that rate the whole of the organic
remains, before long, became buried in the soft mire ; and
perhaps some geologists in the far distant future will be specu-
lating on the cause cr causes which brought about such a
vast congregation of marine and land animals in so limited an
area, just as he now theorizes on the probable causes of those
vast assemblages of fossil animals he is accustomed to observe
in many rock formations. For we have only to suppose one
or more geological epochs to have passed away, and a slight
elevation of the land, when, if a section were made of the spot
where this lagoon now stands, there would be found an alluvial
deposit on the surface, succeeded by a sedimentary stratum
containing fragments of the Devonian trap-rock of the neigh-
bourhood, accompanied by the vast assemblage of organic
remains just described, and followed, perhaps, by similar
objects at greater depths, succeeded, no doubt, by traces of the
Glacial epoch, which are so vividly portrayed on the surface
of the surrounding country at the present day ; and lastly, the
old Devonian conglomerate in which the lagoon now stands.
And whilst each will supply memorials of its own peculiar but
relatively distant epochs, none will furnish more lasting and
wonderful phenomena than the deposit which contains the
fishes destroyed during the gale of the 24th of September,
1867.

Occurrences similar to that just described are apparently
not common, at least along the coast of the Bay of Fundy,
but enormous shoals of herrings and other fishes are met with
at stated seasons, so thr^ the accident of the 24th of Septem-
ber might occur again anywhere under the same h vourable
conditions. Moreover, it may be pretty confidently surmised

268 Field and Forest Rambles.

that the fish stranded in the lagoon were but a very small
portion of the original shoal which entered Anderson's Cove ;
and thus, supposing the locality had been many times larger,
there would have beeu no diminution in the relative density of
the dead fishes on the area.

Another example is recorded in the Journal of the Geo-
logical Society of London* Thousand of dead fishes, thrown
on the coast of Madras, were afterwards enveloped in sand
and mud along with other marine animals and plants, so as
to form a densely packed stratum of fishes, etc., of unknown
breadth, but extending for a vast distance along the -coast-line.
The fishes were supposed to have been destroyed by the enor-
mous fall of rain from the south-west monsoon, rendering the
sea water less saline. Be that the cause or not, it is by such facts
as these, compared with similar phenomena of bygone epochs,
that the geologist is enabled to arrive at just conclusions.

The Carboniferous Beds form a great basin, occupying
the central portion of the region, with a diameter of nearly
200 miles. Coal has been found in one or two situations, but
the seams are small, none averaging over eighteen inches in
thickness. The facies of the country occupied by the above
rock formations is very level, depressed even in places, so as
to form extensive lake basins, bogs, and barrens.

The soils, wherever the lower or sub-carboniferous strata
exist, are unsurpassed in value and fertility by any others in the
entire province; and wherever they exist, as Professor Bailey
justly remarks, "the settler, unconscious of the cause, at once
commences the work of reclaiming."

The Albertite of thes^ beds Jias gained notoriety; besides
this, gypsum, salt, iron, lead, silver, and manganese are met
with in rocks of this age, whilst noble forests of pine and
hard wood are spread far and wide over their surfaces. The

* Vol. xviii., p. 453. Moreover, on the authority of Mr. Rowan, an
immense number of herring spawn and caplin are cast up on the shores
of the island of Anticosti, in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence, during gales.

■ Topography of Coal For7nations, 269

rapid degradation, together with the presence of lime (in the
form of sulphate and carbonate), combine to make the lower
carboniferous beds of New Erunswick eminently adapted for
agricultural purposes.* -

Thus the major portion of central and eastern New Bruns-
wick is composed of these beds, which furnish topographical
aspects familiar to the eye of the geologist. This, as before
pointed out, is especially observable along the route already
indicated, from the capital to St. Stephen on the St. Croix
River ; the chief feature being the extreme flatness of the
land, which is overspread by forests, broken here and there
by swamps or clearings, and scattered settlements, or else
burned lands, more or less overgrown by the usual second
growth of larch, pine, maple, willow, alder, poplar, and under-
shrubs.

Harvey's Settlement, as before stated, is an extensively cul-
tivated patch, surrounded by enormous forests, stretching in a
north-easterly direction ; the only prominent feature being
the rounded hill of trap, named Bald Mountain, which towers
some hundred feet above the pine tops.

This mound of igneous rock fringes the great coal basin of
central New Brunswick, and is a regular geological feature of
the sub-carboniferous strata. It would further seem that these
trap beds form the line of junction between the latter and the
ordinary coal measures. The view from any commanding
position in this neighbourhood is peculiarly characteristic of
the region. A vast sea of pine tops is observed stretching far
and wide; and either rising in undulating ridges according to
the nature of the ground, or spread out in an interminable
sheet of dark green, broken here and there by little gaps and
clearings. Indeed, one might fancy these primeval forests
stretching from shore to shore, not over two centuries ago,
before the white t^cin-set foot in them, and teeming with wild

* See " Bailey's Observations on the Geology of Southern New Brun -
wick," Government Report, p. 104.

270 Field and Forest Rambles.

animals, and the native narrowing his exertions to merely-
hunting and fishing. Now their vast solitudes are only the
resorts of an occasional moose, reindeer, or Virginian deer,
with an anchorite bear or two, and very few, if any, of the
lesser furred animals, such as the sable or mink.

The clearings and settlements in such level forest tracts,
being often far apart, and not joined by roads or footpaths, to
the person unexperienced in wood craft it became, as before
observed, a serious matter to get out of his reckonings; and
instances are recorded of individuals having been put to great
straits on that account. Not many years ago a mysterious
and melancholy occurrence of this description took place in
the above region, of which the following particulars were com-
municated to me.

A young English gentleman took up a temporary residence
in the district, for the purpose of gaining information relative
to agriculture and the system of reclaiming forest land, with
the ulterior view of becoming a colonist. He was healthy,
strong, and active — qualities indispensable to meet the hard-
ships of a backwoodsman. Early one autumn, when the leaf
was beginning to turn, Mr. B — — , the unfortunate individual
referred to, set out from a friend's house, where he had been
staying for a few days, for the purpose of making his way to
his own residence, v \ich lay on the banks of a river about
six miles distant. The nearest route led through a large tract
of forest, and was indicated more or less by " blazing," which
is merely removing chips of bark from the trees.

Provided with compass, a supply of chocolate, brandy, and
a gun to shoot partridges on the way, he commenced the
homeward journey, and although it was new to him, it scarcely
occurred to himself or his hosts that he could possibly lose
the way. But in order to make this point certain, he was ac-
companied for a certain distance by his friend's son, who on
parting with him pointed out the direction'of the remainder
of the route, which was clearly indicated by a swamp with a

Found Dead ill the Wilderness. 271

long strip of alder bush on one side and a pine forest on the
other. From the time Mr. B parted with his young com-
panion, he was never seen alive. Rewards were offered, and the
forest traversed by settlers and Indians in vain ; but not a sign
of the lost one could be discovered. Indeed, various were the
surmises — amongst others, that he had been murdered and made
away with by the person in whose company he was last seen.
At length, after "the fall," when the sunny days and frosty
nights of November, or what is called the Indian summer, had
just passed, and more than three months had elapsed since the
unfortunate gentleman's disappearance, a woodman, returning
from his day's work, observed the sun shining brightly on a
polished substance by the side of a pine stump in the forest,
and drawing near, was horror-struck at seeing the trunk of a
human body resting in a sitting posture against the tree. Decay
had advanced so far that the flesh had disappeared entirely,
leaving only the bones of the spine and lower extremities in
their original situation. Moreover, the head had fallen down,
and lay by the side of the skeleton ; but the knapsack was still
on the shoulders, and its belts and buckles showed no signs of
having been loosened ; the gun was placed under the left knee,
so as to support it, and rested against a log, over which the
muzzle protruded for about a foot. The place where the body
was found had evidently been selected, and wa. surrounded
by tall pines — the exact spot being a hollow betweert two
divergent roots of a spruce snag, where support to the hips and
back would be best attained, especially if one was suffering
from causes affecting the respiratory organs. Strange to say, it
was within six yards of a lumber path leading to the main road,
which, in a direct line, did not exceed six hundred yards from
where the body was found ; so close even, that waggons could
be heard passing along the highway, and the voices of children
at play at a farmer's house close by. It was, moreover, only
three miles from the house he had left, and but a mile and a
half from where he parted with the settler's son. The remains

272 F^eld and Forest Rambles.

were examined, but gave no indications of violence as far as
the skeleton was concerned ; there was a displacement of the
bones of the knee under which the gun rested, but that might
have taken place during the process of decomposition. The
chocolate and brandy remained on his person, and his watch
in his knapsack. One barrel of the gun was loaded, and there
was an ample supply of powder and caps to have fired off
had he desired or been capable of attracting the attention of
passers-by. The minutest inquiries failed, however, to discover
any property missing except his signet ring, and the whole
evidence seemed to clear his companion from suspicion of foul
play. The surmises were that he might have fallen and dislo-
cated his knee, and died subsequently from collapse, or from a
sudden lesion of one of the great internal fountain-heads of
life. At all events, the cause or causes of his death continue
a mystery. ' ^

The next formation in upward succession to the Carboni-
ferous series is the Trias, or NEW Red Sandstone of Prince
Edward Island, and a few fragments on the southern coast.
Referring to the region just described, wherever the ground
admits of examination, and more especially along the sides of
valleys, rivers, and streams, the geologist is struck with the
evidences of bygone Glacial action, more especially the striae
or scorings on the surface of the harder rocks, and wherever
the tnaterial is durable enough to preserve them. There, as
elsewhere, all over the province, the general trend of these
glacial sculpturings runs north and south, with some western
variations, and often in accordance with the general direction
of the St. John River, but not necessarily along river valleys ;
indeed they appear to cross them in places.* This brings me
to a consideration of the surface deposits, which belong entirely

* The directions of the strias, as a rule, run south, with slight easterly or
westerly deviations. See observations by Hunt, Report, p. 191, and also
the table compiled by Mr. Matthew from personal knowledge, and the
labours of Professors Robb and Bailey. — Canadian Natttralisty vol. vi.,
p. 100.

Prospecting /or Gold and Minerals. 273

to the Boulder Clay Drift, Glacial, and Post-Glacis l
P3P0CHS. These cover the entire surface of the province and
neighbouring regions, either in the shape of loose soil, inter-
mixed with angular fragments of rocks, or beds of gravel on
which granitic and other boulders are superimposed. The river
valley gravels form large flats, vulgarly named "intervals,"
or islands, composed of pebbles and sand, ijiany of which
become covered during the periodical inundations in spring,
and, after receiving sedimentary deposits, produce valuable
crops of hay. The soils formed by the glacial drift, when
cleared of boulders, and the river valley deposits, unless
gravelly tracts, are very productive, being made up of the
debris of various rocks. In some river valleys of the northern
districts, the drift contains traces of gold, whilst on the
Tobique the precious metal is said to be met with in Silurian
beds, but, as elsewhere, uncertainty is associated with deception,
and more than one enthusiastic gold finder has been grievously
imposed on by designing persons.

I was often entertained, whilst accompanying Mr. Charles
Robb on a few of his geological reconnaissances in connection
with the geological survey of the province, by observing how
intensely excited many of the settlers became when his
presence was made known on their lands. To examine rocks,
merely for the purpose of knowing the one from the other,
was utterly beyond their powers of belief, and the more
Mr. Robb tried to convince them, the more they seemed
impressed with a belief that he was searching for precious
metals, and had taken this mode of explanation in order to
deceive them. The gold-digging mania had its day in New
Brunswick, as well as elsewhere on the continent, ana chiefly
from some " finds " in the neighbouring province of Nova
Scotia. So strong was the furor, that not a few residents
in the wilderness districts forwarded large packages of rock
to the United States for analysis, and also inundated the
laboratory of the professor of chemistry at Fredericton with

274 Field and Forest Rambles.

what they designated specimens of silver or gold, but which
turned out to be only some worthless compounds of iron,
mica, and such-like.

The following remarkable appearances in connection with
many of the inland lakes of this region are worthy of notice
Mounds of soil, gravel, and stones in the form of high walls —
sometimes one mound within another — are seen surrounding
portions of lake basins ; these, according to Dr. Dawson,* are
considered to be of modern origin, and caused by the drifting '
to and fro of masses of ice in spring; but I am aware of at
least one instance of a small lake near Fredericton where
these mounds are very clearly defined, and yet, according
to the testimony of a person who has lived for thirty years
on its banks, I have been informed that no such movements
of the ice have taken place during his residence in the vicinity.
Their connection with the Glacial epoch is not clear, whilst
in many larger lakes, where the ice is annually driven on
the shore, no such appearances exist ; at all events these
remarkable accumulations are interesting with reference to
the elucidation of similar phenomena relating to the Drift
and Boulder periods. Turning from the lake margins, I
shall now record some notes on the river terraces, more
especially of the St. John, excellent examples of which are
observable on the right bank of the river at Fredericton, as
seen in the diagram on page 275.

According to some geologists, all such terraces belong to
the epoch of the elevation of the rock formations in which
they exist, and are therefore pre-Glacial to any extent
according to the antiquity of the strata, the drift having
been subsequently moulded, as it were, into their hollows
by Glacial action. Again, the theory that they were brought
about during the so-called post-Glacial submergence, indi-
cating spasmodic movements, contrasts with a more gene-

* " Acadian Geology," 2nd edition, p. 35.

%

Formation of River Terraces.

275

rally received hypothesis that they may have been caused
by ice damming back rivers during, or subsequent to, the
Glacial epoch.

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different conclusions. I repeat, 1st, that the river terraces, of
the St. John for example, were formed during the elevation
of the carboniferous sandstone, and therefore might be fire-
Glacial or not. 2nd. Sometimes a glacier, running down a

T 2

276 Field a7id Forest Rambics.

valley, runs straight across another ; and when thaws take
place, there would be a jamming and banking back of the
waters, which would indicate levels of subsidence much like
the terrace clifirs. 3rd. That the terraces indicate fitful oscil-
lations of level is also a feasible hypothesis. Referring to the
banking-back supposition ; I before alluded to the fact that
there are now and then jams of ice on the great rivers of a
serious character, so as to inundate large tracts in the valleys,
and add to the deposits. An instance of this description is
shown on page 277, It occurred during a sudden freshet of
1 83 1, when the ice broke up suddenly on the St. John. The
result was an enormous piling up of huge icebergs at a portion
of the river called " The Narrows," about two miles below
Fredericton, causing the river to overflow its banks and
inundate the flat on which the capital is built.

So sudden and simultaneous was the breaking up through-
out the river's course on the above occasion, that vast islands
of ice got stranded, or set on end like polar bergs, and rose
even to the level of the housetops, so as to threaten the
complete destruction of the city as they passed onwards,
scraping and tearing up the banks, and carrying destruction
to everything that opposed their irresistible movements.

Now we might easily believe that similar phenomena (of
course on a very much grander scale), at the close of the
Glacial epoch, would be equal towards the formation of the
heaps of valley gravels observed throughout the river courses
and drainage hollows; moreover, without perhaps doing any
violence to facts, we might on this supposition explain the
great mounds and ridges of sorted detritus seen in various
situations. I conceive, therefore, if a higher elevation of the
country is allowed, and the land-ice theory entertained, that,
as far at least as the fluviatile, or rather stratified gravel and
clay deposits of the inland valleys are concerned, there is an
apparent solution of the difficulty in these modern examples.

Sequence of Winter Climate,

277

At all events, in speculating on the past we do well always to
seek for any present conditions which, if even multiplied by
twenty or more degrees of intensity, would in their ways
account for the above accumulations. As applied to the
climate of New Brunswick, it may be stated that the meteor-
ological conditions of the central and northern portions are
pretty regular in kind. The mean temperature of the year
may be put down at 44° Fahrenheit, the extremes attaining
rarely 30° below zero, and 98^ in the shade. (See Appendix,
page 307.) The prevailing winds in the winter are from the

north, and in summer from south and west. Snow averages
three feet for four months, and is deepest in the northern dis-
tricts, which are said to owe their greater fertility to that
circumstance. A thaw takes place with considerable regularity
shortly after New Year's Day. and when this is not the case
an unusally cold winter is certain to result, such as took place
in 1867-8. The cause of this sudden rise of temperature is
not apparent, unless the prevailing winds, being then from
south and east, might indicate a deviation of the regular at-
mospheric currents of South America, the West Indies, or

278 Field and Forest Rmnbles. .

Mexico ; at all events, the same phenomenon is remarked at
least over the north-eastern portion of the continent. The
influence of warm winds in spring on the melting of the snow
is remarkable. A sudden change from the north to south or
west will raise the thermometer some forty degrees in the
course of a few hours, when the thick mantle of snow seems to
vanish as if by an enchanters wand. Indeed the warm air
currents appear to have a greater influence than rain on the
vast accumulations of snow in the forests. Such rapid tran-
sitions of temperature occurring during the Glacial epoch
would have flooded the valleys, and on the grand scale con-
sequent on the arctic climate of the time, must have been
equal to produce the vast gravel and river valley accumula-
tions seen everywhere throughout the length and breadth of
this region.

With reference to the interesting at id suggestive appearances
already detailed in connection with the bieaking up of the ice
in the Canadian rivers, which, although on a small scale as
compared with past epochs, is of great importance to the
geologist when speculating on the conditions in connection
with Glacial and post-Glacial epochs ; we have seen the effects
of sudden thaws in damming back the rivers and inundating the
intervals, or " carse lands " as they would be called in Scotland.
Moreover, the p.-essure of these ice-floes furrows and tears up
the river's banks, whilst masses form in shallow places and
pick up pebbles and debris from the bottom, and deposit them
wherever the bergs melt, often far below the places where they
were first soldered by the icy matrix. The accumulated im-
petus gained by the crowding of the bergs as fhey float along
must be enormous, carrying off trees, dwellings, or whatever
obstacles impede the onward progress of the floating chaos.

Many stately pines and birches growing on the banks of the
St. John, were pointed out to me, showing, by being nearly
bent double, how the force had pressed on them. I recollect

Hypothesis of Glacial Action. 279

an old birch which a resident informed me used to grow out-
wards towards the river, now bent in the opposite direction, not
xxyjvci displacement of the roots, but from sheer over-stretching
of the fibres of the trunk. As formerly stated, so enormous
is the vis-a-tergo of these bergs, that they have been known
to impinge on jetties of wood, and remove them entirely. In
one instance a projecting mass caught a house on the bank, and
shaved away the upper story, leaving the lower portion intact.
The general conclusions, therefore, elicited from what has just
been detailed might stand as follows. There may \ we been
a greater elevation of the country during the Glacial epoch
than at present, when the glaciers, moving generally from the
high lands to the north (not in every case, however, but with
slight deviations to the east and west according to slopes),
scored the underlying rocks and bore boulders from centres of
dispersal to lower levels. At this time, or subsequently, the
river terraces were formed as the land began to subside. The
thaws then setting in, there would be a damming back of the
waters in many of the valleys and lakes, which brought about
the deposition of their gravels, " horsebacks " and " mounds
of detritus," while portions of the land becoming submerged
under the sea, would explain the presence of marine shells in
the clays along the coasts and high reaches of gulfs, and so
forth. Finally, there was a partial elevation, which brings us
to our times. I allow, however, that this view of the case
admits of question ; but, without being dogmatic, I cannot
agree with Dr. Dawson* that the land-ice theory demands the
most " portentous changes," for surely the depression of the
country to the extent of 6,(X)0 feet, to allow for the striae on
Mount Washington, implies a far more exorbitant demand
on our belief than an elevation of a. few hundred feet, which
is all the glacialists ask for, if indeed that is requisite, to
account for the entire phenomena. I should like to conceive
that the conditions of the epoch referred to were in kind, but
• " Acadian Geology," 2nd edition, p. 68.

2 So

Field and Forest Ra7nblcs.

not in degree, su^h as obtain now in the north-eastern portions
of the continent, and allow a fair share of the scorings and
deposition of boulders to icebergs and floating ice islands. But
to credit the latter with the wide-spread appearances observed
even on the surface of New Brunswick, to the complete ex-
clusion of land ice moving over the country, such as obtains
in Greenland and elsewhere at the present day, appears to me
scarcely in accordance with facts. I do not know a more im-
pressive instance of these conditions than is observable at the
little country town of St. George, situate at the top of the
long fiord of the Magaguadavic River, where I should like to
bring the " iceberg theorists," and ask them if they think that
floating masses of ice, packed closely with sharp and angular
stones and rocks, were of themselves equal to produce the
magnificent appearances recorded in unmistakable characters
on these ancient Silurian slates. Standing on the bridge above
the falls of this river, and looking up the valley, it is no stretch
of imagination to such as myself (who have seen far grander
phenomena on the Himalayas) to suppose that a vast field of
ice at one time poured down the slope into the long fiord below,
where it calved its bergs, that floated away laden with rocks
and dt^bris. I have seen some of the largest existing glaciers
of the Old World, and, judging from what they present to the
eye, there appears to my mind nothing sp exactly similar as
the scorings and scratchings, the roundings-ofif, surface ac-
cumulations— to wit, drift, clays, boulders, and so forth — of
this corner of New Brunswick. But, although willing to
accord much to floating ice, I cannot attribute these com-
plicated and wide^spread appearances to it alone ; nor is it
in accordance with the latest researches on glacial action to
suppose that the vast accumulations of stratified gravel irt the
river valleys were sorted by the sea during a period of sub-
mergence at the close of the Glacial epoch. That a depression
of the land took place at this period there can be no question
and that the continent at present is not so elevated above

Explanation of Glacial PJi€nonie7ia. 281

the sea as when the glaciers existed is probable ; but that
the whole of New Brunswick and Northern America were
submerged totally, or to one-tithe of the extent asserted by-
certain theorists, I have no belief. Again, quoting the words
of the well-known geologist just mentioned,* when referring
to the direction of the force which caused the striae, he says :
** I have no hesitation in asserting, from my own observations
as well as from those of others, that for the south-west stria-
tion the direction was from tlie ocean towards the interior
against the slope of the St. Lawrence valley. . . . We can-
not snpposc a glacier moving from the Atlantic up into the
interior.'' At the same time he admits that the striation on
the rocks of the Saguenay River, which flows at right angles
into the St. Lawrence valley, were possibly caused by a local
glacier, t But if we allow, when the subsidence took place at
the close of the Glacial epoch, that there were tracts of land
that sank deeper than others, and were completely submerged,
and did not rise again when the upward movement took place —
a phenomenon fully substantiated in other regions — how do
we know that there was not a centre or centres of dispersal
far out in the Atlantic, which sent their glaciers in opposite
directions, as now seen on the Alps and Himalayas.^

With reference to the Boulders so plentifully distributed
along the slopes and valleys throughout this region ; having
visited many districts where these appearances are well seen,
and examined a very large number of the boulders themselves,
I perfectly agree with Hind| and others that in scarcely a
single instance is there any d'Tficulty in tracing their origin to
the parent strata, which, as a rule, afe at no great distance.
For example, the mineralogical composition of the granitic
boulders of the St. John River and neighbouring slopes agree
with the great central granitic belt which crosses the upper

* "Acadian Geology," p. 69.
t Op. cit., p. 72, "foot-note."
X " Report on the Geology of New Brunswick."

28:

Field and Forest Rambles,

portion of the province diagonally, and in which the eastern
and western chains of the Schoodic lakes exist. Now, if float-
ing ice in a shallow sea picked up these masses of rock, they
must have been deposited very soon afterwards ; moreover,
from the all but universal rounding off and planing of their
surfaces, they must have also been subjected to constant
friction ; again, bearing in view similar appearances observed
in the boulders of the glaciers of the Alps and Himalayas,
I could fancy that these boulders had been subjected to the
immense weight and force of a glacier moving over a rocky
bottom, and that thus they got planed and rounded. Now
if icebergs were equal to do the same, it seems curious to me
how the scorings should be so excessively numerous and regular
on the rocks, and how, I repeat, the boulders were picked up
and suddenly deposited. Lastly, in attempting to do justice
to both theories, with reference to the BoULDER Clay and
Drift, there seems t^ me no exception to take to the ex-
planation of their origin and deposition by one or the other,
only that if we admit an arctic current steadily setting in from
the north, there should be more signs of sorting or stratifica-
tion of both than are usually observed, at least inland. As
to the river terraces and their origin ; being localized, and
often, as at Fredericton, not equally defined on both banks,
we cannot, I once more repeat, argue positively whether
these are the results of oscillations of level during tV e first
upheaval of the rocks in which they exist, or whether they
have been formed during subsequent movements connected
with the Glacial epoch, or by means of fluviatile or marine
currents. Doubtless more facts and a closer study of Glacial
phenomena are required before any positive conclusion can
be safely arrived at. At the same time it would be doing
scant justice to the labours of those who have devoted their
best energies to the special study of surface geology, to over-
look the views of the latest advocates of the iceberg and
land-ice theories ; and feeling that every one has a right to

Conclusions. . 283

form his own views, provided he has duly studied the subject,
as far as my humble apprehensions extend from a knowledge
of the opinions of others and personal observations on the Alps
and Himalayas, I feel that any impressions I have formed
have been strengthened by making fair allowances for the
influences of land and floating ice. And I apprehend there
are few competent geologists nowadays who do not take a
similar view, rather than ascribe all the vast and varied
phenomena entirely to the one or to the other— to wit, long
epochs of glaciation, subsequent changes of climate with de-
pression, such as might here take place at the close of the
Pliocene period, when deluges swept the land, and icebergs
were carved in the fiord and river valleys, and so deposited
their contents along the coasts.

The following list shows the superposition of the various
strata met with in the province,* arranged from above down-
wards with their chief associated minerals : — . .

Recent Period.
Peat mosses, " carabou barrens," river " intervals," estuary
and lacustrine deposits, lake mounds.

Post-Pliocene Period.
River terraces and raised sea beaches, valley gravels and
ridges, glacial drift clays and boulders. Gold is met with
sparsely in the drift, but nowhere in remunerative quantity.

New Red Sandstone Periods.
Fringes the southern margin of the province, and composes
Prince Edward Island. Oxide of manganese is found in
small quantities.

Carboniferous Periods.
Contains coal-seams of small dimensions at various points
in central and eastern New Brunswick ; none exceed two feet

♦ The data here furnished are given on the authorities of Drs. Dawson,
Gesner, and Robb, Messrs. Bailey, Hind, Hartt, and Matthew.

284

Field and Forest Rambles.

in thickness. Gypsum, salt, albertite, bitumen, and petro-
leum are found in remunerative quantities. Iron and lead
sparsely, but manganese in quantity.

Devonian Periods.

Iron abundant in form of hematite. Copper in forms of
copper glance, peacock ore, yellow sulphuret, green carbonate,
and copper pyrites are thinly dispersed, but not as yet re-
munerative. *

Silurian Periods.

Iron mines of Woodstock : superior ore, and abundant.
Iron pyrites sparsely distributed. Antimony mines of Prince
William very remunerative. •

Cambrian and Silurian Periods.

Limestone and graphite of superior qualities, and abundant.
Copper sparsely distributed.

hifliicnce of Severity of the Season, , 285

CHAPTER XII.

The Naturaliot's Calendar, showing the changes of Climate, the arrivals
and departures of Migratory Birds, Fishes, etc.

DURING three years' sojourn in central New Brunswick I
noted regularly the chief meteorological changes, and
also the arrivals and departures of the migratory animals, and
found that unless during unusual seasons the sequence of the
latter -ivas maintained with marked regularity, Moreover, the
summer migrants were little affected as to numbers, unless by
being delayed by unusual lateness in the season, or by their
departure being hastened by a sudden setting in of cold in
autumn, the v/inter visitors being invariably most numerous
when the season was ushered in by inordinate severity,
when they continued in unusual numbers throughout the
cold months. Again, on the other hand, provided the tran-
sition was gradual between summer and winter, and the latter
continued comparatively mild, then few winter birds put in
an appearance as compared with unusually cold winters. I
shall now attempt to convey some idea of these phenomena
from notes made in my diary as follows, commencing with

'* January 1st. — The usual midwinter thaw has set in after
weeks of very low temperature, often 10° to 20° below zero
of Fahrenheit. It is now that the north winds and biting
cold of November and December somewhat moderate, as if
the south-east winds had triumphed over the arctic blasts
in a degree ; indeed it is rare to have more than three days
in successi m of intense cold, which comes in spells, often

286

Field and Forest Rambles.

rapidly succeeded by a rise of the thermometer. Even in
twenty-four hours I have seen the mercury mount up from 20°
to 60° Fahrenheit, but only for a short time. Snow does not
fall in any large quantity until after New Year's Day, when
it tumbles down in earnest, so dry and finely crystallized
that we can take up handfuls of beautifully formed stars, and
stud]/' the theories of crystallization on the beauties as they
drop on vhe fur of cuffs and gloves. On Christmas Day, 1868,
flakes of slow of unusually large dimensions fell, the majority
averaging from three to five inches, and for half an hour the
air seemed to be filled with large downy feathers, slowly de-
scending, and the trees looked like objects in a pantomime.
At this season the snow bunting (P. nivalis), spectre-like, is-
seen in flocks, the only ornithic object in the landscape, un-
less perhaps the black-headed titmouse, regardless alike of the
cold and snow, utters its well known ica-dee-dee-dee as it flits
among the bare tops of the elms and willows ; one wonders
what subsistence it can find there. After the few days' thaw
about the lOth, comes severe frost and more snow. The
average depth of the latter about this time is four feet all
over the country, down to within some miles of the coast.
Very severe weather, compelling even the indigenous birds to
seek the shelter of the forests. (28//^.) The tom cod or frost
fish {G. pruniosus) plentiful in the tideways of rivers. The
fresh-water cusk (Z-. maadosd) is heavy in spawn, and with
the white or gizzard fish {C. sapidissimus) is pushing up the
St. John, and being captured through the ice."

"February 1st. — Heavy falls of snow. Snow buntings,
white-winged crossbills, redpolls, and the black-headed tit,
with occasionally a crow, are the only birds to be seen
on the open, {z^th) Male redpolls shewing the red on
the head very brilliantly. Crossbills and Canada jays incu-
bating."

" March. — Young of the winter-breeding birds are now
flying. Inordinate numbers of redpolls, pine siskins, and

First Messaigers of Spring. 287

white-winged crossbills (during the winter of 1867 which
was very cold ; next winter scarcely any were observed)."

" April \st. — Sunny days, frosty nights. Migratory thrush,
snow birds {J. hymelis), the son£^ and the chipping sparrow,
Pennsylvanian finch, and the first summer warbler {D. vestiaa)
have just suddenly put in their appearance ; crossbills and
pine-siskins not yet left, and about in flocks, singing very
sweetly. Thaws fairly set in, but snow still thick in sheltered
places. (8///!.) Not a bud yet opened out ; willows begin,
however, to give indications. The migratory birds just named
are increasing in numbers daily, and the crow blackbird
{Q. versicolor) in flocks. The first butterfly {Satyrus eiirythric)
has appeared, and a few cabbage butterflies and dipterous
insects ; still very cold at night ; wonderful that these insects
withstand it. (i8///.) Heavy snow-storms, frost every night;
summer migrants have hard struggles for their subsistence ; all
are crowding around houses. Ducks and geese are putting
in their appearance in the rivers and inland lakes, but the ice
not yet broken up. {20th.) South winds more frequent, and
the cause of the rapid melting of the snow, which is still thick
in the forests and shaded places. Buds of deciduous leaved
trees still unopened. Early bird arrivals, singing sweetly,
and commencing to mate as if no time should be lost. The
first swallow {P. purpurea) announced, having been seen on
a swallow-cot iii town. Snow still lagging, and migratory
water-fowl coming in in small flocks. The American gold-
finch, in full breeding attire, has just put in an appearance.
{26th) Ice breaking up on the lakes and rivers. Migratory fowl
passing through and alighting in numbers. {2gth.) Ice fairly
broken up and running rapidly seaward. Steamers moving
up the St. John."*

* The reader will form an idea of the regularity wherewith the ice
breaks up in the great rivers of this region from the following census
of twenty-six years in connection with the navigation of the St. John
River, between Fredericton, the capital, and the city of St. John on the

288 Field and Forest Rambles. ' *

" Afay \st. — Delicious smelt {O. mordax) coming up the
rivers in vast sculls, and readily captured with bait. Alevvive
{A. iyrannus) in great numbers in the Bay of Fundy, fiords,
and entrances of rivers, preparing for their rush up to spawn.
A few sand martins {H. riparid) arrived. No advance in
verdure ; trees show little sign of budding, excepting the
willow. Resident and lately arrived birds pairing. Sturgeon
coming up river to spawn. (i5^/^.) Nights still chilly. Grass
begins to sprout. Insect life much as reported last month.
Alewive coming up to spawn, and bass {R. lineatus) is also on

coast, a distance of eighty-two miles. The data are taken from the
local newspapers : —

1844. — The steamer ** Fredericton" arrived on 20th April. ;.

1845. — The steamer " Fredericton" arrived on 26th April.

1846. — The steamer " New Brunswick" arrived here on Thursday, the
9th April, from St. John. This is, we believe, the earliest period at which
the St. John River has become navigable within the last forty years.

1847. — On Thursday, the 6th of May, the first trip of the reason was
made by the steamer "Fredericton."

1848. — The steamer "Fredericton" arrived at Oromocto on 14th April.
Ice opposite Fredericton running on the 19th.

1849. — The steamer " Fredericton" arrived from St. John 12th April.

1850. — " Forest Queen " arrived on ist of May.

1851. — "Reindeer" arrived on i6th April.

1852. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 30th April.

1853. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 17th April.

1854. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 5th May.

1855. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 27th April.

1856. — "Forest Queen" arrived on 24th April.

1857. — "Forest Queen" arrived on 27th April.

1858. — "Anna Augusta" arrived on 22nd April.

1859. — "Forest Queen" arrived on isth April.

i860. — "Anna Augusta" arrived on 25th April.

1 86 1. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 20th April.

1862. — " Forest Queen" arrived on 23rd April.

1863. — "Anna Augusta" arrived on 25th April.

1864. — " Magnet" arrived on 26th April.

1865. — " Sunbury" arrived on 8th April.

1866. — " Sunbury " arrived on 23rd April.

1867. — " David Weston" arrived on 27th April,

1868. — "Sunbury" arrived on 26th April.

1869.—" David Weston" arrived on 21st April.

1870. — " David Weston" arrived on 14th April.

Long Continuance of Frost in the Soil. 289

the same errand. Birds incubating, but summer arrivals not

so far advanced as the resident birds. May Flower {E. repens)

in fragrant bloom — it is assuredly the snowdrop of Canada.

Warm showers, southern blasts ; frost still in the soil, which is

hard under the surface. Frogs croaking and piping furiously

in bogs. {22nd, 1867.) A late spring this year after the almost

unparalleled cold of the previous months. Swifts {C. pelasgid)

arriving. Hawthorn budding. Hard-wood trees throwing off

their bud-scales. Maple-tree tapping nearly over, the sugar

being collected. No warblers, save the brave little yellow

warbler above noticed, have yet ventured to visit us. River

rising fast and overflowing."

" No doubt the preponderance of forest over bare and

cultivated tracts, thus retaining the snow in spring, keeps up

an average longer winter than would be were the former

cut down. Although tree-felling is going on actively — mostly,

however, by the selection of the most valuable trees — there has

been no extensive clearing sufficient to produce this change,

unless perhaps in parts of southern New Brunswick, where

the climate, tempered by the sea, is always milder than in the

more inland parts. It is the length of time that the snow

lies in the woods that keeps up the chill and retards the

melting of the frost in the soil below, often frozen for three

feet in depth. Thus, it is well on in May before the land is

fit for cereals and seeds, inasmuch as, after the frost has

disappeared, there remains a coldness in the earth sufficient

to retard germination until the beginning of June, when after

several warm showers nature makes a grand effort, as if her

time had now come. Hence the fresh arrival is struck by

rapid growth of trees and plants. In a few days bare the

branches become covered with dense verdure, and the fruit

rapidly succeeds the flower, and ripens with amazing rapidity,

and apparently often at the expense of its flavour."*

* This is remarkable with majiy trees, such as the lilac, which bursts
suddenly into flower, and before a few days is in seed , the same with the
hawthorn, apple, etc., etc.

U

290 Field and Forest Rambles.

''{lyth.) Ruby-throated humming-bird is commencing to
show itself. East winds and warm showers, trees budding
rapidly. Grass and plants springing up. (30///.) Night jar
{C. Virgijiiafttis), and with it legions of warblers of all sorts,
are coming in daily. Ice still encrusts the sides of wells,
and the deeper alluvium continues hard and frozen. Birds
are setting to pair as soon as they arrive."

" June ist. — Sea Trout (5. Canadensis) coming up the
, rivers, and also such of the brook trout {S.fotiiinaiis) as go to
salt water. {6tk) Leaves of the maples and hard wood trees
scarcely out. The white and blue violets ( V. blanda ct
pahistris). Fern fronds bursting rapidly from their buds —
'fiddle-heads,' as they are named — are greedily devoured as
substitutes for green vegetables, to which the residents have
been strangers for many months. The dandelion, Indian
turnip, trillium, and anemone in full flower. (10///.) Rufied
partridge hatching, males ' drumming ' all day and night
over the forests. The elm and ash still leafless. Vegetation
advancing with amazing rapidity, (i^f/i.) We have stridden
into a tropical summer during the last ten days. All ani-
mated objects are exulting in the delightful weather. The
Carolina waxwing is coming into the forests in great num-
bers. (15//^.) The striped bass playing on the surface, and the
Indians and Europeans are spearing them on the St. John.
(27///.) Passenger pigeon is putting in an appearance, but not
in the numbers of former years, when, according to the narra-
tives of old settlers, enormous flocks assembled in the buck-
wheat fields, and crowded the trees round the settlements,
bearing down the very branches, and were slaughtered by
thousands to feed pigs. Probably the diminution is in part
owing to this cause, and to the extension of agriculture."

*' yuly. — ^ Snipe and woodcock breeding. The black fly
{Simitltim molestum), mosquitoes, midges, and bot-flies very
annoying in the forests for the last few weeks."

" One of the greatest obstacles to wilderness wanderings in

The Discomforts from Insects in Midsummer. 29 :

midsummer is the constant and serious annoyance by night
and day from insects. Nowhere are mosquitoes more abun-
dant and bloodthirsty than in the forest tracts ; indeed they
fairly outstrip their Old World confreres in this respect ; as if
their shortened tenure of life required them to make greater
efforts ; and possibly it is so ; but annoyed as I have been by
them in the plains, jungles, and fens of India and Cashmere,
I have never seen the mosquito introduce its proboscis and
draw blood with the rapidity of the denizens of the wilderness
of Canada. The black fly, however, disappears with the forest,
and has no doubt been entirely exterminated in many parts
of Canada and the United States ; but the others delight as
much in the open as in the forest : swarming in myriads on
head and halids, they fearlessly adhere to the skin, and will
suffer death sooner tha 1 give up their hold, thus making the
woodman's life anything but pleasant ; and there is no escape
short of remedies perhaps more uncomfortable than the evils
themselves. Nets, veils, and so-called 'insect-killers' sig-
nally fail. Pennyroyal and camphor are effective, but require
to be constantly applied. The lumber man covers his body
with pork fat until he is encased in lard — a sort of enamelling
process which seems to occupy several days. They drive the
old hunter distracted, and I have seen an experienced fisher-
man so pestered as to throw down his rod and decamp ; while
bears, moo^e, etc., betake themselves to the lakes."

"Salmon commence to run early this month. {2^th) Wild
strawberries and blueberries abundant, {loth.) The crow
blackbird and purple swallow are practising their broods pre-
paratory to returning south."

''August J$th. — The swallows and crow blackbirds have
gone. Snow finches drawing near to houses, and in large
numbers. All the insect vermin ha^e suddenly ceased their
torments. The nights are cold. House- ly a perfect pest in-
doors. Salmon smalt common in river o last year's fry on
their way to the sea. The white fish is about in the rivers ;

u 2

292 Field and Forest Rambles.

Is it on its way to the sea after spawning ? {26th.) All birds
of passage assembling. Leaves of maple and other deciduous
foliage rapidly changing colour, but no further appearance of
decay in plants."

''September \st. — Passenger pigeon breeding. Thrushes
feeding exclusively on swamp berries and fruits. (14///.) Hum-
ming-bird still lingers, although the temperature at night
falls often to 35°. Deciduous-leaved trees in their full autumn
attire. Majority of the soft-billed birds have fled ; crickets
and grasshoppers very numerous and noisy in pastures. (20///.)
Nearly all the migratory summer birds have fled. First frost
at night, killing suddenly all exotics in the open ; leaves of
melons, squash, pumkins, cucumbers, etc., quite black and
dead. Wilson's snipe coming in from the north in grand
condition. Migratory thrushes moulting. The brave little
summer or yellow warbler, which arrived first, is now tlit. last
to depart."

'' October ^th. — Splendid autumn weather; more enjoyable
than any of the months of summer, as there are no insects
to annoy, and the heat is subdued. Many of the hard-wood
trees have now put on their gorgeous autumnal attires, always
most varied and beautiful in saplings. I notice that the first
leaves to open out in spring are the first to change colour in the
fall ; and these are usually near the extremities of the lower
branches, and thus fully exposed to the sunlight ; hence,
maples in the middle of the forests do not change colour so
soon as trees on the skirts or in the open. As to the change in
the coloration of the leaf, as displayed in the Canadian forest,
it may, I think, receive the deep tinge of colouring from a
sudden check to the circulation through cold drying up the
sap, inasmuch as I have always found that as soon as the
change begins to appear, then the connection of the leaf-stalk
with the branch is so slender that there is no difficulty in
separating the two; whereas in the healthy leaf this is accom-
plished with difficulty. And no doubt the low temperature,

splendid Appearance of I lie Forest in Autumn. 293

cither by a sudden effort, or by causing a strangulation at
some point (perhaps the point of junction between tlie stalk
and stem), brings about the colorations alike remarkable for
their brilliancy and variety, as compared with the leaf of more
temperate climates."

" To persons who have not seen them before, there is an
amount of grace, elegance, beauty, and variety in the grouping
and coloration of the Canadian forest trees at this season really
beyond conception. The bright and variegated hues of the
maple and moose wood, with the birch, beech, etc., either
dispersed, grouped, or solitary, form beautiful pictures, each
tree vying with the other in the transcendent beauty of its
dapplings and shadings, which, coupled with the cool, bracing
climate, create such happy feelings in the lookers-on, that I
certainly think if the question is asked the traveller what he
most admired in a Canadian forest, he would unhesitatingly
decide in favour of the autumnal change of the leaf. (15//^)
Weasels and hares not yet showing signs of winter change,
although the nights are frosty, and migratory water-fowl from
more southern regions are passing through rapidly. {17th.)
First snows, cold winds. {21st.) Winter migratory birds
arriving, the first ' snow bunting ' of the season. Cusk com-
ing up river. {2$t/t.) Snow and frost now the order of the day.
All migratory water-fowl pushing rapidly southwards ; and
winter residents and new-comers putting in their appearance.
The last of the summer migrants — to wit, robins, chipping
sparrows, and snow birds, lagging on in small numbers ; the
last to go as they were the first to come."

" November 6th. — The pine bullfinch {P. Canadensis) arrived,
and feeding on the elder-berries ; so tame and un':oncerned
that you may slip a horsehair noose over its head when so
employed. {9th.) Hare and weasels changing colour rapidly.
Ruffed partridge and Canadian grouse about to take to the
pine boughs for food. Cusk increasing in numbers in the river.

294 Field and Forest Rambles.

Snow buntings in flocks. {\%th) Rivers and lakes frozen over.
Snow falling thickly."

''December I2//^.— AH winter changes on the fur of animals
completed. Crossbills, pine bullfinches, and the Canada jay-
commencing to breed."

APPENDIX.

QUADRUPEDS.

The following is a list of the mammals of New Brunswick
as far as I have been enabled to determine : —

Common Bat .

Hoary Bat . .

Mole Shrew .

Star-nosed Mole
Puma or Catamount .
Loup cervier (Loo
servee) . .

Grey" Wolf ,

Red Fox . .
Silver Fox, Black
Fox . , .

Fisher Cat .
Sable . .

Brown Weasel

Ermine . .
Black Mink

Otter

Skunk

Raccoon
Black Bear .

Common Seal
Hooded Seal

Walrus (extinct)
Red Squirrel .

Vespertilio Noveboracensis

Gtn.
Vespertilio pruinosus Say.

Blarina talpoides . Gray.

Condylura cristata
Felis concolor

Lynx canadensis .

Can''s occidentalis

Vulpes fulvus
Var. V. argentatus

Liv.

Raf.

Rich.

Ruh.
Schrcb.

Mustela Pennantii . Erxl.
Mustela martes . . Linn.

Putorius ciccgnanii . Baird.

Putorius Richardsonii Bona.
Putorius vison . . Gapp.

Lutra vulgaris . . Lin.

Mephitis mephitica . Baird.

Procyon lotor . . . Storr.
Ursus Americanus . Pallas.

Phoca vitulina . . Linn.
Stemmatopus cristatus Gm.

Trichecus rosmarus . Lmn.
Sciurus Hudsonius . Pallas.

Common, and generally dis-
tributed.

Probal)ly not so plentiful as
the last.

Very common in the forest
and inland settlements.

Common.

Doul)tful.

Generally distributed and not
uncommon.

Found in the northern parts
only.

Common, and very general.

This and cross fox subject to
varieties ; Jitter is the most
common of the two forms.

Not by any means common.

Common, but steadily de-
creasing in numbers.

Very common, and generally
distributed.

Common.

Common, and very generally
distributed.

Not rare, but confined to
wilderness rivers.

Common, and appears in-
creasing.

Very rare.

Common, and generally dis-
tributed over forest lands.

Common on the coast.

Now and then seen in Bay
of Fundy.

Extinct for nearly a century.

Abundant, and common to
wastes and reclaimed dis-
tricts.

296

Grey Squirrel

Flying Squirrel
Northern ditto

Striped Squirrel

Woodchuck .
Beaver . .
Jumping Mouse

Brown Rat (intro-
duced) . . .
House Mouse, ditto

Whitefooted Mouse

Hamster Mouse .
Redbacked Mouse

Musk Rat , . .

Porcupine . . .

White Rabl)it . .

Moose .

Caribou , . .

Virginian Deer .

Right Whale . .

Sperm Whale . .

Beaked Rorqual .
Northern Rorqual

Black Fish . . .
Poriioise

Grampus . . .

Appendix.

Sciurus migratorius . And.

Pteromys volucella . Cuv.
Pteromys Hudsonius tischer.

Tamias striatus . . , .

Arctomys monax . . Gm.
Castor canadensis . Kuhl.
Jaculus Hudsonius Warner.

Mus decumanus
Mus musculus

. Pallas.
. . L.

Hesperomys leucopus

Wagner.

Hesperomys myoides Baird.
Arvicola Gapperi . Vigors.

Fiber zibethicus

Cuv.

Erethizon dorsatus F. Cuv.
Lepus Aniericanus . Erxl.

Cervus aiccs

Cuvier.

Rangifer canoou, And. and

Bach.

Cervus Virjrinianus Boddaert

Balaena mysticaetus . Linn.
Physetcr macrocephalus,

Lacepe.
Rorqualus rostratus . Fabr.
Rorqualus boreulis . Knox.
Globicephalus melas Lesson.
Phocctna communis . Cuv.
Phocaena orca . . (Fain: )

Common in the south-west,
and along the western fron-
tier ; partial to localities.

Not uncommon.

Perhaps more common than
has been supposed.

Very common, and found in
reclaimed as well as forest
regions.

Common, and possibly in-
creasing.

Repelled to the wilderness
regions of the north.

Not uncommon.
I Confined to the coast towns
I and cities, and along the
banks of navigable rivers,
but not in the wilderness
settlements.

Common, not seen in the
same parts frequented by
the two last.

Plentiful in field and forest.

The same as the last, and
also about houses.

Common in streams in the
wilderness, and also in re-
claimed districts.

Common in woods and
forests.

Increasing rapidly, and fre-
quenting cultivated as well
as forest regions.

Generally distributed, but its
range is being narrowed
rapidly.

Confined to the forest regions;
decreasing.

Localized ; few found east-
ward of the Saint John ;
common in the hilly coun-
try along the course of the
Magaguadavic river.

Seen occasionally on the coast.

Rarely observed.

Several specimens recorded.

Rarely met with.

Not uncommon.

Common.

Not rare at times.

LIST OF THE BIRDS OF NEW BRUNSVv^ICK.

A., means accidental j M., migratory; R., rare.

Birds marked * have been captured in Europe.

Many of the land and a greater number of the water birds in the list

Appendix.

297

are given on the authority of Mr. Boardman, whose determinations have
been more or less confirmed by Professor Verrill, in Proc. Boston Soc,
Nat. Hist., vol. ix., p. 122.

Cathartes Aura, Illig. Turkey

buzzard. A.
Falco Peregrinus, Lin. Peregrine

falcon.*
Hypotriorchis Columbarius, Gr.

Pigeon hawk.
Falco Candicans, Gmelin. A.* Jer

falcon.
Tinnunculus Sparverius, Vieill. M.

Sparrow hawk.
Astur Atricapillus, Bonap. M.

Goshawk.
Accipiter Cooperii, Bonap. M.

Cooper's hawk.
Accipiter Fuscus, Bonap. M.

Sharp-shinned hawk.
Buteo Borealis, Vieill. M. Red-
tailed hawk.
Buteo Lineatus, yardine. Red-
shouldered hawk.
Buteo Pennsylvanicus, Bonap. M.

Broad-winged hawk.
Archibuteo Lagopus, Gray. Rough-
legged hawk.
Archibuteo Sancti-Johannis, Gray.

Black hawk.
Circus Hudsonius, Vieillot. M.

Marsh hawk.
Aquila Canadensis, Cassin. R.

Golden eagle ; Ring-tailed eagle.
Haliaetus Leucoccphalus, Savigny.

Bald eagle.
Pandion Carolinensis, Bon. M.

Fish hawk.
Bubo Virginianus, Bonap. Great

horned owl.
Scops Asio, Bonap. * Mottled

owl.

Otus Wilsonianus, Lesson. Long-
eared owl.

Brachyotus Cassinii,^r^z£'^r. Short-
eared owl.

SyrniumCinereum, .<4/<^. M. Great
gray owl.

Syrnium Nebulosum, Gray. Barred
owl.

Nyctale Richardsonii, Bonap. Spar-
row owl.

Nyctale Acadica, Bonap. * Saw-
whet owl.

Nyctea Nivea, Gray. Snowy owl.

Surnia Ulula, Bonap. Hawk owl.

Coccygus Americanus, Bonap. M.
Yellow-billed cuckoo.

Coccygus Erythrophthalmus, Bon.
M. Black-billed cuckoo.

Picus Villosus, Linn. * Hairy
woodpecker.

Picus Pubescens, Linn. * Downy
woodpecker.

Picoides Arcticus, Gray. Three-toed
woodpecker.

Picoides Hirsutus, Gray. Banded
three-toed woodpecker.

Sphyropicus Varius, Baird. M.
Yellow-bellied woodpecker.

Hylotomus Pileatus, Baird. Black
woodpecker.

Melanerpes Erythrocephalus, Hw.
R. M. Red-headed woodpecker.

Colaptes Auratus, Swainson. M.
Yellow-shafted flicker.

Trochilus Colubris, Linn. Hum-
ming bird.

Chaetura Pelasgia, iitcph. Chim-
ney swallow.

* This is the Falco anatum of Bonaparte, now considered identical
with the F. peregrinus of Europe. See Proc. Nat. Hist, iiocicty Boston^
Oct. 17, 1866, p. 64.

298

Appendix.

Antrostomus Carolinensis, Gould.

Chuck-Will's-widow.
Chordeiles Popetue, Baird. M.

Night hawk.
Ceryle Alcyon, Boie. M. * Belted

kingfisher.
Tyrannus CaroHnensis, Baird. M.

King bird ; Bee bird.
Myiarchus Crinitus, Cab. M. Great

crested flycatcher. [Pewee.

Sayornis Fuscus, Baird. M. R.
Contopus Borealis, Baird. M.

OHve-sided flycatcher.
Contopus Virens, Cab. M. Wood

pewee.
Empidonax Traillii, Baird. M.

Traill's flycatcher.
Empidonax Minimus, Baird. M.

Least flycatcher.
Empidonax Flaviventris, Baird.

M. Yellow-bellied flycatcher.
Turdus Pallasi, Cab. M.* Hermit

thrush.
Turdus Fuscescens, Stephens. M.

Wilson's thrush.
Turdus Swainsonii, Cab. M .* Olive-
backed thrush.
Turdus Migratorius, Linn. M.*

Robin ,
Sialia Sialis, Baird. M. R. A.

Blue bird.
Regulus Calendula, Licht. M. R. *

Ruby-crowned wren.
Regulus Satrapa, Licht. M. Gold-
en-crested wren.
Anthus Ludovicianus, Licht. M. *

Tit-lark.
Mniotilta Varia, Vieill. M. Black

and white creeper.
Parula Americana, Bonap. M.

Blue yellow-bacK.
Protonotaria Citrea, Baird. M. R.

Prothonotary warbler.
Geothlypis Trichas, Cab. M. Mary-
land yellow-throat.

Geothlypis Philadelphia, Baird.

M. R. Mourning warbler.
Helminthophaga Ruficapilla, Baird.

M. A. Nashville warbler.
Seiurus Aurocapillus, Swainson.

M. Golden-crowned thrush.
Seiurus Noveboracensis, Nutt. M.

Water thrush.
Dendroica Virens, Baird. M. *

Black- throated green warbler.
Dendroica Canadensis, Baird. M.

R. Black-throated blue warbler.
Dendroica Coronata, Gray. M.

Yellow-rump warbler.
Dendroica Blackbumiae, Baird. M.

Blackburnian warbler.
Dendroica Castanea, Baird. M.

Bay-breasted warbler.
Dendroica Pinus, Baird. M. R.

Pine-creeping warbler.
Dendroica Pennsylvanica, Baird.

M. Chestnut-sided warbler.
Dendroica Striata, Baird. M. Black

poll warbler.
Dendroica Aestiva, Baird. M.

Yellow warbler.
Dendroica Maculosa, Baird. Black

and yellow warbler.
Dendroica Tigrina, Baird. M.

Cape May warbler.
Dendroica Palmarum, Baird. M.

Yellow redpoll.
Myiodioctes Pusillus, Bonap. M.

Green black-cap flycatcher.
Myiodioctes Canadensis, Aud. M.

Canada flycatcher.
Setophaga Ruticilla, Swainson. M.

Redstart.
Pyranga Rubra, Vieill. A. Scarlet

tanager.
Hirundo Horreorum, Barton. M.

Barn swallow. [swallow.

Hirundo Lunifrons, Say. M. CUff
Hirundo Bicolor, Vieill. M. ♦

White-bellied swallow.

Appendix.

299

Cotyle Riparia, Boie. M. Bank
swallow,

Progne Purpurea, Boie. M. * Pur-
ple martin.

Ampelis Garrulus, Linn. K.^ Wax-
wing.

Ampelis Cedrorum, Baird. M. *
Cedar bird.

CoUyrio Borealis, Baird. M.^ Great
Northern shrike.

Vireo Olivaceus, Vieill. M. * Red-
eyed flycatcher.

Vireo Gilvus, Bonnp. M. Warbling
flycatcher.

Vireo Solitarius, Vieill. M. Blue-
headed flycatcher.

Mimus Carolinensis, Gray. M.
Cat bird.

Troglodytes Hyemalis, Vieill. Win-
ter wren.

Certhia Americana, Bonap. M.
American creeper.

Sitta Carolinensis, Gmelin. White-
bellied nuthatch.

Sitta Canadensis, Linn. Red-
bellied nuthatch.

Parus Atricapillus, Linn. Black-
cap titmouse.

Parus Hudsonicus, Forster. Hud-
sonian titmouse.

Eremophila Cornuta, Boie. M. R.^
Skylark.

Pinicola Canadensis, Cab. M. "^
Pine grosbeak.

Carpodacus Purpureus, Gray. M,
Purple finch.

Chrysomitris Tristis, Bonap. M.
Yellow bird.

Chrysomitris Pinus, Bonap. Pine

finch.
Curvirostra Americana, Wits. *

Red crossbill.
Curvirostra Leucoptera, Wits. *

White-winged crossbill.
Aegiothus Linaria, Cab. M.f Lesser

redpoll .
Plectrophanes Nivalis, Meyer. M.*^

Snow bunting.
Plectrophanes Lapponicus, Selby.

M.b Lapland longspur.
Passerculus Savanna, Bonap. M.

Savannah sparrow.
Pooecetes Gramineus, Baird. M.

Grass finch.
Coturniculus Passerinus, Bonap.

M. Yellow-winged sparrow.
Zonotrichia Leucophrys, Swainson.

M. White-crowned sparrow.
Zonotrichia AlbicoUis, Bonap. M.

White-throated sparrow.
Junco Hyemalis, Sclai. M. Black

snow bird.
Spizella Monticola, ^«m/. M. Tree

sparrow.
Spizella Socialis, Bonap. M.

Chipping sparrow.
Melospiza Melodia, Baird. M.

Song sparrow.
Melospiza Palustris, Baird. M.

Swamp sparrow.
Passerella Iliacr, Swainson. M.

Fox-coloured sparrow.
Guiraca Ludoviciana, Swainson.

M. R. Rose-breasted grosbeak.
Guiraca Caerulea, Swainson. M.

Blue grosbeak.

*' The waxwing appears only in winter, whilst the cedar bird comes
only in summer ; although, during certain mild winters, Mr. Boardman has

noticed flocks of the latter.
« A winter visitor,
d Ditto.
• Ditto.

^ A winter visitor only.
« Ditto
^ Ditto.

300

Appendix.

Cyanospiza Cyanea, Baird. M. R,
Indigo bird.

Dolichonyx Oryzivorus, Swainson.
M. Boblink ; reed Ipird.

Molothrus Pecoris, Swainson. M.
Cow bird.

Agelaius Phoeniceus, Vieill. M.
Red-winged blackbird.

Stumella Magna, Swainson. A.
Meadow la'-k.

Icterus Spurius, Bonap. R. Or-
chard oriole.

Icterus Baltimore, Daiidin. A.
Baltimore oriole.

Scolecophagus Perrugineus, Swain-
son. M. Rusty blackbird.

Quiscalus Versicolor, Vieill. M.
Crow blackbird. .

Corvus Q.2xvi\\Qx\x%,Bartratn. Ame-
rican raven.

Corvus Americanus, Aud. Com-
mon crow.

Cyanura Cristata, Swainson. Blue

jay.
Perisoreus Canadensis, Bonap.

Canada jay.
Ectopistes Migratoria, Swainson.

M. * Wild pigeon.
Zenaidura Carolinensis, Bonap. M.

R. Common dove.
Tetrao Canadensis, Linn. Spruce

partridge. [grouse.

Bonasa Umbellus, Steph. Ruffled
Ardea Herodias, Linn. M. Great

blue heron.
Botaurus Lentiginosus, Steph. M.*

Bittern ; take driver.
Butorides Virescens, Bonap. M.

Green heron.
Nyctiardea Gardeni, Baird. M.

Night heron.
Charadrius Virginicus, Borck. M.

* Golden plover.

Aegialitis Vociferus, Cassin. M. *

Killdeer.
Aegialitis Semipalmatus, Cab. M.

Semipalmated plover.
Aegialitis Melodus, Cab. M. Piping

plover.
Squatarola Helvetica, Cuv. M.

Black-bellied plover.
Strepsilas Interpres, Illig. R.

Turnstone.
Recurvirostra Americana, Gm. A.

American aviiset.
Himantopus NijricoUis, Vieill. A.

Black-necked stilt.
Phalaropus Hyperboreus, Temm.

M. Northern phalarope.
Phalaropus Fulicarius, Bonap. M.

Red phalarope.
Philohela Minor, Gray. M. Ame-
rican woodcock.
Gallinago Wilsonii, Bonap. M.

English snipe.
Macrorhamphus Griseus, Leach.

M. * Red-breasted snipe.
Tringa Canutus, Linn. M. Knot.
Tringa Maritima, Briinnich. M.'

Purple sandpiper.
Tringa Subarquata, Temm. M.

Curlew sandpiper.
Tringa Alpina, van Americana, Cus.

Red-backed sandpiper.
Tringa Maculata, Vieill. M. * Jack

snipe.
Tringa Wilsonii, A'a/Za//. M. Least

sandpiper.
Tringa Bonapartii, Schlegel. Bona-
parte's sandpiper.
Calidris Arenaria, Illiger. M. San-

derling.
Ereunetes Petrificatus, Illiger. M.

Semipalmated sandpiper.
Symphemia Semipalmata, Hartl.

M. * Willet.

' In winter common.

Appendix.

301

Gambetta Melanoleuca, Bo nap. M.

Tell-tale ; Stone snipe.
Cambetta Flavipes, Bonap. M. *

Yellow legs.
Rhyacophilus Solitarius, Bonap.

M . Solitary sandpiper.
Tringoides Macularius, Gray. M.*

Spotted sandpiper.
Philomachus Pugnax, Gray. A.

Ruff.
Actiturus Bartramius, Bonap. M. *

Field plover.
Limosa Hudsonica, Swainson. M.

Hudson godwit.
Numenius Longirostris, VVils. M.

Long-billed curlew.
Numenius Hudsonicus, Latham.
' R, * Hudsonian curlew.
Numenius Borealis, Latham. R. *

F-squimaux curlew.
Porzana Carolina, Vieill. * Com-
mon rail. low rail.
Porzana Noveboracensis. R. Ycl-
Fulica Americana, Gmelin. M.

Coot.
Anser Hyperboreus, Pallas. R. *

Snow goose.
Anser Albatus, Cassin . A. White

goose.
Bernicla Canadensis, Boie. M. *

Canada goose.
Bernicla Brenta, Steph. M. Brant.
Anas Boschas, Linn. R. Mallard.
Anas Obscura, Gm. Black duck.
Uafila Acuta, Jenyns. M. Sprig-
tail ; pin-tail .
Nettion Carolinensis, Baird. M.

Green-winged teal.
Querquedula Discors, Steph. M. *
Blue- winged teal.

Spatula Clypeata, Boie. R. Sho-
veller. ,
Chaulelasmus Streperus, Gray. R.

Gadwall.
Marcca Americana, Stephens. R. *

Baldpate.
Aix Sponsa, Boie. M. Summer

duck.
Fulix Marila, Baird. R. Greater

black-head.
Fulix Affinis, Baird. M. * Little

black-head.
Folix CoUaris, Baird. R. * Ring

necked duck.
Aythya Americana, Bonap. Red-
head.
Bucephala Islandica, Baird. R.i

Barrow's golden eye.
Bucephala Albeola, Baird. M. *

Butter ball.
Histrionicus Torquatus, Bcnap. M.

Harlequin duck.
Harelda Glacialis, Leach. M. Old

squaw,
Camptolaemus Labradorius, Gray.

R.™ Labrador duck.
Melanetta Velvetina. Baird. M.

Velvet duck. v
Pelionetta Perspicillata, Kaup. M.*

Surf duck.
Oidemia Americana, 6'7£/a/«j'tf«. M.

Scoter.
Somateria Mollissima,Z(?«f>%. Eider

duck.
Somateria Spectabilis, Leach. King

Eider.
Erismatura Rubida, Benap. M. R.

Ruddy duck.
Mergus Americanus, Cass. M.

Sheldrake.

j Winter visitor.

^ In winter.

1 Ditto.

™ Winter for the most part ; occasionally seen in summer.

302

Appendix,

Mergus Serrator, Linn. M. Red-
breasted merganser.

Lophodytes Cucullatus, Reich. A,
Hooded merganser.

Pelecanus Erythrorhynchus, G7n.
A. American pelican.

Sula Bassana, Briss. Gannet.

Graculus Carbo, Gray. M. Com-
mon cormorant.

Graculus Dilophus, Gray. M.
Double-crested cormorant,

Thalassidroma Leachii, Temm.
Leach's petrel.

Thalassidroma Wilsoni, Bonap.
Wilson's petrel.

Thalassidroma Pelagica, Bonap.
Mother Carey's chicken.

Puffinus Major, i^t3;^^r. M."* Greater
shearwater.

Puffinus Fuliginosus, Strick. M. *
Sooty shearwater.

Puffinus Anglorum, Temm. M.
Mank's shearwater.

Stercorarius Pomarinus, Temm. M.
Pomarine Skua.

Stercorarius Parasiticus, Temm.
Arctic skua.

Stercorarius Cepphus, Ross. M.
Buffon's skua. [master.

Larus Glaucus, Eriinn. Burgo-

Larus Leucopterus, Faber. White-
winged gull.

Larus Marinus, Linn. Great black-
backed gull.

Larus Argentatus, Briinn. Herring
gulL

M. Kit-

M. Wil-

M. Arc-
[Loon.

M.

Larus Delawarensis, Ord. M. Ring-
billed gull.
Chroicocephalus Atricilla, Linn.

Laughing gull.
Chroicocephalus Philadelphia. M.

Bonaparte's gull.
Rissa Tridactyla, Bonap.

tiwake gull.
Sterna Wilsoni, Bonap.

son's tern.
Sterna Macroura, Natim.

tic tern.

Colymbus Torquatus, Briinn. M.
Colymbus Septentrionalis, Linn.

M.n Red-throated diver.
Podiceps Griseigena, Gray.

Red-necked grebe.
Podiceps Cristatus, Lath.

Crested grebe.
Podilymbus Podiceps, Lawr.

Carolina grebe.
Alca Impennis, Linn. Great auk.^
AlcaTorda,Z/«;«. Razor-billed auk.
Mormon Cirrhata, Bonap. Tufted

puffin.
Mormon Glacialis, Leach. R. Sea

parrot ; puffin.
Mormon Arctica, Illiger. Arctic

puffin. [lemot.

TJria Grylle, Latham. Black guil-
Uria Lomvia, Briinnich. Foolish

guillemot.
Uria Ringvia, Briinnich. M.

Murre.
Mergulus AUe, Vieillot. M. Sea

dove.**

M.

M.

" A winter visitor.

Ditto.
P Bones, as noted, have been found in Indian refuse-heaps on the coast

of Maine.

^ Winter only.

Appendix.

303

REPTILES.

The following list of the Reptilia include also species found in the ad-
joining State of Maine, and identified by Professor Verrill, and Dr. Fogg,
Curator of Herpetology in the Portland Society of Natural History. The
last named species are in italics.

«

TURTLES.

Nanemys guttata, Ag. The yellow-
spotted turtle.

Chrysemys picta. Gray. The
painted turtle.

Ozotheca odorata, Ag. The mud
turtle.

Chelydra serpentina, Schmig. The

snapping turtle.
Glyptemys insculpta, Ag. The

wood turtle.
Cistiido Virginea, Ag. The box

turtle. Only one specimen found.

Sciticus fasciaius, Linn.

SAURIANS.

The blue-tailed lizard.

SERPENTS.

Rare.

(Sr-

G. The

Eutainia sirtalis, B.

striped snake.
E. Saurita^ B. &» G. The riband

snake. Common.
Storeria Dekayi, B. 6r* G. The

little brown snake.
Chlorosoma vemalis, B. 6^ G. The

green snake.
Crotalus durissus, Linn. The

banded rattle snake. Rare. In

the south-west parts of the State

of Maine only.

Bascanion constrictot', B. &^ G.
The black snake. Rare. In the
south-west parts of the State only.

Nerodia sipedon, B. &» G. The
water snake.

Storeria occipito-macidata, B. (Sr* G.
The spotted-neck snake. Com-
mon.

Diadophis punctattts B. &^ G. The
ring-necked snake. Not common.

Ophibolus eximius, B. dr" G. The
milk snake.

AMPHIBIANS.

FROGS AND TOADS.

Rana Catesbianus, Shaw. The
bull frog.

R. clamitans, Daud. The yellow-
throated green frog.

Rana palustris, Leconte. The pick-
erel frog.

R. sylvatica, Leconte. The wood
frog.

R. halecina, Kalm. The leopard
frog.

Hylodes Pickeringii, Hobb. Pick-
ering's hylodes.

Hyla versicolor, Leconte. The tree
toad.

Bufo Americanus, Lan. The com-
mon toad.

304

Appendix.

SALAMANDERS.

Plethodon erythronotus, Baird. The
red-backed salamander. Com-
mon.

P. ,gluttnos7is, Tesch. The bhic-
spotted salamander. Common.

Salamandra opaca, Gray. The
banded salamander. Quite com-
mon.

S. punctata, Lac. The violet co-
loured salamander. Common.

S. maculata. Green. The brown-
spotted salamander.

J?", graimlata, Hoi. The granulated
salamander. Rare.

Desmognathus fuscus, Baird. The
painted salamander. Rare.

Spelerpes bilincata, Baird. The
striped-back salamander. Com-
mon. :

Pseiidotriton salmonetis, Baird.
The salmon-coloured salamander.

Notophthalmiis viridescens, Baird.
The crimson - spotted triton.
Common.

A', tniniatus, Raf. The symme-
trical salamander. Common.

FISHES.

This list represents the chief marine and fresh-water
fishes as far as I have been able to discover. Many of the
former I have not verified from personal observation, and
therefore give them (in italics) on the authority of Dr.
Holmes * Professor Gill,t and others : —

Yellow or brindle perch. Perca

flavescens. Mitch.
Striped bass. Roccus Lineatus.

Gill.
White perch. Morone Americana.

Gill.
Bream, flat fish. Pomotis vulgaris.

Ciiv.
Pumpkin seed. Pomotis appendix.

Mitch.
White lake bass. Labrax albidus.

Dekay.

Bigporgee. Pagrus argyrops. Cuv.
Weak fish. Cynoscion regalis. Gill.
Spring mackerel. Scomber vema-

lis. Mitch.
Fall mackerel. Scomber grex.

Mitch.
Tunney, or horse mackerel. Ory-

conis secund. dorsalis. Gill.
Spanish mackerel. Apodontis ma-

culatus. Gill.
Sword fish. Xiphias gladius.

Storer.

* " Ichthyology of Maine," in Report of Geology and Agriculture, ist
series, 1861, p. 31 ; and 2nd series, 1862, p. 60.

t Gill, " Synopsis of the Fishes of the St. Lawrence and Bay of Fundy,"
Canadian Naturalist, 1865.

Appeuaix,

305

Blunt-nose shiner. Vomer sctipin-

nis. Ayres.
Blue fish. Pomatomus saltatrix.

Gill.
Bill fish. Scomberesox scutellatus.

Lesnejir. ' -

Two-spined stickleback. Gasteros-

teus biaculeatus. Mitch.
Many-spined stickleback. Gaste-

rosteus occidentalis. Brc7>ort.
Many-spined stickleback. Pygos,

tens Dekayii. Brevort.
Silverside. Chirostoma notatian.

Gill.
Norway haddock. Sebastes Nor-

wegiats. Cuv.
Sea raven. Hemitripterus acadien-

sis. Storer.
Sculpin^ Greenland bull-head. Coi-
tus Greenlandicns. Girard.
Common sculpin, or bull - bead.

Coitus octodecim spinatus. Gill.
Labrador or northern sculpin. Cot-

tus Labradoricus. Girard.
American aspidophore. Aspido-

phorus monopterygiiis. Storer.
Sea swallow. Dactylopterus voli-

tans. Lac.
Toad fish. Batrachus tau. Linn.
Radiated shanny. Phoiis subbi-

furcatus. Storer.
Butter fish. Muraenoides nincro-

natus. Gill.
Thick-hpped eelpout. Zoarces an-

guillaris. Storer. [Storer.

Lump fish. Lumpus anglorum.
Sea woJf. Anarrhicas vomerinus.

Storer.
Spotted wry mouth. Cryptocan-

thodes maculatus.
Ghost fish. Cryptocanthodes inor-

natus.
Angler. Lophius Americanus. Val.
Bank cod. Gadus Vulgaris (doubt-
ful). Perley.

Cod fish. Gadus Americanus. Gill.
Frost fiLa ; Tom cod. Gadus pru-

inosus. Mitch.
Haddock. Melanogrammus acgli-

finus. Gill.
Pollock. Merlangus purpureus.

Storer.
Hake. Merlucius vulgaris. Reisch.
Fresh water cusk. Lota maculosa.

Dekay.
Cusk. Brosmius flavescens. Storer.
American Hake. Phycis Ameri-
cana. Cuv.
Dekay's codling. Phycis Dekayii.

Kaup.
New York ophidium. Ophidiutn

marginatum. Mitch.
Black fish. Tautoga Americana.

Storer.
Gunner. Ctcnolabrus coeruleus.

Storer.
Halibut. Hippoglossus Americana.

Gill. • '

Toothed flat fish, summer flounder.

Pomatopsetta dentata. Gill.
Flounder. Platessa plana. Storer.
Shiner. Leucosomus Americanus.

Storer.
Red fin. Leuciscus cornutus. De-
kay.
Banded dace. Leuciscus vittatus.

Dekay. [Storer.

Roach dace. Leuciscus pulchellus.
Chub, big head. Leuciscus cepha-

lus. Kirt.
Shining dace. Leuciscus nitjdus.

Dekay.
New York shiner. Leuciscus ciy-

soleucas. Mitch.
Brook minnow. Leuciscus afro-

nasus. Storer.
Chub Leuciscus sp. (?)
Common sucker. Catastomus Bos-

toniensis (?) LeSueur.
Moxostomus oblongus. Ayres.

3o6

Appendix.

Chub. Catastomus Gibbosus (?)
Minnow, killifish. Fundulus piscu-

lentus. Val.
Common pickerel. Esox reticula-

tus. Lesueur.
Salmon. Salmo salar. Linn.
Brook trout. Salmo fontinalis.

Mitch.
Sea trout. Salmo Canadensis.

Smith.
Salmon trout. Fario tsuppitch (?)
Salmo hamatus. Cuvier.
Silvery salmon trout. Salmo Glo-

verii. Girard.
Togue. Salmo confinis. Dekay.
Blue-backed trout. Salmo oquassa
■ Girard.* .

White, or Gizzard fish. Core-

gonus sapidissimus. Richard.
Argyrosoma clupeiformis . Ay res.
Smelt, fresh water. Osmerus mor-

dax. Gi/l.
Sea smelt. Osmerus (?)
Capelin. Mallotus villosus.
Herring. Clupea elongata. Linti.
Common Shad. Alosa sapidissima.

Storer.
Alewife, or Gaspereau. Alosa ty-

rannus. Dekay.
Alosa cycnonoton. Storer.
Menhaden, Moss bonker. Bre-

voortia menhaden. Gill.
Brit. Clupea minima. Pec. Petley.

Autumnal herring. Alcsa matto-

waca. Dekay.
Anchovy. EngraulisTtttata. Baird

and Girard.
Dusky balistes. Balistesfuliginosus.

Dekay.
Sharp-nosed eel. Anguilla tenui-

rostris. Dekay.
Eel. Anguilla Bostoniensis. Les.
American Conger. Anguilla ocean-

ica. Dekay.
Sand launce. Ammodytes tobea-

nus. Blanch.
Thin head. Leptocephalus gracilis.

Storer.
Cat fish. Pimelodus catus. Dekay.
Sturgeon. Acipenser oxyrhynchus.

Mitchell.
Porbeagle. Lamna punctata.

Storer.
Dog fish {Perley). Squalus Ame-
rica nus. Gill ex St.
Basking shark. Cetorhinus maxi-

mus.f Blainville.
Thresher shark {Perley). Alopias

vulpes. Bon. ex Linn.
Sleeper. Somniosus brevipennis.

Lesueur.
Skate (Perley). Raia laevis. Mitch. %
Hedgehog , ray {Perley). % Raia

erinace. Mitchill.
Lamprey. Petromyzon Ameri-

canus. L^s.

* " Report on the Fishes of New Brunswick," p. 209.
t Bangeley Lake, Maine, only, but possibly also in New Brunswick
waters.

+ One was driven on the coast of Maine during the summer of 1868.
§ These two rays are doubtful.

Appevdix.

307

CLIMATE.

The following Meteorological Observations have no pretence
whatever to completeness, but I believe afford a fair illus-
tration of the climate, seeing that no carefully conducted data
on these points have as yet been recorded, at least as far as
Central New Brunswick is concerned, whilst the very valuable
and precise researches of Mr. Murdoch on the coast of St.
John present a striking contrast to the meagre facts hitherto
tabulated of the meteorology of the interior. I have therefore
selected an average year of range of temperature, more espe-
cially on account of the observations being trustworthy, as I
had cause to know from personal knowledge of the capabili-
ties of my excellent friend and late brother officer Mr. Welch,
F.R.C.S., now Assistant Professor of Pathology in the Royal
Victoria Hospital at Netley, who, aided by Sergeant Baird, of
the 22nd Regiment, conducted a series of interesting notices
on the climate by means of reliable instruments.

X 2

3o8

Appendix,

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

Taken at Fredericton, New Brunswick, from May, 1867, to

April, 1868, inclusive.

Lat. 45° 57' 28" N. Long. 66° 38' W.

The height above the Sea seems never to have been faithfully determined ;
jierhaps 300 feet is about correct. Fredericton is 58 miles inland.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strenf^th of Wind. -S, strong : G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.
Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost ;
S, snow ; M, mist.

MAY, 1867.

THERM.

WIND.

'o

BAROM.

DATE.

■S-d

REMARKS.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

8

3

8

3

'Xl

^<

8

3

I

i
SO

57

S.E.

E.

S

R

2978

29-62

2

47

St

E.

S.W.

G

R

29-36

29-62

"

3

42

51

S.

s.

L

F

30-32

30-34

4

44

47

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

30-52

30-36

.5

37

47

N.E.

N.E.

L

C

30-32

30- 3

6

41

53

S.E.

E.

L

C

30-06

30-04

7

43

55

N.E.

N.E.

L

C

29-96

29-94

8

49

54

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29- 7

29- 6

9

Vi

62

N.E.

S.E.

L

R

29-46

29- 4

10

so

58

S.E.

S.E.

L

C

29-51

29-53

II

47

55

N.E.

S.W.

L

R

29-55

29-54

12

46-

55

S.W.

S.W.

S

C

29-66

29-66

13

52

57

s.w.

S.W.

L

F

29-77

29-76

14

43

53

S.W.

S.W.

L

C

29-73

29-63

IS

4S

47

N.W.

N.E.

L

R

29-46

29-42

'

16

43

47

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29-53

29-55

17

45

55

N.

S.W.

L

C

29-66

29-66

*i8

40

43

N.E.

E.

L

R

29-71

29-82

19

38

42

N.

N.W.

S

C

29-85

29-85

20

44

51

N.W.

N.W.

L

F

29-83

29-76

21

49

58

S.W

S.W.

L

F

29-78

29- 7

22

53

60

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 7

29- 6

23

37

46

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29- 6

29-66

24

41

58

S.E.

S.E.

L

R

29-74

29-72

25

40

58

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 9

29- 9

20

44

47

S.W.

S.W.

L

R

29-98

29-87

27

55

63

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 8

29-77

28

57

63

S.W.

S.W.

S

F

2991

29-84

29

58

63

N.W.

N.E.

L

F

29-94

29-88

30

44

55

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

29-95

29- 9

31

44

50

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29-78

29-74

* Fall of snow to 3 in. at Stanley, near Fredericton.

Appendix.

309

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— tv«//«^/^v/.

ABBREVIATIONS. •

Strength of Wind. — S, btronj; ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain; F, fine, calm; C, cloudy; Fr, frost;
S, snow ; M, mist.

*

TUNE

. 1867.

THERM.

WIND.

\ _

0 ti
c 0

BAROM.

■5-d

0 j=

DATE.

■■5 0

§s

REMARKS.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

l-.M.

A.M

I'.M.

8

3

8

3

'Si

;.^<:

8

3

I

57

64

N.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-94

29-88

2

63

75

S.W.

S.

L

F

29-94

29-86

. " . _■

3

53

54

s.

S.W.

C

R

29-74

29- 6

4

52

70

S.W.

s.

S

F

29-44

29- 4

-

5

59

64

N.W.

N.W.

S

F

29-72

29-74

6

44

62

N.W.

S.W.

L

C

29-88

29- 8

7

54

64

N.W.

N.W.

L

F

29-76

29-88

. . . • ■

8

62

65

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

30-18

30*14

9

59

64

N.E.

N.E.

—

F

30-01

30-06

; ' - ■

10

56

69

N.W.

N.E.

L

F

30- 2

30- I

II

54

74

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

30-18

3004

♦12

63

75

S.E,

N.E.

L

F

29-94

29-74

'

13

62

78

N.E.

N.W.

L

R

29-76

29-75

14

68

79

N.

S.W.

L

F

30-02

30"

■

15

48

62

S.E.

E.

L

R

29-98

29-88

16

61

75

E,

S.

L

F

29- 8

29-91

17

64

73

N.E.

E.

L

F

30-18

30-14

18

52

64

E.

S.W.

L

R

30-02

29-84

19

61

68

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 8

29-87

20

52

68

N.W.

S.W.

L

F

30- I

30* I

21

63

71

N.W.

S.W.

L

F

30- 2

30-12

22

65

78

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

30- I

30-04

23

53

72

E.

S.W.

L

R

29-97

29-86

24

56

64

E.

N.E.

L

R

29-98

30-

25

66

76

E.

E.

L

F

30-05

Zo-

26

69

79

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

30-12

30- I

27

64

75

E.

S.E.

S

F

30-15

30-04

28

60

n

S.W.

S.E.

L

R

29-72

29' 7

29

66

73

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-94

29-89

30

57

75

S.E.

S.W.

L

F

29-66

29- 5

* All the characters of the sirocco of Southern Europe.

3IO

Appendix.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— ^^////««^</.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.
Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost ;
S, snow ; M, mist.

1

JULY, 1867.

THERM.

WIND.

^1!

BAROM.

DATE.

|i

0 -w

REMARKS.

A.M.

P M.

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

8

3

8

3

w

J<

8

3

■;

I

64

72

1

S.E.

S.W.

s

F

29-84

29- 6

2

62

71

S.W.

S.W.

s

F

29-68

29- 6

3
4

57
63

74
70

S.W.

S.W.
S.W.

s

L

F
R

29- 6
29-71

29- 6
29- 7

Heavy rain in the
evtfhing. Thunder
.storm.

5

62

72

S.W.

N.W.

L

F

29- 9

29- 9

6

61

72

N.E.

N.W.

L

R

29* 9

29-82

7

57

61

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29-62

29-66

8

59

80

N.W.

S.E.

L

F

29-72

29-66

9

61

75

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-92

29-86

lO

66

76

N.W.

N.E.

L

F

29*96

29-92

II

63

77

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

29-92

29- 8

12

67

74

E.

S.W.

s

C

29- 6

29-62

13

65

68

N.W.

N.E.

L

C

29-94

30-

14

68

76

N.E.

N.E.

L

F

30- 2

30* 1 3

15

66

66

N.W.

S.E.

S

R

30-07

29-92

Thunder storm.

i6

68

85

S.W.

S.E.

L

F

29-86

29- 8

17

58

72

N.E.

N.E.

L

C

29-82

2982

Rain at night.

i8

55

65

S.E.

N.E.

L

C

30-04

30-08

19

53

60

N.E.

N.E.

L

c

30-12

30-08

20

54

62

N.E.

N.E.

S

R

30-01

29*88

21

52

59

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29-V2

29-65

22

53

56

N.E.

N.E.

L

R

29-54

29-52

Rain all-day. ,

23

54

73

N.W.

N.E.

L

R

29-62

29-64

24

71

85

N.E.

S.V/.

S

F

29-62

29-74

Thunder storm.

25

69

73

S.W.

E.

L

F

29-61

29-64

26

69

72

N.W,

S.E.

L

R

29-74

29-71

27

57

76

S.W.

S.W.

r

F

29- 9

29- 9

28

59

76

s.

S.E.

L

F

29-78

2962

29

73

77

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 5

29-55

30

61

70

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

2976

29-77

31

62

70

S.W.

S.E.

L

F

30- 1 6

30-19

'

Appendix.

3"

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— ^^«////wtv/.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost
S, snow ; M, mist.

AUGUST, 1867.

THERM.

WIND.

0

C 4>

BAROM.

■^■6

O.C

DATE

T3 0

hi

8

3

REMARKS.

8

3

8

3

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

s^ ^

A.M.

P.M.

"

I

65

75

N.E.

S.W.

!
L ' F

30* 2

30-12

* -..,;-

2

60

65

S.W.

S.E.

L

R

30-

29-94

3

66

71

s.w.

S.W.

L

R

9978

29-94

. -: •■; .-

4

68

72

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29'93

29-97

5

72

82

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

30-06

"JO-

*6

67

76

s.w.

N.E.

L

R

30-14

30- 1

• ■' ~ '-' - ■':-

7

69

83

E.

S.E.

L

F

3006

30-

8

66

84

S.W.

S.E.

L

F

30-04

30- .

9

65

80

S.

S.W.

L

F

30-05

30-

10

72

82

E.

E.

L

F

29- 9

29- 8

II

64

71

S.W.

W.

S

F

29-87

29-88

12

60

V

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-92

29-83

13

60

76

S.W.

S.W.

L

C

29-74

29-72

14

58

61

S.E.

E.

L

R

29-78

29-82

15

60

72

E.

E.

L

F

30-04

30-05

16

63

75

E.

E,

L

F

30-07

29-98

17

61

70

E.

E.

L

R

29-74

29-66

18

63

75

N.W.

S.W,

L

R

29- 6

29-66

19

72

81

S.E.

E.

L

F

29-75

29-66

20

65

72

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-74

29- 7

21

68

n

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29-76

29-72

22

66

76

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

29- 9

29- 9

23

52

61

S.W.

S.W.

L

R

29-96

29- 9

.

24

57

67

N.E.

N.W.

L

R

29- 7

29-67

25

62

68

W.

S.W.

S

F

2973

29-74

26

56

72

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

30-

29-92

27

. 64

82

S.E.

S.W.

L

F

29" 9

2982

28

62

73

S.

S.E.

L

C

29-85

29-74

29

60

63

S.W.

S.E.

L

R

29-68

29-62

30

57

67

S.W.

S.W.

L

c

29- 6

29-62

•

31

53

65

S.W.

S.W.

L

F

30-05

30-

* About a mile and a half from Fredericton a fall of snow took place during a
fall of rain at the latter ; the snow was sufficient to form a light coating to the
clothes. There is no doubt of the authenticity of this.

31

Appendix.

METEOROLOGICA L OBSERVATIONS— ^t;/^////^/^^/.

: ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of Wind — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost ;
S, snow ; M, mist.

DATE.

SEPTEMBER, 1867.

THERM.

8

A.M.

W<ND,

t» .

i

0

c 1>

BAROM.

4-t

•2-S.

M ir.
•0 0

8

J

P..M .

CA!

uo

A.M.

KE.M.\KK'S,

I

54

2

55

3

67

4

52

5

54

6

52

7

54

8

5«

9

48

10

59

II

47

12

54

13

49

14

48

15

46

16

43

17

49

18

54

19

57

20

42

21

53

22

41

23

39

24

43

25

51

26

45

27

45

28

56

29

46

30

36

60

63

70

63

71

68
70
68
67
61

58
68

69
52
56

65
60

63
64
64

63
60

45
52
51

43
60

66

59
40

S.E.

s.w.
s.w.

E.
S.W.
S.W.

E.
N.W.
N.E.
S.E.
S.W.

s.w.

S.E.
W.

S.w.
s.w.

E.
.S.W.

w.

S.W.

w.
w.
w.
w.
s.w.

N.
N.W.

W.

E.
N.W.

S.E,

s.w.

S.W.
S.W.
S.W.

E.

E.

E.

E.
S.W.
S.W.
S.E.

S.

s.w.
S.w.
s.w.

E.

.S.E.
N.E.

S,
N.W.
S.W.

W.
S.W.

s.w.

N.W.

W.

W.

E.
N.W.

L F

L I F
L I F

29-88

I 29-87
30*22
30-02
30-07
30-
29-95
30-41
30-02
29-80
30-

; 29-98

; 29-80

! 29-84

30-38
30*26
30-26

30-14
30-04
3006
2996
29*96
30-04
30-32
29-84
29-76
29.84
29-96
29*86
29*80

29*82

29-98

30-15

2992

30-0?

29-92

30-16

3004

30-03

29-69

29-98

29-85

29-60

30*

30-20

30. 8

30-30

2992

30*02

29-86

29-94

29-82

30-08

30-18

29-72

29-82

29-80

29-90

29-76

29*64

He.ivy rain in thq
evening.

ram.

Appendix.

in

METEO ROLOGIC AL 0BSP:R VATIONS— ^t;////««^^'.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of Wind. — S, strung ; (i, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condiiiou of Atmosphere.— \k, rain; F, fine, calm; C, cloudy; Fr. frost;
S, snow ; M, mist.

OCTOBER, 1867. 1

!

THERM. 1

WIND.

■o

0 U

BAROM.

DATE.

I

1"^

REMARKS.

8

1

1

3

8

3

8

3

.\. .M.

1'. .M.

A.M.

l'..M.

.\..M.

r.M.

I

34

41

N.W.

N.W.

S

R

29-54

29-48

2

39

55

N.W.

W.

L

F

2960

29-54

3

4'

51

W.

W.

L

E

29-44

29-66

4

38

50

W.

N.W.

I.

F

30-24

0O-32

5

35

51

E.

N.W.

L

R

30-50

30-02

6

55

45

S.

N.W.

L

R

29-62

29-84

7

34

39

N.W.

N.W.

S

F

30-08

30-12

-' T ' ,

8

31

39

N.W.

N.W.

S

F

30-20

30-10

9

30

40

N.W.

N.W.

.s

F

30-18

3002

10

29

38

N.W.

N.W.

L

R

29-72

29-70

II

38

46

N.W.

N.E.

s

F

30-10

30- 1 2

12

37

40

N.E.

N.E.

s

R

29-98

29-80

13

35

39

N.W.

N.W.

s

R

29-72

29-76

14

34

43

N.W.

N.W.

■

s

F

29-80

29.80

15

25

49

N.W.

S.

L

F

3006

30-02

16

32

55

s.w.

w.

L

F

30-34

30-22

17

39

58

s.

E.

L

F

30-14

30-

18

48

60

s.w.

W.

L

F

29-74

29-70

19

46

60

w.

W.

L

F

30-

29-96

20

35

55

w.

E.

L

F

30-48

3050

21

35

56

E.

S.

L

F

30-46

30-48

22

50

58

s.

.s.

L

F

30-14

30.

23

33

39

N.W.

N.W.

S

R

3028

30-14

24

30

39

W.

N.W.

«

F

30-12

30-46

25

27

40

W,

N.W.

L

F

30-56

30-50

26

22

43

w.

N.W.

L

F

30-46

30-28

27

30

41

N.W.

N.W. L

F

30-24

30-24

28

28

43

N.W.

W. L

I

F

30-44 30-48

29

31

45

W.

w. ; L

F

30-34

30-36

30

35

42

W.

W. ! L

R

30-10

29-92

31

39

42

N.W.

N.W. I,

R

29-54

29-56

314

Appendix.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— ^>7//;«/«'^.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength oj Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain; F, fine, calm; C, cloudy; Fr, frost;
S, snow ; M, mist.

■

NOVEMBER, 1867.

THERM.

w.

ND.

0

1— V

BAROM.

•

DATE.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

tt

it
11

REMARKS.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

I

31

45

N.W.

N.W.

L

F

29-94

29-88

2

36

44

N.W.

S.

S

R

29-50

29-26

Very strong at night.

3

31

34

S.W.

w.

S

F

29-76

29-88

4

39

45

N.W.

w.

s

R

29-58

.29-30

5

27

34

w.

w.

s

Fr

30-18

30-22

6

27

28

N.E.

N.W.

s

S

29-98

30-02

First snow.

7

16

21

N.W.

N.W.

s

Fr

30-10

30-18

8

16

26

w.

N.W.

s

Fr

30-40

3036

River coated over by

9

23

38

S.W.

S.W.

L

R

30-26

3008

Foggy.

lO

38

46

S.W.

S.W.

M

30-12

30 08

Foggy.

II

44

51

W,

S.W.

R

30-00

30-

12

41

40

N.W.

S.W.

R

29-90

29-64

Rain all day.

'3

38

39

N.W.

N.W.

F

29-20

29-16

14

28

30

S.W.

S.W.

Fr

29-38

29-56

15

24

28

S.W.

w.

Fr

29-90

30- 4

i6

19

30

S.W.

w.

s

30-18

29-90

Ice on the river. Snow
all day.

17

26

27

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-46

29-42

i8

17

21

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-40

29-44

Crossing of the river
on foot.

19

14

21

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-90

29-98

20

5

23

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

30-28

30-14

Traffic over river.

21

21

27

N.W.

N.W.

S

30-14

30-30

22

9

28

S.W.

S.W.

F

30*20

30-40

23

37

28

S.W.

S.W.

R

30-24

30-26

Thaw, rain.

24

37

45

S.W.

S.W.

R

30-32

30-32

Fog.

25

38

44

S.W.

S.W,

R

30-32

30-26

Fog.

26

43

49

S.W.

S.W.

R

30- 8

29-86

Rain.

27

37

41

w.

S.W.

F

30-

30.06

28

30

38

w.

W.

F

39*io

30-06

29

34

37

w.

w.

S

30-12

29-98

30

52

37

S.W.

N.W.

R

28-98

29-

River opened, and
frozen over again,
within 34 hours.

'

Appendix.

315

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— «rc?////>///^^.

ABBREVIATIONS.
Strength of Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost
S, snow ; M, mist.

DECEMBER,

1867.

THERM.

WIND.

be

I5AR0M.

DATE.

-0 3 *•
^000

■S-o.
-5 0

REMARKS.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

Lowe

24

afte

Is

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

I

6-

9'

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

30 08

30-34

River bearing.

2

II-

20-

N.W.

N.W.

s

30-42

30-22

3

19-

27-

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-82

29-76

4

13"

lo-

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-56

29-64

5

• 4

13'

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-84

29-80

6

'lO

10-

N.W.

S.W.

Fr

30-18

30 06

7

38-

23-

S.W.

N.W.

Fr

2910

29-36

■

8

7'

I"

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

2974

29-82

9

•13

. • 2

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-98

29-94

10

•12

4*

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

30-02

29-90

Snow at night.

II

T

8-

W.

N.W.

Fr

29-84

29-90

12

' 8

I

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

29-98

3004

13

8-

17-

N.W.

N.E.

Fr

30-22

30-16

14

r

32-

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

30-28

30-28

15

• 4

i8-

N.W.

N.W.

Fr

3034

30 02

16

26-

30-

N.E.

N.W.

s

29-44

29-20

^1

i8-

26-

N.W.

S.W.

Fr

29-36

29-40

18

i6-

20 •

S.W.

S.W.

Fr

29-60

29-74

19

• 4

4'

S.W.

S.W.

Fr

30 -20

3032

20

■14

8-

N.W.

N.E.

Fr

30-56

30-38

Snow.

21

lO*

20 •

W.

w.

6-

Fr

30-20

30-38

Snow at night.

22

13*

20 •

W.

N.E.

2*

s

30-50

30-10

Snow all day.

23

24-

35"

N.E.

N.W.

15-

Fr

29-30

29-28

24

9'

17-

N.E.

W.

8-

Fr

30- 16

30-18

25

i6-

i6-

W.

N.W.

14-

Fr

30-24

30-46

26

24-

40-

N.E.

N.W,

14-

R

29-70

29-60

Rain. 1

27

20 •

23"

N.W.

E.

15-

Fr

30-22

3008

Snow.

28

39*

34-

S.W.

S.W.

21-

R

29-54

29-78

29

s-

17-

N.W.

N.W.

2*

Fr

30-08

30-

Snow.

30

2-

3*

N.W.

W.

• 6

Fr

30-22

30-28

31

•10

•II

N.W.

N.W.

•19

Fr

30-44

30-48

3i6

Appendix.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— ^^////>/«/?./.

ABBREVIATIONS. ' •

Strength of Wind. — S, Strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atirosphcre. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost
S, snow ; M, mist.

JANUARY, I

868.

^ _■'■

U .

THERM.

WIND.

•c.r^

0 <L>

BAROM.

-03^

DATE.

s 0

REMARKS.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

^^1

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

I

2-

10'

N.E.

N.E.

• 6

s

30-48

3020

2

20-

28-

N.W.

N.W.

• 6

s

29-18

29 '34

3

19-

25-

N.W.

N.W.

14

.s

29-70

J9-80

4

• 5

w

N.W.

W.

• 6

Fr

29-98

29-86

5

• 9

12-

N.W.

N.W.

;i3

Fr

29-84

29-74

6

8-

14-

N.W.

N.W.

8

Fr

29-60

29-66

7

9"

19-

N.W.

N.W.

9

Fr

29-86

29-82

8

6-

35-

N.W.

N.W.

6

Fr

29-90

29-80

9

i8-

25-

N.W.

N.W.

12

.s

2964

29-40

Snow all day.

lo

lO'

15"

N.

N.W.

10

Fr

29-40

29-48

II

• 5

13-

N.

N.

6

Fr

29-68

29-62

12

• I

5-

N.W.

N.W.

5

Fr

29-6^.

29-66

13

4"

14'

S.W.

N.W,

4

Fr

29-98

30-

14

4"

13-

S.W.

S.W.

4

Fr

30-24

30-26

15

r

29-

N.W.

N.W.

I

Fr

30-20

30-10

Snow at night.

i6

13*

22-

N.W.

N.W.

12

Fr

29-88

29-80

Snow in morning.

17

i8-

2r

N.W.

N.

lO

Fr

29-74

29-74

Snow.

i8

9'

19-

N.

N.

8

Fr

29-88

29-96

19

• 3

i6-

N.

N.

• 6

Fr

30-22

30-30

20

T

20 •

N.

N.

.

5

Fr

30-26

30-10

21

lO*

18.

N.W.

N.

6

Fr

30-08

29-94

22

lO"

22'

N.W.

N.

7

Fr

30-08

30-34

23

• 3

27-

N.W.

E.

S

Fr

30-58

30-20

Snow in evening.

24

34"

38-

S.W.

N.W.

27

S

29-56

29-56

25

14-

25-

N.W.

N.

13

Fr

29-56

29-90

26

• 8

TO*

N.

N.

• 9

Fr

30-28

30-36

27

9"

17'

N.

N.

6

s

30-14

29-96

Snow all day.

28

5"

22-

N.

N.

4

Fr

30-18

30-22

29

•10

lO"

N.

N.

•14

Fr

30-32

30-18

30

14'

22'

N.

N.

II

S

29-74

29-88

31

• 7

30-

N.

N.

12

Fr

3032

30 30

Appetiixix.

317

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— r^;////;//^//.

'" ABBREVIATIONS. - -

Strength of Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost ;
S, snow ; M, mist.

FEBRUARY,

1868.

THERM.

WIND.

0 V

C 4i

BAROM.

DATE.

0 00

0 J2

•-5 S

RKMRAKS.

8

3

8

3

0 <^

8

3

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

1". M.

J

A.M.

I'. M.

I

13-

N.VV.

N.W.

3-

Fr

30 "44

30-42

2

9-

38-

W.

S.

7'

Fr

30-18

30-02

3

T

8-

N.W.

N.W.

6-

Fr

30*20

30-34

4

•13

22-

N.W.

N.W.

•16

S

30 "36

30-08

5

•15

i6-

N.W.

N.W.

•16

Fr

30-48

30-42

Snow all night.

6

i6-

21*

N.W.

N.W.

8-

s

29-88

29-22

Snow all day.

7

lo-

13-

N.W.

N.W.

9'

Fr

29'54

29-68

8

• 7

31-

N.W.

N.W.

12

Fr

30-38

30-44

•

9

4*

IV

W.

W.

■14

s

30-14

29-78

Snow all day.

10

24-

19-

N.W.

N.W.

24-

Fr

29-62

30-06

II

• 8

20*

N.W.

N.W.

■II

Fr

30*44

30-36

12

•14

24-

N.W.

N.W.

■17

Fr

30-36

30-30

13

* 7

22'

N.W.

S.E.

• 9

S

30-40

30-12

Snow afternoon.

14

w

i8-

N.W.

N.W.

ir

Fr

30-06

30-14

15

4-

20-

S.W.

S.W.

• 5

S

30-22

37-06

Snow all day.

16

9"

35-

W.

N.W.

7'

Fr

30-20

30 -2 2

17

• 2

32*

N.W.

N.W.

• 6

Fr

30-28

30-12

18

23-

30-

S.E.

N.W.

20-

Fr

29-84

29-82

Snow all night.

19

12-

35-

W.

N.W,

8-

F

29-78

29-60

Snow all night.

20

22*

50 ■

W,

N.W.

17*

F

29-88

29-82

Thaw.

21

32-

26.

S.

N.W.

29-

Fr

29-64

29-86

22

Zero

17-

S.W.

N.W.

Zero

Fr

30-30

30-26

23

•10

24-

N.W.

N.W.

•12

Fr

30-40

30-40

24

• I

30.

N.W.

N.W.

• 2

Fr

30-68

3060

^3

• I

30.

N.W.

N.W.

• 5

Fr

50-58

30-50

26

• 7

35*

N.W.

N.W.

• 9

Fr

30-58

30-34

27

• 6

36-

N.W.

S.W.

• 9

Fr

30-24

29-86

Snow at night.

28

20 •

32'

N.W.

S.W.

19-

Fr

29-42

29-24

29

22-

25-

S.W.

S.W.

i6-

s

29-32

29-36

Snow all day.

3i8

Appendix.

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— rw/w//^-//.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of VVind.—'^, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain ; F, fine, calm ; C, cloudy ; Fr, frost ;
S, snow ; M, mist.

MARCH, 1868.

DATE.

THERM.

WIND.

Lowest during

34 hours,

after 8 a.m.

Oj;
B V
- 0.
If

0 5

BAROM.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

8

A.M.

3

P.M.

8

a.m.

3

P.M.

REMARKS.

I

• I

2

•20

3

15-

4

20-

5

8-

6

• 2

7

33"

8

3«'

9

32-

10

33-

II

19-

12

T

13

38-

14

36-

15

35-

16

38-

17

40-

18

42-

19

25-

20

22-

21

31-

22

31-

23

22-

24

i8-

25

5*

26

13-

27

29*

28

25-

29

i6-

30

i6-

31

30-

i8-

6-

20 •

31"
36-
40-

44*
SO-

52-

44'
26*

38-

45-

O'

45*
48-

47"
49*
45-
44'

30 •
36-

38-
31*
36-
38-
46-
38-

34'
36-

54-

N.W.
N.W.
N.W.
N.W.
N.'V.
N.W.
S.W.
S.W.
N.W.
S.W.

w.

N.

s.

S.W.

s.
s.

S.E.
S.E.

N.
N.W.

N.
N.

N.
N.W.

N.
N.
N.
N.
N.
N.
E.

W.
N.W.
N.W.
S.W.
N.W.
N.W.

W.
S.W.
S.W.
S.W.
N.W.

N.

S.
S.W.

s.

S.E.
S.W.

S.E.

N.
N.W.
N.W.

N.

N.
N.W.
N.W.
N.W.
N.W.

N.

N.

£.

E.

•21

4'

17-

I*

29-

34-
25-
29-
19-

2'
29-

34-
30-

35'

36-

37'
24-
19-
27-
28-

13-
13"
lo*

3"
15-
17-

8-

T
25.

Fr
Fr

S

s

F
F

Fr

R

F

F

Fr

Fr

F
R
R

Fr

R

F

F

F

S

S

Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr
Fr

2978

39 94
29-58
29-86
3024

3074
30-28

3016
30*34

3030
30-24

30-52
29-70
29-70
3012
30-20
3010

30 •
30-18

30 '38
29-96
29-38
29-74
29-82
30-22
30-24
29-64
30-04
3034

30* 4
3006

29-82
29-58
29 -66
29 90
30-40

3074
3032
29-96

30-34
30-02
30-50
30 -26

29 -62
29-82

30 10
30- 1 2
29-94
29-90

30*24
30-22
29-60
29-46
29-70
29-88
3016
30-02
29*6.^
3012
3040
3030
29-88

Heavy snow all night.

Snow.

Snow.

Snow morning, thaw

Thaw. [afterwards.

T'.iaw.

Thaw.

.Strong wind, freezing.

Thaw.

Thaw.

Thaw.

Thaw.

Thaw.

Rain.

Heavy snowstorm.
Snow.

Appendix.

319

METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS— rt;///////m/.

ABBREVIATIONS.

Strength of Wind. — S, strong ; G, gale blowing ; L, light wind ; C, calm.

Condition of Atmosphere. — R, rain; F, fine, calm; C, cloudy; Fr, frost;
S, snow ; M, mist.

APRIL, 1868.

THERM.

WIND.

unng

TS,
A.M.

•0.

BAROM.

T\KT\t

T3 —
0 CO

0 JZ

RFMARkTS

Un. 1 C»

8

3

8

3

owesi
after

■a 0

8

3

4% A^ aVi *\ K\ SV «■'•

A.M.

P.M.

A.M.

P.M.

^

A.M.

P.M.

I

27'

58-

N.W.

S.E.

i8-

F

2974

29-56

2

42-

43'

S.E.

N.E.

30'

R

2974

29-66

Snow all night.

3

31"

38-

N.

N.E.

24'

F

2966

2972

.. ■

4

15-

38-

N.W.

N.W.

9"

F

29-82

29-62

S

27-

37'

W.

W.

23'

Fr

29-50

29-40

6

IS"

24'

N.W,

N.

2"

Fr

29-78

29-88

7

i6-

35"

N.W.

S.E.

lO'

Fr

30-20

30-14

Strong wind, snow all

night.
Windy, snow storm.

8

30-

40-

N.W.

N.W.

24'

Fr

28-98

29-14

9

22'

36-

N.W.

N.W.

22-

Fr

29-74

30-

Strong wind.

10

20 •

45'

S.W.

W.

14'

Fr

3036

30-28

II

31"

43"

E.

E.

23'

Fr

29-92

29-68

Snow.

12

35"

29'

N.E.

N.W.

23'

Fr

29-40

29-58

Snow.

13

12'

30-

N.W.

N.W.

3'

Fr

30 '

30-06

Strong wind.

14

19-

48-

N.W.

S.W.

ir

Fr

30-32

30-18

15

39'

54'

S.W.

W.

34'

F

29-96

29-88

16

49'

51'

S.

W.

38-

R

29-86

29-76

Rain.

17

44'

58-

w.

s.

43'

F

2978

29-68

Fog.

18

42-

52-

E.

E.

35'

F

29-70

29-80

19

32-

48-

N.W.

W.

28-

F

3016

30-20

20

42-

6r

N.E.

S.

34'

F

30-28

30-18

2!

40-

6o-

W.

E.

33'

F

30 10

30-04

22

46-

58-

E.

S.W.

36-

F

30-08

30-

Ice giving way.

23

36'

32"

N.W.

N.

32-

F

30-24

3010

Heavy fall of snow.

24

22'

52"

S.W.

N.W.

i6-

F

30-36

30-22

Ice floating down river.

25

31 '

42-

N.

W.

27"

F

30-38

30-28

26

33'

45'

S.W.

N.W.

23'

F

30-24

30-12

First steamer up river

27

30'

42-

N.W.

W.

24'

F

3008

29-98

Strong wind.

28

32-

SO-

N.W.

S.W.

25"

F

30-24

30 -20

29

36

62-

W.

S.W.

H'

F

30-42

30-28

30

38-

SO-

S.E.

W.

36-

R

29-88

29-54

Rain.

320

Appe)uiix.

M

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u

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Appendix,

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2 «

INDEX.

Abnormal habits in animals, 191
Acadia, Derivation of the name, 36

(Note)
Acer Peitnsylvanicum, 82
Agriculture, Primitive condition of, 45

(Note)
Air-holes, 5
Aix sponsa^ 208
Alaska, 71
Albertite, 268
Albinism, 75 et sq., 99, 120 (Note), 150

(Note), 156, 172
Alewive, 13, 247

,, fishery, 13
Algonquin race, 27, 33
America, Zoological divisions of, 178

et sq.
American goldfinch, 155
„ hake, 256
„ hare, 79
„ herring, 265
„ sable, 59
,, sheldrake, 190
Amethystine salmon, 236
Amphibians, List of, of New Brunswick,

303 et sq.
Anas obscura, 131 (Note), 190, 193, 208
Anderson's Cove, 264
Androscoggin River, 253
Anguilla Tetiuirostris, 256
,, Bostoniensis, 256
Antelope, 87
Antlers, Deer casting, 88

,, Time of casting, 89
Apple trees, 129
Aqueous erosion, 222
Argyrosoma clupdformis, 247 (Note)
Arrow-heads, 28, 33

„ Mode of manufacture cf,

32, 33
Arthusa bulbosa, 93
Arvicola Gapperii, 37
Attihcewme^f 246, 247
Auk, Remains of fhe great, 36

B.

Backwoodsmen, 40 et sq.

Bald Mountain, 4 (Note), 203, 269

,, Sea Eagle, 11% et sq.
Baltimore Oriole, 138 (Note)
Banded Dace, 255

,, three-toed Woodpecker, 142
Barn Swallow, 150, 151
Barred Owl, 121
Barrens, 92

,, Formation of, 92
Barrow's Golden Eye, 190
Bascanion constrictor^ 196
Bass fishing, 249
spearing, 248
Striped, 248 et sq.
„ White Lake, 250 ^

Bassagis, 249 (Note) '

Bat, Hoary, 98

,, New York, 98
Bay Shiner, 255 ■»■

Bear, 139

,, Approaching extinction of the, 73
,, Barren-ground, 71
,, Black, 71

,, Brown, 71 • '

,, Hibernation of the, 72, 73
Isabel-coloured, 71
Return of the, to forsaken haunts,
69
Beaver, 71, 94

,, Bones of the, in middens, 37
,, Gradual extinction of the, 94
,, Haunts of the, 94
,, Return of the, to forsaken
haunts, 69
Beaver-dam, Visit to a, 94
Beccafico, 188

Belted Kingfisher, 141 (Note)
Big Lake, 209
Bighorn, 70
Bill, Causes of deformity of the, in

birds, 167 d sq.
Birch Partridge, 74, 174
Bird-catching, 165

324

- Index.

Birds, Courtship of, 156 et sq.

deserting their young, 152
Distribution of, i"]"] et sq.
Interchange of, between the Old

and New Worlds, 183
killed by cold, 125, 132
Lists of American, 177
List of, of New Unmswick, 296

et sq.
Migrations of, 148 et sq., 178

et sq.
Migratory, 7

,, Times of arrival and

departure of, 285 et sq.
,, Tameness of forest, 169
Black-banded Arctic three-toed Wood-
pecker, 142
Black Duck, 131 (Note), 193, 208
Black Mink, 63
Black-nosed Dace, 255
Black Snake, 196
Black Woodcock, 139
Blue-back, 233
Blue berry plains, 138
Blue-bird, 172
Blue Grosbeak, 155
Blue Jay, 131, 161
Blue-tailed .Skink, 197
Bobolink, 156

Bogs, Remains of deer in, 85, et sq.
Bohemian Waxwing, 153
Bothi-iocephali, 224
^Boulders, 281
Boulder clay, 273, 282
Box Turtle, 196
Breeding, Birds, in winter, 165
Brent Goose, 188
Bronze Age, Absence of evidence of,

in New Brunswick, 28
Brook Minnow, 255
Brook Trout, 209, 227

„ Confusion of the, with the

Sea Trout, 227, 229
,, Description of, 229

,, of Lake Utopia, 232

„ Red-bellied, 225

Brook Trout fishing, 233
Brown, the Moose-slayer, loi et sq.
Brown Snake, Little, 196
Brown Thrush, 137
Buckwheat, 138

,, Effects of adiet of, 45(Note)

Buffle-headed Duck, 190
Bufo Americanus, 197
Bullfinch, 158

Pine, 170
,, Trumpeter, 171

Bull-frog, Large, 197
Bull Trouts, 232
Bunting, Snow, 172

Burbot, Spotted, 247
Buzzard, 120

Calendar Naturalist's, 285 et sq.
Caligus, 225 (Note)
Cambrian strata, 262
Camping-out, 53, 55
Catnptolcctnus Labradorius, 39
Canada Qrouse, 174
Canada Goose, 187, 188
Canadian Jay, 131, 161, 173
Caplin, 245 (Note), 268 (Note)
Carboniferous beds, 268
Cardinal flower, 2o3
Caribou, 81 ^/ sq.

„ Decrease of the, 84, 91

,, shooting, 84

,, barrens, 92
Carolina Waxwing, 152, 153
Carp, Sucking, 254
Carraquette, 47
Carrion Crow, 131
Carse lands, 278
Cashmere, Red deer of, 86
Cat Wild, 59
Catbird, 137
Catfish, 255
Catostomtis, 253, 255

,, longirostris, 253

Cedar, 140
Cedar-bird, 153
Celts, 27 — 31

Cennts Americanus fossilis, 85
Chase, Love of the, 38
Chcetura palasgia, 1 50 — 152
Chatterers, 153, 154
Cheuckish mink, 173
Chimney Swift, 150—152
Chipping Sparrow, 123, 153
Chrysomitris pinus, 155, 171

tristis, 155
Chub, 224, 254

,, Big-head, 254
Cisttido Vtrginea, 196
Civilization, Effects of, on the habits of

animals, 74, 147, 148, 150, 173
Cladonia, 82
Clam, 35

„ Extinction of the, 35
Cliff Swallow, 150, 151, and Note
Climate, 4

,, Effects of, on animals and
plants, 122 et sq.

,, Effects of, on deer tribe, 83

, , Effects of, on Europeans, 42 etsq.

,, Effects of, on birds, 141, 149

,, Effects of differences of, on
animals, 182 <^ sq.

Index.

325

Climate of New Brunswick, Observation

on the, 307 et sq.
Clotescarp, 58 ..

Club, Indian, 30, 85 (Note)
Clupea elongata, 265
Coal-basin of New Brunswick, 268 et

sq.
Cod, Tom, 253
Colapates auratus, 181
Colaptes hybridus, 142
Cold, Animals killed by, 1 00, 1 74
,, Effects of unusual, on winter
migrants, 164
Coloration of animals. Effect of situation

on the, 142
Coloration of Fishes, Effect of light on

the, 225, 230, 231
Colour of animals, Effects of tem-
perature on the, 79
Coluber Dekayi, 196
Coluber eximius, 196
Consanguinity, Table of, of Tracadie

lepers, 321
Cooking, Effects of bad, on health,

41 (Note), 45 (Note)
Cooper's Shrew, 98
Coregoni, 245 et sq.
Corvus Ainericaiius, 131
,, carnivorus, 130
Courtship of birds, 158 et sq., 161
Cracking of snow crust, 164
Cree Indians, 246
Crepidula, 35

Cries of animals. Causes of 1 56 et sq.
Crossbills, 168, 173
Crossbill, White- winged, 105
Cross Fox, 75
Crow Blackbird, 154
Curiosity strongly developed in certain

birds, 193, 194
Curlew, Long- billed, 167

,, Slender-billed, 167
Currant flower, 145
Cusk, 215, 217

D.

Dace, Banded, 255

,, Black- nosed, 255

,, Roach, 255

„ Silvery, 250, 255
Daisy, 130
Dead falls, 71

Death, Animals and birds feigning, 145
Decay of trees, 14.0
Deer, Effects of climate and food on, 83

,, Effects of the rutting season, 87

,, Felling in snow, 3?, 37, 81, 90.
lOl et sq.

„ Hoofs in different, 81, 91

Deer, Red, 84
,, Virginian, 64 (Note)
„ ,, Extinction of, 37

Deerstalking, 84

Devonian formations, 231 (Note), 263
Diadophis punctuatus, 196
Dirca paluslris, 82
Diseases, Prevalence of, during certain

seasons, 44
Distribution, Geographical, of animals

and plants, 70
Distribution of animals. How affected
by the physical conditions of the
country, 179
Distribution of birds, 177
Diver, Great Northern, 193 d sq.

,, Red-throated, 193 et sq.
Dogs, Intelligence of trained, 175
Dolichonyx orynivoiiiSy 156
Downy Woodpecker, 141
Drift, 273, 282 ■ '

Drunkenness, 44, 207
Duck, Black, 208

,, Buffle-headed, 190 '.
„ Dusky, 190
,, Tree-building, 190
,, Wood, 190, 208
Dusky Triton, 197

Eel, 256

Eel, Lamprey, 251

Eggs, Birds laying an indefinite number

of, 143
Egyptian Chimney Swallow, 18 1
Eland, 83
Elk, 81

„ Irish, i)5 et sq.

,, Extinction of, 86, 90
Emigration, 42 et sq.
Emys, Spotted, 196
Eozoon Canadense, 262
Epilobinm angustifolium, 139
Ermine, 64
Esox retiiulatus, 209
Eutainia Sir talis, 196
Extinction of native animals, 39
,, of species,- 173

F.

Falco Columbus, 120

,, hy etna lis, 172, 181

,, spajverius, 1 21
Fatness produced by cold, 121, 125, 127
Females, Assumption of male characters

by, 89, 90
Fern Ledges, The, 14
Fishes, Chief sea, used for food, 257

■ -• «

■II

326

Index,

Fishes, Destruction of, 2 •
,, Frozen, recovered, 255
„ Migratory, 3
,, (migratory). Times of arrival

and departure of, 285 et sq.
,, of New Brunswick, List of, 304

et sq.
,, stranded by the sea, 245, 264
et sq.
Fisher Cat, 65
Fishing, 211 et sq., 220, 22S, 233, 241,

244, 249
Flies, 210, et sq.
Flying Squirrel, 99
Food of the Moose, 105
Forests, 2

,, Aspect of the, after a fall of
snow, 78
Forest, Lost in the, 1 10, 270 et sq.
,, fires, 105, 110
,; ,, Growth of trees after, 139,

269
,, scenery, 205
,, travelling, loi
Fossils, Accumulations of, how pro-
duced, 264 et sq.
Fowl, 126
Fox, Black, 75
„ Cross, 75
,, Grey, 75, Exuviae of, in bone

caverns, 74
„ mongrels," 75
„ Red, 74
,, Silver, 75
Fredericton, 15
French settlers, 47 et sq.
Frght, Death of animals through, 91
Fringilla purpurea, 155
Frog, Leopard, 197
,, Pickerel, 197
„ Wood, 197

,, Yellow-throated green, 197
Frost fish, 253
Fruit, Abundance of, a sign of a severe

vnnter, 132
Fruit trees, European, in Canada, 129

Garden Warbler, 188
Gaspereau, 247
Gasitrosteus btaculatus, 255

,, occidentalis, 255

Geographical conditions, how they affect

the distribution of animals, 179
Geo^aphical distribution of plants and

animals, 70, 177, 179
Geology, Obstacles to the study of, in

New ^rynswick, 161

Gizzard fish, 245 et sq.

Glacial action. Evidences of, in New

Brunswick, 119, 203, 222, 273
Glacial epoch, 273 et sq.

,, Condition of New Bruns-

vdck during the, 203, 204, 222 etsq.,

279 et sq.
Glacial erosion, 222
Glooscap, 58
Glutton, 59
Gold -digging mania in New Brunswick,

273

Golden Eagle, 118

Golden Eye,- Hooded, 190
,, Barrow's, 190

Golden Plover, 183, 185

„ Long-legged, 189, 190

,, Virginian, 189, 190

Golden Wing, 142

Goose, Brent, 188

,, Canada, 187, 188

Goshiwk, 118, 120

Grackle Rusty, 76

Grand Falls, 246

Grand Lake, 26 (Note), 194

,, Scenery of, 222, 223

„ Stream, 209 et sq., 222

et sq.

Grand Manan Isle, 264

Gravel beds, 273

Gray ling, 213 (Note)

Greater Woodpecker of Europe, 141

Great Northern Diver, 193 et sq., 223

Great Purple Orchis, 93 (Note)

Great Willow Herb, 139

Greenland Gyr Falcon, 120

Green Snake, 196

Grey Fox, 75 ; Exuviae of, in bone
caverns, 74

Greyness, Cold causing, 124, 129

Grey-spotted Lake Trout, 234 et sq.

Ground Hog, 100

Ground Squirrel, i<X)

Grouse, Canada, 174
,, Ruffed, 76

Guinea-fowl, 126

Gyr Falcon, Greenland, 120

H.

Habits, Abnormal, in animals, 191
,, Effects of, on the structure of
animals, 191
Hairy Woodpecker, 141
Hake, American, 256
Hammer (stone), 31
Hamster, Short-eared, 100

,, White-footed, 100
Hardihood, Instance of, of settlers, 109
Hare, 74

Index.

327

t*i

Hare, American, 79

„ Enemies of the, 118, 120, 121

,, Increase of the, 118

,, Variable, of Scotland and Thibet,
80
Harvey's Settlement, 269
Hatchets (stone), 28, 32
Height of land, 4
Hermit Thrush, 136
Herring, American, 265
Hibernation, Effects of, on animals, 98
,, ,, on the eye, 615

Himalayas, Deer of the, 88

,, Pheasant of the, 174

Hirundo rustica, 181
Hoary Bat, 98
Hooded Golden -eye, 190
Hooded Merganser, 190
Hc'ofs of different deer, 81, 91
Ho.Tied Sucker, 254
Horns, Occurrence of, in female deer,

89 .

Horsebacks, 203, 279

Hospital, Leper, of Tracadie, 49 et sq.

House Sparrow of Hindostan, 193

Humming-bird, 186

Hyla versicolor, "197 .

Ibex, 88

Ice, Blocking of rivers by, 276
„ Breaking up of, on rivers, 2/S
,, Fields of, 9
Iceberg theory, 280
Incisors, Deformity of the, in rodents,

168
Indian devil, 59, 79
Indians, 17, 24

,, Character of, 18
,, Degeneration and disappear-
ance of, 19, 24, 26, 92
,, Drunkenness among, 20, 24
,, Half-bred, 21, 23
,, La'ignoge of, 22, 27
„ Mode of life of, 22, 23, 24, 30,

,, Physical characteristics of, 21
,, Primitive condition of, 25, 27
,, Squaws oi, 20, 22, 54
,, Taciturnity of, 54
„ Traditions of, 22, 54, 242
,, Tribes of, 27, 209, 246
,, Weapons of, 25 et sq., 85
(Note), 252
Interbreeding of allied species, 181
Interchange of birds between the Old
and New Worlds, 183
et sq.

Interchange of species between remote

regions, 192
Intermarriage, Evil effects of, 46, 47

et sq.
Intervals, 273
Irish Elk, 85 et sq.

,, Extinction of the, 86, 90
Irish settlers, 163
Italian sparrow, 182 -

Ivy, 130

Jf.

Jay, Canadian, 131, 161, 173

,, Long-crested Steller's, 181
Jesuit Fathers, The, 26
Joggins, The, 264
Jumping Mouse, 100

Kennebeck River, 214 (Note)
Kennebeckasis River, 33
King Bird, 156
Kinglet, Ruby-crowned, 186
Knife (flint), 30

■ ' ' L." _

Labrax albidus, 250

Labrador duck, 39

Labrador tea-plant, 92

Lake basins. Formation of, 222

Lake mounds, 274 T

Lake scenery, 208

Lake Trout, 234 ct sq. 243

,, Grey-spotted, 234 (rfj^.

Lakes, Sport on the, 209, 223 (Note)
Lamprey Eel, 251
Land-ice theoiy, 276 et sq.
Larch, American, 109
Laurentian strata, 262
Lazaretto of Tracadie, $l et sq.
Leopard frog, 197
Leopard-spotted snake, 196
Lepers of Tracadie, 48 et sq.

,, Table of consanguinity of, 321
Leprosy, Origin of, in New Brunswick,

50
Lesser Woodpecker of Europe, 141
Leuciscus, 253, 255
Leveret, 80

Lewey*s Lake, 208 et sq.
Lhoks, 58
Lichen, 82
Light, Effects of, on the coloration of

fishes, 225, 230, 231
Linaa borealis, 145 (Note)
Liquor laws. Evasion of the, 206 et sq.

328

hidex.

Little Kestrel, I2I

Little Sandpiper, i68

Loch Awe trout, 237

Loch Lomond, 213 (Note), 214 (Note)

Log Cock, 139

Log-fires, 41

Log-huts, 30 .

Long-crested Jay, 181

Long Lake, 209

Long-legged Golden Plover, 189, 190

Loon, \f)iet5q., 223

Loon hunt. A, 194 et sq.

Lota maculosa, 247

Loxia enucleator, 170

Lumber camps, \o\ et sq.

Lumberers, Mode of life of, 102 et sq.

Lynx, 59, 74. 79

m.

Mackinau salmon, 235
Madawaska River salmon, 226 (Note)
Maguadavic River, ;}7, 90 (Note), 280
Maine Liquor Law, Invasions of the,

206 et sq.
Maize, 130
Malcolm, 160

Many-spined Stickleback, 25$
Maple, Striped, 82
Marmot, Maryland, 100 •

Marten, Pine, 59

Melanism, l^etsq., 99, ICXJ k '
Melicite, 21

Merganser, Hooded, 190
Merlticius albidus, 256
Merone Americana, 249, 250
Meteorological conditions of New Bruns-
wick, 277
Meteorological observations. Table of,

308 et sq.
Micmac, 2i
Middens, 31, 35

,, Animal remains in, 35
,, Contents of, 36 ^/ j^.
Migrations of birds, 148 <?/ sq., 178 et sq.
Migratory birds, 7, 122

,, Times of arrival and de-

parture of, zZ^ et sq.
,, Change of habit of, in

winter quarters, 188
,, Routes of, i"]^ et sq.,

189
Migratory thrushes, 123, 132, 185
Miko, 58
Milk Snake, 196
Minerals, 262, 268, 283 et sq.
Mimtis Caroliuensis, 137
Mink, Black, 63
Minnow, Brook, 255

Miramachi River, 49, 7I> 94
Miramachi fire, 105
Miscou Point, 39
Mispech River, 214 (Note)
Missel Thrush, 133
Mitchell, Noel, 31
Mohawks, 26
Mole, Shrew, 98

,, Star-nosed, 98
Moose, 74, 80 et sq.

,, Destruction of in sno'-,, 90,
loi et sq.

,, Gradual extinction of the,
85,90

,, Fearlessness of, calf, 91
Moose bird, 131, 173
Moose-slayer, The, lOl — 103 et sq.
Mooserslaying expedition, 104 et sq.
Moose wardens, 103 et sq.
Moose wood, 82
Moose yards, 105
Mosquitoes, 210 <?/■ J^.
Mountain sheep, Large, "Jo
Mount Washington, 279
Mouse, European, 124

,, Jumping, 100
Mufflon, 70

Muridae, Effects of cold on the, lOO
Musk rat, 92, 95, 96
Musk tortoise, 196
Musquash, 96
Mustela martes, 62

,, vulgaris, 65

,, Zibellina, 62
Mya arenaria, 36

N.

Namaycush^ 234 et sq.

Narrows, The, 6, 276

Nashville Warbler, 148

Nashwauk River, 164

Natal, Eland of, 83

A^atica, 35

Naturalist's Calendar, 285

Nepisiguit River, 94

Nerodia sipedon, 196

Nest, Two birds rearing their young in
the same, 190

New Brunswick, Geogiaphical position
and extf-nt of, I
,, Government of, 16

,, Natural history of, I

,, Physical aspect of, 2,

4» 14
,, University of, 17

New Red Sandstone, 272
New York Bat, 98
New York Shiner, 255

Index.

329

Noel Mitchell, 31

Noises of Birds, Origin of the, 237

Noises, Strange, of birds and reptiles,

197
Non-breeding of certain birds, 192
Ntiang, 70
Nuf River, 228
Nurek, 63
Nympficea, White, 208

O.

Old-raan's-beard moss, 165

Old Red Sandstone, 13, 14, 263

Olive-backed Thrush, 137

Onnenook, 210

Orange Free State, Eland of, 83

Orchard Oriole, 138 (Note)

Orchis, Great Purple, 93 (Note)

Orchises, 93 (Note)

Ornithology, Backwardness of, in

America, 186
Oromocto, Perch of Lake, 250
Osmerus operlanus, 243, and Note

,, vi'ndcsiens, 243
Osprey, 120
Ostrea borealis, 35
Otus Virginiana, 35
Otter, 68
Ovis Ammon, 70
Ovis montana, 70
Owls, 121
Owl, Virginian, 80, 121 -

,, Snowy, 80
Ox-eye daisy, 130 •

Painted Turtle, 196
Partridge, Birch, 74, 174
„ Ruffed, 173 et %q.
„ shooting, 175
Passamaquoddy Bay, 36, 1 18, 264

,, Indians, 209

Pekan, 65

Penasylvanian sparrow, 187
Penobscot River, 190
Perch, of Lake Oromocto, 250
Perch, White, 249

„ Yellow, 249
Peregrine, 118, 120
Pheasants, Himalayan, 174
Pickerel frog, 197

,, weed, 208
Picus fnleatus, 139

,, varius, 142
Pied Wagtail, 133
Pigeon Hawk, 120
Pike, 209, 256

Pimelodus catus, 255
Pine Bullfinch, 170
Pine Finch, 155, 165
,, Marten, 59
,, Siskin, 171
Pitche -plant, 95
Plantanthea, 93 (Note)
Plants, Propagation of, by birds, 138
Plectrophanes nivalis, 172
Plover, Golden, 183, 185
Plumage, Intermediate coloured, the

result of age, 1 66
Plum trees, 129
Pockwock Lake, 214 (Note)
Pointeur, 226
Porcupines, 97

,, as weather prophets, 55
,, Spoor of, 97 (Note)
Post-glacial epoch, 273
Pottery, Absence of, in Indian relics, 33

,, fragments in middens, 36
Princetown, 207, 286

,, Incident at, 208

Pteromys volucella, 99
,, sabrinus, 99
Puma, 59
Purple Finch, 155
,, Martin, 150
,, Sandpiper, 191
Putorius Richardsonii, 64

Q- . ■

Quadrupeds of New Brunswick, List of,

295 et sq.
Qua-hog, 35
Quail, 188
Quiscalus versicolor, 154

R.

Racoon, 69
Rana pipiens, 197
Rapacious birds, 117
Rat, Brown, 124
JRattlesnake, 195
Raven, 130

Rearing birds, 136, 137
Red-backed Salamander, 197
Red-backed Sandpiper, 168
Red-banded Sucker, ^152
Red-bellied Trout, 231 (Note)
Red Deer, 64 (Note)

, , of Cashmere, 86
Red-fin, 255
Red Fox, 79

Red-headed Woodpecker, 143
Redpoll, 171
Red Squirrel, 57, 98

^^

330

Index.

Red-throated Diver, 193 et sq.
Reed bird, 156

Regulus calendula, 186 . ■

Reindeer, 80, 92

,, Horns of, 90

,, Varieties of, 82

„ Gradual extermination of, 85

„ Woodland, 85 (Note)
Reindeer, Moss, 82
Reptiles of New Brunswick, 195 rf sq.
,, List of, 303
,, Period of activity of, 196
Restigouche, 94

Return of species to forsaken haunts, 69
Rice-bird, 156

Richardson's Shrew, 98 ,

Ring-necked Snake, 196 •
Ring Plover, 167

River terraces, 274 ^/ j^. *

Roach Dace, 255 » ■ . '

Robin, 132, 153

Robin Redbreast, 133 -. ' V

Roccus linealus, 248 et sq.
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, 155
Royal Mail, 49
Ruby-crowned Kinglet, 186
Ruby-throated Humming-bird, 144

,, Habits and haunts of, 146 t-i"
Ruffed Partridge, 76, 173 et sq.
Rusty Blackbird, 154
Rusty Grackle, 76

Sabates, 55

Sable, American, 59 et sq.

Saguenay River, 214 (Note), 281

St. Andrew's, 118

St. Croix River, 202, 210, 24I, 256

St. George, 280

St. John, Arrival at, 12

St. John River, 241

,, Breaking up of, 8

,, Derivation ofname of, 15

,, Freezing of the, 5

, , Inundations of the, 9, 1 $

St. John's Lake, 214 (Note)
St. Peter's Bay, 228
St. Stephen, 202, 269
Salamanders, 197
Sal mo Cambricus, 21 7

,, Canadensis, 226 ^ sq.

„ confinis, 119, 237

,, erythrogastra, 231 (Note)

„ ferox, 195, 237

„ fontinalis, 232, 233

, , Gloveri, or Silvery Salmon Trout,
209 et sq., 226 et sq.

,, oquassa, 233

Salmo Rossii, 227
,, Salar, 269 et sq.
„ Sebago, 213 (Note)
,, Trutta, 2l6et sq.,22^
Salmon, 201, 210, 215 et sq.
„ Amethystine, 236

,, Decadence of, 201, 202 (Note)

,, Mackinau, 235

,, Migrations of, 201 et sq.

„ Shad, 247 (Note)

,, Supposed pigmy race of, 202,

210, 214, 217
Salmon River, 34 (Note)
Salmonoids (migratory). Effects of re-
tention of, in fresh water, 210 (Note)
Salmon, Table of dimenf'ons of, 220
Salmon Trout, 209

Silvery, 195
Sanderling, 157
Sandmartin, 151
Sandpiper, Little, 168
,, Purple, igi

,, Red -backed, 168

Sandstone, New Red, 272

Old red, 13, 14, 263
Saw Whet, 121
^Scarlet Tanager, 192
Scenery, Forest, 205
,, Lake, 208

,, of New Brunswick, 203, 269'
Schoodic Lakes, 194, 195, 214 (Note).
282
,, Expedition to the,

202 et sq.
Sciff Lake, 195, 221
Sciff Lake Stream, 252
Scincus fasciatus, 197
Scoops (stone), 30
Sculpture, General absence of, in Indian

relics, 33
Sea fish, Ch'.ef, 257
Sea sun-fish, 231
Sea trout, 226 et sq.

,, Confusion of, with brook
trout, 227, 229
Sea trout fishing, 228
Seasonal changes -in quadrupeds, 62, 65
Sebago Lake, 215 (Note)
Seeds, Conveyance of, by birds, 138,

139, 154
Settlers, Advice to intending, 46, 47

,, Degeneration of European, 46

,, Hardihood of, I09

,, Health of, 49 et sq.

„ National characteristics of, pre-
served, 47 (Note)
Sewin, 210 (Note), 218
Shad, 247

Shad salmon, 247 (Note)
Shamcook Mount, 118, 119

Index.

331

M

i*

Shaq>-nosed Sturgeon, 251
Sheep, Large mountain, 70
Sheldrake, American, 190
Sheldrake Island, 51
Shell fish, 35

,, Disappearance of, 35
Shiner, 214, 221
„ Bay, 255
,, New \ork, 255
Shrew, Richardson's, 98

,, Cooper's, 98
Short-eared Hamster, \oo
Sight, Relation of the other senses to,

68, 83, 84
Silurian formations, 222, 231 (Note), 262
Silver frost, 129
Silvery Dace, 250, 255

,, Salmon Trout, 195, 20 ) et sq.,
2x3 et sq., 226
Dimensions of,

220
fishing, 211 et
sq., 220
Siscmuet, 234 et sq. , 236
Skating, 6

Skeleton, Human, found in Prince Ed-
ward Island, 85 (Note)
Skew windows in churches, 52
Skink, Blue-tailed, 197
Skunk, 66, 95

,, Hibernation of the, 66
Sleighing, 159
Smelt, 215, 243 et sq.
Smelt fishing, 244, 245
Snake, Black, 196
Green, 196
Little brown, 196
Ring-necked, 196
Striped, 196
,, Water, 196
Snapping Turtle, 196
Snipe, Wilson's, 187
Snow, Aspect of forest after a fall of, 78
Effects of, on the aspect of trees, 78
Horse stuck in the, 163
,, Power of progression of different
animals over, 74, 80
Snow-bird, 123, 172, i8l
Snow Bunting, 172
Snowy Owl, 80, 121
Solen, 35
Sparrow-hawk, 143

,, attacked by swallows,

Sparrow of Hindostan, 193
Italian, 182
Pennsylvania!!, 187
,, Spanish, 181

Spawning bed of the Silvery Salmon
Trout, 221

>»

Spear-head (stone), 28 •

Spearing fish, 248, 252

Species, Interchange of, between remote

regions, 183 et sq., 192
Species, Return of, to forsaken haunts.

Species, Tendency of Naturalists to

multiply, 70, 119, 120, 225, 233
Sport on the lakes, 209, 223 (Note)
Spotted Burbot, 247

,, Emys, 196

,, Togue, Great, 195

,, Tringa, 195
Squirrel, Flying, 99 . '

,, Ground, 100

„ Common red, 57, 98
Stanley, 159
Steller's Jay, 181
Stickleback, Many-spined, 255

,, Two-spined, 212, 250, 255

Stone Age, 17, 27, "28
Stone Implements, 25 et sq., 85 (Note) .
, , Absence of writing in, 22

, , Formed in middens, 35, 36

Stone pot, 31

Storeria occipitu-maculata, 1 96
Stoves, 41

Stranded fish, 245, 264 et sq.
Strata, Divisions of, identified in New

Brunswick, 262
Strata, Superposition of, 2'^^ et sq.
Stream driving, 103
Strice, Glacial, 119, 272
Striped Bass, 247 et sq.
Striped Maple, 82 >

Sturgeon, Sharp-nosed, 251
Sturgeon, Spearing, 252
Sucker, Homed, 254

,, Red-banded, 252
Sucking Carp, 254

Summer migrants, Non-breeding, 192
Sun-fish, Sea, 231
Superstitions, Indian, 54 et sq.
Surface deposits, 272
Swallow, Egyptian, 181

,, Migration of, 152
Syhia ruficapilla,, 148

,, frotonotaria, 148

Tabucintac River, 227, 228

, , Sport on the, 228

Tamarack, 109

Tameness of birds and animals, I09, 1 70
Tanager, Scarlet, 192
Tapeworm in fish, 224
Tea-plant, Labrador, 92
Temiscouata Lake, 241

2>^2

Index.

Temperature of forest and open com-
pared, lOI
Terrapin VVood^ 196
Three-toed Woodpecker, Banded, 142
Thrushes (migratory), 76, 185
Tides, 7
Toad, Tree, 197
Tobacco-pipes (Stone), 33
Tobique, River, 26 (Note), 94
Togue, 119, 195, 209, 223, 234, et sg.,

237 ei sq.
Togue fishing, 241
Toledi Lakes, 240, 241 ,.
Tom Cod, 253
Tortoise, Musk, 196
Trabogging, 8
Tracadie, Lepers of, 48 et sq.

,, Table of consanguinity of,
321
Traditions, Indian, 22, <^\et sq., 252
Trap-beds, 269
Travelling companions, 204
Trees, Acclimatization of, 129

, , Bending of, through pressure of

ice, 278
,, Coverings of, thickened, by cold,

129
,, Cracking of, in frost, 127
,, Decay of, 1 10
,, Effects of cold on, 127
,, killed by cold, 1 29
Tree Toad, 197
Trias, 272

Tringa, Spotted, 191
Tritons, 197
Triton niger, 197
Trout, Brook, 209, 227

Grey-spotted, 119
Lake, 234 ^/ sq.
Loch Awe, 237
Red-bellied Brook, 225
Salmon, 209
Trumpeter Bullfinch, 171
Turkey, 126
Turkey, 126
Turtle, Box, 196
„ Painted, 196
„ Snapping, 196
Two-spined Stickleback, 212, 250, 255
Tyrannus Carolinensis, 156
Tyrant Flycatcher, 156

U.

Utopia Lake, Brook Trout of, 232
,, Monster of, 56

Vespertileo pruniosus, 98
Virginian Deer, 37, 74, 81
,, Golden Plover, 190
Owl, 80

Owl, Brown, 121
Owl, Great Homed, 121

Umkenewee-cis, 173
Union River, 214 (Note)
University of New Brunswici
Ursus arctos, 71

17

W.

Walrus, 85 (Note)

,, Extinction of, 39
Wapiti, 81 (Note)
Warblers, 147 ; Migratory, of New

Brunswick, 148
Warbler, Garden, 188
Washington Mount, 279
Water-fowl, 188, 194
Water-snake, 196
Water-lily, Yellow, 208
Waxwing, Carolina, 152, 153
Weapons of Indians, 25 et sq., 85

(Note), 252
Weasel, Common White, 64

,, Hudson's Bay, 67

,, Little Brown, 64
White-bellied Swallow, 150, 151
White fishes, 215, 243, 245 et sq.
White-footed Hamster, 100
White-headed Eagle, 118
White Lake Bass, 250

,, Perch, 249
White-winged Crossbill, 165

,, ,, Nest and eggs of, 165
Wild cat, 59

,, duck, 210
Wild-fowl shooting, 228
WiUet, 108
Wilson's Snipe, 187

„ Thrush, 137
Winds prevailing in certain latitudes,

184
Winter life of mustelinae, 66

,, migrants. Effects of unusual
cold on the num-
bers of, 164

, , , , Relative numbers of,

172

,, scene in the forest, 53, 54
Wobbies, 194
Woodcraft, 109
Wood duck, 190, 208
Wood frog, 197
Woodland reindeer, 85 (Note)
Woodpeckers, 12 1, 139, 182

Index.

333

Woodpeckers, Hibernation of, 141

Woodpecker, Black-banded, 142
„ Downy, 141

,, Greater, 141

„ Hairy. 141

„ Lesser, 141

„ Red-headi.'d, 143

„ Three-toed bandeil, 142

„ Yellow, 181

,, Yellow bellied, 142

Woodstock, Mines of, 25 (Note)

Wood terrapin, 196

Woodworms, 140

IVoolastook, 15 '

Y.

Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, 142
Yellow-bird, 155
Yellow-hammer, 142
Yellow-perch, 249
Yellow-throated green frog, 197

,, water-lily, 208
Yellow woodpecker, l8l
Young, IJirds deserting 'heir, 152

Zoological divisions of America, 1 78

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Dr. Bell PfjrnaREW, M.D., F.R.S.
125 Illustrations.

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XLVI

STREAMS FROM HIDDEN SOURCES. By B. Montgomerie

Banking. Crown 8vo. 6«.

XLVII

THE SECRET OF LONG LIFE. Dedicated by Special Per-
mission to Lord St. Leonards. Second Edition. Large crown 8vo. 5*.

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' The bold and striking character of the whole conception is entitled to the
warmest admiration.' — Fall Mall Gazette.

• We should recommend our readers to get this book .... because they
will be amused by the Jovial, miscellaneous and cultured gossip with which he
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XLVIII

CHANGE OF AIR AND SCENE. A Physician's Hints about

Doctors, Patients, Hygiene, and Society ; with Notes of Excursions for
Health in the Pyrenees, and amongst the Watering-placea of France
(inland and seaward), Switzerland, Corsica, and the Mediterranean.
By Dr. Alpuonse Donne. Large post 8vo. Price 9s.

'A very readable and serviceable book The real value of it is to

be found in the accurate and minute information given with regard to a large
number of places which have gained a reputation on the continent for their
mint ral waters.'— Pa// 3Iall Gazette.

' J, ot only a pleasant book of travel, but also a book of considerable value.' —
Morning Post.

' A popular account of some of the most charming health resorts of the Con-
tinent : with suggestive hints about keeping well and getting well, which are
characterised b\- a good deal of robust common sense.' — British Quarterly.

' A singularly pleasant and chatty, as well as instructive, book about health.' —
Guardian,

' A useful and ideasantly- written book, containing many valuable hints on the
goneral management of health from a shrewd and experienced medical man.' —
Graphic. ,- -

XLIX

MISS YOUMANS' FIRST BOOK OF BOTANY. Designed

to Cultivate the Observing Powers of Children. From the Author's
latest Stereotyped Edition. New and Enlarged Edition, with 300
Engravings. Crown Svo. 55.

It is but rarely that a school book appears which is at once so novel in plan,
so successful in execution, and so suited to the general want, as to command
universal and unqualified approbation, but such has been the case with Miss
Youmans' First Book of Botany. Her work is an outgrowth of the most recent
scientific views, and has been practically' tested bj' careful trial with juveiule
classes, and it has been welcomed as a timely and invaluable contribution to the
improvement of primary education.

65 Com/ii//, and 12 Paternoster Row, London,

Works published by Henry S. King &* Co. i x

AN ESSAT ON THE CULTTJBE OF THE OBSERyiNG

POWEBS OP CHILDBEN, especially in connection with the Study
of Botany. By Eliza A. Youmans. Edited, with Notes and a Supple-
^ ment, by Joseph Payne, F.C.P., Author of ' Lectures on the Science

and Art of Education ' &c. Crown 8vo. 25. 6rf.

♦ ' The little book now under notice is expressly designed to make the earliest

\ instruction of children a mental discipline. Miss Youmans presents in her

^ work the ripe results of educational experience reduced to a system, wisely

conceiving that an education— even the most elementary — should be regarded
aa a discipline of the mental powers, and that the facts uf external nature
supply the most suitable materials for this discipline in the case of children.
She has applied that principle to the study of botany. This study, according
to her just notions on the subject, is to be fundamentaily based on the exercise
of the pupil's own powers of observation. He is to sec and examine the pro-
perties of plants and flowers at first hand, not merely to be infurmed of what
others have seen and examined.' — Pull Mall Gazette.

U

THE HISTOET OF THE NATUEAL CREATION. Being

a Series of Popular Scientific Lectures on the General Theory of

Progression of Species ; with a Dissertation on the Theories of Darwin,

Goethe, and Lamarck ; more especially applying them to the Origin

I of Man, and to other Fundamental Questions of Natural Science con-

I nected therewith. By Professor Ebnst Hjkckei,, of the University

p of Jena. 8vo. With Woodcuts and Plates. [Preparing.

•* in

, AN ARABIC AND ENGLISH DICTIONARY OF THE

KOBAN. By Major J. Pkneice, B.A. 4to. [Just ready.

Mil

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Crown 8vo. [/» the press.

iiv

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CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH PSYCHOLOGY. From the

French of Professor Th. Ribot. An Analysis of thv Views and
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James Mill. j John Stuart Mill. Herbert Spencfh.

A. Bain. | George H. Lewes. Sakcel Bailet.

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LVI

PHYSIOLOGY FOR PRACTICAL USE. By yarious
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[ Preparitiff.

LTII

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DAILY, SEASONAL, AND OTHER CYCLICAL CHANGES IN THE
HUMAN SYSTEM. By Dr. Edwaed Smith, F.R.S. A New Edition.
' 7s. 6d.

LVIII

PRACTICAL DIETARY FOR FAMILIES, SCHOOLS, AND

THE LABOURING CLASSES. By Dr. Edward Smith, F.R.S. A
New Edition. . Price 3a. Qd

LIX

CONSUMPTION IN ITS EARLY AND REMEDIABLE

STAGES. By Dr. Edwari) Smith, F.K.S. A New Edition. 7s. 6c?.

LX

A TREATISE ON RELAPSING FEVER. By R. T. Lyons,

Assistant-Surgeon Bengal Army. Small post 8vo. 7*. Gtf.

'A practical work thoroughly supported in its views by a .leries of remarkable
cases.' — Standard.

LXI

IN QUEST OF COOLIES. A South Sea Sketch. By James
L. A. Hope. Second Edition, crown 8vo. with 15 Illustrations from
Sketches by the Author. Price 6s.

' Mr. Hope's description of the natives is giaphic and amusing, and the book
is altogether well worthy of perusal.' — Standard.
' Lively and clever sketches.' — Athenceum.
' This agreeably written and amusingly illustrated volume,'— P«i»//c Opinion.

LXII

THE NILE WITHOUT A DRAGOMAN. By Frederic Eden.

Second Edition. In one vol. crown 8vo. cloth, Is. 6d

* Should any of our readers care to imitate Mr. Eden's t ■: m le, and wish to
see things with their o^vn eyes, and shift for themselves, ne • hiter in Upper
Egj'pt, they will find this book a very agreeable guide.' — Times.

' We have in these pages the most minute description of life as it appeared on
the banks of the Nile ; all that could be seen or was worth seeing in nature or
in art is here pleasantly and graphically set down. ... It is a book to read
during an autumn holiday.' — Spectator.

• Gives, within moderate compass, a suggestive description of the charms,
curiosities, dangers, and discomforts of the Nile voyage.' — Saturday Review.

65 Cornhiiiy and 12 Paternoster Roiv, London,

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LXIII

ROUND THE WORLD IN 1870. A Volume of Travels, with

Maps. By A. D. CAELiSi.E, B.A. Trin. Coll., Camb. Demy 8vo. 16s.

' Makes one understand how going round the world is to be done in the
quickest and pleasantest manner, and how the brightest and most cheerful of
travellers did it wiih eyes wide opfiii and keen attention all on the alert, with
ready sympatliies, with thchappitst facility of hitting upon the most interesting
features of nature and the most intciosting characteristics of man, and all for its
own sake.' — Spectator.

' We can only commend, which we do very heartily, an eminently sensible
and readable book.' — British Quarterly Review.

MILITARY WORKS.

THE FRONTAL ATTACK OF INFANTRY. By Captain

Lay-mann, Instructor of Tactics at the Military College, Neisse.
Translated by Colonel Edward Newdioate. Crown 8vo. limp
cloth. Price 2*. Gd.

' This work has met with special attention in our army.' — Militar Wochenblalt.

II

THE FIRST BAVARIAN ARMY CORPS IN THE WAR

OF 1870-71, UNDER VON DEE TANN. Compiled from the
■ .- Official Eecords by Capt. Hugo Helvig. Translated by Capt. G.
Salts Schwabe. Demy 8vo. "With 5 large Maps.

Ill

History of the Organisation, Equipment, and War Service of

THE REGIMENT OF BENGAL ARTILLERY. Compiled

from Published Official and other Records, and various private
sources, by Major Fhanxis W. SxuBiiS, Royal (late Bengal) Artillery.
Vol. I. will contain ' War Services.' The second volume will be pub-
lished scparatel}', and will contain the History of the Organisation
and Equipment of the Regiment. In twu vols. 8vo. With Maps
and Plans. [Preparing.

IV

THE ABOLITION OF PURCHASE AND THE ARMY

EEGULATION HILL OF 1871. By Lieut.-Col. the Hon. A. Anson,
V.C., M.P. Crown 8vo. Price Is.

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MILITARY \NORKS-{continved.)

THE STORY OF THE SUPERSESSIONS. By Lieut.-Col.

the Hon. A. Ansox, V.C, M.P. Crown 8vo. Price 60'.

TI

ARM7 RESERVES AND MILITIA REFORMS. By Lieut.-
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VII

ELEMENTARY MILITARY GEOGRAPHY, RECONNOI-

TSINO, AND SKETCHING. Compiled for Non-Commissionod
Officers and Soldiers of all Arms. By Lieut. C. E. H. Vincent,
Eoyal Welsh Fusiliers. Small cro^vn 8vo. 2s. 6fl,

Tin

VICTORIES AND DEFEATS. An attempt to explain the
Causes which have led to tlicm. An Officer's Manual. By Col. R. P.
Anderson. Demy Svo. 14s. [/w preparation.

IX

STUDIES IN THE NEW INFANTRY TACTICS. By

Major "W. Von Schereff. Parts I. andll. Translated from the
German by Col. Lumley Graham. [Shortly.

X

THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY TO THE

CAPITULATION OF METZ. By Major Von Scheix, with Maps,
including one of Metz and of the country around. Translated by
Capt. E. 0. HoLLisT. In demy Svo. [Inpr?paration.

•«• The most important events described in this work are the battles of Spichem, those
before Metz on the Uth and ISth Aiifrust, and (on this point nothing authentic has yet
been published) the history of the investment of Metz (battle of Noisseville).

This work, however, possesses a greater importance than that derived from th'"5e points.
because it represents for the first time from the official documents the generalship of
Von Steinmetz. Hitherto we have had no exact reporcs on the deeds and motives of this
celebrated general. This work has the special object of unfolding carefully the relations
In which tke commander of the First Army acted, the plan of operations which he draw
np, and tha manner in which he carried it out.

THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY IN NORTHERN

FRANCE AGAINST FAIDHERBE. By Colonel Count Hehmvnn
Von Wartenslkben, Chief of the Staff of the First Army. Trans-
lated by Colonel C. H. Von Wright. In demy Svo. Uniform with
the above. [Iv prcparafion.

xn
THE OPERATIONS OF THE FIRST ARMY, UNDER

GEN. VON GOEBEN. Translated by Col. C. H. Von Wright.
With Maps. Demy Svo.

65 Com/iiliy and 12 Paternoster Row^ London,

Works published by Henry S. King 6- Co.

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MILITARY WORKS-(<-<'«"nwrf.)
xni

TACTICAL DEDUCTIONS FROM THE WAR OF 1870-1.

By Captain A. Von Bogusla-wski. Transbited by Colonel Lvmley
Ghaham, late 18th (Royal Irish) Eogiment. Demy 8vo. Uniform Tvith
the above. Price 7s.

' Major BogTislawski's tactical deduction? from the war arc, that infantry still prc=er/<3
their Buperiority over cavalry, that open order miist henceforth be the main princiiiles of
all drill, and, that the chassepot is the best of all small arms for precision. . . . We
must, without delay, impress brain and forethought into the British Service ; and we
cannot commence the good work too ■soon, or better than by placing tli'' two books ('" The
Operations of th3 German Armies " and " Tactical Deduction -s "; we h:. ve here criticised
in every military library, and introducing them as class-books in every tactical school.'

United Service Gazette.
XIV

THE OPERATIONS OF THE GERMAN ARMIES IN

FRANCE, FROM SEDAN TO THE END OF THE WAR GF 1870-1.

With Large Official Map. From the Journals of the Ilcad-qiiarters
StaiF, by Major "\Vm. Blume. Translated by E. 31. Joxks, 3Ia.ior
20th Foot, late Professor of Military History, Sandhurst. Demy 8vo.
Price 9s.

'The book is of ebsoluto necessity to th'? military student. . . . The work is one of
high merit and . . . has the advantage uf being rendered into fluent English, and is
accompanied by an excellent military m&p.'— United Service Gazette.

' The work of translation has been well done ; the expressive German idioms have been
rendered into clear nervous English without losing any of their original force ; and
in notes, prefaces, and introductions, mtich additional information has been given.'

AtheiifFiim.

' The work of Major von Blume in its English dress forms the most valuable addition
to our stock of worka upon the war that our press has put forth. Major Blume writes
with a clear conciseness much wanting in many of his country's historians, and Major
Jones has done himself and his original alike justice by his vigorous yet correct translation
of the excellent volume on which he has labotired. Our space forbids our doing more than
commending it earnestly as the most authentic and instructive narrative of the second
section of the war that has yet appeared.'— Sa^Mrrfu.y Review.

XV

THE OPERATIONS OF THE SOUTH ARMY in JANUARY

and FEBRUARY 1871. Corapile<l from the Official War Docu-
ments of the Head-quartors of the Southern Army. By Count
Herman .'T Von Wartenleben, Colonel in the Prussian General Staff.
Translated by Col. C. II. Von Wright. Demy 8vo., with Maps.
Uniform with the above. Price 6s.

XVI

HASTY INTRENCHMENTS. By Colonel A. Brialmont.
Translated by Lieutenant Charles A. Empson. R.A. Demy 8vo.
Nine plates. Price 6s.

'A valuable contribution to military literature.' — Athencnim.^

' In seven short chapters it gives plain directions for performing shelter-
trenches, with the best method of carrying the necessary tools ; and it (iffers
practical illustrations of the use of hasty intrenchnieiits un the field of battle. —
United Service Magazine.

' It supplies that which our own text-books give but imperfectly, viz. hints as
to how a position can be best strengthened by means . . . ot such extem-
porised intreuchments and batteries as can be thrown uj) by infantry in the
space of four or five hours . . . deserves to become a standard mihtary work.'
Standard.

• A clever treatise, short, practical, and clear.— //n-fs/ors' Guardian.

•Clearlj' and criticallj' written.' — JVeUihgton Gazette.

65 Cornhilly and 12 Paternoster Roiv, London.

i«^i"f"! ,=»'t,.^i^ |PPB»l?^Vf"i»iJ'VWi«J*« ,1

l"T W ■■»&.■ ^ ^-."JJ^IMIHII

s^?7-^=V^^PT^

i6

Works published by Henry S. King 6^ O.

MILITARY WORKS-(fo«^««erf.)

XVII

THE AEM7 OF THE NORTH-GEEMAN CONFEDERA-
TION. A Brief Description of its Organisation, of the different
Branches of the Service and their 'Role' in War, of its 3Iode of
Fighting, /fee. By a Prussian Gknicral. Translated from the
German by Col. Edward Nkwdioate. Demy 8vo. bs.

•«* The authorship of this book was erroneously ascribed to the renewed General V'cm
>foltke, but there can be little doubt that it was written under his immediate inspiration.

XVIII

CAVALRY FIELD DUTY, liy lAIajor-General Von Mirus.

Translated by Captain Frank S. ItussEix, 14lh (King's) Hussars.

Crown Svo. limp cloth, ~s. 6d.

•«• This is the text-book of instrtiction in the German cavalry, and comprises all the
details conuected with the military duties of cavalry soldie'-s on service. The translation
is made from a new edition, which contains the modifications introduced consequent on
Ihc experiences of the late war. The Ki'eat interest that students feel in ail the German
Military methods, will, it is br-lieved, rondrr rliis bo(;k ospccia^ly acceptable at the
present time.

XIX

STUDIES IN LEADING TROOPS. By Col. Von Verdy

Du Vebnoi8. An authorised and accurate Translation by Lieutenant

H. J. T. HiLDTARD, 71st Foot. Parts I. and II. Demy Svo. 7s.

[Now ready.

*«• Gen. Beauchamp Walker says of this work :— " I recommend the first two numbcrg
of Colonel Ton Verdy's " Studies " to the attentive perusal of my brother officers. They
supply a want which I have often felt durinK my service in this country, namely, a
minuter tactical detail of the minor operations of the war than any but the most observant
and fortunately placed staff officer is in a position to Kive. I have read and re-read them
very carefully, I hope with profit, certainly with Kreat interest, and believe that practice,
in the sense of these " Studies," would bo a valuable preparation for manoeuvres on a
more extended scale.' Berlin, June IS"'.'.

XX

THE FRANCO- GERMAN WAR, 1870-71. First part:

History of the War to the Downfall of the Empire. First Section :
The Events in July. Authorised Translation from the German
Official Account at the Topographical and Statistical Department of
the War Office, by Captain F. C. H. Clarke, E.A. First Section,
with Map. Demy Svo. 3.«.

XXI

DISCIPLINE AND DRILL, Four Lecturts delivered to the

London Scottish Rifle Volunteers. By Captain S. Flood Page. A

New and Cheaper Edition. Price Is.

• One of the best-known and coolest-headed o metropolitan regiments, whose

adjutant, moreover, has latel;-' published an admir Uection of lectures addressed by

him to the men of his corps. —Timei.

' The very useful and interesting work. . . . Every Volunteer, officer or private, will
be the better for perusing and dipestin^ the plain-spoken truths which Captain Pape so
lestly, puts before them ; and we trust that the little txwk in which

firmly, and yet so modestlj, i.i^un uciv^io v^^l±^, »m» ..^ .,11.0., i/u<»„ i,m; .
they are contained will find its way into all parts of Great Britain.'-
Uiizette.

-Volunteer Sercive

65 Cornhilly and 12 Faternoster Row^ London.

JJUPi'l^^f^fwwWfTJifi ^ *"-tm:tww '- ■ ,LB.iiHpiai|jiiVJ^^i^

i

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XXII

THE SUBSTANTIVE SENIORITY ARMY LIST. Majors

and Captains. By Captain F. B. P. White, 1st W. I. Regiment.
8vo. sewed, 2s. 6f/.

BOOKS ON INDIAN SUBJECTS.

THE EiraOPEAN IN INDIA. A Handbook of Practical

Information for those proceeding to, or residing in, the East Indies,
relating to Outfits, Routes, Time for Departure, Indian Climate, &c.
By Edmvjo) C. P. Hull. '».'ith a ^ledical Guide for Anglo-Indians.
Being a Compendium of Advice to Europeans in India, relating to
the Preservation and Regulation of Health. By R. S. Mim. M.D.,
F.R.C.S.E., late Deputy Coroner of Madras. In one vol. post 8vo. 6s.
•Full of all sorts of useful information to the English settler or traveller in
India.' — Standard,

' One of the most valuable books ever pu1)lished in India — valuable for its
sound information, its careful array of pertinent facts, a' i its sterling common
sense. It is a publisher's as well as an author's "hit,** for it supplies a want
which few persons may have discovered, but which everybody will at once
recognise when once the contents of the book have been mastered. The me-
dical part of the work is invaluable.' — Calcutta Englishmari.

II

EASTERN EXPERIENCES. By L. Bowring, C.S.L, Lord

Canning's Private Secretary, and for many years the Chief Commis-
sioner of Mysore and Coorg. In one vol. demy 8vo. I60. Illus-
trated with Maps and Diagrams.

* An admirp.ble and exhaustive geographical, political, and industrial survey.'
Athenatum.

♦The usefulness of this compact and methodical summary of this most au-
thentic information relating to courtries whose welfare is intimately connected
with our own should obtain for Mr. Lewin Bowfing's worl a good place among
treatises of its kind.' — Daily News.

' Interestmg even to the general reader, but more especially so to those who
may 'lave a special concern in that portion of our Indian Em nre' — Pm.

' Ar elaborately got up and carefully couipiled work.' — Home Ncijs.

Ill

A MEMOIR OF THE INDIAN SURVEYS. By Clement

R. Markhau. Printed by order of Her Majesty's Secretary of 8tate
for India in Council. Imperial Svo. 10s. Gd.

65 Corn/ii//j and 12 Paternoster Row^ London.

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WESTERN INDIA BEFORE and DURING the MTTTINIES.

Pictures drawn from Life. By Major-Gen. Sir Georoe le Grand
Jacob, K.C.S.I., C.B. In one vol. crown 8vo. 7''. 6rf.
' The most important contribution to the history of Western India chirincj the
]SIutinies which has yet, in a popular form, been made public' — Athenaum.

' The legacy of a wise veteran, intent on the benefit of his countrj'mcn rather
than on the acqui:<ition of fame.* — London and China Ji.rpress.

' Few men more competent than himself to speak authoritatively concerning
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EXCHANGE TABLES OF STERLING AND INDIAN

RUPEE CTJRRE5CY, upon a New and Extended System, embracing
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per Rupee. By Donald Fraser, Accountant to the British Indian
Steam Navigation Co., Limited. Royal 8vo. 10s. 6d.

VI

A CATALOGUE of MAPS of the BRITISH POSSESSIONS

IN INDIA AND OTHER PARTS OF ASIA. Published by order
of Her Majesty's Secretary of State for India in Council. Royal 8vo.
sewed, Is. A continuation of the above, sewid, price 6d., is now
ready.

I®" Messrs. Henry S. Kino & Co. are the Agents authorised by the
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JUVENILE BOOKS.

LOST GIF. By Hesba Strevton, Author of 'Little Meg,'
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II

BRAVE MEN'S FOOTSTEPS. A Book of Example and
Anecdote for Young People. By the Editor of ' Men who have Risen.'
With Four Illustrations. By C. Doyle. Crown 8vo. 3s. 6d.
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choosing a gift for a boj', would consult his moral development as well as his

temporary pleasure.' — Daily Telegraph.

• A readable and instructive volume.' — Examiner.

♦ No more welcome book for the schoolboy can be imagined.' — Birmingham
Daily Gazette.

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in

THE LITTLE WONDER-HORN. By Jean Ijigelow. A

Second Series of ' Stories told to a Cliild.' 15 Illustr<ition.s. Cloth,
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• Full of fresh and vigorous fancy ; h is worthy of the author of some of the
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STORIES IN PRECIOUS STONES. By Helen Zimmern.
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'A series of pretty tales which are half fantastic, half natural, and pleasantly
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when once taken up'. — Daily Bristol Times.

GUTTA-PERCHA WILLIE, ""tHE WORKING GENIUS.

By George MacDonald. With Illustrations by Arthub IIcghes.
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THE TRAVELLING MENAGERIE. By Ciiahles Camden,
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vn

PLUCKY FELLOWS. A Bock for Boys. By Stephen J.
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VIII

THE DESERTED SHIP. A Real Story of the Atlantic. By
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tx

GOOD WORDS FOR THE YOUNG. The Volume for 1872,

gilt cloth and gilt edges, 7s. (id. Containing numerous contributions
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X

THE DESERT PASTOR. Translated from the French of
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with an Engraved Frontispiece. Second and Chfaper Edition.
Price 3s. 6d.
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similar to that which invests with a charm more easily felt than dtscribed the
site of some splendid ruin.' — Illusirated London News.

' This charming specimen of Eugfene Pellotan's tender grace, humour, .nnd
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HOITY TOITY, THE GOOD LITTLE FELLOW. By

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XII

LILLIPUT REVELS. By the Author of 'Lilliput Levee.'
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XIII

SEEKING HIS FORTUNE, AND OTHER STORIES. Crown

Svo. Illustrated. [Preparing.

THE 'ELSIE' SERIES.-Pbicb 35. 6cf. EACH.

ELSIE DINSMORE. By :Martiia FAnQUiiARSON. Crown Svo.

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II

ELSIE'S GIRLHOOD: A Sequel to 'Elsie Dinsmore.' By

the same Author. Crown Svo. Illustrated.

Ill

ELSIFS HOLIDAYS AT ROSELANDS. By the same

Author. Crown Svo. Illustrated.

POETRY.

IMITATIONS FROM THE GERMAN OF SFITTA AND

TEBSIEOEN. A Volume of Devotional Poetry. By Lady Dckand.
Crown Svo.

II

EASTERN LEGENDS AND STORIES IN ENGLISH VERSE.

By Lieutenant Nortox Powlett, Royal Artillery. Crown Svo. 55.
65 Cornhili, and 12 Paternoster Row^ London.

JVorks published by Henry S. King &* Co. 21

POZTKi-(continued.)
Ill

EDITH ; OE, LOVE AND LIFE IN CHESHIRE. By T.

Ashe, Author of 'The Sorrows of Hypsipyle,' &c. Sewed, 1*'.

'A really fine poem, full of tender, subtle touches of feeling.' — Mancht»ter
News.

' Pregnant from beginning to end with the results of careful obser\'ation and
imaginative power.' — Chester ChrvnicU,

IV

THE GALLERY OF PIGEONS, AND OTHER POEMS.

By Theophilus Mabzials. Crown 8vo. 4s. QJ. {la the Press.

▼

A NEW VOLUME OF SONNETS. By tlie Rev. C. Teknysox
TuHNEB. Crown 8v>. [In the press.

ENGLISH SONNETS. Collected and Arranged by John
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VII

GOETHE'S FAUST. A New Translation in Rhyme. By tiie
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VlII

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Bound. With Illustrations.

A Cheaper Edition.
A Pocket Edition. {Preparing,

TX

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Wonderful Magician — Life is a Dream. Translated from the Spanish,
by Denis Florknce MacCarthy. Printed on Laid Paper, ami
Elegantly Bound.

X

SONGS FOR SAILORS. By Dr. W. C. Bennett. Dedicated
by Special Request to II.R.H. the Duke of Edinburgli. Crown Svo.
3s. 6d. With Steel Portrait and Illustrations.

An Edition in Illustrated Paper Covers. Price \s.

XI

DR. W. C. BENNETT'S POEMS will be shortly Re-issiied,

with additions to each part, in Eivo Parts, at \s, each.

XII

WALLED IN, AND OTHER POEMS. By the Rev. Henry
J. BcLKLET. Crown Svo. 5«.

65 Cornhillf and 12 Paternoster Roiv, London.

22 Works published by Henry S. King &* Co.

POV^Ry— (continued.)
XIII

THE POETICAL AND PROSE WORKS OF ROBERT

BUCHANAN. Preparing for publication, a Collected Edition, in

5 vols. [/» the press.

Contents of Vol. I.

Daughters of Eve ;

Undertones and Antiques ;

Country and Pastoral Poems.

XIV

SONGS OF LIFE AND DEATH. By John Payne, Author
of 'Intaglios,' 'Sonnets,' 'The Masque of Shadows,' &c. Crown
8vo. 5s. [Just out.

XV

SONGS OF TWO WORLDS. By a New Writer. Second

Edition. Fcp. 8vo. cloth, 5s.

• The " New Writer " is certainly no tyro. No one after reading the first two
poems, almost perfect in rhythm and all the graceful reserw? of true lyrical
strength, can doubt that this book is the result of lengthened thought and

assiduous training in poetical form These poems will assuredly t:ike

high rank among the class to which they belong.' — British Quarterly Aeview,
April 1.

• If these poems are the mere preludes of a mind growing in power and in
inclination for verse, we have in them the promise of a fine poet. . . . The
verse describing Socrates has the highest note of critical poetrjv — Spectator,
February 17.

'No extracts could do justice to the exquisite tone, the felicitous phrasing,
and delicately wrought harmonics of some of these poems.' — Nonconformist,
March 27.

' Are we in this book making the acquaintance of a fine and original poet, or
of a most artistic imitator ? And our deliberate opinion is, that the former hypo-
thesis is the right one. It has a purity and delicacy of feeling like morning
air. — Graphic, March 16.

XVI

THE INN OF STRANGE MEETINGS, AND OTHER

POEMS. By Mortimer Collins. Crown 8vo. 55.

' Abounding in quiet humour, in bright fancy, in sweetness and melody of ex-
pression, and, at times, in the tenderest touches of pathos.' — Graphic.

' Mr. Collins has an undercurrent of chivalry and romance beneath the trilling
vein of good humoured banter which is the special characteristic of his verse.

. . The " Inn of Strange Meetings " is a sprightly piece.' — Athenceum.

XVII

EROS AGONISTES. By E. B. D. Crown 8vo. 3s. M.

• The author of these verses has written a very touching story of the human
heart, in the story he tells with such pathos and power, of an affection cherished
so long and so secretly. . . . '. It is not the least merit of these pages that
they are everywhere illumined with moral and religious sentiment, suggested,
not paraded, of the brightest, purest character.' — Standard.

65 Cornhillj and 1 2 Paternoster Row^ London,

Works published by Henry S. King 6t* Co. 23

POETRY— (ct»j<iuMet/.)
XVIII

THE LEOEKDS OF ST. PATRICE, AND OTHEB POEMS.

By AuBRET DE Vebe. Crown 8vo. 5«.

• Mr. De Vere's versification in his earlier poems is characterised by great
sweetness and simplicity. He is master of his instrument, and rarely oflFends the
ear with false notes. Poems such as these scarcely admit of quotation, for their
charm is not, and ought not to be, found in isolated passages ; but we can pro-
mise the patient and thoughtful reader much pleasure in the perusal of this
volume.' — Pall Mall Gazette.

' We have marked, in almost everj' page, excellent touches from which we
know not how to select. We have but space to commend the varied structure
of his verse, the carefulness of his gran.mar, and his excellent English. All
who believe that poetrv should raise and not debase the social ideal — all who
think that wit should exalt our standard of thought and manners — must
welcome this contribut -i at once to our knowledge i>f the past and to the science
of noble life.' — Satu::-iy Revkw-

XIX

ASPEOMONTE, AND OTHEE POEMS. Second Edition.

Cloth, 4a. 6c?.

' The volume is anonymous, but there is no reason for the author to be
ashamed of it. The " Poems of Italy " are evidently inspired by genuine enthu-
siasm in the cause espoused ; and one of them, " The Execution of Felice Orsini,"
has much poetic merit, the event celebrated being told with dramatic force.' —
Athenceum.

* The verse is fluent and free.' — Spectator.

XX

THE DEEAM AND THE DEED, AND OTHEE POEMS.

By Pateick Scott, Author of ' Footpaths between Two Worlds ' &c.
Fcp. 8vo. cloth, 5a.
' A bitter and able satire on the vice and follies of the day — litera'-y, social,
and political.' — Standard,

' Shows real poetic power coupled with evidences of satirical energy.' — Edin-
burgh Daily Review.

FICTION.

t
CHESTEELEIGH. By Ansley Conyers. 3 vols, crown 8vo.

[Just out.
n

SQUIEE SILCHESTEE'S WHIM. By Mortimer Collins,
Author of ' Marquis and Merchant,' ' ' Tha Princess Clarice,' &c.
3 vols, crown 8vo.
• We think it the best (story) Mr. Collins has yet written.' — Pall Mall Gazette.

65 Cornhillf and 12 Paternoster Rov.<^ London,

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in

SEETA. By Colonel Meadows Taylor, Author of *T.ira,'

' Ralph Darnell,' &c, 3 vols, crown 8vo.

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trigues of native rulers, and their hatred of the English, mingled with fear lest
the latter should eventually prove the victors, are cleverly depicted.' — Athenaum.

' We cannot speak too highly of Colonel Meadows Taylor's book. . . . We
would recommend all novel-readens to purchase it at the earliest opportunitv.' —
Ji,hn Bull.

'Thoroughly interesting and enjoyr'^le reading.' — Examiner,

IV

A New and Chcap(r Edition, Illustrated, of

COL. MEADOWS TAYLOR'S INDIAN TALES is preparing

for publication.

V

JOHANNES OLAF. By E. de Wille. Translated by F. E.

BuNNKTT. 3 vols. CFOWn 8vo.

The author of this story enjoys a high reputation in Germany ; and both
English an<? German critics have spoken in terms of the warmest praise of this
and her previous stories. She has been called ' The George Eliot ' of Germany.

'The book gives evidence of considerable capacitj' in every branch of a
novelist's faculty. The art of description is fully exhibited ; perception of cha-
racter and capacity for delineating it are obNnous ; while there is great breadth
and comprehensiveness in the plan of the story.' — Morning Post.

VI

OFF THE SEELLIGS. By Jean Ingelow. (Her First
Romance.) In 4 vols, crown 8vo.

' Clever and sparkling The descriptive passages are bright with

colour.' — Stan da rd.

' We read each succeeding volume with increasing interest, going almost to
the point of wishing there was a fifth.' — Athenajm.

' The novel as a whole is a remarkable one, because it is uncompromisingly
true to life.' — Daily News.

VII

HONOR BLAKE : Tlie Story of a Plain Woman. By IMrs.
Keatino, Author of ' English Homes in India' &c. 2 vols, crown 8vo.

•• One of the best novels we have met with for some time.' — Morning Post.
' A story which must do good to all, young and old, who read it.' — Daily News.

VIII

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' Little Meg ' &c. 3 vols, crown 8vo.

• The best novel of the week In descriptive writing the authoress

must be given a high place ; and there is a good deal of life in the story,'

AthentBum,

6$ Coni/ii//, and 12 Paternoster' RoiVy London,

Works published by Hmry S, King 6^ Co. 25

FICTION-(<-on«n««'i-)

IX

THE PRINCESS CLARICE. A Story of 1 87 1 . By Mortimer

CoixiNS. 2 vols, crown 8vo.

* Mr. Collins has produced a readable book, amusingly characteristic. There
is good description of Devonshire scenery ; and lastly, there is Clarice, a most
successful heroine, who must speak to the reader for herself.' — Athtnaum.

* Very readable and amusing. We would especially give an honourable mention
to Mr. Collins's " vers de societe" the writing of which has almost become a
lost art.'— PaH Mall Gazette.

♦A bright, fresh, and original book, with which we recommend a!: genuine
novel refers to become acquainted at the earliest opportunity.' — Standard.

X

THE SPINSTERS OF BLATCHINGTON. By Mar. Travers.

2 vols, crown 8vo.
' A pretty story. Deserving a favourable reception.'— Graphic

* A book of more than average merits — worth reading.' — Examiner,

XI

THOHASINA, By the Author of ' Dorothy,' ' De Cressy,' &c.
2 vols, crown 8vo.

' A finished and delicate cabinet picture ; no line is without its purpose, but
all contribute to the unity of the work.' — Aihenaum.

* Cannot fail to derive both interest and amusement.' — Daily News.

* This undeniably pleasing story.'— Fall Mall Gazette.

XII

THE STORY OF SIR EDWARD'S WIFE. By Hamilton
Marshall, Author of ' For Very Life.' 1 vol. crown 8vo.

* A quiet, graceful little story.' — Spectator.

' There are many clever conceits in it. Mr. Hamilton Marshall can tell a
stoiy closely and pleasantly.' — Pall Mall Gazette,

ZIII

LINKED AT LAST. By F. E. Bunnett. 1 vol. crown 8vo.

* The reader who once takes it up will not be inclined to relinquish it without
concluding the volume.' — Morning Post.

* A very charming story.'— Jo^k Bull.

XIV

PERPLEXITY. By Sydney Mostyv. 3 vols, crown 8vo.

* Written with very considerable power . . , original . . . worked out with
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' Shows much lucidity — much power or rortraiture.' — Examiner.

* Forcibly and graphicallj' told.' — BaiL News.

65 Corn hi//, and 12 Paternoster Row, London.

26

Works published by Henry S. King &» Co.

FICTION-(w««'«««*.)

XV

HEE TITLE OF HONOTTB. By Holme Lee. Second Edition.

1 vol. •jro'wn 8vo.

' With the interest of a pathetic story is united the value of a definite and high
purpose.' — Spectator.

* A most exquisitely written story.' — Literary Churchman.

XVI

BBESSANT. A Romance. By Julian Hawthorne. 2 vols,
crown 8vo. [Preparing.

XVII

CRUEL AS THE OBAVE. By the Countess Von Bothmer.
3 vols, crown 8vo.

• Jealousy is cruel as the Grave*

' An interesting, though somewhat tragic story.' — Athenmim.

' An agreeable, unaffected, and eminentlj- readable novel.' — Daily News.

XVIII

MEMOIRS OF MRS. LiETITIA BOOTHBT. By William

Clark Eussbll, Author of • The Book of Authors ' &c. Crown Svo.
7s. M.

* Clever and ingenious.' — Saturday Review.

' One of the most delightful books I have read for a very long while,
thoroughly entertaining from the first page to the last.'— Jwrfy.

* This is a very clever book,' — Guardian.

XIX

LITTLE HODOE. A Christmas Country Carol. By Edward
Jenkins, Author of ' Ginx's Baby ' &c. Illustrated. Crown Svo. 5s.

' We shall be mistaken if it does not obtain a very wide circle of readers. —
United Service Gazette.

' Wise and humorous, but yet most ipathetic.^— Nonconformist.

'The pathos of some of the passages is extremly touching.' — Manchester
Examiner.

* One of the most seasonable of Christmas stories.' — Literary World.

XX

GINXS BABT: HIS BIRTH AND OTHER MISFORTUNES.

By Edward Jenkins. Twenty-ninth Edition. Crown Svo. 2*.

XXI

LORD BANTAM. By Edward Jenkins, Author of ' Ginx's
Baby.' Sixth Edition. Crown Svo. 2s.

65 Cornhilly and 12 Paternoster Row, London.

' Works published by Henry S. King &* Co. 27

FICTION— (<»"''"««<*•)

xxn

HERMANN' AOHA. An Eastern Narrative. By W. Gifford
Palorave, Author of •Travels in Central Arabia' &c. Second
Edition. 2 vols, crown 8vo. cloth, extra gilt, 18s.

• Reads like a tale of life, with all ite incidents : the young will take to it for
its love portions, the older for its descriptions, some in this day for its Arab
philosophy.' — Atherueum.

♦ The cardinal merit, however, of the story is, to our thinking, the exquisite
simplicity and purity of the love portion. There is a positive fragrance as of
newly-mown hay about it, as compared with the artificially perfumed passions
which are detailed to us with such gusto by our ordinary novel-writers in their
endless volumes.' — Observer.

XXIII

SEFTIMITJS. A Romance. Ry Nathaniel Hawthorne,
Author of 'The Scarlet Letter,' 'Transformation,' &c. Second Edition.
1 vol. crown Svo. cloth, extra gilt, 9*.

A peculiar interest attaches to this work. It was the last thing the author
wrote, and he may be said to have died as he finished it.

The Athenimm says that ' the book is full of Hawthorne's most characteristic
writing.'

*Onp of the best examples of Hawthorne's writing ; every page is impressed
with his peculiar view of thought, conveyed in his own familiar way.' — Post.

xxrv

PANDTTBANG HABI; or, Memoirs of a Hindoo. A Tale
of Mahratta Life Sixty Years ago, "With a Preface by Sir Henbt
Babtlk E. Frebe, G.C.S.I. &e. 2 vols, crown Svo. 21a.

XXV

THE TASMANIAN LILY. By James Bonwick, Author of
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[Preparitiff.

XXVI

A GK)OD MATCH. By Amelia Perrier, Author of 'Mea
Culpa.' 2 vols.

' Racy and lively.' — Athen(Eum,

' As pleasant and readable a novel as wc have seen this season.' — Examiner.

' This clever and amusing novel.' — Pall Mall Gazette.

' Agreeably written.' — Public Opinion.

65 Cornhill^ and 12 Paternoster Row, London.

28 Works published by Henry S. King 6* Ca.

THE

CORNHILL LIBRARY OF FICTION.

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BOBIN GEA7. By Charles Gibbon. With a Frontispiece by
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II

KITTY. By Miss M. Betham-Edwards.

ni

READY MONEY MORTIBOY. [Just out.

IV

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ONE OF TWO. By J. Hain Friswell, Author of 'The
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WHAT 'TIS TO LOVE. By the Author of 'Flora Adair,'
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IT.

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RELIGIOUS.

THE ETEBNAL LIFE. Being Fourteen Sermons. By the
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n

MISSIONART ENTEEPEISE IN THE EAST. By the Rev.

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m

THE REALM OF TEUTH. By Miss E. Carne.

IV

Crown 8vo.
IJPreparing.

HYMNS FOE THE CHTJECH AND HOME. By the Hev.

W. Flkmmino Stevenson, Author of 'Praying and Working.'

[Preparing.

V

THE YOUNG LIFE EaUIFFINO ITSELF FOE GOD'S

SEBYICE. Being Four Sermons preached before the University of
Cambridge in November 1872, By the Bev. J. C. Vaughan, D.D.,
Master of the Temple. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. 3«. 6rf.

VI

WOEDS AND WOEKS IN A LONDON PAEISH. Edited

by the Bev. Chablbs Andebson, M.A. Demy Svo. Qs.

VII

LIFE. Conferences delivered at Toulouse. By the Rev. P^re
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French, with the Author's permission, by a Tertiary of the same Order.
Crown Svo.

VIII

THOUGHTS FOE THE TIMES. By the Rev. H. R. Haweis,

M»A., Author of 'Music and Morals' &c. Third Edition. Crown
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' The whole volume bears marks of much originality of thought and indhi-
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IX

CATHOLICISM AND THE VATICAN. With a Narrative of

the Old Catholic Congresses at Munich and Cologne. By J. Lowbt

Whittle, A.M. Trin. Coll., Dublin. Second Edition. Crown Svo. 7«. 6<i.

' A valuable and philosophic contribution to the solution of one of the greatest

questions of this stirring age.' — Church Times.

' We cannot follow the author through his graphic and lucid sketch of the
Catholic movement in Germany and of th j Munich Congress, at which he was
present ; but we may cordially recommend his book to all who wish to follow
the course of the movement.' — Saturday Review.

65 CornhiU, and 12 Paternoster Row^ London.

IVorJis published by Henry S, King ^ Co. 31

RELIGIOUS-(c«nrt«u«d.)

NAZARETH: ITS LIFE AND LESSONS. In smaU 8vo.
Second Edition. By G. S. Dbew, M.A., Author of ' The Dime King-
dom on Earth as it is in Hearen.' Cloth, ba.

' In Him was life, and the life wan the light of men.'

' A singularly reverent and beautiful book ; the style in which it is written is
not les3 chaste and attractive than its subject.' — Daily Telegraph.

'Perhaps one of the most remarkable books recently issued in the whole
range of English theology. . . . Original in design, calm and appreciative in
language, noble and elevated in style, this book, we venture to think, will
liye.'-^Churchman's Magazine.

XI

SCBIFTUEE LANDS IN CONNECTION WITH THEIB

HISTOBY. By G. S. Dbew, M.A., Vicar of Trinity, Lambeth; Author
of ' Reasons of Faith.' Second Edition. Bevelled boards, 8vo. price
10a. 6d.

•Mr. Drew has invented a new method of illustrating Scripture history —
from observation of the countries. Instead of narrating his travels and referring
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he writes an outline his*^^ory of the Hebrew nation from Abraham down ware' a,
with special reference to the various points in which the geography illustrates the
historj'. The advantages of this plan are obvious. Mr. Drew thi.; S^'""-* us
not a mere imitation of " Sinai and Palestine," but a view of the same subject
from the other side. . . . He ia very successful in picturing to his readers the
scenes before his own mind. The position of Abraham in Palestine is portrayed,
both socially and geographically, with great vigour. Mr. Drew has given an
admirable account of the Hebrew sojourn in Egypt, and has done much to
popularise the newly-acquired knowledge of Assyria in connection with the two
Jewish Kingdoms.' — Saturday Review.

XII

MEMORIES OF VILLIERSTOWN. ByC.J. S. Crown 8vo.

With Frontispiece. 5a.

XIII

SIX PRIVY COUNCIL JTTDOMENTS — 1850-1872. Anno-
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XIV

THE DIVINE KINGDOM ON EARTH AS IT IS IN

HEAVEN. In demy _8vo. bound in cloth. iOa. 6d.

[Now ready.
* Our Commonwealth is in Heaven.'

* A high purpose and a devout spirit characterise this work. It is thought-
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admirably expressed.' — British Quarterly Raview.

' It is seldom that, in the course of our critical duties, we have to deal with
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authorship would not be a credit. . . . Not the least of its merits is the
perfect simplicity and clearness conjoined with a certain massive beauty of
its atyle'—Jjiterary Churchman,

65 Comhillf and 12 Paternoster How, London.

32 " JVorks published by Hmry S. King 6-3 Co.

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LIFE AND WORKS OF THE REV. FRED. W. ROBERTSON.

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aj.iti.ss!'

'^f

ii'iliriilM •|iiiiii1iiini r' '